Geography

#separator:tab #html:true Describe some inputs in coastal systemssolar radiation (winds, waves, freeze-thaw, photosynthesis) gravity of moon & sun (tides) gravity of earth (mass movement) fluvial deposition beach nourishment LSD Describe some processes in coastal systemsmarine erosion (hydraulic action, abrasion) transportation & longshore drift deposition sub-aerial weathering (biological, freeze-thaw, chemical) mass movement (rockfall, slumping, sliding) aeolian erosion (eg deflation), transportation & deposition Explain the concept of sediment cellsa stretch of coastline where the movement of material is largely self-contained. contains areas of erosion, transportation and deposition. essentially a closed system occasional transfer of sediment between cells eg in storms. in dynamic equilibrium meaning rate of inputs = rate of outputs if a factor changes the system will correct itself so sediment cells are negative feedback systems. Explain how coasts can be viewed as systemsinputs, processes, stores and outputs. solar radiation causes winds and so waves allows for biological weathering (plants / photosynthesis) allows for mechanical weathering (water cycle so freeze-thaw). gravitational potential energy from the Earth causes mass movement from the Moon causes tides. all these energy inputs cause an input of sediment. other sediment inputs include fluvial deposition & beach nourishment. processes of transportation move sediment before it is deposited traction, saltation, suspension, solution. transportation may be in the form of longshore drift. outputs are deposited sediment forming landforms eg spits, bars, tombolos. Explain how material flows through coastal systemsinputs / sources fluvial deposition weathering & mass movement marine erosion aeolian erosion processes transportation by traction, saltation, suspension and solution may be in the form of longshore drift. aeolian transportation by saltation, suspension, creep outputs deposition as water slows down / loses energy forming new landforms beaches, spits, bars, tombolos, salt marshes Explain how energy flows through coastal systemsinputs solar radiation gravitational potential from Earth & Moon transfers kinetic energy in winds, waves & tides chemical energy in vegetation kinetic energy causes erosion & transportation deposition when energy not transferred up beach (gentle beach profile) Explain the effect of wind speed on coastal landscape systemsa higher wind speed increases wave energy so increases rate of marine erosion and increases rate of longshore drift (if wind at oblique angle). also increases rate of aeolian processes erosion by deflation as wind moves smaller lighter sand particles as well as transportation by suspension, saltation & creep & transportation to form dunes. Explain the effect of wind direction on coastal landscape systemsif wind has travelled from a direction where it has been unobstructed fror a long distance there is a long fetch so waves have more energy eg Blakeney in Norfolk with annual average power 9 kW/m wave front increasing rate of marine erosion. if wind is travelling at an oblique angle swash may transport sediment at this angle before it is moved back at 90 by backwash so longshore drift. Explain the effect of winds on coastal landscape systemsfactors are speed and direction (and frequency). a high wind speed & long fetch are both factors which increase wave energy (e.g. Blakeney, Norfolk 9 kW/m) so increase the rate of marine erosion. if wind travels at an oblique angle swash may transport sediment at this angle before it is moved back at 90 by backwash so this is a drift-aligned beach. high wind speed also increases rate of aeolian processes erosion by deflation as wind moves smaller lighter sand particles as well as transportation by suspension, saltation & creep & transportation to form dunes. Define spacea physical location Define placea space with a distinct identity so humans have added meaning / culture which many may feel emotional attachment to Explain the effect of lithology on coastal landscape systemsigneous & metamorphic rocks are more resistant to erosion / weathering / mm so are more likely to form steep cliffs. sedimentary rocks are generally less resistant eg unconsolidated sand / silt / clay so more likely to form gently sloping beach. some rocks may be more susceptible to chemical weathering eg limestone & chalk by carbonation eg rocks containing iron by oxidation. Explain the effect of geological structure on coastal landscape systemssometimes bands of different rock types run perpendicular to the coast called discordant coastlines eg around Swanage Bay in Dorset which causes the creation of headlands & bays due to differential erosion / weathering / mm. concordant coastlines have bands of different rock types run parallel to the coast which tend to be relatively uniform. porous rocks eg chalk have tiny air spaces other permeable rocks have many joints, allowing water to seep in eg limestone so more vulnerable to physical weathering eg freeze-thaw. if permeable strata above impermeable strata water can percolate until it reaches the bedding plane lubricating the impermeable rock so creating an unstable situation and vice versa. horizontally bedded & flat or lanward-dipping strata creates a stable configuration so cliffs have steep, vertical profiles. if strata dip seawards the cliff is less stable as more vulnerable to mass movement eg rockfalls so cliff profiles tend to have the same angle of dip as the bedding planes. Name ways geological structure affect coastal landscape systemsconcordant vs discordant coastlines porous & permeable rocks + their arrangement angle of dip of bedding planes Explain how and why people perceive places differently based on agegenerally the elderly have a narrower focus on specific known spaces eg where to find shade on hot days perhaps due to worsening memory and increasing requirements for suitable places eg not too far from home, right temp. range, walkable (not too many cars). young people often value socialising more so often experience places with 'alternative scripts' eg taking possession of shopping centres & cafés to 'hang out' often without actually buying anything (socialising is free). Explain how and why people perceive places differently based on genderin the UK 97% of women aged 18-24 have been sexually harassed so women develop individual mental maps of where they fear assault due to past experienc & observations of parents' differential fears as well as hearing anecotes & advice from others, and from the media. the perceived safety of a place for women can increase based on external regulation eg formal regulation by police, security guards, shop assistants, park wardens however fear may be increasing due to fewer staff (transport) due to public spending cuts. Name factors affecting place perceptionage gender sexuality religion role Explain how and why people perceive places differently based on sexualitysome places acquire new meaning as they are where LGBTQ groups tend to cluster which often centre on restaurants, clubs and bars which are 'gay friendly' such as the Gay Village in Manchester. people may cluster like this for a sense of security & to be themselves strength in numbers in an otherwise predominantly heterosexual society eg Castro District in San Francisco where LGBTQ councillors have been elected so people more likely to feel represented. Explain how and why people perceive places differently based on their rolefamilial relationships can affect place perception as people have responsibility for others a parent of young children may be more aware of dangers eg traffic & strangers another factor contributing to this fear may be stress due to sleep deprivation an adult child of elderly parents may be more aware of accessibility & walkability. some roles involve people spending lots of time in a single place eg a retail worker may tune out pop music a student is more likely to notice subtle changes in the school environment. Explain how and why people perceive places differently based on religionsome religions give natural landscape features meaning as they are thought to be sacred eg Uluru which is a giant mass of sandstone in Australia has a major role in Aboriginal creation stories so for Aboriginal people this will be a hugely important symbol. religious buildings eg churches, synagogues and mosques are associated with peace, healing and calmness where people feel safe to practice their religion. some specific locations are significant according to religion eg Jerusalem is given importance by Judaism, Christianity & Islam so has become 'contested space' has been captured, destroyed & rebuilt several times. Name ways religion affects place perceptionnatural landscape eg Uluru religious buildings specific locations eg Jerusalem Explain the formation of caves, arches, stacks and stumpserosional landforms (predominantly hydraulic action & abrasion) eg Old Harry (stack) & Old Harry's Wife (stump) in Dorset. energy concentrated onto headlands due to wave refraction so any points of weakness (faults / joints) are exploited by erosion forming a cave the process continues and the cave expands all the way through the headland forming an arch the arch may collapse due to gravity & weathering eg freeze thaw forming a stack which may then itself collapse & form a stump. Name erosional landformsheadlands & bays cliffs shore platforms geos & blow holes caves, arches, stacks & stumps Name depositional landformsbeaches spits onshore bars tombolos salt marshes Explain the formation of geosgeos are narrow, steep-sided inlets eg Huntsman's Leap in Pembrokeshire. points of weakness (joints / faults) exploited by marine erosion forming a cave in the cliff. as these caves tunnel further in the roof may collapse due to gravity & weathering. Explain the formation of a blow holeeg there is a blowhole in Trevone, Cornwall. points of weakness (joints / faults) exploited by marine erosion forming a cave in the cliff. as these caves tunnel further in part of the roof collapses along a master joint due to gravity & weathering so a vertical shaft forms that reaches the cliff top. Give an example of a blow holethere is a blowhole in Trevone, Cornwall Give an example of a geoHuntsman's Leap in Pembrokeshire Explain the formation of shore platformshorizontal or gently sloping rock in the intertidal zone erosional landform. when destructive waves break repeatedly on cliffs marine erosion forms a wave-cut notch in the intertidal zone this notch expands so support for the above rock strata weakens this rock eventually collapses due to gravity (weathering may contribute) waves remove debris at base of cliff giving cliff a steep profile with a shore platform left below the original location of the notch. often quite dissected by abrasion due to rock debris dragged across marine organisms eg algae can accelerate weathering when platform exposed solution, freeze thaw and salt crystallsation can all occur. max width 500m Explain the effect of tidal range on coastal landscape systemsa low tidal range means marine erosion is more concentrated on less land area creating deeper wave cut notches so more undercutting causing cliffs to retreat faster. a higher tidal range increases the area affected by weathering particularly on shore platforms particularly salt crystallisation and freeze thaw. Explain how Newnham's built characteristics shape its place identitythe university is a principal landowner in the ward with many colleges eg Selwyn, Darwin, Robinson and playing fields eg Trinity College sports grounds shaping identity as a (privileged) academic suburb. University of Cambridge Sports Centre at the West Cambridge site opened in 2013 (costed £16 million) local people are allowed private membership so can benefit. Fen Causeway was constructed in the 1920s facing Fen Causeway are 3 blocks of 1930s apartments in the art deco style these are now Buildings of Local Interest (BLIs) so historic. some terraced housing eg Selwyn Road also some spacious properties eg Millington Road. Explain how Romsey's built characteristics shape its place identityRomsey is relatively far from the city centre so has its own amenities (shops, clubs, churches etc) many of which are on Mill Road (the spine of Romsey) which brings residents from either side together. built in the late 19th century so a distinct area of late Victorian working class housing which is high density & terraced. historically Mill Road bridge contributed to community spirit as it was the only way into the city (then town) centre from Romsey was over the bridge this used to be much more predominantly used by pedestrians so people would see each other. What is a formal representation of a place?objective measures often quantitative eg census & geospatial data What is an informal representation of a place?subjective focused on people's perception (thoughts / feelings) of a palce eg interviews with residents, blogs, photos, graffiti Suggest why formal and informal representations of place may differformal is more precise, accurate and reliable. formal may cover a wider area than informal. informal depends on the perceptions of people involved in the process eg photographer decided exactly where or when to take the photo residents spoken to will have their own opinions if for tourism, negative representations may be deleted. different things may be recorded. Name methods of bar formationswash aligned beaches: sand bank pushed onshore by constructive waves drift aligned beaches: longshore drift continues despite change in coastline direction Explain the formation of onshore barsbars are ridges of sand/shingle which join two headlands lagoon forms behind bar eg Loe bar in Cornwall. swash aligned beaches sand bank develops offshore and is pushed onshore by constructive waves in periods of sea level rise eg Flandrian Transgression where sea levels rose 120m drift aligned beaches prevailing wind at an oblique angle swash carries sediment up beach at that angle backwash carries back at 90 so overall movement along (longshore drift) continues after coastline changes direction, forming spit spit joins two headlands Explain the formation of tomboloslandforms of deposition when sediment extends from the mainland and connects to an offshore island eg Chesil Beach in Dorset which connects to the Isle of Portland. longshore drift (drift aligned beaches) prevailing wind is at an oblique angle swash carries sediment up beach at that angle backwash pulls sediment back perpendicular to the coastline causing an overall movement of sediment along the beach (LSD) this continues after the coastline changes direction, forming spit spit continues until it happens to reach an offshore island sea level rise period of postglacial sea level rise ending 6000 years ago called the Flandrian Transgression (sea levels rose 120m) so more water with more energy to carry sediment. in the case of tombolos, waves bend around an island & slow down & refract so they lose energy & deposit sediment forming a salient, which grows & joins island. Explain the formation of a spitspits are depositional landfordms long, narrow beaches of sand or shingle that are attached to the land at one end and extend across a bay, estuary or indentation in a coastline eg Blakeney Point in Norfolk on drift aligned beaches prevailing wind is at an oblique angle swash carries sediment up the beach at that angle backwash carries back perpendicular to the coastline so overall movement along the beach (longshore drift) coastline changes direction yet longshore drift continues recurved end may form due to wave refraction or change in wind direction. Explain the formation of a salt marshsalt marshes are vegetated areas of deposited silts and clays regularly flooded by seawater. formed in low-energy environments eg in estuaries or behind spits salt-tolerant plant species eg eelgrass trap sediment increasing the height of the marsh stems and leaves act as baffles (trapping) while roots stabilise the sediment Explain how Newnham's natural characteristics shape its place identitymuch green space Lammas Land formed from fields which were levelled and turned into a public park large paddling pool and randomly placed trees Paradise is a 2.2 hectare nature reserve on the west bank of the River Cam owned & managed by the city council has marshland and wet woodland making Newnham a pleasant, liveable environment with good air quality etc so very desirable and therefore affluent. some of the green space is university playing fields eg Trinity College Sports Grounds cementing reputation as an academic suburb. Explain how Romsey's natural characteristics shape its place identitymuch less green space due to higher density housing so not as desirable or affluent. Romsey Recreation Ground provides a much needed open space breaking up the rows of terraces. Explain how Newnham's demographic characteristics shape its place identity74% of the population are students driving Newnham's reputation as an academic suburb may also contribute to a weaker community spirit due to transient population has recently caused conflict with plans for more student accommodation in Owlstone Close (near nature reserve) Explain how Romsey's demographic characteristics shape its place identityalso has a relatively young population 20% 0-19 compared to Newnham's 27% as the area is being gentrified younger people are moving in taking advantage of the once low house prices potentially causing unrest in the community eg 'Make Romsey Shit Again!' posters What is a bar?ridge of sand/shingle which joins two headlands lagoon forms behind bar eg Loe bar in Cornwall Explain how Newnham's socio-economic characteristics shape its place identityNewnham is comparatively well-off with high house prices (median £680,000) due to lower density housing & more spacious properties eg Millington Road and more green space eg Lammas Land with public pool maintained by city council and Paradise Nature Reserve (2.2 acres) with marshland and wet woodland as well as facilities provided by university eg University of Cambridge Sports Centre at the West Cambridge site which opened in 2013 and cost £16 million allowing local people private membership. all of this contributes to (arguably causes) Newnham's identity as an academic affluent suburb. Explain how Romsey's socio-economic characteristics shape its place identityhistorically Romsey has been more working class due to higher density terraced housing eg Ross Street with less green space and no facilities provided by the university which has created a strong sense of community as people resent the privileges the university brings other areas. this caused it to gain the name 'Little Russia' with its tradition of radicalism as people in Romsey joined the general strike in 1926 to protest against proposed wage cuts. however more recently the area has been gentrified due to the General Improvement Area in 1981 where grants were provided to improve properties & the public realm and an influx of middle class people taking advantage of the low house prices and proximity to train station who are often London commuters this has caused some unrest in the community ('Make Romsey Shit Again' posters). Name socio-economic characteristics of Newnham and RomseyNewnham more affluent causes - spacious housing, green space, university. Romsey historically more working class due to opposite factors now there is gentrification due to GIA & influx of middle class people. Name built characteristics of Newnham and RomseyNewnham  lower density housing university principle landowner eg Selwyn, Robinson Colleges University of Cambridge Sports Centre Romsey own amenities on Mill Road due to distance from city centre high density late Victorian working class housing Name natural characteristics of Newnham and RomseyNewnham Lammas Land Paradise Nature Reserve Trinity College Sports Grounds Romsey  less green space Romsey Recreation Ground breaks up rows of terraces no university influence Name demographic characteristics of Newnham and RomseyNewnham  74% student population academic weaker community spirit conflict with student accommodation in Owlstone Close Romsey  quite young (20% 0-19 compared to Newnham's 27%) younger people moving in causing gentrification causing conflict Explain how Newnham's political characteristics shape its place identityyoung population means Newnham is very left wing mostly electing councillors from the Liberal Democrats more recently there has been a shift towards the Green Party demonstrating residents' views on environmental conservation eg opposition to student accommodation plans in Owlstone Close (next to nature reserve) Explain how Romsey's political characteristics shape its place identityhistorically quite working class (due to high density housing built in the late 19th century + lower paid jobs provided by railway compared to uni) so has developed a radical, Labour-voting tradition becoming known as 'Little Russia' in the general strike of 1926 when residents protested against proposed pay cuts the Labour Club was built by voluntary labour at the time so strong sense of community and co-operation Define globalisationthe process by which the world is becoming increasingly interconnected and interdependent economically, socially and culturally Define time-space compressionthe increasing speed of travel and communication between different places a part of globalisation (so reducing frictional effect of distance) Explain how Newnham's cultural characteristics shape its place identitylots of café culture eg kiosk on Lammas Land & coffee shop Bean Theory shaping identity as affluent / priviledged suburb. Christmas carols held every year by kiosk where free mince pies are given out. some places of worship eg St Mark's Church creating a sense of togetherness / community. Explain how Romsey's cultural characteristics shape its place identityhistorically united by being quite working class as employment was dominated by the railway rather than the university so the culture resented the privileges of the uni which led to Romsey developing a tradition of radicalism becoming known as 'Little Russia' in the 1926 general strike as residents striked together against proposed pay cuts. similarly has places of worship eg Cambridge Central Mosque which was constructed from 2016 to 2019 and brought in 10,000 donations so sense of co-operation. Explain how globalisation and time-space compression can influence our sense of placeTNCs can lead to a sense of placelessness particularly in commercial areas (TNCs) as more places seem generic and could be located anywhere rather than having their own unique character so a local resident may feel the area is bland, reducing emotional attachment e.g. Cambridge Leisure Park off of Hills Road however there may be increased familiarity for outsiders, who may feel more comfortable. structural economic change the global shift in manufacturing towards ECs and LIDCs could improve aesthetics / environmental quality in ACs with less air / water pollution etc. more frequent travel due to technological improvements it is much faster and cheaper to travel, particularly by plane so people are more used to it and it is less exciting  Name ways globalisation and time-space compression can influence our sense of placeplacelessness for insiders (less place attachment) increased familiarity for outsiders more frequent travel increased environmental quality Explain how Newnham's present connections shape its place identitythe university is a principal landowner in the ward with many colleges eg Selwyn, Darwin, Robinson and playing fields eg Trinity College sports grounds shaping identity as a (privileged) academic suburb. University of Cambridge Sports Centre at the West Cambridge site opened in 2013 (costed £16 million) local people are allowed private membership so can benefit. Explain how Newnham's present connections embeds it in regional, national and international scalesthe university's many colleges in Newnham eg Selwyn, Darwin, Robinson attract students from locally, nationally and internationally so Newnham plays a role in the university's strong academic reputation. Newnham is an attractive place to live, encouraging migration due to uni facilities eg University of Cambridge Sports Centre at the West Cambridge site which cost £16 million where local people are allowed private membership so can benefit and spacious housing (Millington Road) and green space (Lammas Land) so Newnham contributes to Cambridge's population growth. Explain how Newnham's past connections shape its place identityNewnham has been populated for hundreds of years with the Cam as an essential trading route from the 12th to 19th century transporting fish, grain, timber and stone. this facilitated the university to be founded in 1209 (would not have been founded here if no established population) and so Newnham College to be founded in 1871. this defines Newnham's place identity as an academic suburb with the university as a historic, prestigious institution. Explain how Newnham's past connections embed it in regional, national and international scalesCambridge used to be an important river port from the 12th to 19th century where fish, grain, timber and stone were transported so Newnham was a part of international trade. the university was founded in 1209 with Newnham College founded in 1871 so for well over 100 years students have come from the East of England and wider UK and more recently from internationally. Explain how shifting flows of people have shaped Newnham's demographic, socio-economic and cultural profilethousands of students come to Newnham during term time as there are several colleges eg Newnham, Selwyn, Robinson so in the census 2021 74% of the population was a student and 27% of the population was aged 0-19 (relatively high). Newnham is therefore a desirable place to live due to its reputation as an academic suburb from these flows of students and this is one reason for the high house prices (median £680,000) so population is relatively well-off. Explain how shifting flows of money and investment have shaped Newnham's demographic, socio-economic and cultural profilemost new investment in the ward comes from university funding the influence of the uni has grown over time with the opening of many new colleges in the 20th century eg Darwin and Robinson this led to where we are now, with 74% in the ward being students. this has also allowed Newnham to become a more desirable area with facilities provided by the uni eg the University of Cambridge Sports Centre at the West Cambridge site which cost £16 million as local people are allowed private membership at the gym so benefit. students renting privately are a source of income for landlords. Explain how Romsey's present connections shape its place identitythe Mill Road Winter Fair is held annually attendance has grown at 20,000 in 2009 so strong community spirit / sense of togetherness / tradition. Romsey Labour Club is affiliated with the national Labour Party demonstrating its radical, working class roots. proximity to railway so influx of commuters causing gentrification. Explain how shifting flows of ideas have shaped Newnham's demographic, socio-economic and cultural profileNewnham could only grow into the suburb it is today with the idea to allow fellows of colleges to marry in 1882 as they could then start families and it is unlikely the uni would have such a strong influence if this policy had not changed. the purpose of the university as a place of education is arguably to introduce and develop ideas and all of this has caused 74% of Newnham's population to be students and it to gain a reputation as an academic suburb. Explain how Romsey's present connections embed it in regional, national and international scalesthe Mill Road Winter Fair is held annually attendance has grown to 20,000 in 2009 so people come from around Cambridgeshire to participate. Romsey Labour Club is affiliated with the national Labour Party so receives funding. during the construction of the Cambridge Central Mosque from 2016 to 2019 the biggest single donation was £16 million from Turkey from both the government and private groups. near railway so home to many London commuters. Explain how Romsey's past connections embed it in regional, national and international scalesin 1845 the railway arrived in Cambridge which then gradually replaced the river Cam as the transport link for heavy goods much of the employment in Romsey was provided by the railway and the construction industry with the urbanisation of Mill Road. historically the Romsey Labour Club has been used by many organisations as a headquarters including railway unions eg ASLEF and the NUR so nationally holds great significance. Explain how Romsey's past connections shape its place identityin 1845 the railway arrived in Cambridge which then gradually replaced the river Cam as the transport link for heavy goods this led to the urbanisation of Mill Road and the development of the ward we know today with much employment provided by the railway / construction rather than uni. historically the Romsey Labour Club (opened in 1928) was used by many organisations as a headquarters including railway unions eg ASLEF and the NUR demonstrating its radicalism. Explain how shifting flows of people have shaped Romsey's demographic, socio-economic and cultural profilefirst influx of people was after 1845 when the railway arrived and Mill Road started to urbanise. who were all quite working class as railway provided employment since 1981 (GIA) there has been gentrification with an influx of younger more middle class people taking advantage of the comparatively low house prices and proximity to railway station (for London commuters) which is causing some unrest in the community eg 'Make Romsey Shit Again' posters Explain how shifting flows of money and investment have shaped Romsey's demographic, socio-economic and cultural profilein 1981 the 'General Improvement Area' was formed which was a program where the city council would offer grants to improve the public realm and private properties (many lacked modern facilities) this started the process of gentrification which is causing some unrest in the community eg 'Make Romsey Shit Again' posters. Cambridge Central Mosque (first eco mosque in Europe) cost £24 million Explain how shifting flows of ideas have shaped Romsey's demographic, socio-economic and cultural profileidea to introduce GIA caused gentrification diversity of religious ideas eg Cambridge Central Mosque Explain how emotional attachment to a place can influence people's behaviour and activitiesif people have positive memories eg playing in a particular park as a child they are likely to value that place and not want to forget it eg living / retiring nearby or bringing their children for the same reason as they originally visited they may have a stronger wish to preserve that place eg cleaning up litter / graffiti. if the emotional attachment is to a wider neighbourhood people may want to become involved in the community eg joining a community group eg residents association. people may be more opposed to any form of change eg if there are proposals to build student accommodation. What is a salt marsh?vegetated areas of deposited silts and clay regularly flooded by seawater features of low-energy environments eg estuaries and behind spits Name sources of coastal sedimentterrestrial fluvial deposition weathering and mass movement marine erosion aeolian deposition longshore drift offshore marine deposition human beach nourishment Name terrestrial sources of coastal sedimentfluvial deposition weathering and mass movement marine erosion aeolian deposition longshore drift Explain the formation of cliffscliff profile depends on wave energy and angle of bedding planes. for destructive waves and horizontal bedding planes marine erosion causes undercutting in the intertidal zone leaving an overhang which then collapses the waves (strong backwash) remove the debris so the cliff retreats and the steep / vertical profile is maintained. if waves have less energy debris may remain so cliff profile is more gently sloping What is a shore platform?horizontal or gently sloping rock in the intertidal zone erosional landform Explain how physical factors influence the formation of landforms in a high energy coastlineNorfolk coastline geology both NE and NW cliffs have chalk NE cliffs also have weakly consolidated sands and gravels so high erosion rates in both (1-71cm/year NE and 11cm/year NW) forming steep cliffs and shore platforms in both. wind wind direction drives LSD west so NE cliffs more vulnerable to erosion providing an input of sediment for the coastline further west depositional landforms eg beaches, spits, salt marshes eg at Blakeney Point there is a spit and salt marsh (in the shingle ridges and sandy beaches). long fetch so high wave energy, particularly for NW cliffs. waves type eg destructive vs constructive Explain how geology influences the formation of landforms in a high energy coastlineNorfolk coastline. both NE and NW cliffs contain chalk so vulnerable to carbonation and NE also consist of weakly consolidated sands and gravels so high rates of coastal retreat in both (1-71cm/year NE and 11cm/year NW) forming steep cliffs and shore platforms in both providing sediment input for depositional landforms further east eg beaches, shingle ridges, sand dunes, estuaries, spits, salt marshes Explain how wind influences the formation of landforms in a high energy coastlineNorfolk coastline. wind direction drives LSD west so NE cliffs more vulnerable to erosion providing an input of sediment for the coastline further west depositional landforms eg beaches, spits, salt marshes (in the shingle ridges and sandy beaches). long fetch so high wave energy, particularly for NW cliffs. Define social inequalityvariations in quality of life measured via housing, healthcare, education, employment and services Explain how social inequality can be measuredhousing house prices % homeless % own house outright healthcare life expectancy doctors per 1000 waiting lists for medical treatment % malnourished education  educational achievement (UK) number of years in school (global) literacy rate employment  unemployment average wage Name categories to measure social inequalityhousing healthcare education employment access to services Explain the role of government in reducing social inequalityredistributing wealth via taxation (income, wealth, inheritance etc) using that money to provide services to the whole population eg education is free so children born into poorer families are given opportunities etc healthcare is also free so everyone can afford to live govt subsidises public transport to reduce train / bus fares council housing built to reduce homelessness. introducing and enforcing regulations for employers and rights for workers eg minimum wage introduced in 1998 in the UK. Explain the role of the government in reinforcing and creating social inequality"choices around where exactly to invest eg in 2022 Sunak admitted to taking money out of ""deprived urban areas"" to help wealthier towns so increasing social inequality. cuts in key services eg period of austerity 2010 onwards eg more students per teacher and fewer resources in state schools compared to private schools eg increasing NHS waiting lists compared to private healthcare so more preventable deaths 120,000 people in England died in 2022 while on NHS waiting lists." Name factors influencing social inequalityincome gender age health personal mobility ethnicity education Name players involved in placemakinglocal and national government corporations not for profit organisations community groups individuals Explain why some groups contest efforts to rebrand a placegentrification as the environment impoves and crime falls wealthier people move in and the area moves upmarket so it is more difficult for less wealthy people to afford to live there due to rent and general cost of living rises and the area's character changes to become more 'bougie' different priorities  eg when Liverpool One shopping centre was proposed and built local residents and existing shop owners felt ignored and that the rebranding would be more useful to entrepreneurs and people from outside Liverpool Explain how some groups contest efforts to rebrand a placecampaigns may involve boycotts eg campaign against Tesco Express on Mill Road which opened in 2009 some workers reported the shop was losing £10,000 per week due to a lack of customers shop eventually closed in 2022 Name rebranding elementssport art heritage retail architecture food Name ways architects and planners attempt to create meaningful and authentic placesencouraging mixed community use the 24 hour city Explain how architects and planners attempt to create meaningful and authentic placesmixed community use  varying land use in a small area green space, retail, commercial, office, transport etc creates a stronger sense of community as people see / interact with the same other people as they move around so social integration is easier and more incentive to get involved with a community group (same place more) preventing the sense of isolation that can come with commuter settlements also less car infrastructure needed. 24 hour city services staying open during the night eg Night Tube in London opening in 2016 and more food services available overnight (McDonalds) to challenge perception as deserted / threatening / unsafe. Explain how architects and planners attempt to create meaningful and authentic places through encouraging mixed land usevarying land use in a small area green space, retail, commercial, office, transport etc creates a stronger sense of community as people need to travel shorter distances throughout their day so they see / interact with the same other people as they move around so social integration is easier and more incentive to get involved with a community group (same place more) preventing the sense of isolation that can come with commuter settlements also less car infrastructure needed. Explain how architects and planners attempt to create meaningful and authentic places through the 24 hour cityservices staying open during the night eg Night Tube in London opening in 2016 and more food services available overnight (McDonalds) to challenge perception as deserted / threatening / unsafe Name types of community groupsresidents associations heritage associations social media groups Name the two branches / strands of rebranding of placesreimaging regeneration Explain the inter-relationship of landforms in a high energy coastlineNorfolk. wind orientation drives LSD west linking sediment input from high erosion at NE cliffs to deposition further east allowing formation of beaches, shingle ridges, estuaries, salt marshes, sand dunes e.g. spit at Blakeney Point. there is a relationship between cliffs, wave cut notches and shore platforms (NE and NW) wave cut notches form inside cliffs - as they enlarge they cause cliffs to retreat which leaves behind a shore platform max width 500m after which waves can no longer erode cliff due to friction. Explain how and why a high energy coastline changes in the short termNorfolk. cliff collapse occurs fairly frequently eg at Happisburgh in January 2021 due to relatively weak lithology cliffs composed of chalk and weakly consolidated sand and gravel also occurs when cliffs are saturated after heavy rain more likely to occur as houses built on cliffs, increasing their weight. coastal management Explain how and why a high energy coastline changes in the long termNorfolk. spits form over thousands of years if prevailing wind is at an oblique angle LSD occurs (drift aligned beach) on the Norfolk coastline LSD travels west so sediment inputs from NE cliffs transported then deposited eg spit at Blakeney Point lengthened by >100m between 1886 and 1925 spit formation can lead to the formation of salt marshes behind which can take several decades. Explain how and why a high energy coastline changesNorfolk short term  cliff collapse occurs fairly frequently eg at Happisburgh in January 2021 due to relatively weak lithology cliffs composed of chalk and weakly consolidated sand and gravel also occurs when cliffs are saturated after heavy rain more likely to occur as houses built on cliffs, increasing their weight. long term spits form over thousands of years if prevailing wind is at an oblique angle LSD occurs (drift aligned beach) on the Norfolk coastline LSD travels west so sediment inputs from NE cliffs transported then deposited eg spit at Blakeney Point lengthened by >100m between 1886 and 1925 spit formation can lead to the formation of salt marshes behind which can take several decades. emergentsea level fall sea level fallemergent submergentsea level rise sea level risesubmergent Name landforms of emergenceraised beaches abandoned cliffs marine terraces Name landforms of submergencerias fjords shingle beaches barrier island Explain how climate change has caused sea level riseeustatic sea level rise is an absolute rise in sea level, occurring in warming climates caused by continental ice caps / sheets melting so more water in oceans and thermal expansion of water, so same amount of water takes up more volume. isostatic subsidence is a relative rise in sea level the main cause of which is ice sheets compressing the lithosphere in glacial periods. example the most recent period of eustatic sea level rise is the Flandrian Transgression from 18,000 to 6,000 years ago as sea levels increased by 120m due to a warming climate after the last glacial period. Explain how climate change has caused sea level falleustatic sea level fall is an absolute fall in sea level, occurring in cooling climates caused by continental ice caps / sheets forming so less water in oceans and thermal contraction of water, so same amount of water takes up less volume. isostatic rebound is a relative fall in sea level the main cause of which is ice sheets melting, allowing the lithosphere to uplift. example eg 125,000 years ago sea level was 8m higher than today during the Sangamonian Interglacial global temperatures are now over 2 degs lower so sea level is lower as well. Explain the influence of sea level fall in forming different landformssea level marine regressions cause emergent landforms to form there is eustatic sea level decrease in cooling climates due to continental ice caps / sheets forming and thermal contraction of water sea level can also fall due to isostatic rebound, which may be caused by deglaciation. landforms coastal landforms are left a few metres inland and above the HWM former shore platforms / beaches become raised beaches and marine terraces cliffs become abandoned cliffs often w/ wave cut notches and caves. sometimes there is a series of terraces and abandoned cliffs as new beaches / cliffs etc form before sea level falls again eg in western Scotland platforms are found at 8, 15, and 30m above sea level. Explain the influence of geomorphic processes on landforms of emergenceraised beaches, marine terraces, abandoned cliffs formation marine processes will have been responsible for forming these landforms in the first place ie before the marine regression (sea level fall). cliffs were shaped by marine erosion creating wave cut notches creating overhangs, which along with weathering caused collapse (mass movement) cliff profile was also shaped by transportation of debris away from base of cliff collapse created wave cut platform which later became raised beach / marine terrace this may have been dissected by abrasion as rocks were dragged across the geomorphic process of marine erosion limited its width to 500m as that is the approximate point where friction prevented further erosion. larger scale shape of abandoned cliffs may be shaped by differential erosion (if lithologies vary) there may even be caves, stacks and stumps. present day change since these landforms are above the HWM, it is now only sub-aerial processes which influence them e.g. biological weathering, freeze-thaw weathering, oxidation, carbonation, landslides Explain the influence of sea level rise in forming different landformssea level marine transgressions cause submergent landforms to form there is eustatic sea level rise in warming climates due to continental ice caps / sheets melting and thermal expansion of water sea level can also rise due to isostatic subsidence due to glaciation. barrier islands offshore bars can be driven onshore by rising sea level forming a barrier island eg Chesil Beach formed as sea level rose 120m during Flandrian Transgression. rias rias rias are drowned river valleys eg those found in Devon and Cornwall in the lower course, the entire river and surrounding floodplain may be submerged however in the middle and upper course, the tops of the valley sides remain exposed exposed valley sides are quite gently sloping. in plan view, they tend to be winding, reflecting the original route of the river and valley fjords fjords are drowned glacial valleys glacial processes create a U-shaped valley which is then flooded when threshold is below sea level found in high altitude locations such as Norway. Explain the formation of barrier islandsa period of sea level rise is called a marine transgression can be eustatic in a warming climate due to continental ice caps / sheets melting and thermal expansion of water. offshore bars can be driven onshore by rising sea level forming a barrier island eg Chesil Beach formed as sea level rose 120m during Flandrian Transgression Explain the formation of riassea level marine transgressions cause submergent landforms to form there is eustatic sea level rise in warming climates due to continental ice caps / sheets melting and thermal expansion of water sea level can also rise due to isostatic subsidence due to glaciation. rias rias are drowned river valleys eg those found in Devon and Cornwall in the lower course, the entire river and surrounding floodplain may be submerged however in the middle and upper course, the tops of the valley sides remain exposed exposed valley sides are quite gently sloping. in plan view, they tend to be winding, reflecting the original route of the river and valley Explain the formation of fjordssea level marine transgressions cause submergent landforms to form there is eustatic sea level rise in warming climates due to continental ice caps / sheets melting and thermal expansion of water sea level can also rise due to isostatic subsidence due to glaciation. fjords fjords are drowned glacial valleys glacial processes create a U-shaped valley which is then flooded when threshold is below sea level. Explain why one named place needed to rebrand"CB1 redevelopment in Cambridge. in the 1980s and 1990s the area around the station became derelict environmental quality was very poor Brookgate (the developer) said the area used look like ""an industrial armput"". eg City House on Hills Road was partially built in the 1990s before the developer ran out of money and no tenants were found so it remained partially constructed and derelict for over 15 years there was also a lack of investment more generally due to a recession in the 1990s so cycle of decline etc." Explain the strategies involved in the rebranding of one named placeCB1 Brookgate spent £21m on redeveloping the physical and natural environment eg a 3,000-space multi-storey cycle park was built for the 19,000 people per day who use the railway station promoting cycling over car use to reduce congestion, pollution, accidents. vertical land use zoning with commercial on ground floor and residential above an efficient use of land so more open / green space possible and more walkeable. mixed land use so more walkeability, better social integration and less dormancy. Liverpool Paradise Project regenerated 42 acres of underutilised land in Liverpool's city centre forming Liverpool One, a shopping, residential and leisure complex (has a cinema) making Liverpool one of the UK's top 5 shopping destinations >40% of L1's retailers are new to the area so L1 has stimulated the economy. Liverpool named European Capital of Culture in 2008 and hosted Eurovision in 2023 Eurovision boosted Liverpool's economy by >£50 million and promoted it to an international audience. total footfall in L1 in 2008 was >13 million >300,000 people visited the city centre in 2023 for Eurovision events. Use two case studies to explain evidence for social inequality in relation to housingCambridge and Jalousie. J is a slum settlement while C has no slums in J govt document >1,300 homes are dangerous and should be moved as they are in the side of the Morne L'Hopital mountain on steep slopes or in ravines where rainwater collects also a fault line runs through hillside so high danger for earthquakes C has no risk of natural hazards except flooding in J there are few water distribution points where it costs 26p for a 5 gallon bucket which is carried home in C water runs directly into homes Use two case studies to explain evidence for social inequality in relation to environmental qualityCambridge and Jalousie. around 80% of the diseases in J are waterborne eg typhoid (headache / constipation) in C drinking water is clean. in Port-au-Prince PM2.5 readings exceed 15 μg/m3 which is 3x the WHO limit range of health effects eg lung cancer and asthma in C PM2.5 levels rarely exceed 2 μg/m3 with its fleet of buses in the process of being converted to electric. Use two case studies to explain evidence for social inequality in relation to crimeCambridge and Jalousie. J's homicide rate is 55 per 100,000 per year armed robbery is common, often in broad daylight attacks often result in deaths C's homicide rate is 12 per 100,000 per year much safer more is related to shoplifting Use two case studies to explain evidence for social inequality in relation to digital divideCambridge and Jalousie. in J 41% have access to the internet while in C the figure is 98% in J the average fixed internet connection speed is 13 Mbps while in C it is 59 Mbps. so in J fewer people can afford a good mobile phone less infrastructure to allow internet access. Use two case studies to explain evidence for social inequalityCambridge and Jalousie. housing  in J govt document >1,300 homes are dangerous and should be moved as they are in the side of the Morne L'Hopital mountain on steep slopes or in ravines where rainwater collects also a fault line runs through hillside so high danger for earthquakes C has no risk of natural hazards except flooding in J there are few water distribution points where it costs 26p for a 5 gallon bucket which is carried home environmental quality around 80% of the diseases in J are waterborne eg typhoid (headache / constipation) in Port-au-Prince PM2.5 readings exceed 15 μg/m3 which is 3x the WHO limit range of health effects eg lung cancer and asthma in C PM2.5 levels rarely exceed 2 μg/m3 with its fleet of buses in the process of being converted to electric. crime J's homicide rate is 55 per 100,000 per year armed robbery is common, often in broad daylight, often resulting in deaths C's homicide rate is 12 per 100,000 per year much safer and more is related to shoplifting digital divide in J 41% have access to the internet while in C the figure is 98% in J the average fixed internet connection speed is 13 Mbps while in C it is 59 Mbps. so in J fewer people can afford a good mobile phone less infrastructure to allow internet access. Use two case studies to explain how education influences social inequalityCambridge and Jalousie. in H it costs a family around US$127 per year to send a child to school many cannot afford this so ~42% of children in PAP have never been to primary school so will be disadvantaged at finding a higher paying job less skilled population so businesses less likely to move there compared to C where school is provided for free so almost all children attend Use two case studies to explain how health influences social inequalityCambridge and Jalousie. in H only 60% can access healthcare services likely to be far lower in J while in C NHS healthcare is provided for free. people in J also far more likely to catch a disease as their water has low magnesium concentration due to limestone linked to cardiovascular diseases in the area and PM2.5 levels in Port-au-Prince frequently exceed 15µg/m3, 3x the WHO limit causing asthma and lung cancer etc while in C PM2.5 readings rarely exceed 2µg/m3. Use two case studies to explain how age influences social inequalityCambridge and Jalousie. H has a high proportion of young dependents due to a high birth rate so its dependency ratio is 58% compared to 31% in E putting strain on public services which have to provide more with no extra income and restricting women's opportunities What is the average annual income in Cambridge and Jalousie?US$49,000 US$1,500 Use two case studies to explain how social inequality impacts people's daily livesCambridge and Jalousie. disease due to poor water quality with limestone causing the water to have low Mg levels linked to cardiovascular diseases in the area and poor air quality with PM2.5 exceeding 15 μg/m3, 3x the WHO limit which can give people lung cancer and asthma while in C PM2.5 levels rarely exceed 2μg/m3 also in H only 60% can access healthcare while NHS is free in the UK. education / income in H it costs a family around US$127 per year to send a child to school many cannot afford this so ~42% of children in PAP have never been to primary school, for instance so many young people will lack qualifications and so will struggle to find high paying work and businesses will not move to the area compared to in E where school is free Use a case study to explain the reasons for coastal managementOverstrand. human popular tourist destination with beach, hotels and guest houses with 6,000 jobs in tourism and a water treatment plant which would cost £1.6 million to replace physical cliffs prone to mass movement eg rotational slumping because top layer made up of unconsolidated material which absorbs rain, increasing the weight of the cliff water can permeate through sandstones before meeting clay which is impermeable so water lubricates the bedding plane, creating an unstable situation causing mudflows and landslides for marine erosion to remove debris at the base of the cliff. List the coastal management techniques at Overstrandgroynes sea wall cliff drainage gabions revetments Use a case study to explain the intentional impacts of coastal management on processes and flows of material and energyOverstrand. groynes disrupt longshore drift and so disrupt this flow of material reducing marine erosion as wave energy is absorbed by the sediment. wave energy reflected by curved sea walls. revetments absorb wave energy and reduce sediment transfer from cliffs to beach. cliff drainage reduces mass movement eg rotational slumping by reducing the weight of the cliff, particularly after heavy rain again reducing beach's sediment store Use a case study to explain the intentional impacts of coastal management on landformsOverstrand. groynes build up beach particularly noticeable on the updrift side of the groyne. revetments reflect wave energy while allowing sediment to pass through so beach builds up behind revetments. cliff more stable and vertical due to drainage pipes which reduce mass movement eg rotational slumping. Use a case study to explain the reasons for economic development on the coastNew Zealand nearshore dredging along the Mangawhai-Pakiri coastline of NZ for over 70 years uses of sand include construction and manufacturing concrete and glass in this location there is a high-quality source of sand which is suitable for construction it is just 50km north of Auckland (1/3 of NZ's population) so very convenient Nile delta Aswan High Dam built in 1964 Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam built from 2011-2020 plans for more projects in future. to generate hydroelectric power to extract water for irrigation to reduce flooding. Use a case study to explain the unintentional impacts of economic development on the coastNile delta the Aswan High Dam was constructed in 1964 before the dam was constructed, the Nile's annual flood deposited 120 million tonnes of silty mud today the sediment yield is negligible, meaning rates of erosion are now higher than of deposition. currently there are concerns over the Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam (built from 2011-2020) where Nile water has been diverted to fill the reservoir behind the dam further reducing the volume of water and sediment reaching the delta more dams are proposed so this challenge is likely to worsen over time. New Zealand nearshore dredging along the Mangawhai-Pakiri coastline of NZ for over 70 years from 1994 to 2004 the rate of extraction was 165,000 m3 per year this output of sediment is naturally replaced very slowly with extraction rates at Pakiri Beach exceeding inputs by a factor of 5 therefore the sand supply of dunes, beaches and the sea bed is depleted and the coast retreats Explain the role of different players in a named rebranding schemeCB1 Brookgate is the property developer they bought 26 parcels of land around the railway station before selling these to residential developers this was hugely important in allowing people to move in and adding life to the community. Cambridge City Council forced Brookgate to allocate 121 flats in one of their final buildings to be sold at affordable rates. other players involved include Anglia Ruskin University who built 3 accommodation blocks and Jesus College who owned most of Station Road and worked with Brookgate on the development. Liverpool primarily market-led Paradise Project was led by Debenhams and John Lewis mostly retail but also leisure, office blocks and a cinema >40% of the businesses at L1 are new to Liverpool the ECOC was decided by an international panel of cultural experts the BBC (state owned public broadcasting company) chose for Eurovision Use a case study to explain some problems with rebranding schemesCB1 redevelopment in Cambridge. dubbed a 'generic clone town' which did not grow organically so feels fake eg lack of independent businesses, instead most are chain stores eg Greggs. some concerns over safety as police called a disproportionate number of times to deal with pop up brothels and sex trafficking and some green space was initially fenced off due to conflict between families and students and concerns for cyclist safety as taxi rank takes up significant space. no promised health clinic or heritage centre. Use a case study to explain how structural economic change has socio-economic impactsDetroit. growth in car manufacturing in the 1950s meant middle class (predominantly white) people could afford a car far more easily allowing them to move to newly formed suburbs (e.g. Dearborn) leaving behind the working class (predominantly black) population thus structural economic changed allowed a physical separation of rich and poor 'white flight' so the tax base of the city dramatically reduced hindering social mobility for those left behind in the city. further problems for tax base and Detroit's economy generally as in the 1970s there was an oil crisis due to a trade embargo so cost of oil rose by 300% so significant decline in car purchases so loss of jobs so derelictione etc. Use a case study to explain how structural economic change has demographic impactsDetroit. growth in car manufacturing in the 1950s meant middle class (predominantly white) people could afford a car far more easily allowing them to move to newly formed suburbs (e.g. Dearborn) leaving behind the working class (predominantly black) population thus structural economic changed allowed a physical separation of white and black 'white flight e.g. white population 85% 1950 to 20% 1990. blacker poorer inner city population suffered as a result of Detroit's declining tax base widening racial inequality meant it was disproportionately black people who were hopeless / desperate / disillusioned with society so black people generally committed more crimes and the policing was likely racist and harsher towards black people causing racial tensions in the 1960s and a riot in 1967 all of this exacerbated white flight and the overall population falling - a vicious cycle. Use a case study to explain how structural economic change has environmental impactsDetroit. growth in car manufacturing in the 1950s meant the freeway network in Michigan rapidly expanded e.g. the opening of the M-8 itself a significant negative environmental impact with increasing air pollution and the destruction of green space, so reducing biodiversity. suburbs e.g. Dearborn were designed around the car low density housing so much space used increased car dependence for the many who moved there. meanwhile, white flight was causing population decline in the city so many derelict buildings. racial tensions led to the 1967 riot where 1400 buildings were burned exacerbating existing problems. When is Spearman's rank used?to determine if the correlation between two variables is statistically significant What statistical test would we use to determine if the correlation between two variables is statistically significant?Spearman's rank How do you calculate Spearman's rank?"give all data points a rank (1-n) based on their x value give all data points a rank (1-n) based on their y value for each point, calculate the difference between their ranks square that difference find the sum of all the squares of the differences <img src=""paste-231d7d56c46e192297fbacc2b0cc902a5e53cf70.jpg""> |p| must be > the critical value to accept the alternative hypothesis" When is Chi squared used?to determine if the difference between the observed and expected frequencies is statistically significant What statistical test would we use to determine if the difference between the observed and expected frequencies is statistically significant?Chi squared How do you calculate Chi squared?need observed and expected (even) frequencies find the difference (O-E) square it (O-E)2 divide it by the expected (O-E)2E-1 sum degrees of freedom = n-1 X2 must be > the critical value to accept alternative hypothesis When is Student's t test used?to determine if the difference between the means of two sets of data is statistically significant (only for normal distribution) What statistical test would we use to determine if the difference between the means of two sets of data is statistically significant?Student's t test How do you calculate Student's t test?"find the mean for both sets of data find Σx2 and Σy2 <img src=""paste-12622a0e8f3c15e935fea8c888aa886962301d4b.jpg""> degrees of freedom = nx + ny - 2 t must be > critical value to accept alternative hypothesis" Use a case study to explain how structural economic change has cultural impactsDetroit. growth of car manufacturing in the 1950s so lower prices so increased car ownership (particularly among middle class) promoting the idea of the 'American Dream' that anyone can achieve success if they work hard one step to achieving this success was moving out to the newly formed suburbs (Dearborn). the predominantly black working class population left behind suffered due to Detroit's declining tax base its growing inability to provide services and employment was widening social inequality causing a growing sense of injustice culminating in social unrest in the 1967 riot where 1400 buildings were burnt. Use a case study to explain how structural economic change impacts people and placeDetroit. growth in car manufacturing in the 1950s made cars more affordable for middle class population suburbs which allowed them to move to newly formed suburbs eg Dearborn. these were low density so required much space so habitat destruction and reduction in biodiversity etc and increased car dependence increased air pollution. may have improved morale among the middle class as cars were symbols promoting the American Dream which moving out to these suburbs was important to achieve. in the city there was a physical separation of wealthier (whiter) people and more deprived (blacker) people white flight so more buildings went derelict causing a decline in Detroit's tax base so Detroit less able to provide services and employment for those left behind widening social inequality causing hopelessness / desperation in the 1960s culminating in the 1967 riot where 1400 buildings were destroyed. Use a case study to explain the role of different players in structural economic changeDetroit. automotive industry Ford invented the affordable car and the assembly line not only causing car manufacturing to grow, but to exist in the first place the automative lobby promoted the building of roads e.g. the M-8 increasing the need for car ownership various automotive companies built their own suburbs e.g. Dearborn built by Ford responsible for decimating Detroit's tax base as middle class people moved out individuals  it was middle class (predominantly white) people who decided to move to the suburbs - 'white flight' this was because those suburbs - along with cars generally - symbolised the American Dream also likely due to racism, as some white people did not want to live alongside black people. the 1967 riot was caused by a large number of individuals though of course they did not operate in a vacuum as Detroit's tax base diminished the working class was increasingly hopeless / desperate. Explain how cyclical economic change impacts social opportunities and inequalitybooms and recessions. recessions can cause the govt to reduce spending seen particularly as the UK has implemented austerity from 2010 onwards eg cuts and freezes to benefits redundancies and pay freezes in the public sector between 2010 and 2015, the UK lost 400,000 public sector jobs a greater proportion of people in the north of England were on benefits and a greater proportion had a public sector job so in this way the 2008 financial crisis entrenched regional inequality. general socio-economic impacts of booms / recessions Define cyclic economic changethe fluctuation of the economy between periods of expansion and contraction Define structural economic changea shift in how an economy functions Define interceptionrainfall being temporarily stored on leaves, stems and branches Define ablationthe loss of snow and ice through melting, evaporation and sublimation Define overland flowthe movement of water across the ground either because the soil is saturated or the intensity of the rainfall exceeds the soil's infiltration capacity Define saturated overland flowthe movement of water across the ground because the soil is saturated Define infiltrationthe vertical movement of rainwater through the soil Define percolationthe vertical movement of water through permeable rock Define throughflowthe horizontal movement of water through the soil Define groundwater flowthe horizontal movement of water within aquifers Name the types of overland flowsaturated overland flow infiltration-excess overland flow Name uses of water for humanssanitation food production / irrigation energy production trade thermoregulation / sweating leisure blood is 51% water Name uses of water for flora and faunaas a habitat. photosynthesis. 60-95% of organisms' bodies are made up of water needed for processes like hydrolysis (process in digestion). to distribute nutrients to all the cells in the organism eg 51% of human blood is water and water used to transport food molecules in phloem in plants (translocation). regulates temperatures on Earth through the influence of oceans, clouds and water vapour which increase global temperatures by 15°C allowing for life on Earth. Explain the importance of water in supporting life on Earthwater is needed for photosynthesis allowing producers to make glucose for respiration to release energy and providing food for other organisms further up in the food chain. many organisms, including humans, use water for thermoregulation (sweating) allowing chemical reactions (e.g. digestion) to occur at the optimum rate. the oceans, clouds and water vapour increase global temperatures by 15°C allowing for life on Earth. flora and fauna use water to distribute nutrients to their cells 51% of human blood is water and plants use water to transport food molecules from leaves via phloem (translocation). Explain the opportunities created by international migrationdevelopment, stability, growth. often emigrants send remittances back to family members e.g. US$702 billion total remittances in 2020 e.g. Bangladesh received more money via remittances than via international aid so people can better afford necessities, reducing poverty and increasing disposable income so people spend more causing a positive multiplier effect govt can tax more and provide better services and infrastructure. social remittances is the idea that returning migrants often have new values / ideas promoting peace and democracy. young migrants can be beneficial for developed countries with ageing populations as they increase the economically active population e.g. in England, social care is short of 165,000 workers - this problem is only likely to worsen without increasing immigration. immigration can increase the diversity of goods / services being sold in a destination country e.g. Chinese migration to Liverpool in the late 19th century so Liverpool has oldest Chinatown in Europe. Explain how migration poses challengesinequalities, conflicts and injustices. those who emigrate are generally young and educated a brain drain hindering economic development in source countries - lack of workers and reducing birth rates. remittances can increase economic inequality. often asylum seekers are treated very poorly by destination countries made to wait for months in very poor conditions e.g. reports of racial abuse, bad smells and expired food at Yarl's Wood detention centre in the UK. immigration policies often introduce inequalities e.g. the UK's points-based system gives priority to migrants with more money or skills so those who most need to migrate are excluded. Name the two mechanisms of ocean carbon sequestrationbiological pump (autotrophs & other marine organisms) physical pump (downwelling by currents) What is eccentricity?changes in the shape of Earth's orbit from circular to elliptical over an 100,000 year cycle Explain obliquityEarth is tilted on its axis, which is why we have seasons this tilt changes over time from 21.5 to 24.5 degrees over 41,000 years currently we are at 23.4 degrees Explain how the growth of urban areas can affect the water cycledeforestation dramatically reduces evapotranspiration reducing the local atmospheric water store so much less precipitation, so the area is more prone to drought so the area becomes more difficult to reforest in future. much less interception and interception loss so superficially it might appear that infiltration increases as rain ralls directly to the ground though it would actually decrease as the soil's infiltration capacity decreases with less organic matter so precipitation quickly becomes overland flow and flows into rivers increasing flood risk. urbanisation exacerbates this with its impermeable surfaces and drainage systems such as gutters and sewage pipes causing rainfall to quickly join rivers and streams. however humans can also take action to reduce flood risk with dredging and embankments etc. Explain how land use changes can affect the water cyclegrowth of urban areas deforestation dramatically reduces evapotranspiration, reducing the local atmospheric water store so much less precipitation, so the area is more prone to drought so the area becomes more difficult to reforest in future. much less interception and interception loss so superficially it might appear that infiltration increases as water falls directly to the ground though it would actually decrease as the soil's infiltration capacity decreases with less organic matter so precipitation quickly becomes overland flow and flows into rivers, increasing flood risk. urbanisation exacerbates this with its impermeable surfaces and drainage systems such as gutters and sewage pipes causing rainfall to quickly join rivers and streams. however humans can also take action to reduce flood risk with dredging and embankments etc. agriculture large quantities of water are extracted from rivers and aquifers, precipitation is trapped in reservoirs reducing channel flow and groundwater flow more water stored in the biosphere - in plants directly and further up the food chain + may be exported. evapotranspiration increases if area was previously arid or decreases if area was previously forested. farmed crops intercept less than natural vegetation cover and soil compaction from machinery reduces infiltration capacity so increases infiltration-excess overland flow. drainage ditches in and around fields prevents crops from becoming waterlogged so water travels in small streams more quickly to rivers. Explain how agriculture can affect the water cyclelarge quantities of water are extracted from rivers and aquifers and precipitation is trapped in reservoirs reducing channel flow and groundwater flow more water stored in the biosphere - in plants directly and further up the food chain + may be exported. evapotranspiration increases if area was previously arid or decreases if area was previously forested. farmed crops intercept less than natural vegetation cover and soil compaction from machinery reduces infiltration capacity both increase infiltration-excess overland flow. drainage ditches in and around fields prevents crops from becoming waterlogged so water travels in small streams more quickly to rivers. Explain how forestry can affect the water cycleincreases interception so takes longer for water to reach the soil by throughfall, leaf drip or stemflow also increases interception loss where water evaporates before reaching soil. more water stored in the biosphere due to water uptake into plant roots and animals consuming those plants. adds organic matter to the soil, making it more fertile and permeable so increased infiltration capacity and less infiltration-excess overland flow increasing lag time and reducing flood risk. Explain how a named EDC is interdependent with other countries by migrationfrom the Philippines China is a popular destination for Filipinos which meets China's demand for English-speaking nannies and teachers e.g. in 2018 the Philippines and China signed an agreement which allows 300,000 Filipinos to travel for China for work including 100,000 English teachers. in return the Philippines depends on China for financial remittances e.g. in 2021 US$22 billion were sent from China to the Philippines in remittances which is around 6% of its GDP. One Belt One Road initiative global infrastructure development strategy linking China to >150 other countries e.g. the New Eurasian Land Bridge which runs from western China to western Russia through Kazakhstan the initiative makes it easier to migrate to China as well as improving its international image. to Australia the poor air quality of many Chinese cities is a push factor, driving many to Australia these migrants are generally more middle class (as they can afford to emigrate) so are more educated and have higher levels of English-speaking ability providing effective workers for Australia e.g. 1.2 million. Explain the impact of migration on a named EDC's economic developmentimmigration there are around 500,000 foreign students in China contributing to university budgets once they graduate they will become highly skilled workers contributing to the workforce. there are up to 200,000 traders from Africa in Guangzhou setting up trade routes back to African countries e.g. Nigeria. emigration 0.1% of China's GDP comes from remittances. as Chinese construction workers are sent to Angola to work on infrastructure and in return China receives oil, which is very valuable. Explain the impact of migration on a named EDC's political stabilityemigration Chinese construction workers are sent to Angola to work on infrastructure projects which helps foster good political relations between governments. emigrants who leave for other reasons e.g. the 1.2 million Chinese in Australia can help spread Chinese culture (e.g. food) and help individuals in other countries be less hostile. immigration the 500,000 foreign students in China are exposed to its culture and language improving its image as a safe and pleasant place to be increasing China's soft power. movement of females into China can help ease social tension as there is currently a gender imbalance male to female ratio of 110:100. Explain the impact of migration on a named EDC's social equalityemigration  those who can afford to leave e.g. the 1.2 million Chinese in Australia can escape high levels of air pollution and likely find high paying jobs in ACs widening social inequality. immigration  frequent violations of human rights due to human trafficking particularly as women are brought in to meet demand for foreign brides from Russia, North Korea, Vietnam etc due to male to female ratio of around 110:100. Explain the impact of immigration on a named EDCChina economic development there are around 500,000 foreign students in China contributing to university budgets once they graduate they will become highly skilled workers, contributing to the workforce. there are up to 200,000 traders from Africa in Guangzhou setting up trade routes back to African countries e.g. Nigeria. political stability the 500,000 foreign students in China are exposed to its culture and language improving its image as a safe and pleasant place to be, increasing its soft power movement of females into China can help ease social tension as there is currently a gender imbalance, with a male:female ratio of 110:100. social equality frequent violations of human rights due to human trafficking particularly as women are brought in to meet demand for foreign brides from Russia, North Korea, Vietnam etc due to male to female ratio of around 110:100. Explain the impact of emigration on a named EDCChina. economic development 0.1% of China's GDP comes from remittances. as Chinese construction workers are sent to Angola to work on infrastructure and in return China receives oil, which is very valuable. political stability  Chinese construction workers are sent to Angola to work on infrastructure projects which helps foster good political relations between governments. emigrants who leave for other reasons e.g. the 1.2 million Chinese in Australia can help spread Chinese culture (e.g. food) and help individuals in other countries be less hostile, increasing China's soft power. social equality  those who can afford to leave e.g. the 1.2 million Chinese in Australia can escape high levels of air pollution and likely find high paying jobs in ACs widening social inequality. Explain how patterns of immigration to and emigration from a named EDC have changed"China. pre-1949 emigration increased from the 1850s to millions of people in the 1930s due to discoveries of gold in the US, Canada and Australia in the 19th century. Singapore and the Malay states emerged as the principal destinations for Chinese emigrants from the 1870s due to the ""great white walls"" of exclusionary immigration policies erected by the US, Canada, Aus & NZ and colonial governments in SE Asia were seeking labour for economic development. 1949 the Communist Party came to power strict controls on immigration and emigration were imposed to isolate from the capitalist world emigration that did occur was primary that of students to the Soviet Union and of specialist workers to certain developing countries e.g. Tanzania. when the People's Republic was formed, >1 million fled to Taiwan mainly supporters of the defeated Kuomintang Party. 1979 the decision was taken to open up and loosen immigration and emigration policies there were also changes in immigration policies of destination countries to be less discriminatory so in 2009 China was the principal source of foreign-born students to the US and UK and in 2015 ~60,000 students from China took their undergraduate degrees in the UK. 2012 the penalty for all immigration offenses was increased e.g. fine for overstaying a visa doubled from US$800 to $1600 though estimates show no significant decline in immigration." Explain how patterns of immigration to a named EDC have changed over timeChina. 1949 the Communist Party came to power strict controls on immigration and emigration were imposed to isolate from the capitalist world 1979 the decision was taken to open up and loosen immigration policies so immigration increased from around 300,000 immigrants in China in 1980 to around 1 million today despite unreliable data. 2012 the penalty for all immigration offenses was increased e.g. fine for overstaying a visa doubled from US$800 to $1600 though estimates show no significant decline in immigration. this is due to recent protests and riots by African immigrants in China Explain how patterns of emigration from a named EDC have changed over time"China. pre-1949 emigration increased from the 1850s to millions of people in the 1930s due to discoveries of gold in the US, Canada and Australia in the 19th century. Singapore and the Malay states emerged as the principal destinations for Chinese emigrants from the 1870s due to the ""great white walls"" of exclusionary immigration policies erected by the US, Canada, Aus & NZ and colonial governments in SE Asia were seeking labour for economic development. 1949 the Communist Party came to power strict controls on emigration were imposed to isolate from the capitalist world emigration that did occur was primary that of students to the Soviet Union and of specialist workers to certain developing countries e.g. Tanzania. when the People's Republic was formed, >1 million fled to Taiwan mainly supporters of the defeated Kuomintang Party. 1979 the decision was taken to open up and loosen emigration policies there were also changes in immigration policies of destination countries to be less discriminatory so in 2009 China was the principal source of foreign-born students to the US and UK." Use a case study of an AC to explain how migration provides opportunitiesageing the US has an ageing population as the number of people 65 and older is projected to increase 47% from 2022-2050 and their proportion of the population is projected to rise from 17% to 23% an influx of disproportionately young migrants (eager to work) can help offset this increasing the workforce of the social care sector and contributing to the tax base. low-paid jobs immigrants often take low-paid unattractive jobs which need to be done such as dairy farms relying on workers from Mexico and Guatemala as the work is physically demanding if the number of foreign-born workers dropped by 50%, 3500 dairy farms would close and milk prices would rise ~30%. creating jobs can also create jobs by starting businesses as in 2019 the US had 3 million immigrant entrepreneurs and in 2017 there were 8 million people employed at immigrant-owned businesses and in 2017 immigrant-owned businesses sold $1.3 trillion in goods and services. Use a case study of an AC to explain how migration poses challengesUSA. border management to prevent irregular immigration, funding for the US Border Patrol has increased more than 18 times since 1990 from $250 million to just under $5 billion including a series of walls along the border. these walls have forced undocumented migrants through the desert (the idea was that the desert would deter people, but it has not) in very hot and dry conditions where they often come unprepared so border issues are a challenge for the US as well as immigrants. pressure on services and resources e.g. California is suffering increasingly frequent droughts with the 2012-2015 period the driest in 1200 years so the provision of clean water is a significant challenge. immigration exacerbates this challenge as there are 10 million immigrants in California out of 40 million. Explain the migration policies of a named ACUSA. the Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965 (and amendments) allows an annual worldwide limit of 675,000 permanent immigrants. there are also 480,000 visaas available per year for family members to join US citizens and 140,000 visas available for highly skilled workers. immigration policy can fluctuate over the years due to political factors e.g. Trump imposing harsher restrictions on immigration such as his Muslim travel ban prohibiting travel and refugee resettlement from predominately Muslim countries. Explain how a named AC is interdependent with other countries via migrationUSA. dairy farms relying on workers from Mexico and Guatemala as the work is physically demanding if the number of foreign-born workers dropped by 50%, 3500 dairy farms would close and milk prices would rise ~30%. opportunities for remittances as over US$50 billion was sent to Mexico in 2022 which is 4% of its GDP. Use a case study of an LIDC to explain how migration provides opportunitiesNigeria. remittances are 4% of its GDP so help many afford essentials and thus escape poverty. large Nigerian diaspora in the UK so the UK will add Nigeria's Naira to its list of accepted trade currencies so Nigerian individuals and businesses can buy goods from the UK in Naira which is useful as Nigerian Naira is not freely convertible otherwise, to convert to pounds, the exchange rate is very bad therefore this policy will help Nigeria import more British goods. Use a case study of an LIDC to explain how migration poses challengesNigeria. experiencing a brain drain e.g. it costs an African country between $20,000 and $50,000 USD to train a single medical doctor Nigeria has lost more than $2 billion since 2010 to training doctors who later emigrate Nigeria could really benefit as it is the country with the most malaria-related deaths. Name reasons why global migration is increasingly compllexeconomic globalisation high concentration of young workers and female migrants S-S > S-N conflict and persecution changes in migration policies climate refugees Explain why there is an increasing number of female migrantschanges in government policy to be less discriminatory and encourage women to immigrate or emigrate for work as govts see the benefit of increasing workforce (for immigration) or receiving remittances (emigration) e.g. in 2009 Myanmar allowed women to register to work abroad. cultural changes particularly in developed countries (ACs) as it is increasingly socially acceptable for women to have careers and there is less of an expectation to stay at home and care for children so someone from a LIDC or an EDC may migrate to an AC for this freedom. Name feedback loops in the carbon cyclepositive climate change causes droughts / wildfires reducing plant growth melting of permafrost releases carbon climate change increases decomposition negative  climate change produces favourable conditions for vegetation to grow CO2 fertilisation effect Name positive feedback loops in the carbon cycleclimate change causes droughts / wildfires reducing plant growth melting of permafrost releases carbon climate change increases decomposition Explain positive feedback loops in the carbon cycleincreased atmospheric CO2 causes climate change consequently global temperatures have been increasing decomposition increasing the rate of decomposition of organic matter reducing soil carbon storage and releasing more CO2 into the atmosphere permafrost causing permafrost to melt exposing more soil to the atmosphere allowing for higher rates of decompostion droughts / wildfires increasing the frequency and severity and droughts and wildfires making conditions more hostile for vegetation so there is less biomass to store carbon in the biosphere the carbon that would be absorbed by photosynthesis remains in the atmosphere instead. Explain negative feedback loops in the carbon cycleCO2 fertilisation effect more carbon dioxide in the atmosphere increasing photosynthesis and NPP so more plant growth so more carbon stored in biosphere and less in atmosphere provided no other limits on plant growth e.g. ions and water. climate change --> better conditions for plants temperature and precipitation increases in the long term can allow more plant growth storing more carbon in the biosphere and less in atmosphere however climate change may also cause droughts / wildfires. Name feedback loops in the water cyclepositive loss of ice reduces albedo effect water vapour enhances greenhouse effect, increasing evaporation negative water vapour increases cloud cover, reflecting solar radiation water vapour saturates air so clouds form Explain how temperature affects the carbon cycle in the tropical rainforesttemperatures generally are between 25-30 degrees providing favourable conditions for vegetation to grow with 400 billion trees in the Amazon storing 60 billion tonnes of carbon the mechanism for the transfer of carbon from atmosphere to biosphere is photosynthesis and tropical rainforests have a high NPP due to abundant vegetation which is 2000g/m2/yr for the Amazon. high temperatures cause rapid decomposition rates as bacteria and fungi can rapidly carry out chemical reactions so low soil carbon storage as carbon is transferred back to the atmosphere. Explain the impact of oil and gas industry on the water cycle in the Arctic tundrain the Trans Alaska pipeline, oil travels at 60 degrees which melts permafrost underneath increasing throughflow, percolation and groundwater flow and eventually river discharge while decreasing the amount of water stored in soils. oil spills pollute ocean, river and groundwater stores e.g. in 2006 the Prudhoe Bay oil field suffered an oil spill when a corroded pipeline ruptured and over 200,000 gallons of oil leaked cleanup operations are difficult due to low temperatures and inaccessibility. oil and gas industry has created jobs, allowing for population growth e.g. the population of Prudhoe Bay increased from 25 to 3,000 from 2000 to 2010 leading to urbanisation so more overland flow and less infiltration, groundwater flow etc so shorter lag time and greater flood risk etc. Use a case study to explain how physical factors influence landforms in a low energy environmentNile delta landforms are fluvial for inland region (the delta plain) and marine for coastal region climate the mean annual rainfall in the catchment area of the River Nile is about 600mm the level of precipitation determines the river discharge of the Nile, which then determines volume of sediment carried having a high enough river discharge is critical as fluvial deposition is the main sediment input, forming the delta. river discharge varies over the year as much of the river discharge comes from Ethiopia's summer monsoon rains meaning sometimes there is flooding, forming levees on the banks and crevasse splays on the floodplain if levees are breached. winds northwesterly winds prevail over the sea for most of the year (55-60% of the time) causing sediment to move in an eastward direction (also caused by longshore currents) winds also directly shape the aeolian dunes in the region e.g. those at Gamasa geology the geology of the catchment area is varied the Nile's sediment load is 30% clay, 40% silt and 30% fine sand directly influencing the nature of the delta itself as well as the levees and crevasse splays Use a case study to explain how climate influences landforms in a low energy environmentNile delta. the mean annual rainfall in the catchment area of the River Nile is about 600mm the level of precipitation determines the river discharge of the Nile, which then determines volume of sediment carried having a high enough river discharge is critical as fluvial deposition is the main sediment input, forming the delta. much of the rainfall in the catchment area comes from Ethiopia's summer monsoon rains and so the Nile's discharge varies over the year meaning in summer there is flooding, forming levees on the banks and crevasse splays on the floodplain if levees are breached Use a case study to explain how wind influences landforms in a low energy environmentNile delta. northwesterly winds prevail over the sea for most of the year (55-60% of the time) causing sediment to move in an eastward direction (also caused by longshore currents) winds also directly shape the aeolian dunes in the region e.g. those at Gamasa Use a case study to explain how geology influences landforms in a low energy environmentNile delta. the geology of the catchment area is varied the Nile's sediment load is 30% clay, 40% silt and 30% fine sand directly influencing the nature of the delta itself as well as the levees and crevasse splays Use a case study to explain how landforms are interrelated in a low energy environmentNile delta. levees breached if river discharge is very high, water may breach the levees which causes it to spill out onto the surrounding land and velocity decreases due to friction this causes deposition, forming crevasse splays in areas between distributaries finer particles are distributed further, creating the rich alluvial floodplain. the breaching of levees can also cause a new distributary to form as the water spills over the banks and starts eroding a new path. longshore drift northwesterly winds (55-60% of the time) cause sediment to move eastwards this sediment is then used to form sandy beaches, spits, lagoons, salt marshes and dunes e.g. those at Gamasa these landforms are interrelated because they share the same source of sediment Use a case study to explain how landforms are interrelated in a low energy environment (levees breached)Nile delta. if river discharge is very high, water may breach the levees which causes it to spill out onto the surrounding land and velocity decreases due to friction this causes deposition, forming crevasse splays in areas between distributaries finer particles are distributed further, creating the rich alluvial floodplain. the breaching of levees can also cause a new distributary to form as the water spills over the banks and starts eroding a new path. Use a case study to explain how landforms are interrelated in a low energy environment (LSD)Nile delta. northwesterly winds cause sediment to move eastwards this sediment is then used to form sandy beaches, spits, lagoons, salt marshes and dunes e.g. those at Gamasa these landforms are interrelated because they share the same source of sediment Use a case study to explain how and why a low energy environment changesNile delta. seasonal Nile river discharge is highest in the summer months because a significant amount of the Nile's discharge comes from Ethiopia's summer monsoon rains and so this is when deposition rates are highest and when the river Nile tends to flood and breach its levees so this is when the floodplain (between distributaries) is most fertile. dams the Aswan High Dam was constructed in 1964 before the dam was constructed, the Nile's annual flood deposited 120 million tonnes of silty mud today the sediment yield is negligible, meaning rates of erosion are now higher than of deposition. currently there are concerns over the Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam (built from 2011-2020) where Nile water has been diverted to fill the reservoir behind the dam further reducing the volume of water and sediment reaching the delta more dams are proposed so this challenge is likely to worsen over time. sea level rise sea level in the Mediterranean has been rising by 3.2 mm/year since 2012 so climate change is contributing to higher erosion rates along with water extraction for reservoirs, this is causing the delta to recede at 90-150m per year in some places. Use a case study to explain long-term change in a low energy environment (dams)Nile delta. the Aswan High Dam was constructed in 1964 before the dam was constructed, the Nile's annual flood deposited 120 million tonnes of silty mud today the sediment yield is negligible, meaning rates of erosion are now higher than of deposition. currently there are concerns over the Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam (built from 2011-2020) where Nile water has been diverted to fill the reservoir behind the dam further reducing the volume of water and sediment reaching the delta more dams are proposed so this challenge is likely to worsen over time. Use a case study to explain short-term change in a low energy environmentNile delta. Nile river discharge is highest in the summer months because a significant amount of the Nile's discharge comes from Ethiopia's summer monsoon rains and so this is when deposition rates are highest and when the river Nile tends to flood and breach its levees so this is when the floodplain (between distributaries) is most fertile. Use a case study to explain long-term change in a low energy environment (sea level rise)Nile delta. sea level in the Mediterranean has been rising by 3.2 mm/year since 2012 so climate change is contributing to higher erosion rates along with water extraction for reservoirs, this is causing the delta to recede at 90-150m per year in some places. Use a case study to explain long-term change in a low energy environmentNile delta. dams the Aswan High Dam was constructed in 1964 before the dam was constructed, the Nile's annual flood deposited 120 million tonnes of silty mud today the sediment yield is negligible, meaning rates of erosion are now higher than of deposition. currently there are concerns over the Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam (built from 2011-2020) where Nile water has been diverted to fill the reservoir behind the dam further reducing the volume of water and sediment reaching the delta more dams are proposed so this challenge is likely to worsen over time. sea level rise sea level in the Mediterranean has been rising by 3.2 mm/year since 2012 so climate change is contributing to higher erosion rates along with water extraction for reservoirs, this is causing the delta to recede at 90-150m in some places. Use a case study to explain the unintentional impacts of economic development on the coast (NZ)nearshore dredging along the Mangawhai-Pakiri coastline of NZ for over 70 years from 1994 to 2004 the rate of extraction was 165,000 m3 per year this output of sediment is naturally replaced very slowly with extraction rates at Pakiri Beach exceeding inputs by a factor of 5 therefore the sand supply of dunes, beaches and the sea bed is depleted and the coast retreats Explain eustatic sea level riseeustatic sea level rise is an absolute rise in sea level caused by continental ice caps / sheets melting so more water in oceans and thermal expansion of water, so same amount of water takes up more volume. example the most recent period of eustatic sea level rise is the Flandrian Transgression from 18,000 to 6,000 years ago as sea levels increased by 120m due to a warming climate after the last glacial period. Explain isostatic subsidenceisostatic subsidence is a relative rise in sea level the main cause of which is ice sheets compressing the lithosphere in glacial periods. Explain eustatic sea level falleustatic sea level fall is an absolute fall in sea level, occurring in cooling climates caused by continental ice caps / sheets forming so less water in oceans and thermal contraction of water, so same amount of water takes up less volume. example eg 125,000 years ago sea level was 8m higher than today during the Sangamonian Interglacial global temperatures are now over 2 degs lower so sea level is lower as well. Explain isostatic reboundisostatic rebound is a relative fall in sea level the main cause of which is ice sheets melting, allowing the lithosphere to uplift. Explain the formation of abandoned cliffsabandoned cliffs are cliffs left a few metres inland above the HWM sea level abandoned cliffs are emergent landforms, formed by marine regressions there is eustatic sea level decrease in cooling climates due to continental ice caps / sheets forming and thermal contraction of water sea level can also fall due to isostatic rebound, which may be caused by deglaciation. series sometimes there is a series of terraces and abandoned cliffs as new beaches / cliffs etc form before sea level falls again eg in western Scotland platforms are found at 8, 15, and 30m above sea level. Explain the formation of marine terraces / raised beachesbeaches / shore platforms left a few metres inland above the HWM sea level marine regressions cause emergent landforms to form there is eustatic sea level decrease in cooling climates due to continental ice caps / sheets forming and thermal contraction of water sea level can also fall due to isostatic rebound, which may be caused by deglaciation. series sometimes there is a series of terraces and abandoned cliffs as new beaches / cliffs etc form before sea level falls again eg in western Scotland platforms are found at 8, 15, and 30m above sea level. Explain the influence of geomorphic processes on abandoned cliffsformation marine processes will have shaped the cliff before the sea level fall e.g. erosion (pounding/HA/abrasion) forming wave-cut notches, caves, arches, stacks the cliff profile will have been influenced by the relative rates of erosion, weathering, mass movement and deposition current influence sub-aerial processes continue to influence the cliff profile ie weathering and mass movement likely to be biological weathering as well as freeze-thaw, carbonation, oxidation, landslides all of these cause debris to accumulate at the base of the cliff, so cliff becomes less vertical with no wave action to remove the debris. Explain the influence of geomorphic processes on raised beaches / marine terracesformation marine processes will have shaped the shore platform before the sea level fall shore platforms are erosional landforms left behind as the cliff retreats often they are dissected by abrasion as rocks are dragged across max width 500m as friction causes water to lose energy current now only influenced by sub-aerial processes, mainly weathering weathering more significant due to warmer and wetter conditions particularly biological weathering (limpets and whelks) and carbonation cannot grow any more but could possibly shrink due to mass movement of cliff. future sea level rise means they could become influenced by marine processes again? What is a raised beach?a former shore platform left above the HWM emergent landform What is a marine terrace?more large scale than raised beaches do not necessarily have cliffs above them emergent landforms Give an example of a riarias can be found on the south coasts of Devon and Cornwall e.g. at Kingsbridge and Fowey formed during the Flandrian Transgression Describe the features of riasin the lower course, the entire river and surrounding floodplain may be submerged however in the middle and upper course, the tops of the valley sides remain exposed exposed valley sides are quite gently sloping. in plan view, they tend to be winding, reflecting the original route of the river and valley Explain the influence of geomorphic processes on riasrias are drowned fluvial valleys. before will have originally been influenced by fluvial processes rias retain their original winding route which was caused by fluvial erosion and deposition forming as sea levels rose, deposition increased as rivers had less surplus energy for erosion so rias are typically underlain by alluvial deposits current valley sides influenced by sub-aerial processes Explain the strategies involved in the rebranding of one named place (CB1)Brookgate spent £21m on redeveloping the physical and natural environment eg a 3,000-space multi-storey cycle park was built for the 19,000 people per day who use the railway station promoting cycling over car use to reduce congestion, pollution, accidents. vertical land use zoning with commercial on ground floor and residential above an efficient use of land so more open / green space possible and more walkeable. mixed land use so more walkeability, better social integration and less dormancy. Explain the strategies involved in the rebranding of one named place (Liverpool)Paradise Project regenerated 42 acres of underutilised land in Liverpool's city centre forming Liverpool One, a shopping, residential and leisure complex (has a cinema) making Liverpool one of the UK's top 5 shopping destinations >40% of L1's retailers are new to the area so L1 has stimulated the economy. Liverpool named European Capital of Culture in 2008 and hosted Eurovision in 2023 Eurovision boosted Liverpool's economy by >£50 million and promoted it to an international audience Explain the role of different players in a named rebranding scheme (CB1)Brookgate Brookgate is the property developer they spent £21 million redeveloping the physical and natural environment. they bought 26 parcels of land around the railway station before selling these to residential developers this was hugely important in allowing people to move in and adding life to the community. Cambridge City Council regulated the project forced Brookgate to allocate 121 flats in one of their final buildings to be sold at affordable rates. individuals 600 residents critics complain about lack of independent businesses / no health clinic / pop-up brothels Explain the role of different players in a named rebranding scheme (Liverpool)corporations primarily market-led Paradise Project was led by Debenhams and John Lewis regenerating 42 acres of underutilised land in Liverpool's city centre to build L1 a shopping, residential and leisure complex (has a cinema) >40% of the businesses at L1 are new to Liverpool govt the BBC (state owned public broadcasting company) chose for Eurovision 2023 Eurovision boosted its economy by >£50 million both promoting Liverpool to an international audience individuals total footfall in L1 in 2008 was >13 million >300,000 people visited the city centre in 2023 for Eurovision events Explain the role of companies in rebrandingCB1 Brookgate is the property developer they spent £21 million redeveloping the physical and natural environment. they bought 26 parcels of land around the railway station before selling these to residential developers this was hugely important in allowing people to move in and adding life to the community. Liverpool primarily market-led Paradise Project was led by Debenhams and John Lewis regenerating 42 acres of underutilised land in Liverpool's city centre to build L1 a shopping, residential and leisure complex (has a cinema) >40% of the businesses at L1 are new to Liverpool Explain the role of governments in placemakingCB1 Cambridge City Council regulated the project forced Brookgate to allocate 121 flats in one of their final buildings to be sold at affordable rates. Liverpool the BBC (state owned public broadcasting company) chose for Eurovision 2023 Eurovision boosted its economy by >£50 million both promoting Liverpool to an international audience Explain the role of individuals in placemakingCB1 600 residents critics complain about lack of independent businesses / no health clinic / pop-up brothels Liverpool total footfall in L1 in 2008 was >13 million >300,000 people visited the city centre in 2023 for Eurovision events

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