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"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">1. An ionic bond between two atoms is a transient bond formed as a result of electron transfer. What processes in the cell are modulated by the length and strength of these non-covalent bonds?<br><br></span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;- protein shape</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;- interactions between macromolecules</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;- 3-D structure of macromolecules</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;- All of the Above</span></div></b>""<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp; &nbsp;**Answer: All of the Above**</span></div></b>"
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Cellular signaling follows a cascade of events and has multiple points of regulation. Which of the following could be a reason(s) why a signalling cascade is interrupted, or turned 'off', once it has been turned 'on'?</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;- The ligand is prevented from reaching the binding site</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;- a chemical modification occurred on serine, threonine, or tyrosine side chains to turn on/off proteins</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;- a protein gets tagged with an ubiquitin group and gets degraded</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;- All of the above</span></div></b>"&nbsp; &nbsp;**Answer: All of the above**
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;____________ is the signal that leads to protein degradation.</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;- Acetylation</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;- Phosphorylation</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;- Ubiquitination</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;- Degredase</span></div></b>"&nbsp; &nbsp;**Answer: Ubiquitination**
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Mitochondria cannot function for long when isolated from the cell because they are</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;- Viruses</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;- Parasites</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;- Endosymbiotes</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;- Anaerobes</span></div></b>""<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp; &nbsp;**Answer: Endosymbiotes**</span><br></div></b><br>"
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">You would like to study the function of the endoplasmic reticulum using a microscope. Which microscope would allow you to clearly see organelles (nm)?</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;- Light microscope</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;- Confocal microscope</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;- Fluorescent microscope</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;- Electron microscope</span></div></b><br>""<b><div><br></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;**Answer: Electron microscope**</span></div></b><br>"
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;Catalysts are molecules that lower the activation energy for a given reaction. Cells produce their own catalysts called _____________.</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;- proteins</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;- enzymes</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;- cofactors</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;- complexes</span></div></b>""<b><div><br></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;**Answer: enzymes**</span></div></b><br>"
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">7. The amino acid sequence represents which level of protein organization?</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;- Quaternary</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;- Primary</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;- Tertiary</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;- Secondary</span></div></b><br>""<b><div><br></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;**Answer: Primary**</span></div></b><br>"
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">. The cytoskeleton is important in all the cellular processes listed below, EXCEPT:</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;- separating the internal compartments into two daughter cells during cell division</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;- strengthen the cell mechanically</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;- generate free space within the cytoplasm</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;- drive organelles in a constant stream around the cell interior along cytoskeletal tracts</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;- locomotion of the cell</span></div><div><br></div></b>""<b><div><br></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;**Answer: generate free space within the cytoplasm**</span></div></b><br>"
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;What type of linkage links carbohydrates together?</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;- Phosphodiester</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;- Glycosidic</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;- Lipid linkage</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;- Peptide bond</span></div><div><br></div></b><br>""<b><div><br></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;**Answer: Glycosidic**</span></div></b><br>"
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">10. What is the starting product of glycolysis?</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;- Ethanol</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;- Glucose</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;- Pyruvate</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;- Lactate</span></div><div><br></div></b><br>""<b><div><br></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;**Answer: Glucose**</span></div></b><br>"
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">11. Which of the following factors determine an enzyme’s specificity?</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;- The three-dimensional shape of the active site</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;- The Michaelis constant</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;- The type of cofactor required for the enzyme to be active</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;- The prosthetic group of the enzyme</span></div><div><br></div></b>""<b><div><br></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;**Answer: The three-dimensional shape of the active site**</span></div></b><br>"
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">12. Glycolysis is an anaerobic process used to catabolize glucose. What does it mean for this process to be anaerobic?</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;- No oxygen is required.</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;- No oxidation occurs.</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;- It takes place in the lysosome.</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;- Glucose is broken down by the addition of electrons.</span></div><div><br></div></b>""<b><div><br></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;**Answer: No oxygen is required.**</span></div></b><br>"
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">13. Drugs are used to control protein functions and have several ways to affect that function. One of those ways is allosteric inhibition which:</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;- binds to the active site to keep the substrate from attaching</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;- attaches to the substrate, which does not allow it to attach to the protein</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;- is binding of the drug to a remote site from the active site and changes the protein's conformation</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;- denatures the protein, thus rendering it unable to attach to the substrate</span></div><div><br></div></b>""<b><div><br></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;**Answer: is binding of the drug to a remote site from the active site and changes the protein's conformation**</span></div></b><br>"
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">14. A DNA mutation occurs causing a change in the amino acid sequence of a protein in the area of the ligand binding site/active site. What will happen to ligand binding?</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;- it will increase in affinity</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;- it will decrease in affinity</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;- it will no longer bind</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;- it depends on the properties of the new amino acid</span></div></b><br>""<b><div><br></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;**Answer: it depends on the properties of the new amino acid**</span></div></b><br>"
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">15. Taxol is a common drug used in cancer treatments that acts as a microtubule stabilizer to inhibit cell division. If a researcher wanted to see how this drug affects development, which model organism would they use and why?</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;- C. elegans, because their neurons are completely mapped</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;- Drosophila, because their DNA genome is well known</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;- Danio rerio, because they are transparent their first two weeks of life</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;- S. cerevisiae, because they are minimal model eukaryotes</span></div><div><br></div></b><br>""<b><div><br></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;**Answer: Danio rerio, because they are transparent their first two weeks of life**</span></div></b><br>"
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">16. What unit of length would you generally use to measure a typical human cell?</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;- centimeters</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;- nanometers</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;- millimeters</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;- micrometers</span></div><div><br></div></b><br>""<b><div><br></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;**Answer: micrometers**</span></div></b><br>"
"<b><br><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">17. True/False: Competitive inhibition binds to a remote area on the enzyme and changes the conformation of the substrate-binding pocket while allosteric inhibition binds directly to the active site and prevents any other molecules from binding.</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;- True</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;- False</span></div><div><br></div></b><br>""<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp; &nbsp; **Answer: False**</span></div></b><br>"
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">18. During confocal microscopy, images are generated:</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;- by passing a light source through the specimen</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;- from specimens covered in electron-dense heavy metals</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;- in a single plane of focus: an optical section</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;- from unstained, living cells</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;- by bouncing electrons off the surface of the sample</span></div><div><br></div></b>""<b><div><br></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;**Answer: in a single plane of focus: an optical section**</span></div></b><br>"
"<b><br><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">19. __________ are fairly small organelles that provide a safe place within the cell to carry out certain biochemical reactions that generate harmful, highly reactive oxygen species. These chemicals are both generated and broken down in the same location.</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;- nucleosomes</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;- lysosomes</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;- peroxisomes</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;- endosomes</span></div><div><br></div></b><br>""<b><br><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;**Answer: peroxisomes**</span></div></b><br>"
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">20. Which of the following is the correct order of bond strength going from strongest to weakest?</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;- Ionic &gt; Covalent &gt; Hydrogen &gt; Van der Waals</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;- Ionic &gt; Hydrogen &gt; Covalent &gt; Van der Waals</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;- Covalent &gt; Ionic &gt; Hydrogen &gt; Van der Waals</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;- Covalent &gt; Hydrogen &gt; Ionic &gt; Van der Waals</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;- Covalent &gt; Ionic &gt; Van der Waals &gt; Hydrogen</span></div><div><br></div></b>""<b><div><br></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;**Answer: Covalent &gt; Ionic &gt; Hydrogen &gt; Van der Waals**</span></div></b><br>"
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">21. Living systems are incredibly diverse in size, shape, environment, and behavior. It is estimated that there are between 10 million and 100 million different species. Despite this wide variety of organisms, it remains difficult to define what it means to say something is alive. Which of the following can be described as the smallest living unit?</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;- DNA</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;- Cell</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;- Organelle</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;- Protein</span></div><div><br></div></b><br>""<b><div><br></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;**Answer: Cell**</span></div></b><br>"
"<b><br><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">22. At first glance, it may seem that living systems are able to defy the second law of thermodynamics. However, on closer examination it becomes clear that although cells create organization from raw materials in the environment, they also contribute to disorder in the environment by releasing _____________.</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;- Water</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;- Radiation</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;- Heat</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;- Proteins</span></div><div><br></div></b>""<b><br><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;**Answer: Heat**</span></div></b><br>"
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">23. Chloroplasts and Mitochondria are unique in that they contain their own____?</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;- DNA</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;- Ribosomes</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;- Glucose</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;- Viruses</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;- DNA and ribosomes</span></div><div><br></div></b><br>""<b><div><br></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;**Answer: DNA and ribosomes**</span></div></b><br>"
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">24. Which of the following does not take place in the mitochondria?</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;- Glycolysis</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;- The citric acid cycle</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;- The electron transport chain</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;- Fusion and Fission</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;- All of the above take place in the mitochondria</span></div><div><br></div></b><br>""<b><div><br></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;**Answer: Glycolysis**</span></div></b><br>"
"<b><br><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">25. Phosphorylation, the process of turning enzymes on/off is done by which of the following?</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;- Chaperones</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;- Kinases</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;- Ribosomes</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;- Phosphorylase</span></div><div><br></div></b><br>""<b><br><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;**Answer: Kinases**</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">- It adds a phosphate group</span></div></b><br>"
"<b><br><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">26. Free energy in the cell creates disorder. Cells harness free energy to drive unfavorable reactions by using Activated Carrier Molecules. Which of the following act as carrier molecules in cells?</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;- AMP</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;- NADPH</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;- FAD</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;- ATP</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;- All of the Above</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;- AMP and NADPH</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;- NADPH and ATP</span></div><div><br></div></b><br>""<b><br><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;**Answer: All of the Above**</span></div></b><br>"
What is the anaerobic product of glycolysis?<br>Group of answer choices<br><br>Maltose<br><br>Sucrose<br><br>Lactate<br><br>CarbohydratesLactate
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">**Acetyl CoA can be derived from what sources?**</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;- Pyruvate</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;- Fatty Acids</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;- ATP</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;- NADH</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;- Pyruvate and fatty acids</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;- Pyruvate and ATP</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;- ATP and NADH</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;- Fatty acids and ATP</span></div><br></b>""<b><div><br></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;**Pyruvate and fatty acids**</span></div><br></b>"
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">3. **Cholesterol is an essential component of cellular membranes. It is a(n) ___________ molecule, having both hydrophilic and hydrophobic regions.**</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;- Polar</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;- Oxygen-containing</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;- Hydrophobic</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;- Amphipathic</span></div><div><br></div></b><br>""<b><div><br></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp; &nbsp; **Amphipathic**</span></div></b><br>"
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">4. Competitive inhibition binds to a remote area on the enzyme and changes the conformation of the substrate-binding pocket while allosteric inhibition binds directly to the active site and prevents any other molecules from binding</span></div><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">True</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">False</span></div></li></ul></b><br>""<b><div><br></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">**False**</span></div></b><br>"
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">5. **Which of the following INCORRECTLY pairs a metabolic process with its site of occurrence?**</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;- Glycolysis - Cytosol</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;- The Citric Acid Cycle - Mitochondrial membrane</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;- ATP phosphorylation - Cytosol and mitochondria</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;- Electron Transport Chain - Inner Mitochondrial Membrane</span></div><div><br></div></b>""<b><div><br></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;- **The Citric Acid Cycle - Mitochondrial membrane**</span></div></b><br>-&gt; Citric acid cycle is located in the matrix"
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">6. **What products come out of the Citric acid cycle?**</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;- Glucose and Water</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;- Pyruvate and Carbon Dioxide</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;- Ethanol and Carbon Dioxide</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;- ATP, NADH, FADH2</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;- ATP and Ethanol</span></div></b><br>""<b><div><br></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp; &nbsp;**ATP, NADH, FADH2**</span></div></b><br>"
"<b><br><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">7. **Phosphorylation, the process of turning enzymes on/off is done by which of the following?**</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;- Chaperones</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;- Kinases</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;- Ribosomes</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;- Phosphorylase</span></div></b><br>""<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;**Kinases**</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;""><br></span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Phosphotase is the other process (this removes a phosphate group)</span></div></b><br>"
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">8. **Free energy in the cell creates disorder. Cells harness free energy to drive unfavorable reactions by using Activated Carrier Molecules. Which of the following act as carrier molecules in cells?**</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;- AMP</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;- NADPH</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;- FAD</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;- ATP</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;- All of the Above</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;- AMP and NADPH</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;- NADPH and ATP</span></div></b><br>""<b><div><br></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp; **All of the Above**</span></div></b><br>"
What is Cell theory?Cells are only generated from pre-existing cells
DNA undergos what process -&gt; RNA?DNA Synthesis (replication)
"RNA -&gt; protein is called RNA <span style=""background-color: rgb(170, 85, 0);"">translation</span>"
What does DNA hold? What're they called as a collective group?Genes&nbsp;<br>Genome (full set of genes)
Viruses make their own proteins<br>T/FFalse
Viruses must hijack a host to reproduce<br>T/F<br>Is it alive?* True - Must hijack DNA or RNA to produce proteins<br>* Not alive
What is the process for RNA -&gt; Protiens called?Translation
____ Microscope sees black and white. Uses light source.Light Microscope
____ Microscope is <u>colorful</u> and <u>detailed</u>. Uses a laser.Confocal Microscope
____ Microscope is very detailed, must coat subject in metal. Sees molecules and organelles (ribosomes, etc). Shoots electron w/ electron gunElectron Microscope
Which cell type has Nucleoid, capsule, flagellum, cell wall, cell membrane, and ribosomes?Prokaryote
Which cell type has Nucleolis, mitochondria, nucleus, and ribosomes?Eukaryote
Prokaryotes are single celled T/FTrue
Eukaryotes CAN be unicellular T/FTrue<br>EX: Yeast &amp; amoebae
Which cell type is this?<br><br>1) Larger, nucleus, membrane-bound organelle<br>2) multicellular (plants &amp; animals)Eukaryote
"<img src=""glob.png"">name the parts of this"The block = globular protein<br>small circular branches above phospholipids are glycolipids
protective layer of the nucleus &amp; how many membrane?Nuclear envelope; 2 membranes (2 phospholipid bilayers)
Eukaryote likely evolved from predators? T/FTrue
"What organelle consists of no membrane, RNA, &amp; proteins? - ""The factories"""Ribosomes
How many membranes does chloroplast have?<br>Theory behind it?<br>What light is reflected?3 (inner, outer, and thylakoid membranes)<br>Was a former photosynthetic bacteria that got engulfed by an eukaryotic cell and stayed (has own ribosomes and DNA to further support this theory)<br>- Differences similar to mitochondria
Golgi body / apparatus is located by the ___ and does what?* Located by ER (Endoplasmic Reticulum)<br>* Receives things from ER, ships to plasma membrane -&gt; outside of the cell
Lysosomes do what?Break down food and release back into cell &amp; recycle waste
Peroxisomes do what?Break down Hydrogen Peroxide (H2O2) into water!
Does RNA or DNA contain oxygen?RNA
How many bonds hold together Guanine (G) and Cytosine (C)?3
How many bonds are between / in Adenine (A) and Thymine (T)?2 bonds
"To which does these nucleotides belong? <span style=""background-color: rgb(170, 85, 0);"">GUAC</span>"RNA (usually single stranded, not always)
"To which does these nucleotides belong? <span style=""background-color: rgb(170, 85, 0);"">ACGT</span>"DNA
What helps the cell move, and has a part in endocytosis: trasporting goods into the cell?Crytoskeleton (flexes)
Formula for Nucleotide?(1)Phosphate + (1)sugar + (4)base = (1)NUCLEOTIDE
"Escherichia Coli <br>""Ecoli"""Most understood organism<br>Single cellular, 2x stranded DNA
Saccharomyces CerevisiaeEukaryote (good minimal model)<br>Example: Yeast
Drosphila MelanogasterShows us DNA instruction -&gt; structure multicellular organism<br>DNA genome is well known<br>= <u>Fruitfly&nbsp;</u>(Fruitfly is a gangster)
Arabidopsis ThalianaComplete DNA is known, easy to grow indoors<br>common wall cress, produces thousands of offspring in 8-10 weeks (VERY PLENTIFUL &amp; EASY)<br>* Bus down Thaliana lmao she a plant
Caenorhabditis ElegansNervous system is completely mapped out<br>led to understanidng of program death
Danio Rerio"Good to study organs (Transparent for first 2 weeks of life)<br>Great for <span style=""background-color: rgb(170, 85, 0);"">developmental studies</span><br>* Zebra fish"
Mus MusculusPhysiology is very similar to humans (shows identical gene deformation)<br>last stage in pharmaceutical trials
Immortal cells are ... and why?Cancer cells becuase they can grow indefinitely&nbsp;
What is the Hayflick limitTotal amount a cell can divide before it dies = 40&nbsp;
What factors are life dependent on?Temp (environmental conditions) and pH
what is an isotope?Atom w/ extra neutron
Increased distance from nucleus = increased power in electron<br>T/F?True
What type of bond loses and gains an electron? (not sharing)Ionic
Hydrophilic is polar or nonpolar?polar -&gt; dissolves in water
polymerization?"Is the bonding/forming of monomers to form polymers by <span style=""background-color: rgb(170, 85, 0);"">covalent bonds</span>"
what are the polymers of sugar (monomer)?Polysaccharide, glycogen, and starch (plants)
what are the polymers of fatty acids (monomer)fats &amp; membrane <u>lipids</u>
what are the polymers of amino acids (monomers)proteins
what are the polymers of nucleotides (monomer)nucleic acids
what 2 processes can form polysaccharides?"Hydrolysis<br>- Adds water into the reaction, breaking the H2O to form the bond.<br><br>Condensation<br>- Removing water from the reaction, forming H2O<img src=""IMG_3804.png"" style=""float: right;"" width=""832"">"
Lipids (made up of fatty acids) are considered ___ becuase..."considered <span style=""background-color: rgb(170, 85, 0);"">amphipathic</span> -&gt; they have a hydrophilic head and hydrophobic lipids (where can be satuarted / unsaturated)"
saturated vs unsaturatedSaturated = no double bonds, so lipids / chain is straight&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;--------<br>&nbsp; &nbsp;*meats and dairy, so yes <u>polar</u><br>Unsaturated = yes double bond(s), so lipids / chain is crooked&nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp; /\/\/\/<br>&nbsp; &nbsp;*oils, so <u>nonpolar</u>
What bonds hold amino acids together?Peptide bonds (aminos having <u>pep</u>-<u>t</u>alks, letting them <u>bond</u>)<br>* peptide bonds = covalent bonds
Amino acids have terminous N&amp;C groups<br>T/F?True
what direction do nucleotides go in?&nbsp;<br><br>5' -&gt; 3'<br>2' -&gt; 7'<br>3' -&gt; 4'<br>6' -&gt; 3'(start) 5' -&gt; 3' (end)&nbsp;
What bonds hold together sugars?to form polysaccharides = glychosidic bonds
what bonds hold together nucleotides?to form nucleic acids = phosphodiester bonds<br>* has a condesation rxn...
cells extract energy from environment? (remember plant cells)<br>T/F?True
2 types of metabolismCatabolic: Break down food -&gt; smaller molecules -&gt; energy released&nbsp;<br>&nbsp; &nbsp;*energetically favorable cuz exergonic<br><br>Anabolic: Make energy, then use energy for synthesis<br>&nbsp; &nbsp;*unfavorable cuz endergonic
what is an enzyme?A type of protein that acts as a cataclyst for reaction rates. <br>binds to active site, then released product.. ENZYME DOESN'T GET USED<br>very specific purpose / binding due to shape (DNA determines this).
1st &amp; 2nd law thermodynamics1st = Energy conservation<br>2nd = Entropy will always increase in universe and req more energy to reverse
Most disordered form of energy?Heat
Type of energy carriersNADH, FADH2, &amp; NADPH (P for plants)
what bonds hold together ATP?Phosphoanhydride bonds
Difference between ATP &amp; ADP?+/- 1 phosphate group<br><br>ATP has 3 phosphate groups (+∆G)<br>ADP has 2 phosphate groups (-∆G)
Condensation vs Hydrolysis (which is favorable)Condensation = favorable becuase <u>releasing</u> H2O<br>&nbsp; &nbsp;*releasing is fav becuase req less energy and entropy easier to increase than to decrease
Steps in cellular respiration:Glycolysis -&gt; pyruvate oxidized (partial step) -&gt; citric acid cycle -&gt; Oxidative Phosphorylation
Glycolysis info (reactants &amp; products)&nbsp;+ locationGlucose -&gt; <u>Pyruvate</u>, ATP, NADH<br><br>In Cytosol (NOT in mitochondria)
Pyruvate Oxidized info (reactants &amp; products)&nbsp;+ locationPyruvate -&gt; Acetyl CoA, NADH, CO2 (first time being released)<br><br>In Mitochrondria Matrix (says google)
Citric Acid Cycle info (reactants &amp; products) + locationAcetyl CoA -&gt; NADH, FADH2, GTP/ATP, CO2 (by-product)<br><br>In Mitochondria Matrix
Oxidative Phosphorylation info (reactants &amp; products) + location"NADH &amp; FADH2 <span style=""background-color: rgb(170, 85, 0);"">+O2</span> -&gt; Phosphate group, <span style=""background-color: rgb(170, 85, 0);"">30 ATP</span>&nbsp;(main product)<br>&nbsp; &nbsp;*First step to use oxygen (for e- transport chain... aerobic reaction)<br>&nbsp; &nbsp;*e- carriers drop off e- to electron transport chain, pumping H+ to go though membrane.<br>&nbsp; &nbsp;*ATP Synthesis = flow H+ ions in... ADP -&gt; ATP<br><br>In mitochondria (Inner membrane)"
Glucogenesis is the...Opposite of glycolysis. Energetically unfavorable method to produce glucose (req a LOT of energy).
1. Glycogen Synthase does what?<br>2. Glycogen Phosphorylation?"1. Glycogen Synthase <span style=""background-color: rgb(170, 85, 0);"">makes</span> glycogen<br>2. Glycogen Phosphorylation <span style=""background-color: rgb(170, 85, 0);"">breaks</span> glycogen with a <u>phosphate group</u>"
Plant fats are similar to animal fats except...*Plant fats are usually unsaturated... insoluable in water<br>*These fats still store energy the same (contains water insoluable)<br>
Mitochondria info + location*Composed of 2 membranes (outer, inner) &amp; matrix<br>*Can undergo fission (divide) and fusion (joining)<br>*Found in cardiac muscle cells (where energy is used the most so it's located where it's needed)&nbsp;<br>*Animal and plant cells
e- transport chain -&gt;...&nbsp; &nbsp;*e- pumps H+ ions across cell membrane<br>&nbsp; &nbsp;*Proton gradient used to make ATP<br>&nbsp; &nbsp;* leads to ATP Synthase
ATP Synthase&nbsp; &nbsp;*High concentration of ATP = low concentration of H+ ions... INVERSLY RELATED
Chloroplast System (incl photosynthesis)"H2O + light -&gt; (photosystem II) -&gt; (e- transport chain) -&gt; (photosystem I) -&gt; ATP &amp; NADPH&nbsp;<br>THEN for the rest of photosynthesis...<br>put into <span style=""background-color: rgb(170, 85, 0);"">Calvin Cycle(metabolic pathway) + CO2 = O2 &amp; glucose</span>"
1. What must fold to complete transformation?<br>2. What is NCC considered to be?<br>3. What group makes&nbsp;<u>&nbsp;(1A)&nbsp;</u>&nbsp;differnet from others? (unique)1. Protein<br>2. NCC = Backbone<br>3. R groups make proteins different from eachother, determining function.
Protein... &amp; bond type(s)<br>&nbsp; &nbsp;*Primary:&nbsp;<br>&nbsp; &nbsp;*Secondary:&nbsp;<br>&nbsp; &nbsp;*Tertiary:&nbsp;<br>&nbsp; &nbsp;*Quaternary:&nbsp;"*Primary: amino acid sequence =&nbsp;<span style=""background-color: rgb(170, 85, 0);"">(Peptide bonds)<br></span><br>&nbsp; &nbsp;*Secondary: regular folding portion, polymeric molecule =&nbsp;<span style=""background-color: rgb(170, 85, 0);"">(H bonds)</span><br>- Backbone - backbone Hbonds start<br><br>&nbsp; &nbsp;*Tertiary: full 3D confirmation formed by entire polypeptide chain =&nbsp;<span style=""background-color: rgb(170, 85, 0);"">(disulfide, hydrogen, ionic, and van der waals interactions)</span><br>- Backbone - sidechain &amp; Side chain - side chain start<br><br>&nbsp; &nbsp;*Quaternary: formed complex w/ more than 1 polypeptide chain. Various&nbsp;<u>subunits (has a lot of identical sub units/R groups)</u>. =&nbsp;<span style=""background-color: rgb(170, 85, 0);"">(non covalent: mostly Hbonds &amp; van der waals)</span>"
Quaternary Regulation...The formation of a complex protein structure but does not mean it is active/used. Cell can form the protein and keep it on hold in that form until it wants to take it apart and use it for something else... Needs to break polypeptide chains first ofc.&nbsp;<br><br>-&gt; Coming together can activate/deactivate a protein, not a given that it turns on.
Side chain parts &amp; where is foundhydrophobic (internal) &amp; hydrophillic (external)<br>Found in secondary and up
what do disulfide bonds do? where located?"<span style=""background-color: rgb(170, 85, 0);"">Extracellular</span> proteins are held together by these bonds break down bacteria&nbsp;"
molecular chaperone does what?Helps protein fold correctly
3 diseases related to improper protein folding and how done?"Alzheimers: accumulation of insoluable <span style=""background-color: rgb(170, 85, 0);"">plaques</span> in the <span style=""background-color: rgb(170, 85, 0);"">brain</span><br>Prions: misfold and <span style=""background-color: rgb(170, 85, 0);"">cause other/more proteins to fold improperly</span> (BSE, CJD, Scrapie, Kuru) =&gt; PrPsc... Infectous human disease.<br>Parkinsons: misfolding of α-synuclein. <span style=""background-color: rgb(170, 85, 0);"">kills</span> dopamingeric neurons in&nbsp;<span style=""background-color: rgb(170, 85, 0);"">brain</span>."
a _ _____ can form transmembrane proteins<br>what structure can it form?α-helix<br>Coiled-coil structure (secondary)<br>&nbsp; &nbsp;*also a common structure of amino acids
What is anti parallel?opposite orientation N -&gt; C&nbsp; &nbsp;<br><br>^ v ^&nbsp; (tip of arrow leads into backend of next arrow)
What is parallel orientation?Same orientation<br><br>^ ^ ^&nbsp; &nbsp;(Tip of arrow leads into back end of next arrow)
Beta-pleated sheetsCommon secondary structure in proteins (made up of 2 or more polypeptide chains)<br>H-bonds
Protein Domain?"Part of the protein that functions independently, serves a particular fxn<br>""red light bulb is protein domain"""
Protein Families are what?&nbsp; &nbsp;*It means that they have similar jobs and are grouped this way.<br>&nbsp; &nbsp;*Evolve overtime (1st with chemical evolution)<br>&nbsp; &nbsp;*Different proteins have different acids
1. Ligand? goes where?<br>2. What kind of bonds w active sites?1. Small molecule that goes to binding site<br>2. Non-covalent bonds (molecule dating)
Anti bodiesproteins from immune system that have binding sites at the tips
2 types of signaling <u>feedback</u>Positive = make more<br>Negative = stope / make less
Feedback Inhibition &amp; what kind of feedback is it?*Cellular control mechanism that regulates how much of an enzyme's end product is produced BY the product. (in metabolism)<br>*Negative feedback<br><br>&nbsp; &nbsp;*Enzyme attatches to molecules and alters them into a prod.. This feedback system regulates the enzyme in it's production process.
Enzymes and ADP relation?<br>Activity w/ and w/o?<br>What does CTP do to an enzyme?1.&nbsp; &nbsp;ADP binds with enzyme to make easier for glucose and substrates to bind to it<br><br>2.&nbsp; &nbsp;*w/o ADP = about 10% active<br>&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; *w/ ADP = 100% active (all enzymes have enzymes and glucose)<br><br>3.&nbsp; &nbsp;CTP shuts off active site on enzyme
a) Posttranslation modification?<br><br>b) 2 methods in this?"a) Means that proteins can be modified after being formed by turning on or off.. utilizes <span style=""background-color: rgb(170, 85, 0);"">phosphate groups</span><br>b)&nbsp; &nbsp;1. <span style=""background-color: rgb(170, 85, 0);"">Kinases</span> adds a phosphate group to turn protein on/off<br>&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; 2. <span style=""background-color: rgb(170, 85, 0);"">Phosphorylation</span> removes a phosphate group from protein to turn it on/off<br>"
What can GTP bind to? What does that mean? What sequence does GTP follow?"GTP can bind to proteins. Protein + GTP = ON (will always = on)<br>Turn off by removing phosphate group from GTP -&gt; GDP (<span style=""background-color: rgb(170, 85, 0);"">Hydrolysis</span>)<br>Then GDP can be removed &amp; replaced w GTP to reactive protein (turn back on)<br>TIP: lmao kind of like a redstone torch&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp;<img alt=""Redstone Torch – Minecraft Wiki"" src=""paste-f717d43ddac6a2c67a5a7a95749cb20f84b6c58f.png"">"
Proteins can walk T/F?&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;*plug walk*"TRUE<br><br>Proteins can walk utilizing ATP: +ATP -&gt; Hydrolysis removes phosphate group -&gt; ADP now leaves which makes it move, then repeat.&nbsp;<br>*Req a lot of energy*<br><br>TIP: req a lot of energy to walk w deez bands&nbsp;<img alt=""Stream Juice WRLD - Plug Walk by BetterThanGood | Listen online for free on SoundCloud"" src=""paste-ff65b95e4bb7139434677fee318ddb5fab22bb55.jpg"">"
Protein Machines/mechanismsCan do steps w the addition of ATP &amp; release of ADP (like the process w GTP in a protein or ATP in walking protein)
What protein is seen in cancer and why dangerous?"<span style=""background-color: rgb(170, 85, 0);"">P53</span> = seen in cancer and has over 20 mods &amp; unpredictable excess mods<br><br>*looks like PS3 lol"
2 parts to Cell signaling (easy)1: Extracellular signal molecule (the message)<br>2: Receptor protein (receives the message) -&gt; intracellular signaling
Intracellular signaling sequence (called Signaling Cascade!!):"1. <span style=""background-color: rgb(170, 85, 0);"">Relay</span> the signal onward and spread it in the cell<br>2. <span style=""background-color: rgb(170, 85, 0);"">Amplify</span> the signal for a large intracellular response<br>3. <span style=""background-color: rgb(170, 85, 0);"">Integegrate</span>: Can receive signals from more than one intracellular pathway and integrate them before relaying a signal onward<br>4. <span style=""background-color: rgb(170, 85, 0);"">Distribute</span> signal to more than one signaling pathway or effector protein, creating branches -&gt; complex response"
Signal Variations (types and distances) Give ex if applicable..."1. <span style=""background-color: rgb(170, 85, 0);"">Endocrine (hormonal)</span>. One body part -&gt; another body part, travel via blood stream.<br>&nbsp; &nbsp;*LONG DISTANCE<br><br>2. <span style=""background-color: rgb(170, 85, 0);"">Paracrine</span>&nbsp;goes to nearby cells (approx 20)<br>&nbsp; &nbsp;*LOCAL - like spreading a rumor <u>verbally</u><br><br>3. <span style=""background-color: rgb(170, 85, 0);"">Neuronal</span> is electric signaling<br><br>4. <span style=""background-color: rgb(170, 85, 0);"">Contact Dependant</span>. Example = Delta (prod. by neuron &amp; touches proteins telling them NOT to be a neuron (has extracellular signal molecules or NOTHCES on it). Delta HATE neurons &gt;:(<br>&nbsp; &nbsp;*personal/touch like passing paper notes <u>physically<br></u>&nbsp; &nbsp;*"
DRUG: Acetyl Choline does what?Decreases heart rate and effects salivary glands, skeletal system, and blocks neural transmitters...<br>&nbsp; &nbsp;*A lot of different uses
Cells need signals to tell them to do anything and everything (Survive, stay alive, dictate cell differentiation, fusion, fission, etc.) T/F?TRUE
Multiple ways to turn off/on a cell...ATP, ADP, GTP (GTP will always turn it on)
Cell-surface receptors must be ___ and ___.Hydrophillic and external (because lipids are hydrophobic)<br><br>TIP: How else would they recieve messages...
Which has an easier time entering a cell, Hydrophobic or Hydrophilic?Hydrophobic - because lipids inside membrane are hydrophobic and would resist.
Hydrophobic Hormones work in___<br>Example?<br>Sequence?Transcription<br>Cortisol - stress<br>Cortisol -&gt; nuclear receptor protein -&gt; gene expression -&gt; specific protein -&gt; nucleus
Blood Vessels... Where smooth muscle cell located?"Made up of Smooth muscle cells, basal lamina, and endothelial...&nbsp;<br>Smooth muscle cells are <span style=""background-color: rgb(170, 85, 0);"">OUTSIDE</span> the blood vessel"
Viagra...<br>What molecule stops ___ to allow bloodflow &amp; erections?<br>Does it work on plants?"1. No GTP -&gt; GTP -&gt;&nbsp; Cyclic GMP -&gt; <span style=""background-color: rgb(170, 85, 0);"">Sildenafil stops PDE5</span> (breaks down cGMP to allow blood flow and erection!)<br>2. <span style=""background-color: rgb(170, 85, 0);"">Sildenafil stops PDE5</span>&nbsp;(breaks down cGMP to allow blood flow and erection!)<br>3. works on plants too!!!"
What do drugs bind to and how?1. Drugs bind to receptors (shaped similar to a ligand that the receptor would nomrally bond with)<br>&nbsp; &nbsp;*Essentailly, a substitute (similar/same shape) for a different result
Define Endogenous &amp; Exogenous...Endogenous = noraml ligand (something that is the norm, non-foreign substance in this case)<br>Exogenous = Drug (binds to receptors becuase is shaped similar to the endogenous substance = ligand)
What is Homeostasis?Set point body tries to maintain (blood-glucose level for example and if glucose level too high, will tell body to activate pancreas to rebalance levels)<br>&nbsp; &nbsp;*utilizes feedback and signaling molecules between cells... If&nbsp;
"Does this look like Zack?&nbsp;<img alt=""Pokémon Sword &amp; Shield Pokédex • Marriland.com"" src=""paste-d61572682781bd365ac5e97524b035910cf7fb20.jpg""><br>a) No<br>b) Nope<br>c) Not at all<br>d) Maybe""No, he look like this -&gt;&nbsp;<img alt=""Bad Biddy Oof bidoof - Etsy"" src=""paste-cf0d2c3c3e020622cbfd8b7b19ab5fd61b3ad570.jpg"" width=""334"">"
DNA made up of ___ and these ___ are made up of ___Nucleic Acids<br>Nucleotides
What 3 parts make up a Nucleotide?Phosphate<br>Sugar (5 carbons in the sugar)<br>Base
Nucleic Acids held together by ___Phosphodiester bonds
What is the direction for Nucleotides?5' -&gt; 3'
Only add new nucleotides to the ___ end...3'
Pairings of Nucleotides and how many bonds for each? Options are:<br>Adenine (A)<br>Guanine (G)<br>Thymine (T)<br>Cytosine (C)A-T, 2 H-bonds<br>G-C, 3 H-bonds
Bacteria...Single cellular DNA molecule
Eukaryotic cells have...long double stranded DNA packed into <u>chromosomes</u>
How many chromosomes does EACH human cell have?46 total, 23 from mom and 23 from dad
What is a chromosome? What types?"Single long DNA molecule<br><br>1) homologous - <span style=""background-color: rgb(170, 85, 0);"">23 PAIRS of chromosomes in each cell, or 46 total</span><br>2)nonhomologous pair - sex chromosomes (XX and XY)"
"What does ""junk"" DNA really do?"regulates other DNA / functions
4 phases in Eukaryotic cell in order + function?&nbsp; &nbsp;*G1 - S - G2 - M (mitosis)<br><br>G1 &amp; G2 = Gap phases where cell grows and makes proteins.<br>&nbsp; &nbsp;-G2 also includes the organization/final touches of the cell<br><br>S-Phase&nbsp; = chromosome copied (DNA replication)&nbsp; &nbsp; = S FOR SYNTHESIS!!!<br><br>Mitosis = Growth step and cell divides<br><br>&nbsp; &nbsp;*G1, S &amp; G2 are all a part of Interphase!!!
"<img alt=""Chromosome - Wikipedia"" src=""220px-Chromosome.svg.png"">What're the parts on this chromosome?""<img alt=""Parts of Chromosome Diagram | Quizlet"" src=""https://o.quizlet.com/q0rEQ0Z7mbcE3ToU0F2RNQ_b.jpg"">"
Interphase occupies different territories in nucleus?<br>T/F?TRUE
NucleolusContains chromosomes coming together to a condensed spot containing certain genes.<br><br>Basically the inner-most part of the nucleus... Like the pit of a peach!
Origin replication&nbsp;A-T rich. Duplication of DNA begins<br><br>A chromosomal site where double-stranded DNA unwinds to form single-stranded DNA templates for genome duplication.&nbsp;It is the starting point that generates a replication bubble.
What can you dye DNA with?UV &amp; Fluorescent&nbsp;<br><br>Fluorescent chromosomes are useful to differentiate chromosome types by color.
Extra chromosome = ?<br>How many chromosomes total?Down Syndrome; 47
When coloring chromosomes, they should all be one color and if they're not...Multiple colors on a chromosome = Translocations -&gt; cancer<br><br>Happens when chromosomes exchange chunks which is VERY BAD&nbsp;
Chromatin...1. Complex of DNA and protein<br>2. Helps with folding and packing<br>3. Has DNA repair proteins<br><br>Formed by histones
Nucleosomes...Bead-like structural unit of short length of DNA wrapped around core of histones<br><br>Nucleosomes are made of histone proteins
Chromatin made up of ___Histones
Histones...<ul><li>Packaging DNA: Histones bind to DNA and help organize it into chromosomes.</li><li>Regulating genes:&nbsp;Histones help control gene activity and give chromosomes their shape.</li><li>Forming chromatin:&nbsp;Histones interact with DNA to create a nucleoprotein complex called chromatin.</li><li>Performing specialized functions:&nbsp;Histone variants can perform specialized functions like DNA repair, chromosome segregation, and regulating transcription initiation.</li></ul>
Chromatin Remodeling<br>How many methods, what called, and what do?"Can condense or decondense DNA depending on what cell needs...<br>This is a way to turn genes on/off (altering DNA/gene accesibility)<br><b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">helps regulate gene expression by changing shape of chromatin</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;""><br></span></div></b>Hetereochromatin = closed. Most condensed form in interphase chromatin. 10% interphase chromosome. Near centrosome.<br><br>Euchromatin = Open. Remaining interphase chromatin&nbsp;<br><br>Condenses / loosens DNA<br>&nbsp; &nbsp;-Uses ATP <span style=""background-color: rgb(170, 85, 0);"">hydrolysis</span>. Affects gene expression"
Histones with posttranslation modifications:Acetyl, Methyl, and Phosphate = all play a role in DNA accesibility to transcription and to regulate gene expression
Histone mods = ?Epigenetics... <br><u>Methyl</u> -&gt; Hetereochromatin<br><u>Acetyl</u> -&gt; Euchromatin&nbsp;<br><br>THESE 2 ARE OPPOSITES
H2AX?Marker for DNA damage<br><br>&nbsp; &nbsp;*Think of X marks the spot... of damage lol
Epigenetics Inheritence...Important for establishment and maintenence of different cell types, tissues, organs in development.<br>&nbsp; &nbsp;- Surrogate parents
S-phaseCopying genome
DNA does not act as it's own template for replication, T/F?FALSE
Initiator Protein...Pushes open DNA to start Replication...<br><br>*Acts like a wedge that forcibly splits it open*
Semi-conservative...One old strand and one new strand (parental + 1 new in each molecule)
Replisome..."<div><div>Multiprotein molecular machinery responsible for&nbsp;<b>the replication of DNA</b>. It is composed of several specialized proteins each with dedicated enzymatic activities, and in particular, helicase unwinds double-stranded DNA and DNA polymerase catalyzes the synthesis of DNA.</div></div><div><div><div><div><br></div></div></div></div>""replication machine""<br><br><img alt=""Replisome - Wikipedia"" src=""DNA_replication_en.svg""><br>"
2 types of strands in ReplisomeLeading strand:&nbsp;<br>5' -&gt; 3'<br>Lagging strand:&nbsp;<br>3' -&gt; 5'<br><br>Both are antiparallel to eachother
Helicase...<div><div>Essential enzymes involved in all aspects of nucleic acid metabolism including DNA replication, repair, recombination, transcription, ribosome biogenesis and RNA processing, translation, and decay.</div></div><br>DNA zipper<br>
DNA Polymerase<div><div>E<b>nzymes that create DNA molecules by assembling nucleotides</b>, the building blocks of DNA. These enzymes are essential to DNA replication and usually work in pairs to create two identical DNA strands from one original DNA molecule.</div></div><div><div><div><div><br></div></div></div></div>Add C, complimentary base pairing (5' -&gt; 3' direction)<br><br>ADDS TO 3' END!
Mutations..."Depurination: Leads to a base loss and leads to a lot of issues down the road.<br><br>Deamination: Base change that leads to permanent mutation (C -&gt; U TO G -&gt; U)<br><br><img src=""IMG_3840.jpeg"" width=""546"">"
Mismatch repair"Proteins remove whole section and replace with proper nucleotides.. *DAMAGE, not mistake<br><br><img alt=""Excision repair invades the territory of mismatch repair | Nature Genetics"" src=""https://media.springernature.com/full/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1038%2F6753/MediaObjects/41588_1999_Article_BFng0399_247_Figa_HTML.gif"" width=""506"">"
Thymine Dimer...Radiation bonds 2 bases together... This is cancer-causing
Excision RepairPrecise repair, removes dmaaged region<br><br>*Base excision repair&nbsp;<b>corrects small DNA lesions</b>&nbsp;(e.g., those caused by oxidation). A DNA glycosylase removes the damaged base; short-patch or long-patch repair then fills the gap. Base excision repair (BER) corrects small base lesions that do not significantly distort the DNA helix structure.
Repair sequence...DNA damage&nbsp;-&gt; Sensors transducers&nbsp;-&gt; Effectors&nbsp;-&gt; (DNA repair/cell cycle/transitions/transcriptions/apoptosis)
Apoptosis?Cell death
Double Stranded breaks"1) Non-homologous: End-joining accidental double-stranded break, <span style=""background-color: rgb(170, 85, 0);"">QUICKLY</span> breaks off same ends, then put back together.. Missing a chunk of coding<br><br>2) Homologous Recombination: Uses ""other"" chromosone as template for ""perfect"" repair. <span style=""background-color: rgb(170, 85, 0);"">PRECISE</span><br><br>&nbsp; &nbsp;+ Nuclease digest 5' ends, strand invasion, DNA synthesis &amp; migration of branch point<br>"
Sequence with DNA damage (bad)DNA damage&nbsp;-&gt; mutations&nbsp;-&gt; diseases&nbsp;-&gt; cancer predisposition&nbsp;-&gt; premature aging&nbsp;-&gt; BRCA 1/2 defects (Tumor supressor proteins)
Name of processes signified as arrows:<br>DNA&nbsp;-&gt; RNA&nbsp;-&gt; Protein1) Transcription&nbsp;<br>2) Translation
RNA is very stable T/F?FALSE<br><br>RNA is unstable and temporary
RNA infoRNA is unstable &amp; temporary<br>GUAC<br>3 H-bonds
2 other types of RNA:"SnRNA =&nbsp;<b>Small nuclear RNAs</b>&nbsp;(snRNAs) used in <span style=""background-color: rgb(170, 85, 0);"">spliceosome</span> that catalyze the&nbsp;splicing&nbsp;of&nbsp;pre-mRNA. snRNAs are each complexed with many proteins to form RNA-protein complexes, termed as small nuclear ribonucleoproteins (snRNPs), in the cell nucleus.<br><br>SiRNA = siRNA&nbsp;<b>mediate silencing of target genes by guiding sequence dependent slicing of their target mRNAs</b>."
mRNA = Messanger RNA"<div><div><b><span style=""background-color: rgb(170, 85, 0);"">Carry protein information from the DNA </span>in a <span style=""background-color: rgb(170, 85, 0);"">cell's nucleus to the cell's cytoplasm</span></b>, where the protein-making machinery reads the mRNA sequence and translates each three-base codon into its corresponding amino acid in a growing protein chain</div></div><div><br></div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;+Code for proteins</div>"
Replication vs Transcription"Replicaiton - Overarching stage of DNA replication (includes <span style=""background-color: rgb(170, 85, 0);"">Replisome</span>, actual process of replication) including the <span style=""background-color: rgb(170, 85, 0);"">helicase</span> of course<br><br>Transcription - Only one strand = template"
RNA polymerase II..."A multiprotein complex that transcribes DNA into precursors of messenger RNA and most small nuclear RNA and microRNA.&nbsp;It is one of the three nuclear RNA polymerases found in the nucleus of eukaryotic cells.&nbsp;<br><br>In transcription&nbsp;<br><br>Type 2 = proteins<br><br>Binds to DNA. Opens it up, adds RNA nucleotides &amp; <span style=""background-color: rgb(170, 85, 0);"">only one strand used for transcription</span>&nbsp;(acts as a <span style=""background-color: rgb(170, 85, 0);"">template</span>)<br><br>Just adds new phosphates to new&nbsp;<br><br>release is the addition of phosphate groups to the “tail” of the RNA polymerase (known as the CTD or C-terminal domain). This phosphorylation is also catalyzed by TFIIH, which, in addition to a helicase, contains a protein kinase as one of its subunits<br><br>&nbsp; &nbsp;+all protein coding genes, miRNA genes, and genes from other noncoding RNAs"
DNA polymerase IIis&nbsp;a protein that is involved in DNA replication and repair.&nbsp;It is a member of the B family of DNA polymerases and is encoded by the polB gene.&nbsp;<div><div><div><div></div></div></div></div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div><br></div></div></div></div></div></div></div></div>
DNA polymerase vs RNA polymerase"Overall, the main difference between DNA and RNA polymerase is that&nbsp;<b>DNA polymerase produces a double-stranded DNA molecule while RNA polymerase produces a single-stranded RNA molecule<br></b><br>&nbsp; &nbsp;*RNA polymerase makes WAY more mistakes than DNA polymerase becuase RNA polymerase does not ""proof-read"".<br>&nbsp; &nbsp; This is okay because RNA is temporary so it fiiiiiine<br><br>&nbsp; &nbsp;+<span style=""background-color: rgb(170, 85, 0);"">DNA polymerase requires a primer...... RNA polymerase does NOT</span>"
TATA box is where?Promoter region
Bacterial Transcription<div><div><div>Bacterial transcription is the process in which&nbsp;<b>a segment of bacterial DNA is copied into a newly synthesized strand of messenger RNA (mRNA) with use of the enzyme RNA polymerase</b>. It has three steps : Initiation, elongation and termination.</div></div></div>
what makes mRNA special?one mRNA can code multiple proteins
Where does translation start?"""AUG"" = start codon FYI<br><br><img alt=""The AUG From Black Ops 1... - YouTube"" src=""paste-4a3097bddbee08a846051d8b8c100589f37c492a.jpg"" width=""564"">"
Eukaryotic vs Bacterial Transcription"<div><div>First,&nbsp;<b>whereas all genes are transcribed by a single RNA polymerase in bacteria, eukaryotic cells contain multiple different RNA polymerases that transcribe distinct classes of genes</b>.</div></div><div><br></div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;*<img src=""Screenshot 2024-02-28 at 8.00.08 PM.png""></div>"
General Transcription Factors (GTF)proteins that&nbsp;help regulate gene expression and physiology.&nbsp;They bind to specific sites on DNA to activate transcription of genetic information from DNA to messenger RNA<br><br>&nbsp; &nbsp;*Activators. They don't always improve RNA transcription
TFIID &amp; TFIIH"TFIID: (+ TATA Binding Protein) Bind to TATA box and start binding process.<br><br>TFIIH: Seperates DNA strands initially and adds phosphate groups to RNA polymerase tail, releasing from GF, begin elongation.<br><br><span style=""background-color: rgb(170, 85, 0);"">Opens up DNA (expensive hö) and phosphorylates tail (releasing transcription factors) telling RNA polymerase where to bind</span><br><br>&nbsp; &nbsp;*GTF added in different orders"
Tail binds to DNA with nothing else needed T/F?FALSE<br><br>Tail needs to get dephosphorylated to bind to DNA
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Caps and tails located &amp; structures?</span></div></b>""<b><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">(Modified) G phosphate Cap @ 5’ end</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Poly-A-Tail @ 3’ end</span></div></li></ul></b>"
Do prokaryotes have introns and extrons?Prokaryotes do NOT have introns
IntronsNon-coding intervening seqeunces
Extrons"Expressed sequences and VALUABLE&nbsp;<span style=""background-color: rgb(170, 85, 0);"">code for proteins</span>"
UTRsUntranslated Regions = important for gene expression
Spliceosome"<div><br></div><img src=""Screenshot 2024-03-12 at 9.00.36 PM.png""><br>*Found in eukaryotic nucleus<br>"
snRNPsForm the core of the spliceosome - carries<br>our RNA Splicing
Alternative Splicing<br><br>In prokaryotes and eukaryotes?* Only Eukaryotic<br>* empowers genome and allows for protein variation
Prokaryote vs Eukaryote transcripts"<img src=""Screenshot 2024-02-28 at 8.46.09 PM.png"">"
How many nucleotides are needed for it to be a codon?3
What is the start codon called?<br>Where located?AUG = Methionine<br>Located in genome and is not always at the beginning.<br>&nbsp; &nbsp;*Tells ribosome this is where to start translating RNA
What makes stop codon special?"It just says stop &amp; does not code for an amino acid!<br><br><img alt=""Pin by Holly Maistros on &quot;Rock&quot; my world baby! | The rock dwayne johnson, Dwayne the rock, Dwayne johnson"" src=""paste-c4713004e44f71abe2696b7b675027ae2bcb7c5c.jpg"" width=""510"">"
Frame shift mutations:"Genetic mutation where sequqence <span style=""background-color: rgb(170, 85, 0);"">shifts</span> a codon, make everything after the mutation wrong..."
What are Ribosomes made up of"*&nbsp; Large &amp; Small subunit<br>*&nbsp; 3 binding sites (E - P - A) -----&gt; Ape for backwards, starting with A<br><br>HAPPENS IN <span style=""background-color: rgb(170, 85, 0);"">TRANSLATION<br></span>&nbsp; &nbsp;-Ribosomes be bilingual ooOOOoooooo"
tRNA3' end holds aa corresponding with mRNA code<br>Aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase<br><br>&nbsp; &nbsp;+Adaptors between mRNA and amino acids during protein synthesis
Anti-codon"recognizes aa sequence of mRNA -&gt; complimentary to RNA codon<br><br>&nbsp; &nbsp;+ Ensure the <span style=""background-color: rgb(170, 85, 0);"">correct amino acid</span> is added to a <span style=""background-color: rgb(170, 85, 0);"">polypeptide chain</span> during <span style=""background-color: rgb(170, 85, 0);"">protein synthesis</span>.&nbsp;"
stop codon:UAA, UAG, UGA
where do release factors bond to?stop codons<br><br>&nbsp; &nbsp;+ Release factors bind to stop codons&nbsp;to release the newly formed polypeptide.
Codon sequence?Start codon (smallest polypeptide) -&gt; stop codon (longest polypeptide chain)
"INFO: <br>*&nbsp; &nbsp;Cell usually makes more than 1 mRNA to make bunch of proteins<br>*&nbsp; &nbsp;Genes dictate # and type of proteins made"idk break dance or sum
Drugs function:"target bacterial gene expression (binding to ""A"" site, stopping sequence)"
Differential Gene Expression...*&nbsp; &nbsp;Allows cell variation in site, shape, behavior, and function<br>*&nbsp; &nbsp;Stem cells are flexbile<br>*&nbsp; &nbsp;Different in which and how much genes are expressed
Pathwaysfast = turning protein on / off<br>slow = nucleus -&gt; Alternative protein synthesis
Chromatin structure effects what?gene expression
Regulatory sequences =&nbsp;"non-coding genes / formerly known as ""trash genes""<br><br>Transcription factors (all regulate genes) -&gt; categorized into <span style=""background-color: rgb(170, 85, 0);"">activators</span> and <span style=""background-color: rgb(170, 85, 0);"">repressors</span>&nbsp;<br>"
Activators depend on ?what cell type they're in if they'll work or not.
Repressors do what?turn OFF genes<br>- Block RNA polymerase form binding
Hetereochromatin vs Euchromatin?Determined by histone tail modifications<br><br>*&nbsp; &nbsp;<b>Heterochromatin is typically highly condensed, gene-poor, and transcriptionally silent,<br>*&nbsp; &nbsp;Euchromatin is less condensed, gene-rich, and more accessible to transcription</b>.
Acetylation &amp; MethylationMaintenance Methyltransferase<br><br>*&nbsp; &nbsp;<b>Histone acetylation occurs at lysine residues and it increases gene expression in general</b>.&nbsp;<br>*&nbsp; &nbsp;Methylation activates or represses gene expression depending on which residue is methylated.
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Quaternary protein structure refers to what?</span><br></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;- amino acid sequence&nbsp;</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;- protein folding pattern&nbsp;</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;- 3-D shape of a protein&nbsp;</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;- protein complexing</span></div></b><br>"&nbsp; **protein complexing**
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">A cell is being held in <u>G1</u> phase due to DNA damage caused by UV radiation. When the DNA is damaged, p53 is phosphorylated and prevents entry into what phase?</span><br></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;- M phase&nbsp;</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;- G0 phase&nbsp;</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;- S phase</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;- none of the above </span></div></b><br>"- **S phase**
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">What is true of cell signaling?</span><br></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;- Extracellular signals transduced by receptors always alter cell behavior and gene expression very quickly</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;- Some cells require cell signals just to survive</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;- Cell signals can be interpreted differently by different cells</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;- some cells require cell signals just to survive and cell signals can be interpreted differently by different cells</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;- All of the above </span></div></b><br>""<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp; - **some cells require cell signals just to survive and cell signals can be interpreted differently by different cells**</span></div></b>"
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Question 4</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Interphase chromatin is best categorized as __________?</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;- Heterochromatin&nbsp;</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;- Euchromatin</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;- Concentrated&nbsp;</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;- Histone tails </span></div></b><br>"&nbsp;- Euchromatin
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Question 5</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Which basal transcription factor contains a subunit that causes local distortion in DNA so that proteins can <span style=""background-color: rgb(170, 85, 0);"">assemble to the promoter?</span></span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;- TFIIA&nbsp;</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;- TFIID</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;- TFIIH&nbsp;</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;- TFIIF </span></div></b><br>"&nbsp; - **TFIID**<br><br>BECAUSE the promoter = TATA Box and only the TFIID binds to the TATA box, starting replication
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Question 6</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">True/False: Mature mRNA are exported out of the nucleus only if they have a 5’ cap and poly A tail.</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;- True</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;- False </span></div></b><br>"&nbsp; - **True**
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Question 7</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">True/False: The small subunit of a ribosome catalyzes the formation of the peptide bonds that link amino acids together.</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;- True&nbsp;</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;- False</span></div></b><br>"&nbsp; - False<br>
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Question 8</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Blue fluorescent dye that identifies DNA.</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;- Heoscht Stain</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;- Fluorescence Insitu Hybridization&nbsp;</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;- Giemsa Stain&nbsp;</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;- Western Blot </span></div></b><br>""<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp; - **Heoscht Stain**</span></div></b>"
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Question 9</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Drugs that target viral gene expression must accomplish __________ in order to be functional in human hosts.&nbsp;</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;- Block viral entry&nbsp;</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;- Reverse transcriptase&nbsp;</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;- Block viral genetic takeover&nbsp;</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;- All of the above</span></div></b><br>"&nbsp; - **All of the above*
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Question 10</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">A stretch of DNA that is comprised of 500 nucleotides is a _________?</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;- Gene</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;- Codon&nbsp;</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;- Anticodon&nbsp;</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;- Histone </span></div></b><br>"&nbsp; - **Gene**
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Question 11</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">DNA polymerases are processive, which means that they remain tightly associated with the template strand while moving rapidly and adding nucleotides to the growing daughter stand. Which piece of the replication machinery accounts for this characteristic?</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;- Helicase&nbsp;</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;- Sliding Clamp</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;- Single Stranded Binding Protein&nbsp;</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;- Primase </span></div></b><br>""<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp; - **Sliding Clamp**</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;""><br></span></div></b>"
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Question 12</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Specificity of protein/protein and protein/DNA binding is determined by what?</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;- Non-covalent bonds&nbsp;</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;- Hydrophobic interactions&nbsp;</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;- Covalent bonds&nbsp;</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;- shape of the binding site&nbsp;</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;- all of the above&nbsp;</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;- none of the above&nbsp;</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;- non-covalent, hydrophobic interactions, and covalent&nbsp;</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;- non-covalent, hydrophobic interactions, and the shape of the binding site</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;</span></div></b><br>""<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp; - **non-covalent, hydrophobic interactions, and the shape of the binding site**</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;""><br></span></div></b>"
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Question 13</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Which of the following statements about miRNAs is false?</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;- One miRNA can regulate the expression of many genes.&nbsp;</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;- miRNAs are transcribed in the nucleus from genomic DNA&nbsp;</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;- miRNAs are produced from rRNAs</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;- miRNAs are made by RNA polymerase </span></div></b><br>""<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp; - miRNAs are produced from rRNAs**</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;""><br></span></div></b>"
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Question 14</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">What is NOT true of the structure of RNA?</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;- It is sometimes single-stranded</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;- It is less stable than DNA</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;- Is has one more oxygen atom on its ribose sugar compared to DNA</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;- Is has one extra methyl group on its uracil base</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;- Its complementary strands are held together by hydrogen bonds</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;</span></div></b><br>""<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp; - Is has one extra methyl group on its uracil base**</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;""><br></span></div></b>"
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Question 15</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Which of the following is NOT an example of a cell communication molecule?</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;- nucleases</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;- kinases&nbsp;</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;- nitric oxide&nbsp;</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;- hormones </span></div></b><br>"&nbsp; - **nucleases**
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Question 16</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">True/False: The DNA strands run antiparallel from the 3’ phosphate to the 5’ hydroxyl to make the double helix.</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;- True</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;- False </span></div></b><br>""<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp; - False</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;""><br></span></div></b>"
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Question 17</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">What is true of binding pockets (binding site)?</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;- They contain electrostatic interactions&nbsp;</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;- They occur in unfolded proteins&nbsp;</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;- They only occur in the membrane&nbsp;</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;- They contain variable amino acids&nbsp;</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;- All of the above</span></div></b><br>""<br><b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp; - They contain electrostatic interactions&nbsp;</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;""><br></span></div></b>"
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Question 18</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Shifting the two bound tRNA from the A and P sites to the E and P sites of the ribosome involves:</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;- The movement of the small ribosome subunit down the mRNA chain&nbsp;</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;- The degradation of the A site on ribosome&nbsp;</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;- The synthesis of the E site on the ribosome&nbsp;</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;- The movement of the large subunit relative to the small subunit</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;- All of the above </span></div></b><br>""<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp; - **The movement of the large subunit relative to the small subunit**</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;""><br></span></div></b>"
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Question 19</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Which of the following causes change in nucleosome structure by utilizing ATP hydrolysis, loosens or tightens DNA, and alters DNA accessibility to proteins?</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;- Histones&nbsp;</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;- Chromatin remodeling complexes</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;- Kinases&nbsp;</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;- Cohesins </span></div></b><br>""<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp; - **Chromatin remodeling complexes**</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;""><br></span></div></b>"
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Question 20</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Which process is not an example of post-transcriptional control of gene expression:</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;- Epigenetics</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;- UTRs</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;- miRNA's</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;- Splicing</span></div></b><br>""<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp; - **Epigenetics**</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;""><br></span></div></b>"
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">The coiling structure of the DNA into chromosomes is achieved by what?</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;- alpha helix</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;- beta pleated sheets</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;- chaperone proteins</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;- DNA/Protein complexing</span></div></b><br>"&nbsp; - **DNA/Protein complexing**<br>
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Question 22</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">DNA hybridization involves attaching a fluorescent dye to what?</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;- Antibody</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;- Probe DNA</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;- tRNA</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;- rRNA</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;- Nuclear stain</span></div></b><br>""<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp; - **Probe DNA**</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;""><br></span></div></b>"
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Question 24</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Second messengers play an important role in cell communication.</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Which of the following best describes their role?</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;-&nbsp; Integrate, amplify and distribute messages throughout the cell</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;- Send messages to other cells</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;- Receive information from other cells at the cell surface</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;- Carry information from the nucleus to outside the cell</span></div></b><br>""<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp; - **Integrate, amplify and distribute messages throughout the cell**</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;""><br></span></div></b>"
"<b><br><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Question 25</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">True/False: Our epigenetic code is inherited by the passing of DNA sequences.</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;- True</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;- False</span></div></b><br>"&nbsp; - **False**<br>
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Which of the following factors determine an enzyme’s specificity?</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;- The three-dimensional shape of the active site</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;- The Michaelis constant</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;- The type of cofactor required for the enzyme to be active</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;- The prosthetic group of the enzyme</span></div></b><br>""<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp; - **The three-dimensional shape of the active site**</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;""><br></span></div></b>"
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">An ionic bond between two atoms is a transient bond formed as a result of electron transfer. What processes in the cell are modulated by the length and strength of these non-covalent bonds?</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;- protein shape</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;- interactions between macromolecules</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;- 3-D structure of macromolecules</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;- All of the Above</span></div></b><br>"&nbsp; - **All of the Above**<br>
Full cycle of copying genome"<img src=""Screenshot 2024-03-09 at 5.03.24 PM.png"">"
"<div><b><span style=""font-weight: 400; text-decoration-line: underline;"">Replisome</span><span style=""font-weight: 400;""> consists of what?</span></b></div><div><b><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">How does it write?&nbsp;</span></b>(direction)</div><div><b><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">How does it check? (direction)</span></b></div>""DNA helicase, DNA Polymerase, and Sliding clamp (donut thing)<br><b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Writes in 3-5</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Checks to 5-3</span></div></b>"
"<b><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Okazaki fragments?</span></b>""<b><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">smaller chunks of lagging strand, 3-5, which loop back and allow DNA polymerase to synthesis in the 5-3 direction<br></span></b><br><img alt=""How do Okazaki fragments form a continuous strand? - Quora"" src=""main-qimg-03fcc1811dce10c721f2206dec0e6921.webp"" width=""919"">"
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">What is needed for DNA polymerase?&nbsp;</span></div></b><br>"A primer
What happens after DNA polymerase finishes filling in the fragment (Okazaki fragment)?"DNA ligase removes the RNA primer and replaces it with DNA to form a continuous new DNA strand.&nbsp;<div><div><div><div><div><div></div></div><div><div><div></div></div><div><div></div><a href=""https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primer_(molecular_biology)""></a></div><div><div><div><div></div></div></div></div></div></div></div></div><div><div><div><div></div></div><div><div><div></div></div><div><div></div><a href=""https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ligase""></a></div><div><div><div><div><div><img alt="""" src=""images.png"" width=""254""></div></div></div></div></div></div></div></div></div>"
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">What are single strand binding proteins (SSB) and when needed?&nbsp;</span></div></b><br>"= keep dna from folding in on itself
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Topoisomerase enzyme purpose?&nbsp;</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Difference between type 1 and type 2?</span></div></b>""<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">= small cuts on dna. Ligates/rejoins region immediately. Not part of the replisome</span></div><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">What are the differences between type 1 and type 2? = 1 breaks ONE side of DNA (makes a small nick). 2 breaks TWO (both) strands of DNA. HOLDS BOTH ENDS. makes a window for other strand to run through.</span></div></li></ul></b>"
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Why are&nbsp;</span>DNA ligase dna polymerases topoisomerase and primase<span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;so important and what happens if we block them?</span></div></b><br>""<div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Can be used in drugs. If you block it, cell / DNA won’t be able to function. Is an <b>Antibiotic</b>.</span></div><br>"
Telomerase?Telomerase is&nbsp;an enzyme that helps cells stay alive by adding DNA to telomeres, which are the ends of chromosomes.&nbsp;
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">what is aging… is genetic terms?&nbsp;</span></div></b>"= DNA shortens every time you replicate. Shortening = loss of genetic material.
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">What cells are telomerase activated by and why?&nbsp;</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;""><br></span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">What happens when this enzyme activates in adult (nonsex cells)?</span></div></b>""<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">= only in sex cells (gametes). These cells are used for creating new life so they need the entire genome.</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400; text-decoration-line: underline;""><br></span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400; text-decoration-line: underline;"">= CANCER&nbsp;</span></div></b>"
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">How is a mutation formed?&nbsp;</span></div></b>""<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Mutations are formed when there is a mistake in REPLICATION that was not fixed. Wrong shape = a </span><span style=""font-weight: 400; text-decoration-line: underline;"">bump</span></div></b><br>"
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">What can an accumulation of mutations cause?&nbsp;</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;""><br></span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Why is the shape of mutation important?&nbsp;</span></div></b>"= Cancer! Large role in aging and losing genetic stability<br><br>= Bumps are gone = won’t be able to know there is a mistake.
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Most common base damages and results?&nbsp;</span></div></b>""<div><b><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">De</span>PUR</b><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">ination = loss of <b>purine</b> -&gt; base loss</span></div><b><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">De</span>AMI</b><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">nation = loss of <b>amine</b> group -&gt; changed identity</span><br>"
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">How does mismatch repair work?&nbsp;</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;""><br></span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">How often is this damage happening?&nbsp;</span></div></b>"&nbsp;= look for a bump, loops around and cleaves the whole chunk, then repairs with polymerase and seals with a ligase.<br><br>= all of the time, DNA is blown apart and put back together constantly.
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">What kind of mutation does UV light cause</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;""><br></span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">What fixes it?&nbsp;</span></div></b>"&nbsp;= cause Thymine dimers = skin cancer. Covalently T bases that are adjacent… Carcinogen.&nbsp;<br><br>= Excision repair
"<b><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">How does excision repair work?&nbsp;</span></b>""<b><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">= cell recognizes a changed shape, nuclease cleaves specific base, then DNA polymerase rewrites and ligase seals it.</span></b>"
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">What happens when the thing that fixes DNA damage is mutated?</span></div></b>"&nbsp;= disease
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">What main symptoms are associated with defective repair proteins?&nbsp;</span></div></b>"= Cancer, sensitivity to UV light, and accelerated aging
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">RNA guac = how many bonds?</span></div></b><br>"2 bonds
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Transcription does NOT use DNA polymerase</span></div></b><br>T/F"TRUE
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">RNA transcripts usually shorter than DNA</span></div></b><br>T/F"TRUE
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Both strands of DNA are transcribed at the same time</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;""><br></span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">T/F</span></div></b>"False
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">what does RNA polymerase II do?&nbsp;</span></div></b><br>"opens up DNA&nbsp;<br><br>Transcribes DNA -&gt; mRNA<br>&nbsp; &nbsp;- Transcribes all protein-coding genes
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Does RNA polymerase need a primer sequence to initiate?</span></div></b><br>"NO
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Which of the following is not a step in pre-mRNA processing?</span></div></b>""<b><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Removal of exons! (because exons don't get removed)</span></div></li></ul></b>"
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Promoter region = ?</span></div></b>"region of DNA that RNA polymerase attaches to to begin transcription.<br>
Terminator sequence = ?<div><div><div>A sequence in DNA that signals termination of transcription to RNA Polymerase.<br></div></div></div>
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">TFIIH job =&nbsp;</span></div><br><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">TFIID job =&nbsp;</span></div></b>"unzip DNA<br><br>bind to TATA box
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Prokaryotic DNA does have introns… Yes splicing or processing</span></div><div><br></div><div>T/F?</div></b>""FALSE<br><br><b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">-&gt; Prokaryotic DNA does NOT have introns… No splicing or processing</span></div></b><br>"
Which protein carries out splicing?<b><br></b>&nbsp;= snRNA/Snurps
What does an intron form when being spliced?A lariat
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Alternative splicing can add to ...</span></div></b>""<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;protein diversity</span></div></b><br>"
Where does <b>m</b>ature mRNA go after transcription?<b><br></b>"to&nbsp;<span style=""text-decoration-line: underline;"">cytoplasm</span>&nbsp;"
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">mRNA need _ and _ to leave nucleus and into cytoplasm</span></div></b>""<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;""><span style=""background-color: rgb(170, 85, 0);"">G cap and poly A tail </span>to leave nucleus and into cytoplasm</span></div></b><br>"
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Each ribosome can bind to...</span></div></b>""<b><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">3 tRNAs</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">1mRNA</span></div></li></ul></b>"
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">What are Large and small ribosomal subunits made up of?</span></div></b><br>"proteins and rRNA
Aminoacyl-tRNA synthetases?"Aminoacyl-tRNA synthetases (aaRSs) are enzymes that attach amino acids to their corresponding tRNA.&nbsp;This process is sometimes called ""charging"" or ""loading"" the tRNA with an amino acid.<br><br>In short:<br>&nbsp; &nbsp;- Enzymes that put amino acids on tRNA"
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">After new tRNA binds, then what?</span></div></b>""<ul style=""font-weight: 700;""><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Amino acid of tRNA in P site releases &amp; new amino acid binds to the polypeptide chain and then there's a shift</span></div></li></ul><div><br></div><div>+ Large subunit translocates before small subunit</div><div><br></div><div><img alt=""tRNAs and ribosomes (article) | Translation | Khan Academy"" src=""282fd6184d65eaf8e8284edccf3aa650ad11d774.png""><br></div><br>"
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">*&nbsp; &nbsp;More proteins can be made at a time with ___</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;""><br></span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">*&nbsp; &nbsp;More RNA -&gt; more proteins can be made</span></div></b>"poly-ribosomes
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Common antibiotics inhibit protein synthesis of eukaryotic cells</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">T/F?</span></div></b>"FALSE<br><br>Antibiotics inhibit protein synthesis in bacteria... NOT eukaryotic cells
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">G1 checkpoint = ?</span></div></b>"Making sure that the cell has enough nutrients for a division
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">S checkpoint = ?</span></div></b>"DNA is copied and replicated<br>
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Bacteria has how many origins of replication?</span></div></b>"ONLY 1
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Initiator proteins =&nbsp;</span></div></b><br>"breaks open a tiny segment of DNA to start process of replication
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Eukaryotic cells have ONE method of replication</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">T/F</span></div></b>"FALSE
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">A-T found in abundance at start of base pairing</span></div></b><br>T/F"True
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Replication machine =&nbsp;</span></div><br><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Helicase =&nbsp;</span></div></b><br>"replisome<br><br>protein that unzips the DNA
Is the Lagging Strand built continuously?NO, it is NOT<br><br>&nbsp; &nbsp;- Because lagging strand has Okazaki fragments, it can't be built continuously, needs time
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">RNA does not need a primer</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;""><br></span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">T/F</span></div></b>"TRUE
After the primer is used, ___ breaks it down<br><br>What is it's funciton and or what is it?Nuclease<br><br>&nbsp; &nbsp;- Nucleases are enzymes that are specially designed to&nbsp;<b>break apart the nucleotides that make up the nucleic acids DNA and RNA</b>. Nucleotides are composed of adenine, thymine, guanine, and cytosine in DNA, with uracil replacing thymine in RNA.<div><div><div><div><br></div></div></div></div>
<div>DNA polymerase I (pol I) is primarily a...</div>DNA repair enzyme that removes RNA primers and replaces them with DNA<br><br>DNA pol 1 hates primers
Ligase...A ligase is&nbsp;an enzyme that joins two molecules together by creating a new chemical bond.&nbsp;<br>&nbsp; &nbsp;- This is usually done by hydrolyzing a small chemical group on one of the molecules.<br><br>&nbsp; &nbsp;+ joins 5’ phosphate of new DNA to adjacent 3’ hydroxyl end of the next
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Enzyme that relieves torsional strain by making single or double stranded in phosphate backbone</span></div></b>""<ul style=""font-weight: 700;""><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Topoisomerase 1&amp;2</span></div></li></ul>"
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Telomerase function...</span></div></b>"enzyme elongates end of the DNA to provide a location to lay down RNA primer for Okazaki fragments… adds to dna strand that you’re copying
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">RNA info dump</span></div></b>""<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">RNA has extra OH. temporary, unstable, usually single stranded, RNA is not a long term step, does not need to be stable cuz it’s not permanent…&nbsp;</span></div></b><br>"
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">What is RNA equivalent to DNA polymerase and what are their differences?</span></div></b><br>""<ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;""><b>SAME</b>: RNA polymerase II (does not need primer, does NOT check itself)</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;""><b>DIFF</b>: DNA polymerase is involved in DNA replication while RNA polymerase is involved in transcription.<br></span></div></li></ul>"
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Why is it ok that RNA polymerase II does not check itself?</span></div></b>""<ul style=""font-weight: 700;""><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Because it’s temporary and doesn’t need to be perfect</span></div></li></ul>"
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">What are the main differences between bacteria and eukaryotes?</span></div></b>""<ul style=""""><li style=""font-weight: 700;""><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Bacteria = evolved and is VERY simple compared to what we go through</span></div></li><li style=""font-weight: 700;""><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Sigma factor!</span></div></li><ul style=""font-weight: 700;""><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Binds to dna in promoter region, allows RNA polymerase to start coding, and reminds RNA polymerase after mRNA is transcribed</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Sigma factors =&nbsp;proteins that are essential for the initiation of transcription in bacteria.<br></span></div></li></ul></ul>"
Sigma Factor*&nbsp; &nbsp;A protein needed to bind RNA polymerase for the initiation of transcription in bacteria.<br><br>*&nbsp; &nbsp;Essential for the initiation of transcription in bacteria. Sigma factors are subunits&nbsp; of bacterial RNA polymerase&nbsp; (RNAP).
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">What is special about bacteria’s mRNA</span></div></b>""<ul style=""font-weight: 700;""><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Bacteria mRNA can code for multiple proteins</span></div></li></ul>"
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Why do we have Transcription Factors?</span></div></b>""<ul style=""font-weight: 700;""><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Keeps cells differentiated / regulate gene expression by enhancing or hindering transcription of specific genes… EVERYTHING is very tightly controlled</span></div></li></ul>"
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">How is Transcription started?</span></div></b>""<b><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Many TF bind at promoter region (</span><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">TFIID = TATA box</span><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">). RNA polymerase binds. DNA window is cracked. TFIIH Phosphorylates tail, which releases TF’s. Elongation / Transcription.</span></b>"
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">2 TFs must know?</span></div></b>""<ul style=""font-weight: 700;""><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">TFIID = binds to tata box</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">TFIIH = acts as helicase (cracks open the DNA) + phosphorylation</span></div></li></ul>"
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Why is the TATA box structure important?</span></div></b><br>""<b><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Made of As and Ts which only have 2 bonds between them, This means that they are able to break apart easily =</span><span style=""font-weight: 400; text-decoration-line: underline;"">&nbsp;good for binding</span><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">.</span></b>"
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">How to turn on and off RNA polymerase?</span></div></b>""<ul style=""font-weight: 700;""><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Phosphorylation (on) and dephosphorylation (off) of RNA polymerase tail</span></div></li></ul>"
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">What is another reason mRNA doesn’t need to be perfect?</span></div></b>""<ul style=""font-weight: 700;""><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">There can be many RNA polymerase IIs transcribing the same gene at multiple times</span></div></li></ul>"
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">How are they added? Why is it important?</span></div></b>""<ul style=""font-weight: 700;""><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Added by RNA polymerase II and are added immediately after transcribing</span></div></li><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Needed for transportation</span></div></li></ul></ul>"
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">What does it mean to splice and when is this occurring?</span></div></b>""<ul style=""font-weight: 700;""><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">To remove introns&nbsp;</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">WHEN? - right after transcription, inside the nucleus</span></div></li></ul>"
Which enzyme deals with splicing?<br>What structure?"<b><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Spliceosome. Quaternary structure with snRNPs that form the core</span></div></li></ul></b>"
Do bacteria have introns?NO, BACTERIA DO NOT HAVE INTRONS
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">What makes splicing so special and what does it do for our genome?</span></div></b>""<ul style=""font-weight: 700;""><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Alternative splicing</span><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;= creates different versions of the proteins (increased coding potential)... Happens in side nucleus as well as all RNA modifications</span></div></li></ul>"
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">What is a codon?</span></div></b>""<ul style=""font-weight: 700;""><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">3 consecutive nucleotides which code for an amino acid. Many different codons can code for the same amino acid.</span></div></li></ul>"
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Codons need to know for the exam?</span></div></b>""<ul style=""font-weight: 700;""><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">AUG = start codon</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">UGA, UAA, &amp; UAG. does not code for a specific amino acid.</span></div></li></ul>"
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">What is a “</span>reading frame<span style=""font-weight: 400;"">” and why is it important?</span></div></b>""<ul style=""font-weight: 700;""><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Only groups of 3 can be read at one time and if there is a single shift, then it changes how the whole code is read/conceived.</span></div></li></ul>"
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Ribosomes made up of...</span></div></b>""<ul style=""font-weight: 700;""><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Small and large subunits</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Made of rna and proteins</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Made of own strand of rna that is not a protein</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Has A, P, and E site</span></div></li></ul>"
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">What is the tRNA and what is important about its shape?</span></div></b>""<ul style=""font-weight: 700;""><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Carries specific amino acid at one end and has anticodon loop on the other end which recognizes corresponding code</span></div></li></ul>"
"<div style="""">tRNA?</div>"- Aminoacyl-tRNA synthetases<br>covalently couples amino acids to the<br>acceptor arm of tRNA each amino<br>acid to appropriate set of tRNA<br>molecules<br>– 20 synthetases in all - one for each<br>amino acid<br>– Produces a high-energy bond<br>between charged tRNA and the<br>amino acid.<br>– The energy of this bond will be used<br>later to link the amino acid covalently<br>to the polypeptide chain
Each ribosome binds _&nbsp; mRNA and _ tRNAs1 mRNA<br>3 tRNAs
What do A, P, E stand for in the large ribosomal subunit?"<div><div>A= aminoacyl-tRNA<br>P = peptidly tRNA<br>E = exit<div></div></div></div><div><br></div><div><img alt=""tRNAs and ribosomes (article) | Translation | Khan Academy"" src=""paste-63a3150828432920fc6ed4a54ea726687c19ba0f.png"" width=""905""><br></div><div></div><br>"
Explain binding sequence on ribosome&nbsp;"<img src=""Screenshot 2024-03-09 at 9.05.13 PM.png"">"
<div>What do release factors bind to?</div><div>Release factors bind to any stop codon that reaches the A-site on the ribosome</div>
Cell cycle...<br><br>Describe what happens at each stage too!"<img src=""Screenshot 2024-03-09 at 9.08.10 PM.png""><br><br>G1: Cell grows and prepares for DNA synthesis/replication.<br><br>S: During the S phase of the cell cycle,&nbsp;DNA duplication occurs.&nbsp;S stands for synthesis.&nbsp;<br><br>G2: T<b>he cell prepares for the mitotic division</b><br><br>M: Mitosis, is the stage of cell division"
RNA Polymerase II Function???"<img src=""Screenshot 2024-03-09 at 9.10.34 PM.png"">"
Transcription factors&nbsp;Assemble at promoter before polymerase can begin transcription
"<img src=""Screenshot 2024-03-09 at 9.11.55 PM.png"">""<img src=""Screenshot 2024-03-09 at 9.12.03 PM.png"">"
Splicing Mechanism fxn..."<img src=""Screenshot 2024-03-09 at 9.56.09 PM.png"">"
Methionine = what??Start codon
Where does translation occur?At the ribosome!
Excess of kinases can lead to waht?Leukemia (cancer) because it continues a chain of phosphorylation where ATPs are losing their phosphate groups to proteins and there is no stopping signal<br><br>Has a drug to stop this, it binds to the binding site and prevents phosphorylation
Cancer = disease of ___dysregulation
Antibiotics = ___Anti-life<br><br>affects the G0 phase in cell cycle (the phase before dividing)
Viruses do what?Hijack... Made of DNA or RNA
esticides and herbicides attack ___Gene expression/cell cycle
General Transcription factorsTBP (TATA-Binding Protein) -&gt; Binds to TATA box
miRNA&nbsp; &nbsp;*RISC protein strips double stranded RNA and converts into mRNA<br>&nbsp; &nbsp;*Breaks down mRNA (becuase it's temporary!!!)<br>&nbsp; &nbsp;*Made from RNA polymerase<br>&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; +regulate gene expression
P53 &amp; P21"(P for PROTEIN and for PAUSEing the cell cycle)<br><br>Protein for DNA repair mechanism.<br><br>When DNA damaged, <span style=""background-color: rgb(170, 85, 0);"">P53</span>&nbsp;phosphorylated, binds to DNA, undergos phosphorylation, then activates genes to make P21 -&gt; inhibitor of CDK &amp; fix DNA before go into S-phase (Literally pauses the cell cycle)"
Ubiquitin...<br><br>What actually breaks down the proteins??Marks proteins for degradation<br><br>proteases then breaks down proteins into amino acids&nbsp;
DNA polymerase 1&amp;2<div><div><div><b>1.&nbsp; &nbsp;DNA polymerase I functions to fill DNA gaps that arise during DNA replication, repair, and recombination</b>.&nbsp;</div><div><br></div><div><b>2.</b>&nbsp; &nbsp;DNA polymerase II also functions in editing and proofreading mainly in the lagging strand (Kim et al.</div></div></div>
Single stranded binding proteinsSingle-strand binding proteins (SSB) are part of the cellular replicating machine, or replisome.&nbsp;They bind to unpaired single-stranded DNA and prevent the two original strands from reannealing.&nbsp;This allows the new strands to be manufactured.&nbsp;
Sliding clampA sliding clamp is a ring-shaped protein complex that encircles and slides along DNA.&nbsp;It&nbsp;binds to DNA polymerase and tethers it to the DNA template, preventing its dissociation and providing high processivity.&nbsp;<div><div><div><div></div></div></div></div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div><br></div></div></div></div></div></div></div></div>
rRNA...form core of ribosomes structures and catalyze protein synthesis
Other noncoding RNA...Used in splicing, gene regulation, telomere, maintenance, and more
Function of large and small subunits of ribosomes::The small subunit decodes the genetic message&nbsp;<br><br>Large subunit catalyzes peptide bond formation.
<div><div>Which of the following statements about miRNAs is false?</div></div><div><div><br><div>One miRNA can regulate the expression of many genes.</div></div><div><div><div>miRNAs are transcribed in the nucleus from genomic DNA</div></div></div><div><div>miRNAs are produced from rRNAs</div></div><div><div>miRNAs are made by RNA polymerase</div>&nbsp;</div></div><div>miRNAs are produced from rRNAs</div>
<div><div>After transcription, nuclear RNA is capped, polyadenylated, spliced. After successful splicing,</div><div>proteins are added to the mature mRNA at the exon junction complex and then transported to the</div><div>cytoplasm. Which of the following is a NOT a reason why these modifications are added to</div><div>mRNA?</div></div><div><div><div>&nbsp;&nbsp;<div>to stabilize mRNA molecule</div>&nbsp;<div></div></div><div></div></div><div></div><div><div>&nbsp;&nbsp;<div>to aid in transport from ribosome to cytoplasm through pore</div>&nbsp;<div></div></div><div></div></div><div></div><div><div>&nbsp;&nbsp;<div>to identify the RNA molecule as mRNA</div>&nbsp;</div></div><div><div>to signal to the cell that mRNA is ready for translation</div>&nbsp;</div></div><div>to aid in transport from ribosome to cytoplasm through pore</div>
<div>Which regions (s) of the DNA are found in the final protein?</div><div><div><div><div>&nbsp;&nbsp;<div>Introns</div>&nbsp;<div></div></div><div></div></div><div></div><div><div>&nbsp;&nbsp;<div>Exons</div>&nbsp;<div></div></div><div></div></div><div></div><div><div>&nbsp;&nbsp;<div>UTRs</div>&nbsp;<div></div></div><div></div></div><div></div><div><div>&nbsp;&nbsp;<div>poly-A tail</div>&nbsp;<div></div></div><div></div></div><div></div><div><div>&nbsp;&nbsp;<div>introns and exons</div>&nbsp;</div></div></div></div>Exons
<div><div>Which of the following causes change in nucleosome structure by utilizing ATP hydrolysis,</div><div>loosens or tightens DNA, and alters DNA accessibility to proteins?</div></div><div><div><div><div>&nbsp;&nbsp;<div>Histones</div>&nbsp;<div></div></div><div></div></div><div></div><div><div>&nbsp;&nbsp;<div>Chromatin remodeling complexes</div>&nbsp;<div></div></div><div></div></div><div></div><div><div>&nbsp;&nbsp;<div>Kinases</div>&nbsp;<div></div></div><div></div></div><div></div><div><div>&nbsp;&nbsp;<div>Cohesins</div>&nbsp;</div></div></div></div><div>Chromatin remodeling complexes</div>
<div><div>What prevents DNA from re­forming base pairs and keeps DNA elongated so it can serve as</div><div>a template?</div><br></div><div><div><div><div>&nbsp;&nbsp;<div>Single­ stranded Binding Protein</div>&nbsp;<div></div></div><div></div></div><div></div><div><div>&nbsp;&nbsp;<div>Topo I</div>&nbsp;<div></div></div><div></div></div><div></div><div><div>&nbsp;&nbsp;<div>Topo II</div>&nbsp;<div></div></div><div></div></div><div></div><div><div>&nbsp;&nbsp;<div>MCPBA</div>&nbsp;<div></div></div><div></div></div><div></div><div><div>&nbsp;&nbsp;<div>cGMP</div>&nbsp;</div></div></div></div><div>Single­ stranded Binding Protein</div>
<div>Which process is<b>&nbsp;not&nbsp;</b>an example of post-transcriptional&nbsp;control of gene expression:</div><div><div><div><div>&nbsp;&nbsp;<div>Epigenetics</div>&nbsp;<div></div></div><div></div></div><div></div><div><div>&nbsp;&nbsp;<div>UTRs</div>&nbsp;<div></div></div><div></div></div><div></div><div><div>&nbsp;&nbsp;<div>miRNA's</div></div><div></div></div><div></div><div><div>&nbsp;&nbsp;<div>Splicing</div>&nbsp;</div></div></div></div>Epigenetics
<div><div>The octameric histone core is comprised of four different histone proteins, assembled in a stepwise manner. Once the core octamer has been formed, DNA wraps around it to form a nucleosome core particle. Which of the following histone proteins does not form part of the octameric core?</div><br></div><div><div><div><div>&nbsp;&nbsp;<div>H4</div>&nbsp;<div></div></div><div></div></div><div></div><div><div>&nbsp;&nbsp;<div>H2A</div>&nbsp;<div></div></div><div></div></div><div></div><div><div>&nbsp;&nbsp;<div>H3</div>&nbsp;<div></div></div><div></div></div><div></div><div><div>&nbsp;&nbsp;<div>H1</div>&nbsp;</div></div></div></div>H1
<div><div>Which of the following is false about cyclin-cdk complexes?</div><br></div><div><div><div><div>&nbsp;&nbsp;<div>Cdk’s do not have to bind to cyclin proteins for complex to be active.&nbsp;</div></div><div></div></div><div></div><div><div>&nbsp;&nbsp;<div>Cdk/cyclin complexes phosphorylates proteins required to trigger next cell cycle phase.</div></div><div></div></div><div></div><div><div>&nbsp;&nbsp;<div>Process acts as molecular brakes to ensure cell is ready to continue with cell cycle.</div></div><div></div></div><div></div><div><div>&nbsp;&nbsp;<div>Cyclin concentrations increase gradually, but cdk must be phosphorylated by specific kinase for complex to be active</div></div></div></div></div><div><div>&nbsp;&nbsp;<div>Cdk’s do not have to bind to cyclin proteins for complex to be active.&nbsp;</div></div><div></div></div><div></div><div><br></div>
<div><div>&nbsp;The origins of replication on chromosomes are rich in a certain base-pairing.</div><div>Which explanation below is correct?</div></div><div><div><div><div>&nbsp;&nbsp;<div>&nbsp;G-C, because they form weaker bonds</div>&nbsp;<div></div></div><div></div></div><div></div><div><div>&nbsp;&nbsp;<div>&nbsp;A-T, because they form stronger bonds</div>&nbsp;<div></div></div><div></div></div><div></div><div><div>&nbsp;&nbsp;<div>&nbsp;A-T, because the form weaker bonds</div>&nbsp;<div></div></div><div></div></div><div></div><div><div>&nbsp;&nbsp;<div>&nbsp;G-C, because they form stronger bonds</div>&nbsp;</div></div></div></div><div>&nbsp;A-T, because the form weaker bonds</div>
Nuclease?Breaks apart RNA<br>primer
Repair Polymerase?replaces RNA with DNA
Primase?A RNA polymerase that generates a short length of RNA about 10 nucleotides in length – primer!<br>&nbsp; &nbsp;- Provides base-paired 3’ end as starting point for DNA polymerase
RNA polymerase 1,2, &amp; 3 diff*&nbsp; &nbsp;RNA polymerase I transcribes rRNA genes<br>*&nbsp; &nbsp;RNA polymerase II transcribes mRNA, miRNA, snRNA, and snoRNA genes<br>*&nbsp; &nbsp;RNA polymerase III transcribes tRNA and 5S rRNA genes.
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Phospholipid Bilayer</span></div></b><br>""<b><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Fluid Mosaic Model</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;""><img alt=""Fluid mosaic model - Wikipedia"" src=""1200px-Cell_membrane_detailed_diagram_en.svg.png""><br></span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Cell membranes act as selective barriers (diff environment inside cell from what’s outside cell) and only allow certain molecules at certain times. Prevent molecules from mixing with outside molecules = NOT homogenous</span></div></li><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Eukaryotic cells have organelles inside the cell and Bacterial Cells do not.</span></div></li></ul></ul></b>"
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Membrane BUILT:</span></div></b><br>""<b><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Involved receiving info from outside environment [Receiving info -&gt; import and export of molecules (molecules in and out of cell via transport and chanel membrane and directly through membrane + exo and endocytosis) -&gt; capacity for movement and expansion (some cells will move around and be able to expand, making plasma membrane important)]</span></div></li></ul></b>"
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Membranes allow cell compartments (organelles):</span></div></b><br>""<b><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Nucleus and mitochondria have 2 membranes too surrounding each other *only ones*</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Nuclear envelope (double membrane bound) protects DNA&nbsp;</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Organelles = endoplasmic reticulum, nucleus, peroxisomes, lysosomes, transport vesicle, mitochondria, golgi apparatus, plasma membrane, chloroplast, etc.</span></div></li></ul></b>"
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Phospholipid Bilayer made up of:</span></div></b>""<ul style=""font-weight: 700;""><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Made of proteins and lipids (and occasionally carbohydrates) &amp; is complex.. Composed of many types of phospholipids, proteins, fibers, etc.</span></div></li></ul>"
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Membrane lipids = _____ (hydrophobic + hydrophilic on same body) by nature</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">* Are they the most abundant by weight or number? Which is which?</span></div></b>""<ul style=""font-weight: 700;""><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">AMPHIPATHIC</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Phospholipids = most abundant molecule in membranes (by #) BUT by weight, proteins are about 50% and are most abundant.</span></div></li></ul>"
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Acetone = __</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Methyl Propane = ___&nbsp;</span></div></b>""<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Acetone = hydrophilic</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Methyl Propane = hydrophobic and does not bond w water molecules</span></div><br></b>"
"<div><b><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Diff lipids = diff roles</span></b></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;""><br></span></div><div><b><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp; &nbsp;*Phosphatidylcholine...</span></b></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp; &nbsp;*</span>Cholesterol...</div><br>""<b><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Phosphatidylcholine:</span></b><br>&nbsp; &nbsp;*mainly structural found on outside<br>&nbsp; &nbsp;*<span style=""background-color: rgb(170, 85, 0);"">most common phospholipid in cell membranes</span><br><br>Cholesterol:<br>&nbsp; &nbsp;*maintain fluidity and structure of the membrane"
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Diff lipids (all amphipathic):</span></div></b>""<ul style=""font-weight: 700;""><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Cholesterol (sterol)</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Glycolipid</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Phospholipid&nbsp;</span></div></li></ul>"
<div>Fat molecules vs Phospholipids:</div>Fat molecules = hydrophobic <br>Phospholipids = Amphipathic
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Phospholipid bilayer spontaneously close to form a ball so external hydrophilic is w water and hydrophobic away...</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;""><br></span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Does this cost energy (essentially forming a liposome)?</span></div></b>"No, occurs naturally
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Liposomes =&nbsp;</span></div></b><br>"sphere of phospholipids with water on inside and outside.. Looks like hollow circle.
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Phospholipid movement =&nbsp;</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;""><br></span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Which movement costs energy?</span></div></b>"constantly moving, lateral diffusion, flip flop, rotation, flexion, and can switch with neighboring phospholipid billion times a second.<br><br>ONLY ONE that costs energy is flip-flop!!<br>
"<b><div>Lipid Raft<span style=""font-weight: 400;"">:</span></div></b>""<ul style=""font-weight: bold;""><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;= made of diff types of lipids and of transmembrane proteins and organized in certain way in membrane and moves around as a group. Regulates protein trafficking, neurotransmission, and receptor trafficking. More ordered and tightly packed than bilayer but moves freely in membrane bilayer.</span></div></li></ul>"
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Lipid Bilayer Fluidity</span></div></b>""<ul style=""font-weight: 700;""><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Fluidity of membrane determined by the phospholipid tails</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Length of tail affects membrane fluidity. Shorter = decrease interaction with tails and increase fluidity (means Fewer van der waals) &amp; longer = less fluidity, more tail interaction &amp; more van der waals.&nbsp;</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Bent tails = can’t bend as tightly -&gt; double bonds/bent tails make less interaction (unsaturated) and straight tails = saturated… Bent = more fluid</span></div></li></ul>"
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Cholesterol in ___ ___ only</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;""><br></span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">what percentage in our cells and is it dense???</span></div></b>"Animal cells only<br><br>20% in our cells by weight and acts to make cell more dense
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Lipid Bilayer = symmetrical or asymmetrical</span></div></b>"asymmetrical
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Bilayer synthesis process:</span></div></b><br>""<ul style=""font-weight: 700;""><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">New membranes made in endoplasmic reticulum -&gt; exported by budding and fusion (buds off into vesicle) &amp; membrane orientation stays the same throughout process</span></div></li></ul>"
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Flippases catalyze =&nbsp;</span></div></b>"flipping of phospholipids onto other layer (exterior -&gt; cytosolic surface).<br>
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Membrane proteins:</span></div></b>""<ul style=""font-weight: 700;""><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Transporters = Transport molecules (EX: Na+ Pump, channel &amp; carrier proteins)</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Anchors = Hold down molecules (EX: Integrins )</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Receptors = Accept/bind to signaling molecules and relay messages to opp side of membrane (EX: platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF receptor))</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Enzymes = Catalyze reactions (EX: Adenylyl cyclase)</span></div></li></ul>"
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Membrane proteins associate with lipid bilayer</span></div></b>""<ul style=""font-weight: 700;""><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Transmembrane</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Monolayer-associated a helix&nbsp;</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Lipid-linked&nbsp;</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Protein-attached&nbsp;</span></div></li></ul>"
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Hydrophobicity determines how polypeptide chain crosses bilayer as alpha helices:</span></div></b>""<b><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Transmembrane protein = amphipathic! Can act as receptor proteins.</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Amino acids on the alpha helix are hydrophobic and the backbone is hydrophilic. Has peptide bonds (hydrophilic)</span></div></li></ul></b>"
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Detergents =&nbsp;</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;""><br></span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">What used for?</span></div></b>""<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">used to separate membrane proteins from membrane. disrupts hydrophobic associations holding membrane together. Amphipathic. Single H tail.&nbsp;</span></div><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Used to break open membranes when making a cell lysate for SDS-PAGE</span></div></li></ul></b>"
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Plasma membrane in animal cells is _ and _.</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;""><br></span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Cell cortex =&nbsp;</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;""><br></span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">what does cortex help red blood cells do?</span><br></div></b>""<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">1) weak and thin.&nbsp;</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">2) Cell cortex = lining of plasma membrane giving support, strength, and helps maintain shape. Made of fibrous proteins attached to membranes. (made of actin)</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;""><br></span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">3) Red blood cells keep shape because of cell cortex</span></div></b>"
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Spectrin =&nbsp;</span></div></b>"protein fibers attached to attachment proteins then attached to transmembrane proteins which helps hold everything in place giving support to plasma membrane.&nbsp;<br><br>Essentially the cell scaffolding
Cortex...<br><br>what made up and function?"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Cell cortex is usually made of actin filaments.&nbsp;</span></div><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">CORTEX = Actin rich network which lies under cytoplasm. Gives the cell its shape and allows it to move.</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;""><img alt=""The Cytoskeleton – Fundamentals of Cell Biology"" src=""Figure-06-24.png"" width=""653""><br></span></div></li></ul></b>"
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Cells move by crawling… How does cortex aid this process?</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;""><br></span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">What are Integrins and how do they help?</span></div></b>""<div style=""font-weight: bold;""><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Cortex extends (by internal Actin pushing out), reaching out forcing the back end of the cell to contract, ultimately moving the cell.</span></div><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;""><b>Integrins: Transmembrane proteins which bind to the extracellular matrix... </b>T</span>ransmembrane linkers (or “integrators”), mediating the interactions between the cytoskeleton and the extracellular matrix that are required for cells to grip the matrix<span style=""font-weight: 400;"">. Most integrins are connected to bundles of actin filaments.</span></div></li>"
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Membrane Domains =&nbsp;</span></div></b>"functionally specialized regions on cell or organelle surface (lipid rafts!)<br>
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">All proteins float freely in the membrane? T/F</span></div></b><br>"FALSE
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Restricting protein movements (4):</span></div></b>""<ul style=""font-weight: 700;""><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">(A) Tether to cell cortex inside the cell</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">(B) Bind to Extracellular matrix molecules outside cell</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">(C) tether to proteins from another cell</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">(D) Diffusion barrier restricts proteins to a specific domain (tight junctions)</span></div></li></ul>"
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Tight Junctions =&nbsp;</span></div></b>"Protein barrier that prevents movement of proteins&nbsp; and water (with basal lamina at bottom) of (A) nutrient absorbing proteins<br>
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Carbohydrate Layer =&nbsp;</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;""><br></span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Function???</span></div></b>""<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Make up part of membrane, glycolipids or glycoproteins. Has short chains of sugars attached to membrane lipids (slimy layer) and is a filler layer between cells.</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;""><br></span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">FXN: protects cell surface from chem &amp; mech damage. Absorbs water, helps with motility, stops cells sticking together, and Cell-cell recognition and adhesion.</span></div></b>"
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Cell transportation controlled by ___…&nbsp;</span></div></b>""<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">membrane… Cell determines which cells it wants cells to cross and not to, tightly regulated by the cell</span></div></b><br>"
"<ul style=""font-weight: bold;""><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Small nonpolar molecules (?????) -&gt;</span></div></li></ul><div style=""""><br></div><ul style=""font-weight: bold;""><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;How well do they cross membrane</span></div></li></ul>""<ul style=""font-weight: bold;""><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">O2, CO2, N2, etc</span></div></li></ul><div style=""""><br></div><ul style=""font-weight: bold;""><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Crosses membrane no problem</span><br></div></li></ul>"
"<b><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Small Uncharged polar molecules (?????)<br><br>How well do they get through the membrane?</span></b>""<ul style=""font-weight: bold;""><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">(H2O, ethanol, etc)</span></div></li></ul><div style=""""><br></div><ul style=""font-weight: bold;""><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">hardly any can get across because are polar, like water, therefore have some trouble getting across hydrophobic section of membrane</span></div></li></ul>"
"<b><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Larger uncharged polar molecules -&gt; Big and polar =&nbsp;</span></div></li></ul></b>"do not get across membrane, large and polar / charged so is difficult.
"<b><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Ions... Do they get through membrane??</span></div></li></ul></b>""<b><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">small but the charge does not allow them to get through because hydrophilic region does not allow it through phospholipid bilayer</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">NEEDS protein transport/channel protein to get across.</span></div></li></ul></b>"
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">2 classes of membrane transport proteins (think of a toggle/library doors)</span></div></b>""<ol style=""font-weight: 700;""><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Transporter - solute binds,&nbsp;</span><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">changes shape</span><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;and then opens on opposite side to let solute/ligand through… Like a vacuum sealed door. EX: glucose, fits like lock and key.</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Channel Proteins - Like little pores, lots of ions can get through at a time.&nbsp;</span><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Discriminate by electric charge and size</span><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">. Have to get by the opposite charge (makes sense, opposites attract)... Gateway.</span></div></li></ol>"
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Active &amp; passive transport:</span></div></b>""<ul style=""font-weight: 700;""><li><div>Passive<span style=""font-weight: 400;"">: Come down to concentration gradients (high concentration -&gt; low concentration)... Automatically, favorable reaction =&nbsp;</span>Simple diffusion, Channel-mediated, &amp; transported mediated&nbsp;</div></li><li><div>Active<span style=""font-weight: 400;"">: requires&nbsp; an energy source to travel against the stream (low -&gt; high).&nbsp;&nbsp;</span></div></li><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Coupled transporter/pump: Automatic passive transport molecules try to go high to low, then molecule 2 sneaks in and goes low to high.</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">ATP-driven pump: req ATP to replace ADP and go low to high.&nbsp;</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Light-Driven Pump: Couple uphill transport to an input of energy from light found&nbsp;</span><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">mainly in bacterial cells, not human cells.</span></div></li></ul></ul>"
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Electrochemical Gradients (IMPORTANT) 2 Parts:</span></div></b>""<ol style=""font-weight: 700;""><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Electro part of it (</span>inside cells are negatively charged &amp; outside cells are positively charged<span style=""font-weight: 400;"">). Positively charged cells are going to be drawn inside cell… Excess positives in cell, will chemically want to go out, away from high concentration, but electro part wants to stay in negative cell so only a few leave the cell…</span></div></li><ol><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Sodium always rushes in large quantities to go inside cell…&nbsp;</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">K+ is an example that leaves the cell</span></div></li></ol><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Chemical part just means that it goes from&nbsp;</span><span style=""font-weight: 400; text-decoration-line: underline;"">high concentration to low concentration</span><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">.</span></div></li></ol>"
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Need to know:&nbsp;</span></div><ol><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Excess sodium (Na+)&nbsp;</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Excess Potassium (K+)</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Very little Calcium (Ca2+)&nbsp;</span></div></li></ol></b>""<b><ol><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Excess sodium (Na+) outside of the cell, few inside of the cell.</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Excess Potassium (K+) inside cell, few outside the cell.</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Very little Calcium (Ca2+) inside cell 10^-4, more outside the cell 1 to 2 calcium…</span></div></li></ol></b>"
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Membrane potential:&nbsp;</span></div></b><br>"difference in electrical potential between each side of the membrane
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Na+ and K+ pump transports Na+ out and K+ in the cell... how work?</span></div></b>""<ul style=""font-weight: 700;""><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Sodium potassium ATP driven pump… Sodium binds lock and key to sodium potassium pump, ATP then phosphorylates pump, it changes shape (which removes sodium), boots off sodium out of cell, then accepts potassium, goes inside cell, changes shape again which removes potassium.</span></div></li></ul>"
"<b><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">How does Sodium help Glucose?</span></div></li></ul></b>""<b><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Sodium helps Glucose go against concentration gradient by binding with it, then locking in with the symport, releasing intracellular, then closing again.&nbsp;</span></div></li><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Happens in our gut… High glucose concentration inside cell and try to add more into the cell (low to high. Difficult, therefore need Na+ and the symports).</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Has a Glucose uniport which passively lets glucose leave the cell on the other side</span></div></li></ul></ul></b>"
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Calcium =&nbsp;</span></div></b><br>"Most tightly controlled ion in the cell!
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Calcium Pump:</span></div></b>""<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Calcium will bind, ATP utilized, then calcium pumped out of the cytosol (more calcium outside of the cell)...</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;""><br></span></div></b>"
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Ion Channels:</span></div></b>""<ul style=""font-weight: 700;""><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">K+ Channel has a narrow selectivity filter that is lined with partial negative charges&nbsp;</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Shape of the ion channel perfectly matches the specific ions… All about shape</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Tightly regulated. Gated and closed until ion is needed which allows ions to flow through.&nbsp;</span></div></li></ul>"
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Gated Ion Channels:</span></div></b>""<ul style=""font-weight: 700;""><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Not always open and are closed sometimes. When open ions and then rush through.</span></div></li></ul>"
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Gated ion channels respond to different types of stimuli (3):</span></div></b><br>""<b><ol><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Voltage gated</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Ligand-gated (2 types: extracellular ligand &amp; Intracellular ligand)</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Mechanically-gated / Stress-gated channel:</span></div></li></ol></b>"
"<b><ol><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Voltage gated</span></div></li></ol></b>""<ol style=""font-weight: 700;""><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Controlled by membrane potential… have voltage sensors that are sensitive to changes in membrane potential (positively charged flaps would go towards negative charge, opening channel).</span></div></li></ol>"
"<b><ol><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Ligand-gated (2 types: extracellular ligand &amp; Intracellular ligand)</span></div></li></ol></b>""<ol style=""font-weight: 700;""><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Controlled by ligand binding channel… Ligand binds to the channel, this opens it, then ions can flow through.</span></div></li><ol><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">EX: Nicotinic Acetylcholine Receptor</span></div></li></ol></ol>"
"<b><ol><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Mechanically-gated / Stress-gated channel:</span></div></li></ol></b>""<ol style=""font-weight: 700;""><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Controlled by mechanically applied… Physically pulled, tilts open which reveals entry for positively charged ions on stereocilia (not tilted = closed; tilted = open)... Example of another Ion Channel.</span></div></li></ol>"
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Resting membrane potential:&nbsp;</span></div></b><ul style=""""><li style=""font-weight: 700;""><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Exact balance of charges on each side of membrane =&nbsp;</span></div></li><li style=""font-weight: 700;""><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Few positive ions cross membranes causing imbalance =&nbsp;</span></div></li><ul style=""""><li style="""">+ or - leave or stay inside the cell?</li></ul></ul>""<div>= membrane potential of&nbsp;<span style=""font-weight: 700;"">0</span><br></div><div>= nonzero membrane potential.<span style=""font-weight: 700;""><br></span></div><div><ul style=""font-weight: 700;""><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Positive ions leave the cell which makes the cell negative (INSIDE OF CELL IS NEGATIVE).</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Depends on Leaky potassium channel</span></div></li></ul></div>"
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Leaky K+ Channel:</span></div></b>""<ul style=""font-weight: 700;""><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Flicker open and close at RANDOM (open -&gt; potassium leaves the cell, making cell negative)</span></div></li></ul>"
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Neuron:</span></div></b>""<ul style=""font-weight: 700;""><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Cell body</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Dendrites (branch-like)</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Axon (less than 1mm to more than 1m in length)</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Terminal branches of axon</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Nerve pulses move towards terminal, never backwards only this direction</span></div></li></ul>"
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Learned about Neurons from ___</span></div></b>""<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">giant squids because they’re huge</span></div></b><br>"
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Action Potential:&nbsp;</span></div></b>""<ul style=""font-weight: 700;""><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Spike of electrical activity down neuron triggered by depolarization of the membrane.&nbsp;</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">When the cell is depolarized enough,&nbsp; action potential becomes self-sustaining, opening voltage-gated Na+ channels, allowing Na+ to depolarize neuron</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Resting membrane potential is around -60mV.&nbsp;</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">-60mV -&gt; -40 (then breaks the threshold) -&gt; peaks at +40mV (takes 1 msec)-&gt; then -60mV</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Propagated along Axon</span></div></li></ul><div><br></div><div>IN SHORT: when neuron sends info signal down an Axon (away from neuron cell body)</div>"
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Ion flow dictates rise and fall of action potential: Gated Ion flow channels:</span></div></b>""<ul style=""font-weight: 700;""><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">When the sodium channel opens up, cell gets very positive;&nbsp; inactive = ball and chain clogs channel; Closed formation is a closed channel and must be closed to then open later.</span></div></li><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">NEVER inactivated -&gt; open</span></div></li></ul></ul>"
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Voltage-gated sodium channel has three conformations:</span></div></b>""<ul style=""font-weight: 700;""><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">(1) Closed -&gt; Negative ions/charges are in the cell</span></div></li><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">*Arrival of Action Potential*</span></div></li></ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">(2) Open&nbsp; -&gt; Positive ions/charges are in the cell</span></div></li><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">*Refractory Period*</span></div></li></ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">(3) Inactivated -&gt; Transition phase between open and closed&nbsp;</span></div></li><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">*Recovery and Membrane Repolarization* (back to closed)</span></div></li></ul></ul>"
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;Synapse:</span></div></b>""Junction where neurons communicate with each other.&nbsp;Synapses&nbsp;convert electrical signals into chemical signals, which are then released as neurotransmitters<br><br><b><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Acetylcholine binds to a postsynaptic acetylcholine receptor, which opens the channel, allowing Sodium to pass though (bonus that it’s lined with negatively charged amino acid side chains)</span></b><br><br><ul><li><div>Resting nerve terminal -&gt; activated nerve terminal mechanism</div></li><ul><li><div>MECH: Arrival of action potential, causes voltage to open calcium channel to open, calcium rushes into nerve terminal, this sends signal to synaptic vesicle to fuse with terminal membrane, releasing neurotransmitters into synapse, then neurotransmitters can bind to receptors on postsynaptic cell. All because of the voltage gated calcium channel!</div></li></ul></ul><br><b><img src=""nEWzbToaWzYxGaaoqHbRARPuyD9ultXe2aZT0H41WhEcJu5WnKI3Icbwww5IoHluw_UooMxpu6vy-VhqH6k7rYYCzquD21db7mrrAcoLcMMXI49yq7S.png""></b><br>"
"<div style=""""><b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Synapses transmits 2:</span></div></b></div>""<b><ol><li><div>Excitatory Synapse</div></li><ol><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Influx of Sodium (Na+) depolarized membrane,&nbsp;</span><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">increasing chance of firing an action potential</span><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">… Causes + ion to rush into cell</span></div></li></ol><li><div>Inhibitory Synapse</div></li><ol><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Influx of Chlorine (Cl-) tends to keep the membrane polarized,&nbsp;</span><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">decreasing likelihood of firing action potential</span><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">. Send in - ion, making cell more negative.</span></div></li></ol></ol></b>"
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Cation channels (+):&nbsp;</span></div></b><br>""<b><span style=""font-weight: 400;""><img src=""nH9carX_7OZHCXbJYoyG_i4vgGIiYJlE8fSn0vfj9eR1M1v4bADXx2Gf403VNe8wajk_1IJ1tPTwKv09IwW8imflIDokC9TQ5Lb1NkPq-fG5Sph8sEr.png""></span></b>"
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Chloride channels (-)</span></div></b>""<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;""><img src=""Sq2YWXUzoKNRP3el8J_3KVE2u8SNuPL7QSQdfIO0fNycOUOFQLirXhYelY4WWlfonLbp5caJGjZTQOoUeVD-bDwH_Z_Z1H9ivjKLxo9HpzCZaMQyCc_.png""></span></div></b><br>"
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">DRUGS that target ion channels:</span></div></b><br>""<b><span style=""font-weight: 400;""><img src=""DeAbfffr7uAjI81Zz0a8Zp4B_sGuz7T_UT7aRFW2thJ7LWSkoQfpe9swa5h9ll1eaJzSZYokS8gbsvPP6t81GKX3deDQyKPYL7Uy4sZAIcDtEwUTwh-.png""></span></b>"
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Thousands of synapses form on cell body and dendrites of a motor neuron in spinal cord:</span></div></b>""<ul style=""font-weight: 700;""><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Neurons throughout entire body &amp; constantly talking to each other.</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Neurons must generate, relay, combine, interpret, and record signals</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Complete complex computations to store memories and generate plans of action</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">“Ion channels are at the heart of machinery that enables you to think, feel, speak, learn, and love”</span></div></li></ul>"
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Electrophysiology:</span></div></b>""<ul style=""font-weight: 700;""><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Measures electric current or voltage (V = IR)</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Glass electrode placed directly on the cell -&gt; Can see channels open/close or action potential fire!</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Old method = Patch clamp electrophysiology where take a chunk of ion channels, place in a tub of water, and then view the channels&nbsp;</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Current method = Whole Cell Electrophysiology</span></div></li></ul>"
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Preserve Brain functioning:</span></div></b>""<ul style=""font-weight: 700;""><li><div>Exercise<span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;generates new neurons called&nbsp;</span><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Neurogenesis</span></div></li><li><div>Food<span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;(and foods with Flavonoids)</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Train your brain by social interaction and teaching others</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Brain is in top shape: Men (late 50s), Women (60s) and anxiety decreases, happiness increases with age</span></div></li></ul>"
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Membrane Enclosed Organelles:</span></div></b>""<ul style=""font-weight: 700;""><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Mitochondria: ATP synthesis by Oxidative phosphorylation</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Golgi Apparatus: Modification, sorting, and packaging of proteins and lipids for either secretion or delivery to another organelle</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Lysosomes: Intracellular degradation</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Endosomes: Sorting of endocytosed material</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Cytosol: contains many metabolic pathways; protein synthesis; the cytoskeleton</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Free ribosomes:&nbsp;</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Plasma membrane:&nbsp;</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">nucleus: Contains main genome; DNA and RNA synthesis</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Endoplasmic Reticulum: Synthesis of most lipids; synthesis of proteins for distribution to many organelles and to the plasma membrane.</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Peroxisomes: Oxidation of toxic molecules</span></div></li></ul>"
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Proteins cross phospholipid bilayer by:</span></div></b>""<b><ol><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Cytosol into nucleus via nuclear pores that penetrate the inner and outer membranes</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Cytosol into ER, mitochondria, chloroplast (via&nbsp;</span><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">protein translocators</span><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;in membrane and it’s similar to bacteria)</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">ER onward and from one compartment of the endomembrane system to another (transport vesicles).</span></div></li></ol><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">(Transport through nuclear pores -&gt; Transport across membranes -&gt; Transport by vesicles)</span></div></li></ul></b>"
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Signal sequences:</span></div></b>""<ul style=""font-weight: 700;""><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Conserved AA sequence that acts as a molecular address telling cell where this protein needs to live in the cell.</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Diff amino acids can make up the same signal sequence</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Switched Signal Sequences:&nbsp; If one is removed, then the protein won’t know where to go/ go to wrong location.</span></div></li></ul>"
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Architecture of nucleus:</span></div></b>""<ul style=""font-weight: 700;""><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Inner and outer nuclear membrane (combined is nuclear envelope)</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">ER membrane + ER Lumen</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Nuclear Lamina: Protein filaments that provide structural support for the nuclear envelope.</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Nuclear pore: Form the gates at which all molecules enter or leave the nucleus. Made up of a lot of different types of proteins and spans both membranes (obviously). Connected to the nuclear basket.&nbsp;</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Perinuclear Space</span></div></li></ul>"
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Go into nucleus by Nuclear pore:</span></div></b>""<b><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Protein grabs on to repeated aa sequence within the tangle of nuclear pore proteins to carry the protein into the nucleus.</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Requires energy (GTP)</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Nuclear pores transport proteins in their fully folded conformation</span></div></li></ul><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;""><img src=""d2dwCwKr7lZVSg6Z4ymV16v4N6GOf3veHwfvfEJd_qLfypxUhUU6YDbTOrjzXtSRyrb3j89ZHJlzADeuN3gm8tRq8oIdsx84EuklYn_AFPpgi1QSTaa.png""></span></div></b><br>"
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Proteins into mitochondria?</span></div></b>""<ul style=""font-weight: 700;""><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Translocator protein helps protein get across the membrane… Precursor protein with AA sequence on it unfolds, binds to import receptor, starts moving across membrane, goes through protein translocator, then refolds once past the membrane.</span></div></li><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">MUST UNFOLD TO PASS, THEN REFOLD ONCE COMPLETED</span></div></li></ul></ul>"
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Proteins enter the Endoplasmic Reticulum?</span></div></b>""<ul style=""font-weight: 700;""><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Most extensive membrane system in eukaryotic cell</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Entry point for protein is for other organelles and ER too.</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Once in ER, proteins do not return to cytosol!!!</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Enters before the polypeptide chain fully synthesizes .</span></div></li><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Polyribosomes. More than one ribosome is bound to mRNA at the same time and produces multiple copies of the same protein at the same time.</span></div></li></ul></ul>"
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Translocation channel</span></div></b>""<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">ER signal sequence usually on N terminus - functions to open a channel.&nbsp;</span></div><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Remains bound to channel as remainder of protein chain threaded through membrane as a large loop</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">ER signal cleaved once proteins have crossed.</span></div></li></ul></b>"
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">How are transmembrane proteins arranged in the membrane:</span></div></b>""<ul style=""font-weight: 700;""><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Transmembrane proteins contain a hydrophobic stop-transfer sequence (orange)</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">When stop signal reached, the channel discharges teh proteins sideways into the lipid bilayer</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">ER signal cleaved once proteins have crossed the membrane</span></div></li></ul>"
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Double-pass transmembrane protein:</span></div></b>""<ul style=""font-weight: 700;""><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Start transfer sequence&nbsp;</span><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">- internal signal sequence used to start protein transfer -&nbsp;</span><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">never removed from peptide!&nbsp;</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Stop signal not removed!</span></div></li></ul>"
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Multi-pass membrane proteins:</span></div></b>""<ul style=""font-weight: 700;""><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Need additional pairs of stop and start sequences</span></div></li><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">One sequence initiates translocation further down peptide chain</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Other stops translocation and causes polypeptide release and so on</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Stitched into membrane as they are synthesized</span></div></li></ul></ul>"
<b><div>Chemical Modifications that Occur in the ER:</div></b>"<ul style=""font-weight: 700;""><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Disulfide bonds form between cysteine side chains, to help stabilize protein structure</span></div></li><li><div>Glycosylation<span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;- covalent attachment of short oligosaccharide side chains (protects extracellular proteins, form carbohydrate layer, help with cel to cell recognition &amp; is carried out by glycosylating enzymes in ER but not in the cytosol</span></div></li><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Is the addition of oligosaccharide side chain at asparagine residues</span></div></li></ul></ul>"
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Regulated ER exit: Protein quality control:</span></div></b>""<ul style=""font-weight: 700;""><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Chaperone proteins hold proteins in ER until proper folding occurs - if does not occur the proteins are degraded.</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Unfolded protein Response (UFP): Protein production exceeds carrying and folding capacity</span></div></li><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Prompts cell to make more ER (if misfolded proteins continue to accumulate out of control.</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Can direct cell to undergo apoptosis</span></div></li></ul></ul>"
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">After ER -&gt; proteins go to Golgi Apparatus and beyond:</span></div><div><br></div></b>""<b><div><img src=""bfwvuNnHVlR8YrZnhd6ejCNawPeCx2QJQyHiHCp2PQlReX1quDrfJeFOOzyNIwq3ApYnzcWDG6s4QrikD3jj9tUUeKa-18MFukrf2eA0he5fFu6ppsX.png"" style=""font-weight: 400;""><br></div></b><br>"
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Vesicle are formed using protein coat &amp; has 2 functions:</span></div></b>""<ol style=""font-weight: 700;""><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Shapes the membrane into a bud</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Helps capture molecules for onward transport</span></div></li></ol><div style=""font-weight: 700;""><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Budding vesicles wear coats and once vesicle is fully formed and pinches off, it drops it’s coat</span></div><div style=""font-weight: 700;""><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Clathrin coated vesicles transport selected cargo molecules</span></div><ul style=""font-weight: 700;""><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Vesicle does not float around, it gets carried to its destination by Transport Motor Proteins (gest walked there (its that plug walk type shiii))</span></div></li></ul><div style=""font-weight: 700;""><span style=""font-weight: 400;""><img src=""qoWs1PgHwFz1FLTs92HqBem1BmkQBLJK9eTBYrkuwp_ENzdFIKcgP-E7xYE-hvH7J6oMQ2dQyccLnI6zOL1ijxnZun2u3DivmCcnjQaj6voeZQlYjat.png""></span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;""><br></span></div>"
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Once vesicle reaches target, recognizes and dock with organelle:</span></div></b>""<b><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Rab protein: Specific combination of Rab protein and tethering proteins - identify membrane type</span></div></li><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Ensure vesicle fuse only with correct membrane</span></div></li></ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">SNAREs - Transmembrane proteins important for docking the vesicle in place</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Vesicle fusion = deliver its cargo and adds vesicle membrane to organelle</span></div></li></ul><br><img src=""qaJOC55fKcCafgrM9z5xal5awcXE2uMNlwv7pumjx_h0nGXQK_PPsYZmnwPrdWMy3pYgqDANoTqmk2b4Jd1WxzBEsih807r3Wyhg3hEfqzzbgRsaR2w.png""><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Fusion requires come within 1.5nm within each other so lipid can intermix</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Needs to displace water from hydrophilic surface of the membrane.. Vsnares &amp; Tsnares important</span></div></li></ul></b>"
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Golgi Apparatus:</span></div></b>""<b><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Usually near nucleus</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Flattened sacs called cisternae</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Cis &amp; Trans layers</span></div></li></ul></b>"
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Secretory Proteins are released by ___</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Constitutive secretion = ___</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Regulated secretion = ___</span></div></b>""<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">exocytosis</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Constitutive secretion = no signal</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Regulated secretion = need signal to stimulate fusion with plasma membrane and release cargo to outside (EX high glucose signals release of insulin)</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;""><img src=""whvsQakks-Af0xPe9r9ecP2JunZQ5gEanqfm3iAFd829TvvrAxuHAT1HpuU9NNBpgidnBXlkiUZpBsJRwps54d0J4_bGc1d4nfL6nvfrs8VRJb4PXDZ.png""></span></div></b><br>"
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Endocytosis 2 types (smaller molecules):</span></div></b>""<ol style=""font-weight: 700;""><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Phagocytosis:&nbsp;</span></div></li><ol><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Ingestion of large particles via large vesicles called phagosomes (generally &gt; 250 nm in diameter)... gives the hug of death :(</span></div></li></ol><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Pinocytosis:&nbsp;</span></div></li><ol><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Ingestion of fluid and molecules via small vesicles (&lt;150 nm in diameter)</span></div></li><ol><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Carried out predominantly by clathrin-coated vesicles</span></div></li></ol></ol></ol>"
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Receptor-mediated Endocytosis:</span></div></b>""<ul style=""font-weight: 700;""><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Pinocytosis is indiscriminate:</span></div></li><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Happening all of the time!</span></div></li></ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Receptor-mediated Endocytosis = controlled pinocytosis</span></div></li><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Increases efficiency of internalization of particular macromolecules more than 1000-fold: selective concentrating mechanism</span></div></li></ul></ul>"
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">LDL enters cells by ___ (how cholesterol can be released and used by cell and cholesterol is used in animals!) :</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">ALSO which cells use cholesterol&nbsp;</span></div></b>""<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">LDL enters cells by <span style=""background-color: rgb(170, 85, 0);"">receptor-mediated endocytosis</span> (how cholesterol can be released and used by cell and cholesterol is used in animals!) :</span></div><br><img src=""py1fzHnsbDY8_xKxObaXupl8_0ExnyXb2dNxvs7-voR0Z0ki89u71dEF05QaoSTASN0ukt7iEC8Oj6cfOw6uYVbw-rNF1RjgCzDcdaXwdc8UCUoZqyx.png""><br><br></b>"
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Endosomes:&nbsp;</span></div></b>""<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">= site for sorting of imported macromolecules</span></div><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Help sort things</span></div></li></ul></b>"
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Lysosomes:&nbsp;</span></div></b>""<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Are the principle sites of Intracellular Digestion (also has low pH)</span></div><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">They contain hydrolytic enzymes and a proton</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Break down damaged organelles, food particles, and stuff to be recycled</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;Dysregulation of this process can promote or prevent CANCER!</span></div></li></ul></b>"
"<b><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Autophagy =&nbsp;<br></span></b>""<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">destruction of an organelle</span></div><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Cancer drugs now targeting autophagy</span></div></li></ul><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;""><img src=""vklnmWy2oTvpCd4ud5pih0k3urbcEZTWpl4H7_H8V0SEGFei-DnUEOOWQgGmBLLxJ8lcs2vy9TT65ZMDNiPXRDg_uUvilfswfQmxESnTvpG6vtWY19x.png""></span></div></b>"
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Cytoskeleton:</span></div></b>""<ul style=""font-weight: 700;""><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Basically the bones and muscles of our cell… Gives the cell its shape, allows it to move, allows organization of internal organelles… Provides support &amp; organization!</span></div></li><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Microtubules &amp; Actin Filaments</span></div></li></ul></ul>"
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">3 different components of cytoskeleton:</span></div></b><br>""<b><ol><li><div><b>Intermediate FIlaments:</b><br></div></li><li><div><b><b><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Microtubules</span></b><br></b></div></li><li><div><b><b><span style=""font-weight: 400;""><b><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Actin Filaments/microfilaments</span></b><br></span></b></b></div></li></ol></b>"
"<b><ol><li><div>Intermediate FIlaments:<span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;</span></div></li></ol></b>""<b><ol><li><div>Intermediate FIlaments:<span style=""font-weight: 400;""> Very strong, thick, tough, &amp; only found in animal cells. Provide strength to the nucleus and radiate out from the nucleus to provide a lot of mechanical force/protection for the cell. </span><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">(withstand mechanical stress when cells are stretched; Toughest and most durable cytoskeleton filaments; Surround nucleus and extend to periphery; Anchored to plasma membrane at cell-cell junctions). </span><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Without these, our cells would rupture, and with, our cells would simply stretch and remain intact. (reinforced concrete &gt; concrete)</span></div></li></ol><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Individual protein alpha helical region of monomer -&gt; 2 proteins that twist into a coiled coil Dimer -&gt; Staggered tetramer of 2 coiled-coil dimers -&gt; 8 staggered tetramers = filament (kind of like the progression of a strand to a rope).</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">4 class of intermediate filaments, </span><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">3 are cytoplasmic</span><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">, </span><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">1 is nuclear</span><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">:</span></div></li></ul><ol><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Keratins: In epithelia (MOST DIVERSE)</span></div></li><ol><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">If keratins not separated properly = blister</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">54 functional keratin genes</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Span interior epithelial cells from end-to-end and filaments in adjacent cells connect indirectly through desmosomes</span></div></li></ol><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Vimentin and Vimentin-related: In connective tissue, muscle, cells, and glial cells.</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Neurofilaments: In nerve cells</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Nuclear Lamins: In all animal cells</span></div></li><ol><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Lamins = intermediate filament class found in nucleus.</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Provides structure to the nuclear envelope…</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Disassemble and re-form at each cell division through phosphorylation and dephosphorylation&nbsp;</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Defects in nuclear lamina can cause “Progeria” and is a rare premature aging disorder.</span></div></li></ol></ol></b>"
"<b><ol><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Microtubules:&nbsp;</span></div></li></ol></b>""<ol style=""font-weight: 700;""><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">thick, big, but HOLLOW so not as strong. Radiate out from the center of the cell / from a&nbsp;</span>centrosome<span style=""font-weight: 400;"">. In cell division.</span></div></li><ol><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Centrosome = major microtubule-organizing center in animal cells</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Made out of alpha and beta tubulin dimers (its a pair)</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Have directionality (a plus end and a minus end)</span></div></li><ol><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Plus ends towards the outside of the cell (which this side can grow or shrink) and minus ends towards inside of the cell.</span></div></li></ol><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Very dynamic, grow and shrink independently.</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Capping protein makes microtubules to grow in one direction (microtubule meets it, latches on, and sticks with it). This will change cell shape to grow in one particular direction. + All microtubules in a nerve cell point in the same direction allowing correct movement of materials around the cell.</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Acts like roads in our cells and even&nbsp;</span>organelles<span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;can move along microtubules.</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">How are things transported on microtubules? THEY WALK from minus end -&gt; plus end. Motor proteins going towards PLUS (+) end =&nbsp;</span><span style=""font-style: italic;"">Kinesins</span><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;AND going towards MINUS (-) end =&nbsp;</span><span style=""font-style: italic;"">Dyneins</span><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">. Use repeated cycles of ATP hydrolysis to move along microtubules.</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">ALSO important because they make up Cilia and Flagella…</span></div></li><ol><li><div>Cilia<span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;allow eukaryotic cells to move fluid over their surface</span></div></li><ol><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Moves via&nbsp;</span>power stroke<span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;due to microtubules (them bending and not)</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Ciliopathies (issues due to bad cilia): cystic kidneys, lung issues, eye, ear, and then male infertility issues.</span></div></li></ol><li><div>Flagella<span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;helps propel sperm/protozoa through fluid</span></div></li></ol><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Fibers work together… Plectin helps hold intermediate filaments and microtubules to stabilize further.</span></div></li></ol></ol>"
"<b><ol><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Actin Filaments/microfilaments:&nbsp;</span></div></li></ol></b>""<ol style=""font-weight: 700;""><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Made up of actin filaments. Very thin, weak, flexible, most dynamic fiber, constantly change and move around and serving a lot of functions.</span></div></li><ol><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Unstable like microtubules. Made stable by interaction with other proteins “actin binding proteins”.&nbsp; Actin Binding proteins control behavior of actin filaments in vertebrate cells &amp; Formins and Actin-related proteins (ARPs) control actin assembly.</span></div></li><ol><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400; background-color: rgb(170, 85, 0);"">Extracellular signals through signaling cascade tells the Actin what shape to assume.&nbsp;</span></div></li></ol><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Actin cleavage = split cell into 2 cells</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Has a plus end and a minus end (directionality).&nbsp;</span></div></li></ol></ol>"
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">DRUGS (</span><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">ALL Very toxic and can hurt our good cells</span><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">):</span></div></b>""<ul style=""font-weight: 700;""><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Taxol, Vinblastine, and Vincristine target microtubules.&nbsp;</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Colchicine, colcemid prevent polymerization.</span></div></li></ul>"
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Actin acts like a road for a vesicle, transported by </span>Myosin<span style=""font-weight: 400;""> (which acts like legs for the vesicle)</span></div><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Myosin =&nbsp;</span></div></li></ul></b>"motor protein that interacts with Actin
"<div style=""""><div style=""font-weight: bold;""><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">The Myosin molecule consists of...</span></div></div>""<div style=""font-weight: bold;""><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">2 Myosins intertwined with each other (a head and a tail… looks like a clover + stem… Heads touch Actin) and is like a double headed arrow when compiled into a filament</span></div><br><div style=""font-weight: bold;""><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Muscle contraction triggered by a sudden rise/rush of Calcium from the nervous system &amp; calcium stored in sarcoplasmic reticulum.</span></div>"
"<ul style=""font-weight: bold;""><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Myofibril contraction =&nbsp;</span></div></li></ul>""<ul style=""font-weight: bold;""><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">rush of calcium into the cell tells cell to contract though Lumen of Sarcoplasmic Reticulum (via Ca2+ release channel) and Lumen of T Tubule (Extracellular Space… via voltage gated Ca2+ channel)</span></div></li></ul><div><b><div><img src=""cUtr_cxuuIqotqEyr934RZaTipRuYjtaEEHZmeBWVX9v1ABL9qtINgkApEjTmKQ4J0iyr-UeFOl7xyy9pgvwiEJIBB6r2y87V2kxYqYe1ZESNgA0Ce7.png""></div></b></div>"
"<b><div>Sarcomeres<span style=""font-weight: 400;""> =&nbsp;</span></div></b>""<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">contractile unit of muscle</span></div><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Contraction of a muscle is due to simultaneous shortening of all sarcomere</span></div></li></ul></b>"
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Myosin walks along Actin by a series of conformational changes:</span></div></b>""<ul style=""font-weight: 700;""><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Muscle contraction requires energy (ATP)... ATP binds to Myosin, Myosin releases/lets go of the Actin (has to do with&nbsp;</span>Rigor Mortis<span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;and cell gets stiff and can’t let go), ATP -&gt; ADP, phosphate group leaves, this causes a&nbsp;</span>power stroke,&nbsp;<span style=""font-weight: 400;"">all pulling on all of the actin at the same time all due to ATP and it’s dephosphorylation.&nbsp;</span></div></li></ul>"
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">When glucose levels in the blood increase, a signal is released for insulin to be secreted from a pancreatic beta cell. What type of secretion is this an example of?</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">regulated secretion</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">continuous secretion</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">constitutive secretion</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">regional secretion</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">plasma secretion</span></div></b><br>""<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">regulated secretion</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;""><br></span></div></b>"
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Electrical signals are converted to chemical signals where?</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;at the plasma membrane&nbsp;</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;at the presynaptic membrane&nbsp;</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;in the synaptic cleft&nbsp;</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;at the neurotransmitter receptors </span></div></b><br>""<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp; at the presynaptic membrane&nbsp;</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;""><br></span></div></b>"
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Which motor protein(s) transport cargo along the microtubule to the positive and negative ends?</span></div><div><br></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp; &nbsp;*kinesins transport towards the negative end and dyenins towards the positive end</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;</span></div></b><b><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;*<span style=""font-weight: 400;"">kinesins transport towards the positive end and dyenins towards the negative end</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;</span></div></b><b><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;*<span style=""font-weight: 400;"">only kinesins transport the cargo to both ends</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;</span></div></b><b><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;*<span style=""font-weight: 400;"">only dyenins transport the cargo to both ends</span></div><div><br></div></b><b><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;*<span style=""font-weight: 400;"">kinesins and dyenins work together to transport cargo to both ends</span></div></b><br>""<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">kinesins transport towards the positive end and dyenins towards the negative end</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;""><br></span></div></b>"
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Found inside, flips to outside during apoptosis</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Phosphatidylserine</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Phosphatidylthanolamine</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Cholesterol</span></div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Spingomyelin</span></b><br>""<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;</span><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Phosphatidylserine</span></div></b>"
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">What is a pure phospholipid in water?</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;oligoosaccharide&nbsp;</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;liposome&nbsp;</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;phosphotidylcholine&nbsp;</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;cholesterol </span></div></b><br>""<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp; liposome&nbsp;</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;""><br></span></div></b>"
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Found on inside, involved in membrane fusion</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Phosphatidylthanolamine</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Phosphatidylserine</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Phosphatidylcholine</span></div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Glycolipids</span></b><br>""<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Phosphatidylthanolamine</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;""><br></span></div></b>"
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;Which of the cellular functions below does NOT directly require cytoskeleton proteins?</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;cell division&nbsp;</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;support of the cell membrane&nbsp;</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;movement of organelles around the cell&nbsp;</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;respiration </span></div></b><br>"&nbsp; &nbsp;respiration<br>
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Cells and all organelles within a cell are wrapped in a lipid bilayer membrane.</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">What is the purpose of the membrane?</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;To compartmentalize chemical reactions&nbsp;</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;To permanently stop the movement of molecules from one area to another&nbsp;</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;To catalyze chemical reactions&nbsp;</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;To facilitate transcription and translation of new proteins </span></div></b><br>""<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp; To compartmentalize chemical reactions&nbsp;</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;""><br></span></div></b>"
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Plasma membranes are extremely thin and fragile, requiring an extensive support network of fibrous proteins. This network is called the ________.</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Cortex</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Attachment complex</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Cytoskeleton</span></div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Spectrin</span></b><br>"Cortex
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Which of the following phospholipid movements is active (requires energy)?</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">lateral</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">rotation</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">flip-flop</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">lateral and rotation</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">rotation and flip flop</span></div></b><br>"flip-flop
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">The shape of a cell and the mechanical properties of its plasma membrane are determined by a meshwork of fibrous proteins called:</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;</span><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Basal lamina</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;</span><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Carbohydrate layer</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;</span><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Cell cortex</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;</span></div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;</span><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Tight junction</span></b><br>""<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;</span><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Cell cortex</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;""><br></span></div></b>"
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Stability of microtubules is accomplished by</span></div><div><br></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">phosphorylation of microtubules</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">interaction with capping proteins</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">growth of microtubules from gamma-tubulin ring complexes</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">degradation of unstable microtubules</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">all of the above</span></div></b><br>""<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">interaction with capping proteins</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;""><br></span></div></b>"
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">True/False: Proteins must be in quaternary structure to enter a chloroplast</span></div><div><br></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;True&nbsp;</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;False&nbsp;</span></div></b><br>"FALSE
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Which part of a cell allows for the compartmentalization of chemical reactions?</span></div><div><br></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;cytosol&nbsp;</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;peroxisome&nbsp;</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;plasma membrane</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;Nucleus </span></div></b><br>""<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp; plasma membrane</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;""><br></span></div></b>"
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Which of the following is FALSE about channel proteins?</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">transfers molecules one at a time by changing conformation</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">binds with greatest specificity of all membrane transport proteins</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">small charged molecules can travel through</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">transfers molecules one at a time by changing conformation and binds with greatest specificity of all membrane transport proteins</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;</span></div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">transfers molecules one at a time by changing conformation and small charged molecules can travel through</span></b><br>""<b><div><b><div><b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">small charged molecules can travel through</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;""><br></span></div></b></div></b></div></b>"
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;Which of the below is an example of a filament proteins?</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;actin&nbsp;</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;porin&nbsp;</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;serotonin&nbsp;</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;voltage-gated ion channel&nbsp;</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;transcription factor </span></div></b><br>""<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp; &nbsp;actin&nbsp;</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;""><br></span></div></b>"
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Important signaling molecules</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Inositol phospholipids</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;</span><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Cholesterol</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;</span><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Phosphatidylthanolamine</span></div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Phosphatidylserine</span></b><br>""<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Inositol phospholipids</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;""><br></span></div></b>"
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">How can proteins cross a phospholipid bilayer?</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">transport vesicles</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">nuclear pores</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">protein translocators</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">transport vesicles and nuclear pores</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;</span></div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">all of the above</span></b><br>""<b><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">all of the above</span></b>"
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Match these proteins with their functions!</span></div><div>Snares</div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;</span></div><div>Clathrin<br></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;</span></div><div>Oligosaccharide protein transferase<br></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;</span></div><div>Nuclear Transport receptor<br></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;</span></div><div>Signal recognition particles<br></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;""><br></span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;OPTIONS:</span></div><div><b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;*Coating protein which forms a basket around vesicles&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</span></div><div><b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;*Glycosylates extracellular proteins&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;</span></div></b></div></b></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;*Recognize localization signals and move Ribosome to the ER &nbsp; &nbsp; </span></div></b><b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp;</span><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;*Docking of vesicles at the membrane&nbsp; &nbsp;</span><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp;</span></div><div><b><div><b><div><b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;*Helps actively transport proteins into the nucleus&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;""><br></span></div></b></div></b></div></b></div></b><br>""<b><div><br></div><div>Snares:&nbsp;<span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Docking of vesicles at the membrane&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp;</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;</span></div><div>Clathrin:&nbsp;<span style=""font-weight: 400;"">coating protein which forms a basket around vesicles&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;</span></div><div>Oligosaccharide protein transferase:&nbsp;<span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Glycosylates extracellular proteins&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp;</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;</span></div><div>Nuclear Transport receptor:&nbsp;<span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Helps actively transport proteins into the nucleus&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;</span></div><div>Signal recognition particles:&nbsp;<span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Recognize localization signals and move Ribosome to the ER&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp;</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;""><br></span></div></b><br>"
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Transporters, in contrast to channels, work by _____________.</span></div><div><br></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;specific binding to solutes&nbsp;</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;a gating mechanism</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;filtering solutes by charge</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;Filtering solutes by size</span></div></b><br>""<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp; specific binding to solutes&nbsp;</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;""><br></span></div></b>"
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Muscles contract due to the shrinking of sarcomeres. What are the actin filaments anchored to (using the + end of the actin)</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">myosin</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">myofibrils</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">z-disk</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">dyenin</span></div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">kinesin</span></b><br>""<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">z-disk</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;""><br></span></div></b>"
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Which of the below is NOT an example of a regulated ion channel</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;porins&nbsp;</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;voltage gated&nbsp;</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;ligand-gated&nbsp;</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;stress- gated </span></div></b><br>"Porins
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Which of the following statements is NOT a description of the Unfolded Protein Response?</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;stimulates the cell to make more ER&nbsp;</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;requires a lot of transcription&nbsp;</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;is a way the cell reacts to its needs&nbsp;</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;can lead to cell death via apoptosis&nbsp;</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;is an important part of cell divison&nbsp;</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;occurs in the golgi body </span></div></b><br>"&nbsp; occurs in the golgi body<br>
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">In mammalian cells, how many Na+ molecules are transferred out of a cell and how many K+ molecules are transferred into a cell?</span></div><div><br></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">3 Na+ and 2 K+</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">2 Na+ and 3 K+</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">1 Na+ and 2 K+</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">2 Na+ and 1 K+</span></div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Both molecules travel freely in and out of the cell</span></b><br>""<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">3 Na+ and 2 K+</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;""><br></span></div></b>"
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Red blood cells have been very useful in the study of membranes and the protein components that provide structural support. Which of the following proteins is the principal fibrous protein in the cortex of the red blood cell?</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;Tubulin&nbsp;</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;Attachment proteins</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;Actin&nbsp;</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;Spectrin </span></div></b><br>"&nbsp; Spectrin<br>
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Which of the following is an integral membrane protein characteristic?</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;Monolayer associated</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;protein attached</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;transmembrane&nbsp;</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;monolayer associated and protein attached&nbsp;</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;monolayer associated and transmembrane </span></div></b><br>""<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp; Monolayer associated</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;""><br></span></div></b>"
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">The role of endosomes in the cell is?</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;oxidation of toxic material&nbsp;</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;degradation of protein and organelles&nbsp;</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;sorting of endocytosed material&nbsp;</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;transport of proteins to the plasma membrane </span></div></b><br>""<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp; sorting of endocytosed material&nbsp;</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;""><br></span></div></b>"
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;Which of the following is NOT an example of a membrane protein?</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;transporters&nbsp;</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;anchors&nbsp;</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;receptors&nbsp;</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;chaperones&nbsp;</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;channels </span></div></b><br>""<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp; &nbsp;chaperones&nbsp;</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;""><br></span></div></b>"
"<b><div><b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Which of the following is the most tightly controlled ion in the cell that is involved in secretion of signal molecules?</span></div><div><br></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Ca2+</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Na+</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">K+</span></div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Cl-</span></b><br></div></b>""<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Ca2+</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;""><br></span></div></b>"
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">What do carbohydrates attached to cell-surface proteins and lipids provide a cell?</span></div><div><br></div><div><br></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Protection from mechanical and chemical damage</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">A slimy coat that prevents cells from sticking to one another</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">A distinctive identity in cell-cell recognition</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;</span></div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;</span><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">All of the above</span></b><br>"all of the above
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Which of the following are components of the hydrophilic head of the most common phospholipid?</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;phosphate group&nbsp;</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;glycerol&nbsp;</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;choline&nbsp;</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;phosphate group and glycerol&nbsp;</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;All of the above </span></div></b><br>"&nbsp; All of the above<br>
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Most proteins destined to enter the endoplasmic reticulum</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">are transported across the membrane after their synthesis is complete.</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">a</span><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">re synthesized on free ribosomes in the cytosol.</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">b</span><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">egin to cross the membrane while still being synthesized.</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">remain within the endoplasmic reticulum</span></div></b><br>""<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">b</span><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">egin to cross the membrane while still being synthesized.</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;""><br></span></div></b>"
<ul><li>Transmembrane =</li></ul>amphipathic and must cross phospholipid bilayer fully. alpha helix &amp; beta pleated sheets. Associated with both layers.
<ul><li>Monolayer-associated a helix =&nbsp;</li></ul>Amphipathic alpha helix exposed on surface of protein. Associated with one layer
<ul><li><div>Lipid-linked =&nbsp;</div></li></ul><li><div>Lie entirely outside the bilayer, linked to membrane lipids… Can be on either side. Covalently bonded to lipids.</div></li><li><div><br></div></li>
<ul><li><div>Protein-attached =&nbsp;</div></li></ul>Completely outside membrane and attached to transmembrane proteins (bound indirectly) and can be on either side of membrane.
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Question 1</span></div><br><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Match the below types of cell communication with the appropriate descriptions</span></div><br><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Small hydrophobic proteins travel through the endocrine glands and cross to plasma membrane to directly effect gene transcription&nbsp;</span></div></li></ul><br><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Electrical signals which can be converted to chemical signals are synaptic junctions&nbsp;</span></div></li></ul><br><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Cell-surface receptors interact with neighboring cell&nbsp;</span></div></li></ul><br><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">signaling molecules are excreted by the cell to a local region to influence a tissues behavior&nbsp;</span></div></li></ul><br><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Paracrine</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Endocrine</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Neuronal</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">contact-dependant</span></div></b><br>""<img src=""Screenshot 2024-04-27 at 12.56.12 AM.png"">"
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">PartialQuestion 3</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Match these cell cycle checkpoints to their role in genome integrity</span></div><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Is the DNA replicated without damage?&nbsp;</span></div></li></ul><br><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Are the chromosomes lined up correctly attached to the mitotic spindle?&nbsp;</span></div></li></ul><br><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Does the cell have a enough nutrients, proteins and growth factors?&nbsp;</span></div></li></ul><br><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Is the cellular DNA badly damaged during the replication process?&nbsp;</span></div></li></ul><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">G2</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Intra-S (during S-phase)</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">G1/S</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">M</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;</span></div></b><br>""<img src=""Screenshot 2024-04-27 at 12.56.35 AM.png"">"
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Question 4</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Match these cell division phases with the appropriate processes</span></div><br><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Break down of the nuclear membrane allowing mitotic spindles to connect to kinetochores&nbsp;</span></div></li></ul><br><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">APC degrades securin which allows separase to become active which degrades the cohesin rings&nbsp;</span></div></li></ul><br><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Dephosphorylation of nuclear pore and lamins&nbsp;</span></div></li></ul><br><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">cleavage of plasma membrane by actin and myosin contractile ring&nbsp;</span></div></li></ul><br><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">copying of the genome&nbsp;</span></div></li></ul><br><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">formation of the metaphase plate&nbsp;</span></div></li></ul><br><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Prometaphase</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Anaphase</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Telophase</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Metaphase</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Interphase</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Cytokinesis</span></div><br></b>""<img src=""Screenshot 2024-04-27 at 12.56.59 AM.png"">"
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Question 5</span></div><br><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">The activation of p53 leads to a cancerous cascade.</span></div><br><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;True&nbsp;</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;False&nbsp;</span></div></b><br>"False
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Question 6</span></div><br><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Which of the following is part of the ECM?</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;Proteoglycans&nbsp;</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;AKTs&nbsp;</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;GAGs&nbsp;</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;Proteoglycans and GAGs&nbsp;</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;All of the Above&nbsp;</span></div></b><br>""<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp; Proteoglycans and GAGs&nbsp;</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;""><br></span></div></b>"
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Question 7</span></div><br><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Which two proteins of the Bcl-2 family stimulate the formation of the apoptosome?</span></div><br><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Bak and Bad</span></div><br><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Bax and Bad</span></div><br><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Bak and Bax</span></div><br><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Bad and Bcl-Xs</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;</span></div></b><br>""<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Bak and Bax</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;""><br></span></div></b>"
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Question 8</span></div><br><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Which of the following is true of the Notch receptor?</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Involved in contact-dependent cell-to-cell signaling</span></div><br><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Inhibits neuronal differentiation</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Acts as a transcription factor</span></div><br><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">All of the above</span></div></b><br>"All of the above<br>
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Question 9</span></div><br><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Anchors intermediate filaments in a cell to the basal lamina</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Desmosomes&nbsp;</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Adheren Junctions</span></div><br><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Gap Junctions</span></div><br><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Hemidesmosomes</span></div><br><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Tight Junctions</span></div></b><br>""<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Hemidesmosomes</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;""><br></span></div></b>"
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Question 10</span></div><br><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">This inhibatory kinase phosphorylates an inactive M-Cdk.</span></div><br><br><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;CAK&nbsp;</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Cdc25</span></div><br><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">M-kinase</span></div><br><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Wee1</span></div></b><br>"Wee1<br>- found in nucleus of a cell and controls how a cell grows and divides<br>
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Question 11</span></div><br><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Which type of cell surface receptor allows chemical signals to be converted to electrical signals?</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;Enzyme coupled receptors&nbsp;</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;Ion-channel coupled receptors&nbsp;</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;G-protein coupled receptors&nbsp;</span></div></b><br>""<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp; Ion-channel coupled receptors&nbsp;</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;""><br></span></div></b>"
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Question 12</span></div><br><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Which of the following is involved in the initiation of DNA replication?</span></div><br><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Cdc6</span></div><br><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Cdc9</span></div><br><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Cdc25</span></div><br><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Cdc75</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;</span></div></b><br>""<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Cdc6</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;""><br></span></div></b>"
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Question 13</span></div><br><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">What two second messengers does phospholipase C stimulate production of?</span></div><br><br><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">PDE5 and cAMP&nbsp;</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">IP3 and DAG</span></div><br><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">DAG and cAMP</span></div><br><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">cAMP and IP3</span></div><br></b>""<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">IP3 and DAG</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;""><br></span></div></b>"
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Question 14</span></div><br><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Diacylglycerol activates which of the following?</span></div><br><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Ras</span></div><br><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">PKA</span></div><br><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">RTK</span></div><br><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">PKC</span></div><br></b>"PKC
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Question 15</span></div><br><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">The stimulation of IP3 causes the uptake of Ca2+ into the ER.</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;True&nbsp;</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;False&nbsp;</span></div></b><br>"False
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Question 16</span></div><br><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">APC degrades securin, which allows _________ to become active and degrades the cohesion rings.</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;Degradase&nbsp;</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Phosphatase</span></div><br><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Separase</span></div><br><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Ubiquitination</span></div><br></b>""<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Separase</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;""><br></span></div></b>"
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Question 17</span></div><br><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Which type of cell inhabits the Extracellular matrix?</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;Epithelial&nbsp;</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;Fibroblasts&nbsp;</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;myocytes&nbsp;</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;macrophages&nbsp;</span></div></b><br>""<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp; Fibroblasts&nbsp;</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;""><br></span></div></b>"
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Question 18</span></div><br><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Cyclic-AMP stimulates which of the following?</span></div><br><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Ras</span></div><br><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">PKA</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">RTK</span></div><br><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">PKC</span></div></b><br>""<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">PKA</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;""><br></span></div></b>"
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Question 19</span></div><br><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Which of the below statements correctly describes cancer cell behavior?</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp; + grows without regard of cell cycle checkpoints&nbsp;</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp; + invades the epithelium of a different tissue type&nbsp;</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp; + does not rely of growth factors to stimulate cell division&nbsp;</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp; + genetically unstable&nbsp;</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp; + are less likely to activate apoptosis&nbsp;</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp; + all of the above&nbsp;</span></div></b><br>"&nbsp; + all of the above&nbsp;<br>
"<b><div><b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Question 2</span></div><br><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Match the below with the correct descriptions</span></div><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Pores across two plasma membranes&nbsp;</span></div></li></ul><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Enzyme that synthesizes Cellulose&nbsp;</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Fibril that provides the most tensile strength in animal cells&nbsp;</span></div></li></ul><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Cell surface receptor that links the ECM to the Intracellular environment&nbsp;</span></div></li></ul><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Fibroblast ECM protein that interacts with cell surface receptors&nbsp;</span></div></li></ul><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Cell surface adhesion molecules that hold cells together in a tissue structure&nbsp;</span></div></li></ul><br><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Cellulose Synthase Complexes</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Connexons</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Collagen</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Integrins</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Fibronectin</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Cadherins</span></div><br></b></div></b>""<img src=""Screenshot 2024-04-27 at 1.04.29 AM.png"">"
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Question 5</span></div><br><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Which of the following proteins keeps the Wnt pathway inactive</span></div><br><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">BAD</span></div><br><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">APC</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">AKT&nbsp;</span></div><br><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">PI-3</span></div></b><br>""<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">APC</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;""><br></span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">The #1 Wnt-pathway OPP!</span></div></b>"
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Question 8</span></div><br><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Which of the following is involved in the condensation of chromosomes?</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Cdc6</span></div><br><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Cdc9</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Cdc25</span></div><br><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Cdc75</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;</span></div></b><br>""<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Cdc25</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;""><br></span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">chromy = 25</span></div></b>"
"<b><b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Question 12</span></div><br><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Epidermal growth factor, Platelet derived growth factor and nerve growth factor are all examples of what type of signaling molecule?</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;hormone&nbsp;</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;local mediator&nbsp;</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;neurotransmitter&nbsp;</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;contact dependent signaling molecule&nbsp;</span></div></b></b>""<b><b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp; local mediator&nbsp;</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;""><br></span></div></b></b>"
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Question 15</span></div><br><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">GPCRs are ___________ after activation.</span></div><div><br></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Transported</span></div><div><br></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Sensitized</span></div><div><br></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Degraded</span></div><div><br></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Desensitized</span></div><br></b>""<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Desensitized</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;""><br></span></div></b>"
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Question 16</span></div><br><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Joins the intermediate filaments in one cell to those of a neighboring cell</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Desmosomes&nbsp;</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Adheren Junctions</span></div><br><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Gap Junctions</span></div><br><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Hemidesmosomes</span></div><br><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Tight Junctions</span></div></b><br>""<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp; Desmosomes&nbsp;</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;""><br></span></div></b>"
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Question 17</span></div><br><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">For the cell to enter M-phase the chromosomes have to be fully condensed. Which proteins aid in this wrapping coiling process?</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;cohesins&nbsp;</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;condensins&nbsp;</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;cadherins&nbsp;</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;connexons&nbsp;</span></div></b><br>""<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp; condensins&nbsp;</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;""><br></span></div></b>"
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Question 18</span></div><br><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Signaling can result in both fast and slow cellular responses.</span></div><br><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Does the following statement describe a fast or slow cellular response?</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">A signaling molecule binds to a GPCR, which activates a G-protein, the G-protein activates cAMP, which activates PKA, which goes on to affect gene expression</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;Fast&nbsp;</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">&nbsp;&nbsp;Slow&nbsp;</span></div></b><br>"Slow
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Types / distances for signaling:</span></div><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Endocrine&nbsp;</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Paracrine&nbsp;</span></div></li><ul><li><br></li></ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Synaptic&nbsp;</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Contact-dependent&nbsp;</span></div></li></ul></b>""<b><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Endocrine = Through bloodstream and is long distance (EX: Hormones)</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Paracrine = Shorter distance and is local (about 20 cells away)</span></div></li><ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Gasses can act as signaling molecules: Nitric oxide released by Endothelial cells -&gt;&nbsp; into smooth muscle cells -&gt; GTP converts to cyclic GMP -&gt; relaxation of smooth muscle cells.</span></div></li></ul><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Synaptic = many action potentials going down length of neuron and is short distance</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Contact-dependent = shortest distance and has signaling molecules that are embedded in molecules (also does not leave), and must touch. (EX: Delta cell)</span></div></li></ul></b>"
"<b><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">One signaling molecule can induce dif responses on dif target cells… (EX: Heart pacemaker cell, salivary gland, Skeletal muscle cell)<br></span></b><br>T/F"TRUE
"<b><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Cells being bombarded with numerous cells all at once (such as: survive, grow and divide, and differentiate) or else it dies (no signals)…<br></span></b><br>T/F"TRUE
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Cell signals can take dif amount of time to be executed...</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;""><br></span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Is it (FAST/SLOW) for altering protein synthesis?<br></span><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Is it (FAST/SLOW) to&nbsp;</span><b><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">alter protein function?</span></b><span style=""font-weight: 400;""><br></span></div></b>""It is (SLOW) for altering protein synthesis?<br>&nbsp; &nbsp;- Takes hours<br><br>It is (FAST) for&nbsp;<b><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">alter protein function?<br></span></b>&nbsp; &nbsp;- Takes minutes"
"<div style=""font-weight: bold;""><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">In Viagra:</span></div><ul style=""font-weight: bold;""><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Blocks ____.&nbsp;</span></div></li></ul><div style=""""><ul style=""font-weight: 700;""><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Cyclic GMP is broken down by ____ normally and viagra blocks it so that erection lasts longer.</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Works in plants and animals too</span><br></div></li></ul></div>"Viagra blocks PDE5<br><br>Cyclic gmp is broken down by PDE5, but because viagra blocks PDE5, the cyclic gmp and allows signalling to continue, prolonging errection.
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Signal Relay Sequence:</span></div></b><br>""<b><div><b>Relay<span style=""font-weight: 400;"">-&gt; </span>Transduce &amp; Amplify<span style=""font-weight: 400;"">-&gt; </span>Integrate<span style=""font-weight: 400;"">-&gt; </span>distribute<span style=""font-weight: 400;""> signals through the cell</span></b><br></div></b>"
Phosphorylation acts as a _____ _____"Molecular Switch<br><br><b><span style=""font-weight: 400;""><img src=""lKFOferJa2-e91iV0gOnGEqv0ZBViS6kLuSQY5jBjlLk4zKBG4wIQDlp0NDWOybPPqMP0Dbij-jTmtNU2ICRyEvW-TRIYM8cytINJosU0a5qCxCDmLd.png""></span></b>"
What do scaffolding proteins do?"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Scaffolding proteins help hold together molecules to provide structural support.</span></div></b><br>"
"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Signaling cascades = + and -</span></div></b>""<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Signaling cascades = Positive feedback (make more) and negative feedback (stop producing)!</span></div></b><br>"
"<div style="""">what is homeostasis</div>""<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">Homeostasis… Weight and what not is dependent on genetics, calories in and out but body has a certain level to maintain. Body temp, weight, receptor signaling.</span></div></b><br>"
Cyclin Cdk complex = __"lets cell cycle go from 1 cycle to the next step<br><br>Acts as checkpoints<br><br>""concentration of cyclin that drives the cell cycle"" -&gt; Peaks in Mitosis and plummets in interphase (rest of cycle)<br><br>PUSHES CELL CYCLE FORWARD<br>"
Does cell cycle need cyclin present?YES!&nbsp;<br><br>Cyclin must be present in cell cycle for it to continue properly (bind to cdk complex and continue)
How does phosphorylation control Cyclin cdk activity?Cyclin bonds to cdk complex -&gt; <br><br>1 part activating bonds + 2 parts inhibitory phosphates (got in car and started engine, but foot on brake &amp; put seatbealt on) + cell preparing for division-&gt;&nbsp;<br><br>At the right moment, activating phosphotase quickly removes inhibitory phosphates (removing brakes and all) -&gt;<br><br>Active cdk complex (car goin vroom vroom)
How does cyclin cdk get degraded?"Degraded by <span style=""background-color: rgb(170, 85, 0);"">Proteolysis</span>&nbsp;to help regulate timing of cell cycle<br><br>Proteolysis -&gt; Uses proteosomes -&gt; sends ubiquitin to bond with cylin protein and is now marked for degradation"
Where are cell cycle checkpoints"+ End of G1 (G1-&gt; S) <br>&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;""Environmentally favorable?""<br>+ End of G2 (G2 -&gt; M) <br>&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;""All DNA replicated &amp; All DNA damage reparied?""<br>+ M phase (<span style=""background-color: rgb(170, 85, 0);"">Anaphase</span> to be specific)<br>&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;""All chromosomes properly attatched to mitotic spindle?"""
what is the resting phase?<br>How many cells are usually in this phase?<br>G_{0<br><br>MOST}
Cells all have dif growing and dividing times?<br>T/FTRUE
How do you go from G₀&nbsp;to G₁?Need accumulation of G₁&nbsp;cyclin (induced by signals from the environment)
Where does DNA replication begin??S Phase
Multiple origins in chromosome DNA replicaiton/synthesis will cause DNA to be duplicated more quickly<br><br>T/F?"TRUE<img src=""Screenshot 2024-04-27 at 5.02.29 PM.png"">"
ORC (Origin Recognition Complex)"+ Is bound to origins/replication throughout cell cycle.&nbsp;<br>+ Acts as a landing pad for <span style=""background-color: rgb(170, 85, 0);"">regualtory proteins</span> that bind <span style=""background-color: rgb(170, 85, 0);"">before S Phase</span>&nbsp;<br>+ attracts <span style=""background-color: rgb(170, 85, 0);"">cdc6</span>"
What Phase is ORC in?G1 Phase<br><br>&nbsp; &nbsp;*Because is pre-replication (S phase) = G1 PHASE!
What phase is S-cdk in?S phase
What is the process of DNA replication..."1. ORC on origin of DNA sequence<br>2. cdc6 binds to it<br>3. cdc6 attracts DNA helicase<br>4. cdc6 leaves once DNA helicase binds (thus starting DNA replication... <span style=""background-color: rgb(170, 85, 0);"">this is G₁ PHASE</span>)<br><br><span style=""background-color: rgb(170, 85, 0);"">(Now in S-phase)</span><br>5. S-CDK comes along and activates DNA Helicase (recruiting replication machinery)<br>"
What is cyclin cdk known for?Activating replication
cohesions?They hold tegether chromatids temprarily to ensure correct division at chromosomes<br><br>Think like adhesive tape -&gt; cohesive tape -&gt; cohesion tape?? lol
what is M-CDK known for?Activating M phase
In M-phase, what is the process of M-CDK?"1. cdc25 removes 2 inhibitory phosphates from M-cdk -&gt; activating M-cdk&nbsp;<br>2. sends a positive feedback loop signal to cdc25!<br>3. And if want to deactivate, <span style=""background-color: rgb(170, 85, 0);"">Wee-1</span> dephosphorylates M-cdk!"
What influecnes cdc25 activity?Environmental signals from environment via MAPK cascades to increase or decrease mitotic events
What is cell division &amp; Cell cycle seqeunce in ORDER?Interphase:<br>&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;1. G1<br>&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;2. S<br>&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;3. G2<br>M - Phase:<br>&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;4. Prophase<br>&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;5. Prometaphase<br>&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;6. Metaphase<br>&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;7. Anaphase<br>&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;8. Telophase<br>&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;9. Cytokinesis
Condensins?Condense DNA in sister chromatids
Prophase:"Duplicate chromies each with 2 closely associated sister <span style=""background-color: rgb(170, 85, 0);"">chromatids CONDENSE</span>. Outside of nucleus, mitotic spindles assemble between 2 centrosomes which start moving them apart.<br><br>IE: Chromatids condense &amp; Mitotic spindles form and bond to centrosomes"
Prometaphase:Nuclear envelope breakdown, allowing chromies to attatch to spindle microtubules via kinetochores &amp; under active moment<br><br>IE: Nuclear envelope breakdown, chromies attatch to spindles&nbsp;
Metaphase:Chromies allign in middl ebetween the 2 spindle poles. Kinetochore microtubules on each chromatid attatch to opposite poles of spindle.<br><br>IE: Chromies lined up in center between both spindle poles
Anaphase:Sister chromies synchronically seperate, pulled towards attatched spindle poles. Kinetochore microtubules AND spindles get shorter.<br><br>IE: Chromies finally split (chromie segregation)
Telophase:"New chromies arrive at spindle poles, new nuclear envelope formed on each set, completing formation of 2 nuclei &amp; <span style=""background-color: rgb(170, 85, 0);"">end of MITOSIS</span>. <span style=""background-color: rgb(170, 85, 0);"">Cytoplasm division starts with contractile ring formation</span><br><br>IE: Chromies @ spindle poles now, new nuclear envelope formed for each, mitosis ends, cytoplasm division &amp; contractile rings begin HERE"
Cytokinesis:Cytoplasm divided in 2 by contractile rings (made up of actin and myosin filaments), pinching cell into 2 daughter cells with each having 1 nucleus.<br><br>IE: Cytoplasm done dividing, contractile ring pinched parent into 2 cells, each has 1 nucleus
Parental cells must double in size before dividing to make the daughter cells normal size<br><br>T/F?TRUE
What phase do contractile rings form in?Telophase!
2 temporary cytoskeletal structures =1. Microtubules of Miotic spindle [in Mitosis]<br>2. Actin &amp; Myosin filaments [in Cytokinesis]
centrosome:major microtubule organizing center<br><br>= Microtubule HQ!!!
microtubules are doing what all the time?continuously growing and shrinking = Dynamic instability
Aster =&nbsp;Outer microtubule (pointing out)
Interpolar microtubules =&nbsp;"microtubules interacting with opposite centrosome microtubules..<br>&nbsp; &nbsp;+ Driven by large motor proteins that cross-link and stabilize<br><br><img alt=""Mitotic spindle: kinetochore fibers hold on tight to ..."" src=""https://media.springernature.com/lw685/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs00249-017-1244-4/MediaObjects/249_2017_1244_Fig2_HTML.gif""><br><br>"
Kinetochore microtubules =&nbsp;bonds to centromere, one for each chromatid (internal interaction)
Humans usually have many kinetochore microtubules attatched to centromere...<br>T/F?TRUE
what has to break before chromosomes can seperate?Cohesion rings (breaks by anaphase complex effectors/influencers)
What is the process for cohesion rings to be broken?+ APC -&gt; ubiquidation and degradation of securin -&gt; active separase -&gt; cleave cohesion ring which let chromosomes to be seperated/pulled apart.
Breakdown and reformation of nuclear membrane Process:1. phosphorylation of nuclear pore proteins and lamins [ Interphase nucleus -&gt; prometaphase ]<br>2. Dephosphorylation of nuclear pore proteisn and lamins [ Prometaphase -&gt; Telophase ]<br>3. Fusion of nuclear envelope [ Telophase -&gt; Interphase nucleus ]
what does cytokinesis in plant cells do?Creates a new cell wall between the two compartments (cells but they're just squared lol)
What phases are new organelles made?Gap phases, G₁&nbsp;&amp; G₂&nbsp;
Do mitochondria and chloroplast follow the same replicaiton cycle as the rest do?NO!<br><br>They can divide / undergo cell repilcation on their own, this goes along with the bacteria theory
what happens to ER during cytokinesisER is released from nuclear membrane but remains intact; cut in 2 during cytokinesis
What happens to golgi apparatus during mitosis?"Golgi is fragmented during mitosis and the fragments get picked up by the motor proteins of the mitotic microtubules and ""catch a ride"" to the poles."
"How cell # and cell size controlled?"Balance between cell growth, division, and death
<div>what are the 2 types of cell death? Explain</div>"<div>Necrosis = <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">messy</span></u> cell
death by injury, inflammation, and damages neighbors</div>
<div></div>
<div>Apoptosis = Quick, clean,
environmentally stable, does not effect
surrounding cells and is cleaned up by phagocytes.</div>"
How does the liver expemplify the balance of apoptosis"<div>Liver size is programmed and set
(like homeostasis) and has mitosis and apoptosis in a balance of the two</div>"
Why controlled apoptosis in some structures?"<div>Some need to reveal / create more
defined structures</div>
<div></div>
<div>Can make a lot of neurons, discard
ones you don’t need via apoptosis, then have only ones you need.</div>"
"<div><span style=""font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"">Apoptosis regulated by
intracellular </span><span style=""font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"">proteolytic</span><span style=""font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;""> cascade</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;""><br></span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"">What is a caspase?</span></div>""<div>Caspases = part of apoptosis
pathway = family of proteases important in apoptosis, etc.</div>
<div>‘Suicide proteases’
-&gt; leads to cleavage of nuclear lamin and cytosolic protein</div>
<div></div>
<div></div>
<div>Irreversible! And tightly controlled!</div>
<div>Conserved process</div>
<div></div>"
"<div><span style=""font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"">Apoptosis is regulated by Bcl-2
family of proteins</span></div>""<div>Bcl-2 family has BOTH pro and anti
apoptotic … Know Bcl-2 and Bcl-XL =
survivor man telling cell to stay alive</div><div><br></div>
<div></div>
<div>Pro-apoptotic = Bax, Bak, and
Bad (3 apoptotic proteins you need to know)</div>"
"<div><span style=""font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"">Bak</span><span style=""font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;""> and </span><span style=""font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"">Bax</span><span style=""font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;""> stimulate formation of the “</span><span style=""font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"">apoptosome</span><span style=""font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"">”</span></div>""<div>Bax
&amp; Bak
cause cytochrome C to be released from mitochondria -&gt; down the sequence to
form apoptosome
-&gt; caspase cascade which leads to complete breakdown of main proteins</div>"
Cell death &gt; Cell life<br>&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;OR<br>Cell life &gt; Cell death<div>Cell death &gt; Cell life</div>
"<div><span style=""font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"">Cell must receive signals from
their environment!</span></div>""<div>Important:<br>
<br>
Unicellular organism growth dependent on environment etc…
“Enough resources for more cells???” if not, then cell death ofc</div>
<div></div>
<div>•<span style=""font-weight: bold;"">(Pro)
Survival factors </span>–
suppress apoptosis</div>
<div>•<span style=""font-weight: bold;"">Mitogens</span>
stimulate cell division by “overcoming” cell cycle checkpoints (sometimes
called growth factors)</div>
<div>•<span style=""font-weight: bold;"">Growth
Factors </span>stimulate
cell growth (increase in size and mass) by promoting gene expression and
suppressing protein degradation</div>"
"<div><span style=""font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"">Survival factor is limited to
adjusts the number of developing neurons to target cells</span></div>""<div></div>
<div><img src=""Screenshot 2024-04-27 at 9.58.35 PM.png""></div><div><br></div><div>Bunch of survival factors, but not
enough survival factors to go around, so undergoes apoptosis</div><div><br></div><div>EX:&nbsp;<span style=""font-weight: bold;"">More
nerve cells are produced than can be supported by the limited amount of
survival factor! -&gt; cell death&nbsp;</span></div>
<div></div>
<div></div>"
"<div><span style=""font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"">Survival factors from other cells
influence cell fate by binding to cell surface receptors</span></div>""<img src=""paste-b349d719f33654555098e910c2ebe1af439a3412.jpg"">"
"<div><span style=""font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"">Growth factors stimulate cells to
grow / the pathways it can take</span></div>""<div>Going to make more proteins and
decrease protein degradation (2 things)</div><div><br></div><div><img src=""paste-7000943b1c32e77a207b7a6e675f3b560a9a8e4a.jpg""><br></div>"
"<div><div><span style=""font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"">Signal proteins can also tell
cells to stop growing!</span></div></div>"Myostatin Gene tells muscles to stop growing…&nbsp;
4 main classes of cell surface receptors:"1. Ion channel coupled receptors<br>2. G protein coupled receptors<br>3. Enzyme coupled receptors<br>4. Intracellular&nbsp;<br><br><br><img src=""paste-6f80fb82209b4acbae476ced29a8144b043f3bf7.jpg"">"
Drugs can interact with cell surface receptors"<div>they bind
to receptors because have similar shape to endogenous
compound our bodies make</div>"
Ion channel coupled receptors:"<div>Signal
molecules bind to ion channels, allowing ions to pass through</div>"
G protein coupled receptors:"<div>G
protein coupled</div>
<div><span style=""background-color: rgb(170, 85, 0);"">Most
drugs work here</span></div><span style=""background-color: rgb(170, 85, 0);"">
<div></div>
</span><div>GCPR
activates other partner GPCR proteins</div><div><br></div><div><br></div>"
Trimeric = ..."3 protein subunits ot the G-protein:<br>alpha&nbsp;<br>beta<br>gamma<br><br><div><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">Conformational changes relay the signal
from outside to inside</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: bold;""><br></span></div><div><img src=""paste-cd106cc188b4688ecff7007fded17fd20bff9300.jpg""><span style=""font-weight: bold;""><br></span></div>"
"<div><span style=""font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"">G-protein switches itself off by
hydrolyzing GTP</span></div>""<div>GTP
must be hydrolyzed to
GDP to turn off cell unit, rejoining beta and gamma complex (turning it off
too)</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;*<span style=""font-weight: bold;"">GTP bound </span><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">α</span><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">-subunit
activates target protein as long at is bound</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: bold;""><br></span></div><div><img src=""paste-3e4035f7ead122760a248e519455e7981195c55d.jpg""><span style=""font-weight: bold;""><br></span></div>"
cdc6 vs cdc25"<ul><li><div><div><div><div>CDC6</div><div>cdc6 = protein key factor in <span style=""background-color: rgb(170, 85, 0);"">DNA replication</span>, chromosome duplication, and cell cycle checkpoints.&nbsp;Plays a part in pre-replication with ORC.</div></div></div></div></li></ul><div><br></div><ul><li><div><div><div><div>CDC25</div><div>cdc25 = family of phosphatases that regulate the cell cycle by dephosphorylating phosphorylated CDKs. <span style=""background-color: rgb(170, 85, 0);"">dephosphorylates cyclin-cdk complex</span>!&nbsp;</div></div></div></div></li></ul>"
"<div><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">Fast or slow?</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: bold;""><br></span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">GPCR</span></div>
<div></div>
<div><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">G-Protein</span></div>
<div></div>
<div><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">cAMP</span></div>
<div></div>
<div><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">PKA</span></div>
<div></div>
<div><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">Transcription
factor</span></div>
<div></div>
<div><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">Cellular
effect</span></div>"slow
"<div><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">Fast or slow?</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: bold;""><br></span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">GPCR</span></div>
<div></div>
<div><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">G-Protein</span></div>
<div></div>
<div><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">cAMP</span></div>
<div></div>
<div><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">PKA</span></div>
<div></div>
<div><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">Metabolic
kinase</span></div>
<div></div>
<div><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">Cellular
effect</span></div>"Fast
"<div><span style=""font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"">Ras</span><span style=""font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;""> activates MAP-Kinases to
influence protein activity and gene expression</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;""><br></span></div><div><b><i>sequence?</i></b></div>""<div><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">RTK</span></div>
<div></div>
<div><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">RAS</span></div>
<div></div>
<div><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">MAPKKK</span></div>
<div></div>
<div><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">MAPKK</span></div>
<div></div>
<div><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">MAPK</span></div>
<div></div>
<div><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">Protein activity or Gene Expression</span></div>"
"<div><span style=""font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"">Tissues - cooperative assembly of
cells. What cells on our gut?</span></div>""<div>On
lumen of the gut, there are Epithelial cells that like to line things… Single
layer of cells thick.</div>
<div>-Contains cells called fibroblast and this
layer known for having a lot of extracellular matrix</div>
<div>-</div>
<div>-Bunch of cells all doing their job to
make organism survive</div>"
What is Extracellular matrix made out of?"<div>Made
up mostly of big carbohydrates (polysaccharides) and proteins</div>
<div></div>
<div>A lot
of this in connective tissue</div>"
plants vs animal cells"<div>Cell
wall is a type of ECM</div>
<div></div>
<div>Composition
can change</div>
<div>based
on tissue type </div>
<div>(root
vs stem vs leaf)</div>"
<div><div>Plants w/ Cellulose microfibers give plant its tensile strength: what made out of?</div></div><div>One or 2 cell walls (primary or secondary)</div><div></div><div>Cell wall provides strength to the cell</div><div></div><div>+ Middle lamella made mostly of pectins</div>
"<span style=""font-style: italic; font-weight: bold;"">Cellulose production is</span><span style=""font-style: italic; font-weight: bold;"">&nbsp; </span><span style=""font-style: italic; font-weight: bold;"">radically different to the production of
other ECM macromolecules.&nbsp;</span>what does cellulose synthase do?""<div>Synthesized
on the cell surface by “Cellulose synthase complexes” (<span style=""background-color: rgb(170, 85, 0);""><b>not made inside the cell!</b></span>)</div><br>"
centrosome has mitotic spindles coming out of it?<br>T/FTrue
what are the 4 major types of animal cells?"<div><img src=""Screenshot 2024-04-28 at 6.52.30 PM.png""><br></div>"
connective tissues = varied... Why"<div>bone,
cartilage, tendons, dermis of skin, jelly that fill the eye!</div>
<div></div>
<div>The
bulk of the tissue is ECM</div>
<div></div>
<div>The
cells look like “raisins in a pudding”</div>"
where does connective tissue get strength form?"<div>Strength comes from the fibrous protein <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">Collagen</span></u></div><div><u><span style=""font-weight: bold;""><br></span></u></div>
<div></div>
<div></div>
<div>Most
is extracellular tissue. Main protein fiber = collagen (helps connect tissue
throughout our whole body)</div>"
collagen:"<div>20
different types (family of proteins)<br>
<br>
Usually found in connective tissues</div>
<div>Collagen
= about ¼ mass of our body (mammals) so that is a LOT.</div>
<div></div>
<div>Big
protein fibers in extracellular matrix in animals.</div><div><br></div><div>""<span style=""font-weight: bold;"">Tissues
owe their specific characteristics to the types and amount of collagen in the
ECM""</span></div>"
"<div><span style=""font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"">Collagen fibrils?</span></div>""<div>Chain
of amino acids… Get three – intertwine them – and then becomes collagen fibers…
All of
these layers give it strength</div><div><br></div>
<div></div>
<div></div>
<div>Fibroblast
made up of collagen fibers… Lots of strength to connective tissue.</div>"
Fibroblasts?"<div><u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">Fibroblast</span></u>:</div>
<div>Make
and inhabit the ECM</div>
<div>ECM
generated intra-cellularly and secreted (exocytosis)</div>
<div>Matrix
proteases degrade ECM</div>
<div></div>
<div></div>"
"<div>Fibroblast actively rearrange the
matrix moving and shaping it into an organized arrangement&nbsp;</div><div>T/F?</div>"TRUE
Collagen deformity (stretchy skin)??"<div>Collagen
deformity = Ehlers-Danlos Syndrome </div>
<div>-However
depends on the type of collagen is deformed</div>
<div>-Also
flexible joints</div>
<div>-Defects can also lead to <span style=""background-color: rgb(170, 85, 0);"">Arthritis</span></div>"
"<div>Integrins couple the matrix to the
cytoskeleton via ____</div>""<span style=""font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"">fibronectin<br></span><br><div>Integrins
exist in dimer - they reach up and grab onto Extracellular Matrix</div><div><br></div><div>
<div>Integrins&nbsp;= cell surface receptor</div>
<div></div>
<div>“Grabs”
fibronectin to pull and move the cell within the ECM</div>
<div></div>
<div>Integrin
connections to the intracellular cytoskeleton stop it being “ripped out”</div>
<div></div>
<div>The
plasma membrane itself does not need to be strong!</div></div>
<div></div>
<div></div>"
"<div>Can integrins act as signaling molecules
to relay messages between the ECM and the cell?</div>"Yes they can
GAGs"<div>GAGs:
Bottle Brush structures good at holding onto water which is hydrophilic and
takes up a lot of space</div><div><br></div><div><img src=""paste-69546177990d5ce1ddd256bdcd362ab25db37974.jpg""><br></div>"
<div>Epithelia (Epithelium)</div>"<div>•Cell joined together side-to-side</div>
<div>•Form multicellular sheets</div>
<div>•Stratified- sheet many cells thick
(covering of the skin)</div>
<div>•Simple epithelium - only one cell thick
(gut)</div><div><br><img src=""paste-d65061aed1d834756269ab52b5bd73489c758e94.jpg""><br></div>
<div></div>"
<div>Importance of Epithelia?&nbsp;</div>"<div>Layer
is only one cell thick in our gut…</div>
<div></div>
<div>1.Keeps some molecules in and other out</div>
<div>2.Takes up nutrients and exports waste</div>
<div>3.Contains receptors for environmental
signals</div>
<div>4.Protects interior of organism from
invading microorganisms and fluid loss</div>
<div>5.Facilitates or stops movement of cells</div><div><br></div><div><img src=""Screenshot 2024-04-28 at 7.05.34 PM.png""><br></div>
<div></div>
<div></div>"
"<div><span style=""font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"">Are epithelia cells polar? Where do they rest?</span></div>""Yes polar<br>Rest on basal lamina (which rests on another tissue... fr jenga lol)<br><br>Apical part borders free surface which can be watery or air...<br><br><div>Basel
lamina made of Type IV Collagen and a protein called Laminin AND also
is another barrier that does not allow certain things get in</div><div><br></div><div><div>Laminin
binds to Epithelial cell integrin's allowing communication between the basal
lamina and the epithelium</div></div><div><br></div><div><img src=""paste-802a276ffe51b54687f7395a8f0f5cb3223a89f5.jpg""><br></div>"
Gut lining example of what?Epithelium
"<div><span style=""font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"">Cell-Cell Junction types</span></div>"1. Tight junctions<br>2. Adherens junctions<br>3. Desmosomes<br>4. Gap junciton<br>5. Hemidesmosomes
1. Tight junctions"<div>Creates
a barrier, not allowing proteins and molecules to sneak through cells… Happens
in our gut to ensure absorbance.</div><div><br></div><div><div>-Acts
“a seal” between other membranes</div>
<div>-Think
blood brain barrier, gut lining, lungs, etc</div></div><div><br></div><div><img src=""paste-1dddf28a746ead4f1d5d624fea72782323e5a396.jpg""><br></div>"
<div>2. Adherens junctions</div>"<div><div>Can
form a strong continuous “belt” around the epithelium</div></div><div><br></div><div>Contains
actin filaments which are good at contracting</div><div><br></div><div><img src=""paste-a600203f41cb25f313423059587b01703b903350.jpg""><br></div>"
"<div><span style=""font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"">Epithelial sheets can do what?</span></div>""<span style=""font-style: italic; font-weight: 700;"">bend to form tube of vesicles<br></span><br><div>Creates
a belt -&gt; Actin filaments begin contracting which creates epithelial tubes.</div><div><br></div><div><img src=""paste-3afaa0e96bad324247f04fc7027b7be573200724.jpg"">&nbsp;</div>"
<div>3. Desmosomes</div>"<div>Has
keratin filaments. Strong cell junction to hold cells together. Contains
Cadherin family proteins in center.</div><div><br></div><div><img src=""paste-3935286c34698314c2106587c146749ccefe4d86.jpg""><br></div>"
"<div><span style=""font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"">Hemidesmosomes</span></div>""<div>Integrins
reaching out past extracellular matrix, which anchor down the hemidesmosomes</div><div><br></div><div><div>Anchor
epithelial to other tissues via <span style=""font-weight: bold;"">integrins</span></div>
<div></div>
<div>Think
of a blister; when epithelial cells detach from underlying cell layer</div></div><div><br></div><div><img src=""paste-4e4ce3249db4a41efc4b672b786abf7473288a38.jpg""><br></div>"
"<div><span style=""font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"">Connexons:</span></div>""<div>Creates
a little pore. Transport signals very quickly from one cell into the next<br></div>
<div></div>
<div>Connexons
= cluster of gap junctions proteins.</div><div><br></div><div><div>Provides
both electrical and metabolic coupling between cells</div>
<div>Ex:
Heart muscles beating in time</div></div><div><img src=""paste-d9922e6ef96f83be338f930939b1d20f8580711c.jpg""><br></div>
<div></div>
<div></div>"
<div>Connexons:</div><div><br></div><div>Cluster of gap junctions proteins.</div><div><br></div>
"<div>Signaling can change the size and
permeability of gap junctions to respond to the environment... so Dopamine ex?</div>""<div>Dopamine
release in response to increase in light intensity allows the retina to switch
between rods and cones; photoreceptors to allow us to see in bright light!</div>"
"<div><span style=""font-style: italic;"">Tissues
are highly organized structures which include many cell types</span></div>
<div></div>
<div></div>
<div>Dif types in it...</div><div><br></div><div>What are 4 types of tissues?</div>""Epidermes<br>loose connective Dermis<br>Tight connective Dermis<br>Fatty connective tissue of Hypodermis<br><br><img src=""paste-ec38f085d31ae20df2928389d212653d145f3507.jpg"">"
Cell renewal and recycled..."<div>Cell
communication:</div>
<div>- Monitors environment signals
changes</div>
<div></div>
<div></div>
<div>Selective
cell-cell adhesion/junctions:</div>
<div>- Makes sure correct cells
communicate</div>
<div></div>
<div></div>
<div>Cell
memory:</div>
<div>- Gene expression patterns evoked by
signals that acted during development are remembered and maintained</div>
<div>(Epigenetics!
Histone tail modifications!)</div>
<div></div>
<div>Gut
cells renewed frequently &amp; Neurons last a lifetime</div>"
stem cells provide a continuous supply of differentiated cells...<br>T/F?"<div>TRUE!</div><div><br></div><div>Stem
cell = undifferentiated type of cell… Can divide to make more stem cells or
make more dividing precursor cells that can turn into specific cell types</div>
<div></div>
<div>Cell signalling
important in this process</div>"
"<div><span style=""font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"">Patterns of cell replacement vary...</span></div>""<div>Stem
cells in the gut (cells replaced constantly)</div>
<div></div>
<div>Cells
constantly dividing and or always in cell cycle, hardly G0.</div>
<div></div>
<div>Top
is lumen of gut and has projections in lumen of gut to absorb water and
nutrients. </div>
<div></div>
<div>Direction
of lumen is UP and
stem cells start at the bottom. Continue to move up through process of their
life and gets pushed to the top of villus and then gets recycled</div>
<div></div>
<div>Involves
cell signaling…</div>"
What is cell cycle in skin cells?"<div>Cells
are born at bottom, then pushed to top and then shed where it dies! Cell
signaling still big in this process.</div><div><br></div><div>In skin = continuous process...</div><div><br></div><div><img src=""paste-a1b7ee0d75104b295cdf433ac51d7e52d844d0ef.jpg""><br></div>"
1. Can stem cells specialize / form into various types of cells?<br>2. Does need cell signalling to specialize or does it on it's own?<br>"<div>1. YES</div><div>2. Needs
<span style=""font-weight: bold;"">cell signaling </span>to tell stem cell what it is supposed to
turn into to / specialize into.</div>"
Stem cell population maintained how?"<div>The
crept has stem cells</div>
<div></div>
<div>Wnt pathway involved with stem cells
dividing (cell signaling pathway)</div>"
"Stem cell ""status"" maintained by what?""<div>+ B-Catenin
degraded when Wnt pathway is inactive</div>
<div></div>
<div>+ Wnt pathway active -&gt; starts signalling
cascasde
to stop B-catenin degradation -&gt; translocate to the nucleus -&gt; activate
“stem cell specific” genes that will promote cells to divide&nbsp;</div><div><img src=""paste-07711023f57f3543aee1976ea137c7eef2c781bb.jpg""><br></div>
<div></div>
<div></div>"
"<div><span style=""font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"">Induced pluripotent cells =&nbsp;</span><span style=""font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"">iPS</span></div>""<div>+ Instead
of stem cells, alternative = inducaed pluripotent
cells (iPS).
Name means it can be a variety of dif cells</div>
<div>+ Turns on key genes (transcription factors
= <span style=""background-color: rgb(170, 85, 0);"">Sox2,Oct ¾, Klf4</span>) and force it to become stem cell like to turn on other key
genes and then become whatever cell type we want.</div><div><br></div><div><img src=""Screenshot 2024-04-28 at 7.34.29 PM.png""><br></div>"
What other types of cells can turn into stem cells / be differentiated the same?"<div><span style=""font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"">Embryonic
Stem cells&nbsp;</span><br></div><div><br></div><div>+ Better
because they already are stem cells and can become any cell type… No mutations
because brand new cells and better than adult cells.</div>
<div>+ Controversial because stem cells linked
to abortions&nbsp; (politically) &amp; don’t
need to be that way. Can be retrieved from umbilical cord blood.</div>"
"<span style=""font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"">Ras</span><span style=""font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;""> activates MAP-Kinases sequence&nbsp;</span>""<span style=""font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"">influences protein activity and gene expression</span><br><br>RTK activate RAS -&gt; Activated RAS protein -&gt; Activated MAP Kinases Kinases Kinases (MAPKKK) -&gt; Activated MAPKK -&gt; MAPK -&gt; Proteins &amp; transcription regulators -&gt; Changes in protein activity &amp; changes in gene expression&nbsp;<br><br><div>MAPK
pathway often stimulates cell proliferation and cell survival</div><br><img src=""paste-19b8c16f563f1a9c9974daf5156fda5978b4d83b.jpg""><br>"
"<div><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">Many signal proteins that stimulate survival, growth and proliferation
act through...</span></div>""<span style=""font-weight: 700;"">RTKs</span>"
"What is the most <span style=""background-color: rgb(170, 85, 0);"">famous</span> protein that promotes cell growth and survival&nbsp;""<div><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">AKT</span>&nbsp;(<span style=""font-weight: bold;"">also known as PKB</span>)</div><div>Promotes cell growth and survival by inactivating pro-apoptotic proteins ie BAD</div>"
what does AKT do?"<div><span style=""font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"">AKT promotes cell growth by
inactivating pro-apoptotic proteins</span></div>"
What are the survival proteins that inhibit apoptosis?"<div><div><u>Sequence:</u>&nbsp;</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;BAD attatched to Bcl2 and ""sequesters it"", making it unusable -&gt; + AKT/PKB phosphorylates BAD (making it inactive) -&gt; Bcl2 freed and active to inhibit apoptosis</div><div><br></div><div>+ PKB/AKT (same thing...)&nbsp;</div></div><div><br></div><div><img src=""paste-e911220ff41150ee03238af4c63d18f4b9eab02b.jpg""></div><div><br></div><div><div>Bcl2
and PKB inhibit Bak (pro-apoptosis protein)&nbsp;which inhibits apotosis</div></div>"
How does AKT/PKB promote growth?"<div><span style=""font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"">AKT stimulates growth by
activating <span style=""background-color: rgb(170, 85, 0);"">TOR</span></span></div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;- Often overactive in cancer cells</div><div><br></div><div><u>Sequence:</u></div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;Activated RTK -&gt; Activated PI 3 kinase -&gt; Activated AKT/PKB -&gt; Activated TOR (1) -&gt; Inhibition of Protein degradation</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; (2) -&gt; Stimulation of protein synthesis</div><div><img src=""paste-d2b009915a4a57c40a3dc92bc1203447352876b1.jpg""><br></div><div>*AKT/PKB activates TOR</div>"
Anti-cancer drug Rapamycin blocks?<div>TOR</div>
"<div>Mutations to signaling molecules
can result in excess growth signals</div><div>T/F?</div>"TRUE
"define&nbsp;<span style=""font-weight: bold;"">“Constitutively active”</span>""<span style=""font-weight: bold;"">&nbsp;=&nbsp;</span><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">always on</span><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">, no longer responsive to the environment</span>"
"<div><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">Explain the GTP-binding proteins Ras is </span><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">mutated</span><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">
its signal can not be stopped...</span></div>""<div>Abt 30% of cancer cells have mutation in RAS
gene which pushes continuous transmission of signal along multiple pathways in
absence of ECM signal molecule &amp; no longer responds to environment. RAS
protein is just turned
on when cell did not tell it to and that is
the mutation. Override + excess.</div>"
"Draw out the&nbsp;<span style=""font-style: italic; font-weight: bold;"">Signaling network also
“crosstalk”&nbsp;</span>""<img src=""paste-2840f98e0d6d882b064fcadb834a23f1a8680bc3.jpg"">"
"<div>Only
when a molecule is activated specifically by _ _________ can it relay on the
signal</div>""<div><span style=""background-color: rgb(170, 85, 0);"">2 pathways</span> can it relay on the
signal</div><div><img src=""paste-ebb9d11d58ea0837328bf026e12727c8db27323e.jpg""><br></div><div><br></div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;*Both are
activating BUT sometimes can inhibit it too (either up or down)</div>"
<div>Teratoma?</div>hair and teeth tumor develops from uncontrolled growth of germ cells&nbsp;<br><br>Regulation gone wrong...
Cancer odds"<div>½ men
likely get cancer</div>
<div>1/3
women likely get cancer</div>"
is cancer a disease?No!<br><br>is a disorder of cell growth
Do all tumors = cancer?"<div>No.</div><div>Not all tumors = cancer</div>
<div></div>
<div>Benign
tumors not worrysome</div>"
Benign Tumor:"<div>•Cell proliferate excessively but remain
clustered together in a mass</div>
<div>•Tumor forms – benign</div>
<div>•Benign tumors are NOT
cancerous</div>
<div>•Usually
can be removed cleanly by surgery</div><div><br></div><div>EX: Lipoma
–fatty growth, Moles, Warts</div>"
Malignant Growth:"<div>Malignant
growth = cancer…</div>
<div></div>
<div>Invade surrounding tissue</div>
<div>Tumor
= malignant</div>
<div><span style=""background-color: rgb(170, 85, 0);"">Cells
can break loose from primary tumor and enter bloodstream or lymphatic vessels
and form secondary tumors = <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">Metastasis or Metastasize</span></u></span></div><span style=""background-color: rgb(170, 85, 0);"">
<div></div>
</span><div>Sort
of easy to treat up to stage 3 and stage 4 is most difficult.</div>
<div></div>
<div>Stage
4 = when metastasized&nbsp;</div>"
"<u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">Metastasis or Metastasize</span></u>""Cells can break loose from primary tumor
and enter bloodstream or lymphatic vessels and form secondary tumors<br><img src=""paste-4946661352a5e0fe747240e076c8a5f3be9faf91.jpg"">"
Cancer purely genetic? 3 examples"NO.<br><br>Environment plays a large role (Gas
fumes, smoking, asbestos, sun light?) =&nbsp;Damages DNA<br><div>Viruses? =&nbsp;Messes with transcriptional and cell cycle control of the cell</div><div><div>How
could obesity promote cancer? =&nbsp;Increased metabolism &amp; inflammation;&nbsp;Increases free radicals</div></div>"
Key Behaviors in cancer cells:"1. Alteration in cell proliferations<br>2. Alterations in DNA damage response&nbsp;<br>3. Alterations in cell growth<br><div>4. Less likely to undergo apoptosis…
Due to increased survival factor signaling</div><div>5. Cancer
cells have reduced dependence on signals from other cells for the 3 big things
(Growth, survival, and division)</div>
<div></div>
<div>Both
RAS proteins are on, but normal is being told via cell signals to be on and
cancerous is on with no signals telling it to do so.</div><br><div>Cancer
cells don’t listen to cell signals and continue to divide nonstop (called cell
perforation)&nbsp;</div>"
Over 50% of cancers have a mutation in what gene?"<b>-&gt; p53</b><br><div><br></div><div>(p53 is responsible for sending signal for p21,
which starts cyclin cdk complex)</div><div><br></div><div><img src=""paste-ab61ea0b91eeb87c72b62608b6dfb8d08d5b29d4.jpg""><br></div>"
In abscence of DNA damage, what happens?p53 is degraded in proteasomes
p53 is important becuase affects..."<img src=""paste-b5e023bfa343494bbb9f8ce44d189cd4dde8d4e6.jpg"" width=""1270"">"
Hayflick limit?"<div>Hayflick
limit = max cell division number</div>"
"<div><span style=""font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"">Cancer cells can proliferate indefinately... They reactivate what?</span></div>""<div>-&nbsp;<b>Cancer cells reactivate&nbsp;<span style=""background-color: rgb(170, 85, 0);"">telomerase</span>&nbsp;to maintain telomere length.&nbsp; Are immortal.</b><br></div><div><b><br></b></div><div>- In
normal cells, telomeres shorten in length -&gt; loss of DNA and eventual
apoptosis / limit.</div>"
Cancer cells key behaviors again"<div>4.
Genetically unstable - increased mutation rate due to defects in DNA repair
(can come from p53 mutation)</div>
<div>5.
Abnormally invasive </div>
<div>&nbsp; lack cell adhesion molecules (cadherins)</div>
<div>6.
Cancer cells survive and proliferate in foreign tissues</div>
<div>7.
Ability to grow their own blood supply - Angiogenesis</div>"
Oncogenes:"<div>Proto-oncogene
= normal</div><div><br></div>
<div></div>
<div>Oncogenes
promote cell division / cell survival mode and = cancerous mutation</div><div><br></div>
<div></div>
<div>If
mutation (activating mutation) will send signals to cell that it should divide
even when it should NOT. A lot of cancers have this type of mutation.</div><div><br></div><div><img src=""paste-22ae739e127a2f1378e227299aa182387f24f6b6.jpg""><br></div>"
"<div>Proto-oncogenes
can lead to dif
mutations like...</div>"1. Mutation in coding sequence -&gt; protein fxn<br>2. Gene amplificaiton -&gt; transcription<br>3. Chromosome Rearrangement -&gt; translation; complexing
We hav etumor suppressor genes and if off?"<div>Tumor
suppressor genes important in most of our cells to regulate cell division… If
gene turns off then
nothing telling cell to NOT divide = bad…&nbsp;</div><div><br></div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;<span style=""background-color: rgb(170, 85, 0);"">*</span>NEED mutation in both copies of chromosomes to eliminate tumor supressor gene = activating cell survival &amp; proliferation (mutation)</div>"
"<span style=""font-style: italic; font-weight: bold;"">Colorectal Cancer...&nbsp;</span>what is APC?""APC = tumor suppressor gene<br><br><img src=""paste-1c1c0e3aa836d0bd7d163bc717cbe9089db29023.jpg"">&nbsp;"
"<div><span style=""font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"">Reactivation of WNT pathways in
the gut leads to _____ ______ of gut stem cells</span></div>""<div><span style=""font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"">Excessive proliferation</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;""><br></span></div><div><div>Keep
cells dividing in crypt of the gut</div>
<div></div>
<div>If
no WNT signal?? -&gt; breakdown of Beta Catenin&nbsp; -&gt; inactive TCF (""binding thing"" - adaptor) - complex</div>
<div></div>
<div>If
yes WNT signaling -&gt; inactive apc-containing complex -&gt; stable
Beta-catenin -&gt; Active TCF complex -&gt; start cell division when no
supposed to </div>
<div>-
(WNT pathway usually not supposed to be activated unless in STEM cells)</div></div>"
cancer treatments:"<div><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">Cancer mutations are random, no single treatment will work for every
patient!</span></div><div><br></div><div>THEREFORE:</div><div><br></div><div>* Surgery - cut out the tumor</div><div>* Radiotherapy (damage DNA)</div>
<div>* Chemotherapy (block cell grow)</div><div><br></div><div><div>•Anti-Angiogenesis - Block formation
of new blood vessels that normally invade the growing tumor</div>
<div>•Vaccinations - stimulate patients
own immune system to fight the tumor </div>
<div><span style=""background-color: rgb(170, 85, 0);"">•Kinase inhibitors - Target specific
oncogenes (Gleevec)</span></div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;-&nbsp;<img src=""paste-9e98fa009639b4b22090904bcd658a1da968d317.jpg""></div><span style=""background-color: rgb(170, 85, 0);"">
</span><div>•Vaccinations against viruses that
cause cancer (Gardasil)</div>
<div>•Gene therapy!&nbsp; Program immune cells to attack cancer</div></div>"
Future of cancer treatment?"<div><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">Genomic Personalized Medicine -
patient specific targeted treatments</span><br></div><div><span style=""font-weight: bold;""><br></span></div><div><div>Genomic
Personalized Medicine - patient specific targeted treatments</div>
<div></div>
<div></div>
<div>Gene
therapy is very effective</div></div>"
gene therapy..."<div><div><u>Gene
Therapy</u></div>
<div>Remove T cells and insert gene
directing for <span style=""background-color: rgb(170, 85, 0);"">T cells to attack <i><u><b>CD19</b></u></i></span></div></div><div><br></div><div>Cancer
is introduced, it spreads,&nbsp; take out <span style=""background-color: rgb(170, 85, 0);"">T
cells</span> and fix a gene that makes it attack the specific cancer cells (also kills
healthy B cells, which leaves patient immune system vulnerable).</div>
<div></div>
<div></div>"
<div>Why cells would break down ECM? 3 rzns</div><div><br></div><div>1. To stop the cell getting clogged up!</div><div>2. To allow cells to move through it</div><div>3. To allow tissue growth, repair &amp; renewal!</div>
What types of bonds help proteins fold?<br><br>electrostatic attraction<br>h-bonds<br>vanderwals attractions<br>all of the above<br>covalent bondsall of the above (non-covalent bonds)
T/F<br>Similar conformations &amp; similar domains usually have similarTRUE
<div><div>Identical proteins can assemble complex structures</div></div>"dimers<br>helix<br>rings<br><img src=""Screenshot 2024-05-05 at 1.32.35 PM.png"">"
why quaternary structures important?Protein complexing or quaternary regulation adds a layer of regulation!!!<br><br><div><div>Different subunits can come together to give proteins differential functions<br>- Proteins can exist in a resting state as dimers, tetramers etc to “hide” the active site; signals from the cell can break<br>them apart.<br>- Or visa versa, exist in resting state as monomers and come together to function (as homo or hetromers)<br>- Proteins complex with “like functioned” or “complementary functioned” proteins.<br>-BASC complex all involved in DNA repair (BRCA associated genome surveillance complex)<div></div></div></div><div></div><br>
How does binding site bond selectively?shape, charge, non-covalent bonds and<br>hydrophobic interactions.
feedback inhibition often occurs ___allosterically
<div><div>CHEMICAL MODIFICATION IS ALSO KNOWN AS&nbsp;</div></div>“POST<br>TRANSLATIONAL MODIFICATION”
3 ways to identify/visualize dna in cells"• Dyes to identify DNA<br>• Hoechst Stain (Florescent)<br>• Ethidium Bromide (UV)<br><br>+ FISH hybridization (""painting” chromosomes a different color. DNA or RNA probes, labeled with fluorescent dyes, complementarily bind<br>to chromosomes)"
Nucleosomes - DNA wrapped<br>around a protein core of 8<br>histone molecules•&nbsp;2 molecules H2A<br>•&nbsp;2 molecules H2B<br>•&nbsp;2 molecules H3<br>•&nbsp;2 molecules H4