COUNSELING ACROSS CULTURES
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Professional counselors will be increasingly confronted
with challenges that will affect their practice.
Cultures are often seen through the lenses of
race/ethnicity,
gender,
sexual
orientation,
socioeconomic status, religion/spirituality, nationality,
language preference, ability status, and age.
The rise in global population may underscore the
impact of the increase in cultural diversity
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THE NATURE OF COUNSELING ACROSS CULTURES
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Culture refers to any group of people who identify or
associate with one another on the basis of some
common purpose, need, or similarity of background.
Cultural differences are real and they influence all
human interactions.
All counseling is cross cultural in nature as both client
and counselor bring their unique personal history and
cultures (e.g., gender, social class, religion, language,
etc.) into the counseling process.
Cross cultural counseling places an emphasis on
human diversity in all its many forms.
Culturally competent counselors develop awareness,
knowledge, and skills to effectively interact with clients
from culturally diverse backgrounds.
Culturally competent counselors are globally literate
human beings who need to be aware of topical political
and socioeconomic challenges and issues across the
globe.
CROSS-CULTURAL COMPETENCIES AND OBJECTIVES
I. Counselor Awareness of Own Cultural Values and
Biases
A. Attitudes and Beliefs
1. Culturally skilled counselors have moved from being
culturally unaware to being aware and sensitive to their
own cultural heritage and to valuing and respecting
differences.
2. Culturally skilled counselors are aware of how their
own cultural backgrounds and experiences and
attitudes, values, and biases influence psychological
processes.
3. Culturally skilled counselors are able to recognize the
limits of their competencies and expertise.
4. Culturally skilled counselors are comfortable with
differences that exist between themselves and clients
in terms of race, ethnicity, culture, and beliefs.
C. Skills
1. Culturally skilled counselors seek out educational,
consultative, and training experience to improve their
understanding and effectiveness in working with
culturally different populations. Being able to recognize
the limits of their competencies, they
(a) seek consultation,
(b) seek further training or education,
(c) refer out to more qualified individuals or
resources
(d) engage in a combination of these.
2. Culturally skilled counselors are constantly seeking to
understand themselves as racial and cultural beings
and are actively seeking a nonracist identity.
II. Counselor Awareness of Client as Worldview
A. Attitudes and Beliefs
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Culturally skilled counselors have specific knowledge
about their own racial and cultural heritage and how it
personally and professionally affects their definitions of
normality-abnormality and the process of counseling.
Culturally skilled counselors possess knowledge and
understanding about how oppression, racism,
discrimination, and stereotyping affects them
personally and in their work. This allows them to
Culturally skilled counselors are aware of their negative
emotional reactions toward other racial and ethnic
groups that may prove detrimental to their clients in
counseling. They are willing to contrast their own
beliefs and attitudes with those of their culturally
different clients in a nonjudgmental fashion.
Culturally skilled counselors are aware of their
stereotypes and preconceived notions that they may
hold toward other racial and ethnic minority groups.
B. Knowledge
B. Knowledge
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acknowledge their own racist attitudes, beliefs, and
feelings. Although this standard applies to all groups,
for White counselors it may mean that they understand
how they may have directly or indirectly benefited from
individual, institutional, and cultural racism (White
identity development models).
Culturally skilled counselors possess knowledge about
their social impact on others. They are knowledgeable
about communication style differences, how their style
may clash or foster the counseling process with
minority clients, and how to anticipate the impact it may
have on others.
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Culturally skilled counselors possess specific
knowledge and information about the particular group
they are working with. They are aware of the life
experiences, cultural heritage, and historical
background of their culturally different clients. This
particular competency is strongly linked to the minority
identity development models available in the literature.
Culturally skilled counselors understand how race,
culture, ethnicity, and so forth may affect personality
formation, vocational choices, manifestation of
psychological disorders, help-seeking behavior, and
the appropriateness or inappropriateness of
counseling approaches.
Culturally skilled counselors understand and have
knowledge about sociopolitical influences that impinge
upon the life of racial and ethnic minorities. Immigration
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issues,
poverty,
racism,
stereotyping,
and
powerlessness all leave major scars that may influence
the counseling process.
C. Skills
1. Culturally skilled counselors should familiarize
themselves with relevant research and the latest
findings regarding mental health and mental disorders
of various ethnic and racial groups. They should
actively seek out educational experiences that foster
their knowledge, understanding, and cross-cultural
skills.
2. Culturally skilled counselors become actively involved
with minority individuals outside of the counseling
setting (community events, social and political
functions, celebrations, friendships, neighborhood
groups, and so forth) so that their perspective of
minorities is more than an academic or helping
exercise.
III. Culturally Appropriate Intervention Strategies
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A. Attitudes and Beliefs
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Culturally skilled counselors respect clientsà religious
and/or spiritual beliefs and values, including
attributions and taboos, because they affect worldview,
psychosocial functioning, and expressions of distress.
Culturally skilled counselors respect indigenous
helping practices and respect minority community
intrinsic help-giving networks.
Culturally skilled counselors value bilingualism and do
not view another language as an impediment to
counseling (monolingualism may be the culprit).
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B. Knowledge
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C. Skills
Culturally skilled counselors have a clear and explicit
knowledge and understanding of the generic
characteristics of counseling and therapy (culture
bound, class bound, and monolingual) and how they
may clash with the cultural values of various minority
groups.
Culturally skilled counselors are aware of institutional
barriers that prevent minorities from using mental
health services.
Culturally skilled counselors have knowledge of the
potential bias in assessment instruments and use
procedures and interpret findings keeping in mind the
cultural and linguistic characteristics of the clients.
Culturally skilled counselors have knowledge of
minority family structures, hierarchies, values, and
beliefs. They are knowledgeable about the community
characteristics and the resources in the community as
well as the family.
Culturally skilled counselors should be aware of
relevant discriminatory practices at the social and
community level that may be affecting the
psychological welfare of the population being served.
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Culturally skilled counselors are able to engage in a
variety of verbal and nonverbal helping responses.
They are able to send and receive both verbal and nonverbal messages accurately and appropriately. They
are not tied down to only one method or approach to
helping but recognize that helping styles and
approaches may be culture bound. When they sense
that their helping style is limited and potentially
inappropriate, they can anticipate and ameliorate its
negative impact.
Culturally skilled counselors are able to exercise
institutional intervention skills on behalf of their clients.
They can help clients determine whether a problem
stems from racism or bias in others (the concept of
health paranoia) so that clients do not inappropriately
personalize problems.
Culturally skilled counselors are not averse to seeking
consultation with traditional healers and religious and
spiritual leaders and practitioners in the treatment of
culturally different clients when appropriate.
Culturally skilled counselors take responsibility for
interacting in the language requested by the client and,
if not feasible, make appropriate referral. A serious
problem arises when the linguistic skills of a counselor
do not match the language of the client. This being the
case, counselors should
(a) seek a translator with cultural knowledge and
appropriate professional background and
(b) refer to a knowledgeable and competent
bilingual counselor.
Culturally skilled counselors have training and
expertise in the use of traditional assessment and
testing instruments. They not only understand the
technical aspects of the instruments but are also aware
of the cultural limitations. This allows them to use test
instruments for the welfare of the diverse clients.
Culturally skilled counselors should attend to as well as
work to eliminate biases, prejudices, and
discriminatory practices. They should be cognizant of
sociopolitical contexts in conducting evaluation and
providing interventions and should develop sensitivity
to issues of oppression, sexism, elitism, and racism.
Culturally skilled counselors take responsibility in
educating their clients to the processes of
psychological
intervention,
such
as
goals,
expectations, legal rights, and the counselor as
orientation.
CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
Foundational Knowledge of Traditional Counseling
Theory and Practice
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It is important to have an understanding of traditional
counseling theory and practice when developing cross
– cultural counseling competency. Despite criticisms of
Western European and North American theories, they
still contribute to cultural awareness in counseling.
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Incorporating the traditions of counseling practice
developed by pioneers such as Freud, Adler, Rogers,
Perls, and Ellis into culturally diverse concepts and
approaches is crucial.
Ethical Knowledge and Aspirations
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It is crucial for counselors to possess cross-cultural
competence by having knowledge of ethical standards
and the ability to conduct counseling interventions
within an ethical framework.
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The American Counseling Association's ethical
standards require counselors to actively attempt to
understand the diverse cultural backgrounds of their
clients. The best practice in counseling is placing ethics
at the forefront of all professional activity. Counselors
who aspire to high ethical standards are culturally
competent in their practice.
Cross Cultural Counseling Theoretical Knowledge
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Counselors must possess knowledge of diverse ideas
on helping and human development alongside
traditional counseling theory to provide effective
services in a cross-cultural context. Sue et al. (1996)
proposed a metatheoretical perspective that suggests
counselors should use theoretical approaches that
reflect the helping traditions of diverse cultures.
Cross Cultural Encounters
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To attain cross cultural competency, one must possess
working knowledge and information about diverse
groups of people, including their histories, customs,
and values. The acquisition of such knowledge should
involve personal encounters with individuals from
diverse cultural backgrounds, which may challenge
one's assumptions and stereotypes. It is important to
approach such encounters with an open mind and to
view people as individuals within a cultural context.
Cross Cultural Counseling Skill Development
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“Such skill development should be based on the
following premises.
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First, cultural diversity is real and should not be ignored
in counseling interactions.
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Second, cultural differences are just that—differences.
They are not reflections of ignorance, deficiencies, or
pathological deviations. This suggests having the
ability to meet clients where they are, despite obvious
cultural differences between counselor and client.
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Third, when working with clients from culturally diverse
groups, it is important to avoid stereotypes and a
monolithic perspective. It is crucial that counselors
consider clients as individuals within a cultural context.”
as what cultural differences may affect their
relationship with the client and what cultural blind spots
they may have. It's important to understand one's own
cultural strengths and limitations in order to provide
effective counseling.
Self-Awareness
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Counselor self-awareness is crucial to culturally
competent counseling practice. Counselors must
explore how their cultural background has influenced
their psychosocial development and assess their own
process of cultural identity development. They should
evaluate their attitudes and beliefs about people from
different cultural backgrounds and consider how these
may impact counseling effectiveness.
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Self-exploration leads to self-awareness, which is
essential in developing personal attitudes and beliefs
to guide culturally competent counseling practice.
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Culturally competent counselors are sensitive to
cultural group differences because they are aware of
their own identity as cultural beings.
Self-Awareness: Global Literacy
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Becoming a globally literate human being is important
for self-awareness. This involves accumulating
knowledge about the world and being open to cultural
diversity. A globally literate person has a knowledge of
cultural variations in history, domestic/international
travel experience, and is knowledgeable about current
national and international events. Culturally competent
counseling requires global literacy.
Self-Awareness: Social Justice
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The concept of a globally literate lifestyle includes a
commitment to social justice, which ensures that
individuals receive what is due from society and that
resources are distributed equitably.
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Counselors who promote social justice seek to
challenge inherent inequities in social systems and
oppose discrimination and oppression. Cross culturally
competent counselors possess self-awareness and
knowledge of their clients' cultural dynamics while
promoting mental health and social justice at both the
individual and systems level.
The CHALLENGE OF THE CROSS-CULTURAL
COUNSELING ENCOUNTER
Two possible outcomes of a cross-cultural encounter
Cross Cultural Counseling Skill Development
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When it comes to developing culturally competent
counseling skills, it's important to have a diverse and
integrative approach. Counselors should be aware of
their own cultural biases and seek to understand their
clients' cultures in order to better serve them. To do
this, counselors should ask themselves questions such
a. Incompetence on the part of the counselor
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Unintended cultural disregard or worse, cultural
disrespect
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Cultural insensitivity
b. Cross-cultural competence on the part of the counselor
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Working alliance
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Respect and validation of the client’s culture
Two Critical Issues to Consider When Entering a cross
Cultural Encounter
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a. Cultural Characteristics of Counseling
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cultural differences
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b. Socio-political nature of counseling
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Power and privilege differences between the counselor
and client
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COUNSELING WITH CULTURE IN MIND
a. Cultural Identity Development
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Cultural identity refers to an individual’s sense of
belonging to a cultural group and the part of one’s
personality that is attributable to membership in that
group.
b. Intersectionality
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Cultural identity development must be understood from
an intersectionality perspective. Intersectionality refers
to the convergence and interactions of the multiple
dimensions that comprise cultural identity, which in turn
have an effect on an individual’s personality and
worldview.
LANGUAGE PREFERENCE
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Language is an important aspect in all counseling
interactions
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Language is culture
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Verbal and nonverbal language
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Culturally competent counseling, therefore, must be
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based on an appreciation of and sensitivity to possible
language differences between counselor and client.
HELP-SEEKING ATTITUDES AND BEHAVIOR
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Counselors must recognize the fact that there is great
variability among cultural groups with respect to helpseeking attitudes and behaviors. Not all cultural groups
traditionally value or understand the nature of formal
counseling as a source of help. It might be necessary,
therefore, to step outside the confines of the traditional
helping setting to offer counseling services. A culturally
competent counselor may need to think creatively in
terms of how he or she provides services to clients for
whom the counseling process might be a totally alien
experience.
INVOLVING IMPORTANT OTHERS IN THE COUNSELING
PROCESS
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Immediate and extended kinship networks must be
considered as primary sources for promoting mental
health and well-being among many cultural groups.
Such networks may include immediate and extended
family, friends, or community cultural resources. Within
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these support networks can be found hierarchical
structures and cultural roles that promote a collective
unity among groups of people.
This collective unity provides the basis for a worldview
that
emphasizes
communalism
rather
than
individualism.
Kinship and other collective support networks are
crucial in providing resolution to both situational and
developmental problems related to educational work,
or personal-social issues.
In many instances, the supportive dynamics of these
indigenous networks may keep an individual from
needing to seek outside decision-making or problemresolution assistance.
Culturally competent counseling practice, therefore,
must include an understanding of and appreciation for
the role of collective dynamics in mental health and
well-being. As appropriate, counselors should find
ways in which to make use of the kinship system and
involve important others in the counseling process.
GENDER-ROLE SOCIALIZATION
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Perceptions of the roles of men and women vary
across cultures. These gender perceptions have the
potential to influence the expectations considered
normal for male and female development. Such
expectations, therefore, can account for fundamental
differences in personality development for men and
women.
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When necessary, gender-role socialization and its
effect on development should be considered an
important concept in culturally competent counseling.
Counselors may need to consider how gender-based
differences are manifested in decision making and
problem resolution among men and women across
cultural groups.
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While this list of concepts is by no means exhaustive,
it provides key points of reflection for understanding the
importance of counseling with culture in mind. Although
the relevance of these concepts may vary across
clients, a working knowledge of them and how they
may impact the helping process should frame the
context of competent counseling intervention in a
cross-cultural encounter. Understanding concepts
such as these will go far in helping counselors minimize
the cultural distance often inherent in a cross-cultural
encounter
SUMMARY
Guidelines for Culturally Competent Counseling
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This chapter emphasizes the significance of crosscultural counseling in light of global demographic
changes. It stresses the need for counselors to develop
awareness, knowledge, and skills to effectively engage
with clients from diverse cultural backgrounds. The
approach suggested involves recognizing both human
similarities and differences, viewing each client as a
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unique individual, and considering universal
developmental challenges. The guidelines provided
aim to facilitate a strong working alliance between
counselors and clients in cross-cultural encounters.
clients when they are faced with such challenges is the
basis for social justice.
Consider Cultural Factors in any Counseling Interaction
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Immersing oneself in the cultural realities of every
client will benefit the counseling relationship as this will
promote a sense of cultural validation on the part of the
client. It is important to remember that cultural
differences are just that—differences, and not
pathological deviations or deficiencies.
Consider Cultural Privilege and “Cultural Baggage”
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Recognizing the often-unearned privileges one might
enjoy in society based on skin color, gender, religion,
nationality, sexuality, etc., one should be careful not to
impose one’s personal mindset, attitudes, or values
when helping a client explore options to deal with
issues or challenges. In addition, considering one’s
preconceived notions and prejudicial assumptions
about people who are “different” as “cultural baggage,
” it is imperative to examine the origins of this
“baggage” and acknowledge its existence and the
potential impact it may have on the cross cultural
counseling encounter and beyond.
Examine and Evaluate the Relevance of One’s Theoretical
Orientation
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Considering how issues of culture may impact a
theoretical approach to counseling, one should
objectively look at how personality is manifested within
the cultural realities of clients in order to develop an
integrative theoretical approach to practice.
Avoid Stereotypes and Adopting a Monolithic Perspective
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Avoiding the pitfall of assuming that all people from a
cultural group share the same reality will lead to
approaching culturally diverse clients in a genuine as
opposed to stereotypical manner. While people from a
cultural group may share similar characteristics, each
person is a unique human being. It is, therefore,
necessary to always consider the individual within a
cultural context.
Be Willing to Learn About Other Cultures
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Letting clients tell their story is critically important,
particularly when they are discussing cultural issues
with which one may be unfamiliar. Never be afraid to
say to a client whose cultural background is different
from one’s own, “I do not understand, can you help me
learn?”
Make a Commitment to Advocacy and Social Justice
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Recognizing that client issues are often reactions to or
symptoms of deep-seated problems in social
environments entails challenging systemic barriers to
mental health and well-being. Advocating for one’s
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