Advanced Energy Storage & Hydrogen:
Breakthroughs and Beyond
Dr Alex Holland - Principal Technology Analyst, IDTechEx
Conrad Nichols - Technology Analyst, IDTechEx
Chingis Idrissov - Technology Analyst , IDTechEx
Originally Broadcast November 2023
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1
Energy Storage
Agenda
− Li-ion trends and advancements
− Recycling and second-life
− Important alternatives beyond Li-ion
− Clean hydrogen
− Concluding remarks
@IDTechEx
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2
Energy Storage
How IDTechEx Helps Its Customers
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guidance
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data
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3
Energy Storage
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4
Energy Storage
IDTechEx Energy Subscription
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5
Energy Storage
Li-ion
Trends
and Advancements
Section
title
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6
Energy Storage
Growth in Demand Driven by Electric Vehicles
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7
Energy Storage
What is a Li-ion Battery?
Aluminium
Cathode
Polyolefin separator
Graphite anode
Copper
Li-ion cell
Anode:
Graphite
Cathode:
Lithium cobalt oxide (LCO)
Nickel manganese cobalt/aluminium oxide (NMC/NCA)
Lithium iron phosphate (LFP)
Energy density: 600 Wh/l, 250 Wh/kg
Cycle life:
1000 cycles
Charge rate:
1-2C
Cost:
$100/kWh
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8
Energy Storage
LCO, LMO, NMC, NCA, NCMA, LFP, LMFP… Chemistry
Choices Continue to Expand
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9
Energy Storage
LFP Share Increasing (Slowly Outside China) Driven by
Cost Pressures
Europe and North America dominated by NMC and NCA with shift toward mid-nickel, then high-nickel variants.
LFP the most widely used chemistry in China. Though there was a small unexpected drop in 2022 from 2021, the
share of LFP use is still expected to grow due to cost and safety pressures and improvements to pack-level energy
density.
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10 by Muhammad
Energy Storage
Cost Is a Key Consideration for Cathode Choices and
Development
Manganese-rich cathodes.
Recent increase in activity driven by costperformance trade-off requirements.
LMR-NMC cathodes could lead to cost
reductions of ~10% compared to NMC 811 at
the cell level.
LMFP to enter market alongside other cathode
chemistries including manganese-rich and highvoltage LNMO.
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11 by Muhammad
Energy Storage
Anode Materials a Key Lever for Increasing Energy Density
Incumbent anode: graphite
Capacity: 372 mAh/g, 830 mAh/cm3
Future anode: silicon
Capacity: 3590 mAh/g, 2190 mAh/cm3
High capacity. Can be made
much thinner than graphite.
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12 by Muhammad
Energy Storage
Funding for Silicon Anodes Continues
Cumulatively, funding into silicon anode start-ups
and companies has exceeded US$4 billion since
2010 Over US$1 billion in 2021 and 2022 each.
Investment in 2023 has slowed significantly –high
level of previous investment, slow global economic
growth and high borrowing costs likely to be
contributing factors.
Funding continuing to be made available to startups and early-stage companies developing silicon
anodes.
Players building and expanding commercial-scale
manufacturing capacity.
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13 by Muhammad
Energy Storage
Solid Electrolytes Pursued for Safety and Energy Density
Incumbent electrolyte: organic liquid
Future electrolyte: solid oxide, sulfide,
polymer, hybrid
Solid electrolyte
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14 by Muhammad
Energy Storage
Location Overview of Major Solid-State Battery Players
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15 by Muhammad
Energy Storage
Thoughts on SSBs in the Market
Most of the commercialized or to be commercialized batteries
equipped in vehicles in near future are not true all solid-state
batteries (ASSBs).
True ASSBs can take time and they are still pursued by most
players.
Hybrid SSBs can be a good transition, no matter from value
proposition point of view, or marketing point of view
EV is still the major market driver, although other markets are
easier to realize (there are already niche applications with
SSBs)
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16 by Muhammad
Energy Storage
Specific Energy and Cell-to-Pack Ratio
Shown in the chart is a summary of the cell and
pack energy density of 31 top selling BEVs
from IDTechEx’s database of currently available
cars.
Cell-to-pack challenges:
Serviceability
Mechanical integrity
Crash resistance
Thermal management
Flexibility of application
Recycling?
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17 by Muhammad
Energy Storage
Simultaneous Improvements to Battery Performance
Possible from BMS Development
More accurate
state estimation
can allow a higher
SOC range to be
safely accessed.
Energy
density
Cost and
ROI
Optimising battery
use to minimise
degradation and
maximise utility to
fleet operators.
Battery management
system driven
improvements
Intelligent charge
protocols that
replace
conventional
CCCV
Fast
charge
Safety
Cycle
life
improve fault detection
and minimise modes of
operation that lead to
accelerated
degradation
Usage data can
elucidate operational
modes that accelerate
degradation and
performance loss.
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18 by Muhammad
Energy Storage
Advanced BMS Activity
Source: “Li-ion Batteries and Battery Management Systems for Electric Vehicles 2024-2034”
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19 by Muhammad
Energy Storage
Li-ion Battery Recycling, SecondLife and Alternative Energy Storage
Technologies
Conrad Nichols - Technology Analyst, IDTechEx
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20 by Muhammad
Energy Storage
Li-ion Battery Demand and Circular Economy
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21 by Muhammad
Energy Storage
Second-life
Batteries
Section title
Second-life Electric Vehicle Batteries 2023-2033
www.IDTechEx.com/SecondLife
Sample pages are available for all IDTechEx reports.
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22 by Muhammad
Energy Storage
Closer Look at Battery Second Use Value Chain
EV owner
Battery
collector
Battery
performance
modeler/tester
Some batteries are procured by
testers/modelers solely to develop
battery performance models.
Battery/EV
manufacturer
EV owner
Battery
collector
Battery
remanufacturer /
repurposer
Battery
second user
Batteries are
designed and
manufactured as
EV powertrains.
Batteries are
used in EVs.
Raw material
supplier
Battery/EV
manufacturer
Raw material
supplier
Raw battery
materials are
exploited.
Batteries are
retired from
EVs and
collected by
EV/battery
manufacturers
.
Batteries are
tested, then
repurposed or
remanufactured
for second use.
Batteries are
used in
second-life
applications
e.g., energy
storage.
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23 by Muhammad
Recycling
Batteries are
collected and
materials are
recycled.
Energy Storage
Depth of Disassembly
Cell-level disassembly
and rearrangement
Pack-level integration
Best cells used
Bypasses complex disassembly procedures
Improves how competitive these
systems are with new Li-ion batteries
for SES
Cheapest form of repurposing
Supply side flexibility, can string packs of different designs
together
Most time consuming and expensive
process (reassembly also needed).
Performance of system affected by worst performing cell
Could damage well-performing cells in
the process – losing value
Relying on OEM providing packs with pre-specified
performance requirements
May be leaning more-so on battery analytics to improve
system longevity
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24 by Muhammad
Energy Storage
Battery Design and Disassembly
Lack of EV battery
design
standardization
Not
automated,
needs manual
labor
Battery
disassembly
High level of
skill needed
Disassembly Times for Different EV Batteries
Different
times & costs
500
450
400
Time (mins)
Could be
decreased?
350
300
250
200
150
Cell-to-pack
designs
Larger cell
form factors
100
50
0
Renault ZOE
Nissan Leaf
Peugeot 208
BAIC BJEV
BYD Han
Adapted from data from Lander et al., 2023.
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25 by Muhammad
Energy Storage
Second-Life Player Activity
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26 by Muhammad
Energy Storage
Li-ion
Battery
Recycling
Section
title
Li-ion Battery Recycling Market 2023 - 2043
www.IDTechEx.com/LIRecycling
Sample pages are available for all IDTechEx reports.
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27 by Muhammad
Energy Storage
LIB Recycling Technologies
Pyrometallurgical
Hydrometallurgical
End-of-life Li-ion batteries &
manufacturing scrap
Hydrometallurgical-direct
hybrid
Direct recycling
Recovery of valuable elements
(Co, Mn, Ni)
Recovery of salt solution for Liion cathode active material
synthesis
Mixed components (e.g. alloy)
Battery-grade salts (e.g. NiSO4)
Direct refunctionalization of Li-ion
active material
Cathode active material (NMC,
LCO, LFP, etc.)
Mixed metal cathode precursor (e.g.
NixMnyCoxOH2)
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28 by Muhammad
Energy Storage
Is Recycling Li-ion Batteries Always Economic?
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29 by Muhammad
Energy Storage
Recycling Policies and Regulations
EU: Battery regulation coming
soon into force.
China: Various regulations in place for
recycling Li-ion batteries.
US: Advanced Manufacturing
Production Credit through the
Inflation Reduction Act.
India: Battery Waste
Management Rules
2022.
Li-ion battery recycling regulations
Li-ion battery recycling incentives
No explicit Li-ion battery recycling regulations
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30 by Muhammad
Energy Storage
Recycling Capacity is Expanding
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31 by Muhammad
Energy Storage
Li and Co Material Constraints
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32 by Muhammad
Energy Storage
Redox Flow Batteries and Other ES
Section
title
Technologies
Redox Flow Batteries Market 2024 - 2034
www.IDTechEx.com/Redox
Sample pages are available for all IDTechEx reports.
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33 by Muhammad
Energy Storage
Why and When is Longer Duration Energy Storage Needed?
Creates greater
uncertainty and
variability in energy
and electricity supply
VRE penetration
continues to increase
Increasing duration of storage requirements with
increasing share of variable renewables
30%
25000
25%
20000
20%
15000
15%
10000
10%
5000
5%
0
0%
Coal
Gas
Hydro
Oil
Solar
Wind
Other renewables
% from renewables
Average duration of storage (hours)
30000
% of electricity mix from source/line
Global energy generation/area (TWh)
Global Electricity Generation by Source 1985-2021
Biofuel
Creates demand for
LDES technologies to
dispatch energy over
longer timeframes
20.0
18.0
LDES technologies, e.g., RFBs,
starting to be more in demand.
16.0
14.0
12.0
10.0
8.0
6.0
4.0
Li-ion sufficient here.
2.0
0.0
25% 30% 35% 40% 45% 50% 55% 60% 65% 70% 75% 80% 85% 90%
Share of variable renewables in final consumer demand in percent
Source: IDTechEx, adapted from data from Zerrahn et al., 2018.
Source: IDTechEx, adapted from data from IEA
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34 by Muhammad
Energy Storage
Alternative Energy Storage Technologies
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35 by Muhammad
Energy Storage
RFB Key Components
Flowing electrolyte
and storage tanks
Cell stack
Pumps / Balance of Plant
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36 by Muhammad
Energy Storage
Energy and Power Decoupling
− Electrolyte storage tanks only need increasing to increase storage duration, i.e., power and energy can be scaled independently.
− Results in CAPEX only increasing with tank size and electrolyte volume.
− As system size increases for Li-ion, CAPEX increases proportionally – makes Li-ion less feasible from an economic perspective for longer
duration technologies.
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37 by Muhammad
Energy Storage
Example RFB Technologies
RFB
Zinc-iron
Hydrogenbromine
Commercial
status
CAPEX
(US$ /
kWh)
Active
material /
electrolyte
costs
Cell
voltage
vs SHE
(V)
Gravimetric
energy
density
(Wh/kg)
Volumetric
energy
density
(Wh/L)
Discharge
current
(mA/cm2)
Energy
efficiency
(EE)
1.53
50 - 60
>50
35-40
65-70%
1.10
35
12
Unknown
65-75%
Potentially
early
commercial
(WeView)
400
Zn/Fe
<US$3/kg
Electrolyte
~US$15/kWh
Late R&D
~550
(~100
targeted)
Br <US$5/kg
H2 US$12/kg
Dendrite
formation
Power /
energy
decoupling
Electrolyte
solubility
(mol/L)
Harder to
prevent
Difficult
1
No
Yes
N/A
All vanadium
(VRFB)
All-iron
Key
Zinc-bromine
Zinc-ferricyanide
Organic (ORFB)
Hydrogenmanganese
Vanadiumbromine
Iron-chromium
Information for these RFB chemistries can be found in the report.
Redox Flow Batteries Market 2024 - 2034
Improving in
comparison
www.IDTechEx.com/Redox
Sample pages are available for all IDTechEx reports
Polysulphidebromine
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38 by Muhammad
Data unknown / not relevant
due to nascence of or
unfeasibility of technology.
Energy Storage
Concluding Remarks
Why?
Market Growth
Second-life
Maximize battery value and
delays recycling.
Second-life market in nascent stage, many
technical considerations and few startups.
Expected to grow at slower rate to
recycling market.
Recycling
To extract valuable materials;
shielding against supply
bottlenecks, price fluctuations
and to domesticate supply.
Many established players continuing to
expand recycling capacities globally.
Policies also a driver in key regions.
RFBs and other LDES
technologies
Critical Li-ion material supply
constraints and increasing
growth of VRE sources will
increase demand for other ES /
LDES technologies.
LDES technologies being developed and
commercialized by players globally. Greater
demand for LDES likely sooner in key regions,
e.g., California, Australia, Europe.
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39 by Muhammad
Energy Storage
Overview of the Hydrogen Economy
Chingis Idrissov - Technology Analyst , IDTechEx
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40 by Muhammad
Energy Storage
What Is the Hydrogen Economy?
Natural gas
reforming / coal
gasification +
CCUS
Emerging
(LH2)
Most developed
(Pure or blend)
Renewable
energy + H2O
electrolysis
•
•
Least developed
At production site
(short-term)
Off-site (short - &
long-term)
(LH2 or H2 carriers)
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41 by Muhammad
Energy Storage
The Colors of Hydrogen
Low-carbon H2
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42 by Muhammad
Energy Storage
Green Hydrogen: Main Electrolyzer Technologies
Electrolyte
Cathode
Anode
KOH solution in porous Zirfon
diaphragm
Polymer (e.g., Aemion)
Polymer (e.g., Nafion)
YSZ (yttrium stabilized zirconia)
Ni alloys (e.g. Raney Ni, NiMoCo,
etc)
Transition metal-based alloys (but Pt
can also be used)
Pt/C
LSM/YSZ (lanthanum strontium
manganite)
Ir black, IrOx, or IrRuOx
NiO/YSZ
AWE and PEMEL will dominate green H2 production over the next decade
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43 by Muhammad
Energy Storage
Materials for Green Hydrogen Production 2024-2034
Alkaline Water Electrolyzer (AWE) Cell Components
Component
Function
Incumbent
materials
Bipolar plate
(BPP)
Conducts electricity from one cell to
another.
Provides structural support, cell
separation, and channels for
electrolyte & gas flow.
Stainless or Niplated steel plates
with flow channels
Electrodes
(cathode &
anode)
Facilitate the electrochemical
reactions and mass transport of
electrolyte & product gases
Act as current collectors.
Activated Ni-alloys
on perforated
stainless steel
plate
Separator
Separates H2 & O2 gases.
Conducts OH– ions.
Zirfon diaphragm
(500 μm)
Porous
transport layer
(PTL)
Compress electrodes against
diaphragm. Facilitate gas release.
Not typically used
Gaskets
Seals the electrolyzer cell.
EPDM, ePTFE
Cell frames
Component alignment, sealing &
structural support.
PEEK, HDPE,
PPS-40GF
End plate
Holds the AWE stack together.
Stainless or Niplated steel
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44 by Muhammad
Energy Storage
Blue Hydrogen: Main Production Technologies
Steam-Methane
Reforming (SMR)
• Incumbent technology
• Can be retrofitted with
post-combustion CO2
capture
Partial Oxidation
(POX)
Autothermal Reforming
(ATR)
Turquoise Hydrogen
Methane Pyrolysis
(e.g. plasma pyrolysis)
• Commonly used for onsite hydrogen production,
e.g. petroleum refining
• Useful for conversion of
waste oil feedstocks
• Relatively new technology
• Combines principles of
SMR & POX
• Promising & popular for
greenfield projects
• Promising technology that
generates no CO2.
• Can use electricity
• Hydrogen classified as
turquoise
Coal (or biomass)
Gasification (CG)
• Commonly used in power
generation and chemical
production
• Popular in China
• Very carbon intensive
Natural gas reforming will dominate blue H2 production over the next decade
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Energy Storage
Overview of Hydrogen Storage & Distribution
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Energy Storage
Overview of Hydrogen End-Use Sectors
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Energy Storage
IDTechEx’s Hydrogen Research Portfolio
H2 Production
Green Hydrogen Production:
Electrolyzer Markets 2023-2033
Fuel Cells
Materials for PEM Fuel Cells
2023-2033
H2 End-Use Markets
Fuel Cell Boats & Ships 20232033: PEMFC, SOFC, Hydrogen,
Ammonia, LNG
Entire Value-Chain
Electric Cars 2023-2043
Hydrogen Economy 2023-2033:
Production, Storage, Distribution
& Applications
Blue Hydrogen Production and
Markets 2023-2033:
Technologies, Forecasts,
Players
Solid Oxide Fuel Cells 20232033: Technology, Applications
and Market Forecasts
Battery Electric & Hydrogen Fuel
Cell Trains 2023-2043
Electric and Fuel Cell Trucks
2024-2044: Markets,
Technologies, and Forecasts
Sample pages are available for all reports available at www.IDTechEx.com. For more information, contact research@IDTechEx.com.
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Energy Storage
Contact us to explore how we can
support your business.
Research: research@IDTechEx.com
Section title
Europe (UK)
Cambridge: +44 1223 812300
Rest of World
Asia (Japan): +81 3 3216 7209
USA
Boston: +1 617 577 7890
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© IDTechEx.
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distribution licence | www.IDTechEx.com
Slide
49 by Muhammad
Energy Storage