INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY A’ LEVEL
Psychology is the scientific study of the mind and behavior. It looks at how people think, feel,
and act, and it tries to understand why people do the things they do.
Psychology is a broad field that includes many different areas of study, such as cognitive
psychology, developmental psychology, social psychology, and clinical psychology.,forensics
psychology, etc
These areas all use scientific methods to study the mind and behavior, but they focus on
different aspects of human experience.
The basic principles of psychology
i.
The principle of empiricism, means that psychological knowledge is based on objective
evidence and observation.
ii. The principle of determinism, which means that behavior is caused by factors such as
genetics, environment, and experiences.
iii. The principle of introspection, which means that psychology can be studied by looking at
our own inner experiences and thoughts.
iv. The principle of functionalism, which says that psychology should study the function or
purpose of behavior, not just its form.
The principle of empiricism.

Empiricism is the idea that knowledge should be based on what we can observe and
measure in the real world.

In psychology, this means that we should use scientific methods to study the mind and
behavior.

For example, we might observe and measure people’s responses to different stimuli, or
measure their brain activity using neuroimaging techniques.

By using empirical methods, we can build a body of objective knowledge about the
mind and behavior.
The principle of determinism.

Determinism is the idea that all behavior is caused by factors such as genetics,
environment, and previous experiences.

In psychology, we can use this principle to understand why people behave the way they
do.

For example, we might study how genetics influences personality, or how early
experiences affect later behavior.

Determinism also means that behavior is not random, and it can be studied and
predicted.
The principle of introspection.

Introspection is the idea that we can gain insight into our own minds and behavior by
looking inward and reflecting on our thoughts and feelings.

In psychology, introspection is often used in combination with other methods, such as
self-reports and interviews.

For example, we might ask people to describe their thoughts and feelings during a
particular situation, or we might ask them to keep a diary of their thoughts and
experiences.
The Principle of Functionalism

Functionalism is the idea that psychology should focus on the function or purpose of
behavior, rather than just its form.

For example, we might study how a behavior helps a person adapt to their environment,
or how it helps them achieve their goals.

Functionalism is often used in combination with other approaches, such as behaviorism
or cognitive psychology.

It’s also important to note that the function of a behavior may not always be obvious or
easy to understand.
The principle of reductionism.

Reductionism is the idea that complex phenomena, like behavior, can be broken down
into simpler parts or components.

In psychology, this often involves studying the biological and neurological basis of
behavior.

For example, we might study the role of neurotransmitters in depression, or the neural
networks involved in decision-making.

A good example of this is the biopsychosocial model, which is a way of understanding
behavior that takes into account biological, psychological, and social factors.

For example, when a person is experiencing depression, the biopsychosocial model
would consider factors like genetics, neurotransmitters, cognitive biases, and social
support. This approach is more holistic than just focusing on one factor in isolation.
The biopsychosocial model.
The biopsychosocial model is used in practice. For example, a psychologist using this model
might work with a client to understand how their biological, psychological, and social factors are
affecting their depression.
They might also help the client make changes in each of these areas, such as changing their
thought patterns, improving their social support network, or taking medication to regulate their
brain chemistry.
NB: The biopsychosocial model it’s covered in the syllabus as part of the topic of “biological
psychology,” and students are expected to understand and apply the model to different scenarios.
Additionally, students are expected to understand how different factors like genetics,
environment, and social support can affect a person’s behavior. The biopsychosocial model is just
one example of how the principles of psychology are applied in the real world.
The concepts in psychology. (Jean Piaget, Sigmund Freud, B.F Skinner, Albert Bandura and Ivan
Pavlov)
One of these is the nature vs. nurture debate, which is about whether a person’s behavior is
determined by their biology (nature) or their environment (nurture).
Another important concept is the placebo effect, which is when a person’s expectations can
influence their response to a treatment.
Some psychologists believe that our behavior is mostly influenced by our genes and other
biological factors, while others believe that our environment and upbringing are more
important.
For example, some research has shown that genes can play a role in things like intelligence and
personality.
But other research has shown that environmental factors like poverty and education can also
have a big impact on these things.
So, it’s not as simple as saying that one side is completely right and the other is completely
wrong. Instead, the truth is somewhere in the middle.
The placebo effect.

The placebo effect is when someone’s expectations about a treatment influence the
outcome of that treatment.

For example, a person might take a sugar pill and expect it to make them feel better, and
as a result, they actually do feel better.

This doesn’t mean that the sugar pill is actually having a physical effect on their body,
but their expectations about it are having a real impact on their health.

The placebo effect can even work for things like surgery, where the patient’s
expectations about the surgery can affect how they heal and recover.

The placebo effect is an example of how our minds can have a powerful influence on
our physical health.
The self-fulfilling prophecy,

Another important concept in psychology is the self-fulfilling prophecy, which is when
our expectations about something become true simply because we expect them to be
true.

For example, if a teacher believes that a student is not smart, they might treat the
student differently and give them less attention, which can actually make the student
perform worse in school.

The self-fulfilling prophecy is another example of how our minds can influence our
reality. Another important concept is attribution theory, whichh is about how we explain
the causes of our own behavior and the behavior of others.

For example, when we fail a test, we might attribute the failure to our own lack of effort
or ability, or we might attribute it to outside factors like a difficult test or a noisy
classroom.

When we attribute the cause of our failure to something outside of our control, it’s
called making an external attribution.

When we attribute the cause of our failure to something within our control, it’s called
making internal attribution.

Making internal vs. external attributions is an important part of understanding why
people behave the way they do. It can also help us to take responsibility for our own
actions and make changes when needed.
Assignment :
a) Outline the nature versus nurture debate in psychology using an examples other than
the study by Bandura et al of your behavior of your choice as an example.
b) Explain what psychologists have learned about the behavior you have choose using two
results from the study of Bandura et al