Low-cost Sewage Surveillance to Guide Public Health Response to
Mosquito-Borne Disease in the Midst of a Changing Climate
Saheli Ghosh, M.Sc, PhD, Environmental Biotechnology and Genomics Division, CSIRNEERI, Nagpur:440020.
1. Problem Statement
West Nile virus (WNV) is a flavivirus transmitted by mosquitoes, whose
manifestations include mild flu and may progress to encephalitis, paralysis and life
threatening consequences [Hindustan times Sep 2023]. It was first isolated in a
woman in the West Nile district of Uganda in 1937 and is identified in birds. It has
been reported in the Americas, Europe, and several East Asian countries and is the
leading cause of viral encephalitis in the worldwide with most cases prevalent in
summer and fall [17, 18; WHO, Oct 2017; Chancey et al., 2015] thereby suggesting a
potential risk for an outbreak in humans due to poor epidemiology and surveillance.
However, the prevalence of WNV antibodies in Indian population has been known
since 1952. Following phylogenetic analysis, indicated the prevalence of eight
lineages, where lineage 1a and 2a were reported to cause severe neuroinvasive
disease [Shoba et al., 2020]. The Culex and Mansonia mosquito species involved in
transmission of WNV in this region requires detailed study [Khan et al., 2016;
Talukdar et al., 2022]. Epidemiology of WNV is not well known in India as per
ICMR 2002 report. There are no vaccines to prevent or medications to treat WNV in
people. Only prevention methods are available like using mosquito repellent and
wearing long sleeved shirts and pants to prevent mosquito bites. In case, if a person is
infected, it would go unnoticed due to poor surveillance. Hence, there is a need for
innovative and integrated disease surveillance platforms [WHO 2022]. However,
WNV surveillance is made more difficult by two features of the virus. First, the
sensitivity of traditional clinical surveillance for human infections is greatly limited
by the high proportion of asymptomatic cases. Second, detection of WNV among
mosquitos and birds is not specific evidence of human infections. Wastewater
surveillance has the potential to address each of these limitations in the current WNV
surveillance paradigm. It is important to detect and monitor seasonal epidemics as
well as identifying persons at increased risk of severe disease. For that community
disease surveillance for early outbreak detection is required, so that development of
diagnostic and treatment methods escalates [Wellcome Trust 2023]. Wastewater
surveillance is now growing interest worldwide which transformed COVID-19
surveillance shows great promise for a wide range of diseases [Keshaviah et al.
2023]. It has tremendous potential for cost-effective surveillance of human disease in
the face of global climate change [Diamond et al. 2023]. In view of above reports, we
propose a transdisciplinary pilot project to develop a sampling method to establish the
suitability of municipal wastewater for West Nile virus (WNV) surveillance in coastal
Louisiana. The project partners include academic researchers, a zoonotic disease
surveillance laboratory, public health units, mosquito control entities, and wastewater
surveillance implementers from the private sector. If successful, the project would
establish a low cost sampling technique for WNV detection from municipal
wastewater as a resource-efficient means of surveillance to inform public health
action and mosquito control response to WNV in a region subject to accelerating
climate change impacts. The findings from the study would also inform wastewater
surveillance of WNV and other arboviruses in low-resource settings, which are often
at the greatest risk of zoonotic disease acceleration driven by climate change.
2. Project Rationale
Our vision is to implement an interdisciplinary pilot project to develop a passive
sampling method to evaluate the feasibility, suitability, and scalability of wastewater
surveillance for human cases of West Nile virus disease. We hypothesize that
wastewater surveillance can be a resource-efficient screening method for WNV
infections among human populations informing both mosquito control and public
health response. Further, we assert that development of passive sampling techniques
will allow wastewater surveillance of WNV in contaminated areas of low viral load,
where risks of disease outbreaks are highest. In this study we are targeting the
entrapment of West Nile virus through the modification of passive sampling device.
If a spider carrier containing single material as used by Vincent Hubert et al., 2021
could improve COVID-19 virus entrapment, then spider carrier consisting GAC
coated with two electronegative membranes like lectin and glycan will allow better
entrapment of WNV, since both are RNA viruses. The proposal’s potential for
transformative impact is supported by the use of GAC coated with two membranes
for better entrapment WNV.
2A. Why West Nile virus (WNV)??. Since the detection of WNV in 1999, it has
spread to all most part of lower 48 states in US [Gould and Fikrig 2004; Soto et al.
2022;]. In 2020 Center for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) data from the
National Arbovirus Surveillance System (ArboNET) shown that West Nile virus
accounted for 83% of domestic arboviral disease cases with significant morbidity and
mortality as compared to other RNA and arboviruses [Ronca et al. 2021; Soto et al.
2022]. WNV is endemic in Louisiana, had the fourth-highest rate of infections, which
has been the site of large WNV outbreaks with average neuroinvasive disease (NID)
incidence greater than 1.1 per 100,000 persons from 1999 to 2022 and incidence
above 2.0 per 100,000 in several parishes (ArboNET). The burden of WNV in
Louisiana is likely to be exacerbated by climate change impacts in the state, which is
especially vulnerable to the effects of a warming climate and sea level rise [Joyner
and Orgera 2014; Balbus and Melina 2009]. Between 2011 to 2019, more than --cases were reported in central, south and eastern parts India [Keshaviah et al., 2023].
It is a re-emerging virus, which is increasingly reported in all parts of India. [Shoba et
al., 2020 ]
3B. Why targeting wastewater for WNV surveillance??. During the COVID-19
pandemic, wastewater surveillance was widely and effectively used to inform public
health responses to COVID-19. Importantly, trends in wastewater surveillance often
lead the clinical surveillance because the wastewater signal includes contributions
from asymptomatic infections that are still shedding into sewers through zoonotic
pathogens. Given the success of the approach, integrating such surveillance into One
Health frameworks has the potential to revolutionize public health surveillance for
such diseases (Leifels et al. 2022). Preliminary work has focused on conceptual
framing, computational feasibility assessments, and methods development for
wastewater surveillance of a variety of arboviruses, including dengue and zika
viruses, with limited methodological assessment for WNV [Lee et al. 2022; Chandra
et al. 2023]. Clinical observations indicate WNV is shed in the urine of those infected
[Tonry et al. 2005], with positivity ratios of 44% among patients in one study
(Barzonet et al. 2013) and 58% among urine samples in another at densities 1 to 10
million/ml [Lustig et al. 2016; Nagy et al. 2016] at densities as high as 1 to 10 million
per mL of urine. Urine has also been suggested as a convenient body fluid for clinical
diagnosis of WNV. WNV urinary shedding patterns into wastewater could reasonably
allow the detection of 1 infection among 10,000 people for wastewater surveillance of
WNV (Lee et al. 2022). WNV is structurally similar to dengue, and results for dengue
virus suggest its RNA is persistent in wastewater and readily measurable using
existing wastewater testing methods [Chandra et al. 2023; Chandra et al. 2021].
Boehm and colleagues found WNV RNA in wastewaters where no WNV cases were
known [Boehm et al., 2023]. In view of above reports, it is expected to get WNV
RNA in wastewaters from epidemiologically relevant sites. Together, these
preliminary observations establish the potential sensitivity for WNV infections and
feasibility of wastewater surveillance for WNV.
2B. Arbovirus Surveillance in US and India. Louisiana is home to a dynamic and
robust arbovirus surveillance program that includes both state and local agencies. At
the state level, WNV falls under the purview of the Louisiana Department of Health’s
(LDH) Arboviral Program. This program has compiled and published weekly WNV
surveillance reports from 2002 to 2023. These reports provide summary data on
mosquito, avian, equine, and human (NID, fever, death, and presumptive viremic
donor) WNV cases by parish and LDH region. Non-human surveillance testing is
carried out by the Louisiana Animal Diagnostic Disease Laboratory (LADDL).
LADDL performs 20,000 to 50,000 mosquito pool WNV tests from 32 parishes each
year. Mosquito pools for testing are submitted by local mosquito control agencies
which are active in each parish. Mosquito control agencies are also responsible for
ongoing mosquito abatement via insecticide application and other preventative
measures. The mitigation activities of state and local agencies are integrated to
maximize the efficiency and effectiveness of arbovirus control in Louisiana. If
successful, wastewater surveillance for WNV and additional arboviruses could be
readily integrated into the existing framework.n India, antibodies against WNV in
humans werefirst detected from Bombay (now Mumbai) during 1952.
Subsequently, serologically confirmed WNV cases were reported from Vellore and
Kolar districts of Karnataka during encephalitis epidemics in 1977, 1979 and 1981. In
western countries, WNV infections werefound to be higher among elderly patients
31. However,in India, children succumbing to WNV infection werefrequently
observed. WNV was isolated from braintissue of three children who died of
encephalitis inthe southern region of India. One isolate was obtainedfrom encephalitis
presenting case in Mysuru districtduring 1980 and another during encephalitis
epidemicin Kolar district in 1981 30. Details for the third caseare not available.
WNV-infected fatal paediatric caseswere reported in 2006 from the State of Assam
situatedin North-east India32. During the late 2009 and theearly 2010, WNV cases
were reported from patientspresenting with ocular complications in Tamil
Nadu33.Acute flaccid paralysis (AFP) due to WNV infection has also been reported
from Kerala during 201434. This wasan unusual phenomenon because poliovirus has
beenthe common cause of AFP in India. Characterizationof WNV PCR-positive
samples revealed circulationof lineage I WNV during 2011 Kerala outbreak35. Inthe
eastern State of West Bengal, WNV was reportedin 2017 36. In the central State of
Madhya Pradesh,during 2015, infection of lineage I WNV was found inpaediatric
population presented with acute encephalitissyndrome (AES)37. These scenarios of
WNV infectiondelineate an emerging threat to public health in India(Fig. 2). This
advocates for inclusion of WNV screeningas routine diagnosis for AES cases in the
country. The differences observed in the clinico-epidemiological scenario of WNV
may be due to strain variations,which necessitate the identification of the
circulating strains in different endemic settings for understanding WNV
pathobiology.
WNV is a globally emerging virus, but unlikeZika and Ebola WNV outbreaks are
usually localizedand sporadic 83. Yet, the virus continues to be animportant cause of
encephalitis worldwide32,104,115.In India, currently circulating WNV strains are
morepathogenic than those reported earlier 71. In 2019,a seven year old boy from
Malappuram district ofKerala died of WNV infection. It was assumed thatWNV
infection affected the boys’ nervous system. However, conclusive knowledge on
whether higherpathogenicity has resulted from characteristic virulencepotential of the
circulating strain or due to host factorsis limited. Therefore, more information on the
virusstrains circulating currently in India and elsewhere iswarranted.
2C. Passive sampling methods. A passive sampler is an abiotic device that may
contain absorbent materials or membranes which is placed in a targeted sewage
catchment to capture viruses as well as bacteria for a defined period of time. The
concept behind this method is that analyte being exchanged between the bulk media
being sampled (wastewater) and the collecting medium (the passive sampler)
Samplers may also collect analytes, or molecules that are lost due to discrete capture
or composite sampling [Habtewold et al., 2022]. There are several benefits of using
passive samplers for public health surveillance in low-resource settings. They are
easy to deploy and collect from small catchments and do not require power to
operate, and thus can be used in any accessible sewage line. [Salim and Górecki,
2019]. Furthermore, passive samplers collect microorganisms over the entire
exposure time, so sporadic shedding events are less likely to be missed [Bivins et al.,
2022]. The design of passive samplers may be based on the sorption medium being
either a single material or two materials, with one material acting as a rate limiting
barrier surrounding the other material [Salim and Górecki, 2019].
3. Research Q’s & Hypotheses
Available reports mentioned the usage of single material like electronegative
membranes, cotton swabs or tampons for the sampling and entrapment of
RNA viruses like COVID-19. In this study we are targeting the entrapment of
West Nile virus through passive sampling technique through wastewater using
two materials. Combination of materials could be used for the collective
entrapment of above - mentioned RNA viruses. If a spider carrier like passive
sampling device as used by Vincent Hubert et al., 2021 could made of single
material could be used for COVID-19 virus entrapment, then combination of
materials be arranged in the form of spider carrier would entrap arboviruses.
We are also hypothesizing that materials coated with glycan rich material as
per Kaur et al., 2019 and Talarico and Damante, 2007 would increase the
adsorption rate of these viruses.
According to the available reports the following questions arises
1.Will the GAC coated with electronegative membranes could adsorb
arboviruses like west nile fever virus in a single passive sampling device?
2. Is the passive sampler coupled with RT-LAMP will detect the arboviruses
from the bulk wastewater?
a. Experimental Approach
The main aim of this project will be increased adsoption of arboviruses from
wastewater by the development of passive sampling technique. Hence, the
first objective will be lab scale studies of GACcoated with lectin and glycan
residues to increase the adsorption capacity for WNV. The final objective, is
the field deployment studies of the passive sampler containing coated GAC.
i. Project Location and Sewage Sampling
The work proposed here has major intention in the development of a
passive sampling technique for detection of West nile fever virus
where sampling would be carried out from wastewater where the
probability of finding WNV is maximum. we will collect wastewater
from raw influent samples at the East Baton Rouge treatment plant
(n=20) and at sanitary sewer pumping stations near WNV hotspots
identified by mosquito control (n=20). Following sample collection by
composite and passive sampling.
ii. Passive Samplers
Passive sampling for WWS has become increasingly prevalent due to
its ease of use, cost effectiveness, and ability to concentrate viral
targets over time [Liu et al., 2020; Bivins et al., 2021; Habtewold et
al., 2022]. Since the onset of the pandemic, hundreds of peer reviewed
articles have been published on SARS-CoV-2 detection in wastewater
[Shah et al., 2022]. However, few articles have applied and
investigated passive sampling techniques on arboviruses (Bivins et al.,
2022). Despite the increased popularity of passive sampling as an
alternative to conventional sampling techniques, recent publications
have shown the limitations of the application of passive samplers for
SARS-CoV-2 detections in wastewater [Li et al., 2022; Schang et al.,
2021; Hayes et al., 2022]. One of identified challenges for passive
sampling is to increase the quantitative interpretation of this sampling
approach for improve decision-making. Here, in this project, passive
sampler will be fabricated in the form of a spider carrier as shown by
Vincent-Hubert et al., 2021, where the GAC will be coated with lectin
and glycan will be placed in the carrier. It will be used for field
deployment studies in the areas where the cases of west nile viruses
are reported. Sampling will be carried out two to three times in a week
and deployed for 48-72 hrs of duration. The samples will be further
explored for arboviral detection procedures.
iii. LAMP
RT-LAMP reaction as a cost-effective molecular detection exhibiting
high specificity. The detection relies upon pH changes, due to the
reaction products, This method employs a DNA polymerase and a set
of four specially designed primers that recognize a total of six distinct
sequences on the target DNA [Notomi et al., 2000; Bryan et al.,
2023].Here, the developed GAC passive sampler coupled with RTLAMP will allow the adsorption of WNV as well as their detection
from wastewater. It is better than autosamplers due to low cost and
easy to use.
In view of above reports,
•Wastewater will be sampled from the sewers of reported West Nile
fever outbreaks. GAC will be coated with lectin and glycan residues
(Kaur et al., 2019, Talarico and Damante, 2007) will be synthesized in
our lab with potential collaborations from other lab in the university. It
will be done to check the effect of material type on WNV adsorption.
This will take 1-2 months.
•Lab scale studies will be conducted with GACcoated for the adsorption
kinetics using wastewater. West Nile strains will be purchased from
ATCC for the set up of control experiment. GACuncoated and GACcoated
using deionized water using arboviral suspension. Furthermore,
adsoption modelling studies will also be conducted as per Hayes et al.,
2022 to understand the mechanism. This will take 3-4 months.
• RT-LAMP followed by dd-PCR will be conducted for the
detection of the above-mentioned arboviruses from the GACcoated and
uncoated samples.This will be running in parallel with the above
experiment.
Field deployment studies with the improved passive sampler will be
carried out and the sampling will be carried out after a month interval
for 4 months and will be subjected to RT-LAMP and dd-PCR for
validation of the results.
4. Outputs and Outcomes
Spider carriers containing coated GAC will not only allow the detection of WNV
with increased adsoption capacity but it may trap other pathogenic RNA viruses as
well. In other words, this technology will impart new insight and will revolutionize
passive sampling development methods for the detection of variety of viruses.
a. Outputs = papers, posters, deliverables
Being at this moment it is impracticable to establish with accuracy of a
detailed time plan for this project, since it strongly depends on the time
availability of the persons and institutions that will be involved, a task plan is
presented with the most relevant tasks to be completed in order to achieve the
project objectives. Some of these tasks will probably be running in parallel,
and the results from this study will be published in relevant journals as well in
international events. The available knowledge gained during literature review
will be also be published as a review article during the study.
b. Outcomes (how will this work produce advances)
i. Significance of this study in the field
Passive sampling offers a distinct possibility for WWS downstream of WWTFs to
acquire a higher viral signal even at low community prevalence. GAC provides a costeffective and widely available approach to (WWS) sampling, which is often more
economical than other sampling techniques (e.g. auto sampling) or other adsorbents such
as electronegative filtration. However most GAC passive sampler projects have shown
low satisfactory results for wastewater for arbovirus surveillance. If the proposed
research is funded, then fundamental experiments to optimize the adsorption of WNV
particles on passive samplers and digital PCR will be performed. If the experiments are
successful, then the anticipated outcome is a developed sampling device for efficient
screening of WNV from wastewater. If the novel method were to be deployed at field
studies, then better surveillance due to reduced sampling could be tolerated.
Need to pursue this study in US.
In India as well as in other parts of the world, the state of arboviral surveillance and the
methods were poorly developed resulting to increased mortality. In order to infuse the
academic knowledge into the field, we need to find a research breakthrough, which can
only be achieved, working with an expert. Under the guidance of an expert, the
limitations of the experiments would be easier to identify which will catalyse the research
progress. In this context, there is no other alternative than to pursue postdoctoral research
opportunities that would strengthen my valuable research experience while learning
under the guidance from a mentor who is an expert in this field. The research group on
which I am going to carry out the study, are conducting research on this area with
remarkable publications. The lab is well equipped with all necessary laboratory facilities
and instruments for the development of passive sampling techniques. The passive
sampler for SARS-CoV2 coupled with RT-LAMP has been developed by the research
group lead by Dr. Aaron Bivins, Assistant professor, Louisiana State University. Their
available reports implicated to increased adsorption capacity of SARS-CoV2 from
lavatory wastewater. The researchers suggested that this developed passive sampler has
numerous attractive features for biocompatible applications. This will allow to develop a
device for WNV having utmost specificity and increased adsorption capacity from
wastewater of poor viral load, which will be significant contribution to WNV
surveillance of low income as well as developed countries. Educating and sharing the
research experience with the university students will impart knowledge of the subject and
will create future researchers. So, I will be teach the subjects such as EVEG 4780
Environmental Engineering Laboratory (August to December), EVEG 3400
Environmental Microbiology (January to May). Hence, this research proposal offers a
potential application of WNV surveillance in Louisiana as well as India.
5. Investigator Qualifications
This project aims to develop passive sampling technique for the increased entrapment
and adsoption of arboviruses from wastewater. In the context of this study, we are
developing a passive sampler containing coated GAC samples and conducting a trial
to evaluate the sensitivity of RT-LAMP in wastewater samples placed in manholes, as
well as primary influents from wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs). The results of
the trial compared the Colorimetric RT LAMP with the Reverse Transcript Droplet
Digital (RT-LAMP) for wastewater samples, as well as the limit of detection. For that
Dr. Aaron Bivins has specialized in this field of research and has developed a passive
sampler for the detection of pathogenic viruses such as SARS-COV2 RNA from
wastewater using tampon swab. Dr. Bivins has also specialized in the development of
RT-LAMP assay for SARS-CoV2 RNA. He has multiple research articles in this
regard. Dr. Saheli Ghosh has also relevant experience in handling pathogenic viruses
like SARS-CoV2. Development and standardization of molecular methods,
wastewater sampling for the detection of pathogenic bacteria. Experience in
molecular and statistical analysis of the data has allowed to publish several research
and review articles in this regard.
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perspective to India
Relevant Papers & Resources
Passive sampling to scale wastewater surveillance of infectious disease: Lessons learned
from COVID-19
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0048969722024408
Adsorption of SARS-CoV-2 onto granular activated carbon (GAC) in wastewater:
Implications for improvements in passive sampling
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0048969722046460?via%3Dihub
Loop-mediated isothermal amplification of DNA (2000)
https://academic.oup.com/nar/article/28/12/e63/2359194?login=false
RT-LAMP: A Cheaper, Simpler and Faster Alternative for the Detection of SARSCoV-2 in Wastewater (2021)
https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s12560-021-09489-7
Loop-mediated isothermal amplification-based electrochemical sensor for
detecting SARS-CoV-2 in wastewater samples (2022)
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S221334372200361X#fig0020
Membrane-Based In-Gel Loop-Mediated Isothermal Amplification (mgLAMP)
System for SARS-CoV-2 Quantification in Environmental Waters (2022)
https://pubs.acs.org/doi/full/10.1021/acs.est.1c04623?casa_token=zVETKVQNHRcAAA
AA%3A_HmSsreORRKskmYKvgO1iTWkwf72J0Ub7ExuuoaN_B4AFEraVMy9wt5K0R4j
qlaNgmeH45IhOCNpIFI
Paper Device Combining CRISPR/Cas12a and Reverse-Transcription LoopMediated Isothermal Amplification for SARS-CoV-2 Detection in Wastewater (2022)
https://pubs.acs.org/doi/full/10.1021/acs.est.2c04727?casa_token=VB6NfXGZIX0AAAA
A%3A2X5Lyon5EqpFtl5aJUqnqAlMvXYvYIZz3JiqteOlO63PqnIki9jc9GQ4AlQiJaPYOJW
tMJgwnazxJmA
Label-free and portable field-effect sensor for monitoring RT-LAMP products to
detect SARS-CoV-2 in wastewater (2023)
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0039914022008566
Simpler, Faster, and Sensitive Zika Virus Assay Using Smartphone Detection of
Loop-mediated Isothermal Amplification on Paper Microfluidic Chips (2018)
https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-018-30797-9
Defining a research agenda for environmental wastewater surveillance of pathogens
https://www.nature.com/articles/s41591-023-02457-7?s=03
Show us the data: global COVID-19 wastewater monitoring efforts, equity, and gaps
https://academic.oup.com/femsmicrobes/article/doi/10.1093/femsmc/xtad003/6986253
The need of an environmental justice approach for wastewater based epidemiology for
rural and disadvantaged communities: A review in California
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S246858442200023X
Assessment of sewer connectivity in the United States and its implications for equity in
wastewater-based epidemiology
https://www.medrxiv.org/content/10.1101/2023.05.24.23290486v1#p-5
The Effect of Septic Systems on Wastewater-Based Epidemiology
http://biobot.io/wpcontent/uploads/2022/09/BIOBOT_WHITEPAPER_EFFECT_OF_SEPTIC_V01-1.pdf
Report to Congress on The Prevalence Throughout the U.S. of Low- and ModerateIncome Households Without Access to a Treatment Works and The Use by States of
Assistance under Section 603(c)(12) of the Federal Water Pollution Control Act
https://www.epa.gov/system/files/documents/2022-01/low-mod-income-withouttreatment_report-to-congress.pdf
Wastewater-based Disease Surveillance for Public Health Action
https://nap.nationalacademies.org/skim.php?record_id=26767&chap=i-xvi
Wastewater monitoring can anchor global disease surveillance systems
https://www.thelancet.com/journals/langlo/article/PIIS2214-109X(23)00170-5/fulltext
COVID-19 monitoring with sparse sampling of sewered and non-sewered wastewater in
urban and rural communities
https://www.cell.com/iscience/fulltext/S2589-0042(23)01096-9?s=03#%20
Global Infectious Diseases in April 2023: Monthly Analysis
https://www.scienceopen.com/hosted-document?doi=10.15212%2FZOONOSES-20231005&s=03
Neglected tropical diseases
https://www.who.int/health-topics/neglected-tropical-diseases#tab=tab_1
Poverty and infectious disease come together far too often — the solution could be datadriven
https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2023/03/poverty-and-disease-come-together-far-toooften-the-solution-could-be-data-driven?s=03
Expansion of wastewater-based disease surveillance to improve health equity in
California’s Central Valley: sequential shifts in case-to-wastewater and hospitalization-towastewater ratios
https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpubh.2023.1141097/abstract
Comparing Recovery Methods for Wastewater Surveillance of Arthropod-Borne and
Enveloped Viruses
https://pubs.acs.org/doi/full/10.1021/acsestwater.2c00460
Monitoring human arboviral diseases through wastewater surveillance: Challenges,
progress and future opportunities
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S004313542200851X
The one health perspective to improve environmental surveillance of zoonotic viruses:
lessons from COVID-19 and outlook beyond
https://www.nature.com/articles/s43705-022-00191-8
Persistence of Dengue (Serotypes 2 and 3), Zika, Yellow Fever, and Murine Hepatitis
Virus RNA in Untreated Wastewater
https://pubs.acs.org/doi/full/10.1021/acs.estlett.1c00517
Zika Virus RNA Persistence and Recovery in Water and Wastewater: An Approach for
Zika Virus Surveillance in Resource-constrained Settings
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0043135423005523
A Model-Based Framework to Assess the Feasibility of Monitoring Zika Virus with
Wastewater-Based Epidemiology
https://pubs.acs.org/doi/full/10.1021/acsestwater.2c00555
Zika Virus RNA Persistence in Sewage
https://pubs.acs.org/doi/full/10.1021/acs.estlett.0c00535
Pilot study on wastewater surveillance of dengue virus RNA: Lessons, challenges, and
implications for future research
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2667010022001706
Recent Arbovirus outbreaks in the US (News)
Eastern Equine Encephalitis
https://outbreaknewstoday.com/florida-health-officials-report-human-eee-case-insuwannee-county-additional-local-dengue-case-in-miami-dade-county-39216/
Malaria
https://outbreaknewstoday.com/maryland-local-malaria-case-identified-as-plasmodiumfalciparum-70584/
https://outbreaknewstoday.com/maryland-reports-1st-local-malaria-transmission-in-overfour-decades-99971/
Dengue
https://outbreaknewstoday.com/dengue-in-florida-locally-acquired-case-count-rises-to15-cases-reported-in-hardee-and-polk-counties-29923/
https://outbreaknewstoday.com/florida-additional-local-dengue-transmission-in-miamidade-county-west-nile-virus-case-in-escambia-county-32644/
West Nile Virus
https://outbreaknewstoday.com/arizona-maricopa-county-west-nile-virus-cases-double2022-numbers-to-date-23855/
West Nile Virus and Other Nationally Notifiable Arboviral Diseases — United States,
2021 https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/volumes/72/wr/mm7234a1.htm
West Nile Virus and Other Domestic Nationally Notifiable Arboviral Diseases — United
States, 2020 https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/volumes/71/wr/mm7118a3.htm
Current Surveillance Approach for WNV
https://www.calcasieu.gov/services/mosquito-control/disease-transmission/west-nilevirus
Louisiana No. 4 in rate of dangerous West Nile virus cases
https://apnews.com/article/health-louisiana-west-nile-virus9540e53bc079c1edf602336fb12290e1
Recent cases of arbovirus cases (Dengue) in India
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3. WHO
report
2019.
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Anitha; Dhodapkar, Rahul. Arboviruses in Human Disease: An Indian
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poor surveillance system)
5. The resurgence of dengue epidemic and climate change in India
6. https://ncvbdc.mohfw.gov.in/index4.php?lang=1&level=0&linkid=431&lid=3715
7. https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/magazines/panache/dengue-risk-reevaluated-india-research-finds-first-infections-can-be-as-severe-assecondary/articleshow/108384055.cms?from=mdr
8. https://indianexpress.com/article/cities/delhi/dengue-cases-in-delhi-touch-nearly5000-highest-in-at-least-5-years-8998121/
9. Dengue in India: Towards a better understanding of priorities and progress
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11. https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/over-600-dengue-cases-detected-dailyin-india-303-patients-died-in-2022/articleshow/102060186.cms
12. https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/chennai/tamil-nadu-reports-922-denguecases-1-death-in-15-days/articleshow/106941099.cms
13. https://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/Hyderabad/dengue-cases-persist-inhyderabad-despite-off-peak-season/article67871171.ece
14.