Place the following terms in size
order,fromlargest to smallest, based on the
structures or concepts they represent.
a.chromosome
b. gene pool
c. gene
d. DNA
e. genome
The following terms can be placed in size order, from largest to smallest, based on the
structures or concepts they represent, as follows: Gene pool, Genome, Chromosome,
DNA, Gene.
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2. A bioethical issue that involves stem cells is their use for research and therapy.
Stem cells are cells that have not differentiated into specific cell types, such as
nerve, muscle, or blood cells. They can be used to treat various diseases and
injuries, such as Parkinson’s disease, spinal cord injury, diabetes, and heart
disease. However, they also pose ethical dilemmas about the origin,
manipulation, and application of these cells. Some of the dilemmas are:
The ethical value of human embryos, which are often the source of stem cells.
Some people claim that human embryos have inherent dignity and rights, and
that using them for research is the same as killing a human being. Others argue
that human embryos are not persons, and that using them
3. DNA is a double-stranded molecule of four nucleotides (A, T, C, G) that stores genetic
information for life. The nucleotide sequence codes for proteins, which are made of amino acids.
Each protein is a gene, a DNA segment that the cell reads in codons (three nucleotides). There
are 20 amino acids and 61 codons, plus three stop codons. To make proteins, the cell copies the
DNA code into mRNA (U replaces T), which goes to the ribosome. The ribosome translates the
mRNA code into amino acids, which form a polypeptide chain and then a protein. The genetic
code is the rules for this translation. It is universal and degenerate, meaning it is shared by
almost all organisms and some codons code for the same amino acid. This allows for some
variation and error tolerance in the genetic code.
4. Autosomes are chromosomes unrelated to sex, while sex chromosomes determine sex. For
example, humans have 22 pairs of autosomes and one pair of sex chromosomes (X and Y).
Genotype is genetic makeup, while phenotype is physical appearance. For example, brown eyes
are a phenotype, while two brown eye alleles are a genotype. DNA and RNA are nucleic acids for
genetic information, but they differ in structure and function. DNA is double-stranded with four
bases: A, T, C, G. RNA is single-stranded with four bases: A, U, C, G. DNA is in the nucleus and
makes proteins. RNA is in the cytoplasm and helps protein synthesis. Recessive and dominant
traits describe how alleles affect phenotype. A recessive trait needs two same recessive alleles to
show. A dominant trait needs one dominant allele to show. For example, blue eyes are recessive,
while brown eyes are dominant. Pedigrees and karyotypes show genetic information differently.
A pedigree is a chart of family traits across generations. It uses symbols for sex, relationship, and
phenotype. A karyotype is a map of chromosomes in a cell. It uses images of chromosomes to
show their number, size, shape, and arrangement. A gene and a genome are different levels of
DNA organization. A gene is a DNA segment that codes for a protein or trait. It is part of a
chromosome. A genome is the whole set of DNA instructions that determine an organism’s
traits. It is made of DNA, genes, and chromosomes. An exome and a genome are different parts
of the DNA sequence. An exome is the part of the genome that has the coding regions of genes.
It is 1-2% of the genome, but has most of the disease-causing mutations. A genome is the
whole DNA sequence that has both coding and non-coding regions. It is 100% of the genome,
but only 20% of it has a known function. A Mendelian and a complex trait are different types of
genetic traits. A Mendelian trait follows Mendelian genetics rules. It is controlled by one or few
genes, has discrete phenotypes, and has a predictable inheritance pattern. For example, blood
type, cystic fibrosis, and sickle cell anemia. A complex trait does not follow Mendelian genetics
rules. It is influenced by many genes, has continuous phenotypes, and has an unpredictable
inheritance pattern. For example, height, weight, and intelligence.
5. An allele is a different version of a gene that is found at the same location on a chromosome.
Alleles can influence how a trait is expressed in an organism. An organism can have two of the
same or different alleles for each gene.
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6. Cells in a person’s body have the same genome, but different types. This is because
they express different genes from the genome, based on their role and environment.
Gene expression makes proteins or RNAs from genes. Proteins and RNAs change the
cell’s shape, structure, and function.
The cells come from one fertilized egg cell, with DNA from both parents. This cell splits
and makes an embryo, with totipotent stem cells. These stem cells can become any cell
type. As the embryo grows, the stem cells specialize and make different tissues, organs,
and systems. Different factors control the stem cell differentiation by turning on or off
some genes, leading to different gene expression patterns.
Some adult stem cells stay in the body and make new cells to replace old or damaged
ones. For example, stem cells in the bone marrow make blood cells. Stem cells in the
skin make keratinocytes. Adult stem cells are also controlled by factors that affect their
gene expression and differentiation.
So, cells have the same genome, but different types because they express different
genes from the genome. Gene expression is affected by factors that decide the cell’s
fate and function.
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7. The trait status and the family relationship of each individual. Pedigrees use symbols
for sex, relationship, and trait. For example, a filled or empty circle or square means the
individual has or does not have the trait.
The allele inheritance: if they are dominant, recessive, autosomal, or sex-linked.
Pedigrees can help find the genotypes of individuals from their phenotypes and
Mendelian genetics rules. For example, a dominant trait needs one parent to have the
trait. A recessive trait does not need any parent to have the trait if they are
heterozygous.
8. A gene pool is all the genes (and alleles) in a breeding population or species. It shows the
genetic diversity and variation of the population or species. A gene pool can change over time
because of mutations, natural selection, gene flow, and genetic drift. A big and diverse gene
pool can make the population or species more fit and adaptable, while a small and narrow gene
pool can make the population or species less fit and survivable.
9. DNA profiling is DNA analysis to find identity or genetic relationship. It is used for forensics,
like crime scene, paternity, or ancestry. Metagenomics is the study of genomes of microbes in an
environment. It is used to explore microbial diversity and function, like in the gut, soil, or water.
Genetic engineering is the change and control of genes with biotechnology. It is used to make
new or better traits, like disease resistance, growth, or products.
10. Metagenomics studies the DNA of microbes in natural environments, like soil, water,
or skin. It uses methods to analyze genomes other than human ones, such as:
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DNA barcoding, which identifies organisms by a short DNA sequence, like the COI gene.
It can find new species, measure biodiversity, and track biological samples .
Shotgun sequencing, which breaks and sequences environmental DNA, then puts and
labels the sequences together. It can show the diversity and function of microbial
genomes, genes, and pathways in an environment .
Functional screening, which expresses and tests environmental DNA in a host organism,
like E. coli. It can find new enzymes or biocatalysts for biotechnology or medicine .
1. Consumer genetics uses genetic testing to get information about health,
disease risk, ancestry, and traits. It has benefits and risks for people and
populations.
Benefits include:
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Increasing knowledge of genetic diseases and preventive health care.
Giving personal information that can help with lifestyle, diet, medication, or family
planning choices.
Improving understanding of heritage and identity, and connecting with relatives or
ethnic groups.
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Supporting scientific research and medical innovation with large and diverse genetic
data.
Risks include:
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Being inaccurate, incomplete, or misleading, as it may not cover all the genes, variants,
or factors that affect health or traits.
Causing psychological distress, anxiety, or confusion, as it may reveal unexpected or
unwanted information about health, family, or ancestry.
Raising ethical, legal, or social issues, such as privacy breaches, discrimination,
stigmatization, or misuse of genetic information by others.
Creating false expectations or misconceptions about the predictive power or clinical
utility of genetic testing.
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2. Some reasons why people accept GM drugs but not GM foods are:
Drugs are more helpful and needed for health than foods, especially for serious
diseases. People may ignore the risks or doubts of GMOs if they think the
benefits are greater.
Drugs are more regulated and safe than foods, as they are tested and approved
more strictly before and after they are sold.
Drugs are more familiar and known than foods from GMOs, as many drugs use
GMOs for a long time, like insulin, vaccines, and hormones. People may also
know more about the science and safety of drugs than foods.
Foods cause more emotional and moral feelings than drugs, as foods are more
related to personal and cultural identity, preferences, and values. People may see
GM foods as unnatural, immoral, or unethical, but accept GM drugs as medical
help or improvement.
3. Some reasons to carry or not carry one’s exome or genome information in one’s smartphone
are:
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Carrying it can make it easy and convenient to access and share it for medical, genetic, or
personal reasons.
Not carrying it can protect it from unauthorized access, misuse, or theft, as it contains sensitive
and personal data that could reveal one’s health, disease risk, ancestry, and traits. I would not
carry my exome or genome information in my smartphone, because I care more about my
privacy and security than my convenience and curiosity. I would store it in a safe and encrypted
device that only I can use and control. I would also ask a geneticist before using or sharing it for
any purpose.
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4. A frivolous use of DNA testing is checking your partner’s underwear for DNA from
someone else. This is useless and costly, as it does not prove anything and may hurt
more than help. A better way to handle infidelity is to talk to your partner and get
professional help if needed.
A serious use of DNA testing is prenatal diagnosis, which can find genetic problems in a
fetus before birth. This can help parents and doctors get ready for the birth and
treatment of a child with a disorder or defect. It can also help parents decide about their
pregnancy and family planning.
5. f I could learn something about my own code base, I would like to know how it was created
and by whom. I would also like to know how it evolves over time and what are the factors that
influence its changes. I think that would help me understand myself better and appreciate the
complexity and diversity of artificial intelligence.