LINS 443: BUSINESS INFORMATION MANAGEMENT
Course Introduction
Welcome to LINS 443: Business Information Management. Today business organisations create and use
vast quantities of information as never before. Information has become a valuable asset to businesses.
Information supports day-to-day business operations, decision making and almost any business function
in a business firm. Enterprises invest in information technology as they have proven to deliver an
economic value to the business. This economic value can be expressed through an increase in
competitiveness, higher productivity, increased revenue, etc.
Course Content
There are eleven topics in this course, namely:
Topic One: Introduction and Background to Business Information Management
Topic Two: Organizational Management
Topic Three: Theories of Human Motivation
Topic Four: Management Styles and Processes
Topic Five: Information Requirement Analysis
Topic Six: Role of Hybrid Information Technology Management
Topic Seven: Information Mapping and Information Audit
Topic Eight: Developing Information Strategy
Topic Nine: Organizational Change
Topic Ten: Total Quality Management (TQM), Management by Objectives (MBO)
Topic Eleven: Information Communication in an Organization.
Course Learning Outcomes
Upon successful completion of this course, you should be able to:
i.
Describe the Background of Business Information Management
ii.
Analyse Organizational Management
iii.
Discuss Theories of Human Motivation
iv.
Describe Management Styles and Processes
v.
Evaluate Information Requirement Analysis
vi.
Explain the Role of Hybrid Information Technology Management
vii.
Discuss Information Mapping and Information Audit
viii.
Explain the Development of Information Strategy
ix.
Describe the process of Organizational Change
x.
X. Explain your understanding of Total Quality Management (TQM), Management by Objectives
(MBO)
xi.
Discuss Information Communication in an Organization.
TOPIC ONE: INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND TO BUSINESS INFORMATION MANAGEMENT
Introduction
Welcome to topic one. In this topic we introduce you to Business Information Management. We
specifically discuss data and information, information economies, information systems and origin of
public management. Welcome and enjoy the discussion.
Learning Outcomes
By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
i.
Explain the meaning of business information management
ii.
Differentiate between data and information
iii.
Explain the concept of information economies
iv.
Discuss your understanding information systems
v.
V. Explain the origin of public management
Topic Content
1.1 Introduction
Information management is the collection, storage, dissemination, archiving and destruction of
information. It enables teams and stakeholders to use their time, resource and expertise effectively to
make decisions and to fulfill their roles. Information management embraces all the generic concepts of
management, including the planning, organizing, structuring, processing, controlling, evaluation and
reporting of information activities, all of which is needed in order to meet the needs of those with
organisational roles or functions that depend on information. These generic concepts allow the
information to be presented to the audience or the correct group of people. After individuals are able to
put that information to use, it then gains more value. In terms of technology, information management
encompasses systems such as:
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web content management (CM)
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document management (DM)
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records management (RM)
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digital asset management (DAM)
•
learning management systems (LM)
•
learning content management systems (LCM)
•
collaboration
•
enterprise search
Professionals working in business and information management serve as a communication bridge
between those who implement information systems technology and the business end users of these
systems. They apply business skills and technology to make sound business decisions and drive strategic
vision and actions. Today business organisations create and use vast quantities of information as never
before. Information has become a valuable asset to businesses.
Information supports day-to-day business operations, decision making and almost any business function
in a business firm. Enterprises invest in information technology as they have proven to deliver an
economic value to the business. This economic value can be expressed through an increase in
competitiveness, higher productivity, increased revenue, etc. If information presents value, it can be
considered an asset. Although one cannot feel, smell or touch information, it is a critical element to
almost any modern business. Information can be an asset or a liability, depending on the adopted
information strategy or external factors. For example, pharmaceutical companies are subject to
stringent government legislation.
They make significant information technology investments simply to stay in business. Masses of clinical
data needs to be stored and managed to comply with regulatory requirements. On the other hand,
storing too much or too little information could cause an adverse effect on a business. Sales
information is an obvious asset for decision making and business growth, however storing information
without proper analysis turns into a liability. The notion of information is the basis for building an
effective understanding of the place that information systems occupy within a business and more
widely within the knowledge economy. It is especially important to understand distinctions between
data, information and knowledge and realise how they help organisations achieve their business
objectives.
1.2. Information
Information is data that has been processed into a form that is meaningful to recipient and is of real or
perceived value in the current or the prospective action or decision of recipient. Information is a most
critical resource of the organization. Managing the information means managing future. Information is
knowledge that one derives from facts placed in the right context with the purpose of reducing
uncertainty. Information is transformed into knowledge when it is organized, analyzed, communicated
and perhaps in a way so that it can be found and used again. Information simply is the processed data.
1.2.1 Characteristics of information
1. Timeliness: Timeliness means that information must reach the recipients within the prescribed
timeframes. For effective decision making, information must reach the decision-maker at the
right time, i.e., recipients must get information when they need it. Delays destroy the value of
information. The characteristic of timeliness, to be effective, should also include up-to-date,
current information.
2. Accuracy: Information should be accurate. It means that information should be free from
mistakes, errors &, clear. Accuracy also means that the information is free from bias. Wrong
information given to management would result in wrong decisions. As managers decisions are
based on the information supplied in MIS reports, all managers need accurate information.
3. Relevance: Information is said to be relevant if it answers especially for the recipient what, why,
where, when, who and why? In other words, the MIS should serve reports to managers which
are useful and the information helps them to make decisions.
4. Adequacy: Adequacy means information must be sufficient in quantity, i.e. MIS must provide
reports containing information which is required in the deciding processes of decision-making.
The report should not give inadequate or for that matter, more than adequate information,
which may create a difficult situation for the decision-maker. Whereas inadequacy of
information leads to crises, information overload results in chaos.
5. Completeness: The information which is given to a manager must be complete and should meet
all his needs. Incomplete information may result in wrong decisions and thus may prove costly
to the organization.
6. Explicitness: A report is said to be of good quality if it does not require further analysis by the
recipients for decision making.
7. Impartiality: Impartial information contains no bias and has been collected without any
distorted view of the situation.
8. Just barely sufficient: Information needs to be sufficient for the purpose it is generated, but just
barely so. There is a lot of information out there in the world and as you grow in management
you need to decide what material to ignore and what to use.
9. Worth its cost-Information is not free. It costs money to develop a system, and to maintain it.
For information for be worth its cost there must be an appropriate relationship between the
cost of information and its value.
1.2.2 Functions of Information
•
Saves time
•
Reduces uncertainty
•
Plan and decision making
•
Information as a resource in an organization
•
Information aiding the managers the meet the user needs
•
Information helps in improving a product
1.2.3 Levels in gauging information as a resource
i.
Usage and application
ii.
Information systems used for processing specific information e.g., computer, internet, OPAC,
CD-ROM.
iii.
Information infrastructure in place e.g., computer network
1.2.4 Characteristics of Information Management
a) A good information officer should be interacting with all functions of information management
of an organization.
b) Content oriented- what information contains in relation to the mission and goals of an
organization.
c) Organizational wide- aim at helping the organization achieve its goal
d) Organization culture- information should go together with the objectives of an organization/
running of the activities.
e) Dynamic- impact of the information within the market
f)
Strategic- information should be managed in the way the business achieves its goals.
1.2.5 Issues Affecting Information Management
•
Customer environment-age group, gender
•
Competitor’s environment
•
Economic environment-funds for operating the business
•
Technological factors- capability to operate the system
•
Social environment-involving business partners in using the information
•
Political environment- human, pressure groups
•
Legal environment- intellectual property
•
Physical environment- what environment are we going to operate our business
1.2.6 People Involved in Information Management
•
Users -require updated information, saves cost and time
•
Information manager -needs feedback of services provided
•
Funders -be assured of the return of his or her investment
1.2.7 Measurement equipment for information services
i.
Inputs-information resources, salaries for employees
ii.
Intermediate inputs-services provided at different levels
iii.
Final output- impact of the library to the user, satisfaction from the services, information
services benefits to the user.
1.3 Data
Data is unorganized and unprocessed facts, raw numbers, figures, images, and words, sounds, derived
from observations or measurements. Businesses collect and store all sorts of data, whether they are
necessary facts about their daily operations, customers, or products. Raw, unprocessed streams of facts
are usually referred to as data. Entries of numbers, text, images or other forms of computerized output
are considered data. Raw data, however, is a relative term as data processing may have a number of
stages, so the output from one processing stage can be considered to be raw data for the next. After,
data is processed and shaped in a meaningful form useful to a person or computer, it turns into
information.
The difference between data and information is determined mainly by how they are used in a business
context. An individual entry on a sales receipt, which has a product name, quantity and price, does not
become "informative to the business unless it has a purpose or a meaning. For example, the fact that
three cans of curry sauce have been sold at a grocery store, may not be very useful to many. However,
the difference between data and information becomes clearer when data is transformed into
information for a business purpose. For example, sales entries of the same curry sauce are analysed per
quarter and this information becomes useful to compare quarterly sales to the target figures. When
individual data entries are processed some utility value or meaning is added to raw data to transform it
into business information.
1.4 Information Economies
An information economy is where the productivity and competitiveness of units or agents in the
economy (be they firms, regions or nations) depend mainly on their capacity to generate, process, and
apply efficiently knowledge-based information.
Information economics is the discipline of modeling the role of information in an economic system.
Information is a strange good that is easy to create, difficult to validate, easy to share but difficult to
unshare.
Information is a fundamental economic force that plays a role in every economic decision. Many
economic models make naive assumptions about information such as the assumption that all economic
agents have perfect information. As such, where economic models fail it is common for information
economics to be used to explain the gaps. The following are illustrative examples of information
economics. The following are illustrative examples of information economics:
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Information Goods: The value of information goods including data such as market data and
knowledge such as a book.
Knowledge Economy: A global economic shift towards jobs that produce knowledge outputs
such as strategies, plans, designs, specifications, instructions, data and computer code.
Risk & Uncertainty: Risk results from a lack of information about the future, also known as
uncertainty.
Unknown Unknowns: Risk can be identified, estimated and managed but unknown unknowns
will remain.
Behavioral Economics: Modeling how real people actually react to information. For example, a
stock price that is rising rapidly might logically be viewed as expensive. However, this might
trigger a fear of missing out and an intense desire to buy without regard to valuation.
Expectations: Expectations that influence economic behavior. For example, if consumers feel
gloomy about the future they may cut back on spending and risky investments. As such, polls of
consumer sentiment are considered valuable economic indicators.
Asymmetric Information: Asymmetric information is when certain economic agents have an
information advantage over others in a market. This can cause economic inefficiencies. For
example, if insiders at a company can profit from information before it is released this may
reduce investment returns for all other investors and cause less capital to be invested in an
economy.
Incentives: The information that is used to award economic agents such as the executive
management of a firm. For example, if a CEO receives a large reward if the company is acquired,
the executive could have the perverse incentive to drive down the shares of the company to
tempt a competitor to buy them out.
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•
•
•
•
•
Speculation: Economic agents who attempt to forecast the future to profit. For example,
guessing at currency exchange rates to attempt to make a quick profit. Speculation differs from
investing in that it often doesn't produce value but is more of a zero-sum game. This can have
real economic disadvantages such as creating a market bubble that results in a crash and a
period of financial instability.
Private Information: Information as a competitive advantage such as a trade secret or patent.
Adverse Selection: A situation where either the buyer or the seller have more information in a
transaction. The classic example is that customers facing risks are more likely to buy insurance.
For example, if you are often falling off your bike, you might think it's time for insurance
whereas the insurance company wouldn't traditionally have access to this information.
Search Costs: The difficulty in finding information to make economic decisions. Decreases in
search costs, such as the introduction of the internet, can make an industry far more
competitive as it allows people to more easily evaluate prices and quality.
Signaling: the communication of value in a market. For example, a brand or a college degree
that signal value to consumers and employers respectively.
Screening: Firms often want to charge consumers' different prices based on their willingness to
pay but this information is difficult to determine. Screening is the process of trying to
differentiate between customers based on their price sensitivity. For example, an airline might
offer lower fares if you stay at your destination over the weekend. This is used to screen
business travelers who often want to make it home for the weekend and are often willing to pay
a higher fare.
1.4.1 Aspects of Economics of Information
•
•
•
Information supply. Cost incurred in producing a piece of information
Information demand. Acquisition and use of information
Cost and pricing strategy. Use and exploitation of acquired information
Aspects involved
i) User-determines the kind of information to acquire
ii) Finding of information services
iii) Use and exploitation- considering the information specialist
1.5 Information Systems
Information systems are formal, sociotechnical, organizational systems designed to collect, process,
store, and distribute information. At the most basic level, an information system (IS) is a set of
components that work together to manage data processing and storage. Its role is to support the key
aspects of running an organization, such as communication, record-keeping, decision making, data
analysis and more. Companies use this information to improve their business operations, make strategic
decisions and gain a competitive edge.
Information systems typically include a combination of software, hardware and telecommunication
networks. For example, an organization may use customer relationship management systems to gain a
better understanding of its target audience, acquire new customers and retain existing clients.
This technology allows companies to gather and analyze sales activity data, define the exact target
group of a marketing campaign and measure customer satisfaction.
1.5.1 Roles of Information Systems
The following are the roles of Information Systems:
a. Communication Systems. Part of management is gathering and distributing information,
and information systems can make this process more efficient by allowing managers to
communicate rapidly. Email is quick and effective, but managers can use information
systems even more efficiently by storing documents in folders that they share with the
employees who need the information. This type of communication lets employees
collaborate in systematic way. Each employee can communicate additional information
by making changes that the system tracks. The manager collects the inputs and sends
the newly revised document to his target audience.
b. Operations Management. How you manage your company's operations depends on the
information you have. Information systems can offer more complete and more recent
information, allowing you to operate your company more efficiently. You can use
information systems to gain a cost advantage over competitors or to differentiate
yourself by offering better customer service. Sales data give you insights about what
customers are buying and let you stock or produce items that are selling well. With
guidance from the information system, you can streamline your operations.
c. Decision-Making. The company information system can help you make better decisions
by delivering all the information you need and by modeling the results of your decisions.
A decision involves choosing a course of action from several alternatives and carrying
out the corresponding tasks. When you have accurate, up-to-date information, you can
make the choice with confidence. If more than one choice looks appealing, you can use
the information system to run different scenarios. For each possibility, the system can
calculate key indicators such as sales, costs and profits to help you determine which
alternative gives the most beneficial result.
d. Record-keeping. Your company needs records of its activities for financial and
regulatory purposes as well as for finding the causes of problems and taking corrective
action. The information system stores documents and revision histories, communication
records and operational data. The trick to exploiting this recording capability is
organizing the data and using the system to process and present it as useful historical
information. You can use such information to prepare cost estimates and forecasts and
to analyze how your actions affected the key company indicators.
1.5.2 Classification of Information Systems
In any given organization information system can be classified based on the usage of the information.
Therefore, an information system in an organization can be divided into operations support system and
management support system.
Operations Support System
In an organization, data input is done by the end user which is processed to generate information
products i.e., reports, which are utilized by internal and or external users. Such a system is called
operation support system. The purpose of the operation support system is to facilitate business
transaction, control production, support internal as well as external communication and update
organization central database. The operation support system is further divided into a transactionprocessing system, processing control system and enterprise collaboration system.
Transaction Processing System (TPS)
In manufacturing organization, there are several types of transaction across department. Typical
organizational departments are Sales, Account, Finance, Plant, Engineering, Human Resource and
Marketing. Across which following transaction may occur sales order, sales return, cash receipts, credit
sales; credit slips, material accounting, inventory management, depreciation accounting, etc. These
transactions can be categorized into batch transaction processing, single transaction processing and real
time transaction processing.
Process Control System
In a manufacturing organization, certain decisions are made by a computer system without any manual
intervention. In this type of system, critical information is fed to the system on a real-time basis thereby
enabling process control. This kind of systems is referred as process control systems.
Enterprise Collaboration System
In recent times, there is more stress on team effort or collaboration across different functional teams. A
system which enables collaborative effort by improving communication and sharing of data is referred
to as an enterprise collaboration system.
Management Support System
Managers require precise information in a specific format to undertake an organizational decision. A
system which facilitates an efficient decision-making process for managers is called management
support system.
1.6 Origin of Public Management
Public management goes back to the era where the only way to a city was through a locked gate. The
profession of management began and developed as the profession by the first public administrators
from army military. The first managers had managers. Gradually, the hierarchy developed and the line of
staff personnel logistic and communications also came up. There was continuing influence of ancient
Rome in the transfer of managerial control of those in power, to those with professional expertise.
1.6.1 Evolution of Management Theory
Bureaucratic management
Mark Weber theory of management
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The author of these theory has a belief of personal relationship
Has also believed in competence
He believed in proper maintenance of records in order to achieve objectives of an organization.
1.6.2 Reaction of other Authors on the Theory
Scientific management theories: Emphasis on is on research. The theories believe that an individual
ought to have gone to the field and collected data for decision making.
Fredrick Taylor (1859-1915: Fredrick Taylor is the father of management. Taylor developed four
scientific management methodologies which include;
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Managers cooperation with employees to achieve set objectives
Managers should be involved
Managers should play part in working with employees
Managers being responsible in the section and employment activities
Frank (1868-1924) and Lilian (1878-1972): Interested on this theory is development of the manner that
the work is supposed to be done with ease.
Administrative management by Henry Fayol
Henry Fayol developed 14 principles of management. They include the following;
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
vi.
vii.
viii.
ix.
x.
Division of labour
Authority and responsibility
Discipline and order
Unity of command-order from above
Unity of direction- central authority
Subordination of individual interest- Henry Fayol indicated that personal interests are
subordinate to the interests of the organization (ethics).
Remuneration
Centralization
Scalar Chain
Order
xi.
xii.
xiii.
xiv.
Equity-one should be kind and just to one another
Stability of tenure of personnel
Initiative thinking out of the laid plan
Esprit de corps
Bernard (1886-1961): Individual in an organization should accept those in authority of communication.
Directives should come from bottom to top
Behavioral movement
1. Mary Parker Follet (1868-1933): She believed in solving issues jointly
2. Abraham Maslow (1908-1970: Discussed on the hierarchy of needs which include; physical needs,
security-safety, feeling of self-belonging-love, self-esteem and self-actualization.
3. Douglous McGregor (1906-1964)
4. Peter Draker (Father of Management Objectives: Advocacy of organizational objectives
Topic Summary
In this topic, we have learned that;
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
vi.
Professionals working in business and information management serve as a
communication bridge between those who implement information systems technology
and the business end users of these systems. They apply business skills and technology
to make sound business decisions and drive strategic vision and actions.
It is especially important to understand distinctions between data, information and
knowledge and realise how they help organisations achieve their business objectives.
There are various characteristics of information which include; timeliness, accuracy,
relevance, completeness, etc.
There are various issues which affects information management. These issues includes;
customer environment, competitors environment, economic environment etc.
Information systems play important roles in the organization which include;
communication system, record keeping, etc.
The evolution of public management goes back to the era where the only way to a city
was through a locked gate. Different theories concerning management evolved in
different stages and there was reaction from different scholars concerning the evolution
of the theories.
Glossary
Data is unorganized and unprocessed facts, raw numbers, figures, images, words, sounds, derived from
observations or measurements.
Information economy is where the productivity and competitiveness of units or agents in the economy
(be they firms, regions or nations) depend mainly on their capacity to generate, process, and apply
efficiently knowledge-based information.
Information is a data that has been processed into a form that is meaningful to recipient and is of real or
perceived value in the current or the prospective action or decision of recipient.
Information management is the collection, storage, dissemination, archiving and destruction of
information.
Information systems are formal, sociotechnical, organizational systems designed to collect, process,
store, and distribute information.
TOPIC TWO: ORGANIZATIONAL MANAGEMENT
Introduction
Welcome to topic two. In this topic, we introduce you to the meaning of organizational management,
need for organizational management and features of organizational management. Welcome and enjoy
the discussion.
Learning Outcomes
By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
i.
ii.
iii.
Explain the meaning of organizational management
Describe the need for organizational management
Discuss the salient features of organizational management
Topic Content
2.1 Introduction
An organization is usually made up of different individuals with different beliefs, cultural background,
educational qualification, and experience. But the best part is despite the disparities in their capabilities;
each has to work together to achieve the targeted goal of the organization. Employees are obliged to
work in unity and proper coordination with one another to ensure that objects at the departmental
level, including that of the organization as a whole, are met. And that's where effective organization
management becomes critical.
2.2 What is the meaning of Organization Management?
Organizational management is the process of organizing, planning, leading and controlling resources
within an entity with the overall aim of achieving its objectives. Every organization or workplace has
principles or rules governing their employees, which the employees in question need to be aware of and
follow strictly. For instance, employees in any specific department know the right person to channel
their complaints.
Organization management consists of everything the managers or superiors do to ensure the smooth
running of the firm, which also entails creating an enabling environment for the employees to be more
efficient in the discharge of their duties. It also involves the proper use of the available resources
through adequate planning and control of the working environment.
The primary focus of any organization is to achieve its objectives. It could be to increase client base,
improve business reputation, or have substantial financial returns. But profit is still the primary reason
organizations are set up. So, when the business is not making enough profit, it would be difficult to keep
the company running. With adequate organizational management which entails proper planning,
organizing, leading and control of available resources, firms may end up achieving their objectives at the
end of the day. But the executives should have the capabilities to make decisions and resolve issues for
it to be more effective and beneficial.
2.3 Need for Organization Management
Organization management is beneficial if properly planned out and executed. And firms might benefit
from a proper structure or management plan in several ways. Here is why organizational management is
so relevant for the survival of any establishment:
a. Helps to Create a Clearer Picture of the Goals within Each Department: Organization
management helps managers to split roles within each department. And in doing so, each
department will have a better understanding of their function and resources needed.
Pictures · of the size of the targeted goal for each department will also be more apparent.
b. Effective Implementation of Business Plan to Achieve Targeted Goals: Organization
management doesn't stop at creating a roadmap regarding the goals of each department. It
also helps managers to determine what should be done to achieve the targeted goals of
each department and the company as a whole. Managers will also have the capacity to
swiftly respond to issues that may undermine the external and internal expectations of the
establishment.
c. Better Coordination in the various Departments: A proper organization structure allows
the managers or executives to manage the affairs of each department within the company.
Employees would have a better understanding of their duties and responsibilities. They will
also carry them out without waiting for the manager's instructions in most cases. Effective
management makes information sharing and communication easier. And there will also be
no need for conflict within each department and the organization at large.
d. Enables Employees to Deliver Assigned Projects within Deadline: Effective organization
management creates the right environment for employees to accomplish assigned tasks
within the agreed time-frame. They will have access to the right materials or resources to
work with or know who to approach to acquire them. Employees will also have no other
choice but to follow due process in the discharge of their duties.
e. Creates a Positive and Peaceful Work Environment: No employee can thrive in a
workplace where there is always conflict. Business may also experience negative growth in
such circumstances. Effective organization management would help to set the guidelines
and define the mutual relationship that binds individual elements within the organization
which includes people, technology, processes and strategy to create an enabling
environment for every department to work together to accomplish the targeted goal.
2.4 Features of Organization Management
The following are features of organization management;
a. Planning; Create a working plan to avoid confusion in the future. As the business
continues to grow, you can add to your plan, instead of removing from it. You need to create
a business plan that will help to give direction to your business. How things will be done
should also come up in your business plan.
b. Organizing; Organizing is also critical in organizational management and success of any
business. It entails how you intend to utilize the available resources to help employees to
achieve the best results. Organizing allows firms to make good use of their finances. But to
ensure smooth cash flow, the management of the company needs to create monthly budget.
c. Staffing; Fitting employees in the right position will not only cause them to deliver
excellent performance. It will also affect the organization positively. On the other hand,
hiring or assigning tasks to employees that lacks the qualification and capacity might create
problems for the organization. So, management should always recruit staffs based on their
competence.
d. Control; For management to have an impact and achieve the goals of the organization,
hierarchies should be clearly defined. In other words, employees should know their place and
who they are supposed to report to when the need arises. And those they report to should
have the capacity to carry out a proper review of their performances and make significant
contributions that would guide the subordinates to deliver the best result.
e. Motivation; An effective organizational management plan takes into consideration
factors that motivate employees to perform optimally. It's not enough to create an enabling
environment; lucrative packages should also be made available. It will help employees to stay
motivated and consider working for the company for an extended period.
Topic Summary
In this topic, we have learned that;
i.
ii.
iii.
Every organization has goals. But then, these goals cannot be achieved without proper
management and execution of the business plan.
Effective organizational management is critical in any business settings. It would help to
give the superiors and employees a clear direction involving how to run the business
and get everyone to deliver their best.
Organizational management is needed in an organization to help in creating clear
picture of goals and objectives in an organization. It is also needed for implementation
of business plan.
iv.
Planning, organizing, staffing, controlling and motivation are various features of
organization management.
Glossary
Organizational management is the process of organizing, planning, leading and controlling resources
within an entity with the overall aim of achieving its objectives.
TOPIC THREE: THEORIES OF HUMAN MOTIVATION
Introduction
Welcome to topic three. In this topic, we discuss the theories of human motivation. We specifically
discuss; Maslow's hierarchy of needs, Evolutionary theory, Herzberg's motivation- hygiene theory, DriveReduction theory, Arousal theory, Incentive theory, Cognitive and achievement approaches and
Temporal theory. Welcome and enjoy the discussion.
Learning Outcomes
By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
g.
h.
Describe the Maslow's hierarchy of needs
Explain the Evolutionary theory of motivation
Describe the Herzberg's motivation- hygiene theory
Explain the Drive-Reduction theory
Discuss the Arousal theory
Discuss the Incentive theory
Compare the Cognitive and achievement approaches.
Explain the Temporal theory
Topic Content
3.1 Introduction
The following are theories of human motivation; Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs, Evolutionary Theory,
Herzberg's Motivation-Hygiene Theory, Drive- Reduction Theory, Arousal Theory, Incentive Theory and
Cognitive and Achievement Approaches.
3.1.1 Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs
A Theory of Human Motivation by Abraham H. Maslow is one of the most famous psychology articles
ever written. Originally published in 1943, it was in this landmark paper that Maslow presented his first
detailed representation of Self-Actualization - the desire to become everything that one is capable of
becoming at the pinnacle of a hierarchy of human needs. What Maslow is most famous for, however, is
the pyramid of human needs.
The figure below shows Maslow's hierarchy of needs;
This five-stage model can be divided into basic (or deficiency) needs (e.g., physiological, safety, love, and
esteem) and growth needs (self- actualization). The deficiency or basic needs are said to motivate
people when they are unmet. Also, the need to fulfill such needs will become stronger the longer the
duration they are denied. For example, the longer a person goes without food the hungrier they will
become. As the theory goes, one must satisfy lower-level basic needs before progressing on to meet
higher level growth needs. Once these needs have been reasonably satisfied, one may be able to reach
the highest level called self-actualization. Every person is capable and has the desire to move up the
hierarchy toward a level of self-actualization. Unfortunately, progress is often disrupted by failure to
meet lower-level needs. Life experiences, including divorce and loss of job may cause an individual to
fluctuate between levels of the hierarchy. Maslow only concerned himself with the top 1% or 2% of
population so he noted that only one in a hundred people become fully self-actualized because our
society rewards motivation primarily based on esteem, love and other social needs.
Maslow's hierarchy of needs theory has made a major contribution to virtually all areas of our everyday
lives, business probably being towards the top of that list. Rather than reducing behaviour to a response
in the environment, Maslow adopted a holistic approach to management and organizing. He suggested
that looking at the entire physical, emotional, social, and intellectual qualities of an individual and how
they impact on learning, productivity, and ability to follow directives. A business should therefore, offer
different incentives to workers in order to help them fulfill each need in turn and progress up the
pyramid. Managers should also recognize that workers are not all motivated in the same way and do not
all move up the hierarchy at the same pace. They may therefore have to offer a slightly different set of
incentives from worker to worker.
3.1.2 Evolutionary Theory
The evolutionary theory of motivation states that humans behave in ways to optimize their genetic
fitness. The evolutionary theory focuses on getting results for your personhood. According to the theory
of evolution, the most genetically fit will survive and their genes will eventually be spread across the
whole population. American philosopher and psychologist William James helped define the link between
evolution and survival instinct as the key sources of motivation in humanity. Evolution implies that all
animals, including humans, will act in a way that supports their highest reproductive potential. In this
theory, the motivation behind behavior is seen as the need to survive and reproduce most optimally. In
other words, behavior is formed instinctually through the need to survive and pass on genes.
Going hand-in-hand with evolutionary theory, optimization theory is about maximizing the desired
results for the individual. It holds that humans will always choose the option that allows them to
consume the most energy while expending the least amount of energy. It is a form of cost-benefit
analysis. This relates to genetic fitness because humans are motivated by the need to reproduce and will
thus make decisions based off what will optimize their genetic succession and reproductive potential.
Once you have an understanding of this theory at its most basic level, you can start to see it at work in
your own daily life. Understanding that every action you take is related to some degree may help you
decide your motivation behind each action. Beginning your day with intention and reminding yourself of
that intention throughout the day is a good way to ensure that the sum of your actions is pointed
toward your predetermined goal.
3.1.3 Herzberg's Motivation-Hygiene Theory
American psychologist and business management expert Frederick Herzberg's theory of motivation was
developed in the 1950s-1960s as a way to understand employee motivation and satisfaction. Through
his research, Herzberg identified factors repeatedly linked to satisfaction and dissatisfaction (otherwise
known as hygiene factors).
The factors for satisfaction are:
•
•
•
•
Achievement and recognition
The work itself
Responsibility
Advancement and growth
The hygiene factors are:
•
•
•
•
Company policies
Supervision
Relationship for supervisor and peers
Work conditions
•
•
Salary and status
Security
The hygiene factors are mainly attributed to the workspace environment and what kind of constraints is
put around the employees. Through these findings, Herzberg concluded that the most motivation
creation occurs not just when hygiene factors are in order, but when hygiene factors are adequately
addressed and there is great focus on satisfaction factors such as achievement and recognition. Put
more simply, employees perform at their highest level when the work environment is healthy and they
feel like they are achieving success and rewards in their job. If you connect to this theory of motivation,
then you may wish to focus on finding a work environment that satisfies all of these needs as you work
toward achieving happiness inside and outside of your career.
3.1.4 Drive-Reduction Theory
The drive-reduction theory centers around the core idea that humans act merely to satisfy their
physiological needs in order to remain in homeostasis. Homeostasis is every animal's ability to remain in
bodily equilibrium (for example, a mammal's ability to remain warm-blooded). First proposed by
American psychologist Clark Hull in 1943, this theory centers around the premise that humans are
motivated to take action when there are disturbances to homeostasis. Because homeostasis is a
reference to overall health, disturbances to homeostasis may look like anything ranging from lack of
food to lack of job opportunities in order to have a source of income. Within the motivation theory
there are classifications of primary and secondary drives.
Primary drives are seen more as basic needs, such as your need for nourishment or sex drive. The
secondary drives are factors that indirectly satisfy primary needs- things like the desire for money, which
can buy nourishment. Hull proposed that all learned behavior only exists if it satisfies a drive in some
shape or form. If this theory for motivation resonates with you, then you may need to look outside of
your basic needs for motivation. Take extra time to consider what will make you happy rather than
settling for only having your basic needs met. Remember to being each day with clear intentions.
3.1.5 Arousal Theory
As an expansion to drive-reduction theory, psychologists Stanley Schachter and Jerome E. Singer
developed the arousal theory of motivation, which tacks on the idea that humans are also motivated by
various levels of arousal. This theory investigates the influence of neurotransmitter dopamine on human
motivation. In this context, the term arousal refers to the psychological state of being more alert and
stimulated, and dopamine is a chemical compound in the brain that is associated with transmitting a
message of pleasure. The focus of this theory is on the level of sensitivity to rewards or goalachievement that the human mental state facilitates. Fulfilling a goal or accomplishing something always
has a level of biological arousal, or neurotransmission of dopamine in the brain, and this motivates
individuals to make certain decisions or take specific actions in order to achieve this effect. You tend to
engage in activities that are physiologically arousing or make you feel good. This theory is essentially
oriented as pleasure-seeking as a motivation for human behavior. Follow this theory when you need to
motivate yourself when you are feeling down. Figure out what makes you feel good. Whether it is
training for the goal of completing a half marathon or taking time to finish a book, focus on the pleasure
that comes from accomplishing goals to elevate your mood.
3.1.6 Incentive Theory
The incentive theory of motivation is supported by many behavioral psychologists. This theory states
that humans act in response to extrinsic or intrinsic incentives. Extrinsic motivation refers to inessential
or external factors, while intrinsic motivation refers to essential or internal factors. This theory argues
that you are more often extrinsically motivated by rewards rather than doing things purely because you
enjoy them or find the activity fulfilling in itself. For example, you may work more out of a desire for
monetary rewards rather than the joy of work itself. You would experience the strongest form of
motivation if you find a task enjoyable and receive a reward for participating. This will vary based on
individual differences because each person has a unique sense of desire. Consider that you enjoy
painting artwork (an intrinsic incentive) but you are also popular enough to sell the paintings for money
(an extrinsic incentive). Both intrinsic and extrinsic factors are then sources of motivation because your
motivation to create the artwork is present without the monetary reward, but you are likely to choose
to paint more frequently once you also have the incentive of money.
3.1.7 Cognitive and Achievement Approaches
Through the cognitive and achievement approaches to motivation, psychology explores how
achievement goals and cognitive dissonance can affect motivation for human behavior. In accordance
with this ideology, the desire for success drives peoples' performances. In broader terms, you are driven
by seeking positive outcomes and avoiding negative ones. Social psychologist Leon Festinger developed
the theory of cognitive dissonance, which is a contradiction between someone's thoughts or beliefs and
their actions. For example, someone's actions may not align with what they believe to be the morally
correct thing to do. Using the cognitive and achievement approaches, motivation is seen as the drive to
eliminate or reduce cognitive dissonance. People seek to bridge the gap of inconsistencies between
their actions and beliefs. If someone's attitudes do not line up with their behaviors, their motivation will
be to take actions that help to line up the two elements. For example, if you perceive your job position
to be a subordinate role, you may seek a promotion. Your motivation may be a desire to hold a position
you perceive as an intellectual equal to your mental capacity, which would be a bridge between the gap
of what you believe you are capable of versus what you are actually doing.
3.1.8 Temporal Theory
Developed by organizational theory researcher Piers Steel and psychologist Cornelius J. König as an
integrative motivational theory, the temporal theory of motivation focuses on how time and responses
to deadlines affect human motivation. This theory is interesting in regards to understanding
procrastination and how the process of goal setting works within the human mind. Studies have shown
that as a due date nears, motivation increases. In other words, this theory identifies procrastination as
part of human nature because motivation is low when time is not of the essence. The temporal theory
includes a formula to evaluate level of motivation:
(Expectancy х Value) / (1 + Motivation [Impulsiveness x Delay])
The higher the expectancy (or your self-efficacy beliefs) and the higher the value of the expected
outcome, the more likely that person is to have a high motivation to complete a task. In this context,
self-efficacy is your own belief about their competence or ability to complete a task. People with low
self-efficacy in terms of a certain task are much more likely to expend less effort early on and
procrastinate, particularly if you minimally value the outcome of the task. This theory also investigates
the idea that people with impulsivity problems tend to have little motivation to resist non-task related
urges and, therefore, do not act quickly on tasks that have a far-out deadline.
Topic Summary
In this topic, we have learned eight theories of human motivation. They include; Maslow's hierarchy of
needs, Evolutionary theory, Herzberg's motivation- hygiene theory, Drive-Reduction theory, Arousal
theory, Incentive theory, Cognitive and achievement approaches and Temporal theory.
TOPIC FOUR: MANAGEMENT STYLES AND PROCESSES
Introduction
Welcome to topic four. In this topic we introduce you to management styles, types of management
styles for effective leadership, factors influencing leadership styles and management process. Welcome
and enjoy the discussion.
Learning Outcomes
By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
Using examples, explain the meaning of management style
Discuss the types of management styles for effective leadership
Describe factors influencing leadership styles
Describe management process
Topic Content
4.1. Introduction
A management style is the particular way managers go about accomplishing objectives of the
organization. It encompasses the way they make decisions, how they plan and organize work, and how
they exercise authority. Management styles vary by company, level of management, and even from
person to person. A good manager is one that can adjust their management style to suit different
environments and employees. An individual's management style is shaped by many different factors
including internal and external business environments, and how one views the role of work in the lives
of employees.
4.2 Types of Management Styles for Effective Leadership
The best type of management style is one that is flexible, adaptive, and appropriate for the given
circumstances. This is true because different situations call for different kinds of leadership. The
following are types of management styles;
a) Autocratic Management Style
Autocratic managers make decisions unilaterally, without much (or any) input of subordinates. This
unilateral format can be perceived as a good management technique if the right decisions are made,
and it can lead to faster decision-making, because only one person's preferences need to be considered.
However, this style of management can drive away employees who are looking for more ownership of
decisions, and more autonomy. In times of crisis where time is limited, use of autocratic management is
permissible, but extended periods could lead to high turnover.
b) Consultative Management Style
This form allows for more discussion than an autocratic method, but is essentially dictatorial. As the
name suggests, a leader in this form consults his or her employees, but ultimately the leader makes the
final decision. Decisions attempt to take the best interests of the employees in account but also focus on
the business. This type of management style often leads to loyalty from employees included in decisionmaking processes, but those who are left out are more likely to move on. It can also lead to a
dependency of the employees on the leader.
c) Persuasive Management Style
Also similar to autocratic management styles, a persuasive leader maintains the final decision-making
control. However, he or she makes choices based on the persuasion of subordinates. Employees will
convince their manager of the benefits of a decision and the manager will make the final decision. This is
a great option for managers who need input from experts, but still can keep the final decision-making up
to them. This does not work when employees do not support management and choose not to provide
input or do not trust decisions that have been made.
d) Democratic Management Style
As its name suggests, democratic managers offer employees an opportunity to engage in decisionmaking. This means all decisions are agreed upon by the majority. The communications go from both
the manager down to employees and from the employees up to the managers. This style works when
complex decisions must be made that have a variety of outcomes. Democratic leaders are eager to
involve their staff in company decisions. If you choose this management style, you're showing your team
that you trust them and respect their input. It also displays a confidence in both your employees'
opinions and your own ability as a leader. There's no need to fire off commands or rule with an iron fist.
You believe that employees can largely govern themselves and you're simply a judge or referee to keep
things moving in the right direction. However, democracy does slow down decision-making and could be
inefficient at times.
e) Laissez-faire Management Style
This style is the complete opposite of autocracy; employees are allowed to make the majority of
decisions, with management providing guidance when needed. The manager in this case is considered a
mentor rather than a leader. This style of management is popular in startups and technology companies,
where risk taking is encouraged. However, it can lead to difficulties in making decisions. The Laissez-faire
type of management style requires two things: an extremely laid-back attitude and a great deal of
confidence in your staff. If you possess these two traits, you might be well-suited for a laissez-faire style
of leadership. This method is effective because laissez-faire managers don't busy themselves with
micromanaging employees. At the same time, employees appreciate the autonomy they've been given
and will often show more initiative than if they were being told exactly what to do and how to do it.
f) Management By Walking Around (MBWA) Management Style
This classic technique involves management by listening. Managers gather information by listening to
the thoughts of employees that can stop problems at their source. When using this type of management
style, managers must be counselors and not directors. A good decision will be well received and
respected by all. When employees do not support management there can be problems in MBWA
management.
g) Inspirational Management Style
To be an inspirational leader is no easy task, but it is extremely effective when accomplished. The
inspirational type of management style requires superb people skills, a big heat, and an honest desire to
help your employees develop both in and outside of the workplace.
h) Results-Based Management Style
The magic word for results-based managers is efficiency. You're not concerned with how things get
done, as long as they get done well and in the quickest way possible. You don't feel the need to create
every rule and method yourself-if an employee comes up with a superior way of doing things, you're
happy to make changes to company policy. The only thing that matters with this type of management
style is results.
i) Collaborative Management Style
The collaborative approach to leadership is similar to the democratic style but differs in one significant
way. With a collaborative management style, you're not simply asking your employees to participate in a
yay-or-nay vote-you're actively soliciting feedback from team members about company policies. You're
looking to have real, thoughtful conversations about improving your business, which empowers your
staff and may even provide some innovative solutions.
j) Example-Setting Management Style
This management style is exactly what it sounds like: you lead by consistently setting an impeccable
example of the kind of work standards you expect at your business. The bar is set by your actions and
your actions alone. In some cases, this may even transform the ethics of and working environment of
your business. Example-setting leaders are definitely not afraid to roll up their sleeves and get their
hands dirty to show the crew how things should be done.
k) Strategic Management Style
Strategic managers aren't interested in the minute details of basic tasks. Instead, they're focused on the
bigger picture and long-term success of the business they manage. If you have a strategic management
style, you're comfortable allowing assistant managers and shift leaders see to oversee the majority of
everyday responsibilities. While the crew gets the mundane work done, you're planning marketing
campaigns and preparing for expansion.
l) Affiliative Management Style
The affiliative manager is humble, hard-working, and confident. These types of managers make
themselves a part of the team and lead from the front, rather than constantly reminding employees that
they're the one in charge. If this is your preferred leadership style, you're looking for opportunities to
affiliate yourself with your staff and lending a helping hand wherever it's needed. Employees see you as
an ally and will respect the fact that you're trying to help them succeed.
m) Charismatic Management Style
The charismatic management style-sometimes called the persuasive management style-is built around
the personality and charm of the manager. If this is your type of management style, you're focused on
developing personal relationships with your staff and building a team in your workplace. Employees are
cooperative because they respect the fact that you're interested in getting to know them as individuals.
Ultimately, any manager worth her salt will use a combination of these types of management styles.
Leaders who know how to lead are flexible and quick to adapt to their environment.
4.3 Factors Influencing Leadership Styles
1. Personality. One factor determining leadership style that cannot be ignored is the personality of the
individual who is in charge of a group of employees. Aligning an individual's basic nature with a
particular method of management is most often successful, because the leader will be comfortable with
it. For example, if the manager possesses a charming demeanor that draws people to her, she likely will
adopt a charismatic style that develops a faithful staff desiring to please their leader. On the other hand,
a person who is most comfortable following set protocols is likely to adopt a more traditional
authoritative style in which she trains employees to carry out their duties in strict accordance with
company policy.
2. Belief System. A manager's professional ethics is often a factor that influences his method of
leadership. For example, the person who believes strongly in teamwork as the most successful approach
to work often adopts a democratic leadership style. This style requires the manager to participate with
employees in solving problems together. Other people who wish to instill the importance of employees
learning self-management work well as transformational leaders. This type of management involves
ascertaining what employees need to work on, guiding them in how to accomplish these changes and
persuading their followers to commit to the process of transforming themselves as workers and the
organization in general.
3. Company Culture. The nature of a company's culture will influence the style of leadership used in the
establishment. If there is a strong culture of motivated and well- trained employees, the managers can
adopt a laissez faire style. This leadership method is basically hands-off, as the manager believes her
staff is capable of handling their work without an abundance of guidance. The leader is there to inspire
but not to micromanage or even to spend much time overseeing projects. Other companies are
dedicated to creativity as a significant factor in their success. This culture requires a creative leader who
challenges employees to think in innovative ways, express their opinions and experiment with different
work methods.
4. Employee Diversity. Small businesses are hiring a more diverse workforce than in the past. A
company is likely to employ people of different races, gender, ages and cultures. Leaders must respond
to this diversity with a vision for their staff and by developing a multi-cultural approach to their work.
The styles of management most compatible with a diverse set of workers include a participatory
method, in which the leader works closely with employees to help them assimilate and succeed.
Another successful style that works with individuals of different backgrounds is servant leadership,
where the manager dedicates his efforts to providing the employees with everything they need so that,
in principle, these workers mature and pass along the servant attitude to other employees and to their
customers.
4.4 Management process
Management process is a process of setting goals, planning and/or controlling the organizing and
leading the execution of any type of activity, such as: a project (project management process) or a
process (process management process, sometimes referred to as the process performance
measurement and management system). Management processes are the methods that aid the
structuring, investigation, analysis, decision-making and communication of business issues. Examples
include the strategic planning process, talent planning, expense and capital budgeting, performance
management systems, product planning and management cost accounting. The purpose of a
management process is to ensure a disciplined and consistent approach to analysis and decision making.
They facilitate the use of a logical thought process that is consistent with the objectives of the firm. The
capital budgeting process, for example, is based on financial market disciplines that encourage wise
investment. Product planning is focused on both creating customer value and realizing the benefits of
new products for the firm's investors, not one or the other.
Management processes should be seen as a support to and not a replacement for management
judgment. These processes require the development of expectations about the future and provide
guidance in light of the associated assumptions. The wise manager uses these tools as inputs to decision
making which, when combined with business acumen, provide a solid basis for choice.
4.4.1 Functions of management process
The basic functions of management process are;
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
Planning and decision making
Organizing
Leading
Controlling
The diagram below shows the basic functions of management process;
Planning &
Decision-making.
Determining
courses of action
Controlling.
Monitoring &
evaluating
activities.
Functions of
Management
Leading.
Managing &
Motivating
People.
Organising.
Coordination of
activities &
resources.
i)
Planning and Decision Making - Determining Courses of Action.
Looking ahead into the future and predict possible trends or occurrences which are likely to
influence the working situation is the most vital quality as well as the job of a manager. Planning
means setting an organization's goal and deciding how best to achieve them. Planning is
decision making, regarding the goals and setting the future course of action from a set of
alternatives to reach them. The plan helps to maintain the managerial effectiveness as it works
as a guide for the personnel for the future activities. Selecting goals as well as the paths to
achieve them is what planning involves. Planning involves selecting missions and objectives and
the actions to achieve them, it requires decision-making or choosing future courses of action
from among alternatives. In short, planning means determining what the organization's position
and the situation should be at some time in the future and decide how best to bring about that
situation. Planning helps maintain managerial effectiveness by guiding future activities. For a
manager, planning and decision-making require an ability to foresee, to visualize, and to look
ahead purposefully.
ii) Organizing - Coordinating Activities and Resources
Organizing can be defined as the process by which the established plans are moved closer to
realization. Once a manager set goals and develops plans, his next managerial function is
organizing human and other resources that are identified as necessary by the plan to reach the
goal. Organizing involves determining how activities and resources are to be assembled and
coordinated. The organization can also be defined as an intentionally formalized structure of
positions or roles for people to fill in an organization. Organizing produces a structure of
relationships in an organization and it is through these structured relationships that future plans
are pursued. Organizing, then, is that part of managing which involves: establishing an
intentional structure of roles for people to fill in the organization. It is intentional in the sense of
making sure that all the tasks necessary to accomplish goals are assigned to people who can do
the best. The purpose of an organization structure is to create an environment for best human
performance. The structure must define the task to be done. The rules so established must also
be designed in the light of the abilities and motivations of the people available. Staffing is
related to organizing and it involves filling and keeping filled, the positions in the organization
structure. This can be done by determining the positions to be filled, identifying the requirement
of manpower, filling the vacancies and training employees so that the assigned tasks are
accomplished effectively and efficiently. The managerial functions of promotion, demotion,
discharge, dismissal, transfer, etc. Are also included with the broad task "staffing." Staffing
ensures the placement of the right person at the right position. Basically, organizing is deciding
where decisions will be made, who will do what jobs and tasks, who will work for whom, and
how resources will assemble.
iii) Leading - Managing, Motivating and Directing People
The third basic managerial function is leading. The skills of influencing people for a particular
purpose or reason are called leading. Leading is considered to be the most important and
challenging of all managerial activities. Leading is influencing or prompting the member of the
organization to work together with the interest of the organization. Creating a positive attitude
towards the work and goals in among the members of the organization is called leading. It is
required as it helps to serve the objective of effectiveness and efficiency by changing the
behavior of the employees. Leading involves a number of deferments processes and activates.
The functions of direction, motivation, communication, and coordination are considered a part
of leading process or system. Coordinating is also essential in leading. Most authors do not
consider it a separate function of management. Rather they regard coordinating as the essence
of managership for achieving harmony among individual efforts towards accomplishing group
targets. Motivating is an essential quality for leading. Motivating is the function of management
process of influencing people's behavior based on the knowledge of what cause and channel
sustain human behavior in a particularly committed direction. Efficient managers need to be
effective leaders. Since leadership implies fellowship and people tend to follow those who offer
a means of satisfying their own needs, hopes and aspirations it is understandable that leading
involves motivation leadership styles and approaches and communication.
iv) Controlling - Monitoring and Evaluating activities
Monitoring the organizational progress toward goal fulfillment is called controlling. Monitoring
the progress is essential to ensure the achievement of organizational goal. Controlling is
measuring, comparing, finding deviation and correcting the organizational activities which are
performed for achieving the goals or objectives. Controlling consist of activities, like; measuring
the performance, comparing with the existing standard and finding the deviations, and
correcting the deviations. Control activities generally relate to the measurement of achievement
or results of actions which were taken to attain the goal. Some means of controlling, like the
budget for expenses, inspection records, and the record of labor hours lost, are generally
familiar. Each measure also shows whether plans are working out. If deviations persist,
correction is indicated. Whenever results are found to differ from the planned action, persons
responsible are to be identified and necessary actions are to be taken to improve performance.
Thus, outcomes are controlled by controlling what people do. Controlling is the last but not the
least important management function process. It is rightly said, "planning without controlling is
useless". In short, we can say the controlling enables the accomplishment of the plan.
All the management functions of its process are inter-related and cannot be skipped. The management
process designs and maintains an environment in which personnel's, working together in groups,
accomplish efficiently selected aims.
All managers carry out the main functions of management; planning, organizing, staffing, leading and
controlling. But depending on the skills and position on an organizational level, the time and labor spent
in each function will differ.
Topic Summary
You have learned that;
i.
A management style is the particular way managers go about accomplishing objectives of the
organization. It encompasses the way they make decisions, how they plan and organize work,
and how they exercise authority.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
Management styles vary by company, level of management, and even from person to person. A
good manager is one that can adjust their management style to suit different environments and
employees.
There are various types of management styles for effective management. They include;
autocratic management style, consultative management style, persuasive management style,
etc.
Different factors like personality, belief system, company culture and employee diversity are
among the factors that influence leadership styles.
For management process to be effective, functions of management process like planning,
organizing, leading and controlling need be taken into consideration.
Glossary
Management process is a process of setting goals, planning and/or controlling the organizing and
leading the execution of any type of activity, such as: a project (project management process) or a
process (process management process, sometimes referred to as the process performance
measurement and management system).
Management style is the particular way managers go about accomplishing objectives of the
organization.
TOPIC FIVE: INFORMATION REQUIREMENT ANALYSIS
Introduction
Welcome to topic five. In this topic we introduce you to information requirement analysis steps,
activities for requirement analysis, requirement analysis techniques, Business requirements verses
software requirements and types of requirements. Welcome and enjoy the discussion.
Learning Outcomes
By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
Explain the information requirement analysis steps
Illustrate the activities for requirement analysis
Describe requirement analysis techniques
Compare Business requirements verses software requirements
Discuss the types of requirements
Topic Content
5.1 Introduction
Information requirement analysis (IRA) is an information analysis methodology where the objective is to
find the documents needed to carry out a process or an activity in a business model. IRA's objective is to
serve as a tool for information systems development, particularly within the requirements engineering
phase. The method focuses on information structure, where document, document type and document
container are the core information elements. User responsibility roles are related to the information
building blocks. A software requirement is a capability needed by the user to solve a problem or to
achieve an objective. In other words, requirement is a software capability that must be met or
possessed by a system or system component to satisfy a contract, standard, specification, or other
formally imposed documentation. Ultimately, what we want to achieve is to develop quality software
that meets customers' real needs on time and within budget.
5.2 Information Requirement Analysis Steps
Information Requirement Analysis includes the following steps: Design of a business model, design of an
information model, mapping of the information model to the business process model, criticality
evaluation of the documents, and finally a ranking of the documents.
5.2.1 Design of a business model: Business model is the story that explains how an enterprise works.
Business model is the answer to the questions: Who is your customer, what does the customer value
and how do you deliver value at an appropriate cost?
A business model should consist of four elements: a customer value proposition, a profit formula, key
resources, and key processes. Such descriptions undoubtedly help executives evaluate business models,
but they impose preconceptions about what they should look like and may constrain the development
of radically different ones.
5.2.2 Design of an information model: An Information Model is an organizational framework that you
use to categorize your information resources. The framework assists authors and users in finding what
they need, even if their needs are significantly different and personal. The framework provides the basis
on which you base your publishing architecture, including print and electronic information delivery. An
Information Model provides the framework for organizing your content so that it can be delivered and
reused in a variety of innovative ways. Once you have created an Information Model for your content
repository, you will be able to label information in ways that will enhance search and retrieval, making it
possible for authors and users to find the information resources they need quickly and easily. Creating
your Information Model requires analysis, careful planning, and a lot of feedback from your user
community. The analysis takes you into the world of those who need and use information resources
every day. The planning means talking to a wide range of stakeholders, including both individuals and
groups who have information needs and who would profit from collaboration in the development of
information resources. Getting feedback requires that you test your Information Model with members
of your user community to ensure that you haven't missed some important perspectives.
5.2.3 Mapping of the Information Model to the Business Process
Model: Business process mapping is a way to visualize what a business does by taking into account roles,
responsibilities and standards. Business process modeling (BPM) takes this one step further by providing
a visual way to understand, analyze, and improve upon a current method of working. There are a
number of reasons why organizations map their processes. In business, process mapping is the task of
defining what exactly a business does, who is responsible, and what is the standard by which the success
of a business process can be judged. In process mapping, the organization is a single entity with
interconnecting parts. Each of the interconnecting parts directly or indirectly adds value to the endproduct or service.
5.2.4 Criticality Evaluation of the Documents: Evaluation refers to the identification of useful or
relevant documents from the retrieved results, document evaluation refers to the assessment of
usefulness or relevance of an individual document retrieved or browsed. Evaluation is an essential
component for information retrieval and searching. Evaluation can be investigated on two levels: search
result and individual document evaluation.
5.2.5 Ranking of the Documents: A ranking is a relationship between a set of items such that, for any
two items, the first is either 'ranked higher than', 'ranked lower than' or 'ranked equal to the second.
Ranking is the process of sorting the document results so that those documents which are most likely to
be relevant to your query are shown at the top.
5.3 Activities for Requirement Analysis
Requirement analysis is critical to the success or failure of a systems or software project. The
requirements should be documented, actionable, measurable, testable, traceable, related to identified
business needs or opportunities, and defined to a level of detail sufficient for system design.
Conceptually, requirements analysis includes four types of activity:
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
Eliciting requirements: the task of communicating with customers and users to determine what
their requirements are. This is sometimes also called requirements gathering.
Analyzing requirements: determining whether the stated requirements are unclear, incomplete,
ambiguous, or contradictory, and then resolving these issues.
Requirements modeling: Requirements might be documented in various forms, such as natural
language documents, use cases, user stories, or process specifications.
Review and retrospective: Team members reflect on what happened in the iteration and
identifies actions for improvement going forward.
Requirements analysis is a team effort that demands a combination of hardware, software and human
factors engineering expertise as well as skills in dealing with people. Here are the main activities involve
in requirement analysis:
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
vi.
Identify customer's needs.
Evaluate system for feasibility.
Perform economic and technical analysis.
Allocate functions to system elements.
Establish schedule and constraints.
Create system definitions.
5.4 Requirement Analysis Techniques
Requirement analysis helps organizations to determine the actual needs of stakeholders. At the same
time, it enables the development team to communicate with stakeholders in a language they
understand (like charts, models, flow-charts,) instead of pages of text. Once the requirements are
gathered, we document the requirements in a Software Requirements Specification (SRS) document,
use cases or as User Stories, which are shared with the stakeholders for approval. This document is easy
to understand for both normal users and developers. Any changes in the requirements are also
documented and go through a change control procedure and finalized on approval.
5.5 Business Requirement vs Software Requirements
A business plan or project requires a variety of requirements to help define goals and establish a scope
for the work that will be undertaken. Requirements also provide context and objective ways to measure
progress and success. Once business requirements are established, software requirements are defined
and developed in order to move a project forward.
5.5.1 Business Requirements
Business requirements relate to a business' objectives, vision and goals. They also provide the scope of a
business need or problem that needs to be addressed through a specific activity or project. For example,
if a trade association has an objective to promote the services offered by its members the business
requirements for a project might include creating a member directory that increases awareness of
members. Good business requirements must be:
•
•
•
•
•
Clear and are typically defined at a very high level.
Provide enough information and guidance to help ensure that the project fulfills the identified
need.
Understanding an organization's mandate, objectives or goals, a specific business need or
problem that is being tackled
Should be clearly defined and understood before developing business requirements.
The need or problem can relate to the organization or business in general or focus on a
stakeholder group, such as customers, clients, suppliers, employees or another group.
5.5.2 Software Requirements
Software requirements break-down the steps needed to meet the business requirement or
requirements. Whereas a business requirement states the 'why' for a project, software requirements
outline the 'what'. For example, if the business requirement is to create a member directory for a trade
association, the software requirements will outline who has access to the directory, how member
register with the directory, who will have ownership of the data, what vehicle or vehicle will be used
such as a website or paper-based directory, and so on.
5.6 Types of Requirements
For working efficiently with the requirements, you have to differentiate between the various types of
those. Let's have a closer look at some of them.
Non-functional requirements
Non-functional requirements are the quality attributes, some certain design or realization constraints or
external interface that directly relate to the product. They act as additional description of the functions
of the product under development, which are important for stakeholders (users or developers). For
example, it may be the ease of use or movement, integrity, efficiency and fault tolerance.
Business requirements
Business requirements are business statements of the goals, objectives, or needs which should help the
organization to maximize profit, minimize expenditures, raise service to a new level or meet the
regulatory requirements. As a rule, they are dictated by those who deal with financing of the project,
the buyers of the system, the manager of real users, or the marketing department.
User requirements
User requirements are the requirements that should include the goals and objectives which the system
will allow the users to achieve.
Software requirements
Software requirements stand for high-profile requirements for the product under development that
contain numerous subsystems. 'The system' here stands for software or software subsystems and
equipment.
The next type of requirements should be considered in more details
Functional requirements
Functional requirements are the product features or its functions that must be designed directly for the
users and their convenience. They define the functionality of the software, which the software
engineers have to develop so that the users could easily perform their tasks up to the business
requirements.
So why exactly are the requirements so important?
We need to digest and come up with sound understanding of the importance of requirement. The
important point is how detailed requirements should be. Every project is unique and we try to apply
individual approach to them basing on their peculiarities. However, the practice proves that the more
detailed the requirements are the more precise the estimate is and there are more chances to meet it.
We try to be detailed when putting together the requirements and means of their implementation thus
mitigating the possible risks. This approach also provides an opportunity to see the possible mistakes
before the development stage saving time and money. Experience teaches that the availability of
detailed requirements helps the team to estimate more accurately the time that will be spent on the
implementation of certain features. And in addition, you'll get the estimate which the team is
responsible for Comparison of the requirements and the results during the development will visualize
the progress and show if we achieve the objectives. On a more global scale requirements of high quality
alongside with wireframes will help to visualize the end result and to what extent will it meet the goals
of the project
Topic Summary
You have learned that:
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
Information requirement analysis (IRA) is an information analysis methodology where the
objective is to find the documents needed to carry out a process or an activity in a business
model.
IRA's objective is to serve as a tool for information systems development, particularly within the
requirements engineering phase.
Information requirement steps include design of business model, design of an information
model, mapping of the information model to the business process model, critically evaluation of
the documents and ranking of documents.
Requirement analysis is made up of activities for requirement analysis, requirement analysis
techniques and business requirements versus software requirements.
TOPIC SIX: ROLE OF HYBRID INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY MANAGEMENT
Introduction
Welcome to topic six. In this topic, we focus our discussion on hybrid information technology, hybrid
manager, Characteristics of hybrid managers, hybrid cloud, reasons for going hybrid and things to
consider when moving to hybrid cloud. Welcome and enjoy the discussion.
Learning Outcomes
By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
vi.
Explain the concept of hybrid information technology
Explain a hybrid manager
Describe the characteristics of Hybrid managers
Describe hybrid cloud
Justify the need for going hybrid
Describe things to consider when moving to hybrid cloud.
Topic Content
6.1 Introduction
Hybrid IT combines the delivery of enterprise applications, data, and services to keep the business
running and accelerate innovation. It encompasses people, process, and technology, and spans onpremises and off-premises environments across the data center, private cloud, public cloud, and the
edge of the network. Hybrid IT is an approach to enterprise computing in which an organization provides
and manages some information technology (IT) resources in-house but uses cloud-based services for
others. A hybrid approach allows an enterprise to maintain a centralized approach to IT governance,
while experimenting with cloud computing. Hybrid IT, in its most simple form, is the mix of IT
infrastructure platforms -legacy on-premise and private/public hybrid clouds - that an enterprise uses to
satisfy its application workload and data needs.
6.2 Hybrid manager
Hybrid manager is a person with strong technical skills and adequate business knowledge or vice versa.
Hybrids are people with technical skills able to work in user areas doing a line job, but adept at
developing and implementing IT application ideas.
6.2.1 The need for hybrid managers
Hybrids managers can bring a number of benefits:
•
•
•
Improved internal communication bridging of cultural and political gaps within the organization
Promotion of a better understanding of and more effective use of systems
Encouragement for a proactive attitude to change
6.3 Characteristics of Hybrid Managers
As well as business and technical knowledge implied by definition, it has been found that successful
hybrids also need organization specific knowledge and management competences. The latter is perhaps
the most important competence needed to ensure success. Although good cognitive, analytical and
decision-making capabilities are required, the key management competences needed are 'soft' interpersonal skills e.g.:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Communication
Negotiation
Team building
Motivating
Alliance builder
Vision builder
Tactician
Deliverer
6.4 Hybrid Cloud
A hybrid cloud is an infrastructure that includes links between one cloud managed by the user (typically
called "private cloud") and at least one cloud managed by a third party (typically called "public cloud").
Although the public and private segments of the hybrid cloud are bound together, they remain unique
entities. This allows a hybrid cloud to offer the benefits of multiple deployment models at once. Hybrid
clouds vary greatly in sophistication. For example, some hybrid clouds offer only a connection between
the on premise and public clouds. All the difficulties inherent in the two different infrastructures is the
responsibility of operations and application teams.
HYBRID
CLOUD
PRIVATE
PUBLIC
CLOUD
CLOUD
Flexible use responding to demands,
needs & costs.
6.5 Why Go Hybrid?
Now that we've covered what the hybrid cloud is, what are its advantages?
a) Flexibility. The main reason organizations adopt the hybrid cloud approach is that it gives them
maximum flexibility to explore new products and business models. If your business needs are
continually changing, your development team can benefit from having a private environment on
which to build and test new software without having to dramatically rearrange your IT resources
and architecture.
b) Security. Protected, confidential, and sensitive information can be stored on a private cloud
while still leveraging resources of the public cloud to run apps that rely on that data. This is
especially important for businesses that store sensitive data for their customers. (Think health
care providers and payroll processors, for example.)
c) Stability. Even the biggest and most reliable cloud service providers have downtime. By keeping
certain functions accessible and on-site, organizations insulate themselves from network
failures. Another concern (currently hypothetical) involves the erosion of net neutrality, which
could lead some ISPs to throttle speeds for certain traffic-intensive sites and services. For
services that require an extremely high degree of availability (like social networks), ensuring
stability is a major consideration.
d) Reduced latency. For certain high-speed functions, it's impractical to run apps in the public
cloud. Keeping some processing jobs on-site allows businesses to allocate their computing
resources more effectively. Financial firms that handle high-volume trades and businesses that
rely on real-time analytics are two examples of organizations that could benefit from keeping
certain functions on a private cloud.
e) Cost effectiveness. As Its role has grown, so too have the demands placed on the data center.
When data centers are forced to do too many things, efficiency suffers. You could invest money
in upgrading your computing or storage, but why not offload the non-essential tasks onto a
cloud-storage system? That way, you can dedicate your on-site resources to your most
important tasks
6.6 Things to Consider When Moving to a Hybrid Cloud
Moving to a hybrid cloud can save money and make your organization more efficient and agile. That
said, changing your IT infrastructure can be a complex and expensive undertaking. Before moving to a
hybrid cloud, you should carefully weigh your options and make sure you have the personnel, resources,
and time to make the switch.
•
•
Setup and customization. Who's responsible for making sure that your web services are properly
connected to your in-house operations? Integration can be a tricky and time-consuming process,
so make sure you've allocated time for customization and testing.
Data transfer. Organizations should expect to incur a fee when moving their data onto the
cloud, especially if there are large amounts of it.
•
•
•
•
•
Management. How will you manage your hybrid cloud environment? Especially when your
workloads are abstracted from the hardware they run on, it's critical to make sure that
resources are efficiently assigned based on business needs and availability. Modeling out your
workloads should give you some sense of how much CPU, disk, and memory resources are
needed.
Storage and maintenance. Think carefully about how your data could grow. Are you a Big Data
company that needs an extremely scalable storage solution? Or do you just need access to
resources during peak times?
Compliance. If you're in a regulated industry or handle sensitive data regularly, you'll probably
want to audit your cloud service to make sure it meets your specific needs.
Workloads. There are many different types of workloads, some of which are better suited to the
cloud than others. Are you running batch workloads that can run in the background or overnight
over the public cloud? Or do you need high-powered real-time analytics workloads that require
all the computing power in your data center? The answer will help inform how you set up and
manage your hybrid cloud.
Load balancing. In distributed computing environments, load balancing ensures that no single
machine gets overwhelmed with requests. Typically, the load balancer sits in front of the servers
and uses an algorithm to distribute workloads efficiently.
Topic Summary
You have learned that;
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
Hybrid IT combines the delivery of enterprise applications, data, and services to keep the
business running and accelerate innovation. It encompasses people, process, and technology,
and spans on-premises and off-premises environments across the data center, private cloud,
public cloud, and the edge of the network
Hybrid IT is an approach to enterprise computing in which an organization provides and
manages some information technology (IT) resources in-house but uses cloud-based services for
others.
Hybrid managers are needed to improve internal communication, to bridge cultural and political
gap within and organization, etc. The key management competencies required by hybrid
managers are; communication skills, negotiation skills, team building skills, motivational skills,
etc.
The reason why people go hybrid is because hybrid give maximum flexibility, there is high
security of information, stability, etc.
There are some things to consider when moving to hybrid. They include; set up and
customization, data transfer, management, storage and maintenance, compliance, workloads
and load balancing.
Glossary
Hybrid cloud is an infrastructure that includes links between one cloud managed by the user (typically
called "private cloud") and at least one cloud managed by a third party (typically called "public cloud").
Hybrid information technology is an approach to enterprise computing in which an organization
provides and manages some information technology (IT) resources in-house but uses cloud-based
services for others.
Hybrid manager is a person with strong technical skills and adequate business knowledge or vice versa.
TOPIC SEVEN: INFORMATION MAPPING AND INFORMATION AUDIT
Introduction
Welcome to topic seven. In this topic, we discuss the concept of information mapping, aims of
information mapping, why information mapping, steps followed in information mapping, information
audit, areas covered by information audit, types of information audit, preparation and planning for audit
and differences between information needs analysis and information audit. Welcome and enjoy the
discussion.
Learning Outcomes
By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
vi.
vii.
viii.
ix.
Explain the concept of information mapping
Describe aims of information mapping
Discuss why information mapping?
Demonstrate the steps followed in information mapping
Explain the information audit
Describe the areas covered by information audit
Discuss the types of information audit
Describe the preparation and planning for audit
Compare information needs analysis and information audit
Topic Content
7.1 INFORMATION MAPPING
Information mapping is a research-based method for writing clear and user focused information, based
on the audience's needs and the purpose of the information. The method is applied primarily to
designing and developing business and technical communications.
7.1.1 Aims of information mapping
i.
ii.
iii.
Facilitates better and more informed decisions in an organization
Able to identify information needs
Facilitate free flow of information
iv.
Provide customer services and greater performances
7.1.2 Why information mapping
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Help in detecting information gaps within an organization
Used as the first step in costing information service
To encourage the free flow of information and development of innovation
An on-going research tool
Help a business in learning and budgetary services
Help on the overlaps and duplications
Helps in identification of weakness of a collection
7.1.3 Steps followed in information mapping
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
Preliminary survey/ inventory: identification of organization needs, aims and objectives of our
organization, get support from top management; establish the purpose of our business,
categories of users, systems used, structure in place, data collection to guide us in our decisions.
Measuring the cost and accessing the values: identify the cost element of the business activity,
time, cost, expertise.
Reviewing the information: suppliers, infrastructures, identification of funding.
Identifying the information resources
7.2 INFORMATION AUDIT
Information audit refers to the process of discovering and evaluating the resources of an organization.
An information audit is a systematic evaluation of information use, resources and flows, with verification
by reference to both people and existing documents in order to establish the extent to which they are
contributing to an organisation's objectives. Information is now recognised by organisations as a key
strategic asset which has a vital role to play in decision making and in improving productivity. As with
any other resource, it is of critical importance to ensure that information is effectively acquired,
managed and used. Easy access to information in a whole range of digital formats has brought with it
problems such as information overload and the need to assess the quality of information to ensure it is
reliable, accurate and up to date.
Carrying out an information audit can help organisations to ensure that:
•
•
•
•
•
•
Information resources reflect business needs
Decisions on investment in systems and resources are effective
There is a clear understanding of the organisation's information requirements
Business critical information is accessible to those who need it
Gaps in provision that could affect the competitive or innovative capacity of the organisation or
its ability to meet customer needs are identified
Return on investment in information resources and systems is maximized
•
•
•
•
•
•
Compliance with legislation such as the Data Protection Act and the Freedom of Information Act
is achieved.
Highlight the resources that are already available to the organisation
Raise awareness of the value of information to an organisation in fulfilling its mission
Act as an organisational learning process for effective information management
Identify areas of information management expertise within the organisation
Provide a basis for the development of an organisational information policy.
7.2.1 Areas covered by information audit
Areas that may be covered by an information audit include:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
What information is needed to achieve organisational objectives?
Which information is business critical and which is desirable or 'nice to have?'
Who needs access to it?
What information resources are currently available?
What mismatches exist between what is available and what is needed?
Are there any gaps in provision or is any unnecessary information acquired?
How is information acquired or collected? By whom? How much does it cost? Is there any
duplication of effort or unnecessary expenditure?
What budgets are allocated and how are they controlled? Are budgets adequate or excessive?
How is information created within the organisation? By whom? How is it captured, made
available, and used by others?
How is information organised and stored? What IT systems are in place?
How is information delivered? Is it accessible to all who need it?
How is information being used and by whom? Is it being shared and used effectively? Which
information is not being used?
Who is responsible for information handling and management? Do they have the knowledge
and skills they need? Are training and development required?
How does information flow through the organisation? How is this controlled and by whom?
What factors hinder or facilitate the flow of information?
What policy documents, guidelines or procedures are in place?
How are compliance issues handled? Who is responsible for ensuring that legal requirements
relating to matters such as data protection, privacy and freedom of information are met?
Who is responsible for the security of personal or commercially sensitive information? Are
adequate controls and procedures in place?
7.2.2 Types of Information audit
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
Cost benefit mode
Those that map the services of an organization
Hybrid approach
Management of information system
v.
Outline the organizational objectives
7.2.3 Preparation and planning for audit
Step 1- Survey
 Access retrieval tools-catalogues (OPAC)
 Location of information resources
Step 2- Information analysis




Individual information
Services provided within the different departments
Details of individual user information
Staff information who will provide information service
Step 3- Decision making
 Recommendations
 Evaluation of information services
7.3 Difference between information needs analysis and information audit
The needs analysis is a process by which information users are asked precisely what information
resources or services they need to perform their jobs. It usually in a list of resources that are required by
each person or department, and can be used to rationalize acquisitions (determining what will be
bought and who will it be bought for), delivery mechanisms (getting the right resources to the people
who need them) and service levels (identifying who needs specific services and at what level).
The information audit goes one step further in not only finding out what information resources and
services people need to do their jobs, but how those information resources and services are actually
used. It looks at the objectives, critical success factors and tasks and activities of each group, business
unit, department or section, and links them with the relevant organisational objective. It identifies the
information that is required to support each task or activity. It is then possible to trace a specific
resource from the task it supports to the organisation objective, and assign a level of strategic
significance to it. This allows you to not only identify those resources and services that are supporting
organisational objectives but also to 'rate' them according to their strategic significance.
Information need analysis aims at analysing of needs at a local level while information audit aims at
analysis of need at pan- organization. Information need analysis deals with information needs of
individual while information audit deals with information resource in an organization.
Information need analysis is linked to business strategy of the information centre while information
audit is linked to business of the strategy of the organization.
Topic Summary
We have learned that;
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
vi.
Information mapping is a research-based method for writing clear and user focused information,
based on the audience's needs and the purpose of the information. The method is applied
primarily to designing and developing business and technical communications.
The aim of information mapping is to facilitate better and informed decisions, identify
information needs, facilitate free flow of information.
Information mapping also helps in detecting information gap, it is an ongoing research tool, etc.
Information audit refers to the process of discovering and evaluating the resources of an
organization. An information audit is a systematic evaluation of information use, resources and
flows, with verification by reference to both people and existing documents in order to establish
the extent to which they are contributing to an organisation's objectives.
There are various areas covered by information audit. These areas include; what information is
needed, availability of resources.
Cost benefit mode, hybrid approach management of information systems are among the types
of information audit. Preparation and planning for audit takes three steps like survey,
information analysis and decision making.
TOPIC EIGHT: DEVELOPING INFORMATION STRATEGY
Introduction
Welcome to topic eight. In this topic we discuss information strategy, components of information
strategy, criteria for developing a good strategy and the importance of developing strategies. We also
discuss steps in developing an information strategy, factors to consider in your strategic plan and
benefits of having an information strategy. Welcome and enjoy the discussion
Learning Outcomes
By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
vi.
Explain the concept of information strategy
Describe the components of information strategy
Discuss the criteria for developing a good strategy
Explain the importance of developing strategies
What are the steps to be followed in developing information strategy
Describe the factors to consider in your strategic plan and benefits of having an information
strategy.
Topic Content
8.1 Introduction
Information Strategy refers to a long-term plan designed to achieve the organization's objectives in the
management of knowledge, information or data. Information Strategy is one of the outcomes of
strategic management, and it is an integral part of the strategy of the organization. An information
strategy is a management tool linking the delivery of the organisation's mission to the overall
information resource. The information strategy puts the information policy into practice by setting out
aims/objectives, actions to achieve them, and targets/deadlines. It is developed and implemented in
stages, and must be periodically reviewed. Strategic planning is an organizational management activity
that is used to set priorities, focus energy and resources, strengthen operations, ensure that employees
and other stakeholders are working toward common goals, establish agreement around intended
outcomes/results, and assess and adjust the organization's direction in response to a changing
environment. It is a disciplined effort that produces fundamental decisions and actions that shape and
guide what an organization is, who it serves, what it does, and why it does it, with a focus on the future.
Effective strategic planning articulates not only where an organization is going and the actions needed
to make progress, but also how it will know if it is successful. A strategic plan is a document used to
communicate with the organization the organizations goals, the actions needed to achieve those goals
and all of the other critical elements developed during the planning exercise.
Strategic management is the comprehensive collection of ongoing activities and processes that
organizations use to systematically coordinate and align resources and actions with mission, vision and
strategy throughout an organization. Strategic management activities transform the static plan into a
system that provides strategic performance feedback to decision making and enables the plan to evolve
and grow as requirements and other circumstances change.
8.2 Components of information strategy
The strategy is likely to contain the following components:
•
•
•
•
•
what you are trying to achieve and why
what you have done and discovered so far
information policies and procedures (or reference to them)
the plan for the specified projects
The framework for the ongoing monitoring and evaluation of the strategy.
8.3 Criteria for developing a good strategy
Strategies for your community initiative should meet several criteria.
Does the strategy:
•
•
Give overall direction? A strategy, such as enhancing experience and skill or increasing resources
and opportunities, should point out the overall path without dictating a particular narrow
approach (e.g., using a specific skills training program).
Fit resources and opportunities? A good strategy takes advantage of current resources and
assets, such as people's willingness to act or a tradition of self-help and community pride. It also
•
•
•
embraces new opportunities such as an emerging public concern for neighborhood safety or
parallel economic development efforts in the business community.
Minimize resistance and barriers? When initiatives set out to accomplish important things,
resistance (even opposition) is inevitable. However, strategies need not provide a reason for
opponents to attack the initiative. Good strategies attract allies and deter opponents.
Reach those affected? To address the issue or problem, strategies must connect the
intervention with those who it should benefit. For example, if the mission of the initiative is to
get people into decent jobs, do the strategies (providing education and skills training, creating
job opportunities, etc.) reach those currently unemployed?
Advance the mission? Taken together, are strategies likely to make a difference on the mission
and objectives? If the aim is to reduce a problem such as unemployment, are the strategies
enough to make a difference on rates of employment? If the aim is to prevent a problem, such
as substance abuse, have factors contributing to risk (and protection) been changed sufficiently
to reduce use of alcohol, tobacco, and other drugs?
8.4 Importance of developing strategies
Developing strategies is really a way to focus your efforts and figure out how you're going to get things
done. By doing so, you can achieve the following advantages:
•
•
•
Taking advantage of resources and emerging opportunities
Responding effectively to resistance and barriers
A more efficient use of time, energy, and resources
8.5 Steps in the development of an information strategy
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
vi.
vii.
Strategists need to understand the organisation's strategic objectives, its culture and its
business processes/methods of working.
They need to establish what activities and information resources are required to meet the
organisation's objectives.
Current processes and information resources are examined through an information audit
The results of the information audit are analysed to identify shortcomings or gaps between what
is required, existing processes and resources.
An information policy is produced based on the organisation's objectives. It comprises a series of
statements covering: (a) the organisation's attitude to information; (b) principles governing the
management of information, the use of staff and I.T. for the management of information, and
cost effectiveness.
The information strategy is developed and implemented, possibly in stages. It puts policy into
practice through specific actions and projects.
The information strategy is periodically reviewed to ensure its aims are still appropriate and are
being met.
8.6 Factors to Consider in Your Strategic Plan
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
vi.
vii.
viii.
ix.
Articulate a vision and a mission. The vision describes what the business would like to be in the
long-term. It's an aspirational statement. The mission shares the business' purpose for
operating.
Identify your stakeholders. Stakeholders are groups that your business serves or groups that
influence your business. Stakeholders may include management, shareholders, employees,
customers, suppliers, government entities and the community at large. Your strategic plan
should consider each group that is relevant to your operation; the role that each group will have
in affecting your business; and the opportunities that your business may have to engage,
influence or serve these groups to ensure that the business succeeds.
Scan your internal environment. Understanding your internal environment involves realistically
identifying your business' strengths and weaknesses. Internal factors that may be strengths or
weaknesses include finances, human resources, machinery and equipment, culture and
operational protocols.
Assess your external environment. In the external environment, identify opportunities and
threats. These may be related to political, economic and demographic factors that are outside of
your control but still affect the business.
Combine the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats (SWOT) assessment into a single
analysis. The SWOT analysis fuels goal-setting and positioning your business for success. The
SWOT analysis should help you to consider leveraging your strengths, prioritizing weaknesses to
realign, targeting the strongest opportunities as possible growth areas and developing a strategy
for monitoring and addressing important threats.
Define your competitive advantage. Find the unique position that your business can occupy
relative to its competitors and given its strengths and weaknesses and the surrounding
environment's opportunities and threats.
Make SMART goals. When using your assessment to form business goals, formulate goals that
are specific, measurable, actionable, realistic and have a time element. For example, "Increase
soybean protein content by 1 percentage point per year from 32 percent protein in 2015 to 35
percent protein in 2018" would be a stronger goal than "Grow soybeans that buyers demand."
Account for your personal and business goals. Personal goals represent the individual objectives
of management, staff and others involved in the business. Such goals may include earning
money, contributing to the community, developing professional skills, having time available to
spend with family or advancing a given industry. When setting business goals, ensure that
business goal achievement will enable the people involved in your business to realize their
personal goals.
Determine action steps. These action steps or strategies should bring you closer to achieving the
goals that you set, fulfilling your business' purpose and satisfying your business' long-term
aspirations.
8.7 Benefits of having an information strategy
•
A strategy encourages co-operation and openness between managers of information resources.
This results in more effective use of the organisation's information and in more innovation.
•
•
•
•
Decision making on investment in systems and IT is based on organisational strategy and user
needs (rather than technology push or the latest trends)
A strategy avoids wasting time on unnecessary activities, particularly users having to interpret
information received in unsuitable formats
A strategy also ensures an organisation meets its legal requirements, so avoiding unnecessary
costs and risk to reputation properly managed information supports innovation, productivity
and competitiveness
information activities are unified, so fully contributing to organizational objectives
Topic Summary
In this topic, we learned that;
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
Information Strategy refers to a long-term plan designed to achieve the organization's objectives
in the management of knowledge, information or data. Information Strategy is one of the
outcomes of strategic management, and it is an integral part of the strategy of the organization.
An information strategy is a management tool linking the delivery of the organisation's mission
to the overall information resource. The information strategy puts the information policy into
practice by setting out aims/objectives, actions to achieve them, and targets/deadlines. It is
developed and implemented in stages, and must be periodically reviewed.
The components of information strategy include; what are you trying to achieve and why, what
you have done and discovered so far and information policies and procedures.
Strategies for your organization should meet certain criteria like; giving overall direction, fit
resources and opportunities, minimize resistance and barriers, reach those affected and
advance the mission.
There are various importance of developing a strategy. They include; taking advantage of
resources and emerging opportunities, responding effectively to resistance and barriers, a more
efficient use of time, energy and resources.
Some factors to consider in your strategic plan are; articulate vision and mission, identify your
stakeholders, scan your internal environment, etc. Having an information strategy will bring
various benefit which include; encourages cooperation and openness between managers of
information resources, decision making on investment in systems and IT is based on
organizational strategy and user needs, a strategy avoids wasting time on unnecessary activities,
particularly users to interpret information received in unsuitable formats.
Glossary
A strategic plan is a document used to communicate with the organization the organizations goals, the
actions needed to achieve those goals and all of the other critical elements developed during the
planning exercise.
Information Strategy refers to a long-term plan designed to achieve the organization's objectives in the
management of knowledge, information or data. Information Strategy is one of the outcomes of
strategic management, and it is an integral part of the strategy of the organization.
Strategic management is the comprehensive collection of ongoing activities and processes that
organizations use to systematically coordinate and align resources and actions with mission, vision and
strategy throughout an organization.
Strategic planning is an organizational management activity that is used to set priorities, focus energy
and resources, strengthen operations, ensure that employees and other stakeholders are working
toward common goals, establish agreement around intended outcomes/results, and assess and adjust
the organization's direction in response to a changing environment.
TOPIC NINE: INFORMATION MANAGEMENT AND ORGANIZATIONAL CHANGE
Introduction
Welcome to topic nine. In this topic we introduce you to the causes of organizational change, response
to organizational change and the process of organizational change. We further discuss resistance of
organizational change, benefits of change to individual and organization, planning and managing
change, planning techniques and factors in planning. Welcome and enjoy the discussion.
Learning Outcomes
By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
vi.
vii.
viii.
Explain the causes of organizational change
Analyse responses to organizational change
Illustrate process of organizational change
Analyse resistance to organizational change
Identify benefits of change to individual and organization
Analyse the process of planning and managing change
Discuss planning techniques for change
Explain factors to consider in planning for change
Topic Content
9.1 Meaning of Organisational Change
Organisational change refers to any alteration that occurs in total work environment. Organisational
change is an important characteristic of most organisations. An organisation must develop adaptability
to change otherwise it will either be left behind or be swept away by the forces of change.
Organisational change is inevitable in a progressive culture. Modern organizations are highly dynamic,
versatile and adaptive to the multiplicity of changes.
Organisational change refers to the alteration of structural relationships and roles of people in the
organization. It is largely structural in nature. An enterprise can be changed in several ways. Its
technology can be changed, its structure, its people and other elements can be changed. Organisational
change calls for a change in the individual behaviour of the employees. Organizations survive, grow or
decay depending upon the changing behaviour of the employees. Most changes disturb the equilibrium
of situation and environment in which the individuals or groups exist. If a change is detrimental to the
interests of individuals or groups, they will resist the change.
9.2 Organizing for Change
Some few years back, managers of libraries and information centers spent little time on external
matters. Today portion of managers' time is spent on external matters. With civic organization, trustees
or cooperation members at board meetings and individually as well as other potential funding
authorities, with lobbying government officials in collective bargaining sessions in defense of the budget
or support of strategic planning efforts, and on other public relation matters such as gathering and
disseminating information to the press, to decision maker, to customers and to colleagues. That activity
is an important part of the change paradigm. The need and desire to be constantly in touch with an
organization primary concern and other important stake holders, to gauge the information knowledge
seeking patterns and to assess their needs in order to develop plans, policies, practices and procedures
that satisfy those needs bring new challenges in changing patterns and attitudes.
9.3 Causes of Organisational Change
A. External Pressures:
i.
ii.
iii.
Change in Technology and Equipment: Advancements in technology is the major cause (i.e.,
external pressure) of change. Each technological alternative results in new forms of organization
to meet and match the needs.
Market Situation: Changes in market situation include rapidly changing goals, needs and desires
of consumers, suppliers, unions etc. If an organization has to survive, it has to cope with changes
in market situations.
Social and Political Changes: Organisational units literally have no control over social and
political changes in the country. Relations between government and business or drive for social
equality are some factors which may compel fororganisational change.
B. Internal Pressures (Pressures for Change from within the Organisation)
i.
ii.
iii.
•
•
•
Changes in the Managerial Personnel: One of the most frequent reasons for major changes in
the organisation is the change of executives at the top. No two managers have the same style,
skills or managerial philosophies.
Deficiencies in the Existing Organization: Many deficiencies are noticed in the organisations with
the passage of time. A change is necessary to remove such deficiencies as lack of uniformity in
the policies, obstacles in communication, any ambiguity etc.
Other Factors: Certain other factors such as listed below also demand a change in the
organization:
Employee's desire to share in decision-making
Employee's desire for higher wage rate
Improvement in working conditions, etc.
9.4 Response to Organisational Change
Every change is responded by the people working in the organisation. These responses may be positive
or negative depending upon the fact as how they affect people. Before introducing a change, the
manager should study and understand employee's attitudes so as to create a positive response. Three
sets of factors-psychological, personal and social- govern the attitude of people.
CHANGE
Response
Outcome
Effect on organisation
People work harder than before
More output than before
Positive
Quit the organization
Output reduces
Negative
Become sullen and slow down
Less output
Negative
Work as hard as before
Output remains the same
Neutral
9.5 Process of Organisational Change
Unless the behavioural patterns of the employees change, the change will have a little impact on the
effectiveness of the organisation. A commonly accepted model for bringing change in people was
suggested by Kurt Lewin in terms of three phase process: Unfreezing
Change in organisation
Change in behaviour of
people
Changing
Refreezing
a) Unfreezing: The essence of unfreezing phase is that the individual is made to realize that his
beliefs, feelings and behaviour are no longer appropriate or relevant to the current situation in
the organisation. Once convinced, people may change their behaviour. Reward for those willing
to change and punishment for others may help in this matter.
b) Changing: Once convinced and ready to change, an individual, under this phase, learns to
behave in new ways. He is first provided with the model in which he is to identify himself.
Gradually he will accept that model and behave in the manner suggested by the model. In
another process (known as internalization), the individual is placed in a situation where new
behaviour is demanded of him if he is to operate successfully.
c) Refreezing: During this phase, a person has to practice and experiment with the new method of
behaviour and see that it effectively blends with his other behavioural attitudes. Reinforcement,
for creating a permanent set in the individual, is provided through either continuous or
intermittent schedules.
9.6 Resistance to Organisational Change
Resistance to change is perhaps one of the baffling problems a manager encounters because it can take
many shapes. People may resign, they may show tardiness, loss of motivation to work, increased
absenteeism, request for transfer, wild-cat strikes, shoddy work, reduction in productivity etc.
Classification of Resistance to Change
Resistance to change may be classified as:
•
•
Individual Resistance
Organisational Resistance
Individual Resistance to Change
Individuals prefer to maintain status quo rather than accept new ways of doing things. They resist
change because of the following reasons:
a) Insecurity: There is a sense of insecurity amongst people as they move from one post or location
to the other. They are uncertain about new job requirements, new environment and new work
groups and, therefore, resist change. They become habitual of working in the present situation
and feel that moving to new location will disturb their comfort. It requires adjustment with
which they are not comfortable as it is related to insecurity.
b) Social factors: When people move to new work environment, they suffer from a psychological
set back as they do not want to leave their friends in the existing social environment. They find it
difficult to cope with new environment. Strong influence of informal groups becomes a source
of resistance to change. Other factors include loss of power, status, security, unfamiliarity with
new work procedures and lack of confidence.
c) Economic factors: People resist change as they feel they will get less pay due to automation and
technology upgradation at the new place. It may require less workers and, therefore, less
monetary benefits. Change from labour intensive to capital intensive techniques of production
creates fear of job security amongst employees. Therefore, they do not welcome such jobs even
if employers assure them of job security.
d) Lack of knowledge about causes of change: If change is made without explaining the reasons for
change, employees will not know how and to what extent such changes will affect their lives and
behaviour. Employees resist changes if reasons for change are unknown to them.
e) Lack of faith: Lack of trust and faith in managers often creates a feeling amongst subordinates
that change is being initiated at the cost of their interest. Thus, they resist to accept change.
f) Threat to power and influence: Change which re-allocates authority-responsibility relationships
may take away power from some members and give it to others. The power of status and
position is a strong influence that keeps a person attached to his job. Change with threat to
power and status is not welcomed by people.
g) Low levels of tolerance: Change requires new learning by employees. New behaviours and skills
have to be developed. If people do not want to learn new procedures and techniques, it results
in resistance to change.
h) Different perceptions: Managers introduce change because they perceive it necessary to
improve organisational efficiency. Others may resist change because they perceive the situation
differently. The existing state of equilibrium is not disturbed because of different perceptions
and change is not enforced in the organisation.
i) Peer pressure: People resist change because their fellow workers oppose it. They obey the
group norms for the fear of social boycott.
Organisational Resistance to Change
Change is resisted at the organisational level also. Some of the reasons why organisations resist change
are:
a) Organisation structure: An autocratic or bureaucratic structure where authority-responsibility
relationships and work are divided into well-defined units, employees' participation in decisionmaking is minimum and information follows a vertical path is not responsive to change.
b) Economic costs: Huge investment is required in plant and machinery, building and other
equipment's to conform to changed operations. Resources are generally scarce and
organisations, therefore, may not be initially responsive to change.
c) Organisational commitments: If organisations enter into long-term agreements with third
parties, say 7-10 years, they are restrained from introducing change, even if desirable, unless
agreed by the parties concerned.
d) Sunk costs: Today's environment is changing very fast, be it technology, consumers' tastes or
environmental policies. Huge amount of investment is made in assets which can be recovered
after the assets are put to productive use in the gestation period. If, during this period, changes
are required, it may not be feasible as assets cannot be replaced fast. This may, however, be
possible if cost-benefit analysis warrants that costs of not introducing the change (sales lost) is
more than the cost of investment in new assets.
Overcoming Resistance to Organisational Change
Change creates tension and emotional turmoil in the minds of employees. Change thus results in
resistance quite frequently, negative reactions doom the success of the change program especially when
a manager is unable to handle it properly. Some of the techniques to handle the change properly and to
deal with resistance to change are:
a) Education and Communication: One of the easiest techniques to overcome resistance to change
is to educate the people who resist it. In many cases, people do not properly understand the
change and hence become afraid of its consequences and resist change.
b) Participation and Involvement: If subordinates are allowed to participate and involve themselves
in the change process (decision-making regarding the implementation of the change), their
misunderstandings about the consequences of change are cleared, they generally feel satisfied
and do not oppose change.
c) Support: Support may be facilitative and emotional. Managers sometimes deal with potential
resistance by being supportive. This includes listening, providing emotional support, providing
training in new skills etc.
d) Incentives: Offering incentive is another fruitful way to overcome resistance to change.
e) Manipulation: Managers generally indulge in manipulation when all other tactics have failed to
overcome resistance to change.
f) Coercion: At times, there is no way except to deal with resistance coercively. People are forced
to accept change by threatening them with loss of their jobs, promotion possibilities and so
forth.
9.7 Benefits of change to individual and organization
Build up Competition
Change can be big or small, easy or complex in an organization. Change does not necessarily indicate a
major transformation every time. But it can seriously help to build competition, which can help
organizations progress and develop themselves. Without change, organizations would struggle to lift up
themselves to face the competition put forward by their competitors. Example- When a particular
organization changes its way of working and if it attracts more customers, the neighboring competitor
will definitely observe the same and would try to bring a change in his usual form of working. Thus, here
change plays a very positive role in building up competition which leads to a desire among organizations
to develop themselves more than their competitors.
Bring Technological Advancement
Technology plays a vital role in development of an organization. Change that results from the adoption
of new technology is common in most organizations and while it can be disruptive at first, ultimately the
change tends to increase productivity and service. To beat the competition, organizations can make use
of new technologies. The same, old, obsolete ways of doing things would not work out when the
competitors would be moving fast forward with new technologies. It also enables employees to adopt
the new technology and indirectly helps in growth of organization. For Example Toyota - the company to
emulate in the automobile industry, it has emerged to become one of the most successful organizations
in terms of establishing change management.
Develop Satisfied Customers
Adopting change in organizations can create a certain extent of dissatisfaction among employees and
also among customers. But, once change brings in a favorable effect, customers and employees start
accepting it. Eventually this change brings satisfied customers which in turn act positively for customers.
As always said, satisfied customer is a boon for every organization. Just a mere tweak in the strategy can
do wonders for you. The most famous example being Google - The Google experience is a classic
example of a company committed to wowing its customers based on consistent quality and constant
innovation over the years.
9.8 PLANNING AND MANAGING CHANGE
Whatever the type of organization people work in and whatever type of job they do, the organization
and those work will change. Sometimes it is quite dramatically and not always for better. It follows that
the ability to initiate change and manage is on that all managers need to possess.
Change can come from many directions, from many directions, from supervisors or from subordinate
within an organization from personal initiative and from outside. Make sure that you are aware of all the
possible sources, and be open to change wherever it comes from. Therefore, in order for managers to
make informed choices for their organization, they must understand the nature, justify the theories and
beliefs which are available to guide their sections.
For libraries and other knowledge base organizations, the ongoing knowledge revelation has launched a
gigantic wave of change. Uncertainty about the impact of the political, economic, social and
technological climate worldwide readers, it is almost futile to anticipate the future.
Organizations must be managed or more appropriately guided in a way that decisions can be made, or
else nothing be done. This requires managers and other staff to be accountable for their performance as
are sale of those decisions. In many instances, decisions are likely to be made not with the aid of a
crystal ball, but best upon the best guess assumption about the future. In this time of great
entrepreneurial, old and new institutions suddenly have to become very limber/ flexible.
Changes that have affected many knowledge-based libraries and information centres are those
preferring to:
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
Introduction of new technologies that render current industries obsolete
Emergence of world economy that involves a world market and global shopping centre
Developing of changing political and social matrix involving much disenchantment with.
Creation of knowledge economy is where the goods are made available and spent on procuring
ideas and information and in which knowledge has become the central factor of production.
But with each one of those components being affected by the phenomenon of change, each
presents its own challenge in an effective process. How can this dichotomy of attitudes towards
acceptance of change in personal lives but the resistance to change in the organizational life be
explained?
Perhaps the answer lies in an organizational culture and values system that traditionally would present
barriers to change. Those barriers can be identified as:
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
Failure to create a sense of urgency for change
Lack of clear vision
Not removing the obstacles to change.
Failure to anchor changes into the organizations culture
A failure to follow through with plans which libraries and information centers are confident of
their success and believe that they are necessary complacency easily becomes a gap.
Although historic success has been built on innovative ideas, but a continuation of that success requires
a reawakening and renewal of today's competitive environment and this is an active and deliberate
process. The organization of the future will be networks, cluster, cross-functional, teams, temporary
systems, module, matrices - almost anything but pyramids. Warren Bennis invented life reflection on
leadership and change from human side, barriers to that success are both psychological and institutional
with most being in the minds of knowledge workers rather than an organization charts. This requires an
orientation economist meant for all people, managers and non-managers, professional and support
staff, working in knowledge-based organization. It also requires a making of programs that informs both
customers and potentials customers that knowledge needs can be met. To address the resistance one
must look at what is happening in knowledge-based libraries and information centers.
9.9 THE PLANNING CONCEPT
A plan is not just a document prepared to be brought out and admired on special occasions, but active
program, incorporating certain beliefs, schedules, specifying steps to be taken. Planning is "analytical
process which involves an assessment of the future, the determination of the desired objectives in the
context of the future, the development of the alternative course of action to achieve such objectives
and the selection of a course or courses of action among alternatives." Planning is both behavior and a
process. It's the process of moving an organization from where it wants to be given a period of time by
setting a predetermined course of actions and committing its physical and human resources to that goal.
The analogy of a road map is an appropriate one. If one doesn't know where she or he is and doesn't
know how to get to where she wants to be, many, many roads lead to a dead end or re tracking of steps.
Perhaps the most important reasons for planning are: i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
To offset uncertainty and to prepare for change
To focus attention on clear direction for the future
To gain economic contrary of the operation
To facilitate control and to demonstrate accountability
It is not possible to plan for every single action. A successful planning approach must build an
understanding of the library's or information center reason for existence and capabilities as an essential
first step on identifying future direction. To create planning attitude the concept must evolve all levels of
the organization from top to all levels downwards. The outcome of planning becomes today's design for
tomorrow's action, taken outline of the steps taken starting now and continuing into the future. Because
planning is a delicate, complicated, time consuming process, it cannot be forced on an organization that
is not prepared for the self-analysis and the change that will result from the process rationale thinking
be balanced by a planning attitude and interpersonal skills that facilitate the process. Occasionally,
services may suffer is resources are elevated to the planning process and staff become so wrapped up in
planning that current basic library and information services tasks are ignored. On the other hand, the
success of the effort requires commitment that must be earned. The degree of extensive staff
involvement in planning depends on the cost, time, the importance of planning on particular plan
perceived knowledge and interest of participants. It is imperative that each person involved knows
clearly the purpose of the planning, the expected outcome, his or her roles as well as that of every other
individual throughout the process. After the plan is accepted as document for the future directions,
progress towards achieving the intent of the plan should proceed in a timely manner, addressing
activities and developing procedure to achieve the objective identified in the plan. Daily planning
process should never be considered as an activity of management, without daily planning, as follow-up.
9.10 PARADIGM SHIFT
The most important avenues have to produce paradigm shift. In library and information services
organization, there has been a paradigm shift in the resources, in the services and the user orientation
with those knowledge-based organization and in knowledge works responsibilities for service and
system in the organization. The continuing paradigm shift now presents the best set opportunity for
comprehensive organizational change.
Diagram: Change the innovative process
INFORMATION PARADIGM SHIFT RESOURCES
VIRTUAL LIBRARY
OWN COLLECTION ON MEDIUM
MULTIPLE MEDIA
WAREHOUSE
SERVICES
SUPERMARKETS
USERS
WAIT FOR USERS
PROMOTE USE
STAFF ONLY
USER EMPOWERMENT
Change is now more accurately, portrayed as unpredictable, unstoppable and transformational rather
than incremental, predictable and controllable. In the knowledge service see for the needs of customers,
clients, patrons or users name become focus of all services, in performing supporting activities that
facilitate access.
Future focused knowledge empowering organization anticipates and redefines customers' needs on a
regular basis and expand and shift services in the fluid movement.
Re-examination often times requires: i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
Reordering priorities
Retaining staff
Renewing equipment
Restructuring the hierarchy level
Redirecting financial resources.
Current worldwide economic constraints coupled with accelerated technological development
encourage greater info-type and intra- type informational cooperative efforts in systems (accessing,
evaluating and distributing) offered by libraries and other centers i.e., CD-ROM, ON – line access,
networking. International organizational, particularly IFLA have become important partners in
addressing issues of international standards systems and services. This simple fact, combined with the
social, political and economic pressures of the day, necessitates organizations to have a very fluid
profile.
9.11 PLANNING TECHNILQUES
Many techniques must be considered for use in the planning process. However, they should not be
mistaken for the process itself.
Developing Standards and Guidelines
Standards are measurable, enforceable and can be directly related to goals. They should provide
guidance for actions in the present climate while being flexible enough to allow for future development.
General - industry - wide, or profession wide standards are guidelines established by various
professional groups to provide a basis of planning. Standards are not planning/plans: they are a means
of defining acceptance service. Each individual library must develop its own plans based on the demands
of its clients using those industry standards as guidelines. Both human and technical factors must be
considered in developing sound standards.
Forecasting
"Planning is an effort to anticipate the future and the inevitable change come with it must be
accomplished by choosing from among possible alternative, and with full knowledge and use of
techniques and tools available for action. The term forecasting elicits visions of crystal ball gazing, but
more appropriately designates a process of profession or prediction. Predictions are basically opinions
about the facts. Perfections are based on some type of systematic review that employs quantitative data
analysis or quantitative judgment using techniques. Forecasts are predictions based on assumptions
about the future. It helps to reduce uncertainty. Forecasting is the most valuable planning technique. It
attempts to find the most probable cost of events or range of possibilities. A problem very basic to
planning in any library is estimating future trends, influences, developments, and events will affect the
library but beyond the control of the library manager. Forecasting requires good information on trends
and developments in society and the economy as well as in the professional and its system of user's
interaction. Effective forecasting involves both qualitative and quantitative approaches.
Three Strategies for Forecasting Are:
i.
Deterministic: strategy assumes close causal relationship between the present and the future
strategy, place great reliance upon information about the future.
ii.
Symptomatic: this strategy searches for signs that might be indication of the future for example
the leading economic indicators - based on account that concept of level in a cycle is consistent
pattern.
Various new techniques are currently employed to predict the future. Some forecasting techniques used
in industry have been adopted for library and information, services, these include the survey approach
which is used in technological forecasting.
The steps of this technique are: i.
ii.
iii.
A panel of experts on a subject, for example, library funding is identified
Working independently, selected members of the panel products development over a specified
period of time. There is no group interaction.
The list of predictions is used to create a survey that is sent to each panelist for further reaction.
The process is repeated and ideas are verified until the investigator is convinced that no further
requirement is necessary. The technical based on opinions of experts is sure to gain more popularity as
more libraries and information centers become involved in strategic planning.
Benchmarking
Another technique is that of benchmarking, a process that searches for the best practices, assuming that
organizations can be improved by analyzing and copying other successful organization. Data between
the two organizations are collected to determine the performance gap among the two. From analysis an
action plan is developed. With availability of computers for modeling and the development of software
for that purpose, it is certain that forecasting techniques will become attractive in libraries and
information services planners. Though it may not be possible to mould all the various factors
information, any explicit defined model that can be used to quantify and to solve problems via
computational techniques. Several modeling efforts, using the computers program is that provide
means of estimating staff, materials, and cost needed to handle library operations and services, have
been developed and are discussed in the literature.
9.12 FACTORS IN PLANNING
The impetus for the type of planning today, which is now a required approach for most organization and
desirable approach for others, came primarily after the First World War II when planning was necessary
for-profit organization. This was true because technology was changing, becoming more expensive and
companies had to be sure of the need to expand resource in that area. Factors in the planning process
can be divided into at least five elements: time frame, collecting and analyzing data, levels of panning,
flexibility and accountability.
a) Time Frame
There are two categories of plans with respect to time: long range or strategic plans and short-term,
annual or operational plans. These categories refer to the span time over which the plan is initiated and
ending requires time. On the other hand, short range term operational, or tactical plans encompass the
day-to-day planning that takes place in any organization: a type of planning that is more task oriented. It
requires a shorter time frame. However, both types of plans can be considered action-oriented and
therefore measurable and attainable.
b) Collecting and Analyzing Data
The second element in planning includes systematic collections of data concerning the library or
information center, its activities and operations, staff, use and users over a given period of time as well
as external environment which affects what the organization wants to do and the way it can do it. In
other words, it is the analytical study of the whole organization and its processes/operations. Evaluation
is an element of the library planning process and techniques for collecting data.
c) Levels of Planning
All supervisors, coordinators or team leaders, whatever their levels of responsibility within
organizational structure, should engage in planning on two levels. They should be responsible for
planning in the individual users or groups and they should work with others in the organization to
develop the overall plan. In addition, involvement of lower personnel in planning has the advantage of
incorporating the practical point of view to those closest to the scene of operations while motivating
them to appreciate the need for planning and to support the direction the plan takes.
d) Flexibility
Flexibility or adaptability in meeting changing needs is the essence of good planning. Flexibility applies
to both short-term and strategic planning process. Any planning that is too rigid to accommodate to
change as it occurs is an exercise in futility. It is important to review pans on a schedule basis revising
priority that might change over the sort time as ell identifying achieved objectives. Planning process is
never completed: it is continuous, reviewed, revised and renewed. It is important for library and
information center plans to remain compatible with those of the larger organization of which the
information unit is a part and that reflect the changing environment where the center exist.
e) Accountability
It is a key to future success. It requires obligation and initiative to carry out established plans. For
managers, this means delegating authority and making individuals or team responsible for achieving
plans, objectives once they have been established. Ultimately, however, the manager is accountable for
the action or inaction.
Topic Summary
In this topic, we have learned that;
i.
A change management plan helps manage the change process, and also ensures control in
budget, schedule, scope, communication, and resources. The change management plan will
ii.
iii.
iv.
minimize the impact a change can have on the business, employees, customers, and other
important stakeholders. Change is an evitable, unavoidable part of any organization. Every
organization strives to change and it eventually leads to business excellence.
Change can be caused by internal or external pressures. The response to change in any
organization may be positive or negative. Change goes through different processes like;
unfreezing, changing and refreezing. Resistance to organizational change may happen at
individual level or at organizational level.
Organizations must be managed or more appropriately guided in a way that decisions can be
made or else nothing be done. This requires managers and other staff to be accountable for
their performance. Managers require planning techniques so that they can achieve the set goals
and objectives in an organization.
These planning techniques are categorized into forecasting and bench marking. Time frame,
collecting and analysing data, levels of planning, flexibility and accountability are the factors in
planning.
Glossary
Organisational change refers to any alteration that occurs in total work environment. Organisational
change is an important characteristic of most organisations.
TOPIC TEN: TOTAL QUALITY MANAGEMENT (TQM) AND MANAGEMENT BY OBJECTIVES (MBO)
Introduction
Welcome to topic ten of our course. In this topic we introduce you to Total Quality Management, How
TQM works, importance of using TOM in an organization and principles of TQM. We also justify the need
for Management by Objectives (MBO). Welcome, and enjoy the discussion.
Learning Outcomes
By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
Explain the concept Total Quality Management (TQM]
Describe how TQM works
Discuss the importance of using TQM in an organization
Explain the principles of TQM
Describe the need for Management by Objectives (MBO)
Topic Content
10.1 Total quality management (TQM)
Total Quality Management, TQM, is a method by which management and employees can become
involved in the continuous improvement of the production of goods and services. It is a combination of
quality and management tools aimed at increasing business and reducing losses due to wasteful
practices. Total Quality Management (TQM) is a systematic approach to quality improvement that
marries product and service specifications to customer performance. TQM then aims to produce these
specifications with zero defects. This creates a virtuous cycle of continuous improvement that boosts
production, customer satisfaction and profits.
Total quality management originated in the industrial sector of Japan (1954). Since that time the
concept has been developed and can be used for almost all types of organizations such as schools,
motorway maintenance, hotel management and churches. Nowadays, Total Quality Management is also
used within the e-business sector and it perceives quality management entirely from the point of view
of the customer. The objective of total quality management is doing things right the first time over and
over again. This saves the organization the time that is needed to correct poor work and failed product
and service implementations (such as warranty repairs).
TOM is a management philosophy that seeks to integrate all organizational functions (marketing,
finance, design, engineering, and production, customer service, etc.) to focus on meeting customer
needs and organizational objectives. Total Quality Management can be set up separately for an
organization as well as for a set of standards that must be followed for instance the International
Organization for Standardization (ISO) in the ISO 9000 series. Total Quality Management uses strategy,
data and communication channels to integrate the required quality principles into the organization's
activities and culture.
Total Quality management can be divided into four categories: Also referred to as PDCA cycle.
•
•
•
•
Plan
Do
Check
Act
Planning Phase
Planning is the most crucial phase of total quality management. In this phase employees have to come
up with their problems and queries which need to be addressed. They need to come up with the various
challenges they face in their day-to-day operations and also analyze the problem's root cause.
Employees are required to do necessary research and collect relevant data which would help them find
solutions to all the problems.
Doing Phase
In the doing phase, employees develop a solution for the problems defined in planning phase. Strategies
are devised and implemented to overcome the challenges faced by employees. The effectiveness of
solutions and strategies is also measured in this stage.
Checking Phase
Checking phase is the stage where people actually do a comparison analysis of before and after data to
confirm the effectiveness of the processes and measure the results.
Acting Phase
In this phase employees document their results and prepare themselves to address other problems.
10.1.1 How Total Quality Management works:
In order to succeed, TQM programs require managers to:
Assess customer requirements
•
•
Understand present and future customer needs
Design products and services that cost-effectively meet or exceed those needs
Deliver quality
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Identify the key problem areas in the process and work on them until they approach zero-defect
levels
Train employees to use the new processes
Develop effective measures of product and service quality
Create incentives linked to quality goals
Promote a zero-defect philosophy across all activities
Encourage management to lead by example
Develop feedback mechanisms to ensure continuous improvement
10.1.2 Importance of using Total Quality Management in Organizations
TQM improves profitability by focusing on quality improvement and
addressing associated challenges within an organization. TQM can be used
to:
•
•
•
•
•
•
Increase productivity
Lower scrap and rework costs
Improve product reliability
Decrease time-to-market cycles
Decrease customer service problems
Increase competitive advantage
10.1.3 Principles of Total Quality Management
Here are the 8 principles of total quality management:
a) Customer-focused. The customer ultimately determines the level of quality. No matter what an
organization does to foster quality improvement – training employees, integrating quality into
the design process, or upgrading computers or software -the customer determines whether the
efforts were worthwhile.
b) Total employee involvement. All employees participate in working toward common goals. Total
employee commitment can only be obtained after fear has been driven from the workplace,
when empowerment has occurred, and when management has provided the proper
environment. High-performance work systems integrate continuous improvement efforts with
normal business operations. Self-managed work teams are one form of empowerment.
c) Process-centered. A fundamental part of TQM is a focus on process thinking. A process is a
series of steps that take inputs from suppliers (internal or external) and transforms them into
outputs that are delivered to customers (Internal or external). The steps required to carry out
the process are defined, and performance measures are continuously monitored in order to
detect unexpected variation.
d) Integrated system. Although an organization may consist of many different functional
specialties often organized into vertically structured departments, it is the horizontal processes
interconnecting these functions that are the focus of TQM.
i.
Micro-processes add up to larger processes, and all processes aggregate into the
business processes required for defining and implementing strategy. Everyone must
understand the vision, mission, and guiding principles as well as the quality policies,
objectives, and critical processes of the organization. Business performance must be
monitored and communicated continuously.
ii.
Every organization has a unique work culture, and it is virtually impossible to achieve
excellence in its products and services unless a good quality culture has been fostered.
Thus, an integrated system connects business improvement elements in an attempt to
continually improve and exceed the expectations of customers, employees, and other
stakeholders.
e) Strategic and systematic approach. A critical part of the management of quality is the strategic
and systematic approach to achieving an organization's vision, mission, and goals. This process,
called strategic planning or strategic management, includes the formulation of a strategic plan
that integrates quality as a core component.
f) Continual improvement. A large aspect of TQM is continual process improvement. Continual
improvement drives an organization to be both analytical and creative in finding ways to
become more competitive and more effective at meeting stakeholder expectations.
g) Fact-based decision making. In order to know how well an organization is performing, data on
performance measures are necessary. TQM requires that an organization continually collect and
analyze data in order to improve decision making accuracy, achieve consensus, and allow
prediction based on past history.
h) Communications. During times of organizational change, as well as part of day-to-day operation,
effective communications play a large part in maintaining morale and in motivating employees
at all levels. Communications involve strategies, method, and timeliness.
10.2 Management by Objectives (MBO)
The process of setting objectives in the organization to give a sense of direction to the employees is
called as Management by Objectives. It refers to the process of setting goals for the employees so that
they know what they are supposed to do at the workplace.
Management by Objectives defines roles and responsibilities for the employees and help them chalk out
their future course of action in the organization. Management by objectives guides the employees to
deliver their level best and achieve the targets within the stipulated time frame.
Management by objectives is a method of managing in which organization members jointly establish its
goals. The members do not necessarily have to come from the same department or area; they first need
to share a common goal or purpose. The heart of MBO is having the group collectively set SMART goals
(Specific, Measurable, Achievable, Result-oriented and Time bound).
MBO provides an organization with improvements in:
•
•
•
•
Management performance
Planning, coordination, control and flexibility
Superior-subordinate relationship
Personal development
The effectiveness of any improvement strategy depends heavily on the commitment in the
management. SMART goals must be actively pursued and progress must be constantly evaluated at
every layer of the organization.
One technique used to supplement the planning process relates specifically to marching organizational
goals and objectives. MBO has been informally applied in some libraries to combine individual and
institutional goal setting with the decision-making process.
MBO is a participative system of managing in which managers look ahead of improvements thinking
strategically, set performance stretch objectives at a beginning period, develop supporting plans and
give accountability for results at the end of the period.
MBO being a participative management involves everyone to an extent, in the management process and
responsibilities that translates upon the following several premises;
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
vi.
vii.
viii.
Clear objectives
A succession of clear objectives- benchmarks must be established to measure progress
Delegation of specific objectives to certain people'
Freedom to act at any level-staff
Verifiable objectives-quantify objectives
Clear communication-all levels-steps
Shared responsibility-team effort is the key
Personal accountability-each person
ix.
Improving management ability-management is able to plan more objectively when these
premises are accepted.
Management by Objective helps in solving management problems by:
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
vi.
vii.
viii.
Avoiding a means of measuring the true contributions of managerial and professional personnel
Defining the common goals of people and organization and measuring individual contribution to
them- obtain coordinated efforts
Provide solution to the key problems of defining the major areas of responsibility for each
person in the organization-fount and shared.
Easing processes to achieving the results desired
Eliminating the need for people to change their responsibilities as well as for appraising people
on the basis of the personal traits
Providing the determinants of each manager span of control
Offering answers to the key questions of salary administration: how should be allocated
Aiding in identifying potential for advancement and in finding promotable people.
10.2.1 Need for Management by Objectives (MBO)
•
•
•
•
•
The Management by Objectives process helps the employees to understand their duties at the
workplace.
Management by Objectives process leads to satisfied employees. It avoids job mismatch and
unnecessary confusions later on.
Employees in their own way contribute to the achievement of the goals and objectives of the
organization. Every employee has his own role at the workplace. Each one feels indispensable
for the organization and eventually develops a feeling of loyalty towards the organization. They
tend to stick to the organization for a longer span of time and contribute effectively. They enjoy
at the workplace and do not treat work as a burden.
Management by Objectives ensures effective communication amongst the employees. It leads
to a positive ambience at the workplace.
Management by Objectives leads to well defined hierarchies at the workplace. It ensures
transparency at all levels. A supervisor of any organization would never directly interact with the
Managing Director in case of queries. He would first meet his reporting boss who would then
pass on the message to his senior and so on. Everyone is clear about his position in the
organization.
Topic Summary
We have learned that;
Total Quality Management (TQM) is a method by which management and employees can become
involved in the continuous improvement of the production of goods and services. It is a combination of
quality and management tools aimed at increasing business and reducing losses due to wasteful
practices. TQM helps organizations to increase productivity, improve product reliability and lead to well
defined hierarchies.
Management by objectives (MBO) is a method of managing in which organization members jointly
establishes its goals. MBO helps employees to understand their duties, MBO also helps in the
achievement of goals and objectives.
Glossary
Management by objectives (MBO) is the process of setting objectives in the organization to give a sense
of direction to the employees.
Total Quality Management (TQM) is a systematic approach to quality improvement that marries product
and service specifications to customer performance.
TOPIC ELEVEN: INFORMATION COMMUNICATION IN AN ORGANIZATION
Introduction
Welcome to topic eleven. In this topic, we focus on information
communication in an organization. Welcome and enjoy the discussion.
Learning Outcomes
By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
Explain the term communication
Justify the need for communication in an organization
Suggest how you can use ICT for effective communication in an organization
Explain the elements of effective communication.
Topic Content
11.1 Introduction
Communication is defined as the process by which information is transmitted and understood between
two or more parties, the communicational aspects of an organization have become an increasingly
important strategic issue; emphasizing that communication must be effectively adjusted for the
intended target group. Communication can be described as information flows through various channels
between a sender and a receiver, including conformation of a message and elements of disturbance in
the process. Senders and receivers of information create a picture that is labeled profile.
Senders of information may include any stakeholder, sharing information. The communication also
includes non-verbal messages such as pictures, logos and symbols. There are a number of barriers in a
communication process, sometimes referred to as noise. Differences in perceptions, filtering, cultures,
languages, distortion in perspective and the information overload are all examples of communication
barriers.
11.2 Importance of Communication in an Organization
Communication is one of the basic functions of management in any organization and its importance can
hardly be overemphasized. It is a process of transmitting information, ideas, thoughts, opinions and
plans between various parts of an organization. Effective communication is required at various levels
and for various aspects in an organization such as:
•
•
•
•
For manager: employee relations: Manager cannot get the work done from employees unless
they are communicated effectively of what he wants to be done? Most of management
problems arise because of lack of effective communication
For motivation and employee morale: Communication is also a basic tool for motivation, which
can improve morale of the employees in an organization. Inappropriate or faulty communication
among employees or between manager and his subordinates is the major cause of conflict and
low morale at work.
For increase productivity: With effective communication, you can maintain a good human
relation in the organization and by encouraging ideas or suggestions from employees or workers
and implementing them whenever possible, you can also increase production at low cost.
For employees: It is through the communication that employees submit their work reports,
comments, grievances and suggestions to their seniors or management. Organization should
have effective and speedy communication policy and procedures to avoid delays,
misunderstandings, confusion or distortions of facts and to establish harmony among all the
concerned people and departments.
11.3 Use of Communication Technology for Organizational Communication
Emerging communication technologies are not only changing how small groups in an organization
interact, but are also speeding up decision making amongst these small groups in an organization.
Technologies like internet are easy to deploy and they cost less yet they speed up communication with
in an organization.
Organizations rely on communication among employees at all levels to decide on and implement their
goals. For example, Managers make decisions by collecting facts and analyzing them, often with help of
other low-level employees. That means implementing these decisions requires communication between
the manager and other employees. With the help of communication technology, the exchange and flow
of this information is made simple by use of (OLAP) Online Analytical Process.
It is very important for an organization to foster effective communication and speed up the productivity
of an organization. This does not matter if the organization is small or big. For an organization to
succeed in this age of information technology, it must equip and train its employees on how to use
various communication technology tools. These tools can include things like video conferencing;
Bluetooth enabled printers, remote databases, computers, Apps, just to mention but a few. The
following are uses of communication technology for organizational communication:
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
Online Transaction Processing (OLTP): - Quick information processes within the organization.
Organizations have a variety of formal and informal objectives to accomplish. Using Online
transaction processing (OLTP) involves gathering input information, processing that information,
and updating existing information to reflect the gathered and processed information. In most
organizations they use "Database technology" to manage this process. Databases that support
OLTP are most often referred to as operational databases.
Online Analytical Processing (OLAP): - Quick decision making. In an effort to achieve
organizational goals, decisions should be made faster. The process of making a decision involves
collecting facts and evaluating alternatives. This involves reading, asking questions, talking
things over with others in the organization. To speed up this process, communication
technology has to be used. The use of online analytical processing (OLAP) will help in the
manipulation of information to support decision making. OLAP is essentially an IT-based
extension of creating information through analytical processing. OLAP can range from
performing simple queries on a database to determine which customers have overdue accounts
to employing sophisticated artificial intelligence tools like neural networks and genetic
algorithms to solve a complex problem or take advantage of an opportunity
Decentralized Computing: This is an environment in which an organization splits computing
power and locates it in functional business areas as well as on desktops of knowledge workers.
This means employees in an organization will access shared information through decentralized
computing. This process of communication with in an organization is less expensive and more
effective because all computers will be accessing a centralized database to get all the
information. For some organizations they set up websites through which workers can login and
access essential data and communicate with other employees with in the same online platform
Instant Messaging: Instant messaging services deliver messages faster than email. A manager
can easily assign work to employees through text messaging. The same does for employees
within an organization, they can ask a question from their superiors via text messaging and they
will get replies on the instant. Today this has been simplified, big services like "Skype" and other
text messaging Apps have played this role, all you have to do is to download and install the app
on your mobile phone, then your other parties will have to do the same so that you text each
other while in the organization and off site. This text messaging communication technology
simplifies exchange of ideas and helps in speeding up decision making.
Email: This is the most used means of communication across the globe by all organizations.
There are so many communication technologies which have tried to replace electronic mail, but
none of them have succeeded. It is very essential for both big and small business to have an
email address. For some companies they use customized email address, these are company
emails hosted under a company's domain, for example "manager@company.com". Both
managers and employees can use electronic mail to share files and messages with in the
organization.
11.4 The importance of communication in an organization
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
Communication promotes motivation by informing and clarifying the employees about the task
to be done, the manner they are performing the task, and how to improve their performance if
it is not up to the mark.
Communication is a source of information to the organizational members for decision-making
process as it helps identifying and assessing alternative course of actions.
Communication also plays a crucial role in altering individual's attitudes, i.e., a well-informed
individual will have better attitude than a less-informed individual. Organizational magazines,
journals, meetings and various other forms of oral and written communication help in moulding
employee's attitudes.
Communication also helps in socializing. In today's life the only presence of another individual
fosters communication. It is also said that one cannot survive without communication.
Communication assists in controlling process. It helps controlling organizational member's
behaviour in various ways. There are various levels of hierarchy and certain principles and
guidelines that employees must follow in an organization. They must comply with organizational
policies, perform their job role efficiently and communicate any work problem and grievance to
their superiors. Thus, communication helps in controlling function of management.
11.5 Quality Communication
Our communication can build others up, or it can tear them down. As a leader, it is your responsibility to
teach, encourage, and support. These all require quality communication. Here are four keys to quality
communication:
Trust
Are you friend or foe? This is the very first question that others will seek to answer before any
communication takes place. If they determine you to be a friend, they will trust you and quality
communication can take place. If you are a foe, there will be no trust and without trust, there will be no
true communication.
Listen
Quality communication is a two-way street. If you want the other party to participate, you must listen.
Listening requires you to set aside your assumptions, turn off that little voice in your head that likes to
judge others, and truly hear what is being said. When you really listen to the ideas, concerns, and
opinions of others your communications will become more meaningful.
Care
People are more open to quality communication if they know that you authentically care about them as
an individual. No one likes to communicate with someone who is just going through the motions. When
others know that you care about what they have to share and when they know you are looking out for
their best interests, you will be able to communicate on a deeper level.
Follow-through
At the end of the day, all the communicating in the world does not matter if there is no follow-through.
Never leave others wondering where things lie on an issue or idea. Have a follow-up conversation, even
if it may not be what they want to hear. Follow-through shows respect and it is this respect that will
improve the quality of conversations in the future.
True Communication
Have you checked your communication lately? The only true communication is quality communication.
When others know they can trust you; when you really listen to them; when they know you care; and
when they can count on you to follow-through, then, and only then, can you start to truly communicate.
What is the quality of your communication? It's about time you find out.
11.6 Qualities of Effective Communication
When both the sender and the receiver perceive the meaning of communication almost, in the same
way, it is called effective communication. Proper performance of organizational activates and thus
attainment of its goals largely depends on effective communication. Effective communication requires
some conditions or elements or factors. These are discussed below:
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
vi.
vii.
viii.
ix.
Pre-thinking: Pre-thinking about the message is an important quality of effective
communication. Pre-thinking enables the sender to develop a creative message and to transmit
it efficiently.
Specific Objective: Communication occurs with specific objectives. Therefore, the communicator
must know the objective of communication and must arrange the message accordingly.
Timeliness: Usefulness of any message depends on its timely transmission. If the message is not
transmitted in appropriate time, its utility is lost. So the communicator should consider the time
of communication.
Conciseness: Another important quality of effective communication is that the message should
be concise. The concise message is one that contains only relevant and necessary facts, avoids
repetition and organizes properly.
Completeness: Effective communication transmits a complete message so that the receiver can
understand the full meaning of the message. The sender should not sacrifice completeness to
attain conciseness.
Correctness: The effective communication contains only the correct messages. False,
manipulated, and exaggerated information irritates the receiver and makes the communication
ineffective.
Persuasiveness: Persuasiveness is an important quality of Effective communication. It helps to
develop a positive attitude of thy receiver towards the message.
Concreteness: Business communication becomes effective- when it excludes irrelevant facts.
Concreteness is essential to express the communicator's view to the receiver unambiguously.
Feedback: Effective communication always keeps the provision of feedback. Feedback ensures
that the message has reached to the intended receiver.
x.
xi.
xii.
xiii.
xiv.
xv.
Mutual Interest: When communication considers the interest of both sender and receiver, it is
treated as effective communication. If the message ignores the interest of the receiver,
communication may fail to attain its goal.
Use of Appropriate Language: Effective communication always uses appropriate language.
Appropriate language avoids ambiguous and complex words, misleading non-verbal cues,
technical jargons, poetic words etc.
Considering the Receiver: An effective communicator thinks about the receiver's knowledge,
ability, interest, origin etc. This increases the utility and acceptability of communication.
Use of Appropriate Media: Selecting suitable media is essential for successful communication.
The sender should select the written or oral media depending on the nature and importance of
the message, availability of time, cost, receiver's ability etc.
Emphasizing on Informal Relationship: The communicator requires giving attention to
establishing informal relationships with the receiver along with formal relationship as it ensures
the success of communication
Effective Listening: The communicator is also an effective listener. He has to listen attentively to
the response of the receiver. Therefore, the sender should possess the ability to hear the
receiver's response attentively with due patience.
11.7 Planning for Effective Communication
 Perform a situation analysis.
Conduct an audit to evaluate where you currently stand in terms of communications. You need
to gather and analyze all relevant information within your company. To conduct your own
communications audit, you may need to do the following:
o Brainstorm with communication staff.
o Conduct surveys and focus groups.
o Talk to other departments in your company.
 Define your objectives.
After you collect and evaluate all information, define your overall communications objectives.
What are the results you want to achieve? What do you want to accomplish by implementing
this communication plan? Your objectives should be SMART:
o Specific
o Measurable.
o Achievable.
o Realistic.
o Time-focused.
 Define your key audiences.
You need to know to whom you are delivering your messages. List all the key audiences of your
organization. These may include the following:
o Members/non-members.
o Clients.
o Related associations.




o Educators
o Local Government Officials
o Media Representatives
Identify Media Channels
Plan to deliver your message to your key recipients through multiple media channels. Decide
which media channel would be the most effective to get your message delivered to your target
audience.
Establish a Timetable
In order to achieve your communication objectives, you need to plan and time your steps for the
best results. Based on your research and your resources, develop a solid timing strategy to
execute the steps of your communication plan.
Evaluate the Results
It's always important to measure your results to understand whether you achieved your
objectives. If you aren't satisfied with your results, make necessary adjustments in order to
perform better next time. Your evaluation might take the form of the following:
o Annual Reports
o Monthly Reports
o Progress Reports
o Reports from other departments
11.8 The Impact of Effective Communication
Effective communication may contribute to organisational success in many ways. It:
i) Builds employee morale, satisfaction and engagement.
ii) Helps employees understand the terms and conditions of their employment and drive their
commitment and loyalty.
iii) Educates employees in the merits of remaining union-free (if that is the organisation's goal)
iv) Gives employees a voice —an increasingly meaningful component of improving employee
satisfaction with their employer.
v) Helps to lessen chances of misunderstandings and potentially reduces grievances and lawsuits.
vi) Improves processes and procedure and ultimately creates greater efficiency and reduces costs.
Topic Summary
We have learned that;
• The importance of communication in an organisation is to achieve manger employee relations, is to
achieve motivation and employee morale and to increase productivity.
• Communication technology in an organisation helps in online transaction processing, online analytical
processing, decentralized computing, instant messaging etc. The importance of communication in an
organisation is to promote motivation, communication is a source of information, helps in socialization.
• Specific objectives, timeliness, conciseness, completeness, correctness, etc., promote qualities of
effective communication. In the planning for effective communication, the following steps need to be
followed; perform situational analysis, define objectives, define key audience, identify media channels,
establish timetable and evaluate results.
Glossary
Communication is defined as the process by which information is transmitted and understood between
two or more parties. The communication aspects of an organisation have become an increasingly
important strategic issue; emphasizing that communication must be effectively adjusted for the
intended target group.