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Geometallurgy - A Critical Element in the Development of Deposits for
the Energy Transition
Presentation · March 2023
DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.2.29955.58409
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Geometallurgy –
A Critical Element in the
Development of Deposits
for the Energy Transition
David Kaeter, PhD
Consultant, Geochemistry
with contributions from Pim van Geffen and
Michael Cronwright.
PDAC Convention, March 7, 2023
© Copyright 2023 by ERM Worldwide Group Limited and/or its affiliates (‘ERM’). All Rights Reserved. No part of this
work may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, without prior written permission of ERM.
Introduction
Rare-Earth Elements
Lithium
Cobalt
What to do
2
Critical Minerals
Photo: Jem Sanchez on pixabay.com
3
Natural Resources Canada (2022): The Canadian Critical Minerals Strategy, https://www.canada.ca/en/campaign/critical-mineralsin-canada/canadian-critical-minerals-strategy.html
The Future Value of Energy-Critical Elements
Element
CAGR*
REEs
9.1% (’21–’30)
Lithium
23.3% (’21–’28)
Manganese
7.4% (’19–’27)
Cobalt
12.5% (‘21–’29)
Copper
4.2% (‘21–’29)
Zinc
4.0% (‘21–’27)
*compound annual growth rate
To meet growing demand, we
need to find more deposits, but
we also need to be smarter
about how we mine them.
Visual Capitalist (2022)
4
Orebody Knowledge – Looking beyond grades…
Photo: Peter Döpper on pixabay.com
?
Concentrating
Refining
$ales
Comminution
Geotech
Blasting
Reprocess
Repurpose
Tailings
CCS
“Waste”
Disposal
What do we need to know about a rock to map all downstream processes?
5
Closure?
The goal
Grade & By-Products
Comminution Indicators
Lithology & Stratigraphy
Recovery & Product Quality
Alteration & Oxidation
Water Resources
Chemistry & Mineralogy
Energy Resources
Rock Mechanics
Carbon Accounting
Acid-Base Accounting
Closure & Remediation
...etc.
A resource block model that accurately captures the total value
6
Part of Canada’s Critical Minerals Strategy is the conservation and
protection of Canada’s natural environment as well as the promotion of
climate action by supporting the transition to a greener economy at
home and around the world.
A geometallurgical approach can support the sustainable development
of mineral resources by contributing to:
• Optimal use of energy, water, and reagents.
• Better understanding of environmental characteristics of tailings,
waste and materials exposed in pit walls.
• Minimization of waste.
7
UN Sustainable Development Goals: https://sdgs.un.org/goals
Sustainable Development
Limited understanding of downstream processes
by exploration teams.
Challenges
Quality and reliability of visual geological logging
and analytical data.
Volume of metallurgical and environmental
testwork; composites vs variability samples.
Complex mineralogy with implications for
processing and recovery: Grade ≠ Value
8
Introduction
Rare-Earth Elements
Lithium
Cobalt
Conclusions
9
Rare-Earth Elements
10
REEs – Per Geijer
Per Geijer is and Iron-Oxide-Apatite (IOA)
deposit adjacent to the Kiruna Mine in Sweden.
• Total measured + indicated resource of 201 Mt at 51.7%
Fe and 2.74% P
• Total inferred resource of 585 Mt at 50.5% Fe, 2.41% P
and ~0.18% (1,800 ppm) TREO
• REEs are associated with apatite, but monazite,
xenotime and allanite were also described.
Per Geijer
Kiruna Mine
LKAB (2023): https://lkab.com/en/press/europes-largest-deposit-of-rare-earthmetals-is-located-in-the-kiruna-area/
Per Geijer may become important source of REEs in Europe,
but REE-recovery from apatite has not been undertaken on
commercial scale yet.
It needs to be ensured that REE deportment and distribution
are understood across the deposit, and that phosphates are
mined and recovered from the iron-ore tailings.
Krolop et al. (2019)
11
REEs – Deposits and deportment
Currently, the economically most important
REE deposits are:
• Carbonatite-related deposits, e.g.,
Mountain Pass, Bayan Obo, 1–10% TREO
• REE laterites and ionic-adsorption clay
deposits, 0.05–0.20% TREO
More than 200 different minerals are
known to host REEs…
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Bastnaesite: (La, Ce, Y)CO3F
Monazite: (Ce,La,Nd,Th)PO4
Xenotime: YPO4
Allanite: (Ce,Ca,Y,La)2(Al,Fe+3)3(SiO4)3OH
Apatite: Ca5(PO4)3
Crandallite: CaAl3(PO4)2(OH)5∙H2O
Florencite: (Ce,La,Nd,Sm)Al3(PO4)2(OH)6
...
Other sources: peralkaline granites & NYF pegmatites,
alluvial and coastal heavy mineral placers, iron-oxide–
apatite (IOA) deposits, iron-oxide–copper-gold deposits
(IOCG), marine phosphate deposits, bauxites, REE-rich
coal deposits…….
Bastnaesite, Zegi Mt, Pakistan (Rob Lavinsky & irocks.com)
12
Ionic-adsorption clay deposits
Ionic-adsorption clay (IAC) deposits and REE laterites are relatively low grade with
low total tonnages compared to hard-rock deposits, but they are typically
enriched in HREEs and are easier to explore, drill, mine and process. However,
topsoil
understanding REE deportment is crucial. The total REE content is partially…
…adsorbed to clay
…hosted by
leachable minerals
…hosted by
resistive minerals
ox. soil
saprolite
Cheaply recoverable
using salt solutions at
pH = 4
Not economically
recoverable at typical
grades of IAC deposits
Requires stronger acid,
more impurities leached,
recovery more costly
This can be tested at low cost very early in a project
13
bed rock
Modified from Berger et al (2013)
REEs – Hydrometallurgical processing of bastnaesite (simplified)
Example 1: bastnaesite + calcite – processing with HCl
Bastnaesite + Calcite
(REE*)CO3F
CaCO3
Diluted HCl
Bastnaesite
(REE)CO3F
Dissolved Ca
CO2
NaOH
Concentrated HCl
REE fluorides
REE hydroxides
NaF
Dissolved REEs
Purification,
Separation…
Purification, Separation…
Example 2: bastnaesite + dolomite – high-T processing with H2SO4
Dolomite
Bastnaesite +
(Mg,Ca)(CO3)2
(REE)CO3F
Acid Baking
with H2SO4
REE Sulfates
Dissolved Ca, Mg
CO2, HF
Leaching, Purification, Separation…
Gangue mineralogy matters, too
*REE in bastnaesite predominantly Ce, La, Y
14
Introduction
Rare-Earth Elements
Lithium
Cobalt
Conclusions
15
Lithium pegmatites – Lithium deportment
Photo: Luis Miguel Bugallo Sánchez
Photo: Bob Lavinsky & irocks.com
Amblygonite
(Li,Na)AlPO4(F,OH))
Lithiophilite–Triphylite
Li(Mn,Fe)PO4
Lepidolite (polylithionite–trilithionite)
K(Li,Al)3(Al,Si,Rb)4O10(F,OH)2
Petalite
LiAlSi4O10
Spodumene
LiAlSi4O10
Photo: Hannes Grobe
16
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Zinnwaldite
Elbaite
Cookeite
Eucryptite
Lithian muscovite
Clay minerals
...
Lithium pegmatites – Grainsize variability
Fine-grained
acicular
spodumene in
quartz matrix
1 cm
FOV: 2 mm
Meter-sized spodumene
Spodumene-Quartz Intergrowths (SQI, Thomas et al. 1994)
17
Lithium pegmatites – Internal structure and by-products
Tin and tantalum minerals are potential
valuable by-products but are typically
enriched in late-stage greisens and
albitites and may therefore be spatially
separated from the lithium resource.
Muscovite greisen + cassiterite
18
Lithium pegmatites – Other challenges
Potential challenges to the
development of LCT pegmatites
• Lithium deportment: spodumene vs
petalite vs phosphates vs mica vs…
• Grain-size variability and variable
gangue mineralogy.
• Internal structure, distribution of Li vs
distribution of by-products.
• Purity of spodumene/petalite:
chemical grade vs technical grade.
• Weathering: slimes, clay minerals.
Photo: Cornwall Pit, Greenbushes, WA, www.mindat.org/photo-528455.html
19
19
Introduction
Rare-Earth Elements
Lithium
Cobalt
Conclusions
20
Cobalt
Currently, the most important
cobalt sources are:
• Sediment-hosted Cu-Co deposits
and associated supergene
deposits.
• Magmatic sulfide Ni-Cu-(Co-PGE)
deposits
• Nickel-cobalt laterites formed via
weathering of ultramafic rocks
For all supergene deposits, it is critical to understand weathering
processes and profiles, value-metal deportment and gangue
mineralogy and their spatial variability.
21
Schematic
comparison of
principal laterite
profile types
(Elias, 2002).
Sediment-hosted Cu-Co deposits – Carrollite
Cu: 4.48% ▪ Co: 6.12%
Cu: 0.91% ▪ Co: 1.96%
• Textures and mineral
associations of
carrollite (CuCo2S4)
vary between
stratigraphic units.
• Intimate intergrowth
with Mg-chlorite or
may impact flotation
performance and
concentrate quality.
1 mm
22
SEM-EDS Element Map
0.5 mm
SEM-EDS Phase Map
D. Kaeter & M. Hitzman (unpublished data). The research has been supported by
Introduction
Rare-Earth Elements
Lithium
Cobalt
Conclusions
23
What to do? Get good data and get the most out of your data…
Educate your team about downstream processes
Metal deportment, deleterious
components, and gangue mineralogy
determine total value – not just grade!
Collect high-quality multi-element assay data
Understanding these factors early is
especially important for deposits of REEs
and many of the battery metals.
Characterize materials as early as possible
Each deposit is unique and requires a
custom approach.
Engage the relevant subject-matter experts
De-risk your project and make
informed, data-driven decisions.
24
To conclude
We can ensure the successful and sustainable development
of critical-mineral deposits if we
• Explore with mining, processing, and closure in mind.
• Identify key value drivers and causes for their variability
as early as possible, collect high-quality data to describe
them, and embed them in resource block model.
• Improve communication with people across fields and
departments and learn their needs and languages.
• Build the Mine We All Want to See.
25
Thank you
For more information visit
www.csaglobal.com/services/geometallurgy/
Meet us at the ERM Booth: #326
David Kaeter, Ph.D., G.I.T.
Consultant, Geochemistry
Americas
david.kaeter@erm.com
Pim van Geffen, Ph.D., P.Geo.
Associate Partner
Americas
pim.vangeffen@erm.com
Michael Cronwright, Pr.Sci.Nat.
Battery Metals Lead
EMEA
michael.cronwright@erm.com
References
Berger, Janots, Gnos, Frei, Bernier, 2013, “Rare earth element mineralogy and geochemistry in a laterite profile
from Madagascar”, Applied Geochemistry 41, p. 218–228.
Elias, 2002, “Nickel laterite deposits – geological overview, resources and exploitation” in Giant ore deposits:
Characteristics, genesis and exploration, CODES Special Publication 4, p. 205–220.
Goodenough, Deady, Beard, Broom-Fendley, Elliot, van den Berg, Öztürk, 2021, “Carbonatites and Alkaline
Igneous Rocks in Post-Collisional Settings: Storehouses of Rare Earth Elements”, Journal of Earth Science 32,
p. 1332–1358.
Krolop, Niiranen, Gilbricht, Seifert, 2019, “Ore type characterisation of the Per Geijer iron ore deposits in Kiruna,
Northern Sweden”, in Proceedings of Iron Ore 2019, AusIMM, Perth, WA, pp 349359.
Natural Resources Canada, 2022, “The Canadian Critical Minerals Strategy”, available at
https://www.canada.ca/en/campaign/critical-minerals-in-canada/canadian-critical-minerals-strategy.html
Thomas, Bühmann, Bullen, Scogings, De Bruin, 1994, “Unusual spodumene pegmatites from the Late Kibaran of
southern Natal, South Africa”, Ore Geology Reviews 9 (2), p. 161–182,
Visual Capitalist, 2022, “The future value of disruptive metals”, available at
https://elements.visualcapitalist.com/the-future-value-of-disruptive-materials/
27
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consulting company providing strategic advice and high-quality solutions to
clients in the global mining industry for more than 35 years.
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