The University of the State of New York • THE STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT • Albany, New York 12234 • www.nysed.gov Reference Tables for Physical Setting/EARTH SCIENCE Radioactive Decay Data Specific Heats of Common Materials RADIOACTIVE DISINTEGRATION HALF-LIFE (years) ISOTOPE 14 Potassium-40 40 Uranium-238 238 U 206 Rubidium-87 87 Rb 87 C K 3 14 Carbon-14 5.7 × 10 N 40 Ar 9 1.3 × 10 40 Ca 9 Pb 4.5 × 10 Sr 4.9 × 10 10 Equations Eccentricity = Gradient = distance between foci length of major axis MATERIAL SPECIFIC HEAT Liquid water Solid water (ice) Water vapor Dry air Basalt Granite Iron Copper Lead 4.18 2.11 2.00 1.01 0.84 0.79 0.45 0.38 0.13 (Joules/gram • °C) Properties of Water change in field value distance Heat energy gained during melting . . . . . . . . . . 334 J/g change in value time Heat energy gained during vaporization . . . . . 2260 J/g Rate of change = Heat energy released during freezing . . . . . . . . 334 J/g Heat energy released during condensation . . . 2260 J/g mass Density = volume Density at 3.98°C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.0 g/mL Average Chemical Composition of Earth’s Crust, Hydrosphere, and Troposphere ELEMENT (symbol) Oxygen (O) Silicon (Si) Aluminum (Al) Iron (Fe) Calcium (Ca) Sodium (Na) Magnesium (Mg) Potassium (K) Nitrogen (N) Hydrogen (H) Other HYDROSPHERE TROPOSPHERE Percent by mass CRUST Percent by volume Percent by volume Percent by volume 46.10 28.20 8.23 5.63 4.15 2.36 2.33 2.09 94.04 0.88 0.48 0.49 1.18 1.11 0.33 1.42 33.0 21.0 78.0 0.91 2011 EDITION 0.07 This edition of the Earth Science Reference Tables should be used in the classroom beginning in the 2011–12 school year. The first examination for which these tables will be used is the January 2012 Regents Examination in Physical Setting/Earth Science. 66.0 1.0 1.0 Eurypterus remipes New York State Fossil Grenville Province (Highlands) Interior Lowlands ds Lo e wr a t. L e nc an wl Champlain Lowlands Physical Setting/Earth Science Reference Tables — 2011 Edition Generalized Landscape Regions of New York State S Interior Lowlands Adirondack Mountains Lake Ontario En (H gla ig nd hl an Pr ds ov ) inc e Tug Hill Plateau t la u ea Huds ( ) ds n la p U nds ighla H n o Huds rong tan P t a h Man Key Major geographic province boundary Landscape region boundary State boundary International boundary N Lo ewa wl rk an ds Ap p ala c hi an P The Catskills w Allegheny Plateau Ne Lake Erie on-Mohaw k Lo wlands Tacon ic Mou ntains Erie-Ontario Lowlands (Plains) tic n a l At lain P l a st Coa Miles 0 10 20 30 40 50 0 2 20 40 60 Kilometers N W E 80 S 73° 45° 74° 75° iv er MASSENA nc e R modified from GEOLOGICAL SURVEY NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM 1989 t. AM PLA VERMONT IN S 76° La w re PLATTSBURGH WATERTOWN elevation 75 m 77° Hu 78° o ds 79° n OLD FORGE LAKE ONTARIO 44° LAKE R iv e r 44° CH MT. MARCY OSWEGO ar a River ag Ni Moha R iv e r ve ALBANY LAKES Rive r BINGHAMTON er ELMIRA iv JAMESTOWN SLIDE MT. Susquehanna 78° 77° 76° De 79° KINGSTON law CRETACEOUS and PLEISTOCENE (Epoch) weakly consolidated to unconsolidated gravels, sands, and clays LATE TRIASSIC and EARLY JURASSIC conglomerates, red sandstones, red shales, basalt, and diabase (Palisades sill) PENNSYLVANIAN and MISSISSIPPIAN conglomerates, sandstones, and shales DEVONIAN limestones, shales, sandstones, and conglomerates SILURIAN also contains salt, gypsum, and hematite. SILURIAN limestones, shales, sandstones, and dolostones CAMBRIAN and EARLY ORDOVICIAN sandstones and dolostones moderately to intensely metamorphosed east of the Hudson River CAMBRIAN and ORDOVICIAN (undifferentiated) quartzites, dolostones, marbles, and schists intensely metamorphosed; includes portions of the Taconic Sequence and Cortlandt Complex TACONIC SEQUENCE sandstones, shales, and slates slightly to intensely metamorphosed rocks of CAMBRIAN through MIDDLE ORDOVICIAN ages MIDDLE PROTEROZOIC gneisses, quartzites, and marbles Lines are generalized structure trends. MIDDLE PROTEROZOIC anorthositic rocks } } } Rive r GEOLOGIC PERIODS AND ERAS IN NEW YORK are P E N N S Y L V A N I A 42° CONNECTICUT Ge ITHACA 42° } } MASSACHUSETTS Ri se e FINGER ne ERIE ORDOVICIAN CAMBRIAN 43° wk r BUFFALO elevation 175 m LAKE SYRACUSE Hu ds on 43° UTICA ROCHESTER NIAGARA FALLS R Physical Setting/Earth Science Reference Tables — 2011 Edition Generalized Bedrock Geology of New York State 45° 75° NE W Dominantly sedimentary origin Dominantly metamorphosed rocks JE ND SO ISLA G 73° N 41° LO RS EY 41° NEW YORK CITY 74° Intensely metamorphosed rocks (regional metamorphism about 1,000 m.y.a.) UND 41° 72° RIVERHEAD LONG D ISLAN ATLANTIC OCEAN 40°30' 73° 73°30' Miles Miles 20 30 40 50 0 100 2010 30 40 50 0 0 20 40 60 3 20 40 60 80 Kilometers Kilometers N W E 80 S Physical Setting/Earth Science Reference Tables — 2011 Edition Surface Ocean Currents 4 Iceland Hot Spot S To n g a Tr e n c h Tasman Hot Spot cR idg e Mid -A tla nti Pe Easter Island Hot Spot Nazca Plate r Antarctic Plate Key South American Plate St. Helena Hot Spot Scotia Plate st Ea Antarctic Plate Relative motion at plate boundary Galapagos Hot Spot idge n ia ou nd I the st e e as g t hw Rid t Ind u ia n So Ridg e Indian-Australian Plate Cocos Plate Pacific Plate African Plate Mid-Atlantic Ridge a Tr ria n a e n ch frican Rif st A Fiji Plate Canary Islands Hot Spot an ibbe Car late P hile Tren u-C ch Ea Hawaii Hot Spot M Eurasian Plate Yellowstone Hot Spot Juan de Fuca Plate San Andreas Fault Philippine Plate Mi d dian Ridge -In t h Aleutian Trenc North American Plate Pa cifi cR Eurasian Plate ian ab Ar late P Physical Setting/Earth Science Reference Tables — 2011 Edition Tectonic Plates Bouvet Hot Spot Sandwich Plate overriding plate Transform plate boundary (transform fault) 5 NOTE: Not all mantle hot spots, plates, and boundaries are shown. Divergent plate boundary (usually broken by transform faults along mid-ocean ridges) subducting plate Convergent plate boundary (subduction zone) Complex or uncertain plate boundary Mantle hot spot 25.6 10.0 M e lt i n g e ss ur H e a t a nd/or Pre m is M e ta m or p h r Pressure t and/o Hea tamorphism e M n lift) rosio (U p &E in g r e th Wea lting Me PARTICLE DIAMETER (cm) SEDIMENTS (U We athe plift) ring & Ero sio n IGNEOUS ROCK Sand 0.01 0.006 Silt 0.001 at Clay 1000 500 100 50 li 10 5 So 1 0.5 g MAGMA Cobbles 0.2 0.1 0.0001 ic di f Boulders Pebbles 0.1 0.05 l ti n 1.0 0.01 Me 6.4 0.0004 io METAMORPHIC ROCK 100.0 E r o s i on SEDIMENTARY ROCK Depo s and B ition uria l ( U p l if t ) n Weathering & Erosio r nd/o na tio ation c pa ent om em C Relationship of Transported Particle Size to Water Velocity n C Rock Cycle in Earth’s Crust STREAM VELOCITY (cm/s) This generalized graph shows the water velocity needed to maintain, but not start, movement. Variations occur due to differences in particle density and shape. noncrystalline Basaltic glass Pumice Scoria Vesicular andesite Rhyolite Andesite Vesicular basalt Basalt INTRUSIVE (Plutonic) Diabase Diorite Granite Gabbro Peridotite Dunite Vesicular rhyolite CRYSTAL SIZE Pegmatite 10 mm 1 mm less than or to 1 mm larger 10 mm EXTRUSIVE (Volcanic) Obsidian (usually appears black) LIGHTER COLOR DARKER LOWER DENSITY HIGHER FELSIC (rich in Si, Al) MINERAL COMPOSITION (relative by volume) CHARACTERISTICS IGNEOUS ROCKS ENVIRONMENT OF FORMATION Scheme for Igneous Rock Identification 100% 75% Glassy Nonvesicular Vesicular (gas pockets) Fine Coarse Nonvesicular Very coarse MAFIC (rich in Fe, Mg) COMPOSITION 100% Potassium feldspar (pink to white) Quartz (clear to white) TEXTURE 75% Plagioclase feldspar (white to gray) 50% 25% Biotite (black) Amphibole (black) 0% Physical Setting/Earth Science Reference Tables — 2011 Edition 50% Pyroxene (green) Olivine (green) 25% 0% 6 Scheme for Sedimentary Rock Identification INORGANIC LAND-DERIVED SEDIMENTARY ROCKS TEXTURE GRAIN SIZE Pebbles, cobbles, and/or boulders embedded in sand, silt, and/or clay Clastic (fragmental) Sand (0.006 to 0.2 cm) Silt (0.0004 to 0.006 cm) Clay (less than 0.0004 cm) COMPOSITION Mostly quartz, feldspar, and clay minerals; may contain fragments of other rocks and minerals COMMENTS ROCK NAME Rounded fragments Conglomerate Angular fragments Breccia Fine to coarse Sandstone Very fine grain Siltstone Compact; may split easily MAP SYMBOL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Shale CHEMICALLY AND/OR ORGANICALLY FORMED SEDIMENTARY ROCKS TEXTURE GRAIN SIZE Crystalline Fine to coarse crystals COMPOSITION Halite Gypsum COMMENTS Crystals from chemical precipitates and evaporites Microscopic to very coarse Bioclastic MAP SYMBOL Rock salt Rock gypsum Dolostone Dolomite Crystalline or bioclastic ROCK NAME Calcite Precipitates of biologic origin or cemented shell fragments Carbon Compacted plant remains Limestone Bituminous coal Scheme for Metamorphic Rock Identification TEXTURE GRAIN SIZE COMPOSITION TYPE OF METAMORPHISM Medium to coarse AMPHIBOLE GARNET PYROXENE Fine to medium Regional (Heat and pressure increases) MICA QUARTZ FELDSPAR MINERAL ALIGNMENT NONFOLIATED BANDING FOLIATED Fine COMMENTS ROCK NAME Low-grade metamorphism of shale Slate Foliation surfaces shiny from microscopic mica crystals Phyllite Platy mica crystals visible from metamorphism of clay or feldspars Schist High-grade metamorphism; mineral types segregated into bands Gneiss Fine Carbon Regional Metamorphism of bituminous coal Fine Various minerals Contact (heat) Various rocks changed by heat from nearby magma/lava Hornfels Metamorphism of quartz sandstone Quartzite Metamorphism of limestone or dolostone Marble Pebbles may be distorted or stretched Metaconglomerate Fine to coarse Coarse Quartz MAP SYMBOL Anthracite coal Regional Calcite and/or dolomite or contact Various minerals Physical Setting/Earth Science Reference Tables — 2011 Edition 7 Oceanic oxygen produced by cyanobacteria Oceanic oxygen combines producedwith by iron, forming cyanobacteria iron oxide layers combines with on ocean floor iron, forming iron oxide layers on ocean floor B B Y C C D D Estimated time of origin of Earth and solar system Estimated time of origin of Earth and solar system Oldest known rocks Oldest known rocks E AE Evidence of biological RA carbon Evidence of biological LR carbon YL DM DI LD ED Earliest stromatolites L Oldest microfossils E Earliest stromatolites Oldest microfossils L A TL EA T M IE E E F F G G H H I I 1300 1300 580 542 580 MIDDLE EARLY EARLY 542 CAMBRIAN CAMBRIAN MIDDLE EARLY 488 EARLY LATE 488 LATE MIDDLE MIDDLE EARLY 416 EARLY LATE 416 LATE EARLY 444 EARLY LATE 444 LATE MIDDLE EARLY 299 LATE EARLY 299 LATE 318 LATE EARLY 318 MIDDLE LATE EARLY MIDDLE 359 EARLY LATE 359 LATE MIDDLE LATE MIDDLE EARLY 251 MIDDLE LATE EARLY MIDDLE 251 LATE MIDDLE EARLY MIDDLE 146 LATE EARLY MIDDLE 200 EARLY LATE 200 EARLY 146 LATE EARLY LATE J J K K Abundant stromatolites Abundant stromatolites L L M M Burgess shale fauna (diverse soft-bodied organisms) Earliest fishes Burgess shale fauna (diversemarine soft-bodied organisms) Extinction of many primitive organisms Earliesttrilobites fishes Earliest Extinction of many primitive marine Great diversity of life-forms with shellyorganisms parts Earliest trilobites Great diversity life-forms with shelly parts Ediacaran fauna of (first multicellular, soft-bodied marine organisms) Ediacaran fauna (first multicellular, soft-bodied marine organisms) Invertebrates dominant Earth’s first coral reefs Invertebrates dominant Earth’s first coral reefs Abundant eurypterids Abundant Extensiveamphibians coal-forming forests Large and numerous scale trees and seed ferns Abundantplants); amphibians (vascular earliest reptiles Large and numerous scale trees and seed ferns (vascular plants); earliest reptiles Earliest amphibians and plant seeds Extinction of many marine organisms Earliest amphibians and plant seeds Earth’s first of forests Extinction many marine organisms Earliest ammonoids and sharks Earth’s first Abundant fishforests Earliest ammonoids and sharks Abundant fish Earliest insects Earliest land plants and animals Earliest insects Abundant eurypterids Earliest land plants and animals Abundant reptiles Extensive coal-forming forests Mammal-like reptiles Abundant reptiles Earliest dinosaurs Mass extinction of many land and marine organisms (including trilobites) Mass extinction of many land and marine Mammal-like reptiles organisms (including trilobites) Earliest Earliestdinosaurs mammals Earliest mammals Abundant dinosaurs and ammonoids Abundant dinosaurs and ammonoids Earliest birds Earliest flowering plants Diverse bony fishes Earliest flowering plants Diverse bony fishes Earliest birds Humans, mastodonts, mammoths PLEISTOCENE MIOCENE 1.8 Abundant grazing mammals PLIOCENE 23.0 Earliest grasses OLIGOCENE Large carnivorous mammals 5.3 33.9 MIOCENE Abundant grazing mammals EOCENE 23.0 Many modern groups of mammals Earliest grasses OLIGOCENE55.8 PALEOCENE 33.9 Mass extinction of dinosaurs, ammonoids, and EOCENE 65.5 many plants Many land modern groups of mammals 55.8 PALEOCENE LATE Mass extinction of dinosaurs, ammonoids, and 65.5 many land plants 1.8 5.3 0.01Large carnivorous mammals PLIOCENE HOLOCENE 0 ORDOVICIAN ORDOVICIAN SILURIAN SILURIAN DEVONIAN DEVONIAN MISSISSIPPIAN MISSISSIPPIAN PENNSYLVANIAN PENNSYLVANIAN PERMIAN PERMIAN TRIASSIC TRIASSIC JURASSIC JURASSIC CRETACEOUS CRETACEOUS PALEOGENE NEOGENE PALEOGENE NEOGENE QUATERNARY QUATERNARY HOLOCENE 0 Million 0.01 yearsHumans, ago mastodonts, mammoths PLEISTOCENE Million years ago Epoch Life on Earth N N Bedrock Bedrock Sediment Time Distribution of Fossils A B C D E F O G H I L J K O M N P P Q S The center of each lettered circle indicates the approximate time of existence of a specific index fossil (e.g. Fossil A lived at the end of the Early Cambrian). (including important fossils of New York) R Q T U V W X Y Z R Physical Setting/Earth Science Reference Tables — 2011 Edition Physical Setting/Earth Science Reference Tables — 2011 Edition 8 8 Physical Setting/Earth Science Reference Tables — 2011 Edition Important Geologic Events in New York Condor S U V W X Y 458 million years ago 359 million years ago 232 million years ago 119 million years ago 59 million years ago Z Inferred Positions of Earth’s Landmasses 9 ADU (2011) Cystiphyllum Maclurites Eospirifer Mucrospirifer Lichenaria Pleurodictyum Platyceras T Grenville orogeny: metamorphism of bedrock now exposed in the Adirondacks and Hudson Highlands Erosion of Grenville Mountains Rifting and initial opening of Iapetus Ocean Widespread deposition over most of New York along edge of Iapetus Ocean Erosion of Taconic Mountains; Queenston delta forms Taconian orogeny caused by closing of western part of Iapetus Ocean and collision between North America and volcanic island arc Salt and gypsum deposited in evaporite basins Catskill delta forms Erosion of Acadian Mountains Acadian orogeny caused by collision of North America and Avalon and closing of remaining part of Iapetus Ocean Alleghenian orogeny caused by collision of North America and Africa along transform margin, forming Pangaea Pangaea begins to break up Intrusion of Palisades sill Initial opening of Atlantic Ocean North America and Africa separate Dome-like uplift of Adirondack region begins Sands and clays underlying Long Island and Staten Island deposited on margin of Atlantic Ocean Advance and retreat of last continental ice Cryptolithus Centroceras Tetragraptus Valcouroceras Eucalyptocrinus Coelophysis Stylonurus Cooksonia Naples Tree CryptolithusPhacops Valcouroceras Centroceras Tetragraptus Dicellograptus Coelophysis Eucalyptocrinus Hexameroceras Manticoceras EurypterusStylonurusMastodont Ctenocrinus Elliptocephala Hexameroceras Manticoceras Dicellograptus Eurypterus Beluga Whale Ctenocrinus Bothriolepis Phacops Elliptocephala Aneurophyton A A CENOZOIC CENOZOIC L A TL MESOZOIC EA T MESOZOIC ME First sexually I reproducing First DMorganisms DI sexually reproducing LD organisms D E L E E A RE Oceanic oxygen LA begins to enter the atmosphere oxygen YR Oceanic PALEOZOIC L begins to enter the atmosphere Y PALEOZOIC (Index fossils not drawn to scale) (Index fossils not drawn to scale) 4600 4600 4000 4000 3000 3000 2000 2000 1000 1000 500 500 0 Million years ago 0 P E R C E A CM A M B IRAI N A N P R B R Period TRILOBITES Era NAUTILOIDS Million yearsEon ago AMMONOIDS Record NY Rock Sediment Record CRINOIDS Life on Earth DINOSAURS GRAPTOLITES PHANEROPHANEROZOICZOIC TE O IZCO I C PRP OR TO ER OR ZO A RA CR HCEH AE NA N MAMMALS EURYPTERIDS Epoch VASCULAR PLANTS Period CORALS Era GASTROPODS Eon CARBONIFCARBONIFEROUS EROUS GEOLOGIC HISTORY GEOLOGIC HISTORY OF NEW YORK STATE NY Rock BIRDS PLACODERM FISH BRACHIOPODS GEOLOGIC HISTORY Eon Era Period PHANEROZOIC QUATERNARY CENOZOIC L A T E PROTEROZOIC 0.01 PLEISTOCENE 1.8 PLIOCENE 23.0 OLIGOCENE 33.9 EOCENE 55.8 PALEOCENE 65.5 Humans, mastodonts, mammoths Large carnivorous mammals Abundant grazing mammals Earliest grasses Many modern groups of mammals Mass extinction of dinosaurs, ammonoids, and many land plants CRETACEOUS Earliest flowering plants Diverse bony fishes EARLY 146 LATE MIDDLE JURASSIC Earliest birds Abundant dinosaurs and ammonoids EARLY 200 E A R Oceanic oxygen L begins to enter Y the atmosphere MIDDLE EARLY 251 LATE MIDDLE PALEOZOIC CARBONIFEROUS Oceanic oxygen produced by cyanobacteria combines with iron, forming iron oxide layers on ocean floor M I D D L E Earliest stromatolites Oldest microfossils E A R L Y Earliest mammals LATE TRIASSIC EARLY 318 MIDDLE EARLY 359 Extensive coal-forming forests Abundant amphibians Large and numerous scale trees and seed ferns (vascular plants); earliest reptiles Earliest amphibians and plant seeds Extinction of many marine organisms MIDDLE Earth’s first forests Earliest ammonoids and sharks Abundant fish 416 LATE SILURIAN Mammal-like reptiles LATE EARLY Evidence of biological carbon Mass extinction of many land and marine organisms (including trilobites) Abundant reptiles LATE MISSISSIPPIAN Earliest dinosaurs 299 LATE EARLY PENNSYLVANIAN DEVONIAN EARLY 444 Earliest insects Earliest land plants and animals Abundant eurypterids LATE Oldest known rocks ORDOVICIAN Invertebrates dominant Earth’s first coral reefs MIDDLE 488 LATE Estimated time of origin of Earth and solar system MIDDLE CAMBRIAN EARLY 542 580 (Index fossils not drawn to scale) B Bedrock LATE EARLY 4600 5.3 MIOCENE MESOZOIC M First I sexually reproducing D organisms D L E L A T E 4000 A Sediment HOLOCENE 0 PERMIAN ARCHEAN P R E C A M B R I A N 3000 NEOGENE PALEOGENE 1000 2000 Life on Earth Million years ago Million years ago 0 500 Epoch NY Rock Record C 1300 D E F G H I Burgess shale fauna (diverse soft-bodied organisms) Earliest fishes Extinction of many primitive marine organisms Earliest trilobites Great diversity of life-forms with shelly parts Ediacaran fauna (first multicellular, soft-bodied marine organisms) Abundant stromatolites J K L M N Cryptolithus Centroceras Tetragraptus Valcouroceras Eucalyptocrinus Coelophysis Stylonurus Hexameroceras Manticoceras Dicellograptus Eurypterus Ctenocrinus Phacops Elliptocephala Physical Setting/Earth Science Reference Tables — 2011 Edition 8 OF NEW YORK STATE Time Distribution of Fossils Important Geologic Events in New York (including important fossils of New York) The center of each lettered circle indicates the approximate time of existence of a specific index fossil (e.g. Fossil A lived at the end of the Early Cambrian). S I H BIRDS MAMMALS VASCULAR PLANTS EURYPTERIDS Q N P M E BRACHIOPODS GASTROPODS Pangaea begins to break up 232 million years ago Alleghenian orogeny caused by collision of North America and Africa along transform margin, forming Pangaea R X Z Catskill delta forms Erosion of Acadian Mountains Acadian orogeny caused by collision of North America and Avalon and closing of remaining part of Iapetus Ocean Y Salt and gypsum deposited in evaporite basins V U D T J 359 million years ago Erosion of Taconic Mountains; Queenston delta forms Taconian orogeny caused by closing of western part of Iapetus Ocean and collision between North America and volcanic island arc K B 119 million years ago Intrusion of Palisades sill CORALS CRINOIDS G 59 million years ago Sands and clays underlying Long Island and Staten Island deposited on margin of Atlantic Ocean Initial opening of Atlantic Ocean North America and Africa separate PLACODERM FISH F GRAPTOLITES C Advance and retreat of last continental ice Dome-like uplift of Adirondack region begins L TRILOBITES AMMONOIDS DINOSAURS NAUTILOIDS O Inferred Positions of Earth’s Landmasses W 458 million years ago Widespread deposition over most of New York along edge of Iapetus Ocean A Rifting and initial opening of Iapetus Ocean Erosion of Grenville Mountains Grenville orogeny: metamorphism of bedrock now exposed in the Adirondacks and Hudson Highlands O P Q R Mastodont Cooksonia Naples Tree Beluga Whale Bothriolepis Aneurophyton Physical Setting/Earth Science Reference Tables — 2011 Edition S Condor T U V W X Y Z Cystiphyllum Maclurites Eospirifer Mucrospirifer Lichenaria Pleurodictyum Platyceras ADU (2011) 9 Inferred Properties of Earth’s Interior Physical Setting/Earth Science Reference Tables — 2011 Edition 10 Earthquake P-Wave and S-Wave Travel Time 24 23 22 21 20 19 18 S 17 TRAVEL TIME (min) 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 P 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 EPICENTER DISTANCE (× 103 km) Physical Setting/Earth Science Reference Tables — 2011 Edition 11 Dewpoint (°C) Dry-Bulb Temperature (°C) – 20 –18 –16 –14 –12 –10 –8 –6 –4 –2 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 Difference Between Wet-Bulb and Dry-Bulb Temperatures (C°) 0 – 20 –18 –16 –14 –12 –10 –8 –6 –4 –2 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 1 – 33 – 28 – 24 – 21 –18 –14 –12 –10 –7 –5 –3 –1 1 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 19 21 23 25 27 29 2 – 36 – 28 – 22 –18 –14 –12 –8 –6 –3 –1 1 3 6 8 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 – 29 – 22 –17 – 29 –13 – 20 – 9 –15 – 24 – 6 –11 –17 – 4 – 7 –11 –19 –1 – 4 – 7 –13 – 21 1 – 2 – 5 – 9 –14 4 1 – 2 – 5 – 9 –14 – 28 6 4 1 – 2 – 5 – 9 –16 9 6 4 1 – 2 – 5 –10 –17 11 9 7 4 1 –1 – 6 –10 –17 13 11 9 7 4 2 – 2 – 5 –10 –19 –2 – 5 –10 –19 15 14 12 10 7 4 2 3 –1 – 5 –10 –19 17 16 14 12 10 8 5 6 2 –1 – 5 –10 –18 20 18 16 14 12 10 8 9 6 3 0 –4 –9 22 20 18 17 15 13 11 11 9 7 4 1 –3 24 22 21 19 17 16 14 14 12 10 8 5 1 26 24 23 21 19 18 16 Relative Humidity (%) Dry-Bulb Temperature (°C) – 20 –18 –16 –14 –12 –10 –8 –6 –4 –2 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 Difference Between Wet-Bulb and Dry-Bulb Temperatures (C°) 0 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 1 28 40 48 55 61 66 71 73 77 79 81 83 85 86 87 88 88 89 90 91 91 92 92 92 93 93 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 11 23 33 41 48 54 58 63 67 70 72 74 76 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 86 13 20 32 37 45 51 56 59 62 65 67 69 71 72 74 75 76 77 78 79 11 20 28 36 42 46 51 54 57 60 62 64 66 68 69 70 71 72 1 11 20 27 35 39 43 48 50 54 56 58 60 62 64 65 66 6 14 22 28 33 38 41 45 48 51 53 55 57 59 61 10 17 24 28 33 37 40 44 46 49 51 53 55 6 13 19 25 29 33 36 40 42 45 47 49 4 10 16 21 26 30 33 36 39 42 44 2 8 14 19 23 27 30 34 36 39 1 7 12 17 21 25 28 31 34 1 6 11 15 20 23 26 29 5 10 14 18 21 25 4 9 13 17 20 4 9 12 16 Physical Setting/Earth Science Reference Tables — 2011 Edition 12 Pressure Temperature 110 Water boils 220 100 200 90 180 80 160 70 140 60 120 50 100 40 30 80 Room temperature 20 60 10 40 Water freezes 20 0 0 –10 –20 –20 –30 –40 –40 –60 –50 30.70 1036.0 30.60 380 370 360 1032.0 350 1028.0 30.50 30.40 30.30 340 1024.0 330 320 310 One atmosphere 300 290 30.20 1020.0 30.10 1016.0 30.00 1012.0 29.90 1008.0 280 29.80 29.70 1004.0 270 29.60 260 1000.0 250 996.0 29.40 992.0 29.30 240 230 988.0 220 29.50 29.20 29.10 Key to Weather Map Symbols Station Model 1040.0 984.0 29.00 Station Model Explanation 980.0 28.90 976.0 28.80 +19/ 972.0 28.70 .25 968.0 28.60 28 196 1 2 27 28.50 Air Masses Present Weather cA continental arctic Drizzle Rain Smog Hail ThunderRain storms showers cP continental polar cT continental tropical mT maritime tropical Snow Sleet Freezing rain Fog Haze Snow showers Physical Setting/Earth Science Reference Tables — 2011 Edition mP maritime polar Fronts Hurricane Cold Warm Stationary Tornado Occluded 13 Selected Properties of Earth’s Atmosphere Planetary Wind and Moisture Belts in the Troposphere The drawing on the right shows the locations of the belts near the time of an equinox. The locations shift somewhat with the changing latitude of the Sun’s vertical ray. In the Northern Hemisphere, the belts shift northward in the summer and southward in the winter. (Not drawn to scale) Electromagnetic Spectrum X rays Gamma rays Microwaves Ultraviolet Infrared Radio waves Decreasing wavelength Increasing wavelength Visible light Violet Physical Setting/Earth Science Reference Tables — 2011 Edition Blue Green Yellow Orange Red (Not drawn to scale) 14 Characteristics of Stars (Name in italics refers to star represented by a .) (Stages indicate the general sequence of star development.) 1,000,000 Deneb Luminosity (Rate at which a star emits energy relative to the Sun) 100,000 Massive Stars Betelgeuse SUPERGIANTS Rigel (Intermediate stage) Spica 10,000 GIANTS Polaris 1,000 (Intermediate stage) Aldebaran 100 MA IN 10 (E a Pollux SE Sirius rly QU s ta E N ge C ) E 1 Alpha Centauri Sun 0.1 40 Eridani B 0.01 Barnard’s Star WHITE DWARFS (Late stage) 0.001 Procyon B 0.0001 30,000 20,000 10,000 8,000 Small Stars Proxima Centauri 6,000 4,000 3,000 2,000 Surface Temperature (K) Blue Blue White White Yellow Orange Red Color Solar System Data Celestial Object Mean Distance from Sun (million km) Period of Revolution (d=days) (y=years) Period of Rotation at Equator Eccentricity of Orbit Equatorial Diameter (km) Mass (Earth = 1) — — 27 d — 1,392,000 333,000.00 1.4 MERCURY 57.9 88 d 59 d 0.206 4,879 0.06 5.4 VENUS 108.2 224.7 d 243 d 0.007 12,104 0.82 5.2 EARTH 149.6 365.26 d 23 h 56 min 4 s 0.017 12,756 1.00 5.5 MARS 227.9 687 d 24 h 37 min 23 s 0.093 6,794 0.11 3.9 JUPITER 778.4 11.9 y 9 h 50 min 30 s 0.048 142,984 317.83 1.3 SATURN 1,426.7 29.5 y 10 h 14 min 0.054 120,536 95.16 0.7 URANUS 2,871.0 84.0 y 17 h 14 min 0.047 51,118 14.54 1.3 NEPTUNE 4,498.3 164.8 y 16 h 0.009 49,528 17.15 1.8 149.6 27.3 d 27.3 d 0.055 3,476 0.01 3.3 SUN EARTH’S MOON (0.386 from Earth) Physical Setting/Earth Science Reference Tables — 2011 Edition Density (g/cm3) 15 Either Metallic luster 1–2 2.5 FRACTURE HARDNESS CLEAVAGE LUSTER COMMON COLORS DISTINGUISHING CHARACTERISTICS USE(S) COMPOSITION* MINERAL NAME ! silver to gray black streak, greasy feel pencil lead, lubricants C Graphite ! metallic silver gray-black streak, cubic cleavage, density = 7.6 g/cm3 ore of lead, batteries PbS Galena 5.5 – 6.5 ! black to silver black streak, magnetic ore of iron, steel Fe3O4 Magnetite 6.5 ! brassy yellow green-black streak, (fool’s gold) ore of sulfur FeS2 Pyrite 5.5 – 6.5 or 1 ! metallic silver or earthy red red-brown streak ore of iron, jewelry Fe2O3 Hematite white to green greasy feel ceramics, paper Mg3Si4O10(OH)2 Talc yellow to amber white-yellow streak sulfuric acid S Sulfur 1 ! ! 2 Nonmetallic luster Properties of Common Minerals 2 ! white to pink or gray easily scratched by fingernail plaster of paris, drywall CaSO4•2H2O Selenite gypsum 2 – 2.5 ! colorless to yellow flexible in thin sheets paint, roofing KAl3Si3O10(OH)2 Muscovite mica 2.5 ! colorless to white cubic cleavage, salty taste food additive, melts ice NaCl Halite 2.5 – 3 ! black to dark brown flexible in thin sheets construction materials K(Mg,Fe)3 AlSi3O10(OH)2 Biotite mica 3 ! colorless or variable bubbles with acid, rhombohedral cleavage cement, lime CaCO3 Calcite 3.5 ! colorless or variable bubbles with acid when powdered building stones CaMg(CO3)2 Dolomite 4 ! colorless or variable cleaves in 4 directions hydrofluoric acid CaF2 Fluorite 5–6 ! black to dark green cleaves in 2 directions at 90° mineral collections, jewelry (Ca,Na) (Mg,Fe,Al) (Si,Al)2O6 Pyroxene (commonly augite) 5.5 ! black to dark green cleaves at 56° and 124° 6 ! white to pink cleaves in 2 directions at 90° ceramics, glass KAlSi3O8 Potassium feldspar (commonly orthoclase) 6 ! white to gray cleaves in 2 directions, striations visible ceramics, glass (Na,Ca)AlSi3O8 Plagioclase feldspar mineral collections, CaNa(Mg,Fe)4 (Al,Fe,Ti)3 jewelry Si6O22(O,OH)2 Amphibole (commonly hornblende) 6.5 ! green to gray or brown commonly light green and granular furnace bricks, jewelry (Fe,Mg)2SiO4 Olivine 7 ! colorless or variable glassy luster, may form hexagonal crystals glass, jewelry, electronics SiO2 Quartz 6.5 – 7.5 ! dark red to green often seen as red glassy grains in NYS metamorphic rocks jewelry (NYS gem), abrasives Fe3Al2Si3O12 Garnet *Chemical symbols: Al = aluminum C = carbon Ca = calcium Cl = chlorine F = fluorine Fe = iron H = hydrogen K = potassium Mg = magnesium Na = sodium O = oxygen Pb = lead S = sulfur Si = silicon Ti = titanium ! = dominant form of breakage Physical Setting/Earth Science Reference Tables — 2011 Edition 16
