WW W mutati onal monogtapl;
E
D I T E D BY H E N RY S U Z ZA L LO
P R ES I D E N T O F T H E U N I VE RS I T
Y O F W A S H I N GTO N, S EA TT L
DEV EL O P I N G
M EN TA L P O W E R
BY
GEO RGE M A LC O L M ST RA TT O N
Y CH OL O GY
I N T HE U N I VERSI T Y OF C A LI FO RNI A
P RO FESSO R O F P S
H OU GH T ON M I FFLI N
C O M P A NY
C H I C A GO SAN F RAN CI SCO
(t h e mi new i oe We“ d a mb n b g e
BO ST ON , N EW
YORK ,
,
’
Y
MAL COLM STRATTON
COP RI GH T, 1 9 2 2 , BY GEO RGE
E b:
M ush : fi re s:
AM RI DGE MA SACH
C
B
S
PRINTED I N THE
U S ETTS
NOTE
'
A PART of what is here o fie re d has appeared in
“
article called The Mind as Misrepresented
to Teachers
The author wishes to thank the
Editor of the A tla n ti c M o n th ly where the paper
was first pub lished for permission to reprint it
In preparing the present monograph however
the earlier paper has been entirely rewritten an d
new material h as b een add ed
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A GYMNASI UM OR A
I s THE a
TOOL CHEST$
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TH E CARE OF TH E EMO I ON S
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E$ E RCI SES F OR TH E
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GGV
ES AB LI SHI N
W L
IL
O ERNMEN
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IN THE
D
MI N
vii
r
E D I T O R S I N TR O D U CT IO N
’
Y teacher requires a working knowledge
EVER
of the fundamental nature of the human mi nd
Without it teachi ng cannot b e made either an
interesting or a creative occupation When p sy
ch o l o gi ca lly uninformed the teacher can operate
on the mind of youth onl y in a formal and me
Chami cal way applying tradi tional and contem
f
oraneous
me
hods
procedure
without
much
t
o
p
abili ty to adapt technique to condi tions for the
purpose of gaining predictabl e resul ts
C ertainly the teacher who would mak e his
teaching li fe an interesting and effecti ve a dv e n
tur e with youth will wish to possess whatever
scientific insight is necessary to an artful sti m u
lation and control of growing minds We recog
nize the field of human psychology as vast At
best its mastery is a patient and diffi cul t matter
The important thing is to make a correct begin
ning It will be highly economical of energy and
di scouragement The waste of wrong views and
partial views can hardl y be overestim ated And
such waste is largely avoidable if o nl y the first
general view of the nature of mind is accurately
Fundamental truths gained and held
a cquired
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VII
E D ITOR S INTR OD U CTION
’
in a comprehensive way will be a continuing
source of critical and constructive suggestion a
consta nt safeg uard against error a persisting
guide to the accurate interpretation of new facts
and theories of mind p ro lifica lly o fi e re d in an age
deeply interested in psychological truth
We have long sought a presentation which
would give teachers and other dai ly workers
with mi nd a simple general view of mental life in
its fundamental working aspects We have been
fortunate enough to fin d the exposition required
and it is o fie re d in thi s monograph We are con
fide n t of the influence it will have upon the Am er
ican public which reads books on psychology
We are especially glad to o ffer this statement of
the th e ory of t h e developing mind in a series
intended for teachers because of the particular
form of argument which the author has utiliz ed
to express hi s views It meets with b e n e fice n t
directness most of the fundamental doubts and
controversies which have enmeshed the teaching
profession for a quarter of a century
For a long ti m e the managers of school o r
n
z
t
i
a
n
i
a
o
the
makers
of
curricula
and
the
s
g
supervisors of teaching processes have been di
vi de d as to w hi ch particular theory of min d they
should follow in the settling of their practical
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V111
E DITOR S INTRODUC TION
’
educational afi a i rs Shoul d they follow the gen
eral faculty psychologists hallowed by a long
tradi tion and say that the subjects of study are
not of primary importance inasmuch as cer
tain large functions of the mind such as memory
imagination reasoning etc may be trained in
almost any subject because the power gained
will transfer $ If so then only a few subjects
need to be included within the curriculum and
the tradi tional courses with a well establi shed
tech nique will obviate the waste of mastering new
subjects and the methods of teaching them
Or should they follow the special disciplinarians
taking sanction from recent scienti fic evidences
and sa y th a t the mind is so highl y and finely
differentiated and specialized that the only way
to be sure of a wholly di sciplined mind is to give
it trai n ing through as large a variation of special
experience as it is possible for the school to
give $ If so then subjects or contents are of prime
importance the curriculum must contain many
subjects instead of a few new as well as old
Each side of the controversy has summoned
respectable scienti fic evidence to support its
par ticular p oint of View and by interpretation
minimi zed the significance of the Opposing facts
Gradually there has been an abandonment of
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ED ITOR S INTROD UCTION
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xtreme claims on b oth sides but for all the scut
tling of arguments two po ints of view have re
mained to confuse the layman and the teacher
In the case of the e ducationalist it has meant
continuing confusion dualism and indecision in
educa tional practice
It is therefore not difficult to understand
the warm appreciation whi ch experienced and
thoughtful teachers will have for a theory of mind
which will settle controversial matters in a way
that is obedient to the sum total of science and
consistent with the faiths created by long e xp e
supply missing considerations which a
ri e n ce
purely intellectual interpretation of mi nd has
ignored and gi ve that u ni ty of View which wil l
make the appli cation of psychology to the prob
lems of mental development at least in funda
mental matters a consistent matter free of the
controversies and confusions the compromi ses
and the indecisions of the last two or three dec
ades It is with the greatest assurance that we
predict the influence of thi s small volume Teach
ers everywhere should read and discuss it Then
the most fundamental controversy which has
harassed the profession will cease to exact most
of its toll of wasted argument and lop sided
action
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D EVEL O P I N G M E N T A L P O W ER
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I S THE M I ND A GY MN AS I UM OR A
TOO L CH EST $
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I F we ca n see , though in outli n e , what the min d
is much that is dark b oth to parent and to
teacher begins to clear On e may now kn o w i n
what quarter there is hope of success and where
failure and may set his course accordingly D e
c i si o n as to the general character of the mi nd is
thus momentous ; it almost of itself writes down
one s educational creed
Yet upon the very outli ne of the mind the do c
tors disagree Science is brought to the support
of opposite assertions and the layman bewil
dered knows hardly where to look for guid
an ce Perhaps for a short time we shall do well
if we merely sit by listening to the contention
knowing that it is of weight for practice and i s no
mere pleasant play of wits ; knowing that we can
not as teachers and parents avoid decision and
must heed the di sputants so that our conclusion
may be more wise than theirs
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I
D EVELOPING MENTAL POWER
’
The child s mind says the one contending
group is a union of a few powers or faculties
like attention observation memory imagination
and reason And such powers it is the teacher s
duty to render strong and supple by well chosen
exercises found some have held in subjects
such as mathematics or the classic languages
These great mental powers once they become
vigorous and elastic stand ready through
out life for all importa nt needs Nor does it
greatly matter whether the subjects studie d
have intrinsic value ; the weighty thi ng is that
they should discipline the mind Reasoning
for instance is of such value that time is well
given to its cultivation even by a study such as
geometry a knowledge of which may never in
itself be of any practical good The particul ar
kinds of knowledge needed for one s life work it
is held cannot be foreseen depending so largely
on later circumstance and choice But by a mind
disciplined this knowledge will readily be gained
when the need itself is clear
Schooling so planned need not b e with an eye
wholly averted from the useful ; there may be
heed first of all to the most u seful o f things
namely the mi nd itself traini ng it well in the b e
ginning an d expecting it thus to meet in t rue
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2
A
A GYMN SI U M OR A TOOL CHEST
economy the demands of whatever later is the
work in hand Schoolmen who hold to this b e
lief purpose that the mind s powers shall be given
strength and full activity ; and that if this work
be well done the person will meet the later need
not only of buying and selling of medicine and
law but also of the still wi der service and enjoy
ment which is not a matter of b argain and sale
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B ut now for a moment their opponents shall
have the floor And these impatiently declare
that all who believe in a few great mental powers
and would direct the school to their discipli ne are
suckled in a creed o utw o m
Science has de
stroyed the simple faith Experiments by $ ames
Thorndike Woodworth and others have shown
how idle is the attemp t to train these general
powers ; have shown indeed that there are no
general powers to train
The belief in such
powers goes with the antiquated idea of mental
faculties now of merely histori c interest and
s w ept aside with phrenology and its absurd map
of the skull and brain No study gives general
training ; it g ives only particular traini ng $ ames
for example carefully noted the time required for
him to learn a certain number of lines of Victor
Hugo s S a tyr and then for more than a month
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DEVELOPING M ENTAL POWER
“
train e d
hi mself
mem orizing the entire first
b ook of P a ra di se Lo st On going back to learn
a new portion of Victor Hugo s work of exactly
the length of the old how much evidence di d he
fin d of a memory strength ened by its month or
more of exercise $ No evidence ; he had to give
more time than b efore to the task
Likewise
Tho rndike and Woodworth who practiced the
estimation of the area of rectangles found that a
marked improvement with rectangles of a given
shape and size brought no like improvement with
rectangles of another shape an d size And it has
b een observed that neatness attained in arith
metic papers brought no slightest neatness i n
papers of language an d spelling
H aving destroye d in this way the faith in
general powers an d their training what d o the
destroyers offer in its place $ A b elief in p a rti cu
lars an d in particulars only Instead of a single
power of memory there is a power to recall
colors another power to recall sounds ; and so on
we know not how far The mi n d this group
maintains is our convenient name for countless
special operations or functi ons We may train
one of these functions or a numb er of them b ut
not a facul ty in general
attention in general
o r o b servation in general or reasoni ng
Fur ther
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A GYMNAS I U M OR A TOOL C HEST
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these countless particular functions are inde
pendent ; they act almost as though they were i n
sul a te d from one another ; when you have trained
one of them you h ave trained that limited func
tion and none else What you do to the mi nd by
way of education knows its place ; it never spreads
You train what you train
The educational corollary of this latter b elief
is of wide effect It means that we must discover
the speci fic reactions the specific information
which the child will use in after life and make
sure that he possesses these and only these If
life will not demand of him the particular knowl
edge the particular functions used in algebra
the study of algebra is time wasted If in life he
will fin d appli cation for the special ideas the
special reactions involved in chemistry time
spent upon chemistry is well spent The teacher s
di rection of attention here veers from east to
west At the center of interest is no longer the
child s mind but the particular situations in life
which the child become man will have to face
“
Of a study we are to ask D oes it contribute to
the doing of the things that later wi ll have to be
“
D oes the study make the
done $ and not
chi ld s mind more alert or sound or sane $
“
The purpose for which subjects are taught
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D EVELOPING MENTAL POWER
writes D r Abraham Flexner
lies not i n th e
pupil s mind but in the subject matter and its t e
lation to existence and li fe D r E rnest C Moore
who speaks with vigor at this poin t holds that
“
when we teach we do not make minds or
strengthen minds or draw them out Instead of
givi ng to the mind form we give it information
I nstead of mo ulding the mind we are to fill the
Where the education whose aim is men
m ind
tal discipline mi ght have as its symbol a stripped
athl ete busied with Indian Clubs and Chest
weights for streng th and agility the education
w hich opposes mental disciplin e and calls for
mental contents mi ght have as its symbol some
receptacle that is being filled
a to o l chest
with screw driver chisel and plane
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D EVELOPING MENTAL POWER
almost simple and uni form throughout An d
this we know is false Memory is not a simm
e
thing but involves many kinds of acts several
of which are no more important for remembering
than for seeing imagining or reasoning Again
if by reason we mean syllogiz ing it is not one of
our principal powers and if we mean by it the
ability to think and act reasonably this comes
only from a fin e cons piring of almost every power
we have
Moreover the beli evers in mental discipline
too often fix their interest upon the powers by
whi ch we know our intellectual faculti es and
treat like a stepmother those great powers by
which we take delight and are moved to passion
and make resolve and act Not only do large
matters thus suffer neglect but in consequence
the very spring and strength of our i n te lle c
tual powers themselves are ill understood The
i
sources of judgment are not seen nor the cond
tions of its success A certain deftness of bare
intellect is overvalued to the misprising of the
deep forces that drive and direct the inte llect as
well as of something more nearly external the
de finite and detailed knowledge of the objects
with whi ch intelligence must deal
The defects of thi s account of mind are thus
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8
D EFE CTS IN
T HE RIVAL A CC O UNTS
greater than many even of its criti cs seem to
know B ut some of the defects are caught and
well denounced by those who hold the mind but
“
as a receptacle to be given contents
They
rightl y see the mind helpless even were it deft
and strong they see its lack of actual knowledge
They see also that the mind is of immeasurably
more varied powers than are nominated in the
Short list of faculties in whi ch the old school
master was taught to believe
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B ut with these rugged virtues why not take the
“
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whole doctrine of contents to our hearts $
First and perhaps least important its watch
word confi rms the ignorant in their ignorance
We are only too ready to regard the Child s mind
as a vessel into which knowledge is to be poured
and the new doctrine would appear to give to
thi s crude notion a scientific seal So far as the
child s training is viewed as menta l contents the
mind itself is viewed as a receptacle a container
And a contai ner is both inert and indifferent
A tool chest takes no active part to receive its
tools and a sharp Chi sel is to it no better than a
rusty broken one Merely gla nce at the meta
phor and its absurdity is revealed depth on dep th
Those who believe in mental contents woul d
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9
D EVELOPING MENTAL POWER
out with one voice that they did not mean
cry
th a t
.
For if there is anythi ng upon whi ch p sy ch o lo
gists are agreed it is that the mind is active ; not
indifferent but selective forever choosing and
rejecting Even its humblest experiences the
colors and sounds by which the world is known
“
are not given us but are the mind s unique and
mysterious response to external stimulation
Hue and tone as we directly experience them
the students of physics and psychology are
agreed do not exist in the external world They
are our reacti on ; and with them we create for our
selves a strange counterpart of the reality with
out And for one object awakening enough i n
te re st to be noticed ten have vainl y assailed our
These acts of
e yes and ears and been ig nored
notice and selection do not seem acts being with
But action is
o ut e fi o r t without strain of will
not always marked by effort : a child at play is as
active as a child at some deadeni ng task
If the things we Se e and hear enter the mind
hardl y as into a passive receptacle more clearly
is this tr ue of our recollections o ur imaginings
our conclusions rea soned out
U nless we a c
ti v e ly reconstruct the past and recognize it as
past we do not remember The child can p o s
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DEFE C TS
IN THE RIVAL A CC O UNTS
sess no imaginings or judgments save wh at he h a s
himself i magined or judged Nor can he create
them once and forever after contain them ;
each time that they are before hi m they must be
created afresh on the instant usually and with
no slightest hint that power has gone into their
remaking As well call the ever new movements
“
of some graceful dancer the contents of her
body as use th is name for the marvelous e xp ras
sions of the mi nd
And still more Clearly is this dead image broken
by the will In hi s purpose the boy proclaims
hi mself no mere recipient but a doer ; not clay
but the potter He takes h i s place among the
infant deities imposing hi s ideas upon brute
substance until in some measure it is made into
the likeness of his mind
But we waste time upon this unhappy watch
word of the party Not until we fin d a tool ches t
that helps to fashi on and use the tools it holds
a tool chest that is also both machi ni st and car
not
until
then
will
this
image
do
more
r
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than darken counsel
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Turni ng now from metaphor to plain state
ment let us ask whether it be true that practice
kee ps its place that you train only what you
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I I
D EVELOPING MENTAL POWER
train It would be of startli ng and to some
almost disheartening impor tance if the child s
French or
i mprovement in a foreign language
Latin let us say
had no effect upon his com
mand of the English language or upon hi s inter
e st i n European history
The exp eriments in clear support of thi s doc
trine however that you train merely what
—
you train are few ; most experiments con
Improvement in judging the area of
tra di ct it
certain figures as was just said does not bring
equal improvement in judging other figures
B ut the judgment of these other figures is not
left untouched On the contrary it receives
mark e d benefit And while neatness in Classroom
may remai n withi n narrow limits it can easily
be made to pass these limi ts If the children in
writing their arithmetic lesson for example are
urged to neatness as of universal value their
papers in geography also will be neater even
though this other subject may n o t be named in
the urging Or again if a person practice with
the right hand the tossing and catching of balls
keeping two in the air at once until he has a t
ta i n e d a high degree of skill will the effect of the
practice be confined to the right hand $ No ; i t
w ill appear also in the left ; it may be as though
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12
D EFE CTS
IN THE RIVAL A CC O UNTS
fully two thi rds of th e practice had in some way
been transferred to the hand th at h a s not been
practice d at all And in many other directions of
r e search transfer of training is found The cul
ti va ti o n of the mind is thus not at all like that of
land where the ploughing of one field does not
Eff ects here do
a fi e c t the soil beyond the fence
not stay confined but spread
It will hardly be possible to follow the a t
tempted explanation o f thi s spread ; it ca n hardly
be explained away Nor need the teacher feel
dismayed because the improvement in one study
let us say physics
is not transferred entire
to all other forms of acquisition ; that some of the
good is lost in transit Even a spread of sma ll
amount as Thorndike has said may be i m
portant ; th e effort would be well repaid if p ra c
tice in justn e ss of conduct in school were to bring
even the slightest increase in justice of conduct
in all other relations of lif e ; or if his accuracy i n
work at school make him even a little more a c
curate i n all ways when he has left school
Instead then of proving that you train what
you train the psychological experiments which
have so troubled the waters of education prove
that no rmally you train what you do not train
Indeed these experiments seem to have b een
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D EVELOPING
MENTAL POWER
seized upon by men convinced already and beat
ing about for evidence rather than by men un
biased and glad to go wherever the evidence
might lead
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B ut the question just con sidered Whether the
benefits of train i ng can be transferred to regions
that have not been the immediate place of the
trainin g $ is inti m ately connected with another
Indeed we shall fin d this o ther but an aspect of
the problem of transfer But to it we must attend
if we would judge aright the position of the p ar
“
ti sa n s of contents
Is it then true as some maintain that our
mental powers are stubbornly particular an d
never general in their character $ Is it for ex
ample absurd to think that there can be a habit
of punctuality in accordance with which the
chi ld and later the man may practice prompt
ness in keeping all manner of appointments $ Or
must we think that such a habit must be mere
promptness at school and promptness in no
Wider kind of conduct $ Taken rigorously such
a contention woul d seem to mean that there could
be no punctuality for school in general but only
for the particul ar school for the particular room
—
in the sch o o l fo r but one must not press too far
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14
MENTAL POW ER
D EVELOPING
whi ch the schools can rightly have at heart The
“
Chi l d who is inclined to give up at the least
di ffi culty has a habit which applies to many and
most varied situations And if i nstead he can be
turned about can be made to assume a fighting
attitude toward what is hard to do he has been
brought to attain what is applicable in ten thou
sand times and plac e s The attitude of credulity
of helpless acceptance of whatever is stoutly
asserted is almost universal in little children
Nor is it a trai t which is called forth o nl y in some
few and special situations ; but rather upon all
those infinitely varied occasions when persons
mee t and speak And in its stead there can be
the habit which means that one will hesitate will
weigh and test will look to the evidence for all
important statements Likewise the child s im
pulse to look first a n d foremost to his o w n p a rti c
ular self
to be vain to be selfish to sulk
thi s is a general form of action whi ch displays
itself in endless variety of detail and place An d
no less general is the change from a ll this so that
he begins to see the interest of others and to le t
this be a constant check upon his self seeki ng a
spur to action that is generous
These habits of mind and a host like them are
perhaps less wide than the memory i n general or
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16
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DEFE CT S IN THE R IVAL AC CO UNT S
the reason i n general of the older education
The
qu e stion whether the only appropriate term for
“
them is particular or general would have
delighted the profe ssors of old Padua or B ologna
For us the important th i ng is to see their i m
mense range of use in all manner of situations
and by all manner of men whether they b e d ay
laborers or di plomatists
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Considered with care th e n we ca n hearti l y
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accept neither the description in whi ch the mind
is made to be a composite of a few great faculties
nor that in which the mind appears as an endl ess
array of distinct functions We have di scerned
som e thing of wh at is wrong in th e se a ccounts
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III
T
TH E I N ERP
LAY OF M I ND AND BODY
E VEN in what has been
reviewed thus far we
have caught glimp ses of the mind s behavior
But there has been interest in refutation m de
nial ; and deni al by itself profits little Perhaps
thi s spirit of contention can now be quieted to
become the prelude of something positive an d
favoring and we shall be will ing to look directly
at the mi nd itself to see if possible its co n sti tu
tion When once we have ceased to notice our
di sputants save upon occasion and out of the cor
ner of the eye their artifi cial di visions of the mind
into faculty and function will in due time tone
down to their proper value The reality of the
mind will gradually be restored to us ; even as in
looking at the picture of the di ssected muscles
of the face we can in time correct their true and
yet false impression knowing that these ghastly
members are in life fed with warm blood and
clothed in soft skin and controlled by affection
and in te lligence and in their stead we se e once
more the human and expressive countenance
And first of all we shall see that the mind with
all its variety of operation is one is organized is
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18
,
THE INTERPLAY
OF MIN D AND B O DY
whole
Its powers may b e distingui shed and
named and discussed separately but they hold
together ; no one of them can be understood much
less trained and educated apart from its fellows
.
,
,
,
.
Indeed the mind itself is vitally connected
with the body and the child is both mind and
body Wh atever se ri ously influences his body
influences hi s mi nd If he is mentally slo w or is
widely uni nterested we may well inquire whether
he is undernourished or physically fatigued or in
bodily discom fort or is sick P oisons un e li m i
mated that disturb the child s nerves and muscles
disturb also hi s mi nd ; they poison his i n te lli
gence his emotions hi s will Some of the great
discouragements of teachi ng will be gone when
by wise co Op e ra ti o n with the home and with phy
i es
si ci an s and nurses these condi tions in the bod
of school children are everywhere recogni zed and
are given the care which science would suggest
D eafness defects of sight may be at the bottom
of what seems utter lack of interest The child s
sense of vigor of well being which makes him
ready to push on through diffi culties ; or that
opposite condition in which he is listless or di s
these are often the ex
c o ura g e d or irritable
pression of the bodi ly sta te and are weakened or
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1 9
D EVELOPING
MENTAL PO W ER
made more intense accor ding to the direction in
which the bodily state is Ch anged
“
Even the muscular set of the face reacts
upon the mind A chi ld will more ea sily be
Cheerful deep within if his sour expression ca n
even artifi cially be sweetened A sullen look if
forced to become a smile is apt to start a change
which leavens all his feelin g until the sm ile is free
and genui ne Likewise the position of the body
affects the attitude toward the object of our
attention A Child will notice the difference if
first he undertake hi s problem with body all lan
guid and ill supported and now he pull hi s body
together making it energetic even aggressive
toward the task in hand
That the body if ill treated will take venge
ance upon the mind may be I llustrated in a n
other way I t is not safe even for the health and
progress of the mind to interfere with what seems
so unmental a function as that of right handed
ness or left handedness A left handed Chi ld if
he be compelled continuously to suppress hi s pref
erence and to act as though he were right handed
will in some cases Show symptoms that are a
clear fusion of bodily and mental distress He
may come to stutter and becoming embarrassed
may incli ne to remain alone The original vio
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20
THE I NTERPLAY
OF MIN D AND B ODY
lati on o f that which according to our present
knowledge is an innate advantage of one side of
the body h a s here disturbed the delicate nervous
mec h ani sm of speech and through that has
chang ed the color of distant regions of the mi nd ;
a n d relief has been known to come when the i n
te rfe re n ce ceased
We are onl y at the threshold
of our knowledge of the brain and of the inter
relations of brain and mind It is improbable that
a serious e ffect in one part of the bra i n cortex ever
leaves the rest of the brain cortex or leaves al l
forms of mental action unaffected The change
may be greater in one region than in another
b ut it is perhaps never narrowly circum scribed
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B ut while the body thus influences the mind the
,
rev erse is also true The eagerness of the chi ld s
interest is reflected in hi s kindly loo k hi s for
ward bent body ; hi s boredom hi s vacant eye
B ut in a less passing way the
hi s fidg e ti n g
mental condition is all the while helping to build
or tear down the body s strength and health
The di gestion of food the rate and depth of
breathi ng the action of the heart and of the other
parts of the system that carrie s the blo o d
all
these and more are constantly being sp urre d or
reined in
because of what goes on i n the m ind
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21
D EVELOPIN G M ENTAL POWER
Health ful interests healthful enjoyment freedom
from worry are strength giving for the mi nd and
body of children as of adults The effect of emu
lation in school that within bounds is so whole
some ; the hunger for the praise the dread of
th e bla me of teacher and parent ;
these are
rightly kept short of persistent a nxiety espe
Moreover
c i a lly in the weak and the sensitive
certain forms of skil l found in professional work
would be impossible without strong support from
consciousness A dentist whom I know is of the
Opini on that the young men among his fellow stu
dents who had Character have become the more
skillful dentists ; those of weaker stuff did not drive
themselves on but rested with inf erior work ; that
the one man in a large city who he knew had the
greatest reputation for skill had carried through
and then taken out the same piece of work six
times before he could hi mself be satisfied with it
How much more is the creative skill of hand of the
great sculptors painters and musicians connected
with extraordinary powers of min d and not of
body only
Yet one might easily from all this expect a
more precise accord between certa in bo di ly and
menta l functions than is actua lly found : it has
not been proved for example that success i n
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22
IV
L UENC S W I TH I N I NTELLI GENCE
I NF
E
PASSI N G from these evidences that the bodily and
the mental functions interplay , let us now o b
’
erve to what extent the mind s own functions
touch one another
s
.
W e shall see the need first of all of kno w l
,
e
ed
g
.
,
If one is to thi nk effectively of sugar beets
airplane engines he must study such beets
B ut he will not think effectively
such engines
upon these if he think of these alone ; his interest
a n d hi s knowledge must widen to the principles
o f agriculture or of aerodynami cs ; and beyond
he will need bo tany or physics and chemistry
C hemistry then is i mportant for a lad un ce r
tain whether he w ill deal with beets or engines
B ut what of the boy who does not himself know
and whom no one as yet can tell whether beets
engines taxation tuberculosis or the Gospel will
lie at the center of hi s thinkin g in the time to
come $ Must he give laborious years to all of
these and to a thousand things beside that he may
b e ready for the day of ac tion $ Inevitable and
He had
e normous was te is in that direction
or
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24
INFLUEN CE WITHIN INTELLIGENC E
b est be at home in the central studies into whi ch
all special subjects lead
These more central
studies may be less attractive just because they
ar e more abstract more remote from some par
ti cul a r work in hand ; and for that reason more
“
of art may be needed to make the practical
youth hating abstractions ready to give him
self heartily to their forbiddi ng generalities The
skill of the teacher is displayed in conquests of
this kind General truths when seen and under
stood are so much more powerful instruments
than are mere particular and detached bits of
knowledge that surrender upon thi s point wil l
hardly be permitted by any able teacher Most
children prefer to play with an electro magnet
than to ascend from this to the principles of
electro magnetism ; prefer to look at striking
chemical reactions than to attack with vigor the
general truths involved ; prefer to draw circles
and polygons than to un derstand geometry
The interest in these general truths is in a sense
less natural more a matter of civiliz ation and
has to be impose d upon the child by a kind of con
ta gi o us i nteres t felt by another who can see the
endless applications of what is universal On e
h a s to fortify hi mself with th e stern conviction of
thi s in or der to resist tho se who se e only the a t
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2S
D EVELOPING
MENTAL POWER
tra c ti ve n e ss of an endless list of particular studie s
of nature and of handi craft and who would urge
them to such a pitch that there is no firm grasp of
the sciences which deal with principles Pa rti c
ular and general ideas conjo i ned is our need ; e r
ro rs of practice are thus avoided ; economy of a c
tion is reached $ udd found in striking at a tar
get under water where refraction had to be a l
lowed for that those who were instructed in the
principles of refraction had the advantage over
those who merely kep t at their interesting target
practice without instruction And in the e xp e ri
ments upon neatness it will be remembered that
the neatness spread to other work when there
was presente d the general idea of neatness and of
its value as a universal trait Ideas then are
gui des are directors of habit ; in them is com
a
c
t
e
d
wisdom
and
wh
ever
tries
to
do
without
a
o
p
good stock of them foregoes the advantage whi ch
comes from the experience of the race They per
meate the special functions whi ch seem so sepa
rate and bind them into a common plan and use
The organizing effect of such ideas helps one to
escape that pseudo education given by books of
ten thousand facts which is so attractive to
scattered wits
B ut with kno w ledge with the i dea s the la d
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26
INFL UEN CE WITHIN INTELLIGEN CE
will need certain established habits of min d that
w le dg e or ideas ; such a s Abraham
are n o t kn d
“
Lincoln had who must bound every impor
tant idea he would use never at ease until he
saw clearly what limited it on north south east
and west with no borders lost in the mist Such
a habit is of use for any idea and for anybody
Because it is not the whole of reason we must not
be blind to the part it can play in reason i m
Then
m e n se ly wide even universal in its sweep
other habits are part of right intell ectual equip
ment : controlled attention to the task in hand ;
energetic attack upon it ; accuracy in interpret
ing remembering and reporting what is seen or
read or heard ; the power to distinguish important
and unimportant These are part of intellectual
training ; these and other things take the place of
the few faculties of the older belief They stan d
out significant to an eye bewildered by the end
less array of special functions which for some are
the o n ly things left These wide and superior
powers call for training and the lad who has them
trained has an incalculable advantage over every
lad in whom they remain untrained
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There is cheer at th is point for the teacher the
parent discouraged by the child s talent for for
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27
DEVELOPING MENTAL POW ER
a
r
etting
what
been
painfully
t
ught
U
nde
s
h
a
g
the old creed which laid such stress upon mem
ory and even under the ne w with its stress upon
“
contents there seems here but wasted effort
B ut w e can now demonstrate experimentally
that virtue may go into even the adept forgetter ;
power once developed remains even though upon
the moment s examination the mind seems to
have lost all its contents Thomas Hanna after
a brain injury by a blow upon his head lost all
the detailed kno w ledge from both life and school
“
i n g ; his education had in a certa in sense been
knocked out of him An d y e t i t remained since
he rapidly relearned what he had lost So too
the normal person after disuse of the typewriter
for years so that nearly all the original skill seems
gone needs but a small part of the original pra e
tice to restore the whole And the same seems to
be true of poetry once learned and apparently
quite forgotten
This is evidence that educa
tion goes deeper than memory and gives po w er
that cannot be lost The measure of accomplish
ment is now known to lie not solely in what the
child can recollect but also in an imparted abil
ity temporarily become latent but ready with
little effort to be brought to full expression
This is a fact of cheer to weary workers
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28
V
EM O
TI ON AND M ENT AL ENERGY
BUT were we now to look to the ene rgy of the
mind , we should fin d something of wider bearing ,
evident not only in our th i nking but in every
form of will Thi s energy makes itse lf known in
th e strength of the man s attention in the vigor
of his intellectual attack and out beyond intel
li g e n ce in his endurance in the impact and te n a é
ity of his purpose Its amount is not the same
as the amount avail able which suffers changes
not due merely to the ups and dow ns of health
Some crisis as all kno w from $ ames s essay on
“
The Energies of Men may open a hi dden res
e rvo i r from which power now flo w s into a man s
every act In the World War men and women
who had before been working to their utmost
suddenly assumed duties that trebled their ta sk
The occasion the solemn public demand worked
in them so that energy came forth to meet the
need N 0 new function may have been called to
life but rathe r the long familiar acts felt an a c
cess of energy as an electric li ght burning dull
suddenly receives fresh current and leaps i nto
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29
,
MENTAL POWER
D EVELOPING
brilliance
In this store of energy connected
with a ll functions whether they be special or
general we have an intimation of the mind as of
another plan than has too often been taught It
is not a mere composite of general facul ties nor a
composite of particul ar functions but somethi ng
single and yet varied holding together all func
tions and energizing them with a co m mon life
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Now if we were to ask as to the sources of
energy we should be led close to the emotions
where are found changes deep and wide that
reveal new possibilities in education
For the fruit of every one of our intell ectual
powers is markedly affected by the emotions b e
hind them and interfused wi th them There is a
whole group of passio n s which in certain forms
and intensities are strength giving are energetic
—hope for example and gladness and anger : to
these we should doubtless lo ok for the cause of
that opening of the gates of energy in crises when
energy is our sorest need T hey make and unma ke
the man They hold our powers together ; they
disorganize and di srupt The war brought n e w
illustrations of this where emotional stress and
strain without wounds caused soldiers to be
blind and de a f :un a b le to speak even their o w n
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3
DEVELO PING MENTAL POWER
d uring the emotion itself
A knowledge of
these interconnections makes for tolerance : the
teacher s the parent s o w n judgment is subject to
fluctuations due to abundance or want of cheer
Health and buoyancy in the teacher health and
buoyan cy i n the taught multiply the power avail
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in our lab oratory have a
b earing upon matters of the school Showing that
surroundi ngs clearly influence the power to
learn Students were set by D r B ro w n the task
of solving a series of problems working day after
day all at the same series of problems Half of the
youths worked one at a time in a room neatly
carpeted orderly bright and with a Cheer
ful outlook The other half were required to
work one at a time in a room with bare floors
dingy chaotic with odds and ends of apparatus
well lighted from above but with no outlook
Those who had the pleasanter surroundings
greatly outdi stanced their competitors It e u
courages us to think that schoolrooms study
rooms at home if made pleasant give more than
pleasure itself ; they increase the work a cco m
f
f
the
fruit
of
the
e
ort
And
in
a
dif
li
s
h
e
d
p
fe re n t experiment the effect of the emotional a t
Some experiments
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3
EMOTION AND M ENTAL ENERG Y
ti tude of the worker showed its e fie c t
A score o r
more of youths had singly been set by Mrs
M c a rles the same problems to solve ; half of
the workers were charged to regard each task as
something well di sposed to them and to be met in
as friendly a spiri t as possible ; the other half were
to regard the work as an enemy that must be a t
tacked with anger The latter spirit i n a group
of students otherwise not superior to their co m
rs brought much larger success in the work
o
t
i
t
e
p
With animals in our laboratory it is found by stu
dents under D r Tolma n s di rection that a mild
penalty attached to each mistake shortens the
—
process of learning a n incentive more in favor
with an older generation of schoolm asters and
which I here report without recommendati on
Nor woul d all be willing to imitate that simi lar
use of the emotions as an aid to learni ng reported
by Benvenuto C elli ni when his father showing
hi m a salamander in their household fire b eat
the lad lest he forget the rare experience
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Emotions never know their place ; they wander
and make strange transfers and asso ciations
They appear in unexpected places A young
woman whom I kn ow came near dr owning upon a
moonlit night some ve a rs ago ; and now upon any
.
.
33
D EVE LOPING
MENTAL POWER
night when the moon is bright the old distress in
awakened form returns there is an echo of the
agony of her struggle So far as this goes it tends
to distur b and hi nder the free expression of
power In a wider and b e n e fice n t way we know
that love may quicken the thought the imagina
tion the purposes of the lover ; f resh life has
pulsed through all hi s powers
The play of emotion thus reveals the mind If
its powers seem stubbornly spe cialized and sepa
l ated thi s is true only in part and
rate and insu
for the surface D eep within we fin d free inter
course free circul ati on For all its particular
i ze d abilities then the mi nd is whole and flui d
A passion acts in it like a drop of strong chemical
that causes ebull ition or precipitation throughout
the whole We cann ot afford to neglect these
universal potencies The sect called C hristian
S cientists with its eye upon some of these ener
i
z
i
n
g
g emotions shows that the neglect is being
noted and avenged And the growing attention
to play is something of a belated redress We
once thought that health and mental vigor needed
mere muscular contractions so many foot pounds
of exercise p er di e m The spirit of play in the
exercise is the secret elixir and with it apparently
the exercise can almost be spared Some day we
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34
EMOTI ON AN D MENTAL ENERGY
shall know how much the great and b alanced
—
workers owe to their power to play i n mind if
not in body Wilson like Lincoln enjoyed the
theater ; and humor was a grace of each With a
right grasp of the mi nd s character th e emo
tions will come into their own They are not
mere di sturbers mere ornaments ; they decide
whether the abilities shall be blo cked or set free
Time and some i mpatience will bring us to share
the conviction of the wise physician Si r $ ames
C richton Browne that in all education the emo
tions need uncommon care ; that the right and
sensitive emotions of the person can alone give
effect to his learning and his judgment and his
skill of hand
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VI
A
TH E O RG NI Z
ATI ON OF I M PULSES AND WI LL
B U T the emotions are not alone in need of care
.
The impulses and the will cry out their own neg
lect This is the more important for they too lead
us beyond the thought of independent functions
and faculties until we see the mi nd s worth as
somethi n g decided largely by the quality of its
organization and we see too that this organiz a
tion can be directed toward the better or the
worse The neglect and the opportun ity here i n
vite our full attention
.
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’
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.
All children if we look closely at their co n
d uct show a number of inbo rn traits among
others an interest in possessing thi ngs an attach
ment to other persons a desire to shi ne in one s
own and in others eyes a curiosity a driving to
ward contention and domineering And accord
ing as these native impulses similar in all chil
dren and youths are bound together in one or
another way there result men that stand opposite
to one another lik e day and night Let us take
extremes to see the difference clear
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3
I MP
ULSES AN D WILL
I n one kind of youth these various impul ses a ct
almost in independence Each pushes toward its
goal with hardl y a touch from the others ; um
checked the youth drives straight a t what he
would possess ; when curious he prowls and pries
without let or hi n drance ; now he is all aff ection
and genero sity now he is wholly the bully an d
.
,
,
In another youth the se impulses are made the
The i n
sl aves of one of their roughest number
te re st in possessions let us say or in self a gg ra n
di ze m e n t has become a ruli ng passion ; and if
c uriosi ty is sti ll alive it lives only to serve th i s
m aster
In still a thi rd youth the imp ul ses are strong
a n d un ited but i n a freer way keeping watch
upon one another ; no one of them can s ti r with
o ut ears pricked up in all the rest ; and its b ehav
fo r is subject to their urgi ng and restraint But
r present youth is indeed a fortunate youth
ou
for i n h i m the sense of attachment to others
expan ded and refined into obligation speaks the
last word to all the competing interests C uri
o si ty is free the love of admi ration the love of
prope rty is free and is encouraged to fresh life ;
each may summon the rest to its assistance ; but
always this free life is withi n the wi de bounds
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37
.
D EVELOPING
MENTAL POW ER
fixed by respect for other persons Such a mind
i s not in chains ; its love of distinction is not dead
n either is it inordinate ; there is a desire to shi ne
b ut not at any cost or in any manner Instead of
vani ty and the craving for notoriety ( the rank
growth of aggrandizement in fops and in some
crimi nals) the love of admiration has been
trained to fin e strength The native impul ses
have been b rought to their place and proportion
each active each te mpered by its neighbors each
c ontributing to the right expression of the whole
each trained like the soldiers of the Tenth L e
gion both to command and to obey
Such training is both private and social
Th e
i ndividual is enriched and also the community
For in a man so trained the instincts that either
d evastate or upb ui ld our common life the i n
sti n cts of pugnacity and of sex have become n o t
e nemi es but friends of the general good Di slo y
alty to this great interest even that exceptional
treachery whi ch takes the form of crime is usu
ally from neglect or misgui dance Few if any
men are born with truly un g o v e m a b le passions
The criminal is usually one in whom the right
relation the right organiz ation of hi s own deep
promptings has been possible but has never been
attained H e h as remaine d une d ucated even
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8
3
DEVELOPING MENTAL PO W ER
liam $ ames when he says that there is reason to
suppose that i f we often flinch from making an
effort before we know it the effort making capac
“
ity will be gone
and that the man who has
daily inured himself to habits of concentrated
attention energetic volition and self denial in
nnecessary thi ngs
will stand like a tower
u
when everything rocks around him and when
hi s softer fell ow mortals are winnowed like chaff
in the blast
We mi ght well regard the mind as inviting an d
indeed requirin g not only particul ar training
and useful i nf orma tion but also a profound re
directing and strengthening of its inner order
not wholly unlike religious conversion Such a
change will usually not be sudden or marked by
e motional storm b ut gradually and in calm there
will come a new perception and a new attach ment
of the affections and a striving toward a new goal
Some thing like thi s is in Plato s thought that
t rue education is that which leads us to love what
we ought to love and to hate what we ought to
hate from the beginni ng to the end
C hanges in the di rection of the affections even
changes that seem instantaneous are not co n
fined to religion but are general possibilities of
A friend of mine working ably in
ou
r n ature
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40
IMP ULS ES AND WILL
cience veered round to poetry which there
af ter remained his chief and lifelong in terest
Another man a successful merchant was con
verted to learning and se lling all that he had
began years of further schooling The interest
which in such cases turns the man around has of
course not been created on the instant ; it was a c
tive all the while but subordinate ; and the con
version is but the final stage of a long struggle
wi thin
A new ordering of old interests and
i mpulses has at last come and a new stab i lity
—
is the result as with an iceberg that by long
melting below the ocean s sur face must fin d a lost
balance and with a plunge shows to the ai r a new
side
Such ch anges with most of us when they occur
are less cataclysmic although no less real an d
profound They are invited in early childhood
and in the years when school and college a re
working in us good or ill No system of educa
tion can afford to miss them and the constituti on
of the mind which they imply The mind as we
study it begins to reveal an immensity and an
inner life hardly dreamt of by many who repeat
solemnly what they take to be the final word of
science Each man s mind is doubtless as varied
and de ep and wide in i ts own way as is the phy s
s
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41
.
D EVELOPING
M ENTAL POWER
ical world Its soundi ngs and its sweep will for
ever exceed description yet we ca n already di mly
discern some of the forces that bind and move and
strain the whole a View which does not contra
di ct but corrects those who notice only what i s
local an d mi n ute
.
,
,
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VI I
A
T H E C RE OF T H E EM O
T I O NS
B U T some , while admitting that the corrected a c
count o i the mind may be truer to the facts will
deny that it is important for education We
must forever go on storing the mind and e xe rci s
ing its separate functions or fa culties they woul d
hold not because this alone is good but because
“
this alone is possible
How can we unl ock th e
“
child s reservoir of energy $ they will a sk ; How
are we to make his emotions strength givers i n
deed and not his ruin $ I s it possible to enter
among his wild instincts leaving them no longer
to howl in anarchy or under despoti sm but
to be a commonwealth governed fre ely b y th e
best $
It will requi re gen iu s here as el sewhere to re
veal fully what is admirab le and fit for the work
geni us that when it comes will make a ll that
has gone before seem mere groping Yet even
now we ca n se e somethi ng of the way along which
we must go Let me se t down almost as in a for
mal catalogue particulars close to practice that
pro mise to be of use in dealing with the emotions
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43
MENTAL POWER
D EVELOPING
strength giving
stke n i c emotions like cheer self c o n fide n c e good
will love ; and the strength taking a sth en i c emo
tions like fear shame gloom Even the weak
e n i n g emotions have their place and use ; there are
times when we should be checked in mid career
Yet such emotions are good o nl y by exception
and for a short time The strength giving emo
tions are for long and steady use ; they add impe
tus they put driving force into the machinery of
interest and purpose These are the emotions of
the child whi ch we should strive to make endur
I
.
Emotions are of two kinds
:
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,
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,
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What shall be the dominant emotions of the
child w il l depend in part upon the condition of his
body : upon freedom from disease ; upon suitable
food ; upon physical exercise includi ng work that
is measured to hi s strength ; and upon sufli ci e n t
and regular sleep There is a natural cheer in
ch ildren ; they normally will have the strength
giving emotions if the hindrances to such emo
tions are removed
3 But much will count beside bodily condi
tion A teacher who is happy can hardly have
unhappy pupils ; an irritable teacher will hardly
have them other than Cheerless and perplexed
Ch i ldr en catch more than learning ; they catch
2
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44
THE CARE OF THE EMOTION S
the emotions of those about them They are i m
i ta ti v e ; they feel even when they cannot fathom
the good will the hope the want of interest the
depression of the teacher
4 But besides example and imitation there
are ways to arouse admiration co nfi dence cheer
and aff ection Words of encouragement and a p
preciation an occasional bit of m e rri m m t a good
nature d pleasantry even to drag from some dis
a ff ected one a smi le a z eal for the children and
for their work
these when added to the rec
abilities help to give an under
o g n i ze d teacher —
tone of joy in the work C hildren s healthy a d
mi ra ti o n for the teacher and honest pride in her
person and po w er is not to be despised Sta nley
when in darkest Africa felt that he must look to
his pe rson and dress even to hold hi s black fol
lowers Trivial means may increase prestige and
f
i
u
l
u
ive
a
buoyant
co
dence
that
dif
c
ties
are
n
fi
s
g
r
l
e
e which adds to the power actually to over
a
b
p
co me them
5 There sho ul d be those externals that give
a se nse of pleasing order in the room without
cro w ding and di stracti on ; there sho uld be simple
and harmonious ornament by wall tinting and
pictures and flowers C heery lighting with a
pleasant garden or wooded outlook m a y at times
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45
,
D EVELOPING MENTAL
POWER
coax interest away from studies but it will in th e
end repay in added energy for the work
6 Irresponsible enjoyment of fin e things e n
directly
sought
and
without
ulterior
mo
o
e
n
t
m
j y
tive is worth the having Pict ures i n strum e n
tal music songs poetry stories and plays if
beautiful are their own excuse for being ; and the
chi ld should be encouraged to enjoy them wi th
out tricki n g him through them into learning If
children ca n be taught to sing with pleasure some
melodies of B ach s (as I have seen it done by
little chi ldren at Mrs Hocking s school at C am
b ridge) I should prefer to leave it unknown to
them who Bach was or when or where he lived or
any other fact of him or his music that the chi l
dren unprompted did not care to know Where
fin e appreciation is forever subordi n ated to the
art of wedging knowledge into the mi nd a large
end is defeated We must multiply and keep
Open the channels of right pleasure of right a p
preciation as having an eq ual place with knowl
edge
Im
gination
and
co
rtesies
are
a
means
to
a
u
7
heighten sympathy and pleasure Only by i m
a gi n a ti o n c a n one see through the opaque co v
ering of many a stranger into the life beneath
Fairy tales are an early way to know that appear
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46
DEVELOPING M ENTAL POWE R
who never wil l b e able to paint Youthful a t
tempts a t the violin and sketching which come to
nothing I can testify may make music and land
scape constant sources o f delight Not then by
their fruits Visible to others are these chi ldhood
practices to be judged but by what they leave
behi nd concealed in the permanent springs of
appreciation
E
motions
if
they
are
to
be
steady
strength
9
e n e rs of the mind must become silent habits of
emotion An emotion i s of little service th at is
a passing ebulli tion ; it must become a durable
trend a lasting sentiment Onl y occasionally
will a situation arise that needs a passionate out
pouring fire and fury or ecstasy And as for
habits of emotion they are kn it up with habits
of emotional expression with habits of smiling
laughing fro w ning pouting and the li ke To
attack or to b ui ld stronger the emotion habit one
may well attack or fortify the emotional expres
sion making the scowler stop sco w ling making
the pout give way to a smi le even though it be at
first galvanic Youths and adults even teachers
may gai n by some suggestion to themselves of the
feeling that should be there Th e y w i ll learn
—
too that in choo sing one s associates o f per
—
sons books plays o r music one is choosing
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48
,
,
THE CARE OF THE EMOTION S
al so in some degree the hue of his own feeling
Persons inclined to melancholy will hardly pro fit
by books or friends that hang the heavens with
black Teachers shoul d occasiona lly read Lea
cock and Lamb and U ncle Remus and leave to
the humorists the works o f Schopenhauer and th e
whole trib e of the prophets of despair
.
.
,
.
V III
I NS
TI NCTS W I L D AND TAM E
B U T the emotions cannot be separated from th e
instincts nor these from the will All are dis
ti n cti o n s withi n the total life and if the full min d
is to be made effective we must sketch some plan
of action that drives hard into the realm of pur
pose C an something here be sugg ested for those
bent upon deeds and weary of theory and discus
sion $ A few thi ngs should perhaps be set down
To train the child s will we must have in it
I
the great natural driving forces but have these
made b e n e fice n t E ach of the great native de
sires o r impulses which we already have co n
the impulse to have property to shine
si de re d
before others and to lord it over them to feel
their power and to humble ourselves before them
to quarrel to love wife or husband to love child
—
parent and friend each of these great forces
is needed for its energy Nor is each a rigid and
intractable thing ; it can be modified can be e d
uca te d and through it the others can be reached
Indeed each becomes safe and civil only by bind
ing it into a system with the others having them
check and subdue it compelling it to have outlet
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50
IN STIN CT S W ILD AND TAME
and expression only with them L et us consid er
some of these great impulses an d see how th e
desired end is to be reached
2
The passion for having and collecting thing s
can be carried up into a love of great possessions
B irds eggs butterflies minerals and endless
other things may with youths too solitary or
self centered be made a way of entrance into
compani onship with those interested in like o b
c
e
t
s
and
into
sharing
with
new
found
friends
;
j
with others i n whom taste or precise observa
tion would be increased they can be made to lead
into drawing painting and literary descrip tion ;
with the joyless and all others into an interested
pleasure in the places and setting of the collected
objects a pleasure in trees streams mountains
and all natur e that cannot be collected or appro
—
tarting
as
a
narrow
eagerness
r
i
a
t
e
d
S
a
p
sheer cupidity a passion to grasp and m a ke many
things mi n e and to exclude others from them
th i s greed is led on until it finds itse lf a delight
freed from this exclusiveness a deli ght in what is
beautiful or wild a delight in conversation in
friendship in goods that are not subject to greed
and amassing Those who wo uld civiliz e the
possessive and commercial passion early ca n here
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SI
D EVELOPING MENTAL POWER
e
f
appreciation
the
desire
to
win
ad
ra
S
l
m
i
,
3
tion , must keep its strength and be di scipli n ed
-
.
into right ambition In its early form it is a
c rude love of attention and it may if continued
become an itch for notoriety of any ki nd But it
need not remain base It can be a wholesome sat
i sfa c ti o n in one s own physical strength and then
a pleasure in one s will rather than strength
thence passing to skill of mind valued above deft
ness until satisfaction is chiefly in the finer uses
to which such spiritual skill can be put This
when attained delights to add to the things that
are prized lastingly and the early vanity of a m
b i ti o n has disappeared
Gladstone we are told
b y $ ohn Morley urged the students of Edi n
b urgh to seek distinction to gain reputation
through true excellence
The power of ambi
tion is thus used without its sting
4 Self abasement and pugnacity must also be
there trained into loyalty The c hi ld s sense
of in suffi ciency of the masterful importance of
others which early appears as bashfulness before
“
elders and as tagging after those whose sta
tion is less impo sin g may be gui ded into fealty
Boys fin d their heroes in men of strength and
skill ; in wrestlers football captains and mighty
hunters Samson young D avid Achilles Liv
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5
,
IN STIN CTS WIL D AND TAME
i n g sto n e , the hunter Roosevelt , rightly win the
youth s attachment But from prowess the a d
mi ring look ca n be rese rve d for the one who fights
a good fight The search for some one that can
en list the affections thus grows into a search for a
cause worthy of one s full devotion and fighting
str ength a cause that with ti me can almost be
personifi ed into the capta in of one s so ul At
ta ch m e n t can join hands with fin e jealousy and
pug nacity and the youth finds hi mself a v o lun
te er against vice against ignorance and di sease
against human wastage in mi nes and factories or
against war ; a volunteer in the fight for th e wel
fare of children and women for sanitation for
education for social and political reform for i n
These great
te rn a ti o n a l order and organization
ardors where one forgets hi mself and e m e m b e rs
only the great enterprise are in ch ildhood petty
enough ; and yet the petty forms are to b e re
sp e c te d for what comes of them
With
regard
to
the
sex
impul
e
more
is
s
5
needed than to satisfy curiosity good as this
may be Thi s imperious motive strikes into far
more than intell ect and questioni ng ; it colors
and forms imag ination emotion sentiment i m
pul se choice and purpose What becomes of
thi s passion decides whether the character shall
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53
.
,
D EVELOPING MENTAL POWER
b e stable and upright or be out of plumb resting
,
on cracked foundations Taboo is bad ; but bad
is it also to leave sex to physiology and hygiene
The whole mind must give it a right place faced
against gigglin g and prying against the readin g
and pictures and conversation that stir and de
grade welcoming instead a loyal interest and a
chivalry toward those of another sex The high
expectations which men have for women and
women for men are the expression of this spirit ;
in such forms as these the troublesome impul se
has become of right eff ect The sex interest can
not be killed by free feeding ; hope lies only in
control without fear and in a free strength given
to other interests To resent coarseness in others
helps to free one s self Examples of such re
C olo
se n tm e n t in fin e characters here will help
nel N e w co m e leaving the room in hot indigna
tion when that old reprobate C aptain C ostigan
sang a lewd song ; that other colonel without fear
Theodore Roosevelt rebuking a group of his men
hosts in the North w est telling them then and
there before all that to his mind motherhood
was not a subject for jest th e se will help boys
to avoid timid submission to w hat is gross wi ll
elevate their interests and give courage
6 The kindly attachments which run b e tween
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54
I$
E$ ERCI S ES F O R TH E
W I LL
W I TH this glance at the savage i nstincts become
civilized one may well turn to the will ask
what a strong will really is and by what forging
it has its temper
I
And first we shall see that there are thre e
features in a will that is trained and that we
must not think too exclusively of its sheer force
Violent stormy children and adults have ample
force yet with wills undisciplin ed An eff ective
will has vi gor; but besides it has ste a di n e ss; and
still more ri gh tn e ss of a i m
The will is not
schooled until it has been brought to right meas
ure in all these three respects so that it is at
once forcible un swerving and aimed a little
above the very center of the target
2
Steadi ness has ten times the worth of sheer
weight of blo w A friend of mine a mere child
standing on the dock at Lake T ahoe and lean
ing against a vessel there gradually and without
knowing it pushed the vessel a w ay until Sh e fell
into the water
Had she rushed against the
craft she might have dashed herself to pieces
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5
E$ ER C I SES FOR THE WILL
without budgi ng it So with the mi nd ; the child s
will is the wi nd s will at first gusty and variable
until it ca n blow true like the trades S teadiness
not only has ten times the effect of violence it is
ten times more readily attained We ca n expect
by training to make the will constant where we
c a n do little to alter its original force of atta ck
Let us then carry our admiration from the strong
“
It s dogged as does it $
to the constant will
teadiness
of
will
means
power
to
do
the
irk
S
3
some to resist the lure of the easy and the co m
The child must be psychically tough
fo rta b le
ened ready to defy his present sensations
Spartan youths were taught to stand pain
Their Athen ian critic said that they and all other
lads had better be taugh t to sta nd ple a sure
where character so often breaks down This does
not mean that there is no need to enl arge the cir
c le of the agreeable ; or that wi th Mr D ooley it
does not matter what you study so long as you
hate it More ta sks can be made pleasant but
there wil l remain many unpleasant tasks that
should not be avoided The world w ill soon enough
assign work which will be distasteful and must
for success be labored i nto and through Young
Grenfell taking to the North Se a and then to
La brador young Lincoln training h imself where
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DEVELOPIN G M ENTAL POWER
all was uninviting
such men show the spare
sinews of the will contemptuous of the merely
pleasant
Within
reason
a
decision
once
made
shoul
d
4
b e held to tooth and nai l It may be that the
purpose should be changed but there should be
prejudi ce against this In general we can trust
a child to adjust his will to new evidence new ex
n
i
c
a
u
new
opportu
ties
we
n
less
sec
rely
e
r
i
e
c
n
e
;
p
trust him to escape the loss from that comm on
trick of the mind by which upon committing one s
self to a course whatever it b e that course comes
to seem rough an d sunless
The vacillation
which results is wasteful from the start and
grows to a habit of dropping things hardly begun
C hildren in whom this fickle n e ss is not trained
out grow into men and women forever remodel
ing their houses before they are half b uilt
Interruptions
will
occur
the
will
must
;
5
swing back to its ol d direction li ke a compass
needle when the obstruction goes Steadi ness of
will c a n in practice never mean an unbroken
advance to the goal It means a forgetting of
the break a homing again and again Exercises
could and Should be conceived to b ring the child
sponta neously and of habit back to the un finished
work to keep active in his sub consciousness the
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5
E$ ER C I SES FOR THE WILL
old in terest ready to stan d forth and summon
him back to what is incomplete D iscouragement
bec ause of interruption ri s disastrous and avoid
able ; it should be forestalled by becoming expect
ant o i breaks and prepared to meet them on their
o w n groun d
6 W ill depends upon habits of muscular a c
tion and of th i nking along wi th ha bits of feeling
and emotion An eff ective w ill requires the sup
port o f an organized group of habits ha bits of
hand of sp eech of weighing and deciding o f
steady atta chments and aversions i n a thousand
fo rms and dire ctions Will has b uilt into it h a b
its ; and unless they be for us they will b e against
us N 0 one can conquer who has not an army of
such helpers that ca n be d epend e d upon
no
more than can a general , a genius in s trategy b ut
w ithout troops
There
must
be
a
right
d
i
r
e
ction
of
the
wi
l
l
7
It is not enough that the will be powerful and n u
The hunter of steady aim must aim at
swe rving
the right thing ; and not as di d one in the Sierra
W h o woun ded a friend of mine mi staking hi m for
a bea r $ Napoleon Bi smarck of almost i rre si st
ible purpose lacked some powerful ingredi ent to
complete their will The defect is not so much a
fail ure to se e the facts as a failure to apprai se th e
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59
D EVELOPING MENTAL POWER
facts seen ; a true scal e of valuati on is lacking
U ntil thi s is suppli e d by an imparting of taste
morals and religion the will has only a form of
training and lack ssubstance W ithout wisdom
then the will is a powerful instrument whose
effect is all insecure Guidance must enter into
the constitution of will ; its impulses must b e sub
t
to
a
love
of
the
B
est
e
c
j
8 The desired qua li ties of will should be
sought not alone by maxim encouragement and
command ; gra de dexerci se s there should be sui te d
to the age of the child Parents and teachers
might well invent and assign things to be done
rewardi ng in themselves and chosen perhaps
from cooking drawing modeling painting act
ing reading or any other of a hundred thi ngs
but now used in order to make habitual the right
ways of p urpose applicable in any work These
'
right ways mi ght here be set down with another
purpose than was gui ding us earlier in thi s se c
tion as : (a ) suitable forethought ; (6) speed and
energy of attack once the d e cision is made ; (6 )
perseverance in what is undertaken ; (d) economy
“
of action elimination of waste effort form ;
r
e
excellence
of
result
in
the
product
r
e
t
o
s
a
;0
)
( )
tion of order when the work is done putting
away of too ls an d materials cle aring an d clea n
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60
E$ E RCI SES FOR THE W I LL
ing up Each of these six phases of the process
should r e ceive due attention
perhaps one at a
time as Benjamin Franklin practiced the vi r
tues
but recurring and with different degrees
of difficulty There shoul d b e brief explanation
before and after the fact that the i de a of what is
sought should come wi th the practice and should
help to m a ke th e practice itself more fruitful an d
ready to reappear spontaneo usly in new places
And whatever is approved elsewhere as a means
to interest and prog re ss mi ght be use d here ; i f
“
marks rewards praise or rivalries are go o d to
spur on in numbering or writing or any other
study this present learni ng to wil l ari ght is a s
worthy of their incentive
an
exercise
in
s
u
i
t
a
b
le
forethought
t
h
A
s
e
9
foll owing might serve as a door to somethi ng b et
ter There is let us say b ut ten minutes left
and the child must choose between cutti n g some
design in paper and making candy ; and the choice
is then appraised with explanati on according as
the chi ld has stopp ed to thi nk to look ahead b e
fore decidi ng Or again havi ng a t hand only
some modeli n g wax a pair of scissors and some
very narrow strips of thin colored paper one
must decide w hether to b uild a paper house or
Or sti ll again the
ma ke th e figure o f a dog
.
,
,
,
,
.
,
,
.
$
,
,
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,
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,
,
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,
,
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,
.
61
,
'
DEVELOPING MENTAL
POWER
child without actual materials at hand and with
the use only of his imagination must say
w i th
no change of vote permitted
which line of co n
duct is suitable either in cases like tho se just
given or where some one of a thousand other sit
ua ti o n s is described
where perhaps a child has
v isiting playmates who have come walking from
afar and up a long ste ep hill ; shall they at first
“
play authors or play tag $
I O For an exercise in per sistence
the chi ld
havin g started upon somethi ng which he him
“
self perhaps has Chosen is
marked is praise d
o r left unpraised according to the full constancy
with which he continues to its end th e work in
h and For the earlier and easier steps in such an
e xer ci se that can b e matched in its duration an d
in a ll el se to the child s years and progress there
wi ll b e an ab sence of intentional di straction
and temptation that must be resisted ; there w ill
be enough to contend with in the spontan e o us
prompting to slow up to stop to do something
else B ut when self control h a s reached its proper
pitch the se t task will be to continue without
remission when thi ngs lie at hand to play with
o r when the other chi ldren are at attractive work
o r at play
If it is known beforehand to be
a tri al of constancy joyously announced as a
,
,
,
,
,
,
$
.
,
,
$
,
,
,
,
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,
’
,
,
,
-
.
,
,
.
,
62
D EVELOPING MENTAL
POWER
one ca n steal ; to be cheerful and of good will ;
to have conscience lit with knowl e dge Th e
teacher s task is thus to remake the chi ld entire
to make of hi m a person ; it is to use S tevenson s
words a ta sk for all that a m an has of fortitude
and delicacy
The task is in de e d diffi cult and demands the
Not i n one generation
ta lent of creative artists
nor in two will the means b e di scovered and
b rought to b ear B ut whatever comes of the
best family life or of fortunate friendshi p s o r o f
l
an
d
reat
pub
ic
opportu
n
i
ty
need
whatever
g
co mes to the mind s benefit from these is clearly
w i thin the aim of right e ducation
Whatever can
b e wrought by happy environment ca n in some
measure be wrought by the schoo l which i s an
environment planned and chosen
The resul t
may be of less amount than comes from b eyond
schoo l but it need have no diff erent quality
And most of all where the world b eyond schoo l
promises the child not the best b ut only th e
worst fami ly life with no fortunate friendshi ps
and only the bleak pro sp e ct of factory and mi ll
and min e then is the demand insistent that we
neglect nothing that will even slightly remak e the
Men per
mi nd i nto what is right and whole
se vere d at a viation from the days of D a da lus
no
-
.
’
,
’
,
,
.
,
,
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.
’
.
,
.
.
,
,
,
,
,
64
E$ ER C I S ES FOR THE W ILL
closing their ears to the wagging gray beards who
cried i mpossible
An honored professor of
mi ne a physi cist of distinction used to demon
strate to us that the attempt to make a flying ma
chine was absurd ; even as others had proved that
slavery was part of the eternal ordi nance of Go d
But once recogniz e the demand and the i n v e n
tive will of man is indomitable So in education
we shall have faith in things to come ; we shall
welcome all manner of experi mental schools e s
i
e
c
ll
a
those
which
look
steadily
to
true
nder
u
p
y
standing and to the will and the affections out of
which are the issues of life Effectively to love
what ought to be loved and to hate what ought to
be hated requires not heart alone b ut b rain an d
h and and ton gue
-
$
.
,
,
.
,
.
,
,
.
,
.
,
$
ES
TAB L I SH I NG G O V ERNM ENT I N TH E M I ND
THE education that is needed will touch the per
son part and entire body and spirit running
through senses memory understanding a ffe c
tions and will It will not frown upon special
activities ; they are facts which if neglected by
any plan will grind it to powder The school
then will take particul ar functions in hand
practicing them to do their work There wi ll b e
no reluctan ce to give substantial knowledge to
the child without which his action will be blind
But go i ng beyond the empty exercise of i n te ll e c
tual powers while valuing them and the knowl
edge that should be had it will above all look to
the total organization the foundation the great
stresses and strains in the structure of the person
The relation of this to the rival assertions
which were early examined and found disappoint
ing is perhaps thus entirely clear ; but it may be
illustrated from the human body whi ch with all
its separate organs and special functions must
attain a unity which is not there from the begin
ning so that ear serves eye eye hand hand lips
,
,
,
,
,
,
‘
.
,
,
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,
,
,
,
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.
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
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,
,
,
,
,
66
,
.
GOVERNMENT IN T HE MIND
The interrelations of these memb ers are multi
plied and strengthened ; they are stirred and co n
tro lled by hidden glands by ne r ves by bra i n that
is both servant and master of them all Powers
are present which no one of us c a n outright cre
a te but by taking thought we extend contract
and modify them in to harmony and fuller c o Op
c ration
His to
So it must b e with the whole person
ta l nature must not escape us lost in particulars
The child is a living system of many powers
powers not side by side indifferent mosaic like
He cannot be taken and educated piec emeal
The forces that drive through his whole being
that make or unmake him must never be lost to
view
It will b e clear that there is no sp ecial virtue
i n d oing what is intrinsically useless although
poetry may be as useful as typewriting But the
sinews of the mind ca n strengthen on what is of
service and delight of whi ch there is enough
without incessant treadmill work
B etter to
paint the shi p for discipline than to knock rust
o ff the anchor
,
,
.
,
,
,
.
.
.
,
,
-
.
,
,
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,
,
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,
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,
,
,
,
.
There is i n the View here attain e d aid an d
comfort for those who would interconnect the
,
,
67
D EVEL OPIN G MENTAL PO WER
different sides of schooling making each interest
,
of the child each subject studied enrich and
kindle the rest : making literature add to hi story
and geometry and receive from them ; while music
and drawing and acting inspire them all Going
thus far one can go farther contriving subjects
and situations and exercises that do not sca tter
but uni te bring ing the chi ld s interests into more
perfect order making hi s will to be of steady and
wise power In all this we must hold fast to the
good while hospitable toward the untried
When we are offer e d a new lamp for an old we
must rub the new to se e how much of the old
Aladdi n magic it conta ins Let us have the new
with the least loss The cry for special training
is a cry also for specialists as teachers ; and desir
able as they are they will bear watchi ng ; for in
choosing them the tempta tion will be to ask only
what and how much they know And as in the
new proposal the chi ld is almost forgotten for the
thi ngs he is to learn so the stuff of the teacher can
too easily disappear behi n d the bales of i nforma
tion he off ers Moreover with specialists it is
touch and g o with their pupils
I n the great
city schools there is little of the leisurely contact
little of the i ntimacy without wh i ch the impart
ing of useful knowledge is as sounding brass The
,
,
,
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,
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,
’
,
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,
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,
,
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,
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-
,
-
.
,
,
.
68
GOVERNMENT IN THE MIND
archaic teacher who taught the same children
everyth i ng that la y be t w een Shakespeare and the
rings of Saturn at least became acquainted with
his pupils and little in him escaped their ferret
eyes Factory methods may be excellent for
highl y specializ ed mental functions b ut not for
the whole strong structure of the mind Up
buil ding can come only from those tha t have it
and the demand for it must not weaken in the de
mand for the expert in his field An erect mind
kn owing the sa lient thi ngs will do more to quicken
and give a right facing to other minds than w ill a
dozen husks of h uma n ity w ith the entire alpha
b e t i n capitals after their names
,
,
.
,
.
,
.
.
Instead then of following whole hea rtedly the
new lights of education whose gospel is that sub
are
more
i
m
portant
than
minds
we
hal
r
e
c
t
s
S
l
e
j
affi rm the exact opposite while yet ope n ing the
door to the useful The Chi ld is bigg er than any
thing he can carry to market I n h i m is a di vin
ity ready for employment but greater than any
employment that he w ill choose I n fitting the
ch il d to hi s job we must have a live chi ld left
This means no slighting of detai l s His general
powers must be brought do w n to partic ulars and
to parti culars that are useful His thinki ng Wi ll
-
,
,
s
,
.
.
,
.
.
,
.
,
.
69
D EVELOPING
MENTAL POWER
not be counted as trained until he ca n demon
strate not only some proposition in geometry
but the truths that touch chi ldren women and
men that touch the life of farm and City that
touch international security
If the child be more than his information we
shall not neglect hi s taste He will be sensitive
to beauty but by some toughening of hi s fiber he
will escape daintiness and a repugnance to what is
wholesome and of the soil He will know the way
into the enchanted world of music and painting
and literature but with a strengthened grasp of
co m mon duty ; he will not treat lightly what he
owes to family and friend and to plain man
everywhere
And he will have reverence This great c o m
may
not
aid
him
as
a
producer
of
com
l
e
t
i
o
n
p
m o di ti e s ; it may even hinder But as D r C abot
has reminded us that some of the greatest thi ngs
of life are unhygienic so we shall not forget that
some are uneconomic Man as was said of old
is indeed the great amphibian He suffocates if
kept from the upper air There must be inter
course with uses great and small but also with
that great world which passes judg ment upon all
use
No symb ol does justice to the mysterious re
,
,
,
,
,
,
.
,
.
,
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,
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,
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,
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.
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,
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0
7
D EVELOPING MENTAL POWER
difle re n t from
and with a favoring for
tune the republic o i the mind is established
and unf urls its splendid b anner with festival
and so n g
,
.
O U TL I N E
I
2
.
I S THE M I ND
‘
.
T OO
A GYM NAS I UM OR A
L CH ST $
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Co n tro versy as to th e na ture o f m i n
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ca t o n a l co nse $ ue n c es o f
Th e e rro rs o f th e m e n ta l disci p li nari ans
a M e n ta l p o w e rs a re n o t si m p le a n d uni fo rm
b Th e e e p fo rce s e hi n i n te lle cti o n are ne g
le c te d
c Po we rs a re
n fini te y va ri e
a n d a c tu
a
kn o wle ge IS i m p o rta n t
Erro rs i n th e curre n t o c tri n e o f co n te n ts
a Th e mi n
i s a c ti v e a n d sel e c ti ve
6 Pr a c ti ce e ffe c ts a re n o t ri gi ly co nfin e
c Th e co m p l e x a n d va ri e
na ture o f o ur p a r
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LAY O F M ND AN O DY
rg i d u i t wi th di ti g ui h
TH E I N ERP
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D EFECT S I N T HE RI VAL A CCO UNTS
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V EM OT I O N AND M ENT
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as an
AL ENERGY
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b Th e a sth e n i c e mo ti o ns h ave o nl y a li mi te
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T I NCTS W I L D AND TAM E
1 Ma ki n g th e grea t na tura l fo rces b e n e fice n t i s
VI I I
.
I NS
.
75
O UTLINE
-
Th e p a ssi o n fo r h a vi n g an d co lle c ti n g th i n gs
Am i ti o n o r th e e si re to w i n a dm i ra ti o n
Se lf a a se m e n t a n d p ugn a ci ty
b
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Ste a di n e ss o f will m e a n s p o w e r to do th e i rkso m e
Th e p re ju i ce a ga i ns t ch a n ge o f d e ci si o n
Ste a di n e ss o f will m ust a n ti ci p a te i n te rrup ti o n s
ill e p e n s up o n h a i ts o f m usc ula r a cti o n an d
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ESTAB L I S H I NG G O V RNM NT I N TH E
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GY AND I TS B EAR
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H OL O
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P SYCH OL OGY OF THE RE LI GI OUS LI FE
London and New York 1 91 1
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TH EOP H RASTU S AND THE GREE K PHYSI O
L OGI CAL P SYCH OL OGY B E F ORE ARI STOTL E
London and New York 1 91 7
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,
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RIVERSIDE EDUCATIONAL MONOGRAPIIS
Ed i t d b y H ENRY S UZ Z ALLO
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SMI TH : An I n tr o d ucti o n to Ed uca ti o na l So ci o l o gy
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P rofessor of Eleme ntary Educa ti o n , Teach e rs Co llege
Columbi a Un i ver si ty
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PROBLEMS OF CONDUCT
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D URANT DRAKE
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H O U G H T O N MI FFLIN CO MPA N Y
1930
THE HO UGHTON MIFFLIN
PRO FESSIO NAL LIBRARY
For Teach ers andStudents o f Educati o n
P ra cti ca l Asp ects of Educa ti o n
CHAR R
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