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#separator:tab #html:true Kidneys help maintain homeostasis by❑Filtering blood plasma ❑ Returning most water and useful solutes to bloodstream ❑ Selectively eliminating unneeded substances Renal capsuleTough fibrous layer surrounding the kidneys ◼ Maintains shape and forms barrier Adipose capsuleOutside of the Renal capsule; layer of fat ◼ Cushions and supports Renal fasciaOutermost layer of Connective Tissue ◼ Anchors to abdominal wall Renal hilumIndented part of Kidneys where ureter exits and nerves, blood and lymphatic vessels enter and exit Properties that kidneys regulateIonic composition ❑ pH ❑ Volume ❑ Pressure ❑ Glucose level CalcitriolActive form of Vitamin D; works with PTH) Function of calcitrolincreases blood calcium levels ❑Promoting absorption of dietary calcium from digestive tract ❑ Increasing reabsorption of calcium by kidneys ❑ Stimulating release of calcium from bone Retroperitonealmeaning these organs are located behind the parietal peritoneum Urine flow byperistalsis, hydrostatic pressure and gravity 3 layers of ureter wallInner mucosa of transitional epithelia - stretch and mucus protection ❑ Muscularis of longitudinal and circular smooth muscle ❑ Superficial adventitia of areolar connective tissue Urinary bladder has:trigone, rugae, stores urine Trigone functionSmoothness allows for complete drainage of bladder (rugae would trap urine and prevent complete drainage); Very sensitive to stretch; when trigone is stretched by weight of lots of urine, it will trigger the micturition (urination) reflex Rugae in bladder wall permit expasion ofinner mucosa of transitional epithelia Detrusor muscle is controlled by what nervous systemparasympathetic Internal urethral sphincter of bladdersmooth muscle, involuntary external urethral sphincter of bladderskeletal muscle, voluntary Micturition reflexStimulates Discharge of urine from urinary bladder into urethra Describe what happpens when bladder becomes fullParasympathetic impulses ❑ Contraction of detrusor muscle ❑ Relaxation of internal urethral sphincter muscle ❑ Inhibits Somatic motor neuron impulses and causes relaxation of external urethral sphincter muscle, but you still have control…up to a poin Describe female urethrashort with exterior opening between clitoris and vaginal opening describe male urethralonger (due to course through the penis) ❑ External orifice (opening) is on tip of penis (not on body surface) ❑ Also discharges semen with exterior opening through the penis UTI is 14x more time scommon in women than men because❑ Female urethra is shorter; less distance for pathogens to travel ❑ Female urethra is on surface of body; easier to be contaminated by fecal matter ❑ Females do not empty their bladders as fully as males; males have a more powerful Detrusor muscle; more urine left behind in women means greater risk of infection ❑ The internal urethral sphincter is stronger in males than in females and the neck of the bladder is narrower in males (more difficult for pathogens to enter) Give three signs of UTIfoul smell, cloudy urine, altered mental state Describe cystitisBladder infection. How to prevent cystitis?Change clothes, good hygiene, good daily water intake Site of filtration and urine formationRenal cortex Contains collecting ductsRenal medulla Describe renal lobesingle renal pyramid and section of renal cortex outside pyramid path of urine, beginning with collecting ductsCollecting Ducts >> Papillary Ducts (in Renal Papilla) >> Minor Calyx >> Major Calyx >> Renal Pelvis >> Ureter >> Bladder >> Urethra Segmental arteries is withinThe renal sinus Where are the interlobar arterieswithin renal columns Where are arcuate arteriestops of the renal pyramids Where are the cortical radiate arteriesthey extend into the renal cortex The renal vein is a ___ vesselEfferent  Function of glomerular capsulecaptures fluids filtered out of the bloodstream Functions of proximal convoluted tubuleProcesses fluids from blood, reabsorbing beneficial substances filtered out. Secretes unwanted substances. Secretion and reabsorption is with pertibular capillaries Concentrates urine through water removalLoop of henle Modifies urine by fine tuning its contents, and under hormonal controlDistal covoluted tubule Receives urine from distal convoluted tubulesCollecting ducts What makes up renal corpuscle❑ Glomerulus (capillary network) ❑ Glomerular capsule (or Bowman’s capsule) What makes up renal tubuleProximal convoluted tubule (PCT) ❑ Loop of Henle (LOH) ◼ Extends into renal medulla ◼ Descending limb of nephron loop ◼ Ascending limb of nephron loop ❑ Distal convoluted tubule (DCT Two layers of epithelial tissue of glomerular capsuleParietal layer, Visceral layer Specializaed cells that wrap around kidney glomerulus Podocytes What causes hydrostatic pressure to build up inside the glomerulus, forcing fluid into the glomerular capsuleThe afferent arteriole going into the glomerulus is bigger than the efferent arteriole leaving it What is glomerular filtrationFrom blood plasma in glomerulus to glomerular capsule space What does the hydrostatic pressure build up do to the glomerulusPressure builds up inside and fluids come out  What goes into reabsorptionWater, sodium and potassium, bicarbonate, 100% of glucse and amino acids What goes into secretionH+, nitrogenous wastes As fluids leave in the water permeable descending leave, what happensThe fluids left behind are becoming saltier. The tissues outside the loop are hypertonic (salty) compared to the interior. How did the kidney tissues outside of the descending limb get so salty to begin with?The ascending loop is selectively salty, so it makes na+ want to leave because there is so much of it in the loop. (Less water, more salt)  Na+ leaves ascending limb and makes renal tissues salty. The salty renal tissues draws out the water of the descneding limb.  What is the purpose of drawing water out of the descending limbhelps to concentrate urine and keep water. What is the purpose of drawing salt out of ascending limbestablishes the Salt Gradient within Renal Tissues that helps to conserve water Hormonal examples of distal convoluted tubules and collecting ductsAldosterone, ANP Describe aldosteroneCause the retention of Na+ in the DCT which causes water to “follow” the Na+; if you keep the Sodium, you keep the water Describe Atrial natriuretic peptide ANPCreated in Atria of the Heart; targets the cells of the DCT. Causes you to expel water by doing precisely the opposite of Adosterone Hormones of distal convoluted tubules and collecting ductsAldosterone, ANP, parathyroid hormone, ADH What does ADH doMakes the DCT and the Collecting Ducts more permeable to water Sucks water out of collecting ducts because of saltiness in external tissues. Able to keep the water what does PTH doPTH stimulate osteoclasts in the bones, it also targets the cells of the DCT to conserve Ca++ for the body Tubular reabsorptionFrom filtrate in renal tubule lumen to peritubular and vasa recta capillaries Tubular secretionFrom blood in peritubular capillary to renal tubule lumen All structures involved in urine formation in orderGlomerulus >> Proximal Convoluted Tubule >> Loop of Henle >> Distal Convoluted Tubule >> Collecting Duct >> Papillary Duct >> Minor Calyx >> Major Calyx >> Renal Pelvis >> Ureter >> Bladder >> Urethra 80% to 85% of nephronsCortical nephron Corpuscles in outer cortex with short loops of HenleCortical nephron Corpuscles deep in cortex, long loops of henle, has vasa rectaJuxtamedullary neprhon Why is the long loops of the juxtamedullary nephron goodits long hoops maintain the gradient.  It dips deeply into the saltier tissues of kidneys. Describe ways of how osmotic gradient is establishedThe Loop of Henle, especially the Ascending Limb, establishes this gradient by transporting Na+ and Cl- (Salt) out of the loop into the interstitial fluids of the kidneys water passing through collecting ducts that have been made permeable by ADH will be “sucked out” of the collecting ducts by the fact the tissues surrounding the collecting ducts are so salty Describe what would happen if ADH was presentCollecting Ducts permeable to water ❑ Water drawn out of Collecting Ducts by the “saltiness” of the surrounding kidney tissues (this salt gradient was created by the loop of Henle) ❑ As water leaves Collecting Ducts, smaller volume of more concentrated urine created describe what would happen if ADH was not presentCollecting Ducts not permeable to water ❑ Large Volume of Urine created GFRrate at which kidneys filter blood What are the mechanisms to keep GFR consistentRenal autoregulation -Constriction and dilation of afferent channels, counteracts changes in blood pressure  Myogenic Mechanism-allows for the walls of the Afferent Arteriole to constrict or relax based on the pressure inside The Macula Densa cells-sense when GFR may be dropping due to dropping Salt Concentrations in the DCT. Dropping GFR makes cells dilate afferent arteriole, allowing more blood into glomerulus. (Tubuloglomerular feedback) Describe hormonal regulationDrop in blood pressure >> juxtaglomerular cells release Renin >> renin converts angiotensiongen (inactive blood protein) to Angiotensin I >> angiotensin by angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE) (found in lung capillaries and endothelial cells)  What is the function of Angiotensin II causes vasoconstriction to increasse BP and stimulates release of aldosterone and ADH What is the preferred arteriole for Angiotensin IIEfferent Describe how increasing pressure in glomerulus will maintain filtrationif efferent arteriole is constricted, the pressure inside glomerulus increase, thus perserving GFR when BP is falling Explain how effects of angiotensin II creates a pressure gradient between tubule system and peritubular capillaries favorable to water reabsorptionconstricting efferent arteriole drops pressure in the peritubular capillaries. Point of constriction presure will go up, tubule system and glomerulus pressure will increase. Water will move from higher pressure (tubule system) to lower pressure (peritubular capillaries) Explain hormonal regulation of GFR involving ANP Rising BP increases atria stretch of heart. Atria will respond by releasing ANP.  It reflaxes walls of glomerular arterioles to increase filtration, causes kidneys to eliminate sodium and water, suppresses secretion of ADH and aldosterone Explain neural regulation of GFRExercise or hemorrage causes sympathetic stimulation of kidney,vasoconstricting afferent arterioles TestesPaired male gonads in scrotum System of ductsEpididymis, ductus deferens, ejaculatory ducts, and urethra Accessory glandsSeminal vesicles, prostate, and bulbourethral glands Supporting structuresScrotum and penis Name homologous structure of scrotumLabia majora Why are tests outside the pelvic body cavitySperm production occurs at temperature a few degrees below body temperature Where do testes first developpelvic cavity Structures in testes that produce sperm during spermatogenesisSeminiferous tubules Diploid (2n) Stem cells within testesSpermatogonium Explain how males never run out sperm cellsSpermatogonia first undergo mitotic division before meiosis cells that compose the walls of the seminiferous tubulessertoli cells Describe main function of sertoli cellsNourish developing sperm cells What activates sertoli cells? FSH What does the sertoli cells do when sperm cell counts are high? release hormone called inhibin to inhibit FSH release """Intersitial cells"" that produce testosterone "Leydig cells describe how Leydig cells secrete testosteroneLH from anterior pituitary stimulates Leydig cells by converting cholesterol to testosterone What occurs during Meiosis 1 of spermatogenesisPrimary spermatocyte undergoes meitotic division (splits in half) to become secondary spermatocytes Describe what happens during Meiosis II of spermatogenesisThe two secondary spermatocytes from Meiosis divide again to become four spermatotids Why do tight junctions occur (separating haploid products of meiosis from diploid stem cells) The immune system exists outside of the seminiferous tubules, where it is designed to kill genetically complete material. Only having half of the normal genetic material will not register as dangerous and so it will not be destroyed. What does developing sperm from spermiogenesis acquireFlagellum, and acrosome.  It also increaes mitochondria, and sheds excess cytoplasm. List mature sperm structuresHead (contains nucleus and haploid DNA)  Acrosome (enzymes for penetrating secondary oocyte)  Middle Piece (mitochondria produce ATP)  Tail (locomotion) Two anterior pituitary gonadotropin hormones released by Gonadotropin-releasing hormone LH  FSH  Inhibin (from seroli)  What does FSH do with testosteronestimulates Sertoli cells to secrete androgen what does inhibin from sertoli cells doinhibits fSH to regulate rate of spermatogenesis Effects of Androgen on menProper prenatal development anabolism (skeletal and muscle growth)  sexual function development  male characteristics Site of sperm maturationepididymis Vas deferens  functionstores sperm and propels them to urethra through peristaltic contractions Ejaculatory ductsunction of vas deferens and seminal vesicles What urethra does ejaculatory ducts empty intoProstatic urethra what urethra passes through the floor of the pelvic cavityMembranous urethra Why does seminal vesicle secretion contain fructosefor energy in sperm cells What gland gives spermatozoa enhanced motility and longer survival, better protection of genetic materialprostate gland homogolous gland of bulbourethralgreater vestibular glands What is semen mixture of secretions from seminal vesciles, prostate, and bulbourethral corpora cavernosaerectile tissue column where it becomes engorged with blood for penetration corpus spongiosumbecomes engorged with blood to keep urethra from collapsing under pressure of rigid corpora cavernosa What does erectile tissue release to allow area to fill with blood to become firm/erectNitrix Oxide  - Arterial dilation -relaxes smooth muscles walls -venous compression What nerves composed of parasympathetic and sympathetic fibers innervate the peniscavernous nerves What happens during male sexual response: excitementAcceleration of breathing, HR, testes swelling, scrotum tightetning Parasympathetic nervous system releases Nitrix Oxide What happens during male sexual response: plateauContinues until ejaculation  penis and testes increase in size  bulbourethral glands neuthral ph of urethra Ejaculation is under what neural controlsympathetic What happens during male sexual response:: resolutionStimulation by the sympathetic nervous system causes blood to flow out of the penis, returning the penis to its flaccid state Labia minora is homologous with whatSkin of penis vestibular bulbs is homologous with whatbulb of penis and corpus spongiosum clitoris is homologous with whatpenis and corpora cavernosa Two structures separate in femalevaginal and urethral orifices mons pubisrounded mass of adipose tissue overlying pubic symphysis, serves as cushion during sexual inercourse and secretes pheromones Purpose of rugae in vaginaHelp to stimulate male, sretch during sex and childbirth Function of uterus wall perimetriumouter protective layer, supported by broad, uterosacral, cardinal and round ligaments What is the purpose of the arcuate arteries of uterineLift radial branches that invade myometrium from working way in towards endometrium Where are the straight arteries generally found The stratum basalis Where are the spiral arteries generally foundThe struction functionalis Broad ligamentSheet of peritoneum  connects uterus to lateral pelvic wall Ovarian ligamentsconnects ovary to lateral surface of uterus suspensory ligamentsconnects ovary to lateral abdominal walls, contains blood/lymph vessels Hormones produced by ovariesprogesterone, estrogen, inhibin, and relaxin True or false, Primary oocyte can make more copies of itselffalse What is the arrested stage of meiosisprophase I  Oogoniafemale stem cells that undergo mitosis and establish a female’s limited lifetime supply of egg cells in her ovaries Again, Oocytes that are at Prophase I are calledPrimary Oocytes Primary oocytesdiploid; 2n) some degenerate from atresia Primordial Follicleshas one layer of flattened follicular cells the type of follicle present at birth; they remain unchanged until puberty, when some of the follicles will be “chosen” for development with each monthly cycle Stromal Cellsundifferentiated Mesenchymal Cells (Connective Tissue) that will eventually become hormone producing cells called Thecal Cells as the follicle matures Stromal/Thecal Cellssubject to the influence of Luteinizing Hormone (LH) and produce Androgens Follicular Cellsmake up the immediate cells of the follicle and are more like epithelial cells that will eventually become hormone producing cells called Granulosa Cells as the follicle matures Follicular/Granulosa Cellssimilar to the Sertoli Cells of the Testes and will be subject to the influence of Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH) and will convert the Androgens (from Thecal Cells) into Estrogen Low estrogen will causeFSH release FSH will target the Granulosa Cells todevelop and become cuboidal; the follicle is now a Primary Follicle Day 4 of the Cycle, follicular developmentPrimary Follicles are in place right after menstruation ends; Zona pellucida functionsAround stage in day 4 supports communication between oocytes and follicle cells during oogenesis protects oocytes ,eggs, embryos  Granulosa cells, growing and proliferating under the influence of FSH willrecruit surrounding Stromal Cells (mesenchyme) to become Thecal Cells Thecal cells respond to Luteinizing Hormone and makeAndrogens (male hormones) are converted to Estrogen by Granulosa Cells true/false: As Granulosa Cells proliferate, more Thecal Cells are recruitedtrue Estrogen levels begin to rise asthe Granulosa Cells proliferate under the influence of FSH Up to Ovulation (Day 14) Eventually, a fluid filled cavity within the follicle called an Antrum develops; at this stage the follicle is known as a Tertiary Follicle The follicle and the Antrum continue to grow until the antrum is quite large; the follicle is nowa mature Graafian Follicle and ready for ovulation The LH surge will induce the Primary Oocyte toundergo it’s first meiotic division (goes from diploid to haploid) a day before ovulation; the Oocyte is now a Secondary Oocyte The LH surge induces the Graafian Follicle to rupture, expelling the Secondary Oocyte (with Corona Radiata); also the cervical mucus becomes thinnest at this timeThe ruptured follicle bleeds and is know known as the Corpus Hemorrhagicum “Mittelschmertz” (“Middle Pain” in German)ruptured follicle from expelling secondary oocyte The LH surge that induced ovulation will also cause the old follicle to be transformed into an endocrine structure called theCorpus Luteum The Corpus Luteum continues to secrete EstrogenRising Estrogen has been continuously causing the lining of the uterus to thicken The Corpus Luteum will start to secrete Progesterone, a hormone required tomaintain the uterine lining for possible pregnancy Follicular PhaseDay 1 to about 14): Developing follicles secrete Estrogen, causing uterine lining to thicken Luteal PhaseFrom about day 14 to 28): Corpus Luteum secretes Estrogen AND Progesterone, causing an increase in growth of blood vessels in the uterine lining as well as the development of uterine glands other “Blocks to Polyspermy” will be encountered onceactual site of fertilization is reached (usually the Ampulla of the Uterine Tube) as spermatozoa migrate up the cervix,mucus strands filter out any that have abnormal shapes or swim too slowly Capacitationchanges in the plasma membrane of spermatozoa that prepare sperm to undergo the acrosomal reaction and fertilize Oocytes HyperactivationSperm cell swimming becomes much more vigorous Contact with the Zona Pellucida initiates theAcrosome Reaction Fast Block to PolyspermyFusion of the first sperm cell with the plasma membrane of the secondary oocyte causes the Oocyte to electrically depolarize; this temporarily prevents other sperm cells from fusing Slow Block to Polyspermyhe depolarization causes granules in the cortex (outer layer) of the Oocyte to release their contents; this initiates the “Cortical Reaction Cortical ReactionDestroys Sperm Cell Receptors ◼ Zona Pellucida hardens and swells preventing other Sperm Cells from penetrating if a sperm never enters the Secondary Oocyte, it will never complete Meiosistrue The zygote contains all of the genetic information necessary to form a new individuatrue MonozygoticIdentical Twins result from a single fertilized Ovum splitting in two Dizygotic:Fraternal Twins result from two Secondary Oocytes being ovulated and fertilized simultaneously Amniotic cavity formsin epiblast As blastocyte begins to invade the lining of the uterus,"Trophoblast develops into two layers and secretes human chorionic gonadotropin hormone to maintain the corpus luteum and prevent menstruation Cytotrophoblast & Syncytiotrophoblast (both derived from the Blastocyst) will together make up a structure called the Chorion (see Image #6)" Embryonic PeriodThird to ninth week of embryonic development Ectodermgives rise to nervous system and epidermis Mesodermgives rise to connective tissues and muscles Endodermgives rise to gastrointestinal tract, urinary bladder and urethra, and respiratory tract Fetal periodWeek nine to birth, primarily concerned with the growth and differentiation of tissues and organs that developed during the embryonic period Decidua Basalishe portion of the Stratum Functionalis that make up the maternal portion of the Placenta Decidual ParietalisStratum Functionalis retained on walls of Uterus during 9 months of pregnancy Decidual CapsularisThe portions of the Stratum Functionalis that encapsulates the fetus Chorion + Decidua Basalis =Placenta Chorion + Decidua Capsularis =Amniotic Sac maternal blood is separated from fetal blood by thechorion Amniotic fluid functionCushions fetus & allows for free movement Amniotic SacThin, tough transparent pair of membranes (derived from fetal cells) that hold a developing embryo/fetus ◼ Inner membrane is the amnion and encloses the amniotic cavity, containing the amniotic fluid and the fetus ◼ Outer membrane is the chorion and is also part of the placenta. On the outer side, the amniotic sac is connected various other structures including the placenta (via the Umbilical Cord Placentasite of exchange between mother and fetus ❑ Fetal portion formed by chorionic villi ❑ Maternal portion formed by endometrium (Decidua Basalis) ❑ Functions for O2/CO2 exchange, protective barrier, stores nutrients, produces several hormones to maintain pregnancy after birth is placenta detachment Secreted initially by corpus luteum, then chorion, and later placentaProgesterone and estrogens Human chorionic gonadotropin for pregnancySecreted by chorion to maintain corpus luteum until about 8 weeks month, when placenta is in place and takes over production of estrogens and progesterone Corticotropin-releasing hormoneSecreted by the placenta ❑ Establishes timing of birth ❑ Cortisol is needed for maturation of fetal lungs and production of surfactant to keep alveoli open after first breath ◼ Explains why premature babies have trouble keeping lungs inflated! Changes During PregnancyAcne: Due to increase sex hormones ❑ Stretch marks due to stretching in abdominal area ❑ Hyperpigmentation ◼ 50% of women may experience increase pigmentation, especially in the face (Often referred to as the “Mask of Pregnancy”) ◼ The areolas will invariably darken and enlarge; it is believed that a larger, darker areola can function as a visual cue to help newborn infants locate the nipple Estrogenslate in pregnancy stimulate release of substances by placenta that cause softening of the cervix increase number of oxytocin receptors in uterine muscle fibers, enhancing oxytocin stimulation of uterine contractions by positive feedback cyc True laborUterine contractions at regular intervals and dilation of cervix, expulsion of fetus, and delivery of placenta False laborInvolves pain at irregular intervals that does not intensify Role of OxytocinContractions to expel Fetus ❑ Contractions to expel Placenta (Afterbirth) ❑ Contractions to close uterine blood vessels and prevent maternal bleeding ProlactinSecreted by anterior pituitary gland ❑ Promote milk synthesis and secretion ❑ Inhibited by progesterone until maternal levels drop after delivery ❑ Suckling of baby stimulates stretch receptors, initiating nerve impulses from hypothalamus OxytocinSecreted by posterior pituitary gland ❑ Promotes milk ejection reflex and contraction of myoepithelial cells ❑ Suckling of baby stimulates stretch receptors, initiating nerve impulses from hypothalamus Mammary gland functions for lactationModified sudoriferous gland that produces milk ❑ Lobules composed of alveoli separated by adipose tissue ❑ Myoepithelial cells contract to propel milk through ducts Breastfeeding reduces a woman’s risk of developing breast cancer later in lifetrue

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