INSTRUMENTATION MAINTENANCE VALVES AND ACTUATORS TRAINING MANUAL Course EXP-MN-SI040 Revision 0 Field Operations Training Instrumentation Maintenance Valves and Actuators INSTRUMENTATION MAINTENANCE VALVES AND ACTUATORS SUMMARY 1. OBJECTIVES ..................................................................................................................6 2. INTRODUCTION .............................................................................................................7 2.1. LOCATION IN A REGULATION LOOP.....................................................................7 2.2. DEFINITION..............................................................................................................8 2.3. ROLE OF THE VALVE..............................................................................................8 2.4. CONSTRAINTS.........................................................................................................8 2.4.1. Due to the fluid ..................................................................................................8 2.4.2. Due to the effect of the environment on the valve .............................................9 2.4.3. Due to the effect of the valve on the environment .............................................9 2.4.4. Due to the assembly conditions.........................................................................9 2.5. TECHNOLOGY OF A REGULATION VALVE .........................................................10 2.6. CHARACTERISTICS OF REGULATION VALVES .................................................12 2.6.1. Inherent flow characteristic..............................................................................12 2.6.1.1. Definition ....................................................................................................12 2.6.1.2. The linear characteristic .............................................................................12 2.6.1.3. The equal percentage characteristic ..........................................................13 2.6.1.4. The quick opening characteristic................................................................14 2.6.1.5. Inherent adjustment coefficient or rangeability ...........................................14 3. VALVE TYPES ..............................................................................................................15 3.1. LINEAR ACTION VALVE ........................................................................................15 3.1.1. Plug type valve with single-seat body..............................................................15 3.1.2. Plug type valve with double-seat body ............................................................17 3.2. CAGE VALVE .........................................................................................................19 3.3. 3-WAY VALVE ........................................................................................................21 3.4. DIAPHRAGM VALVE ..............................................................................................23 3.5. VERTICAL LIFT GATE OR GUILLOTINE VALVE...................................................24 3.6. MICRO-FLOW CONTROL VALVE WITH ADJUSTABLE Cv ..................................25 3.7. ROTARY VALVE.....................................................................................................27 3.7.1. Butterfly valve..................................................................................................27 3.7.2. Spherical plug ball valve, known simply as a "Ball valve"................................28 3.7.3. Semi-rotary valve with eccentric shutter ..........................................................30 4. TYPES OF PLUG ..........................................................................................................33 4.1. QUICK OPENING LINEAR PLUG...........................................................................34 4.2. LINEAR PLUG ........................................................................................................34 4.3. MODIFIED LINEAR PLUG ......................................................................................34 4.4. EQUAL PERCENTAGE PLUG................................................................................35 4.5. PARABOLIC PLUG .................................................................................................35 5. TYPES OF CAGE ..........................................................................................................36 5.1. QUICK OPENING CAGE ........................................................................................36 5.2. LINEAR CAGE ........................................................................................................36 5.3. EQUAL PERCENTAGE CAGE ...............................................................................37 5.4. LOW NOISE CAGE.................................................................................................37 Training Manual: EXP-MN-SI040-EN Last Revised: 09/04/2008 Page 2 / 129 Field Operations Training Instrumentation Maintenance Valves and Actuators 6. THE CAP .......................................................................................................................38 6.1. THE PACKING GLAND...........................................................................................39 6.2. GLAND PACKING...................................................................................................40 7. THE SERVOMOTOR.....................................................................................................42 7.1. PNEUMATIC SERVOMOTOR ................................................................................43 7.1.1. Standard diaphragm type servomotor .............................................................43 7.1.1.1. Operation ...................................................................................................44 7.1.1.2. Description .................................................................................................45 7.1.2. Diaphragm type servomotor with multiple springs ...........................................46 7.1.3. Rolling diaphragm type servomotor .................................................................46 7.1.4. Piston type servomotor....................................................................................47 7.2. HYDRAULIC SERVOMOTOR.................................................................................49 7.2.1. Constitution .....................................................................................................49 7.2.2. Operation.........................................................................................................50 7.3. ELECTRIC SERVOMOTOR....................................................................................51 7.3.1. Servomotor with motor and gearbox ...............................................................51 7.3.2. Solenoid type servomotor................................................................................52 7.4. DIRECTION OF ACTION ........................................................................................53 7.4.1. Direction of action of the valve body................................................................53 7.4.2. Direction of action of the servomotor ...............................................................54 7.4.3. Direction of action of the positioning device ....................................................54 7.4.4. Special case with the "two-way" servomotor type piston .................................55 7.5. FAIL-SAFE POSITION ............................................................................................55 7.5.1. Fail-safe aspect of the valve (body + servomotor)...........................................55 7.5.2. Fail-safe aspect of the valve with its positioning device ..................................56 8. VALVE ACCESSORIES ................................................................................................57 8.1. POSITIONING DEVICE ..........................................................................................57 8.1.1. Pneumatic positioning device ..........................................................................58 8.1.1.1. Features .....................................................................................................58 8.1.1.2. Constitution ................................................................................................58 8.1.1.3. Principle of operation .................................................................................59 8.1.1.4. Faults .........................................................................................................61 8.1.2. Electro-pneumatic positioning device ..............................................................62 8.1.2.1. Constitution ................................................................................................62 8.1.2.2. Principle of operation .................................................................................63 8.1.2.3. Faults .........................................................................................................65 8.1.3. Intelligent (digital) positioning device ...............................................................65 8.1.3.1. Constitution ................................................................................................65 8.1.3.2. Principle of operation .................................................................................66 8.1.3.3. Faults .........................................................................................................68 8.2. THE ELECTRO-PNEUMATIC CONVERTER (I/P)..................................................69 8.3. THE LUBRICATOR .................................................................................................70 8.4. THE POSITION SENSOR.......................................................................................71 8.4.1. Microswitch......................................................................................................71 8.4.1.1. Microswitch on a linear valve .....................................................................72 8.4.1.2. Microswitch on a rotary valve .....................................................................73 8.4.2. Inductive limit switch........................................................................................73 8.4.3. Capacitive limit switch .....................................................................................74 Training Manual: EXP-MN-SI040-EN Last Revised: 09/04/2008 Page 3 / 129 Field Operations Training Instrumentation Maintenance Valves and Actuators 8.5. THE BOOSTER.......................................................................................................75 8.6. ELECTROVALVE OR "ELECTRO-DISTRIBUTOR VALVE" ...................................77 8.6.1. Pneumatic distributor valve .............................................................................77 8.6.1.1. Purpose......................................................................................................77 8.6.1.2. Principle of operation .................................................................................78 8.6.1.3. Diagrams....................................................................................................79 8.6.1.4. The 3/2 distributor valve .............................................................................79 8.6.1.5. The 5/2 distributor valve .............................................................................79 8.6.2. Control of distributor valves .............................................................................80 8.6.2.1. The monostable distributor valve ...............................................................81 8.6.2.2. The bistable distributor valve......................................................................81 8.6.3. Installation of the distributor valve ...................................................................82 8.6.4. The solenoid....................................................................................................83 8.7. MANUAL CONTROL...............................................................................................84 9. MAINTENANCE.............................................................................................................86 9.1. REPLACEMENT OF SEAL PACKINGS..................................................................86 9.2. VALVE CALIBRATION............................................................................................88 9.2.1. Calibration of an I/P converter .........................................................................88 9.2.2. Calibration of an electro-pneumatic positioning device ...................................90 9.2.2.1. Zero adjustment .........................................................................................90 9.2.2.2. Adjustment of the scale ..............................................................................91 9.2.2.3. Replacement of the solenoid......................................................................91 9.2.2.4. Rocker alignment .......................................................................................92 9.3. DEFECTIVE OPERATION OF THE I/P POSITIONING DEVICE ............................93 9.3.1. Pneumatic system check.................................................................................93 9.3.2. Electrical system check ...................................................................................93 9.3.3. Cleaning of the pneumatic system ..................................................................95 9.3.3.1. Calibrated orifice ........................................................................................95 9.3.3.2. Controller....................................................................................................95 9.4. MAINTENANCE OF SERVOMOTOR FOR ROTARY VALVE ................................97 10. TROUBLESHOOTING.................................................................................................99 10.1. CAVITATION AND VAPORISATION ....................................................................99 10.1.1. Variation of the static pressure in a valve ......................................................99 10.1.2. Cavitation ......................................................................................................99 10.1.3. Vaporisation ................................................................................................100 11. VALVE SIZING ..........................................................................................................101 11.1. THE Cv AND THE Kv of a VALVE ......................................................................101 11.1.1. What is the Cv of a valve?...........................................................................101 11.1.2. What is the Kv of a valve? ...........................................................................102 11.1.3. Standard formulae for calculation of a valve Cv ..........................................103 11.1.4. Cv calculation formulae according to the manufacturer Masoneilan ...........103 11.1.4.1. For liquids in imperial units.....................................................................103 11.1.4.2. For liquids in metric units........................................................................104 11.1.4.3. For gases and steam, in imperial units...................................................105 11.1.4.4. For gases and steam in metric units ......................................................106 11.1.5. Cv calculation for a valve.............................................................................107 11.1.5.1. Equivalent Cv with 2 valves in parallel ...................................................107 11.1.5.2. Equivalent Cv with 2 valves in series .....................................................107 Training Manual: EXP-MN-SI040-EN Last Revised: 09/04/2008 Page 4 / 129 Field Operations Training Instrumentation Maintenance Valves and Actuators 11.2. CHOICE OF VALVE............................................................................................108 12. TAG AND IDENTIFICATION OF VALVES.................................................................109 12.1. ALL-OR-NOTHING VALVES...............................................................................109 12.1.1. Blow Down Valve ........................................................................................109 12.1.2. Emergency Shut-Down Valve......................................................................109 12.1.3. Remote Operated Valve ..............................................................................109 12.1.4. Shut-Down Valve.........................................................................................110 12.1.5. Surface Safety Valve ...................................................................................110 12.1.6. Surface Controlled Sub-Surface Safety Valve.............................................110 12.2. REGULATING VALVES ......................................................................................111 13. APPENDICES............................................................................................................112 13.1. CRITICAL CONSTANTS OF CERTAIN LIQUID AND GAS BODIES..................115 14. EXERCISES ..............................................................................................................119 15. FIGURES...................................................................................................................122 16. TABLES .....................................................................................................................126 17. ANSWERS TO THE EXERCISES .............................................................................127 Training Manual: EXP-MN-SI040-EN Last Revised: 09/04/2008 Page 5 / 129 Field Operations Training Instrumentation Maintenance Valves and Actuators 1. OBJECTIVES The purpose of this course is to provide a future instrument engineer with knowledge of all the types of valves and actuators on an industrial site which has a predominantly petroleum-related activity. At the end of the course, the trainee should have the following knowledge concerning valves and actuators: Knowledge of all existing types of regulating valve, Ability to change the direction of action of a valve, Knowledge of the accessories of a regulating valve, Ability to distinguish between an I/P converter and an electro-pneumatic positioning device, Ability to adjust a regulating valve, Basic knowledge of how to calculate the Cv of a valve. Training Manual: EXP-MN-SI040-EN Last Revised: 09/04/2008 Page 6 / 129 Field Operations Training Instrumentation Maintenance Valves and Actuators 2. INTRODUCTION 2.1. LOCATION IN A REGULATION LOOP In a regulation loop, the final adjustment component is usually an automatic valve which, by acting on the flow-rate of a fluid (gas or liquid), enables the measured value to be regulated: Pressure Flow-rate Level Temperature, etc. The automatic valve is the final component of a regulation system; it is the component that acts directly on the process. In a regulation loop, it is every bit as important as the "sensor-transmitter" and as the "regulator". W Y REGULATOR CONTROL COMPONENT "Valve" GR PROCESS X MEASURING COMPONENT "Sensor Transmitter" Figure 1: Location of the "regulating valve" in the regulation loop W : Setpoint Y : Control signal from the regulator GR : Adjusting value X : Measurement from the sensor-transmitter Training Manual: EXP-MN-SI040-EN Last Revised: 09/04/2008 Page 7 / 129 Field Operations Training Instrumentation Maintenance Valves and Actuators 2.2. DEFINITION Valves are components with a variable orifice, which enable a fluid flow to be adjusted. They are the actuators of most regulation systems, and this means that they are significantly important components. It is for this reason that the catalogues issued by valve manufacturers are extremely well presented and constitute the best possible documentation on the subject. The role of the instrument engineer is often limited to the maintenance and adjustment of installed valves. Sometimes, when observing the operation of regulation systems that are not performing properly, it can be observed that the valve is operating in an abnormal manner: this almost always occurs very close to the closing point or, conversely, the valves are too often found to be fully open. 2.3. ROLE OF THE VALVE A regulating valve modifies a fluid flow-rate (adjustment value), as a function of the signal from a regulator (control signal) or a transmitter, and it does this whatever the constraints connected with the circulation of the fluid. 2.4. CONSTRAINTS 2.4.1. Due to the fluid The fluid is either a liquid or a gas (or vapour), or it can be a two-phase mixture (liquidsolid, water-steam), and these states depend on certain service conditions and the chemical composition of the fluid. Examples: Corrosive fluid: this may or may not attack the materials, Toxic fluid: danger in case of leakage; sealing class, Flammable fluid Explosive fluid: in the presence of air or a spark, Dangerous fluid: in the sense of a molecular transformation or a reaction with other products (e.g. Oxygen (O2) with grease), Training Manual: EXP-MN-SI040-EN Last Revised: 09/04/2008 Page 8 / 129 Field Operations Training Instrumentation Maintenance Valves and Actuators Viscous fluid Fluid laden with solid particles: erosion, clogging, etc. Change of phase: solidification, vaporisation, cavitation, etc. Pressure Temperature: High, very high, or very low (cryogenic effect), Food product. 2.4.2. Due to the effect of the environment on the valve Explosive Atmosphere, Corrosive Atmosphere, Dry or Humid Atmosphere, Salty Atmosphere (Sea-front company), Vibrations, Interference (electric motor, thunderstorm, etc.). 2.4.3. Due to the effect of the valve on the environment Noise: acoustic decibels (dBA), Vibration: screw tightness problem. 2.4.4. Due to the assembly conditions Nominal diameter of pipe Space remaining for shut-off valves and bypass valves. All these conditions will have a determining effect on the choice and type of valve to be used in an operating process. Training Manual: EXP-MN-SI040-EN Last Revised: 09/04/2008 Page 9 / 129 Field Operations Training Instrumentation Maintenance Valves and Actuators 2.5. TECHNOLOGY OF A REGULATION VALVE The valve is broken down into two separate assemblies: The body The actuator Figure 2: Technology of a regulating valve Training Manual: EXP-MN-SI040-EN Last Revised: 09/04/2008 Page 10 / 129 Field Operations Training Instrumentation Maintenance Valves and Actuators Figure 3: The two assemblies of a regulating valve The actuator is a component than enables the passage area to be modulated by changing the position of the rod that supports the shutter. The body comprises the body of the valve with its seat, shutter, studs, etc., and the packing gland cap. Note: The flow running through the body is a function of the passage area, but also of the pressure upstream of the flange. It is the element of the valve that is connected to the pipe, and through which the fluid flows. Small valves are connected by means of "unions". Large valves are connected by means of flanges or by welding. Training Manual: EXP-MN-SI040-EN Last Revised: 09/04/2008 Page 11 / 129 Field Operations Training Instrumentation Maintenance Valves and Actuators Comment: The actuator can be: A simple hand wheel: this is known as a "manual" valve or a "hand" valve, An electromagnet: with two states, energized or not energized; this is an all or nothing electric valve, A cylinder, An electric motor, A servomotor: This is the name generally given to the device located above the body, and which functions with pneumatic power. As the cylinder, the electric motor and the servomotor are all "powered", they can be remote controlled and still therefore be used for analog and digital regulation. 2.6. CHARACTERISTICS OF REGULATION VALVES 2.6.1. Inherent flow characteristic 2.6.1.1. Definition This is the law that represents the flow-rate as a function of the displacement of the plug (or shutter), for a constant ∆P. There are three fundamental characteristics: The linear characteristic, The equal percentage (equal %) characteristic, The quick opening characteristic. 2.6.1.2. The linear characteristic The flow changes linearly as a function of the signal. The characteristic is a straight line. Equal increases in the valve signal cause equal increases in flow-rate. Training Manual: EXP-MN-SI040-EN Last Revised: 09/04/2008 Page 12 / 129 Field Operations Training Instrumentation Maintenance Valves and Actuators Figure 4: Linear flow characteristic 2.6.1.3. The equal percentage characteristic The characteristic is an exponential function. Equal increases in the valve signal cause equal increases in relative flow-rate. Figure 5: Equal percentage flow characteristic Training Manual: EXP-MN-SI040-EN Last Revised: 09/04/2008 Page 13 / 129 Field Operations Training Instrumentation Maintenance Valves and Actuators 2.6.1.4. The quick opening characteristic Figure 6: Quick opening flow characteristic This characteristic consists of a rapid increase in flow at the beginning of the opening range, reaching approximately 80 % maximum flow for less than half the command signal. It is also known as an "All or Nothing Flow characteristic ". This characteristic is very often used for safety applications with All or Nothing valves. 2.6.1.5. Inherent adjustment coefficient or rangeability A regulating valve can only provide efficient adjustment within a specified flow range. This is defined by a coefficient R. R = (maximum controllable flow-rate) / (minimum controllable flow-rate) Rangeability defines the ability of a valve to control low flow-rates. This means that a valve with a rangeability of 100 will be capable of controlling a minimum flow-rate that is 100 times less than the maximum flow-rate. Another way of saying this is that the adjustment range is from 1 to 100. Training Manual: EXP-MN-SI040-EN Last Revised: 09/04/2008 Page 14 / 129 Field Operations Training Instrumentation Maintenance Valves and Actuators 3. VALVE TYPES We will begin by presenting the various types of valve body. The size of the regulating valve body is proportional to the displacement of the shutter. There are two body types: Longitudinal bodies: Translational displacement of the shutter. Usually known as "Linear Valves", Angular bodies: Rotational displacement of the shutter. Usually known as "Rotary Valves". 3.1. LINEAR ACTION VALVE These valves are also called "standard valves". The shutter is a plug which is displaced by the servomotor with a translational movement. 3.1.1. Plug type valve with single-seat body ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES Good to very good sealing Relatively high pressure differentials Relatively simple construction Requires a large servomotor (high pressure on the plug) Table 1: Advantages and Disadvantages of the single seat The position of the plug in front of the seat determines the passage area for the fluid. L Sealing around the stem is achieved using Teflon packing (for example). The shape of the plug determines the static characteristic of the valve. Good sealing can be obtained when the valve is closed because the plug presses against the mating face of the seat. Figure 7: Fluid displacement in a single-seat body Training Manual: EXP-MN-SI040-EN Last Revised: 09/04/2008 Page 15 / 129 Field Operations Training Instrumentation Maintenance Valves and Actuators The thrust of the fluid against the plug can be very high in cases of high pressure differentials, requiring the use of a powerful servomotor. The figure above clearly shows how the fluid flows as it passes through a single seat body. This provides a better view of the operation of the valve when the plug stem rises and lifts the plug off its seat. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Plug stem Packing gland flange studs Packing gland flange nut Packing gland flange Packing gland bush Packing gland seal Packing gland spacer Cap Body studs Body stud nuts 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 Body seals Plug guide Cage Seat Seat seal Plug Plug pin Body Top nut Figure 8: Single-seat body Training Manual: EXP-MN-SI040-EN Last Revised: 09/04/2008 Page 16 / 129 Field Operations Training Instrumentation Maintenance Valves and Actuators 3.1.2. Plug type valve with double-seat body 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Plug stem Packing gland flange nut Packing gland flange Packing gland flange stud Top nut Cap Body Plug pin Plug Bottom flange 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 Body stud nut Body stud Body seal Plug guide Lower seat Upper seat Packing gland seal Seal spacer Packing gland bush Figure 9: Double-seat body Training Manual: EXP-MN-SI040-EN Last Revised: 09/04/2008 Page 17 / 129 Field Operations Training Instrumentation Maintenance Valves and Actuators The forces on the shutter system tend to balance themselves out due to the fact that the fluid attempts to open one plug and to close the other. These weak forces improve the stability of the valve, which means that a smaller diameter servomotor can be chosen for a valve of the same capacity. Most shutter systems are also reversible. They do not provide very good sealing when closed, due to the fact that both plugs can never be perfectly seated on their respective seats at the same time. Figure 10: Fluid displacement in a double-seat body The above figure shows the same fluid displacement principle as seen in a double-seat body. ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES The forces are almost perfectly balanced Inferior sealing to that of the single seat No need for a large servomotor More complex design Table 2: Advantages and Disadvantages of the double seat Training Manual: EXP-MN-SI040-EN Last Revised: 09/04/2008 Page 18 / 129 Field Operations Training Instrumentation Maintenance Valves and Actuators 3.2. CAGE VALVE This is a single-seat / plug type valve which also has the advantages of the double seat / plug valve. The shutter system incorporates an excellent guide for the plug (piston) and enables the cage (cylinder) to be quickly replaced. The possibility of installing an O-ring around the piston reduces the likelihood of leakage. The piston is balanced, because the downstream pressure acts on both sides of these faces. The preferential flow direction is from the outside to the inside of the piston, to ensure better stability. The cage openings are machined according to the flow characteristic. Figure 11: Cage valve Comment: There are different types of cage: balanced or non-balanced cage, single or double seat cage, low-noise cage, anti-cavitation cage. Training Manual: EXP-MN-SI040-EN Last Revised: 09/04/2008 Page 19 / 129 Field Operations Training Instrumentation Maintenance Valves and Actuators ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES Excellent ability to withstand large pressure differentials More complex design Excellent sealing Non-reversible straight body Low noise Possible jamming of the shutter in the cage when using fluids laden with solid particles Balancing by holes in the shutter Anti-cavitation Easy to replace the cage Anti-flash Can be used under extreme conditions: velocity up to 130 m/s operating temperature -200 to +600 °C pressure up to 2,500 bars Easy and quick to maintain Table 3: Advantages and Disadvantages of the cage valve Training Manual: EXP-MN-SI040-EN Last Revised: 09/04/2008 Page 20 / 129 Field Operations Training Instrumentation Maintenance Valves and Actuators 3.3. 3-WAY VALVE 3-way valves are designed to regulate either a fluid mixing process or a fluid bypass. It should be particularly noted that this type of valve has a high flow capability and a low recovery. The flow capability is among the best of all currently-available 3-way valves. Pressure recovery is small. These valves are also designed to be installed with the fluid tending to open the double plug (mixing valve) or each of the plugs (bypass valve). This configuration has the advantage of ensuring stable operation of the valve. Figure 12: 3-way mixing valve Training Manual: EXP-MN-SI040-EN Last Revised: 09/04/2008 Page 21 / 129 Field Operations Training Instrumentation Maintenance Valves and Actuators Figure 13: 3-way bypass valve Training Manual: EXP-MN-SI040-EN Last Revised: 09/04/2008 Page 22 / 129 Field Operations Training Instrumentation Maintenance Valves and Actuators 3.4. DIAPHRAGM VALVE The diaphragm valve is an alternative to the spherical plug ball valve. It is used as an Allor-Nothing valve in small applications (e.g. hot water injection to clean a level sensor flange separator, etc.). It is controlled by an "electrovalve" (also called a “solenoid valve” refer to the valve accessory chapter). When the opening command is given, the solenoid of the electrovalve is energised and therefore sends the air from the distributor into the valve head, and this distorts the diaphragm which in turn allows the fluid to flow through the body of the valve. It is used in applications where the fluids are heavily laden with solid particles or are very corrosive. The passage area is obtained between a deformable diaphragm, usually made of synthetic rubber, and the bottom part of the valve body. Figure 14: Diaphragm valve Fs Flexible diaphragm FP Figure 15: Functional diagram of the diaphragm valve The force "Fs" developed by the servomotor must overcome the force "Fp" created by the static pressure on the diaphragm. Training Manual: EXP-MN-SI040-EN Last Revised: 09/04/2008 Page 23 / 129 Field Operations Training Instrumentation Maintenance Valves and Actuators ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES Usable with any type of product Valve which changes with use (due to the elasticity of the diaphragm) Low pressure losses Temperature less than 120 °C Inexpensive solution Unspecified characteristic No need for packing glands and their possible leakage Very imprecise adjustment Low maximum pressure rating Badly defined static characteristic Table 4: Advantages and Disadvantages of the diaphragm valve 3.5. VERTICAL LIFT GATE OR GUILLOTINE VALVE Figure 16: Guillotine valve ADVANTAGES Low pressure losses (direct flow) DISADVANTAGES Sharp fluid passage cut-off Table 5: Advantages and Disadvantages of the guillotine valve Training Manual: EXP-MN-SI040-EN Last Revised: 09/04/2008 Page 24 / 129 Field Operations Training Instrumentation Maintenance Valves and Actuators 3.6. MICRO-FLOW CONTROL VALVE WITH ADJUSTABLE Cv 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Body Seat Plug Seat seal Seat clamp ring Seals Packing gland bush Packing gland spacer 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 Packing gland flange Packing gland flange studs Packing gland stud nuts Safety plug Valve coefficient adjustment Cap Manual control Figure 17: Micro-flow control valve with adjustable valve coefficient (Varipak) Training Manual: EXP-MN-SI040-EN Last Revised: 09/04/2008 Page 25 / 129 Field Operations Training Instrumentation Maintenance Valves and Actuators The possibility of adjusting the Cv on this needle valve eliminates valve sizing uncertainties; such uncertainties often lead to the choice of a valve that turns out to be too large and works with an excessively small opening. The Cv flow coefficient of the Varipak is adjustable without changing the pneumatic control signal. This very easy manual operation can be carried out before installing the valve, but it can also be performed when the valve is operating. The plug on this type of valve is a needle. Figure 18: Example of a micro-flow valve Figure 19: Adjustment of the Cv To find out what the Cv of a valve is, refer to the "Valve Sizing" chapter of this course. Training Manual: EXP-MN-SI040-EN Last Revised: 09/04/2008 Page 26 / 129 Field Operations Training Instrumentation Maintenance Valves and Actuators 3.7. ROTARY VALVE 3.7.1. Butterfly valve The shutter is a disk whose diameter is equal to the inside diameter of the duct. When closed, the surface of this disk is perpendicular to the fluid flow direction. The variation of the passage area is achieved by tilting this disk away from the vertical. The stem of the shutter rotates, which is much better for the packing gland (better sealing). This rotation is often limited to an opening angle of 60°, due to the extent of the torque applied by the fluid. Figure 20: Butterfly valve ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES Direct flow valve (the fluid path is relatively undisturbed when the butterfly is fully open) Tendency to cavitate The butterfly rotates with or without a stop (the stop provides better sealing) The poor balancing limits the acceptable pressure differential, even when the butterfly is inherently balanced due to its shape. Simple and robust design Valve mostly used for gases and large diameter pipes Table 6: Advantages and Disadvantages of the butterfly valve Training Manual: EXP-MN-SI040-EN Last Revised: 09/04/2008 Page 27 / 129 Field Operations Training Instrumentation Maintenance Valves and Actuators This type of valve can only be manufactured for large diameters ND > 4". Considering the surface area and shape of the shutter, it cannot be used for very high pressures. Due to the long length of the mating surface of the butterfly on the body (which also constitutes the seat), sealing in the closed position is difficult to obtain, and is therefore usually poor. Also note that there is friction due to the thrust of the liquid, which presses the shutter stem against the seal (transverse effort). 3.7.2. Spherical plug ball valve, known simply as a "Ball valve" Figure 21: Ball valve Training Manual: EXP-MN-SI040-EN Last Revised: 09/04/2008 Page 28 / 129 Field Operations Training Instrumentation Maintenance Valves and Actuators Contains a sphere or ball with a nominal diameter which is generally equal to that of the pipe. The ball can pivot through 90° thanks to a stem coupled to a servomotor. The ball is in continuous contact with an O-ring, which provides excellent sealing. Standard ball valves are used in safety systems (All or Nothing), or as regulating valves. Modified ball valves with a "V"-shaped opening have an equal percentage characteristic, and are suitable for fluids which are viscous or laden with solid particles or fibres. The fluid tends to close the shutter system, and the servomotor must counter this effect. Figure 22: Example of a ball valve ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES Shutter consisting of a hollow sphere with a cut-out that depends on the required inherent characteristic Tendency to cavitate Direct flow valve, for viscous or fibre-laden fluids Good sealing Accepts high pressure differentials Table 7: Advantages and Disadvantages of the ball valve Training Manual: EXP-MN-SI040-EN Last Revised: 09/04/2008 Page 29 / 129 Field Operations Training Instrumentation Maintenance Valves and Actuators 3.7.3. Semi-rotary valve with eccentric shutter Figure 23: Valve with eccentric spherical shutter The principle of operation is based on a spherical shutter with an eccentric rotary movement, inside a direct-flow body. The spherical part of the shutter is connected by one or two flexible arms pressed onto the shaft. The actuator pushes the lever to a varying extent based on the pneumatic signal it receives, and this causes the shaft to rotate and therefore the shutter to rotate as well. A slight lateral play of the hub on the shaft enables the shutter to self-centre. The extremely efficient sealing between the seat and the shutter is obtained by elastic distortion of the shutter arms. The slightly chamfered seat is secured inside the body by means of a threaded clamp ring. This type of valve is regularly used in industrial applications, and is universal. Training Manual: EXP-MN-SI040-EN Last Revised: 09/04/2008 Page 30 / 129 Field Operations Training Instrumentation Maintenance Valves and Actuators Figure 24: Cross-sectional view of the eccentric spherical shutter Figure 25: Functional diagram of the eccentric spherical shutter valve Training Manual: EXP-MN-SI040-EN Last Revised: 09/04/2008 Page 31 / 129 Field Operations Training Instrumentation Maintenance Valves and Actuators ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES Direct flow valve with a small footprint, usually installed between flanges Greater tendency to cavitate than straight valves, but not as much as butterfly valves Suitable for viscous and particle-laden fluids Good sealing with a Teflon or plastic coated contact surface Table 8: Advantages and Disadvantages of the eccentric shutter valve Training Manual: EXP-MN-SI040-EN Last Revised: 09/04/2008 Page 32 / 129 Field Operations Training Instrumentation Maintenance Valves and Actuators 4. TYPES OF PLUG To obtain the 3 fundamental characteristics described above, we need to change the type of plug on a valve. This plug will modify the flow of fluid passing through the valve body. Figure 26: Different plugs and their flow characteristics Training Manual: EXP-MN-SI040-EN Last Revised: 09/04/2008 Page 33 / 129 Field Operations Training Instrumentation Maintenance Valves and Actuators 4.1. QUICK OPENING LINEAR PLUG A maximum increase in flow is obtained for a displacement of approximately 30 %, and this increase then diminishes as the displacement approaches 100 %. These plugs are mainly used in All-or-Nothing regulation loops and in safety systems. Figure 27: Quick opening plug 4.2. LINEAR PLUG The flow is directly proportional to the opening of the valve over the entire length of its displacement. These plugs are used in level regulation loops, and more generally in processes with a constant gain. Figure 28: Linear plug 4.3. MODIFIED LINEAR PLUG These plugs are a compromise between the linear and quick opening characteristics. In extreme areas with high flow-rates, and more particularly with low flow-rates, a long displacement produces a small variation in flow. Figure 29: Modified linear plug Training Manual: EXP-MN-SI040-EN Last Revised: 09/04/2008 Page 34 / 129 Field Operations Training Instrumentation Maintenance Valves and Actuators 4.4. EQUAL PERCENTAGE PLUG Equal increments in plug displacement produce equal increases in flow. Near the closing point, variations in flow are small; between 0 and 30 % displacement, the flow varies from 0 to approximately 9 %. Figure 30: Equal percentage plug Near the full open point, variations in flow are relatively high; between 80 and 100 % displacement, the flow varies by approximately 50 %. These plugs are used in pressure regulation loops, and more generally in processes where only a small proportion of the total pressure differential can be absorbed by the valve. Figure 31: Equal percentage plug turned with a Vee-shaped aperture 4.5. PARABOLIC PLUG These plugs are a compromise between the linear and equal percentage characteristics. They have a linear characteristic with high flow and displacement characteristics. These plugs are used in pressure regulation loops, and more generally in processes where a high proportion of the total pressure differential can be absorbed by the valve. Figure 32: Parabolic plug Training Manual: EXP-MN-SI040-EN Last Revised: 09/04/2008 Page 35 / 129 Field Operations Training Instrumentation Maintenance Valves and Actuators 5. TYPES OF CAGE In the same way as for plugs, cage valves have different types of cage which modify the flow characteristic. The quick opening, linear, and equal percentage characteristics are determined by the shape of the openings in the cage. 5.1. QUICK OPENING CAGE Figure 33: Quick opening cage 5.2. LINEAR CAGE Figure 34: Linear cage Training Manual: EXP-MN-SI040-EN Last Revised: 09/04/2008 Page 36 / 129 Field Operations Training Instrumentation Maintenance Valves and Actuators 5.3. EQUAL PERCENTAGE CAGE Figure 35: Equal percentage cage 5.4. LOW NOISE CAGE Figure 36: Low noise cage Training Manual: EXP-MN-SI040-EN Last Revised: 09/04/2008 Page 37 / 129 Field Operations Training Instrumentation Maintenance Valves and Actuators 6. THE CAP This part is installed on the top of the valve body, and its purpose is to provide sealing around the plug stem. It acts as a guide for the plug stem(s), contains the packing gland and supports the servomotor. For temperatures >= 200 °C, cooling fins are provided. For temperatures <= 20 °C, an extension type cap is used Figure 37: Diagram of valve cap Training Manual: EXP-MN-SI040-EN Last Revised: 09/04/2008 Page 38 / 129 Field Operations Training Instrumentation Maintenance Valves and Actuators 6.1. THE PACKING GLAND The packing gland is a very widely used sealing system. Its principle of operation consists in providing sealing by compression of several braids (packings) around the stem of the plug by means of the packing gland rammer. The washers of the packing gland, or the braids, must seal the body with a minimum amount of friction on the stem of the plug. They are usually made of a flexible and compressible material such as Teflon (t < = 230 °C) or graphite (t > 230 °C). The material used for the packing gland depends on the fluid to be sealed. The pressure on the washers must be properly adjusted on a periodic basis, in order to minimise leakage; this is done by means of the flange and rammer. Figure 38: Packing gland of a valve To obtain absolute sealing, a secondary boot can be joined to the plug stem. This is known as an "extension" or an "extension boot"). The sealing boot ensures total sealing between the valve stem and the cap. This technology is typically proposed for applications involving toxic, flammable or explosive fluids for which any leakage could have serious consequences for personnel and and/or the environment. Boot Figure 39: Sealing boot Training Manual: EXP-MN-SI040-EN Last Revised: 09/04/2008 Page 39 / 129 Field Operations Training Instrumentation Maintenance Valves and Actuators 6.2. GLAND PACKING In the world of maintenance, the term "Braids" is often used when referring to gland packings. There are two types of seal packing: Packing rings: These are ready-made seals, to the diameter you need. Figure 40: Graphite and PTFE packing rings Braids: These are in the form of coils, and it is up to the instrument engineer to cut them to the correct length so that it corresponds to the diameter of the rammer. Figure 41: Examples of graphite and PTFE braids Both types of braid shown in the figure above are the most commonly used. Graphite braids are often used on valves in heating systems, operating at very high temperatures and at high pressures. Training Manual: EXP-MN-SI040-EN Last Revised: 09/04/2008 Page 40 / 129 Field Operations Training Instrumentation Maintenance Valves and Actuators For all other applications, we use PTFE (Teflon) braid. During maintenance, it is important to check the packings because we are so used to simply saying to ourselves "Oh, I had to tighten the packing gland of that valve because it was leaking a bit". But it is important to know that by constantly retightening valve packing glands, the braids end up becoming crushed and no longer provide proper sealing. Figure 42: Poor sealing, leakage from the packing gland The figure above show what happens when a valve is not properly maintained. Training Manual: EXP-MN-SI040-EN Last Revised: 09/04/2008 Page 41 / 129 Field Operations Training Instrumentation Maintenance Valves and Actuators 7. THE SERVOMOTOR The servomotor is the component that enables the plug stem of the valve to be actuated. The force developed by the servomotor serves two purposes: It counters the pressure acting on the plug; It ensures the sealing of the valve. These two criteria determine the sizing of the servomotors. The driving fluid can be air, water, oil or gas. The supply fluid (at 1.4 bars or 2.1 bars) is usually air, and the command pressure varies from 0.2 bars to 1 bar. The following types of servomotor are available: Standard diaphragm type servomotor (direct or reverse action). Rolling diaphragm type servomotor, principally used for rotary valves (example: Masoneilan CAMFLEX valve), Piston type servomotor, used in applications where very high forces are required. The command pressure can be very high. The driving fluid can be air, water or oil, Electric servomotor, used for rotary valves. An electric motor is associated with a gearbox, thus enabling very high torque values to be obtained, Hydraulic servomotor, used on shutdown valves. Training Manual: EXP-MN-SI040-EN Last Revised: 09/04/2008 Page 42 / 129 Field Operations Training Instrumentation Maintenance Valves and Actuators 7.1. PNEUMATIC SERVOMOTOR 7.1.1. Standard diaphragm type servomotor Figure 43: Diaphragm type servomotor Training Manual: EXP-MN-SI040-EN Last Revised: 09/04/2008 Page 43 / 129 Field Operations Training Instrumentation Maintenance Valves and Actuators 7.1.1.1. Operation The diaphragm of the servomotor is subjected to 2 forces: On one side, the force due to the pressure in the servomotor (modulated pressure from the regulator). It is proportional to the air pressure and to the surface of the diaphragm (F = P x S). On the other side, the force due to the compression of the spring which increases as the spring is compressed. For a given air pressure in the servomotor, the spring contracts by a length such that the resulting force (proportional to the shortening of the spring) is equal to the corresponding motive force. For each pressure value, the displacement of the diaphragm is transmitted by the stem to the plug, the displacement of which is proportional to the air pressure exerted on the diaphragm. For Split-Range valves (refer to the course on "the regulator and its functions"), calibration of the valve consists in adjusting: The tension of the spring, and The length of the plug stem. An adjustment system enables the spring tension to be adjusted. If there is no other resistance on the stem or plug, the valve stem moves through its full range when the air pressure varies from 200 to 1,000 mbars. This results in the following correspondence: Training Manual: EXP-MN-SI040-EN Last Revised: 09/04/2008 Page 44 / 129 Field Operations Training Instrumentation Maintenance Valves and Actuators 7.1.1.2. Description The rolling diaphragm type servomotor is the most commonly used. Figure 44: Simplified diagram of a diaphragm type servomotor This servomotor consists of: A rubber diaphragm, A return spring, A stem range adjustment. Training Manual: EXP-MN-SI040-EN Last Revised: 09/04/2008 Page 45 / 129 Field Operations Training Instrumentation Maintenance Valves and Actuators 7.1.2. Diaphragm type servomotor with multiple springs This servomotor design with multiple return springs reduces the forces on the plug stem. Its rolling diaphragm is subjected to less strain, which means that it wears less. Figure 45: Cross-sectional view of a servomotor with multiple return springs 7.1.3. Rolling diaphragm type servomotor Diaphragm plate Spring stem Coupling with the valve lever Spring Figure 46: Rolling diaphragm type servomotor The rolling diaphragm type servomotor consists of a cylinder clamped in a flange by 4 BTR screws. The rolling diaphragm is secured both to the cylinder and to the piston which is connected to the position of the spring. Training Manual: EXP-MN-SI040-EN Last Revised: 09/04/2008 Page 46 / 129 Field Operations Training Instrumentation Maintenance Valves and Actuators Unlike the standard servomotor in which the displacement of the diaphragm plate assembly is small, this type of Servomotor has a large displacement. The coupling between the servomotor and the lever of the valve consists of a small cylinder fitted with a circlip. This improves the precision of the positioning for the shutter. The rolling diaphragm is used in more and more applications and can be found on spherical plug ball valves and on rotary valves. Its cost is relatively low and it is extremely easy and quick to maintain. 7.1.4. Piston type servomotor Figure 47: Piston type servomotor Piston type servomotors operate at much higher pressures than diaphragm type servomotors. These pneumatic or hydraulic pressures can be up to several tens of bars. Training Manual: EXP-MN-SI040-EN Last Revised: 09/04/2008 Page 47 / 129 Field Operations Training Instrumentation Maintenance Valves and Actuators They are capable of producing much higher forces and of operating over much longer ranges, and can therefore overcome very high pressure differentials through the valve body. Safety valves use pistons: one-way with return spring to return the valve to its fail-safe position if there is a lack of air. Figure 48: Simplified diagram of a one-way piston type servomotor for a linear valve two-way with hydraulic accumulator or pneumatic tank, used to return the valve to its fail-safe position if there is a lack of hydraulic pressure. Air to open the valve Air to close the valve Figure 49: Two-way piston type servomotor for a rotary valve Without a return spring, there is no possible fail-safe position. The two-way servomotor has the particularity of having two air inlets, because we introduce air on one side of the piston to open the valve, and on the other side of the piston to close the valve, which is normal because there is no return spring. Piston type servomotors are very often associated with butterfly valves. They can be used as All-or-Nothing valves, but they can also be used as regulating valves with an electropneumatic positioning device. Generally speaking, when a piston type servomotor is used as a regulating valve, this is because the operating conditions involve very high pressures in large diameter pipes. They are similar to diaphragm type servomotors in that they can be installed either on a linear displacement valve or on an angular displacement (rotary) valve. Training Manual: EXP-MN-SI040-EN Last Revised: 09/04/2008 Page 48 / 129 Field Operations Training Instrumentation Maintenance Valves and Actuators 7.2. HYDRAULIC SERVOMOTOR 7.2.1. Constitution Figure 50: Hydraulic servomotor A hydraulic servomotor consists of: A hydraulic pump, A hydraulic reservoir, A hydraulic distributor valve, A valve control, The actuator, consisting of one or two cylinders. This type of servomotor is used in very high pressure processes, in which the operating pressure can be up to about a hundred bars. It can also be used in low-pressure systems, but the valve opening takes longer because the hydraulic system has a lot of torque. In the same way as for the piston type servomotor, the hydraulic servomotor can be a oneway or a two-way device. Training Manual: EXP-MN-SI040-EN Last Revised: 09/04/2008 Page 49 / 129 Field Operations Training Instrumentation Maintenance Valves and Actuators 7.2.2. Operation In this simple hydraulic actuator, a stream of hydraulic fluid can be directed into either of two chambers. If hydraulic fluid is added to chamber 1, the piston moves right, closing the valve. When hydraulic fluid is added to chamber 2, the action is reversed. Hydraulic pressure pushes the piston to the left and the valve opens. For more details concerning the hydraulic actuator, please refer to the "Hydraulics and Pneumatics" course. Figure 51: Functional diagram of the control of a hydraulic servomotor Training Manual: EXP-MN-SI040-EN Last Revised: 09/04/2008 Page 50 / 129 Field Operations Training Instrumentation Maintenance Valves and Actuators 7.3. ELECTRIC SERVOMOTOR 7.3.1. Servomotor with motor and gearbox Figure 52: Electric servomotor with motor and gearbox The advantage of this actuator is that we only need an electrical signal to "rotate" the motor, so the associated valve can either open or close. This type of motor is reversible because it rotates in both directions. It is equipped with a gearbox which enables the torque to be reduced, in order to prevent the electric motor from applying too much force on its rack. Training Manual: EXP-MN-SI040-EN Last Revised: 09/04/2008 Page 51 / 129 Field Operations Training Instrumentation Maintenance Valves and Actuators This type of actuator is often used on All-orNothing safety valves. Figure 53: Example of an electric servomotor 7.3.2. Solenoid type servomotor A solenoid is a coil of electric wire wound around a cylinder in with all the turns in contact with each other. The induction of the magnetic field generated by a solenoid is proportional to the number of turns and to the intensity of the current passing through it, and is inversely proportional to its length. The solenoid is mounted directly on the valve body. The valve body has a diaphragm equipped with a return spring. This diaphragm is installed on a core, over which the solenoid is fitted. Figure 54: Valve with solenoid type servomotor This type of valve can be classified as an "electromagnetic valve". When an electrical signal is injected into the solenoid, this generates a magnetic field which will act on the spring and cause the diaphragm to distort. Depending on whether or not the diaphragm is distorted, the plug of the valve will be either open or closed. This type of valve is used in low-pressure applications, and has the advantage of rapidly opening or closing the plug of the valve. The valve is installed in line for small applications (e.g. boiler pilot gas supply, vacuum pump buffer tank water replenishment, etc.). The solenoid can be energised at 230 VAC, 110 VAC or 48 VAC (refer to the manufacturer's document). Figure 55: Example of a solenoid type servomotor Training Manual: EXP-MN-SI040-EN Last Revised: 09/04/2008 Page 52 / 129 Field Operations Training Instrumentation Maintenance Valves and Actuators 7.4. DIRECTION OF ACTION 7.4.1. Direction of action of the valve body The direction of action of the valve body depends on the shutter system (plug + seat). Direct action valve body: extension of the plug stem closes the shutter system. Figure 56: Direct action valve body You will have noticed that the figure on the left shows a single-seat valve body, and that the figure on the right shows a double-seat body. Reverse action valve body: extension of the plug stem opens the shutter system. Figure 57: Reverse action valve body Comment: Some valve bodies are reversible, in other words the action of the plug can easily be reversed by simple disassembly. Training Manual: EXP-MN-SI040-EN Last Revised: 09/04/2008 Page 53 / 129 Field Operations Training Instrumentation Maintenance Valves and Actuators 7.4.2. Direction of action of the servomotor If an air failure occurs, the counter-spring causes the servomotor to move to an extreme position so that the shutter can move to a completely open or a completely closed position. These types of servomotor therefore do not pose any particular problem when it comes to complying with the specification, for direct or reverse action servomotors. Direct action servomotor: the action is direct, so when the modulated air pressure increases, the stem of the plug descends. Figure 58: Direct action servomotor Reverse action servomotor: the action is reversed, so when the modulated air pressure increases, the stem of the plug rises. Figure 59: Reverse action servomotor 7.4.3. Direction of action of the positioning device Direct positioning device: When the input signal increases, the output signal increases. Reverse positioning device: When the input signal increases, the output signal decreases. Training Manual: EXP-MN-SI040-EN Last Revised: 09/04/2008 Page 54 / 129 Field Operations Training Instrumentation Maintenance Valves and Actuators 7.4.4. Special case with the "two-way" servomotor type piston If an air failure occurs, the piston takes any position depending on the force exerted by the fluid on the shutter of the valve. In order to force the position of the shutter, it is therefore necessary to provide a device comprising both a reserve of compressed air and switching components which enable the valve to be moved to the selected position in case of failure of the distribution system air supply. 7.5. FAIL-SAFE POSITION 7.5.1. Fail-safe aspect of the valve (body + servomotor) When there is no more pressure on the servomotor, the spring returns the valve to its open or closed position, as defined by the construction of the device. A "Fail Closed" valve, i.e. one which is closed when there is a lack of air, closes when there is no longer any pressure on the servomotor. A "Fail Open" valve, i.e. one which is open when there is a lack of air, opens when there is no longer any pressure on the servomotor. The choice depends essentially on the safety conditions for the process. Figure 60: Valve fail-safe position Comment: When the positioning device is electro-pneumatic, the chances are it will be of the direct type. Training Manual: EXP-MN-SI040-EN Last Revised: 09/04/2008 Page 55 / 129 Field Operations Training Instrumentation Maintenance Valves and Actuators Figure 61: Different possibilities for the fail-safe position of a valve 7.5.2. Fail-safe aspect of the valve with its positioning device Action direction of positioning device Fail-safe aspect of the valve P S No supply Direct Direct Direct Timing sequence of particular states Open 4 mA 200 mbars Open 20 mA 1,000 mbars Closed Reverse Closed Closed Open Reverse Direct Open Closed Open Reverse Reverse Closed Open Closed Table 9: Combinations of valve fail-safe and positioning device positions Training Manual: EXP-MN-SI040-EN Last Revised: 09/04/2008 Page 56 / 129 Field Operations Training Instrumentation Maintenance Valves and Actuators 8. VALVE ACCESSORIES 8.1. POSITIONING DEVICE What is the purpose of a positioning device? The positioning device is a device used to slave the displacement of the plug to the control signal from the regulator. For the regulation system to operate correctly, it is essential for the displacement of the plug to remain precisely proportional to the value of the regulator output signal. However, certain interference forces can hinder the movement of the plug: Thrust exerted by the fluid (particularly in the case of single seat plugs) Friction of the transmission stem in the Packing gland Spring exerting a force which is not precisely proportional to the displacement it undergoes (hysteresis) Variation of surface area due to the distortion of the diaphragm, etc. These forces depend on the operating conditions: severe conditions → High forces Viscous or solid-laden fluid High pressure differential, etc. It is therefore necessary, in order to obtain a plug position that corresponds to the value of the control signal, to complete the regulation system by a positioning device. There are 3 types of positioning device that can be adapted to a regulating valve: Pneumatic positioning device Electro-pneumatic positioning device "Intelligent" (digital) positioning device Training Manual: EXP-MN-SI040-EN Last Revised: 09/04/2008 Page 57 / 129 Field Operations Training Instrumentation Maintenance Valves and Actuators 8.1.1. Pneumatic positioning device 8.1.1.1. Features The function of the pneumatic positioning device is to ensure linear or other slaving between the displacement of the valve and a pneumatic signal output by a regulator. It also has another function, which is to modify the natural characteristic of a valve by means of a cam whose profile depends on the required characteristic. It can also be configured for the "cascaded" (Split-Range) control of several valves, and can be used with an augmented pneumatic supply enabling it to operate the valves under higher differential service pressures. It is also possible to reverse the direction of action of the valves by means of the positioning device. 8.1.1.2. Constitution The pneumatic positioning device consists of the following components: The profiled cam: this is the intermediate component between the reaction device, the valve actuator and the spring of the positioning device. Its profile determines the relationship between the position of the shutter of the valve and the signal output by the regulator. "Linear" or "equal percentage" characteristics are available by selecting the appropriate sector of the cam. The controller: this is a small 3-way distributor valve. The valve adjusts the compressed air flow-rates from the supply to the outlet on the actuator, and from the outlet to the exhaust orifice. The position of this valve is controlled by the diaphragm, and determines the discharge pressure of the actuator. The action of the pneumatic positioning device can be reversed by reversing the supply and exhaust connections and by changing the cam sector and the orientation of the lever. The return spring: this enables the slide valve of the controller to slide in the distributor valve. The reaction spring: this enables the cam to be rotated by varying the rotation of the lever. This variation is due to the pressure exerted on the diaphragm. Training Manual: EXP-MN-SI040-EN Last Revised: 09/04/2008 Page 58 / 129 Field Operations Training Instrumentation Maintenance Valves and Actuators 8.1.1.3. Principle of operation The pneumatic positioning device is based on the principle of a force equilibrium device: the pressure of a pneumatic signal applied to diaphragm opposes the force of a reaction spring. In the state of equilibrium, if the pneumatic signal varies, the diaphragm assembly moves. The movement drives the slide valve of the controller, which is pressed by the return spring. The displacement of the slide valve alternately sets the outlet system into communication with the supply system or with the exhaust system, thus modifying the pressure applied on the actuator. The cam transmits the displacement of the valve shutter to the reaction spring. The valve shutter continues its movement until the force of the spring precisely balances that developed by the pressure of the pneumatic signal on the diaphragm. In this state of equilibrium, the position of the valve shutter in front of the seat corresponds to that ordered by the signal from the regulator. Output signal to actuator Figure 62: Functional diagram of pneumatic positioning device Training Manual: EXP-MN-SI040-EN Last Revised: 09/04/2008 Page 59 / 129 Field Operations Training Instrumentation Maintenance Valves and Actuators Figure 63: Masoneilan pneumatic positioning device Figure 64: View of the cam with and its reaction spring We have already seen, in the features of the positioning device, that the cam can change the characteristic of the valve - the following table gives the cam positions and cam lever orientations of a MASONEILAN CAMFLEX II or VARIMAX: Training Manual: EXP-MN-SI040-EN Last Revised: 09/04/2008 Page 60 / 129 Field Operations Training Instrumentation Maintenance Valves and Actuators Figure 65: MASONEILAN lever orientation and cam position 8.1.1.4. Faults The main faults you are liable to encounter on this type of positioning device are: The exhaust orifice is blocked, so the valve will no longer regulate and stays fixed in a certain position, The cam has worked loose; this is often due to vibrations, The slide valve of the controller is blocked; the air in the positioning device sometimes condenses and produces a little humidity in the slide valve, causing the slide valve to seize up. Despite these various minor failures that can occur, the mechanism of this pneumatic positioning device makes it a very robust device that requires little maintenance. Training Manual: EXP-MN-SI040-EN Last Revised: 09/04/2008 Page 61 / 129 Field Operations Training Instrumentation Maintenance Valves and Actuators 8.1.2. Electro-pneumatic positioning device 8.1.2.1. Constitution The electro-pneumatic positioning device is made up of the following components: A rocker system (nozzle-flapper): the imbalance caused by the variation of the electrical signal in the electromagnet causes the output signal from the nozzle to the actuator to vary. Figure 66: Nozzle-flapper system with electromagnet on I/P positioning device A cam, A return spring, A controller: this is an amplifier relay which will amplify the output signal from the nozzle to the actuator. A balancing spring: this enables equilibrium to be achieved between the rocker system and the cam lever. Training Manual: EXP-MN-SI040-EN Last Revised: 09/04/2008 Page 62 / 129 Field Operations Training Instrumentation Maintenance Valves and Actuators 8.1.2.2. Principle of operation The principle of operation is almost identical to that of the pneumatic positioning device. In actual fact, we have retained the pneumatic valve positioning system with the cam and its lever, but a nozzle and flapper with an electromagnet have been added to enable the pneumatic signal of the regulator to be replaced by an electrical signal (4-20 mA). The purpose is to be able to remotely control the regulating valves. Here, the controller is not a distributor with its slide valve and push-rod, but an amplifier relay with a diaphragm. In this case, the signal from the regulator is no longer a pneumatic signal (0.2 to 1 bar), but an electrical signal (4-20 mA). The electrical signal (4-20 mA) will pass through the solenoid, and this will move the flapper. This results in a change in the nozzle output pressure until the reaction of the ball located at the end of the nozzle balances out the new force applied on the lever. The more the electrical signal increases, the closer the flapper will move to the nozzle: the nozzle output signal to the actuator will also increase and therefore tend to open the valve. The reverse effect will apply if the signal decreases. Figure 67: Functional diagram of electro-pneumatic positioning device Training Manual: EXP-MN-SI040-EN Last Revised: 09/04/2008 Page 63 / 129 Field Operations Training Instrumentation Maintenance Valves and Actuators Figure 68: MASONEILAN type 8013 electro-pneumatic positioning device We can also change the direction of action of the positioning device, for which it is necessary to: Reverse the balancing spring with respect to the rocker Figure 69: Direct action: beneath the rocker Figure 70: Reverse action: above the rocker Reverse the wires of the solenoid on the terminal strip of the positioning device. Figure 71: Solenoid wire reversal to change the direction of action of the positioning device Training Manual: EXP-MN-SI040-EN Last Revised: 09/04/2008 Page 64 / 129 Field Operations Training Instrumentation Maintenance Valves and Actuators A great deal of care must be taken to avoid blocking the rocker with the wires of the solenoid, otherwise the valve will operate in "ALL-OR-NOTHING" mode, in other words either wide open or completely closed. The reason I am telling you this is that it happened to me once, by mistake. 8.1.2.3. Faults The main faults on the electro-pneumatic positioning device are: Balancing spring out of its recess, Unserviceable solenoid or integrated circuit card, Solenoid jammed in the core. This is due to humidity in the positioning device and distortion of the solenoid, Flapper jammed on nozzle → it is necessary to check the balance of the rocker with the screw of the small counterweight on the flapper, Clogged nozzle → The nozzle must imperatively be cleaned with compressed air, A disconnected solenoid wire. 8.1.3. Intelligent (digital) positioning device The intelligent positioning device is the latest version of the positioning device, which is becoming more and more widely used. 8.1.3.1. Constitution The intelligent positioning device consists of the following components: A microprocessor: this comprises an eeprom which is used to store the data, and an FSK module for digital communication between a PC and the positioning device, A nozzle-flapper system, A 3-way distributor valve: this is the controller, Training Manual: EXP-MN-SI040-EN Last Revised: 09/04/2008 Page 65 / 129 Field Operations Training Instrumentation Maintenance Valves and Actuators An electromagnet: this is the solenoid with its core, which enables the flapper to be tilted to varying degrees with respect to the nozzle thanks to the magnetic field created by the electric current passing through it, A digital display: it will enable the positioning device to be configured and will display either the fault diagnosis or all the measurement information of the positioning device. This type of positioning device is always supplied at a pressure of 1.4 bars, through a pressure reducing filter. The electrical signal from the regulator is always a current signal of 4-20mA. 8.1.3.2. Principle of operation Figure 72: Functional diagram of intelligent positioning device The central processing unit, or CPU, is the functional centre of the positioning device. The mechanical and pneumatic components provide only secondary functions. The input signal (4-20 mA) and the position measurement signal are cyclically checked by the CPU and sent to an analog-to-digital converter, thus enabling rapid and precise data processing. Training Manual: EXP-MN-SI040-EN Last Revised: 09/04/2008 Page 66 / 129 Field Operations Training Instrumentation Maintenance Valves and Actuators The general program also comprises a self-adjustment routine to automatically adjust the device on the valve actuator, and also an adaptive self-regulation mode which ensures optimum control and monitoring of the position irrespective of the operating conditions (supply pressure variation, for example). The servomotor is controlled by an I/P converter and a 3-way valve (distributor valve). The electrical signal from the CPU is proportionally converted into a pneumatic signal which adjusts the 3-way valve. The passage area is constantly modified to inflate or empty the servomotor proportionally with respect to the signal. When the valve position is reached, the 3-way valve is in its neutral position (the air flow is practically zero). To make it easier for you to understand the operation, bear in mind that the positioning device operates as a regulator (refer to the course on "the regulator and its functions"). The 4-20 mA input signal is the setpoint, and the position measurement performed by a position sensor is the measurement. The CPU compares these two values and sends a proportional electrical signal to the electromagnet, which will provide the means of acting on the control component (3-way valve) in order to establish measurement = setpoint. The standard positioning device is equipped with a local keypad (4 keys) and a 2-line display. This keypad is used for local configuration and for monitoring of the parameters in operation. Configuration, commissioning and observation can also be carried out remotely, via the communication port (FSK module), using a computer. This communication is based on the HART or FieldBus or PROFIBUS protocols. You can connect to the device either locally or anywhere on the 4-20 mA link. The basic model of the positioning device can be modified at any time (this will depend on the manufacturer) to receive new functions. It is possible to add cards for analog copying: this will enable a precise indication of the valve position on a DCS. Limit switches can also be added. Figure 73: ABB model TZID-C intelligent positioning device installed on a linear valve We can also change the direction of action of the positioning device (direct or reverse), and also the inherent characteristic of the valve (equal % or linear) simply by configuring the positioning device via the local configuration keypad, or remotely using the appropriate software. For installation purposes, this type of positioning device has the necessary standard installation kits enabling it to be installed on any type of valve. Training Manual: EXP-MN-SI040-EN Last Revised: 09/04/2008 Page 67 / 129 Field Operations Training Instrumentation Maintenance Valves and Actuators It can be installed on linear or rotary valves, and this is also a simple matter of configuring the device. Figure 74: ABB model TZID-C intelligent positioning device 8.1.3.3. Faults This type of positioning device often suffers electronic failures, which means that maintenance is a simple matter of replacement, so several intelligent positioning devices must be kept in stock, as the devices can be considered as "disposable". Training Manual: EXP-MN-SI040-EN Last Revised: 09/04/2008 Page 68 / 129 Field Operations Training Instrumentation Maintenance Valves and Actuators 8.2. THE ELECTRO-PNEUMATIC CONVERTER (I/P) The I/P converter is used in all electronic loops for which the actuator is pneumatic, or for passing through explosive areas for example (refer to the course on equipment in high risk areas). It converts standardised electrical signals into standardised pneumatic signals. The electro-pneumatic converter receives a 4-20 mA electrical signal and converts it into a 200-1000 mbar (0.2-1 bar) pneumatic signal. The converter is also supplied by an air pressure of 1.4 bars (1400 mbars). The difference between the I/P converter and the electro-pneumatic positioning device is that there is no valve position in this case. In clearer terms, the I/P converter receives the electrical signal (4-20 mA) from the regulator and converts it into pressure (0.2 - 1 bar), which is sent directly to the "valve head". This equipment is very useful when a valve positioning device is unserviceable and an emergency repair is essential. You attach this converter to the valve and you connect the 1.4 bar pneumatic supply, the pneumatic output signal from the converter to the valve and the 4-20 mA signal to the terminal strip of the valve, and that's all there is to it. Figure 75: MASONEILAN I/P converter Training Manual: EXP-MN-SI040-EN Last Revised: 09/04/2008 Page 69 / 129 Field Operations Training Instrumentation Maintenance Valves and Actuators Be careful when installing these I/P converters, because different manufacturers supply different installation kits. You can install them either on the valve itself, or on a 2" tube in the vicinity of the valve. 8.3. THE LUBRICATOR The seal packing is lubricated in order to facilitate the displacement of the shutter stem and to maintain the braids of the packing gland so that they do not deteriorate too quickly. This accessory is rarely used on a regulating valve. Figure 76: Lubricator on packing gland cap Training Manual: EXP-MN-SI040-EN Last Revised: 09/04/2008 Page 70 / 129 Field Operations Training Instrumentation Maintenance Valves and Actuators 8.4. THE POSITION SENSOR Position sensors are widely used on All-or-Nothing valves to show whether there are any safety valve discrepancies. They are also used on regulating valves, whether linear or rotary. The contacts of these position sensors can be Normally Open (NO) or Normally Closed (NC). There are therefore two types of contactor: Contactor with contact, called a microswitch Figure 77: Microswitch on regulating valve Contactor without contact, often called a proximity sensor. This type of contactor can be either inductive or capacitive. Figure 78: Proximity sensor 8.4.1. Microswitch This type of position switch is used as a safety device on valves, to provide the operator with an alarm in the case of a valve discrepancy. Its disadvantage is that the contact becomes quickly worn. Training Manual: EXP-MN-SI040-EN Last Revised: 09/04/2008 Page 71 / 129 Field Operations Training Instrumentation Maintenance Valves and Actuators 8.4.1.1. Microswitch on a linear valve Valve open Valve in intermediate position Valve closed Figure 79: Position of microswitch on a linear valve Training Manual: EXP-MN-SI040-EN Last Revised: 09/04/2008 Page 72 / 129 Field Operations Training Instrumentation Maintenance Valves and Actuators 8.4.1.2. Microswitch on a rotary valve On a rotary valve, the rotation of the valve drives a cam which trips the contact shown in the figure below. On this model, the cam and the contactor also wear rapidly. Figure 80: Position of the microswitch on a rotary valve 8.4.2. Inductive limit switch Inductive sensors are essential in an industrial environment. Compared to mechanical limit switches, they provide conditions which are practically ideal: operation without contact or wear, high switching frequencies, precise switching and high protection against vibrations, dust and humidity. Inductive sensors detect all metals without contact. Inductive sensors use the physical effect of the change of state of a resonant circuit, caused by eddy current losses in conductive parts. An LC oscillator circuit generates an alternating high frequency field which is radiated from the active surface of the sensor. Figure 81: Functional diagram of an inductive sensor When a conductive part enters this field, eddy currents are formed according to the law of induction, and these currents draw energy from the oscillating circuit. For this reason, the oscillation amplitude decreases. This change is converted into a switching signal. Thanks to this principle, all metallic materials can be detected, whether or not they are moving. Training Manual: EXP-MN-SI040-EN Last Revised: 09/04/2008 Page 73 / 129 Field Operations Training Instrumentation Maintenance Valves and Actuators 8.4.3. Capacitive limit switch Capacitive sensors are used for the no-contact detection of objects made of any material. Unlike inductive sensors, which can only detect metallic objects, capacitive sensors are capable of detecting non-metallic objects. Typical applications can be found in the following industries: wood, paper, glass, plastic, food processing and chemicals. The capacitance between the active electrode of the sensor and the ground potential is measured. An object close to the active surface affects the alternating electrical field between these two "capacitor plates". This applies to both metallic and non-metallic objects. In principle, capacitive sensors work with an RC oscillating circuit. Figure 82: Functional diagram of a capacitive sensor A minimum variation of the capacitance is enough to affect its oscillation amplitude. The evaluation electronics convert this into a switching signal. The user can adjust the sensitivity by means of a potentiometer. Training Manual: EXP-MN-SI040-EN Last Revised: 09/04/2008 Page 74 / 129 Field Operations Training Instrumentation Maintenance Valves and Actuators 8.5. THE BOOSTER The "Booster" is a pneumatic amplifier which amplifies the air flow from the valve positioning device using the output signal of the positioning device and its supply (1.4 bars). This enables a larger volume of air to be obtained, which makes it easier to inflate the diaphragm of the actuator. Figure 83: Functional diagram of a Booster When pressure is introduced through the signal port a downward force on the upper shutter area is created. This force is balanced by the output pressure acting against the lower control diaphragm area. The ratio of signal pressure to output pressure is determined by the ratio of the effective areas of the upper and lower diaphragms. Figure 84: Example of a "‘booster" If signal pressure is increased above the output pressure there is a net downward force on the diaphragm assembly causing the supply valve to open. Output pressure increases until equilibrium is achieved. When signal pressure is decreased below the output pressure, the diaphragm assembly rises, allowing output air to exhaust through the vent on the side of the relay. Figure 85: Control signal higher than the output Training Manual: EXP-MN-SI040-EN Last Revised: 09/04/2008 Page 75 / 129 Field Operations Training Instrumentation Maintenance Valves and Actuators Figure 86: Output higher than control signal Training Manual: EXP-MN-SI040-EN Last Revised: 09/04/2008 Page 76 / 129 Field Operations Training Instrumentation Maintenance Valves and Actuators 8.6. ELECTROVALVE OR "ELECTRO-DISTRIBUTOR VALVE" An electrovalve (also called a solenoid valve) is made up of two components: A pneumatic distributor valve A solenoid It is used on All-or-Nothing valves, and therefore on one-way or two-way valves. Reminder: The one-way actuator is a piston type servomotor with a return spring. The two-way actuator is a dual-piston servomotor, so it is necessary to send air onto one of the pistons whenever we want to open or close a valve. 8.6.1. Pneumatic distributor valve 8.6.1.1. Purpose The chambers of a valve actuator, when operating, must be alternately connected to the pressure and to the exhaust. We are obviously not going to swap the pipe connections around to achieve this. So the purpose of the distributor valve is to achieve two possible connection configurations, depending on an external control signal. Figure 87: Functional diagram of the distributor valve on an actuator Training Manual: EXP-MN-SI040-EN Last Revised: 09/04/2008 Page 77 / 129 Field Operations Training Instrumentation Maintenance Valves and Actuators 8.6.1.2. Principle of operation Schematically, a distributor valve will consist of a slide valve drilled with ducts. This slide valve can slide into two different positions inside the body. The body is also drilled with orifices which are connected together in twos, depending on the position of the slide valve. Figure 88: Displacement of the slide valve in a distributor valve In practice, the slide valves used in distributor valves are not necessarily manufactured with drilled ducts. Depending on the manufacturer and on the choice of technology, plugs or other forms of slide valve than the one shown in the functional diagram may be used. The distributor valve that is schematically represented here will be used to supply a twoway actuator (since two ducts have been provided to supply the valve actuator). A distributor valve will be identified by the number of pipes that can be connected to it (this is stated as the number of orifices) and the number of positions that the slide valve can occupy. The distributor valve that we have defined in the functional diagrams has: 4 orifices: one supply, one exhaust, one connection to the front chamber, one connection to the rear chamber; and 2 positions. It is therefore a 4/2 distributor valve. Figure 89: Displacement of the actuator piston as a function of the displacement of the slide valve in the 4/2 distributor valve Training Manual: EXP-MN-SI040-EN Last Revised: 09/04/2008 Page 78 / 129 Field Operations Training Instrumentation Maintenance Valves and Actuators 8.6.1.3. Diagrams Each position of the slide valve in the distributor valve is represented by one box. As this slide valve has two possible positions, we will draw two boxes (squares). The ducts are represented by arrows whose direction indicates the flow of the compressed air. The ends of the arrows are located opposite the pipes that lead to the chambers of the actuator, the air supply and the exhaust. At any given moment in time, only one of the two boxes is used. The pipes are therefore connected to one side only (the active box). When the slide valve moves, the pipes do not move; the arrows must be located opposite the ducts. Figure 90: Schematic representation of a 4/2 distributor valve For instrumentation purposes, you will be using 3/2 distributor valves and 5/2 distributor valves. 8.6.1.4. The 3/2 distributor valve The 3/2 distributor valve is used for one-way servomotors. It has only one orifice to supply the servomotor because only one chamber can be connected to the distributor valve. Figure 91: Schematic diagram of a 3/2 distributor valve 8.6.1.5. The 5/2 distributor valve The 5/2 distributor valve is used by two-way servomotors in the same way as 4/2 distributor valves. The 5/2 distributor valve has one exhaust orifice for each chamber of the actuator. Figure 92: Schematic diagram of a 5/2 distributor valve Training Manual: EXP-MN-SI040-EN Last Revised: 09/04/2008 Page 79 / 129 Field Operations Training Instrumentation Maintenance Valves and Actuators Figure 93: Schematic diagram of a 5/2 distributor valve 8.6.2. Control of distributor valves Electrical control Distributor valves are controlled by controlling the displacement of their slide valves. Control is obtained by changing the operating setpoint output by the control section. Pneumatic control A large number of control methods are available, but here are the most common: Electrical control Push-button control Pneumatic control Push-button control Roller control Roller control Spring control Figure 94: Schematic diagrams of distributor valve control methods Training Manual: EXP-MN-SI040-EN Last Revised: 09/04/2008 Spring control Page 80 / 129 Field Operations Training Instrumentation Maintenance Valves and Actuators 8.6.2.1. The monostable distributor valve If the distributor valve has a spring control, it is monostable. This means that only the position obtained through the action of the spring is stable: in the absence of an external control signal, the slide valve automatically goes to the spring position. Figure 95: Diagram of a monostable distributor valve with pneumatic control Figure 96: Example of a monostable distributor valve with electrical control 8.6.2.2. The bistable distributor valve If the distributor valve has two control devices of the same type, it is bistable. This means that both positions are stable positions: in the absence of an external control signal, the slide valve does not move and remains in its current position. Figure 97: Diagram of a bistable distributor valve with pneumatic control Figure 98: Example of a bistable distributor valve with electrical control The choice between a monostable or bistable control depends exclusively on considerations connected with the control section. An all-to-frequent error consists in thinking that there is a relationship between the one-way servomotor and a monostable distributor valve. In our case, for instrumentation, we usually need an electrical control on a monostable or bistable distributor valve. The electrical control will be implemented by means of a solenoid, which will be located on the pneumatic distributor valve. Training Manual: EXP-MN-SI040-EN Last Revised: 09/04/2008 Page 81 / 129 Field Operations Training Instrumentation Maintenance Valves and Actuators 8.6.3. Installation of the distributor valve The pneumatic distributor valve fits onto a base, and this base is used to supply air to the distributor valve and to distribute the compressed air according to the displacement of the slide valve in the distributor valve. Figure 99: Example of distributor valves mounted on the base Figure 100: Example of a base for a pneumatic distributor valve The base is connected by means of pneumatic unions (refer to the course on instrumentation accessories). Figure 101: Example of a base for a pneumatic distributor valves mounted on a DIN rail in a cabinet The type of base shown above is designed to be installed in a cabinet. This base supplies air to all the pneumatic distributor valves that are mounted on it. The major disadvantage of this base is that, if you need to replace a pneumatic distributor valve, it is necessary to cut off the air supply to all the distributor valves. There are also distributor valves that can be mounted directly on the All-or-Nothing valve using a standardised installation surface. It is secured onto the valve by means of two screws. Figure 102: Example of distributor valves which fit directly onto the valve, without the need for a base. Training Manual: EXP-MN-SI040-EN Last Revised: 09/04/2008 Page 82 / 129 Field Operations Training Instrumentation Maintenance Valves and Actuators 8.6.4. The solenoid As I am sure you have understood, the solenoid will be used to electrically control the pneumatic distributor valve. Solenoid with connector You can supply solenoids at 24 VDC, 48 VAC, 230 VAC or 110 VAC. On industrial sites, they are usually supplied at 24 VDC. Solenoid with connection Their commands are sent by a plc or are relayed by a local panel. As you can see, there is a wide choice of solenoids. Dual pulse solenoid Figure 103: Examples of various solenoids Obviously, in order to be able to energise the solenoids, we need a connector through which the supply wires of the solenoid arrive. Seal Figure 104: Connectors used for the electrical connection of the solenoid Training Manual: EXP-MN-SI040-EN Last Revised: 09/04/2008 Page 83 / 129 Field Operations Training Instrumentation Maintenance Valves and Actuators A seal is delivered with the connector, to provide sealing between the connector and the solenoid: it is essential to install this seal on the connector, otherwise you might get s nasty surprise when it rains!!!!!! Of course if you decide not to install this seal, get yourself a large box of spare fuses. ONCE THE CONNECTION HAS BEEN MADE TO THE CONNECTOR, DO NOT FORGET TO SCREW THE CONNECTOR ONTO THE SOLENOID: THIS WILL AVOID "GRRRRRRRRR….." For everything that concerns the electrical connection details of each instrumentation accessory, please refer to the "Instrumentation Accessories course". 8.7. MANUAL CONTROL Manual controls are installed on the servomotor, and their purpose is to enable the valve to be operated manually in certain cases: When starting up the unit. In case of emergency. In case of a lack of energy on the servomotor. If the valve is not equipped with a bypass system. The manual control installed on the top of the servomotor: can be used as an upward adjustable stop if it has a direct action, can be used as an downward adjustable stop if it has a reverse action, Training Manual: EXP-MN-SI040-EN Last Revised: 09/04/2008 Page 84 / 129 Field Operations Training Instrumentation Maintenance Valves and Actuators Figure 105: Manual control installed on the top of the servomotor The manual control installed on the side of a servomotor can be used as a limit stop in both directions. Figure 106: Manual control installed on the side of the servomotor The manual control of a valve must only be used if a problem occurs on the servomotor or the valve positioning device, for the purpose of repair. Do not forget to remove the manual control after completing the repair!!! Training Manual: EXP-MN-SI040-EN Last Revised: 09/04/2008 Page 85 / 129 Field Operations Training Instrumentation Maintenance Valves and Actuators 9. MAINTENANCE 9.1. REPLACEMENT OF SEAL PACKINGS Before doing anything else, it is absolutely essential to check that the valve is no longer under pressure. Disassembly of the packing gland: Loosen and remove the nuts from the rammer Move the rammer back Withdraw all the braid rings, using an extractor Check the surface condition of the braid recess and of the control stem (no scratches, marks, etc.) Carefully clean the inside of the packing gland (blow clean with compressed air) Once this operation has been carried out, it is necessary to repack the packing gland. This is done by proceeding as follows: Install the ring (braid) in an "S" configuration. Offset the cuts by 90° between two rings. Install one ring after another Use the rammer to help press the braids into the recess Figure 107: Installation of the braids When installing the last ring, place the rammer in contact with the braids and manually tighten the nuts. Training Manual: EXP-MN-SI040-EN Last Revised: 09/04/2008 Page 86 / 129 Field Operations Training Instrumentation Maintenance Valves and Actuators After completing this tightening phase, the control stem must turn without any more effort than before installing the braids. Gently tighten the rammer with a wrench until a slight resistance is felt when operating the stem. When pressurising the valve, if any leakage is observed, it is simply necessary to tighten the rammer slightly. The plaited braid must be cut in such a way as to obtain a slight tightening effect on the outside diameter and an initial play between the liner and the plaited braid. To obtain this, wind the braid around the shaft liner (or around a bar of the same diameter) to form a tight helix. (Take the necessary precautions to avoid scoring the liner). Example of a straight cut Figure 108: Braid cutting Example of an oblique cut Experience has shown that an oblique cut is preferable to a straight cut. This makes it easier to install the braid. To obtain optimum sealing, it is necessary to tighten the rammer to between 2 and 5 times the service pressure, depending on whether the fluid is a liquid or a gas. It is essential to avoid jamming the rammer, so the braid must me tightened evenly and in controlled manner. Training Manual: EXP-MN-SI040-EN Last Revised: 09/04/2008 Page 87 / 129 Field Operations Training Instrumentation Maintenance Valves and Actuators 9.2. VALVE CALIBRATION To obtain optimum operation of a regulation loop, it is essential to check the adjustment of a valve and the other components that constitute a regulation loop (sensor-transmitter, regulator and PID valve action). 9.2.1. Calibration of an I/P converter The calibration of an I/P converter is quite simply the reverse of the adjustment of a pressure transmitter. Figure 109: Calibration of a regulating valve with I/P converter To do this, we inject a 4-20 mA signal into the converter by means of a 4-20 mA current generator (a tool which is very widely used by instrument engineers). Training Manual: EXP-MN-SI040-EN Last Revised: 09/04/2008 Page 88 / 129 Field Operations Training Instrumentation Maintenance Valves and Actuators We then use a pressure gauge to check the output signal of the converter (0.2-1 bar). The converter output signal must be linearly proportional to its input signal (4-20 mA). If you see that the zero or the scale of the converter is offset, two adjusting screws are provided for this purpose on an I/P converter. IP Adjustments Zero adjustment Span adjustment Mode selection Lo-Hi span adjustment Sensitivity adjustment Item 1 2 3 4 5 IP port definitions Input Output Exhaust Conduit connection Port size ¼" FNPT ¼" FNPT ½" FNPT Item A B C D Figure 110: Adjustments on a converter Training Manual: EXP-MN-SI040-EN Last Revised: 09/04/2008 Page 89 / 129 Field Operations Training Instrumentation Maintenance Valves and Actuators You can also select the fail-safe state of the converter to be either high or low, by means of the Mode switch. The same applies to the high or low scale, with the Lo-Hi Span selection switch. 9.2.2. Calibration of an electro-pneumatic positioning device Figure 111: Cross-sectional views of a MASONEILAN Model 8007 electro-pneumatic converter 9.2.2.1. Zero adjustment Use a mercury column or a precision pressure gauge to check the output pressure, a 4-20 mA generator to obtain constant current signal variations, and a milliammeter connected to the terminals of the circuit to check the signal variations between 4 and 20 mA, Training Manual: EXP-MN-SI040-EN Last Revised: 09/04/2008 Page 90 / 129 Field Operations Training Instrumentation Maintenance Valves and Actuators Connect the signal conductors. Connect the wires of the solenoid to the terminals of the circuit board, Adjust the signal you wish to inject using your 4-20 mA to 12 mA generator, Adjust the supply pressure to 1.4 bars for a pneumatic output signal of 0.2 - 1 bar, Turn the screw of the zero spring (52) to obtain the output value that corresponds to a 12 mA input signal, i.e. up to 0.6 bars, And finally, check the pneumatic output signal for 4 and 20 mA, which corresponds to 0.2 bars and 1 bar. If all the values are correct, you have finished the zero adjustment. 9.2.2.2. Adjustment of the scale With the supply pressure adjusted to 1.4 bars, record the output pressure when the electrical signal is it at its minimum value (4 mA), Increase the electrical signal to its maximum value (20 mA) and record the output pressure. A variation of the electrical signal for the min. and max (from 4 to 20 mA) should cause an output pressure variation of 0.8 bars if the scale is 0.2-1 bar, If the pressure variation is different, pull clear the flapper (24) located at the rear of the converter, remove the plug with an Allen wrench and then loosen and unscrew the clamping screw by a few turns, Turn the scale adjustment screw in either direction until the total variation of the electrical signal causes the required total output pressure variation. To increase the pressure variation amplitude, turn the adjustment screw clockwise. To reduce the amplitude, turn the screw counter-clockwise, Tighten the clamp screw. Do not unscrew the scale adjustment screw excessively. The magnetic force tends to decrease after one complete turn. 9.2.2.3. Replacement of the solenoid Unscrew the screws (44) and (45) to release the solenoid (40) from the rocker, Training Manual: EXP-MN-SI040-EN Last Revised: 09/04/2008 Page 91 / 129 Field Operations Training Instrumentation Maintenance Valves and Actuators Lightly secure the new solenoid on the rocker with the screws (44) and (45); do not tighten the screws. The stop screw (44) must not protrude beyond the inside face of the solenoid, Secure the rocker onto the magnet with the flexible strips and screws, and then align the rocker according to the instructions provided in the following chapter. 9.2.2.4. Rocker alignment Insert a 1/8" cylindrical pin in the alignment holes of the solenoid, the rocker and the magnet, and place a shim with a height of 5/32" and a maximum width of 1 mm on the magnet, between the rocker and the solenoid. Tighten the two bottom screws (42) of the inner flexible strip on the rocker, and the two bottom screws of the outer flexible strip on the magnet. Remove the flapper from the rocker. Reinstall the complete mechanism in the case. Locate the zero spring support (39) and tighten the two screws (4). Apply slight pressure on the rocker over the solenoid and adjust the stop screw (44) until the rocker is parallel to the sealing faces of the case and cover. Whilst maintaining the rocker in this position, tighten the other four screws of the flexible strips, Tighten the screw of the solenoid (45) and remove the alignment pins, Reinstall the flapper, and align and centre it in the nozzle Figure 112: Alignment of the rocker Training Manual: EXP-MN-SI040-EN Last Revised: 09/04/2008 Page 92 / 129 Field Operations Training Instrumentation Maintenance Valves and Actuators 9.3. DEFECTIVE OPERATION OF THE I/P POSITIONING DEVICE In case of anomaly of the I/P positioning device, there are two fundamental systems that need to be checked: The pneumatic system The electrical system 9.3.1. Pneumatic system check With a supply at 1.4 bars, check that the output signal drops to less than 0.1 bar when the flapper is moved slightly away from the nozzle, Apply a slight pressure on the flapper in order to close off the nozzle, and check that the output signal reaches 1.4 bars, If these results are not obtained, clean the calibrated orifice (59) by pressing its unblocking device. Check the cleanness of the nozzle (16) and check that ball is still in position. Check that the calibrated orifice (59) is correctly screwed into the body of the controller. If the device continues to operate incorrectly, it will be necessary to disassemble the controller, If operation is irregular, check that there are no foreign particles lodged inside the solenoid and the magnet. 9.3.2. Electrical system check After checking the pneumatic system, it is necessary to check the electrical system as follows, using an ohmmeter. Disconnect the electrical signal conductors from the circuit card, Connect the ohmmeter to the terminals of the converter circuit and check the resistance of the circuit; you will find a small table giving the nominal value of the resistance on the following page. Disconnect one of the wires from the solenoid to the circuit card of the converter and connect it to one of the wires of the ohmmeter. Connect the other wire of the ohmmeter to the wire of the solenoid that is still connected. The measured value of the resistance of the solenoid must correspond approximately to the value given in the following table. Training Manual: EXP-MN-SI040-EN Last Revised: 09/04/2008 Page 93 / 129 Field Operations Training Instrumentation Maintenance Valves and Actuators Figure 113: Electrical circuit of the I/P positioning device Signal mA Nominal resistance of circuit Ω Nominal resistance of solenoid Ω TH Ω R Ω Colour code of solenoid 4 - 20 216 173 82 91 Blue Figure 114: Resistance value of Masoneilan solenoid Training Manual: EXP-MN-SI040-EN Last Revised: 09/04/2008 Page 94 / 129 Field Operations Training Instrumentation Maintenance Valves and Actuators If the measured resistance of the solenoid is approximately correct, but if the total resistance Th is not, replace the circuit card (15). If the measured resistance of the solenoid is incorrect, replace the solenoid (40). Connect one of the ohmmeter wires to the solenoid stop (44), and the other to the disconnected wire of the solenoid in order to measure its insulance. If the resistance indicated on the ohmmeter is not infinite, replace the solenoid. 9.3.3. Cleaning of the pneumatic system 9.3.3.1. Calibrated orifice The calibrated orifice (59) is used for the passage of the air supply to the nozzle system. A push-button, extended by a metal wire, enables the orifice to be unblocked if necessary. The complete calibrated orifice assembly can be removed without disassembling the controller. 9.3.3.2. Controller 21 53 54 55 56 59 65 Assembly screw Assembly screw Controller cover Diaphragm Intermediate plate Calibrated orifice O-ring 66 68 69 77 78 79 Controller body Plug spring Retaining plug Diaphragm block Exhaust plug Inlet plug Figure 115: Controller of the Masoneilan I/P positioning device In case of failure, it is necessary to disassemble the unit for cleaning or replacement of the deteriorated parts. Training Manual: EXP-MN-SI040-EN Last Revised: 09/04/2008 Page 95 / 129 Field Operations Training Instrumentation Maintenance Valves and Actuators Disconnect the pneumatic system, Remove the four screws securing the controller onto the body of the positioning device. Separate the complete controller, Remove the calibrated orifice and the spring retaining plug, and then remove the plug and its spring, Remove the six assembly screws in order to release the other components of the controller, Clean the parts with a clean soft cloth; if there are traces of oil or grease, use a solvent (except on the diaphragm and the seals). Blow through the orifices and ducts of this distributor valve (controller) with compressed air. Reassembly Insert two assembly screws into the two diametrically opposite holes in the bottom of the controller, Onto these parts, successively fit the diaphragm assembly, the intermediate block and the seal, Offer this assembly onto the body of the controller after introducing the spring of the diaphragm into the latter. Check the correct installation and centring of all the parts, Insert and tighten the four assembly screws Insert the plug and its spring. Tighten the spring retaining plug and also the calibrated orifice, Secure the controller onto the positioning device. I recommend that you have the following spare parts available: Solenoid Circuit card Complete controller with replacement diaphragm Cam Training Manual: EXP-MN-SI040-EN Last Revised: 09/04/2008 Page 96 / 129 Field Operations Training Instrumentation Maintenance Valves and Actuators 9.4. MAINTENANCE OF SERVOMOTOR FOR ROTARY VALVE Replacement of a rolling diaphragm 100 101 102 103 104 105 Yoke Screw (2) Washer (2) Spring chamber Spring Diaphragm 106 107 108 110 111 111A Screw (4) Actuator cover Piston Washer Nut Nut Figure 116: Detailed diagram of a MASONEILAN servomotor on a CAMFLEX II valve To disassemble the diaphragm, it is necessary to: Bypass the valve and close the manual shut-off valves, Remove the four screws (106) and the cover (107), Withdraw the diaphragm (105) and remove as much remaining adhesive as possible from the piston (108). Use an acetone-based solvent if necessary. Training Manual: EXP-MN-SI040-EN Last Revised: 09/04/2008 Page 97 / 129 Field Operations Training Instrumentation Maintenance Valves and Actuators To reassemble the diaphragm, it is necessary to: Apply a layer of Neoprene type adhesive on the ridge and on the inside face of the diaphragm base (105), on the base of the piston in the recess of the ridge at the entry to the spring chamber (103), Be careful not to allow any adhesive to go beyond the limit that corresponds to the flat section of the piston base. Figure 117: Limit of adhesive Centre and press the diaphragm onto piston. Smear the outside face of the diaphragm with talcum powder or grease, Roll the diaphragm inside the spring chamber, until the ridge fits into its recess at the entry to the spring chamber. Gently and evenly press the ridge so that all the adhesive-coated parts stick. Check that the diaphragm rolled between the piston and the spring chamber does not have any abnormal creases or pinches in it. Figure 118: Rolling the diaphragm Move the cover (107) towards the spring chamber, after correctly orienting the supply connection and aligning the four tapped holes with the four plain holes of the spring chamber. The ridge must be pinched between the lip of the cover and that of the spring chamber. Tighten the four screws (106). Figure 119: Installation of the cover Training Manual: EXP-MN-SI040-EN Last Revised: 09/04/2008 Page 98 / 129 Field Operations Training Instrumentation Maintenance Valves and Actuators 10. TROUBLESHOOTING 10.1. CAVITATION AND VAPORISATION 10.1.1. Variation of the static pressure in a valve In accordance with Bernoulli's theorem (refer to the course on Physical Measurements in Instrumentation), the restriction of the passage area offered by the valve and its operator causes an increase in the dynamic pressure. This results in a decrease in the static pressure, the magnitude of which will depend on: The internal geometry of the valve; The value of the static pressure downstream of the valve. This decrease in static pressure of the valve must be compared to the vapour tension of the liquid at the flow temperature, because this can lead to phenomena that are detrimental to the quality of the monitoring and to the durability of the equipment. Figure 120: Variation of the static pressure in the valve body 10.1.2. Cavitation When the static pressure in the fluid path decreases and reaches the value of the vapour tension of the liquid at the flow temperature, the cavitation phenomenon occurs (small vapour bubbles form in the liquid, curve 2). When the static pressure increases again (reduction of the velocity due to widening of the fluid path), the vapour bubbles condense and implode. This cavitation phenomenon has the following disadvantages: Noise, at an unacceptable sound level, which is very characteristic because it sounds like pebbles flowing through the pipe; High-frequency vibrations which cause all the hardware of the valve and its accessories to work loose; Training Manual: EXP-MN-SI040-EN Last Revised: 09/04/2008 Page 99 / 129 Field Operations Training Instrumentation Maintenance Valves and Actuators Rapid destruction of the plug, the seat and the body, by removal of metal particles. The surfaces that are subjected to the cavitation phenomena have a grainy surface; The flow through the valve is no longer proportional to the command. Valves with a lot of internal profiling have an increased tendency to cavitate. Figure 121: Example of damage caused by cavitation 10.1.3. Vaporisation If the static pressure downstream of the valve is low (high pressure differential in the valve), the gas bubble implosion process does not occur: the bubbles remain present in the fluid path, which results in the vaporisation phenomenon (curve 3). This vaporisation phenomenon has the following disadvantages: Noise, although the sound level is not as high as that caused by cavitation; Mechanical damage to the plug, the seat and the body, due to the high-velocity flow of a gas and liquid mixture. The surfaces exposed to this phenomenon have cavities with a polished appearance; Critical operating conditions. Training Manual: EXP-MN-SI040-EN Last Revised: 09/04/2008 Page 100 / 129 Field Operations Training Instrumentation Maintenance Valves and Actuators 11. VALVE SIZING 11.1. THE Cv AND THE Kv of a VALVE 11.1.1. What is the Cv of a valve? The flow coefficient Cv, used for the first time by Masoneilan in 1944, rapidly became the universal reference for measuring the flow of fluid through a valve. This is because this coefficient is so practical that it is now almost always used in calculations for the sizing of valves or to determine the flow-rates passing through them. As the basic idea to state the flow capabilities of a valve under precise conditions is of American origin, some manufacturers give the water flow-rate in "gallons per minute" with a ∆P of 1 PSI (valve fully open). This specific flow-rate is called: The Cv of the valve (Flow coefficient of the valve). Manufacturer calculation manuals state the methods for calculating the Cv, for liquids, gases and vapours, under the most varied conditions. These, and more generally the calculations used in valve sizing and adjustment, are often very complex. The Cv of a valve is therefore expressed using the following American formula: Cv = Q d ΔP Where: Q: flow-rate in US gallons per minute d: density (with respect to water) ΔP: pressure differential en psi Note: 1 US gallon = 3.758 litres 1 PSI = 0.069 bars or 69 hPa The Cv is a size reference that the technician can use to quickly and accurately determine the size of a restriction based on known values of the flow-rate, the pressure, and any other associated parameters; this is furthermore applicable to any fluid. The Cv is proportional to the passage area between the seat and the plug. Training Manual: EXP-MN-SI040-EN Last Revised: 09/04/2008 Page 101 / 129 Field Operations Training Instrumentation Maintenance Valves and Actuators Cv = 0 when the valve is closed; Cv = Cv_ {max} when the valve is fully open. The Cv also depends on the internal profile of the valve, and on the type of flow in the valve. Figure 122: Profile of a direct flow valve body with a high Cv Figure 123: Profile of an indirect flow valve body with a low Cv 11.1.2. What is the Kv of a valve? For us technicians, it is actually easier to work with ∆P values in bars and flow-rates in m3/h. So the flow factor or Kv is the Cv of a valve, except that we use metric units. Kv = 1.16 / Cv Training Manual: EXP-MN-SI040-EN Last Revised: 09/04/2008 Page 102 / 129 Field Operations Training Instrumentation Maintenance Valves and Actuators 11.1.3. Standard formulae for calculation of a valve Cv For liquids: Q: flow-rate in m3/h D: density ΔP: pressure differential in bars For gases: Cv = Q d .T 295 ΔP(P1 + P2 ) Q: flow-rate in Nm3/h (1013 mb and 15.6 °C) D: gas density under standard conditions, calculated with respect to that of the air, taken to be = 1 T: absolute temperature in degrees Kelvin P1: upstream pressure in bars abs. P2: downstream pressure in bars abs. ΔP: P1 - P2 in bars Note: The formulae mentioned above are for non-critical flows. 11.1.4. Cv calculation formulae according to the manufacturer Masoneilan 11.1.4.1. For liquids in imperial units Non-critical flow: Critical flow (cavitation or vaporisation): ΔP < C f (ΔPs ) ΔP ≥ C f (ΔPs ) 2 2 Volumetric flow: Cv = q Gf Cv = ΔP Gf q Cf ΔPs Mass flow: Cv = W Cv = 500 G f ΔP W 500C f G f ΔPs ⎛ P ⎞ ΔPs = P1 − ⎜⎜ 0,96 − 0,287 V ⎟⎟ PV PC ⎠ ⎝ Training Manual: EXP-MN-SI040-EN Last Revised: 09/04/2008 Page 103 / 129 Field Operations Training Instrumentation Maintenance Valves and Actuators But as a simplification, if PV < 0.5 P1; ΔPS = P1 - PV CV: Flow coefficient Cf: Pressure recovery factor from the liquid in a regulating valve without adjacent unions Gf: Density at the temperature of the flow, calculated with respect to water (1 at 60 °F) P1: Absolute upstream pressure (psia) P2: Absolute downstream pressure (psia) PC: Absolute critical thermodynamic pressure (psia) PV: Vapour tension of the liquid at the upstream temperature (psia) ΔP: Pressure differential P1 – P2 (psi) q: Volumetric flow of the liquid (USgal/min) W: Mass flow of the liquid (lbs/hr) 11.1.4.2. For liquids in metric units Non-critical flow: Critical flow (cavitation or vaporisation): ΔP < C f (ΔPs ) ΔP ≥ C f (ΔPs ) 2 2 Volumetric flow: Cv = 1,16q Gf ΔP Cv = 1,16q G f Cf ΔPs Cv = 1,16W C f G f ΔPs Mass flow: Cv = 1,16W G f ΔP ⎛ P ⎞ ΔPs = P1 − ⎜ 0,96 − 0,287 V ⎟ PV ⎜ PC ⎟⎠ ⎝ But as a simplification, if PV < 0.5 P1; ΔPS = P1 - PV CV: Flow coefficient Cf: Pressure recovery factor from the liquid in a regulating valve without adjacent unions Gf: Density at the temperature of the flow, calculated with respect to water (1 at 15.6 °C P1: Absolute upstream pressure (bars abs) P2: Absolute downstream pressure (bars abs) PC: Absolute critical thermodynamic pressure (bars abs) PV: Vapour tension of the liquid at the upstream temperature (bars abs) ΔP: Pressure differential P1 – P2 (bar) q: Volumetric flow of the liquid (m³/h) W: Mass flow of the liquid (t/h) Training Manual: EXP-MN-SI040-EN Last Revised: 09/04/2008 Page 104 / 129 Field Operations Training Instrumentation Maintenance Valves and Actuators 11.1.4.3. For gases and steam, in imperial units Volumetric flow for gas: CV = Mass flow for gas: CV = Saturated steam: CV = Q GTZ 834C f P1 y − 0.148 y 3 ( W Z 2.8C f P1 G f y − 0.148 y 3 ( W 1.83C f P1 y − 0.148 y 3 Superheated steam: CV = ( ) ) W (1 + 0.0007Tsh ) 1.83C f P1 y − 0.148 y 3 ( ) ) Where, for 77000 valves, LO-DB cartridges and relief plates, and for two-stage 41000 1.40 ΔP valves and 72000 valves: y = Cf P1 Where, for all other valves: y = 1.36 ΔP (maximum value = 1.50, at this value Cf P1 y - 0.148 y³ = 1.0) CV: Flow coefficient Cf: Pressure recovery factor from the liquid in a regulating valve without adjacent unions G: Gas density at 60 °F (air = 1.0) Gf: Density at the temperature of the flow (= G x 520 / T) P1: Absolute upstream pressure (psia) P2: Absolute downstream pressure (psia) ΔP: Pressure differential P1 – P2 (psi) Q: Volumetric flow at 14,7 psia and 60 °F (scfh) T: Temperature of the flow (°R) Tsh: Steam overtemperature (°F) W: Mass flow (lbs/hr) Z: Compressibility factor Training Manual: EXP-MN-SI040-EN Last Revised: 09/04/2008 Page 105 / 129 Field Operations Training Instrumentation Maintenance Valves and Actuators 11.1.4.4. For gases and steam in metric units Volumetric flow for gas: CV = Mass flow pour gas: CV = Saturated steam: CV = Q GTZ 257C f P1 y − 0.148 y 3 ( 54.5W Z C f P1 G f y − 0.148 y 3 ( 83.7W C f P1 y − 0.148 y 3 Superheated steam: CV = ( ) ) ) 83.7(1 + 0.00126Tsh )W C f P1 y − 0.148 y 3 ( ) Where, for 77000 valves, LO-DB cartridges and relief plates, and for two-stage 41000 1.40 ΔP valves and 72000 valves: y = Cf P1 Where, for all other valves: y = 1.36 ΔP (maximum value = 1.50, at this value Cf P1 y - 0.148 y³ = 1.0) CV: Flow coefficient Cf: Pressure recovery factor from the liquid in a regulating valve without adjacent unions G: Gas density at 15,6 °C (air = 1.0) Gf: Density at the temperature of the flow (= G x 288 / T) P1: Absolute upstream pressure (bar abs) P2: Absolute downstream pressure (bar abs) ΔP: Pressure differential P1 – P2 (bar) Q: Volumetric flow at 1013 mbar abs and 15 °C (m³/h) T: Temperature of the flow (K) Tsh: Steam overtemperature (°C) W: Mass flow (t/h) Z: Compressibility factor Training Manual: EXP-MN-SI040-EN Last Revised: 09/04/2008 Page 106 / 129 Field Operations Training Instrumentation Maintenance Valves and Actuators 11.1.5. Cv calculation for a valve 11.1.5.1. Equivalent Cv with 2 valves in parallel Qeq = Q1 + Q2 ∆Peq = ∆P1 = ∆P2 11.1.5.2. Equivalent Cv with 2 valves in series Qeq = Q1 = Q2 ∆Peq = ∆P1 + ∆P2 Training Manual: EXP-MN-SI040-EN Last Revised: 09/04/2008 Page 107 / 129 Field Operations Training Instrumentation Maintenance Valves and Actuators 11.2. CHOICE OF VALVE After calculating the Cv, the choice of valve from the manufacturer's catalogue can lead to a valve with a diameter less than that of the pipe. In this case, the valve is installed between convergent and divergent pipe sections. Figure 124: Valve between convergent and divergent pipe sections This creates an additional pressure differential, which must be taken into account in the calculation of the valve. This option is used if there is no other choice, but it is usually recommended to do everything possible to choose a valve whose diameter is identical to that of the pipe. It is also necessary to take the material of the pipe into account, and to choose a valve made of the same material (e.g. Stainless Steel 316, Carbon steel, etc.). The process conditions will enable you to choose the type of valve body. The safety conditions will enable you to know the fail-safe position of the valve (FAIL CLOSED or FAIL OPEN) and whether or not you add limit switches to it. Training Manual: EXP-MN-SI040-EN Last Revised: 09/04/2008 Page 108 / 129 Field Operations Training Instrumentation Maintenance Valves and Actuators 12. TAG AND IDENTIFICATION OF VALVES 12.1. ALL-OR-NOTHING VALVES 12.1.1. Blow Down Valve BDVs: Blow Down Valves. Safety level ESD, GSSD These are valves which have an emergency decompression function, releasing the fluid to the torch of the installations. They are necessarily of the FAIL OPEN type. They are mainly used on compressors, on VHP reservoirs and on gas treatment units. 12.1.2. Emergency Shut-Down Valve ESDVs: Emergency Shut-Down Valves. Safety level ESD, GSSD. These valves have a safety shut-off function. They protect against overpressure and pipe bursting, and are used to shut-off platforms in cases of ESD or GSSD. These valves are present in the safety process panels, and are ordered to close when the bar is tripped. These valves are reopened locally - on a pneumatic or hydraulic cabinet -, once the console operator has identified the fault, reset the safety process panel and given the authorisation to reopen from the console. They are necessarily of the FAIL CLOSED type. They are often two-way valves with an air reserve. They are mainly used on oil and gas outlets / inlets. 12.1.3. Remote Operated Valve ROVs: Remote Operated Valves These are controlled by the operator from the control console. Training Manual: EXP-MN-SI040-EN Last Revised: 09/04/2008 Page 109 / 129 Field Operations Training Instrumentation Maintenance Valves and Actuators They do not have a shut-off function, and they are not present on the safety process panels. Their fail-safe position is not necessarily defined. These are fluid routing valves, and are mainly used on the production / test manifolds of wells, on pump discharges and on chemical line selectors. 12.1.4. Shut-Down Valve SDVs: Shut-Down Valves. Safety level PPSD, EPSD and higher, sometimes TPSD These valves have a safety shut-off function. They are present on the safety process panels and are ordered to close when the bar trips. (Note that some SDVs can be closed by the operating personnel in case of TPSD). These valves are then reopened from the console*, once the operator has identified the fault and reset the safety process panel. These valves are mainly found on the inlets / outlets of reservoirs and on machine intakes. These valves are of the FAIL CLOSED type (except for the test separator bypass valve, which is of the FO type). 12.1.5. Surface Safety Valve SSVs: Surface Safety Valves. Safety level PPSD, EPSD and higher, TPSD These are SDV type valves on well-head tubings, and are also called master valves. 12.1.6. Surface Controlled Sub-Surface Safety Valve SCSSVs: Surface Controlled Sub-Surface Safety Valves. Safety level ESD, GSSD These are ESDV type valves on well-bottom tubings, and are also called bottom valves. They are controlled from the surface by high pressure hydraulic lines (up to 500 bars), in order not to remain blocked open by the pressure of the deposit in case of leakage. Training Manual: EXP-MN-SI040-EN Last Revised: 09/04/2008 Page 110 / 129 Field Operations Training Instrumentation Maintenance Valves and Actuators 12.2. REGULATING VALVES RCV: Remote Control Valve, HCV: Hand control valve. Training Manual: EXP-MN-SI040-EN Last Revised: 09/04/2008 Page 111 / 129 Field Operations Training Instrumentation Maintenance Valves and Actuators 13. APPENDICES Lengths mm 0.10 cm inches 25.40 mm mm 0.001 m inches 2.54 cm mm 0.039 inches inches 0.0254 m mm 0.00328 feet inches 0.0833 feet cm 10.0 mm feet 304.8 mm cm 0.010 m feet 30.48 cm cm 0.394 inches feet 0.304 m cm 0.0328 feet feet 12.0 inches mm² 0.010 cm² sq. inches 645.2 mm² mm² 10-6 m² sq. inches 6.452 cm² mm² 0.00155 sq. inches sq. inches 0.000645 m² mm² 1.076 10-5 sq. feet sq. inches 0.00694 sq. feet cm² 100 mm² sq. feet 9.29 104 mm² cm² 0.0001 m² sq. feet 929 cm² cm² 0.155 sq. inches sq. feet 0.0929 m² cm² 0.001076 sq. feet sq. feet 144 sq. inches us gall / min GPM 3.785 l / min cubic feet / hr 0.1247 gpm us gallons / min 0.133 cubic feet / min cubic feet / hr 0.472 l / min us gallons / min 8.021 cubic feet / hr cubic feet / hr 0.01667 cubic feet / min us gallons / min 0.227 m³ / h cubic feet / hr 0.0283 m³ / h us gallons / min 34.29 barrels / day m³ / h 4.403 GPM cubic feet / min 7.481 GPM m³ / h 16.67 l / min cubic feet / min 28.32 l / min m³ / h 0.5886 cubic feet / min cubic feet / min 60.0 cubic feet / hr m³ / h 35.31 cubic feet / hr cubic feet / min 1.699 m³ / h m³ / h 150.9 barrels / day cubic feet / min 256.5 barrels / day Surfaces Flow-rates Training Manual: EXP-MN-SI040-EN Last Revised: 09/04/2008 Page 112 / 129 Field Operations Training Instrumentation Maintenance Valves and Actuators Speeds feet / sec 60 feet / min m/s 3.280 feet/sec feet / sec 0.3048 m/s m/s 196.9 feet / min feet / sec 1.097 km / hr m/s 3.6 km / h feet / sec 0.6818 miles / hr m/s 2.237 miles / hr pounds 0.0005 short ton kg 2.205 pounds pounds 0.000446 long ton kg 0.0011 short ton pounds 0.453 kg kg 0.00098 long ton pounds 0.000453 t kg 0.001 t short ton 2 000 pounds t 2 205 pounds short ton 0.8929 long ton t 1.102 short ton short ton 907.2 kg t 0.984 long ton short ton 0.9072 t t 1 000 kg long ton 2 240 pounds long ton 1.120 short ton long ton 1 016 kg long ton 1.016 t Masses Volume and capacity cm³ 0.06102 cubic inches l 1 000 cm³ cm³ 3.531 10-5 cubic feet l 61.02 cubic inches cm³ 10-6 m³ l 0.03531 cubic feet cm³ 0.0001 l l 0.001 m³ us gallons l 0.264 gallons cm³ gallons 3 785 cm³ cm³ -4 2.642 10 6 m³ 10 m³ 61 023 cubic inches gallons 231 cubic inches m³ 35.31 cubic feet gallons 0.1337 cubic feet m³ 1 000 l gallons 3 785 10-3 m³ m³ 264.2 gallons gallons 3.785 l cubic feet 28 320 cm³ cubic feet 1 728 cubic inches Training Manual: EXP-MN-SI040-EN Last Revised: 09/04/2008 Page 113 / 129 Field Operations Training Instrumentation Maintenance Valves and Actuators cubic feet 0.0283 m³ cubic feet 28.32 l cubic feet 7.4805 gallons Pressure and hauteur pounds / sq.inch 0.06895 bar kg / cm² 14.22 psi pounds / sq.inch 0.06804 atmosphere kg / cm² 0.9807 bar pounds / sq.inch 0.0703 kg / cm² kg / cm² 0.9678 atmosphere pounds / sq.inch 6.895 kPa kg / cm² 98.07 kPa pounds / sq.inch 2.307 ft de H2O (4 °c) kg / cm² 32.81 ft de H2O (4 °c) pounds / sq.inch 0.703 m de H2O (4 °c) kg / cm² 10 m de H2O (4 °c) pounds / sq.inch 5.171 Cm de Hg (0 °c) kg / cm² 73.56 cm Hg pounds / sq.inch 51.71 torr (mm Hg 0 °c) kg / cm² 735.6 torr (mm Hg) pounds / sq.inch 2.036 inch hg (0 °c) kg / cm² 28.96 inch Hg atmosphere 14.69 psi kPa 0.145 psi atmosphere 1.013 bar kPa 0.01 bar atmosphere 1.033 Kg / cm² kPa 0.00986 atmosphere atmosphere 101.3 kPa kPa 0.0102 kg / cm² atmosphere 33.9 ft de H2O kPa 0.334 ft H2O atmosphere 10.33 m de H2O kPa 0.102 m H2O atmosphere 76.00 cm de Hg kPa 0.7501 cm Hg atmosphere 760.0 torr (mm Hg) kPa 7.501 torr (mm Hg) atmosphere 29.92 inch Hg kPa 0.295 inch Hg bar 14.50 psi mbar 0.001 bar bar 0.9869 atmosphere bar 1.020 kg / cm² bar 100 kPa bar 33.45 ft de H2O bar 10.20 m de H2O bar 75.01 cm Hg bar 750.1 torr (mm Hg) bar 29.53 inch Hg Table 10: Conversion of units Training Manual: EXP-MN-SI040-EN Last Revised: 09/04/2008 Page 114 / 129 Field Operations Training Instrumentation Maintenance Valves and Actuators 13.1. CRITICAL CONSTANTS OF CERTAIN LIQUID AND GAS BODIES Critical pressure - PC Critical temperature - TC Designation k * CP / CV psia Bars abs °F °C Acetic acid CH3-CO-OH 841 58.0 612 322 Acetone CH3-CO-CH3 691 47.6 455 235 Acetylene C2H2 911 62.9 97 36 1.26 Air O2+N2 547 37.8 -222 -141 1.40 Ammonia NH3 1638 113.0 270 132 1.33 Argon A 705 48.6 -188 -122 1.67 Benzene C6H6 701 48.4 552 289 1.12 Butane C4H10 529 36.5 307 153 1.09 Carbon dioxide CO2 1072 74.0 88 31 1.30 Carbon monoxide CO 514 35.5 -218 -139 1.40 Carbon tetrachloride CCl4 661 45.6 541 283 Chlorine Cl2 1118 77.0 291 144 1.36 Ethane C2H6 717 49.5 90 32 1.22 Ethyl alcohol C2H5OH 927 64.0 469 243 1.13 Ethylene Ch2=CH2 742 51.2 50 10 1.26 Ether C2H5-O-C2H5 522 36.0 383 195 Fluorine F2 367 25.3 -247 -155 1.36 Helium He 33.2 2.29 -450 -268 1.66 Heptane C7H16 394 27.2 513 267 Hydrogen H2 188 13.0 -400 -240 Training Manual: EXP-MN-SI040-EN Last Revised: 09/04/2008 4.15 1.41 Page 115 / 129 Field Operations Training Instrumentation Maintenance Valves and Actuators Critical pressure - PC Critical temperature - TC Designation k * CP / CV psia Bars abs °F °C Hydrochloric acid HCl 1199 82.6 124 51 1.41 Isobutane (CH3)CH-CH3 544 37.5 273 134 1.10 Isopropyl alcohol CH3-CHOH-CH3 779 53.7 455 235 Methane CH4 673 46.4 -117 -83 1.31 Methyl alcohol H-CH2OH 1156 79.6 464 240 1.20 Nitrogen N2 492 34.0 -233 -147 1.40 Nitrous oxide N2O 1054 72.7 99 37 1.30 Octane CH-(CH2)6-CH3 362 25.0 565 296 1.05 Oxygen O2 730 50.4 -182 -119 1.40 Pentane C5H12 485 33.5 387 197 1.07 Phenol C6H5OH 889 61.3 786 419 Phosgene COCl2 723 56.7 360 182 Propane C3H8 617 42.6 207 97 1.13 Propylene CH2=CH-CH3 661 45.6 198 92 1.15 Refrigerant 12 CCl2F2 582 40.1 234 112 1.14 Refrigerant 22 CHClF2 713 49.2 207 97 1.18 Sulphur dioxide SO2 1142 78.8 315 157 1.29 Water H2O 3206 221.0 705 374 1.32 Table 11: Critical pressure and critical temperature of a few selected materials Training Manual: EXP-MN-SI040-EN Last Revised: 09/04/2008 Page 116 / 129 Field Operations Training Instrumentation Maintenance Valves and Actuators Designation Mass volume – lb/ft³ 14.7 psia and 60 °F Masse volume – kg/m³ 1013 mbar and 15,6 °C Liquid Liquid Gas Gas Molar mass g/mol Acetic acid CH3-CO-OH 65.7 1052.4 66.1 Acetone CH3-CO-CH3 49.4 791.3 58.1 Acetylene C2H2 0.069 1.11 26.0 Air O2+N2 0.0764 1.223 29.0 Ammonia NH3 0.045 0.72 17.0 Argon A 0.105 1.68 39.9 Benzene C6H6 54.6 874.5 78.1 Butane C4H10 0.154 2.47 58.1 Carbon dioxide CO2 0.117 1.87 44.0 Carbon monoxide CO 0.074 1.19 28.0 Carbon tetrachloride CCl4 99.5 1593.9 153.8 Chlorine Cl2 0.190 3.04 70.9 Ethane C2H6 0.080 1.28 30.1 Ethyl alcohol C2H5OH 49.52 Ethylene Ch2=CH2 Ether C2H5-O-C2H5 793.3 0.074 44.9 46.1 1.19 719.3 28.1 74.1 Fluorine F2 0.097 1.55 38.0 Helium He 0.011 0.18 4.0 Heptane C7H16 Hydrogen H2 Training Manual: EXP-MN-SI040-EN Last Revised: 09/04/2008 42.6 682.4 0.005 100.2 0.08 2.02 Page 117 / 129 Field Operations Training Instrumentation Maintenance Valves and Actuators Designation Mass volume – lb/ft³ 14.7 psia and 60 °F Masse volume – kg/m³ 1013 mbar and 15,6 °C Liquid Liquid Gas Molar mass g/mol Gas Hydrochloric acid HCl 0.097 1.55 36.5 Isobutane (CH3)CH-CH3 0.154 2.47 58.1 Isopropyl alcohol CH3-CHOH-CH3 49.23 Methane CH4 Methyl alcohol H-CH2OH 788.6 0.042 49.66 60.1 0.67 16.0 795.5 32.0 Nitrogen N2 0.074 1.19 28.0 Nitrous oxide N2O 0.117 1.87 44.0 Octane CH-(CH2)6-CH3 43.8 Oxygen O2 701.6 0.084 114.2 1.35 32.0 Pentane C5H12 38.9 623.1 72.2 Phenol C6H5OH 66.5 1065.3 94.1 Phosgene COCl2 0.108 1.73 98.9 Propane C3H8 0.117 1.87 44.1 Propylene CH2=CH-CH3 0.111 1.78 42.1 Refrigerant 12 CCl2F2 0.320 5.13 120.9 Refrigerant 22 CHClF2 0.228 3.65 86.5 Sulphur dioxide SO2 0.173 2.77 64.1 Water H2O 62.34 998.6 18.0 Table 12: Mass volume and molar masse of a few selected materials Training Manual: EXP-MN-SI040-EN Last Revised: 09/04/2008 Page 118 / 129 Field Operations Training Instrumentation Maintenance Valves and Actuators 14. EXERCISES 1. Which item is the Packing gland rammer? Item 5 Item 6 Item 7 2 1 2. Which item is the plug? Item 1 5 6 Item 4 Item 8 3 4 7 8 9 3. Which item is the seat? Item 9 10 Item 3 Item 2 4. The servomotor of this valve is: Rotary Linear 5. One of the major hazards for a valve is? Gravitation Pressure differential Cavitation Training Manual: EXP-MN-SI040-EN Last Revised: 09/04/2008 Page 119 / 129 Field Operations Training Instrumentation Maintenance Valves and Actuators 6. An All-or-Nothing valve consists of: A positioning device A one-way or two-way actuator An electrovalve An I/P converter 7. The supply pressure of a regulating valve is: 7 bars 3 PSI 1.4 bars or 2.1 bars 8. What is the purpose of an electro-pneumatic positioning device? To convert an electrical signal (4-20 mA) into a pneumatic signal (0.2 - 1 bar) To position the regulating valve Both 9. A rolling diaphragm type servomotor is designed for: A linear valve A piston valve A rotary valve 10. A servomotor is said to be "reverse" when: The air enters above the diaphragm cover The air enters beneath the diaphragm cover Training Manual: EXP-MN-SI040-EN Last Revised: 09/04/2008 Page 120 / 129 Field Operations Training Instrumentation Maintenance Valves and Actuators 11. In the body of this valve, the fluid: Tends to close it Tends to open it Is direct 12. Which of these two servomotors is direct? The one on the right The one on the left Both 13. I am in the following situation: I have a direct action valve body and a reverse servomotor: What will the fail-safe position of my regulating valve be? Fail Open Fail Closed Training Manual: EXP-MN-SI040-EN Last Revised: 09/04/2008 Page 121 / 129 Field Operations Training Instrumentation Maintenance Valves and Actuators 15. FIGURES Figure 1: Location of the "regulating valve" in the regulation loop .......................................7 Figure 2: Technology of a regulating valve ........................................................................10 Figure 3: The two assemblies of a regulating valve ...........................................................11 Figure 4: Linear flow characteristic ....................................................................................13 Figure 5: Equal percentage flow characteristic ..................................................................13 Figure 6: Quick opening flow characteristic .......................................................................14 Figure 7: Fluid displacement in a single-seat body ............................................................15 Figure 8: Single-seat body .................................................................................................16 Figure 9: Double-seat body................................................................................................17 Figure 10: Fluid displacement in a double-seat body.........................................................18 Figure 11: Cage valve........................................................................................................19 Figure 12: 3-way mixing valve ...........................................................................................21 Figure 13: 3-way bypass valve ..........................................................................................22 Figure 14: Diaphragm valve...............................................................................................23 Figure 15: Functional diagram of the diaphragm valve ......................................................23 Figure 16: Guillotine valve .................................................................................................24 Figure 17: Micro-flow control valve with adjustable valve coefficient (Varipak)..................25 Figure 18: Example of a micro-flow valve ..........................................................................26 Figure 19: Adjustment of the Cv ........................................................................................26 Figure 20: Butterfly valve ...................................................................................................27 Figure 21: Ball valve ..........................................................................................................28 Figure 22: Example of a ball valve.....................................................................................29 Figure 23: Valve with eccentric spherical shutter...............................................................30 Figure 24: Cross-sectional view of the eccentric spherical shutter ....................................31 Figure 25: Functional diagram of the eccentric spherical shutter valve .............................31 Figure 26: Different plugs and their flow characteristics ....................................................33 Figure 27: Quick opening plug ...........................................................................................34 Figure 28: Linear plug ........................................................................................................34 Figure 29: Modified linear plug...........................................................................................34 Figure 30: Equal percentage plug......................................................................................35 Figure 31: Equal percentage plug turned with a Vee-shaped aperture..............................35 Figure 32: Parabolic plug ...................................................................................................35 Figure 33: Quick opening cage ..........................................................................................36 Figure 34: Linear cage .......................................................................................................36 Figure 35: Equal percentage cage.....................................................................................37 Figure 36: Low noise cage.................................................................................................37 Figure 37: Diagram of valve cap ........................................................................................38 Figure 38: Packing gland of a valve...................................................................................39 Figure 39: Sealing boot......................................................................................................39 Figure 40: Graphite and PTFE packing rings.....................................................................40 Figure 41: Examples of graphite and PTFE braids ............................................................40 Figure 42: Poor sealing, leakage from the packing gland ..................................................41 Figure 43: Diaphragm type servomotor..............................................................................43 Figure 44: Simplified diagram of a diaphragm type servomotor.........................................45 Training Manual: EXP-MN-SI040-EN Last Revised: 09/04/2008 Page 122 / 129 Field Operations Training Instrumentation Maintenance Valves and Actuators Figure 45: Cross-sectional view of a servomotor with multiple return springs....................46 Figure 46: Rolling diaphragm type servomotor ..................................................................46 Figure 47: Piston type servomotor .....................................................................................47 Figure 48: Simplified diagram of a one-way piston type servomotor for a linear valve ......48 Figure 49: Two-way piston type servomotor for a rotary valve...........................................48 Figure 50: Hydraulic servomotor........................................................................................49 Figure 51: Functional diagram of the control of a hydraulic servomotor ............................50 Figure 52: Electric servomotor with motor and gearbox.....................................................51 Figure 53: Example of an electric servomotor....................................................................52 Figure 54: Valve with solenoid type servomotor ................................................................52 Figure 55: Example of a solenoid type servomotor............................................................52 Figure 56: Direct action valve body....................................................................................53 Figure 57: Reverse action valve body................................................................................53 Figure 58: Direct action servomotor ...................................................................................54 Figure 59: Reverse action servomotor ...............................................................................54 Figure 60: Valve fail-safe position......................................................................................55 Figure 61: Different possibilities for the fail-safe position of a valve...................................56 Figure 62: Functional diagram of pneumatic positioning device ........................................59 Figure 63: Masoneilan pneumatic positioning device ........................................................60 Figure 64: View of the cam with and its reaction spring .....................................................60 Figure 65: MASONEILAN lever orientation and cam position............................................61 Figure 66: Nozzle-flapper system with electromagnet on I/P positioning device................62 Figure 67: Functional diagram of electro-pneumatic positioning device ............................63 Figure 68: MASONEILAN type 8013 electro-pneumatic positioning device.......................64 Figure 69: Direct action: beneath the rocker ......................................................................64 Figure 70: Reverse action: above the rocker ....................................................................64 Figure 71: Solenoid wire reversal to change the direction of action of the positioning device ...................................................................................................................................64 Figure 72: Functional diagram of intelligent positioning device..........................................66 Figure 73: ABB model TZID-C intelligent positioning device installed on a linear valve ....67 Figure 74: ABB model TZID-C intelligent positioning device..............................................68 Figure 75: MASONEILAN I/P converter .............................................................................69 Figure 76: Lubricator on packing gland cap .......................................................................70 Figure 77: Microswitch on regulating valve ........................................................................71 Figure 78: Proximity sensor ...............................................................................................71 Figure 79: Position of microswitch on a linear valve ..........................................................72 Figure 80: Position of the microswitch on a rotary valve ....................................................73 Figure 81: Functional diagram of an inductive sensor .......................................................73 Figure 82: Functional diagram of a capacitive sensor........................................................74 Figure 83: Functional diagram of a Booster .......................................................................75 Figure 84: Example of a "‘booster" ....................................................................................75 Figure 85: Control signal higher than the output ................................................................75 Figure 86: Output higher than control signal ......................................................................76 Figure 87: Functional diagram of the distributor valve on an actuator ...............................77 Figure 88: Displacement of the slide valve in a distributor valve........................................78 Figure 89: Displacement of the actuator piston as a function of the displacement of the slide valve in the 4/2 distributor valve .........................................................................78 Figure 90: Schematic representation of a 4/2 distributor valve ..........................................79 Training Manual: EXP-MN-SI040-EN Last Revised: 09/04/2008 Page 123 / 129 Field Operations Training Instrumentation Maintenance Valves and Actuators Figure 91: Schematic diagram of a 3/2 distributor valve ....................................................79 Figure 92: Schematic diagram of a 5/2 distributor valve ....................................................79 Figure 93: Schematic diagram of a 5/2 distributor valve ....................................................80 Figure 94: Schematic diagrams of distributor valve control methods.................................80 Figure 95: Diagram of a monostable distributor valve with pneumatic control ...................81 Figure 96: Example of a monostable distributor valve with electrical control .....................81 Figure 97: Diagram of a bistable distributor valve with pneumatic control .........................81 Figure 98: Example of a bistable distributor valve with electrical control ...........................81 Figure 99: Example of distributor valves mounted on the base .........................................82 Figure 100: Example of a base for a pneumatic distributor valve ......................................82 Figure 101: Example of a base for a pneumatic distributor valves mounted on a DIN rail in a cabinet .....................................................................................................................82 Figure 102: Example of distributor valves which fit directly onto the valve, without the need for a base....................................................................................................................82 Figure 103: Examples of various solenoids .......................................................................83 Figure 104: Connectors used for the electrical connection of the solenoid ........................83 Figure 105: Manual control installed on the top of the servomotor ....................................85 Figure 106: Manual control installed on the side of the servomotor...................................85 Figure 107: Installation of the braids..................................................................................86 Figure 108: Braid cutting....................................................................................................87 Figure 109: Calibration of a regulating valve with I/P converter .........................................88 Figure 110: Adjustments on a converter ............................................................................89 Figure 111: Cross-sectional views of a MASONEILAN Model 8007 electro-pneumatic converter.....................................................................................................................90 Figure 112: Alignment of the rocker...................................................................................92 Figure 113: Electrical circuit of the I/P positioning device ..................................................94 Figure 114: Resistance value of Masoneilan solenoid.......................................................94 Figure 115: Controller of the Masoneilan I/P positioning device ........................................95 Figure 116: Detailed diagram of a MASONEILAN servomotor on a CAMFLEX II valve ....97 Figure 117: Limit of adhesive.............................................................................................98 Figure 118: Rolling the diaphragm.....................................................................................98 Figure 119: Installation of the cover...................................................................................98 Figure 120: Variation of the static pressure in the valve body............................................99 Figure 121: Example of damage caused by cavitation ....................................................100 Figure 122: Profile of a direct flow valve body with a high Cv ..........................................102 Figure 123: Profile of an indirect flow valve body with a low Cv.......................................102 Figure 124: Valve between convergent and divergent pipe sections ...............................108 Training Manual: EXP-MN-SI040-EN Last Revised: 09/04/2008 Page 124 / 129 Field Operations Training Instrumentation Maintenance Valves and Actuators Training Manual: EXP-MN-SI040-EN Last Revised: 09/04/2008 Page 125 / 129 Field Operations Training Instrumentation Maintenance Valves and Actuators 16. TABLES Table 1: Advantages and Disadvantages of the single seat ..............................................15 Table 2: Advantages and Disadvantages of the double seat .............................................18 Table 3: Advantages and Disadvantages of the cage valve ..............................................20 Table 4: Advantages and Disadvantages of the diaphragm valve .....................................24 Table 5: Advantages and Disadvantages of the guillotine valve ........................................24 Table 6: Advantages and Disadvantages of the butterfly valve .........................................27 Table 7: Advantages and Disadvantages of the ball valve ................................................29 Table 8: Advantages and Disadvantages of the eccentric shutter valve............................32 Table 9: Combinations of valve fail-safe and positioning device positions.........................56 Table 10: Conversion of units ..........................................................................................114 Table 11: Critical pressure and critical temperature of a few selected materials .............116 Table 12: Mass volume and molar masse of a few selected materials ............................118 Training Manual: EXP-MN-SI040-EN Last Revised: 09/04/2008 Page 126 / 129 Field Operations Training Instrumentation Maintenance Valves and Actuators 17. ANSWERS TO THE EXERCISES 1. Which item is the rammer de Packing gland? Item 5 ; Item 6 Item 7 2 1 2. Which item is the plug? Item 1 5 6 Item 4 ; Item 8 3 4 7 8 9 3. Which item is the seat? ; Item 9 10 Item 3 Item 2 4. The servomotor of this valve is: Rotary ; Linear 5. One of the major hazards for a valve is? Gravitation Pressure differential ; Cavitation Training Manual: EXP-MN-SI040-EN Last Revised: 09/04/2008 Page 127 / 129 Field Operations Training Instrumentation Maintenance Valves and Actuators 6. An All-or-Nothing valve consists of: A positioning device ; A one-way or two-way actuator ; Un electrovalve An I/P converter 7. The supply pressure of a regulating valve is: 7 bars 3 PSI ; 1.4 bars or 2.1 bars 8. What is the purpose of an electro-pneumatic positioning device? To convert an electrical signal (4-20 mA) into a pneumatic signal (0.2 - 1 bar) To position the regulating valve ; Both 9. A rolling diaphragm type servomotor is designed for: A linear valve A piston valve ; A rotary valve 10. A servomotor is said to be "reverse" when: The air enters above the diaphragm cover ; The air enters beneath the diaphragm cover Training Manual: EXP-MN-SI040-EN Last Revised: 09/04/2008 Page 128 / 129 Field Operations Training Instrumentation Maintenance Valves and Actuators 11. In the body of this valve, the fluid: Tends to close it ; Tends to open it Is direct 12. Which of these two servomotors is direct? The one on the right ; The one on the left Both 13. I am in the following situation: I have a direct action valve body and a reverse servomotor: What will the fail-safe position of my regulating valve be? Fail Open ; Fail Closed Training Manual: EXP-MN-SI040-EN Last Revised: 09/04/2008 Page 129 / 129