THE COLD WAR
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Glossary
Arms race
Massive military build-up, especially of nuclear weapons, by both the Soviet Union
and the United States in an effort to gain military superiority.
Brinkmanship
Purposely escalating a dangerous situation to the limit ( brink), while giving the
impression that you are willing to go to war, in the hope of pressuring your
opponents to back down.
Checkpoint Charlie
A crossing point between West Berlin and East Berlin when the Berlin Wall divided
the city.
Cold War
The struggle for power between the Soviet Union and the United States that lasted
from the end of World War II until the collapse of the Soviet Union. The war was
considered "cold" because the aggression was ideological, economic, and diplomatic
rather than a direct military conflict.
Communism
An economic theory in which collective ownership of property leads to a classless
society.
The form of government in the Soviet Union in which the state owned all means of
production and was led by a centralized, authoritarian party. This was viewed as the
antithesis of democracy in the United States.
Containment
Fundamental U.S. foreign policy during the Cold War in which the U.S. tried to
contain Communism by preventing it from spreading to other countries.
DEFCON
An acronym for "defense readiness condition." The term is followed by a number
(one to five) which informs the U.S. military to the severity of the threat, with
DEFCON 5 representing normal, peacetime readiness to DEFCON 1 warning the
need for maximum force readiness, i.e. war.
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Detente
The relaxing of tension between the superpowers. See details in Successes and
Failures of Détente in the Cold War.
First strike capability
The ability of one country to launch a surprise, massive nuclear attack against
another country. The goal of a first strike is to wipe out most, if not all, of the
opposing country's weapons and aircraft, leaving them unable to launch a counterattack.
Hotline
A direct line of communication between the White House and the
Kremlin established in 1963. Often called the "red telephone."
ICBM
Intercontinental ballistic missiles were missiles that could carry nuclear bombs
across thousands of miles.
iron curtain
A term used by Winston Churchill in a speech to describe the growing divide
between western democracies and Soviet-influenced states.
Limited Test Ban Treaty
Signed August 5, 1963, this treaty is a worldwide agreement to prohibit nuclear
weapons testing in the atmosphere, outer space, or underwater. (Result of the
Cuban Missile Crisis).
Mutually assured destruction
MAD was the guarantee that if one superpower launched a massive nuclear attack,
the other would reciprocate by also launching a massive nuclear attack, and both
countries would be destroyed. This ultimately became the prime deterrent against a
nuclear war between the two superpowers.
Proxy War
A military conflict in which one or more third parties directly or indirectly support one
or more state or nonstate combatants in an effort to influence the conflict's outcome
and thereby to advance their own strategic interests or to undermine those of their
opponents.
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SALT
Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT) were negotiations between the Soviet Union
and the United States to limit the number of newly created nuclear weapons. The
first negotiations extended from 1969 to 1972 and resulted in SALT I (the first
Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty) in which each side agreed to keep their strategic
ballistic missile launchers at their current numbers and provided for the increase in
submarine-launched ballistic missiles (SLBM) in proportion to the decrease in
number of intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBM). The second round of
negotiations extended from 1972 to 1979 and resulted in SALT II (the second
Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty) which provided a broad range of limitations on
offensive nuclear weapons.
Space race
A competition between the Soviet Union and the United States to prove their
superiority in technology through increasingly impressive accomplishments in space.
The race to space began in 1957 when the Soviet Union successfully launched the
first satellite, Sputnik.
superpower
A country that dominates in political and military power. During the Cold War, there
were two superpowers: the Soviet Union and the United States.
U.S.S.R.
The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (U.S.S.R.), also commonly called the Soviet
Union, was a country that consisted of what is now Russia, Armenia, Azerbaijan,
Belarus, Estonia, Georgia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Latvia, Lithuania, Moldova,
Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Ukraine, and Uzbekistan.
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Topic One: THE COLD WAR
Assessed in Paper one (Discursive essay and extended writing piece.)
Your case study for 2024 is VIETNAM.
How did the Cold War period shape international relations after the Second
World War?
Textbook references:
Spot On Module 1 page 5 – 83.
ACE IT STUDY GUIDE: page 1 - 30
New Generation textbook
Oxford: In search of History.
1) WHAT WAS THE COLD WAR?
The Cold War was an intense strategic and political power struggle between the
USA and the USSR after World War 11. These two superpowers had emerged as
the two strongest countries after the War, and they were each supported by other
countries. The USA formed the Western bloc against the USSR’s Eastern/Soviet
bloc. This created a world that was divided into two spheres, the one supporting
democracy and capitalism, and the other supporting communism. The
Cold War was not simply a conflict
between two powerful countries and their
allies. It was also a clash that involved
propaganda, sport, culture, diplomatic
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manoeuvering, economic pressure and occasional military clashes and wars. We
refer to these wars as
‘proxy wars’ because the
USA and the USSR will
never declare war against
each other. Rather, they will
support a particular
country/cause/rebel group,
and fight each other
indirectly. Although we
averted a nuclear disaster, the country in which they fought their ‘proxy’ war will be
affected negatively (loss of life, extensive damage, prolonged tensions between
different groups). The Cold War was fought in many areas – in neutral states, newly
independent nations in Africa and Asia and even in outer space.
THE COLD WAR ( definition)
“The Cold War has been defined as a state of extreme tension between the
superpowers, stopping short of all-out war but characterized by mutual hostility and
involvement in covert warfare and war by proxy as a means of upholding the
interests of one against the other. The Cold War remained cold because the
development of nuclear weapons had made resorting to war a suicidal enterprise:
both sides would be totally destroyed by indirect means, very often at considerable
risk, and the resulting tensions have ensured that both sides have maintained a high
and continuous state of readiness for war.”
(M Dockrill, 1988 – British historian
and Professor)
In addition, it Walter Lippman who invented the term, describes it as such:
“A state of hostility between nations without actual physical fighting.It has come to to
refer to the protracted economic and ideological study between the global
superpowers of the USA and the USSR – supported by their allies- that emerged
after World War Two. “
Note: You do not need to learn theses quotes, you just need to understand the
essence of them.)
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These two superpowers – the USA and the USSR – believed in the conflicting
ideologies of COMMUNISM and CAPITALISM/DEMOCRACY, and this rivalry
lasted from 1945 to 1991, when the USSR collapsed. The Cold War dominated and
shaped world politics and international relations for over four decades, and formally
ended in December 1989 when the USSR and the USA signed a formal
agreement.
REVIEW OF CONFLICTING IDEOLOGIES
USA: Democratic Capitalism
The USA followed the political system of democracy, and the economic system of
capitalism.

Democracy – voting rights, multi-party free elections

Seat of government – Washington, Congress, USA . (the symbols of such
were the following: An eagle, Stars and Stripes, Uncle Sam.)
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Democracy is a system based on the will of the people. It is a government for the
people by the people on the form of their elected representatives.
In principle, freedom is deeply protected, and consequently is placed above
individual rights.
Capitalism (economic system)

Limited government involvement in business

Free market economy

Private ownership – keep profits

Healthy competition leads to progress, invention, entrepreneurs

Average living standards higher – consumerism = wide variety of goods and
services

Gap between rich and poor

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COMMUNISM CHECKLIST
(Communism is the combination of a single party communist rule- dictatorship- and a
socialist economic system.)

One party system - Communist Party (limited voting rights)

Seat of government – Kremlin, Moscow ( symbols as follows: Soviet, USSR,
Russia Hammer and sickle, red, yellow star, Bear)

Central Command - makes decisions re: politics, economy, society –
Government controls most aspects of people’s lives, and provides all social
services (health, education, housing)

Equality more important than freedom and democracy

State owns means of production – resources, industry, agriculture owned by
State.

Shortage of consumer goods – lower standard of living

Classless society – no individual ownership or profit-making; encouraged to
work for common good.
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Why did a Cold War develop post World War Two?
During the Second World War (1939-45), the USA and the USSR put aside their
differences and fought as allies, along with Britain (Grand Alliance – 1941) against
Hitler’s Third Reich. Unfortunately, this alliance and apparent goodwill, as captured
in the two iconic photographs below, did not last. Long term tension and mistrust
that had been building since 1917 (and before), coupled with short term slights
and suspicions, caused a permanent division between the superpowers.
Mistrust manifested itself at the peace conferences after the War, and a Cold War
began between these two former allies.
In an arranged photo commemorating the meeting of the Soviet and American armies
at the Elbe River in Germany in May 1945,2nd Lt Robertson and Lt Silvashko stand
facing each other with hands clasped and arms around each other’s shoulders. In the
background are two flags and a poster.
What were the long term and short term reasons for suspicion and mistrust?

History of Western opposition to USSR - Russia repeatedly invaded – 1812
(Napoleon), 1854 (Crimean War), 1914 (Germany), 1919-20 (Civil War),
1941 (Hitler)

Origins of mistrust traced back to emergence of USSR in 1917 after the
Bolshevik Revolution.

USA saw Communism as a threat to Western values, democratic freedoms
and way of life.

Bitter memories of western powers’ aid to White Russians during Civil War
(Churchill had been Secretary of War and sent British troops).
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
USSR was left out of the Treaty of Versailles and the League of Nations
after WW1.

USA mistrusted Stalin’s dictatorship, purges, spread of Communism and its
doctrine of world domination – justification of the west’s attitude and fear.

USSR felt abandoned by Western powers in the face of growing Nazi threat,
so signed a Non-Aggression Pact with Germany in 1939. USA saw this as a
betrayal of Poland and the West.

USSR faced Hitler alone from November 1941-June 1944. Even though
they were part of the Grand Alliance (Britain, USSR, USA) that was formed
in 1941, they were not part of the Atlantic Charter signed between Roosevelt
and Churchill.

Western Powers delayed opening a second front against Germany in 1944 –
USSR thought this was to exhaust her resources and purposefully keep her
weak

USSR Casualty list: 20 million soldiers dead, thousands of villages, lines of
communication (railway and bridges) destroyed, agriculture disrupted, steel
industry’s output reduced

Atomic bomb developments kept secret from Russia – made her bitter and
suspicious (period between Yalta and Potsdam)

The alliance between the two superpowers was always an uneasy one, and
evidence of their suspicions and mistrust will surface during the Conferences held
towards the end of WW2. These meeting were held to determine the nature and
structure of post-war Europe and to ensure that Germany would never again
threaten world peace.
The Cold War tension can be directly traced back to several wartime conferences
attended by the BIG THREE.
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The “Big Three” were:
Churchill (England).
Stalin (USSR)
Roosevelt (USA)
The Yalta Conference (February 1945)
As WW2 drew to a close and the defeat of Germany became a strong possibility, the
differences between the USSR and the Western allies began to resurface.
They met in Yalta to discuss the following points, but due to differences of opinions,
only temporary compromises were made.

How to end war against Germany

What to do with the countries (like Poland) that had been invaded and
occupied by Nazi Germany during WW2

What to do with war-torn Germany and her capital (seat of government)
Berlin.

These are the decisions they reached:

Agreed to divide Germany and Berlin into 4 zones of occupation, to be
administered by Big 3 (USA, Britain, USSR and France) – temporary until
order could be restored

Agreed to hold democratic elections in Eastern Europe to determine the type
of government they wanted.
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
Agreed to the creation of a UNITED NATIONS organization (General
Assembly and Security Council) – use diplomacy to avert another world ‘hot
war’.

MOST IMPORTANTLY, they agreed to create spheres of influence. S.U was
to “rehabilitate” and bring stability to Eastern Europe and East Germanyincluding East Berlin, and the USA, France and England had to do the same
for Western Europe and West Germany-including West Berlin.
There were however, a number of problems or differences that arose.

In liberating Poland, he had already set up a pro-Soviet government.
Although he promised to hold elections in the rest of E. Europe, Stalin’s
interpretation of democracy was different to those of the Western allies.

Stalin was determined create a large buffer zone between Germany and the
USSR. This was to guard against any (future) German aggression.
(Remember that Russia/USSR had lost more people than any other country
during the two World wars.)

The big three did not reach a decision on the issues of reparations. The West
wanted to guard against another Treaty of Versailles travesty, but the USSR
disagreed. They also wanted the border of the USSR to move westward into
Poland.
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A photograph of the Big Three at Yalta. The Big three came together their
second summit conference where they discussed the creation of spheres of
influence and the balance of power in post-war Europe. This photo shows (LR), Winston Churchill, Franklin Roosevelt and Joseph Stalin.
S, Waugh, Essential Modern World History, 2001. Accessed 7/2/2024.
This is an iconic photograph.
Iconic images are visuals that clearly identify a historic person, place, thing, or
time period in such a way that many people would instantly recognize such visuals
and what they represent.
Potsdam Conference (July to August 1945)
The Potsdam conference was a continuation of the Yalta conference. The war was
over in Europe and the conference was organized to discuss what to do with postwar Europe and – more specially- Germany.
They decided on the following;

Germany: Each of the four zones of occupation were finalized. Each zone
would be administered by one of the victors of WW2- USSR, France, Britain
and the USA.
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
Reparations would be collected from each zone. Because the USSR zone
was mostly rural, it was agreed that they would receive metal, food and the
results of key industry from the other zones.

The spheres of influence were solidly put in place.

Poland’s border was secured. (Oder and Neisser rivers)

Germans who were living in Czechoslovakia, Poland and Hungary had to
return to Germany.

USSR had annexed the Baltic states of Latvia, Lithuania and Estonia, and the
eastern part of Poland during the war, and was not willing to give up control in
these territories.
.
HOWEVER, in the 5 months since Yalta, a lot of changes had occurred. These
changes would greatly affect the relationship between the leaders.
1) Stalin’s armies were occupying most of Eastern Europe. His creation of a
soviet controlled sphere of influence in the area, ensured that many of the
elections that were to happen would result in a Communist political system
being voted for. (Hungary Czechoslovakia were hot points where leaders of
other political parties died under suspicious circumstances. Soviet ambitions
of expansion in Eastern Europe – as countries in Eastern Europe became
liberated by the Soviet Red Army, so the Soviets began to station troops and
agents there. Local Communist parties (heavily supported by Russia) began
to thrive in post-war conditions.
2) America had a new president. Harry Truman had replaced Roosevelt when he
died. Truman took a hardline against communism, and encouraged by his
advisors, actively confronted Stalin. He did not trust Stalin at all.
3) Churchill had been replaced by Clement Atlee. Atlee was an indecisive leader
who did not add much to discussions at Potsdam. He was more of a
peacemaker and went along with what Truman decided.
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The Big Three and their foreign ministers in the palace garden of the Potsdam
conference area. Seated, from left to right: Clement R. Attlee, Harry S. Truman, Josef
Stalin. Harry S. Truman Library & Museum. I August 1945. Accesses 7/2/2024
4) The USA had tested the Atom bomb. They had not told the Soviets about their
nuclear capability and sprung it on Stalin at the start of the meeting. This has
been seen by historians as a threatening action.
This cartoon of 11 August 1945 by the cartoonist Paul Carmack shows the Atomic Bomb
looming threateningly over the peace-makers. It was published in the Christian Science
Monitor, an American daily paper dedicated to 'non hysterical journalism' (i.e. it tried to offer
sensible and unbiased judgements on events).
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Potsdam deepened the divide between the two superpowers.
The big three powers could not agree on:

Germany: S.U wanted to cripple Germany, but Truman thought this would
lead to more aggression in the future. (TOV)

Eastern Europe: Although it had been agreed at Yalta that Stalin could set up
poro-Soviet governments in the area, Truman was opposed to it and wanted
to retract the agreement. (One needs to contemplate the opposite stand:
Stalin did not confront Truman about setting up Democratic Capitalist ProUSA governments in the West.)
There was a two-way misunderstanding, which in turn lead to the ACTIVE creation of
spheres of influence.
THE USSR AND THE USA: THE CREATION OF SPHERES OF INFLUENCE
The USSR installed Soviet-friendly governments in Eastern Europe:

Russian expansion and control of Eastern Europe by 1947 genuinely alarmed
the USA and her Western allies. A pattern for taking control emerged:
The Soviet Army remained in E Europe after she had liberated them from the
Nazis. The USSR would set up coalition governments in the newly liberated
countries. Before long, non-communist parties would begin to be persecuted
and communists- often placed there by the S.U.- took control of key posts and
asserted Soviet dominance .

Opposition leaders were ‘removed’ from public life and ‘fixed’ elections were
held that ensured a communist victory. People’s democracies were set up in
Poland, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Romania, Bulgaria and East Germany.

Yet short of war, there was little the USA could do to stop Eastern Europe
becoming communist.

In March 1946, Winston Churchill told the American people in a speech
that…‘A shadow has fallen upon the Allied victory. From Stettin in the Baltic
to Trieste in the Adriatic an IRON CURTAIN has fallen across the continent.
Behind that line all the states of Central and Eastern Europe are being
controlled from Moscow. This is not the liberated Europe we fought to build,
nor is it one which contains what it needed for lasting peace.”
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A British cartoon commenting on Churchill’s Iron Curtain” speech. Daily mail,
6/3/’46.Accessed 7/2/2024

Stalin was deeply angered by the speech and accused Churchill of being a
warmonger.
A warmonger is someone who is eager for war or tries to start a war.

Communist governments controlled by Moscow were established in Hungary,
Poland, Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia, Albania, Bulgaria and East Germany.
Other than Albania and Yugoslavia, all these countries became known as
satellite states.
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Satellite state: A country that was economically and politically dependent
on the Soviet Union
What were the reasons for the Soviet Union’s take over of Eastern Europe?

The USSR felt vulnerable to the West. Stalin believed that they were a
potential threat to Soviet security. This was further intensified by the US ‘s
nuclear capability. Stalin believed that a buffer would create a psychologicaland physical barrier.

The war had put astrain on the USSR’s economy and Stalin wanted to relieve
this by taking reparations from Germany.

Germany became the new defensive front in any potential conflict.

The satellite states would create a a buffer zone between Germany and the
USSR if another World War was to break out.

The new states would boost the Soviet economy by providing a cheap source
of labour.

Hostility from the West caused Stalin to impose a harsh regime in these
countries.
Concerns about the extension of Soviet control led to a radical shift in US foreign
policy. This reach a tipping point when events in Greece, Turkey and Iran prompted
the US to take action.
Iran
During WW2, both Britain and the S.U. ha stationed troops in Iran. When the War
ended, the SU did not withdraw their trops and it was only when the Iranian
government protested, that the USSR mad e a move to withdraw them. They left
troops in place to support communist guerilla fighters who were fighting for
independence. Both the USA and Britain had to apply pressure on the SU to get
them to remove all their troops.
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Turkey
The USSR placed extreme pressure on Turkey at the end of WW2, demanding that
Turkey return land that had at one point belonged to the Soviet Union.
In 1946 Turkey appealed to the USA and the West for help, which was granted.
Greece
A civil war in Greece between communists and Monarchists had been raging prior to
WW2. Britain had been supporting the Monarchists. The war started up again once
Greece had been liberated from the Nazi’s. With the economic strain of the world
war, they could no longer do this. This led the Soviet supported communist side to
benefit and they began to win the war. The USA decided to step (with weapons and
finances) in to help finance the nationalist (Monarchists) to repel the communist
advance.
In March 1947 Truman announced that America would “support free people who are
resisting subjugation by armed minorities or by outside pressure.” Massive arms and
supplies were made available Greece and the communists were defeated.
All together the USA spent $400 million in Greece and Turkey to uphold democracy
in the region.
Truman believed that drastic action had to be taken to prevent the USSR from
aggressively spreading communism.
(The irony here, is that they did not recognize that they, themselves, were
aggressively spreading democratic capitalism.)
The American response? The USA’s policy of CONTAINMENT
Historical concept
Containment: Action taken to restrict the spread of hostile elements. In the context of
the Cold War, this was seen as Communism.
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United States Information Service propaganda poster
U.S. National Archives and Records Administration, August 1951, author unknown,
accessed 12/2/2024
Containment was introduced with the passing of the Truman Doctrine
Historical concept:
Truman Doctrine was a policy that Truman put forward to Congress
(parliament) in March 1947 to provide Military and financial aid to Greece
and Turkey.
The Truman Doctrine

The doctrine introduced containment with the sole purpose of preventing the
spread of communism and the influence of the USSR beyond the territories
she occupied in 1945.

Congress passed his proposal and freed up vast amounts of financial and
military sources to ensure the policy of Containment succeeded.
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The following is an extract from President Truman’s speech to Congress
on 12 March 1947.
At the present moment in world history nearly every nation must choose
between alternative ways of life. The choice is too often not a free one.
One way of life is based upon the will of the majority, and is distinguished by
free institutions, representative government, free elections, guarantees of
individual liberty, freedom of speech and religion, and freedom from political
oppression.
The second way of life is based upon the will of a minority forcibly imposed
upon the majority. It relies upon terror and oppression, a controlled press and
radio; fixed elections, and the suppression of personal freedoms.
I believe that it must be the policy of the United States to support free peoples
who are resisting attempted subjugation by armed minorities or by outside
pressures.
I believe that we must assist free peoples to work out their own destinies in
their own way.
I believe that our help should be primarily through economic and financial aid
which is essential to economic stability and orderly political processes.
https://www.archives.gov/milestone-documents/truman-doctrine, accessed
13/2/2024
The Soviet response was to set up Cominform. (Communist information
Bureau) was set up in September 1947 to link communist parties and
countries around the world. They were to share helpful information and tactics
about communism and, under no circumstances, were they to receive any aid
from the West.
To follow through with the policy of containment, the Marshall Plan was born.
Truman believed that communism flourished in environments where people
were poverty stricken. (Remember the benefits of communism). Due to the
damage caused by WW2, large part of Western Europe were economically
poor and communism would be a tempting option. The population in France
and Italy in particular were drawn to it.
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To counter this Truman sent General George Marshall to Europe to
investigate its economic conditions. Together they came up with the Marshall
Plan.
The Marshall Plan
The aim of the plan was to rebuild the post war European economies, and in
this way destroy the conditions under which communism thrived.
Marshall Aid was offered to all countries who wished to apply for it.
The conditions for this aid were the following:

They had to follow a political system of democracy and an economic
policy of capitalism.

They had to remove trade barriers and to co-operate economically with
one another.

They would agree to buy American goods and allow American
companies to invest capital in their industries.

By September 1947 sixteen European countries had applied for
Marshall Aid. (Britain, France, Netherlands, Belgium, Luxemburg,
Denmark, Sweden, West Germany, Portugal, Austria, Switzerland,
Greece, Turkey, Iceland and Norway.)

These countries set up the Organisation for European Economic Cooperation (OEEC). This was the forerunner of the E.U.

By 1953 the USA had provided $17 billion to help these countries
rebuilt their economies. (this is roughly $223 Billion today).
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The plan was very successful, both economically and politically.

Malnutrition in these countries disappeared, and industrial output and trade
increased.

Communism had weakened in these countries.

BUT the plan increased tension and hostility between East and West.
Soviet Response

Stalin and the USSR viewed the Truman Doctrine and the Marshall Plan
with great suspicion – ‘dollar diplomacy’ – and would not allow the
satellite states of Eastern Europe to accept it. Instead, Stalin set up
COMINFORM (Communist Information Bureau) to ensure that they all
spoke with one voice and were obedient to the USSR, and COMECON
(the Council for Mutual Economic Aid) brought all communist states
together economically.
Historical concept
Dollar diplomacy: Also known as “dollar imperialism.” Was using
economic and financial pressure to suite American interests. (A form of
bribery.)

Communist Eastern Europe were only allowed to trade with other
members of Cominform. Yugoslavia objected and was expelled from
Cominform, although she remained communist.

This marked a turning point in the relationship between the S.U. and her
former Western Allies as well as the emerging Communist dominated
governments in E. Europe.

Independent-minded leaders were replaced by those who were loyal to
Stalin and the USSR under Cominform.

Stalin introduced the Molotov Plan which was to assist Russian satellite
states economically by co-ordinating their economic policies. (Please note
that financial aid was not granted like Marshall aid).
24
Edwin Marcus. “Can He Block It?” ca. 1947. Ink on paper. Prints and Photographs Division,
Library of Congress., accessed 13/2/2024
THE BERLIN CRISES 1945 – 1961
Between 1945 and 1961, a series of crises (more than one) emerged as part of the
Cold War centering on the question of control of Berlin. All of the crises increased
tensions between East and West and indeed the first crisis helped to clearly indicate
that the co-operation of WW2 had ended. Differences in Germany caused the first
open confrontation of the Cold War. BERLIN BECAME THE FLASH POINT for the
Cold War.
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Germany
26
Berlin
The Berlin Crises – a brief overview:
Context

Germany and Berlin divided temporarily into 4 zones – each allied power
responsible for administering their zone.

Each allied power was allowed to take reparations (compensation in money
or materials payable by a defeated nation)

The decision taken at Potsdam with regard to reparations was that each
power could remove property and reparations from their zone, however they
could not do it in a way that damaged Germany’s economic stability.

Since most of Germany’s industry was located in the West, the Soviet’s were
to receive 25% of dismantled industry’s equipment from the West.

She would also be able to exchange food supplies for industrial equipment.
This caused further tension to develop between the USSR and the three Western
allied powers because it was difficult to work out the value of food vs the value of
industrial equipment.
Faced with severe food shortages in West Germany, the allied powers decided to:

Western allies applied for Marshall Aid to rebuild their zones

Joined the three Western Zones (Trizone) into one zone.

They renamed West Germany the German Democratic Republic.

They reformed the German currency. The Reichsmark was replaced by
the Deutsche Mark at a rate of 10:1. It was a lot more valuable than the East
German currency.
27
With these reforms, it was very clear that living conditions in West Germany, and
West Berlin, were of a much higher standard than those of the Soviet sector. As a
result people began to migrate to the West (especially in Berlin).

A communist dictatorship was established in E Germany and communist
economic policies were introduced. Economic recovery was slow compared
the W Germany where rapid economic recovery occurred.

Multiparty elections were held in West Germany
The issue
Location of Berlin – the former capital is in the Soviet zone; West Berlin will become
a symbol of freedom behind the Iron Curtain as the policies that applied to W
Germany will also be carried out in W Berlin. USSR – in climate of suspicious and
mistrust, very unhappy with US military presence in her zone. B52 bombers, military
bases, missiles will be positioned in W Berlin. Crises will arise out of USSR’s
attempts to get rid of US presence and to bring W Berlin into their zone of
occupation. USA’s Truman Doctrine will guarantee West Berliners support =
tensions=clash between two superpowers.
The first crisis was prompted when a new currency was introduced in the western
zones that had recently been united. Stalin saw this as ‘economic warfare.’
28
THE BERLIN CRISES 1945 – 1961
Between 1945 and 1961, a series of crises (more than one) emerged as part of the
Cold War centering on the question of control of Berlin. All of the crises increased
tensions between East and West and indeed the first crisis helped to clearly indicate
that the co-operation of WW2 had ended. Differences in Germany caused the first
open confrontation of the Cold War. BERLIN BECAME THE FLASH POINT for the
Cold War.
Germany
Berlin
The Berlin Crises – a brief overview:
Context
•
Germany and Berlin divided temporarily into 4 zones – each allied power
responsible for administering their zone.
•
Each allied power was allowed to take reparations (compensation in money or
materials payable by a defeated nation)
•
The decision taken at Potsdam with regard to reparations was that each
power could remove property and reparations from their zone, however they could
not do it in a way that damaged Germany’s economic stability.
•
Since most of Germany’s industry was located in the West, the Soviet’s were
to receive 25% of dismantled industry’s equipment from the West.
•
She would also be able to exchange food supplies for industrial equipment.
This caused further tension to develop between the USSR and the three Western
allied powers because it was difficult to work out the value of food vs the value of
industrial equipment.
Faced with severe food shortages in West Germany, the allied powers decided to:
•
Western allies applied for Marshall Aid to rebuild their zones
•
They reformed the German currency. The Reichsmark was replaced by the
Deutsche Mark at a rate of 10:1. It was a lot more valuable than the East German
currency.
•
Multiparty elections were held in West Germany
With these reforms, it was very clear that living conditions in West Germany, and
West Berlin, were of a much higher standard than those of the Soviet sector. As a
result, people began to migrate to the West (especially in Berlin).
29
•
A communist dictatorship was established in E Germany and communist
economic policies were introduced. Economic recovery was slow compared the W
Germany where rapid economic recovery occurred.
Because the location of Berlin which had been capital is in the Soviet zone; West
Berlin was seen as a symbol of freedom by the USA.
For the USSR, Capitalist/democratic West Berlin was a thorn in their flesh. With the
added dilemma of the people of East Berlin migrating to West Berlin, Stalin felt that
he had to take steps to stop the spread of capitalism.
He believed that the Western allies had gone against the terms laid down in the
Yalta agreement.
He decided to block their access to West Berlin.
COURSE
The Berlin Blockade (1948)
He blocked all roads, canals and railway lines leading from West Germany (German
Federal Republic) into West Berlin. (He explained this away as technical difficulties.)
Stalin’s aim of this was to:
•
Stamp hi authority on Berlin and force the Western allies to reconsider.
•
To prevent the import of food, supplies and fuel in an attempt to force West
Berlin to submit to Soviet control.
•
The Soviet Union started to send in generous supplies to W. Berlin in an
attempt to win the population over.(It was not nearly enough)
•
The Berlin Blockade was the first crisis in the Berlin Crisis and was seen as
the first hot point or flash point in the Cold War.
Western Response.
The population of W. Berlin (Approximately 2.1 million) had only enough food for 36
days and fuel for 45 days. They were in dire straits. The Western powers had limited
options open to them.
1)
Ignore the blockade and drive through.
2)
Hand over Berlin.
3)
Airlift supplies into W. Berlin.
They gambled on the hope that Stalin would not want to shoot down their planes and
start a war.
The Berlin Airlift
For 327 days (+- 11 months), over 2.5 million tons of supplies were airlifted into West
Berlin. These supplies were dropped by parachute into the city on a daily basis. ( It is
estimated that an aeroplane landed every 3 minutes with a record of over 275 000
flights haven taken place.)
In 1948 the United States emphasized the need to rebuild the German economy
after World War II. The Soviets react to the introduction of the Deutsche Mark by
tightening checkpoints to the French, British and American sectors of Berlin,
ultimately leading to a ground blockade of the city. To keep the city from starvation,
the Western allies begin the Berlin Airlift, ferrying in supplies by plane. The blockade
ended on May 12, 1949.
https://www.history.com/topics/cold-war/berlin-airlift. Accessed 3/3/2024
30
•
West Berliners chose to support the efforts of the USA and her allies and
rejected Soviet pressure to become part of one a united Berlin under their control.
•
By May 1949 it was clear that his plan was not working and so Stalin lifted the
blockade.
Consequence
What were the consequences of the Blockade for the Cold War?
•
The west the lifting of the Blockade as a victory.
•
The Soviets felt humiliated.
•
Berlin became the focal point for the Cold War.
•
It strained East/West relations further, heightening the tension that already
existed between the two superpowers.
•
An arms race began in earnest as a result.
•
In May 1949, West Germany united their three zones and renamed it the
German Federal Republic, making it an independent country.
•
In response, the Soviet gave their zone independence (as a satellite state)
and named it the German Democratic republic in October of that same year.
•
It led to the militarization of West Berlin.
•
*NATO. (North Atlantic Treaty Organisation) was set up by the USA and her
allies. This was a military alliance and took the Cold War to a different level.
•
In 1955 The Soviets responded with their own military alliance when the
•
German Federal Republic was admitted into NATO. Their military alliance was
named the *Warsaw Pact.
•
The Blockade and Airlift was a turning point in the cold war.
Second Crisis – Workers Riot: 1953
31
Following the death of Stalin, workers in E Berliners revolted against poor working,
wage and living conditions.
This resulted in more people moving to W. Berlin. Berlin was becoming an
embarrassment to the Soviets and to Ulbricht.
The protest spread to the rest of the GDR and a demand for UNIFICATION with
West Germany (GFR) was made.
The leader of the GDR, Ulbricht, called in the Soviets to suppress the riot, and at
least 600 workers were executed.
Soviet forces were called in by the East German government, with tanks opening fire
on demonstrators in East Berlin
Image: AP Photo/picture alliance, , accessed 3/3/2024.
1958 Crisis (3rd Crisis)
Nikita Khrushchev, the new USSR President, demanded the return of W Berlin, but
his demands were ignored. In 1960, Khrushchev was planning to meet US
President Eisenhower in Paris to discuss Berlin, however, the meeting was cancelled
when an American spy plane was shot down while it was flying over the USSR. The
plane had been photographing military installations there. The Americans denied
any knowledge and refused to apologise even when evidence (pilot, plane,
photographs) was produced. Many saw American actions as irresponsible at such a
sensitive time. The issue of Berlin remained unresolved, and tension increased
once again between the superpowers.
A photo of Nikita Khruschev
Time magazine, 1956. Accessed 3/3 2024. Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev makes
a point during a press conference at the National Press Club
32
The Berlin Wall
Context
Why was the Berlin wall built, and how did it reflect the situation between the
superpowers?

Between the creation of the GDR in 1949 and 1961, over 3 million East
germans had moved to the West, moving through West Berlin.

Khruschev wanted test the very new president of the USA- John. F. Kennedy,
and in June 1961, demanded a meeting where the settlement of Berlin would
be discussed. The issue was not resolved.

By July 1961 the GDR was losing over 500 people a day to the West. (30 000
in July alone.)

People were voting with their feet.

This resulted in a brain drain, as East Germany were losing many skilled
professionals an alarming rate.

In addition, it was an embarrassment to Khrushchev and the communist
powers, who saw West Berlin a “capitalist infection” in the heart of GDR.
The solution? Build a wall!
Course
In the very early hours of 13 August 1961, East German guards were tasked with the
job to start erecting a barrier on the East German side of Berlin, that would not only
divide the city into two, but would surround the whole of West Berlin as well. They
began construction using barbed wired and roadblocks. By the time people went to
work, the city had been divided. The barrier was guarded by East German soldiers.
33
East German guard Conrad Schumann leaps over barbed wire into West Berlin days
after construction began on the wall. (CIA photo)
https://www.abc.net.au/news/2014-11-08/25-years-since-the-fall-of-the-berlin-wall, accessed 5/3/2024.
The barrier soon became a massive, fortified concrete structure, guarded by
machine gun carrying guards, who were given the order to shoot on sight. The wall
divided Berlin into two, permanently, cutting off family, friends and jobs overnight.

The Eastern Bloc claimed that the wall was erected to protect its population
from fascist elements conspiring to prevent the "will of the people" in building
a socialist state in East Germany. In practice, the Wall served to prevent the
massive emigration and defection that marked Germany and the communist
Eastern Bloc during the post-World War II period.

The wall became the symbol for the Cold War.

It represented the (physical) divided between East and West.

It destroyed Khruschev’s policy of peaceful-co-existence with the west.
34
Historical concept
Peaceful co-existence: competition without war, or a policy of peace between nations
of widely differing political systems and ideologies, especially between Communist and
non-Communist nations: peaceful coexistence between the U.S. and the Soviet Union.
nitially, the wall consisted of a brick structure, 2.5 feet wide and over 7 feet high. But by 1989, the
Wall had developed into a multilayered security installation (see illustration below) that included a
concrete wall, trenches, 300 watch towers, an area controlled by dogs, a signal constructions
with trip wires, 22 bunkers and a border signal fence. Obviously, the construction and
maintenance of the Wall was accompanied by tremendous costs. General Teichmann, the last
Chief of the border troops, reported in February of 1990 that construction costs of the border
security installation alone had exceeded 850 million GDR marks.
35
Legend:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
Concrete segment wall (front barrier element)
Control Area
Light masts
Trench to block the way for vehicles
Concrete road
Watch tower
Area patrolled by dogs
Signal construction with trip wires
Border signal fence
Turnpike (bounds of protection area)
http://www.foothill.edu/unification/wall.html, accessed 5/3/2024

Once completed, it was about 4 metres high,made of impenetrable concrete
and was fortified with 300 watchtowers, searchlights, dogs and machine-gun
posts. Checkpoint Charlie was the only crossing point for foreigners between
E and W Berlin. The Wall will undergo ‘improvements’ in order to stop any
attempt to escape to the West. There will be many attempts to outwit the
GDR authorities, and many will be successful

“Shoot to kill” was the order given to soldiers along the Wall. Serving as one
of the most enduring deaths at the wall, 18-year-old Peter Fechter (photo
below) was shot in the pelvis and bled to death while trying to escape in 1962.
Since he fell on the border strip on the east side, Western authorities and
other bystanders weren’t allowed to help him and instead watched him die.
His body was fetched later by E German soldiers.
36
http://all-that-is-interesting.com/berlin-wall-history,accessed 5/3/2024
Consequences

Berlin was physically divided and free access between the two parts of the
city ceased.

It stopped the flow of people from GDR to the GFR.

Tension between East and West increased.

Kennedy decided not to attack the wall or pull it down as he did not want to
risk war. He did however visit Berlin in 1963.

President Kennedy spoke at the Wall and declared US support for West
Berlin. “Ich bin ein Berliner” ( I am a Berliner.)
He added that if anybody wanted to see the difference between the ‘free
world’ and communism, they should vist Berlin.
37
An extract from a historic speech made by J.R Kennedy on 26 June 1963 to a
crowd that had gathered at the wall in West Berlin
Two thousand years ago the proudest boast was "civis Romanus sum." Today, in the world
of freedom, the proudest boast is "Ich bin ein Berliner."
I appreciate my interpreter translating my German!
There are many people in the world who really don't understand, or say they don't, what is
the great issue between the free world and the Communist world. Let them come to Berlin.
There are some who say that communism is the wave of the future. Let them come to
Berlin. And there are some who say in Europe and elsewhere we can work with the
Communists. Let them come to Berlin. And there are even a few who say that it is true that
communism is an evil system, but it permits us to make economic progress. Lass' sie nach
Berlin kommen. Let them come to Berlin.
Freedom has many difficulties and democracy is not perfect, but we have never had to put a
wall up to keep our people in, to prevent them from leaving us. I want to say, on behalf of
my countrymen, who live many miles away on the other side of the Atlantic, who are far
distant from you, that they take the greatest pride that they have been able to share with
you, even from a distance, the story of the last 18 years. I know of no town, no city, that has
been besieged for 18 years that still lives with the vitality and the force, and the hope and
the determination of the city of West Berlin. While the wall is the most obvious and vivid
demonstration of the failures of the Communist system, for all the world to see, we take no
satisfaction in it, for it is, as your Mayor has said, an offense not only against history but an
offense against humanity, separating families, dividing husbands and wives and brothers
and sisters, and dividing a people who wish to be joined together.
What is true of this city is true of Germany--real, lasting peace in Europe can never be
assured as long as one German out of four is denied the elementary right of free men, and
that is to make a free choice. In 18 years of peace and good faith, this
38
generation of Germans has earned the right to be free, including the right to unite their
families and their nation in lasting peace, with good will to all people. You live in a
defended island of freedom, but your life is part of the main. So let me ask you as I close,
to lift your eyes beyond the dangers of today, to the hopes of tomorrow, beyond the
freedom merely of this city of Berlin, or your country of Germany, to the advance of
freedom everywhere, beyond the wall to the day of peace with justice, beyond yourselves
and ourselves to all mankind.
Freedom is indivisible, and when one man is enslaved, all are not free. When all are free,
then we can look forward to that day when this city will be joined as one and this country
and this great Continent of Europe in a peaceful and hopeful globe. When that day finally
comes, as it will, the people of West Berlin can take sober satisfaction in the fact that they
were in the front lines for almost two decades.
All free men, wherever they may live, are citizens of Berlin, and, therefore, as a free man,
I take pride in the words "Ich bin ein Berliner."
39
Erpowera.
Kennedy was surprised by the size and enthusiasm of crowds that greeted him in Berlin. He
paid tribute to the spirit of the Berliners and to their quest for freedom, and the crowd roared
its approval when he delivered his famous line, "Ich bin ein Berliner." (I am a Berliner).
Photo courtesy of the National Archives, John F. Kennedy Library.Accessed 5/3/2024.
This speech was seen as a turning point in the Cold War. (bear in mind that this
event occurred very shortly after the Cuban Missile Crisis.) It was a turning point
because:

It was a morale booster for West Germany and Berlin, who felt threatened by
the building of the wall.

It sent a strong message to the Soviet Union to leave Berlin alone.
Two months later, President Kennedy negotiated a Test ban treaty with the USSR
and was seen as a stepping stone toeards improving relations between the two
superpowers.
OPPOSING MILITARY ALLIANCES: NATO (1949) AND WARSAW PACT (1955)
40
NATO
Context.
What was NATO and why was it formed?
From what Truman had witnesses and believed to be Soviet threat by 1948, Truman
believed he had to form a military alliance between like-minded Western powers
along the North Atlantic. He was aware that the military strength of the USSR was
much more than the combined strength of all the Western European powers, without
American aid. A defensive military alliance was therefore needed in case of a Soviet
attack.
It was formed mainly due to:

The violent Soviet takeover of Czechoslovakia .
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vYWOwRywalA&pp=ygU0c292aWV0IHRh
a2Ugb3ZlciBvZiBjemVjaG9zbG92YWtpYSBjcmFzaCBjb3Vyc2UgMTk0OA%3
D%3D
( In this video, we look at Stalin's brutal actions in Poland, Romania, Hungary,
Czechoslovakia, Bulgaria and Yugoslavia. He was able to manipulate countries and tamper
with election results to achieve the large sphere of influence and buffer zone in which he
desired.)

The Berlin Blockade

The Soviet’s building of their first nuclear bomb.
Course (methods).
41
NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organisation) was formed in April 1949. It was a
defensive alliance, freely entered into, that would only be used if any of the member
countries were attacked first.
Member countries were: Britain, France, Belgium, Holland, Luxemburg, Canada,
USA, Portugal, Ireland, Italy, Denmark and Norway.
Map of the world with NATO member countries highlighted.
https://www.gov.uk/government/organisations/the-national-archives, accessed 7/3/2024.
Most of the weapons, soldiers and money was fronted by the USA. (This gave them
more influence in the area.)
Member states agreed:

Military co-operation

They would only fight if attacked.

An attack on one, would be an attack on all.

All members would contribute financial, and with actual soldiers to the NATO
troops.

A joint NATO command organization would be set up in Paris. The first
commander in-chief was General Dwight Eisenhower of the USA. (Later to
become president).
42
In the 1950s more anti communist military alliances were formed with the USA as a
result of various Cold war conflicts.

SEATO (South East Asia Treaty Organisation) in 1954. This was in response
to the proxy war in Vietnam and Korea.

CENTO (Middle East) in 1955 in response to proxy wars between Israel and
Palestine and their allies.
Consequences:
To the USSR, NATO was another example of the spread in American militarism and
neo-colonialism after the policy of containment was introduced. It worsened the
relationship between the superpowers.
The Soviet response was to form their own military alliance in the Eastern Bloc.
This was called the Warsaw Pact and was formed in 1955.
43
The Warsaw Pact
The USSR saw NATO as yet another attempt by the USA to increase its influence in
Europe and perhaps even attack the USSR.

The USSR responded with its alliance system – WARSAW PACT – that was
formed with its satellite states, and other pro-Communist countries after West
Germany joined NATO in 1955.

Soviet troops were stationed in most of the Warsaw pact countries – the USA,
viewing this as a means of controlling E Europe.

The Soviets put down rebellions in Hungary in 1956 and Czechoslovakia in
1968 when the two countries threatened to withdraw from the Warsaw Pact
and hold free elections. Imre Nagy, the Hungarian leader, was executed, and
the ‘Prague Spring’ in Czech was squashed. Soviet troops entered Prague
and crushed the uprising.
44
First three images capture the Hungarian Revolt and the fourth and fifth photographs
show the Prague Spring Revolt in Czechoslovakia – all five images show how
independent movements and people power squashed by Soviet tanks.

The Brezhnev Doctrine, named after the Soviet President at the time,
became official USSR policy in 1968. It stated that the Warsaw Pact had the
right to intervene in any member state which threatened to break away from
the bloc.
Breznev, pictured above.
45
COMPETITION BETWEEN THE OPPOSING MILITARY ALLIANCES

A deadly arms race developed between NATO/USA and the WARSAW
PACT/USSR, and by the 1960s, both sides had enough weapons to destroy
each other. MAD (Mutually assured destruction) stopped the two sides from
attacking each other directly. The cost of the arms race was enormous, and it
was a drain on the economies of both superpowers.

Another area of competition between the two superpowers was the space
race. The Russians were the first to launch a satellite into space (1957), and
the first to orbit the earth (1961 - Yuri Gagarin). Kennedy ordered scientist to
speed up work on America’s own space programme, and in 1969, Neil
Armstrong was the first man on the moon.

The CIA (Central Intelligence Agency) and the KGB (Soviet Committee for
State Security) built huge spy networks to ‘protect’ their spheres of interest.

The superpowers also used PROPAGANDA to convince their own citizens
and people in other parts of the world that their side was right.

Popular culture and sport also became fields of Cold War competition.

Note that the differences between the superpowers and their zones played
out in the UNITED NATIONS and the Security Council – rendering this body
‘toothless’.
46
HOW DID THE SUPERPOWERS MAKE THEIR CITIZENS FOLLOW COLD WAR
IDEOLOGIES? (This is not examinable, but is an interesting read)
The CW affected many aspects of people’s lives. One of these was the way in which
governments forced their citizens to be loyal, not only to their country but to an
ideology as well. People on both sides were taught to believe that the other side
was evil, and that their own system was right. Politicians, government propaganda,
the education system and popular culture all reinforced this message.
The Cold War was reflected in culture through music, movies, books, television and
other media, as well as sports and social beliefs and behaviour. One major element
of the Cold War was the threat of a nuclear war; another was espionage. Many
works use the Cold War as a backdrop, or directly take part in fictional conflict
between the U.S. and the U.S.S.R. The period 1953–62 saw Cold War themes first
enter the mainstream culture as a public preoccupation.
“Communism, in reality, is not a political party, it is a way of life, an evil and
hateful way of life. It reveals a condition similar to a disease that spreads like
an epidemic and, like an epidemic, quarantine is necessary to keep it from
infecting this nation.” (J. Edgar Hoover, Head of the FBI, 1947)
In the US in the early 1950s there was a period of hysterical anti-communism,
sometimes referred to as ‘the Red Scare’. US Congress set up a committee to
investigate ‘Un-American Activities.’ Using this committee, Senator Joseph
McCarthy headed a fanatical witch-hunt for communist sympathisers in govt
departments and even in the US Army. A series of public enquiries was held,
between 1950 and 1954, to investigate the alleged communist sympathies of a
number of prominent Americans, especially in the film industry, the trade unions and
universities. As a result of ‘McCarthyism’, a number of people were harassed, lost
their jobs, and were blacklisted. In 1953, the Rosenbergs were executed for
espionage http://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/julius-and-ethel-rosenbergexecuted (passing secrets to the Soviets – proclaimed their innocence) and Arthur
Miller wrote The Crucible (Salem Witchhunts analogy to McCarthy trials)
http://www.newyorker.com/magazine/1996/10/21/why-i-wrote-the-crucible
47
Controls and punishments were much harsher in the USSR. No criticism or
opposition was allowed, and independent thought was repressed. Hundreds of
people were sent to labour camps; thousands were executed. The same totalitarian
control was applied in the satellite states. Police spies infiltrated local orgs and even
families. Any attempts to break away from Soviet control were harshly suppressed.
Many talented Russians defected to the West (Rudolf Nureyev in 1961), and each
incident was hailed in the West as a triumph for freedom and democracy, and proof
that the Soviet system was wrong.
The USA and USSR also tried to convince people elsewhere in the world of the
virtues of their own side in the CW.
List of movies to watch:

Charlie Wilson’s War (2007). Tom Hanks, Julia Roberts, Philip
Seymour Hoffman, Amy Adams, Ned Beatty, and Emily Blymour
Hoffman, Amy Adams, Ned Beatty, and Emily Blunt. That’s a
stellar cast by any standard. Charlie Wilson’s War tells the true
48
story of a hard living Texas congressman who in the early 1980s
allies with a maverick CIA agent to provide more and better
weapons to Afghan freedom fighters. He has surprising success,
and the Soviets eventually withdraw from Afghanistan. Wilson is
left wondering, however, if the White House’s lack of interest in a
post-Soviet Afghanistan might bring about new troubles.

Dr. Strangelove or: How I Learned to Stop Worrying and Love
the Bomb (1964). The American Film Institute ranks Dr.
Strangelove as the twenty-sixth greatest American film of all
time. Stanley Kubrick’s classic satirizes the logic of the nuclear
age. Based on Peter George’s 1958 novel Red Alert, Kubrick
mocks the politicians and military officials who hold the fate of
humanity in their hands. Peter Sellers excels in three roles: a
British air force officer, the president of the United States, and the
eponymous doctor. George C. Scott, Slim Pickens, Sterling
Hayden, and Keenan Wynn all play unforgettable characters. And
yes, that is the voice of Darth Vader and Mufasa as a B-52
bombardier. Just remember: there’s no fighting allowed in the war
room.

Fail-Safe (1964). The unthinkable happens: U.S. Strategic
Command detects an intrusion into American airspace. Air Force
bombers scramble to “fail-safe” points to await further orders.
The alert turns out to be false alarm, but a “go code” is
accidentally sent to one group of bombers. Efforts to abort the
mission fail, and the bombers head for their target: Moscow. The
president of the United States now faces a horrible problem: how
does he prevent the Soviets from unleashing a retaliatory strike
that will guarantee an all-out nuclear war? Fail-Safe premiered
two years after the Cuban missile crisis, and it played on
America’s very real fear of nuclear war. The film was directed
49
by Sidney Lumetand starred Henry Fonda, Walter Matthau,
and Fritz Weaver. It is based on the 1962 book Fail-Safe by
Eugene Burdick and Harvey Wheeler. If Burdick’s name sounds
familiar, he is the coauthor of one of the books on my list of the
top ten Cold War novels, The Ugly American.

The Day the Earth Stood Still (1951). The Cold War spawned a
lot of science fiction films that were thinly veiled morality tales
about the confrontation between the East and West. The best of
all of them is The Day the Earth Stood Still. An alien spaceship
lands on the Ellipse in front of the White House. A humanoid
alien, Klaatu, emerges from the spaceship. When he opens a
device he intends as a gift, the U.S. military opens fire. He heals
his gunshot wounds with what to humans is a magical salve. He
attempts to warn humanity that their instinct for violence will lead
to their doom, but by the end of the film it is not clear that his
audience has heard his message. (By the way, avoid the 2008
remake. It is, to be polite, not good.)

The Hunt for Red October (1990). Sean Connery, Alec
Baldwin, Scott Glenn, Sam Neil, James Earl Jones, Stellan
Skarsgărd, and Fred Thompson. That’s a lot of acting talent.
Marry it to Tom Clancy’s great yarn about a Soviet submarine
captain trying to defect to the West with his submarine and
without letting his crew in on his plans and you have a riveting
movie. The fact that Connery plays the Soviet submarine captain
a quarter century after escaping Soviet assassins as James Bond in
the wonderful From Russia With Love gives The Hunt for Red
October an extra dash of interest.

The Manchurian Candidate (1962). The American Film Institute
ranks director John Frankenheimer’s The Manchurian
Candidate as the sixty-seventh greatest American film of all time.
50
Based on Richard Condon’s 1959 book of the same name, the
moviefeatures Frank Sinatra as Major Bennett Marco, a Korean
war veteran who has recurring dreams that one of his
subordinates, Staff Sergeant Raymond Shaw, played by Laurence
Harvey, shot two U.S. soldiers. What he slowly comes to
understand is that Shaw has been brainwashed to participate in a
plot, orchestrated by his mother (played by Angela Lansbury in
very un-Murder She Wrote manner), to kill an American
presidential candidate. (Take a pass on the 2004 re-make, which
was recast as taking place during the Gulf War.)

The Spy Who Came in From the Cold (1965). Martin Ritt did
justice to John le Carré’s terrific the1963 spy thriller. Richard
Burton plays a burned-out British spy sent to East Germany for
one last mission. His task turns out to be far more complicated
than he expected. The New York Times review hailed it as
“realistic, and believable, too.” It is also full of deceit, cynicism,
hypocrisy, and betrayal. In short, nothing is what it seems.

Tinker Tailor Soldier Spy (2011). Gary Oldman, Colin Firth, John
Hurt, and Benedict Cumberbatch star in this terrific production of
the classic John le Carré novel. Spymaster George Smiley is
called out of retirement in the early 1970s to determine whether
the Soviets have placed a mole at the top of Britain’s secret
intelligence service. In the process, he is forced to question his
friendships and to confront the most intimate of betrayals.
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Historiography
Historical concept
Historiography: the writing of history, especially the writing of history based on the
critical examination of sources, the selection of particular details from the authentic
materials in those sources, and the synthesis of those details into a narrative that
stands the test of critical examination.
WHO WAS TO BLAME FOR THE COLD WAR?
DIFFERENT HISTORIOGRAPHIES
BE AWARE OF DIFFERENT INTERPRETATIONS
Make sure you come to your own conclusions after careful analysis and evaluation of
an event. Always ask the question; to what extent/ statement – how accurate… =
discussion of all factors – can support one side or both, but must discuss all angles.
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At the time of the Cold War, there were two main viewpoints – the Soviet view and
the Western view.
The Soviet View

Blamed USA for starting CW

USSR simply trying to ensure its safety and security against future invasion

Defensive not expansionist – not trying to take over world, but protecting
Soviet land

USSR suffered during WW2 – needed to safeguard her country and zone
from future threats; USA much stronger post WW2

New President Truman made post-war tension worse with Truman Doctrine
and Marshall Plan – gigantic bribe; and formation of military alliance NATO –
could be seen as an act of war.
The Western View - Traditional (Orthodox, Conventional)

(40s and 50s histories written by Western historians)

Blamed USSR for outbreak and continuation of Cold War

Stalin seen as the arch villain bent on conquering the world

Soviet Union seen as antagonistic, aggressive, threatening.

USSR prepared to use force to increase their zone of influence – evidence in
Eastern Europe of Soviet expansion and control.

Broke Yalta agreement of free and fair elections – all became one party
communist satellite states.

The West, under the leadership of USA, forced to defend itself against perils
and evils of Communism; forced to adopt containment, Truman Doctrine,
Marshall Plan and NATO
The Revisionist View

(1960s western historians – revised the accepted orthodox ‘truth’)

Blamed USA for starting and sustaining the Cold War

Over-reacted to Soviet actions

US policies were not defensive but provocative

Cause of CW was US attempts at establishing American domination
(economic) throughout world
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
Stalin not interested in world conquest but in securing the borders of USSR;
USSR was in no position post WW2 to pose a threat to USA.

West used idea of Soviet threat to justify its own desire to dominate the world.
The Post-Revisionist View

Most recent interpretation: both sides to blame

(American historians based views on evidence from Freedom of Information
Act)

Misunderstanding, mutual suspicions and over-reaction on both sides to
blame for Cold War.

USSR had genuine concerns in EEurope which the West failed to understand,
however, Soviet action caused genuine fear and suspicion.

Truman, replacing Roosevelt at this critical time, was influenced to take a hard
line against USSR, whereas Roosevelt wanted cooperation.

Cannot blame everything on Stalin – dead in 1953, but CW tensions and
hostilities continued under Khrushchev and Brezhnev.
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CASE STUDY 1 OF TOPIC 1
CONTAINMENT AND BRINKMANSHIP: The Cuban Missile Crisis, October 1962
Map showing the proximity of Cuba to the USA and the distance between Cuba and
Florida.www.aljazeera.com, accessed 18/3/2024.
Context
Tension between the superpowers stretched beyond Europe to Asia, Africa, the
Middle East and Latin America. The crisis came closer than any other to a “hot war
between the Superpower happened in Cuba. It developed after a revolution in Cuba
gave the USSR an ally uncomfortably close to the USA.
A feature of the cold war was the tactic of Brinkmanship.
Cuba was a small island only 90 miles (150 km) from USA, became Communist. It
was led by dictator, Fulgencio Batista. Traditionally it had been dominated by the
USA, who controlled much of the economic wealth. These included oil refineries,
mines, cattle ranches, casinos, hotels, casinos and the railways It was the
playground of rich Americans. In addition, the US bought the bulk of Cuba’s main
export crop, sugar.
The US maintained a large naval base on the island at Guantanamo Bay.
55
This Day in Cuban History – March 10, 1952. Fulgencio Batista overthrew President Carlos
Prío’s regime in a bloodless and masterfully executed coup d’état., accessed 3/2024
Under Batista, the majority (98%) of Cubans lived in extreme poverty, where 40% of
the population was illiterate. There were no basic worker’s rights, and so workers
were extremely exploited. There was an extreme shortage of professionals and
facilities. -teachers, doctors, schools, and hospitals.
The other 2% were wealthy and owned 50% of the land. Under Batista, the
constitution was abolished, parliament closed, and all opposition was brutally
suppressed.
Batista was supported by the USA because of the benefits they received, but mainly
because he was anti-communist.
In 1959, with support from local people, the revolutionary leader Fidel Castro
overthrew dictator Fulgencio Batista and put in place a nationalist government with
socialist leanings.
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Fidel Castro entering Havana in 1959.
.www.latinamericanstudies., accessed 3/2024
Batista and many of his wealthy supporters fled into exile. Many of them moved to
Florida in the USA.
American response to the revolution.
From the start the USA was suspicious of Castro, especially after he started
introducing socialist reforms.
 He redistributed land (handing over 50% of the land to peasant farmers.)
 Collectivized agriculture.
 Nationalised transport, banks and some industry.
.
This affected many American businessmen. The US response responded by:
 Breaking off diplomatic relations with Cuba
 Placing a sugar embargo on Cuba.
They did this to try and force Cuba to change her policies.
The USA became more hostile when Cuba started trade negotiations with the USSR,
who agreed to buy her sugar. In addition, the Soviets sent in technicians, engineers,
and advisors to help Cuba.
The USA became convinced that the Castro regime was Communists, which at this
stage was not yet the case.
The US feared that the Soviets would try and spread Communism to South and
central America.
Their answer was to invade Cuba.
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The Bay of Pigs Invasion

The American President at the time, President Eisenhower, supported the
information fed to him by the CIA – whereby they planned on training Cuban
refugees who had fled to America, once Batista was removed from power, and
send them back to Cuba to invade the country and start a rebellion.

This plan was set in motion but never executed by President Eisenhower.
However, the new incoming President JF Kennedy – thought he may as well
run with the previous president’s plan, which proved to be a disaster.

The failed invasion was known as “The bay of Pigs Invasion”. It was an
embarrassing failure. The group of 1500 “trained” exiled Cubans landed at the
Bay of Pigs on the 17th of April 1961, and were easily defeated and the
anticipated uprising of the Cuban population did NOT OCCUR. American
involvement in the incident was exposed and their international image was
tarnished as a result. They were seen as imperial bully.
Political cartoon interpreting the role of Fidel Castro, the "Invasion from
Florida" and reflecting the fear of the spread of communism within the United
StatesJack Knox Papers, 1932-1978,, accessed 3/2024
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


This aggressive action by the USA also intensified anti-American sentiment
already felt in Cuba, and Castro turned more and more to the Soviet Union for
economic and diplomatic support.
Soviet arms flooded Cuba and by 1962 Cuba was one of the most wellequipped arms in Latin America, all thanks to their friends the Soviets.
The USA did not object to this but did warn the Soviets not to place missiles in
Cuba…USSR assured USA that she had no intention of placing any missiles
anywhere near Cuba…
Nikita Kruschev
Fidel Castro
John F Kennedy
https://www.american.edu/sis/news/20171103-55-years-later-lessons-of-the-cuban-missile-crisis.cfm
What was the Cuban Missile Crisis and what impact did it have on East- West
relations?
The Cuban Missile Crisis, between the USSR and the USA, was one of the most
serious Cold War crises. It happened because the USSR placed missiles in Cuba
and was the closest the world had been to a possible nuclear war.
 The Cuban Missile Crisis was the closest the world had ever come to nuclear
war. USA armed forces were at their highest state of readiness and the Soviet
field commanders in Cuba were prepared to use nuclear weapons to defend
the island if it was necessary.
 In 1962, the USSR was so far behind the USA in their arms race. Soviet
Missiles were only powerful enough to be launched against Europe, but USA
missiles were capable of striking the entire Soviet Union.
 In April of 1962, Soviet Premier Nikita Khruschev put forward the idea of
placing intermediate – range missiles in Cuba, a cone party socialist state
under the leadership of Fidel Castro.
 This would double the Soviet strategic arsenal and provide a real deterrent to
a potential US attack against the Soviet Union.
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Fidel Castro was looking for a way to defend himself after the attack from the
USA at the Bay of Pigs. He approved Khruschev plan to place missiles on the
island.
In the summer of 1962, American spy plans flying over Cuba took photos of
missile sites in Cuba.
The photographs were evidence that Cuba has missile sites and the capacity
of setting off nuclear attacks on a number of USA’s largest cities
The Soviets were supplying the Cubans.
Soviet ships that may have been carrying missiles or nuclear cargo, were
heading towards Cuba.
This created GREAT ALARM, in the United States, who were still in the midst
of the Cold War. The result was a crisis that nearly turned the Cold War into a
“hot war”. This crisis became know as the Cuban missile crisis and it pushed
the world to the brink of nuclear warfare.
Map of the
western
hemisphere
showing the
full range of the nuclear missiles under construction in Cuba, used during the secret meetings
on the Cuban crisis, October 16, 1962. John F. Kennedy Presidential Library
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Glossary of Terms. (Historical concepts)
BRINKMANSHIP = Brink of war – a hot war. The practice, especially with regards to
international relations, of taking a dispute to the very point of breaking and the art or
practice of pursuing a dangerous policy to the limits of safety before stopping,
especially in politics. Eash side tried to see how much it could get away with before
the opposing side would react.
MAD = Mutually Assured Destruction. MAD was guarantee that if one superpower
launched a massive nuclear attack, the other would reciprocate by also launching a
massive nuclear attack, and bot countries would be destroyed. This ultimately
became the prime deterrent against a nuclear war between the two superpowers.
A photograph of Fidel Castro of Cuba and Nikita Khruschev of USSR 1961.
https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/americanexperience/features/castro-and-cold-war/
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When did the Cuban Missile Crisis happen?
The Cuban Missile Crisis lasted for 13 days, from 15th to 28th October, 1962.
 Early on the 15th of October, Kennedy was informed of the missile
installations. Kennedy immediately organized the Executive Committee of the
National Security Council (EX- COMM), a group of his 12 most important
advisors to handle the crisis.
 After several days of secret and intense debate within the upper echelons of
government, Kennedy decided to impose a naval quarantine around Cuba.
Kennedy wished to prevent the arrival of more Soviet offense weapons to
Cuba.
 He had several options available to him but he had to decide with caution.
The options available were:
1) A nuclear strike-This cause a nuclear war.
2) Conventional attack- This would potentially lead to war with Russia.
3) Use the UNO- This was too slow.
4) Do nothing -The missile bases were too dangerous.
5) Blockade/Quarantine- This would stop the missiles getting to the
missile bases, but would not be an act of war. They called it a
quarantine because a blockade would have been considered an act of
war.
nd
 22 of October Kennedy made the American public aware of the situation and
his decision to quarantine or blockade Cuba.
 He announced that any nuclear missile launched from Cuba would be
regarded as an attack on the USA by the Soviet Union, not Cuba.
 Demanded that the Soviet ships turn around and that any missiles be
removed.
 Ordered US ships to intercept Soviet Ships that might have been carrying
nuclear weapons.
For a few days…the world held its breath while Kennedy and Khruschev were
contemplating who would back down.
Khruschev finally backed down and agreed to withdraw the missiles if the United
States would end their blockade and promised not to invade Cuba. He also insisted
that the USA remove all her missiles in Turkey.
Turkey belonged to NATO (1949), and ordered the USSR in the South. Kennedy
was happy to accept the first two conditions, but not the third. Khruschev, not willing
to risk a nuclear war with the United States agreed to back down regarding the third
conflict. The Cuban Missile Crisis was over and nuclear war had been averted.
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A British cartoon from 29 October 1962, showing Kennedy and Khruschev
arm-wrestling for power, sitting on nuclear weapons. The caption reads: “OK
Mr President, let’s talk.”
https://jsimmon.wordpress.com/2014/03/23/arm-wrestling-for-world-dominance/
What were the consequences of the Cuban Missile Crisis for the Cold War?

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Both sides learned lessons from the Cuban Missile Crisis as Kennedy and
Khruschev realized that such a crisis was a threat to world peace.
Kennedy’s reputation was enhanced and repaired after the disaster of the bay
of pigs.
Kennedy was commended for his “Brinkmanship”, i.e he was able to control a
dangerous situation to win an advantage over the threatening enemy.
The crisis showed that neither side was willing to risk nuclear war. It actually
helped thaw relationships between the USA and USSR as steps were taken
to improve communications between the two superpowers.
A “Hot line” was set up between them in 1963 to help prevent any similar
situation in the future. This “hot line” was a direct telephonic link between the
Kremlin USSR and the White House USA.
1963 A Test Ban Treaty was signed by the two superpowers in which both
promised not to test nuclear weapons in the atmosphere, under water or in
outer space.
Although Khrushchev was seen by some as a responsible peacemaker, in the
eyes of many at home, je was an embarrassment and a failure and ultimately
cost him his career.
This crisis led Khruschev to begin a new policy of peaceful co-existence. He
claimed that USSR and USA could live together in peace.
This policy did not last long, however as his support in the Politburo (USSR
parliament) ended as many regarded his caution as weakness.
He was forced to step down in 1964.
Cuba remains a Communist dictatorship – but has opened its doors to trading
with America in 2016.
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SUMMARISED POINTS TO REMEMBER;
What were the results of the Cuban Missile Crisis?
There were 6 main consequences to the Cuban Missile Crisis:
 ❖Cuba survived as a communist country.

❖Kennedy assured the world that the USA would never invade Cuba and his
public image improved.

❖The Soviet Union looked weak because the world did not know the USA
had removed its missiles from Turkey.

❖Khrushchev lost power in the USSR and was dismissed in 1964.

❖China criticised the USSR over its actions because the Soviets had made
the communist world look weak. China's relationship with the USSR
deteriorated.

❖The USA's NATO allies in Europe were horrified because they had not been
consulted. France reacted by leaving NATO in 1966.
How did the Cuban Missile Crisis affect the relationship between the USA and
the USSR?
The Cuban Missile Crisis had 2 main effects on the relationship between the USA
and the USSR:
 ❖The relationship had deteriorated almost to the brink of nuclear war,
so Kennedy wanted to focus more on the two nations' 'common interests'.

❖A hotline was set up in June 1963 between the USA and the USSR. This
would help avoid crises by enabling direct and quick communication.
Why was the Cuban Missile Crisis important?
The Cuban Missile Crisis was important for 2 main reasons:
 ❖It was the most dangerous Cold War confrontation between the USA and
the USSR and almost led to nuclear war.

❖It resulted in both countries working to improve their relationship and slow
down the arms race.
What nuclear treaties were signed after The Cuban Missile Crisis?
There were 3 important nuclear treaties signed after the Cuban Missile Crisis:
 ❖1963 - the Limited Test Ban Treaty banned the testing of nuclear weapons
in air or underwater.

❖1967 - the Outer Space Treaty banned testing or using nuclear weapons in
space.
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
❖1968 - the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty stated the ultimate goal was
world nuclear disarmament.
following
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