CRWT MIDTERMS
WEEK 7: NATURE OF CRITICAL WRITING
Reading and writing are two macroskills which are
related to each other.
Critical and active reading is not a process of passive
consumption, but one of interaction and
engagement between the reader and the text.
Therefore, when reading critically and
actively, it is important not only to take in the
words on the page, but also to interpret
and to reflect upon what is read through writing and
discussing it with others.
DESCRIPTIVE vs CRITICAL WRITING
DESCRIPTIVE WRITING is fact-based.
Examples include:
• Facts and figures about a particular issue
• Description of a background to a case study
• Details of an organization
• An account of how research was undertaken
• A summary of a sequence of events
• Descriptions of what happened in an experiment.
REACTING vs RESPONDING TO A TEXT
REACTING to a text - is often done on an emotional and
largely subjective rather than on an intellectual and
objective level. It is quick but shallow.
BINARY READING
- requires only “agree or disagree” answers
- Does not allow understanding of complex arguments.
RESPONDING to a text - requires a careful study of the
ideas presented and arguments advanced in it. It is
analytical and evaluative. It is productive and
progressive.
NUANCED READING
- allows for deep and detailed understanding of complex
texts
- Establishes rhetorical engagement between the reader
and the text
CRITICAL WRITING is more complex, and involves more
discussion, analysis and evaluation than does
descriptive writing.
Examples of critical writing activities include:
•Engaging with evidence
•Open minded and objective enquiry
•Presenting reasons to dispute a particular finding
•Providing an alternative approach
•Recognizing the limitations of evidence: either your
evidence or the evidence provided by others
•Thinking around a specific problem
REMEMBER:
- Apply caution and humility when challenging
established positions. Critical writers might tentatively
suggest an independent point of view, using such
phrases as ‘It could be argued that...’; or ‘An alternative
viewpoint might suggest that...’.
- Critical writing is no longer about observation and
imagination. Rather, it strongly calls for observation and
logic to raise solid arguments, supported by evidences
that you will carefully elaborate in your text.
A Lancaster University publication adds that
“The aim of academic writing is not to
present „the right answer,‟ but to discuss the
controversies in an intelligent way.”
WEEK 8: CRITICAL WRITING IN ACADEME
Academic writing differs from other types of writing
such as journalistic or creative writing. In most forms of
academic writing a detached and objective approach is
required.
- It is far from a one-size-fits-all genre.
- Applicable to the broad variety of academic disciplines
and their unique approaches to conducting and
documenting research efforts in the field, one might
find it challenging to identify clearly what constitutes
academic writing.
Tips to help you reflect critical thinking in critical
academic writing.
 Be sure to answer the right and relevant questions.
 Give enough contexts so that the reader can
follow your ideas and understand your principles.
 Include references to the material you have read.
 Try to group different studies thematically or
categorically and make links between ones that are
related.
 Explain source material to your readers to show why it
is valuable and relevant.
 Discuss the ideas that come from these source texts in
your writing.
 Justify your judgments. Say why you think an idea is
relevant, valid or interesting.
 Acknowledge the drawbacks or limitations of ideas,
even the ones you disagree with.
 Avoid absolute statements. Use hedging language
to make your statements more convincing.
 Do not be afraid to make intelligent suggestions,
educational guesses or hypotheses.
 You are supposed to make judgments based on
evidence, so your conclusions must be meaningful and
completely objective.
 Note that conclusions are usually plural. A single
conclusion—rare but possible—is usually
straightforward and is worth discussing.
 Do not ignore arguments just because you disagree
with them.
 Avoid praising authors just because they are famous in
the field. Praise them for the substance of their work
assessed with objectivity, not with subjectivity.
 Check that your argument flows logically.
CRITICAL ACADEMIC WRITING
According to the University of Birmingham
publication, “A short guide to critical writing
for Postgraduate Taught students,”
“Critical writing is an involvement in an
academic debate. It requires a refusal to accept the
conclusions of other writers without evaluating the
arguments and evidence they provide. ‟”
In an academic writing assignment, you will start by
asking a good question, then find and analyze answers
to it, and choose your own best answer(s) to discuss in
your paper.
Your paper will share your thoughts and findings and
justify your answer with logic and evidence.
So, the goal of academic writing is not to show off
everything that you know about your topic, but rather
to show that you understand and can think critically
about your topic.
PRINCIPLES OF ACADEMIC WRITING
CLEAR PURPOSE
- The goal of your paper is to answer the question you
posed as your topic. Your question gives you a purpose.
- The most common purposes in academic writing are to
persuade, analyze/synthesize, and inform.
Persuasive Purpose
- In persuasive academic writing, the purpose is
to get your readers to adopt your answer to the
question.
- So, you will choose one answer to your
question, support your answer using reason and
evidence, and try to change the readers’ point
of view about the topic.
- Persuasive writing assignments include
argumentative and position papers.
Analytical Purpose
- In analytical academic writing, the purpose is
to explain and evaluate possible answers to
your question, choosing the best answer(s)
based on your own criteria.
- Analytical assignments often investigate
causes, examine effects, evaluate effectiveness,
assess ways to solve problems, find the
relationships between various ideas, or analyze
other people’s arguments.
Informative Purpose
- In informative academic writing, the purpose is
to explain possible answers to your question,
giving the readers new information about your
topic.
- This differs from an analytical topic in that you
do not push your viewpoint on the readers, but
rather try to enlarge the readers’ view.
AUDIENCE ENGAGEMENT
- As with all writing, academic writing is directed to a
specific audience in mind. Unless your instructor says
otherwise, consider your audience to be fellow students
with the same level of knowledge as yourself.
- You will have to engage them with your ideas and
catch their interest with your writing style. Imagine that
they are also skeptical, so that you must use the
appropriate reasoning and evidence to convince them of
your ideas.
CLEAR POINT OF VIEW
- Academic writing, even that with an informative
purpose, is not just a list of facts or summaries of
sources.
- Although you will present other people’s ideas and
research, the goal of your paper is to show what you
think about these things.
- Your paper will have and support your own original
idea about the topic. This is called the thesis statement,
and it is your answer to the question.
SINGLE FOCUS
- Every paragraph (even every sentence) in your paper
will support your thesis statement.
- There will be no unnecessary, irrelevant, unimportant,
or contradictory information (Your paper will likely
include contradictory or alternative points of view, but
you will respond to and critique them to further
strengthen your own point of view).
LOGICAL ORGANIZATION
Academic writing follows a standard organizational
pattern. For academic essays and papers, there is an
introduction, body, and conclusion.
INTRODUCTION catches the readers’ attention,
provides background information, and lets the
reader know what to expect. It also has the
thesis statement.
BODY PARAGRAPHS support the thesis
statement. Each body paragraph has one main
point to support the thesis, which is named in a
topic sentence. Each point is then supported in
the paragraph with logical reasoning and
evidence. Each sentence connects to the one
before and after it.
CONCLUSION summarizes the paper’s thesis
and main points and shows the reader the
significance of the paper’s findings.
STRONG SUPPORT
- Each body paragraph will have sufficient and relevant
support for the topic sentence and thesis statement.
- This support will consist of facts, examples, description,
personal experience, and expert opinions and
quotations.
CLEAR & COMPLETE EXPLANATIONS
- This is very important! As the writer, you need to do all
the work for the reader. The reader should not have to
think hard to understand your ideas, logic, or
organization.
EFFECTIVE USE OF RESEARCH
- Your paper should refer to a variety of current, highquality, professional and academic sources. You will use
your research to support your own ideas.
CORRECT APA STYLE
- All academic papers should follow the guidelines of the
American Psychological Association.
WRITING STYLE
- Your writing should be clear, concise, and easy to read.
It is also very important that there are no grammar,
spelling, punctuation, or vocabulary mistakes in
academic writing. Errors convey to the reader that you
do not care.
THE WRITING PROCESS
PLAN
• Always start by thinking about the purpose of the
communication. The information and points that you
want to present in your writing should target the
specific audience that you try to inform or convince.
CHOOSE A TOPIC
• Think about things related to your interest.
• Narrow your ideas from subjects to topics.
• Write your topic as a question.
BRAINSTORM
• Write down all the possible answers to your question,
and write down all the information, opinions, and
questions you have about your topic.
RESEARCH & FACT CHECK TO ENSURE DEPTH INFO
• What you must remember is that “doing good
research takes time.” Do not expect to do research once
and find everything that you need for your paper.
• The depth and amount of detail you include are also
important. Sometimes, lots of detail is necessary, while
in other cases the focus should be on getting to the
point quickly; this decision depends on your reader.
PIQUE THE READERS’ INTEREST
• One way to do this is to show readers how the
information will impact them: “Let them know up front
why the topic you are addressing is of interest to them.”
DISCOVER YOUR THESIS STATEMENT
A good thesis statement usually includes:
• Main idea of the paper. ONE idea. The entire paper is
based on this statement.
• Your opinion or point of view. The thesis statement is
not a fact nor a question, but your view of the topic and
what you want to say about it.
• Purpose of the paper. From the thesis, it should be
clear what the paper will do.
• Answer to the research question. Ask yourself the
question and then answer it with your thesis. Is it truly
an answer? (if not, change the question or the answer!)
• An element of surprise. This means that the thesis is
interesting, engaging, and perhaps not so expected.
• Clarity. It should be understandable after one reading
and have no mistakes.
OUTLINING
• A basic outline is your first attempt to organize the
ideas of your paper. It will help you focus your research
and consider the order of your ideas.
• You need to outline your goals and the points that you
want to write about to achieve those goals. List down
everything that you deem relevant and along the way,
you might have to add or delete some points.
REACH YOUR AUDIENCE
• To effectively reach your audience, consider the
terminology you use and the information you include.
Using known terms and clearly explaining information
allows the reader to better understand the document.
WRITE, REVISE, EDIT,
PROOFREAD
• Finishing the last sentence is not the end of the
writing process because professional writing is reader-,
not writer-, centered. Be certain that your audience
understands the topic.
CONSTRUCTING A GOOD ACADEMIC ARGUMENT
- A good academic argument makes an evidencebased claim designed to advance a specific field of
study.
- It also demonstrates an understanding of the
foundational research for the claim and the implications
of the results on the field.
- Points of view can strengthen your argument, either by
providing evidence to support your argument or by
providing food for thought when constructing your
argument to effectively debate counterclaims.
A Belmont University resource titled, “Writing an
Argument,” states:
“The purpose of argument writing is to
present a position and to have an
audience adopt or at least seriously consider
your argument.” Further, it notes
that “Good argument writing is critical,
assertion-with proof-writing. It should
reflect a serious attempt on the writer’s part to
have considered the issue from all
angles.”
The Simon Fraser University “Resources on
argumentation in academic writing” claims
that:
“Argumentation is less about trying to change
what readers believe, think, or do,‟
and more about convincing „yourself or
others that specific facts are reliable or
that certain views should be considered or at
least tolerated‟”.
Critical evaluation of source materials allows you “to
evaluate the strength of the argument being made
by the work”.
The University of Toronto resource, “Critical
Reading Towards Critical Writing” echoes this mindset,
stating: “To read critically is to make judgments
about how a text is argued. This is a highly
reflective skill requiring you to “stand back” and
gain some distance from the text you are reading.”
For those new to critical evaluation of a source,
however, you should ask “What aspects are important
to consider when critically evaluating a source?”
According to Sheldon Smith, founder and editor of
EAPFoundation.com in an article on Critical Reading,
“In addition to what a text says, the reader needs
to consider how it says it, who is saying it, when it was
said, where it was said (i.e. published), and why it
was said (i.e. the writers purpose).”
Why is it important to be able to critically evaluate
source materials?
“Building Good Arguments”, they describe six elements
of a well-reasoned argument: claim, reason, qualifier,
warrant, backing, and conditions of
rebuttal.
The University of Minnesota Center for Writing says,
“When you understand how what you read is written,
you can work to incorporate those techniques into your
own writing”, while the Walden University Academic
Skills Center offers that “You are not simply
absorbing the information; instead, you are
interpreting, categorizing, questioning, and weighing
the value of that information” in support of critical
reading processes.
The Writing Center at the University of North Carolina
at Chapel Hill offers that:
RECEIVING CRITICISMS
“...by considering what someone who disagrees
with your position might have to
say..., you show that you have thought things
through, and you dispose of some
of the reasons your audience might have for not
accepting your argument.”
CRITICALLY EVALUATING SOURCE MATERIALS
According to the Cleveland State University Writing
Center, “Critical reading means that
a reader applies certain processes, models,
questions, and theories that result in
enhanced clarity and comprehension.”
Many times, critically evaluating the work of others is
much easier than receiving critical feedback on your
own writing efforts. It is just harder to be at the
receiving end.
According to Eric Schmieder, “I think you have to face
criticism with an open mind and a willingness to learn.
Sometimes the comments are harsh, but mostly they
are well-intentioned efforts to help you improve.
Consider the source and select ones whose feedback
you value when possible.”
To better respond to critical feedback on your
writing, Turn It In offers seven ways to
improve writing by receiving feedback.
1. Feedback Connects to Your Goals
Feedback lets you know how much development
you have made towards your writing goals and what
else you need to do to meet them. It also gives you a
clearer picture of where you are in your timeline of
progress.
2. Feedback Can Be More Important Than Your Score
Scores and grades only measure performance -- they
do not tell you how to get better. Read all the
comments and use them to revise your work. A
good score without feedback leaves you at a plateau
while a bad score with feedback leaves you an
opportunity to progress and improve without limits.
3. Feedback Helps You Ask the Right Questions
You might not always understand the comments you
get. You may even disagree with them, and sometimes
you may have trouble understanding how to apply
them. Ask your instructor for more clarification and
advice. Teachers prefer assertive students that
show interest for learning.
4. Feedback Lets You Determine What Is Most
Important
Focus on the comments that will make your ideas
clearer and help readers understand,
then work your way down.
5. Feedback Aids in Revision and Practice
Use your comments to revise and practice your
writing. You may also use your current feedback to
reflect on the mistakes that you have committed in the
past.
6. Feedback Helps You Take Ownership of Your Writing
Find your voice as a writer and establish your own
style and principles.
7. Feedback Gets You on the Same Page as Your
Teacher
Your teacher’s comments are there to help you, not
criticize you. Your feedback is part of a conversation
through which your teacher is trying to support you and
your writing development.
WEEK 9: WRITING IN THE WORKPLACE
IMPORTANCE OF WRITING SKILLS IN BUSINESS AND
WORKPLACE
1. Writing skills ensure effective business
communication
Business correspondence helps a company connect
with partners and stakeholders. If a text is poorly
written and structured, the message may be
misinterpreted and may lead to loss of business
transaction or even to permanent loss of partnership.
2. Writing skills make the difference between "good"
and "bad" employees
Crafting your own resume and cover letter may pose
a real challenge, especially when you have to tailor fit
them to the position and industry that you are
trying to apply for.
Furthermore, a document filled with grammatical
errors will not impress anyone in the
business organization, which you need to secure the job.
Professionals are good at composing clear
messages. Employers value such workers. That is the
reason why companies invest so much in their
recruitment and training processes.
Practice writing as often as you can in order to
stand out among your co-workers. Senior
management is generally more favorable towards an
employee who can create excellent documentation.
3. You demonstrate your intelligence with quality
writing
A few grammatical or punctuation errors may
seem minor, but people do notice them even when
they do not show any reaction and give you
feedback. They tend to think that those who do not
write well are less intelligent than those who do.
Do not let anyone dismiss you because of your
poor writing skills. A few minutes of proofreading
can improve the way you are perceived, prompting
everyone to take you more seriously.
4. Good writers are credible
People with advanced writing skills are perceived
as more reliable and trustworthy. Producing flawless
documents will also make you look more credible
than those who produce subpar quality.
People, especially those from outside the business
organization, will judge you the first time they see you.
Unfortunately, on most occasions, customers and clients
first see you through your writing, whether it is via an
email, a sales letter or a phone call. Hence, it is
crucial to establish a great first impression that might
last a long time.
5. You can be more influential
Good persuasion skills help you to influence
others to achieve your goals. This is especially true
for those who will delve deeper into the fields of
marketing, sales, communications, public relations and
law. Professors assign their students to write persuasive
essays in order to prepare them for the job market by
developing these significant skills.
If you are creating taglines and calls-to-action for
your organization, you need to know how to develop a
copy that will encourage the reader to take action.
If you are describing an innovative idea that can
improve a process to your manager, you should
sound convincing.
6. Business writing conveys courtesy
Professionals take into consideration formatting
and etiquette. They also pay attention to their
personal tone, clarity, and logic. They avoid poor
word choice and grammar. These things can come
across as lazy or even rude.
7. Writing skills help to keep good records
Information that is communicated orally is not
kept for long. That is the reason why students take
notes of lectures. As scholars use their notes to
write essays, you can apply your records in your work.
Keeping a record of your writing, especially
when you belong to industries related to
creativity and concepts, can also help you build a
reliable portfolio that may be used for career
advancement.
8. You boost your professional confidence
When written communication leads a business to
another successfully completed project, you become
more confident and inspired, not to mention more
eligible for promotion. Who does not like to advance in
the career ladder?
9. You promote yourself and your career
The better your writing skills are, the more
responsibility you will be given. That is great for you and
your future career success.
10. Business writing builds a solid web presence
Business is all about presentation. Owners aim to
set up an effective online presence, especially
nowadays that the marketing game has turned
digital. It helps potential customers discover the
company and its products.
Quality content is a decisive factor here. A person
who can present business in the best light and convince
people to buy products or services is an irreplaceable
employee. You can even establish a lucrative career in
marketing communications and digital marketing
with this.
WEEK 10: STRATEGIES IN CRITICAL WRITING
Experienced writers showcase flexibility in
achieving their objectives by constantly exploring and
discovering styles, procedures, and ideas. They are
not afraid to ask questions and question their own
writing for a more balanced output. After all, writing is
all about thinking.
Only after the writer thoroughly examines the
subject through writing and is satisfied with the ideas
discovered, does he or she polish the writing for the
reader. This is where the writer starts deciding on the
style and organization to be used depending on the
target readers and the nature of the text. This is
where the writer also decides which critical strategies
to use for writing the final draft.
Critical thinking yields several strategies that you
are likely to use in academic writing. Many of your
writing assignments may reflect just one of the
strategies or a combination of them.
For the sake of clarity, these strategies have been
arranged in the order of complexity of the critical
thinking that they require. Keep in mind that these
strategies often overlap with each other. You may
use comparison and contrast when you are
synthesizing information, but you may also synthesize
the results of a causal analysis. You may also use several
of these analytical strategies when you write an
evaluation.
ANALYSIS
EVALUATION
- the basis of many other strategies, is the process of
breaking something into its parts and putting the parts
back together so that you can better understand the
whole.
- is the most complex of all analytical strategies and uses
many of the other analytical techniques.
- When you seek to explain the causes and effects of a
situation, event or action, you are trying to identify their
origins and understand their results. You may discover a
chain of events that explain the causes and effects. How
you decide where the boundaries of causal analysis are
depends on your thesis and your purpose for writing.
SYNTHESIS
- is a tad more complex than the analytical strategies
that have just been discussed.
- In synthesizing information, you must bring together
all your opinions and researched evidence in support of
your thesis. You integrate the relevant facts, statistics,
expert opinions, and whatever can directly be observed
with your own opinion and conclusions to persuade your
audience that your thesis is correct. Indeed, you use
synthesis in supporting a thesis and assembling a paper.
HOW TO WRITE A SYNTHESIS
• Identify the appropriate texts to use. You may find it
helpful to use the notes and references in one
appropriate source to find other relevant sources.
• Read the sources carefully in relation to your purpose.
Take notes or annotate your own copies to be able to
retrieve relevant information easily.
• Think about the connections among the various
sources. Do any of the sources agree or disagree on any
points? Does one source provide background for
another? Does one source take up where other leaves
of? Does one source provide an example of an idea
discussed in another source? Do any common ideas or
viewpoints run through all the sources?
• Based on the pattern of connections you have seen
among the various sources, develop an overall point or
conclusion to serve as the organizing thesis of your
synthesis.
• Develop a plan for presenting the various parts of the
information in a unified way.
- In applying this strategy, you first establish the criteria
you will use to evaluate your subject, apply them to the
specific parts of the subject you are judging, and draw
conclusions about whether your subject meets those
criteria.
- In the process of evaluating a subject, you will usually
be called upon to render some analysis and synthesis
and even use persuasive or argumentative techniques.
 establish the evaluation criteria
 select the characteristics you will apply those criteria
to
 evaluate how well the selected characteristics meet
the criteria
 present your results, along with examples, to support
your premise
PERSUASION
- is aimed at changing the beliefs or opinions of the
readers or at encouraging them to accept the credibility
or possibility of your opinion or belief.
- You do not have to convince them to embrace and
adapt to your own opinions and beliefs offhand,
although that is more preferential. Rather, you have to
convince them to consider you by keeping an open mind.
- At some level, all writing has a persuasive element. You
may simply be persuading your reader to continue
reading your writing or even to accept your credibility—
that you know your subject area. In fiction writing, you
persuade your readers to believe your plot and
dialogues, enough for them to finish the story down to
the last chapter. You can make your writing persuasive
by responding to the needs and demands of your
readers. When you keep them in mind, you can identify
with their points of view and attitudes. Use your style
and tone to show respect for your reader. Offer your
reader arguments and evidence to support your opinion
or belief.
WEEK 11: ARGUMENTS IN CRITICAL WRITING
What Makes GOOD ARGUMENT?
ACADEMIC ARGUMENT
A good argument should be convincing. You should find
yourself believing the claim, or at least finding the
conclusion reasonable.
The term ‘argument’ is used in everyday language to
describe a dispute or disagreement between two or
more people. However, within written academic work,
the presence of an argument does not always indicate a
disagreement.
An Argument can be used to:
• Support something, we think has merit – a position, a
point of view, a program, an object.
• Persuade someone that something would be
beneficial to do (or not to do) – a course of action.
• Convince someone that something is true, likely to be
true or probable – a fact, an outcome.
• Show someone the problems or difficulties with
something – a theory, an approach, a course of action.
• Reason with someone to get them to change their
mind or their practice.
This entails several things:
• acceptable or reasonable premises (likely to be true)
• evidence or reasons that are relevant to the claim
•reasons which provide sufficient grounds to lead us to
accept the claim.
These are called the acceptability, relevance and
grounds of an argument. If an argument satisfies these
three conditions, it is likely to be a good argument.
How do I write an Argument?
•Ensure you understand the question. What do you
have to do? What issues do you need to cover?
•Do your research. What do we know about this issue?
What do the researchers say? What are the debates, the
problems?
•Go back to the question and consider your answer,
given your research and what you have learnt. This will
be your claim. Make it very clear what position or point
of view you are taking.
• How will the evidence from your research support
your case?
- Integrate supporting evidence by quoting
and/or paraphrasing.
- Acknowledge counter arguments/counter
evidence.
- Use linking words and discourse markers to
draw connections between your argument and
the evidence and/or counter evidence.
•Argue for this position in an academic context.
Consider your claim and supporting premises and draw
out the implications:
- Why am I saying this here?
- What point am I trying to make?
- What does this evidence show?
•Make sure your essay has a clear, logical structure with
relevant points which lead to the conclusion. It should
be easy for your readers to follow where you are
heading and why.
Building Good Arguments
In building good arguments, students and
professionals usually follow two established methods
that are effective both in academic and professional
settings. You may choose whatever you deem is more
effective depending on the type of issue that you raise.
TOULMIN METHOD
Philosopher Stephen Toulmin offers six elements of a
well-reasoned argument and explains how they all work
together.
1. Claim - is a debatable statement that requires proof.
 Fact
 Judgment or Evaluation
 Policy
Keep in mind that a claim is only the starting point for
a fully developed argument.
2. Reason - is a statement justifying the claim
(e.g., a “because”-clause). A reason then invites
evidence (sometimes called data) to support a claim and
show its validity.
3. Qualifier - is a word or phrase (adjective or adverb)
that limits the scope or “generalizability” of your claim.
Without a qualifier, your claim may seem too broad or
unrealistic for your readers. Using qualifiers
appropriately also helps you to avoid binary or
“either/or” thinking, which can invalidate an argument.
Instead of using the following qualifiers:
 always  never  all
 none, no
 totally, completely, absolutely
Try using the following qualifiers:
 sometimes, at times, occasionally, usually, frequently 
many, many a, some, more (or if applicable, a precise
number or amount)
 a small number, a few, most (or if applicable, a precise
number or amount)
 likely, possibly, probably
4. Warrant is an assumption or point of agreement
shared by the arguer and the audience. In argument, we
rely frequently on these fundamental shared
assumptions. Warrants may remain unspoken (but
understood) when a writer and reader can be expected
to know or agree on them. This is normally the case for
general knowledge and widely accepted facts.
If readers do not share the same assumptions about
the validity of the writer’s evidence, or if they do not
recognize the assumption, they might not accept the
evidence or claim.
5. Backing is additional information that justifies or
enhances the credibility of your evidence. You need this
to ensure that you audience will accept your evidences
or claims.
6. Conditions of Rebuttal - are the potential objections
to an argument. To deal with possible objections,
imagine a skeptical yet reasonable reader poking holes
in your claim and reasons or coming up with opposite,
equally valid reasons