Solar farm: siting, design and land footprint
analysis
..............................................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
Abstract
Solar farms are becoming a crucial part of the renewable energy mix. Yet, the literature has not reported
a generalized approach to its design. In this regard, this paper attempts to provide a detailed plan of a 5MW grid-connected solar farm. In addition, the procedure to analyze the land footprint of the solar plant
is also developed. At first, the main components of the solar farm are selected qualitatively. Then, using an
excel spreadsheet, the sizing of photovoltaic (PV) array, inverters, combiner boxes, transformers, cables and
protection devices is carried out. Finally, the land footprint analysis of the proposed solar farm was carried
out mathematically. The proposed solar PV power plant comprises 13 490 numbers of PV modules with a
365-W rating. Nineteen numbers of PV modules will constitute a string. One hundred forty-two numbers of
strings will be connected to an inverter of 1 MW rating. The energy output from five such inverters will be
fed to the nearest electric substation using a transformer of 1 MVA capacity. The DC and AC cables having
a voltage drop of less than 1% are selected. The inter-row distance and ground coverage ratio (GCR) are
estimated as 1 and 0.78 m, respectively. The required number of mounting module structures is found to be
710. The proposed solar farm’s total land use requirement is ∼43768.41 m2 (around 3 acres). It was observed
that the sizing of solar plant components mainly depends on the electrical parameters of the PV module and
inverter selected by the designer. Similarly, the land use requirement is influenced by the inter-row distance
and PV site layout. This research is expected to streamline the different approaches of solar farm design,
which will be beneficial to energy professionals and policymakers.
Keywords: solar farm; photovoltaic; land footprint; green energy; design
* Corresponding authors:
sudhakar@ump.edu.my;
erdem.cuce@erdogan.edu.tr Received 18 June 2022; revised 22 August 2022; accepted 7 September 2022
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International Journal of Low-Carbon Technologies 2022, 17, 1478–1491
© The Author(s) 2022. Published by Oxford University Press.
This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which
permits unrestricted reuse, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
https://doi.org/10.1093/ijlct/ctac107 Advance Access publication 31 December 2022
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Sreenath Sukumaran1,2 , Kumarasamy Sudhakar3,4,5 , Ahmad Fitri Yusop2,3 ,
Irina Kirpichnikova4 and Erdem Cuce6,7, *
1
Centre of Excellence for Advancement Research Fluid Flow (CARIFF), Universiti Malaysia
Pahang, 26300 Kuantan, Pahang, Malaysia; 2 Automotive Engineering Centre, Universiti
Malaysia Pahang, 26600 Pekan, Pahang, Malaysia; 3 Faculty of Mechanical and Automotive
Engineering Technology, Universiti Malaysia Pahang, 26600 Pekan, Pahang, Malaysia;
4
Department of Electric Power Stations, Network and Supply Systems, South Ural State
University (National Research University), 76 Prospekt Lenina, 454080 Chelyabinsk,
Russian Federation; 5 Energy Centre, Maulana Azad National Institute of Technology
Bhopal, 462003, Madhya Pradesh, India; 6 Low/Zero Carbon Energy Technologies
Laboratory, Faculty of Engineering and Architecture, Recep Tayyip Erdogan University,
Zihni Derin Campus, 53100 Rize, Turkey; 7 Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty
of Engineering and Architecture, Recep Tayyip Erdogan University, Zihni Derin Campus,
53100 Rize, Turkey
Solar farm: siting, design and land footprint analysis
1 INTRODUCTION
1. to design and size the main components of a 5-MW gridconnected solar farm,
2. to develop a site layout for the above-mentioned solar farm
and
3. to analyze the land use and footprint of the solar farm.
2 GENERAL DESCRIPTION AND OVERVIEW
OF THE GRID-CONNECTED SOLAR FARM
A typical grid-connected utility-scale SPV power plant consists
of PV modules, combiner boxes, inverters, transformers, DC and
AC cables, protection and monitoring equipment. Of these components, the power ratings and specifications of the PV module,
inverter and transformers are selected first. This selection may
be based on a qualitative study on the SPV market, reasonable
assumptions or operational SPV projects. These components and
their specifications are needed to size the SPV array and other
balance of components. In addition, mounting racks or module
mounting structures (MMSs) are the main non-electrical component of the SPV power plant. A pictorial representation of an SPV
power plant is provided in Figure 1.
SPV module: The selection of PV technology is usually based
on its conversion efficiency, commercial availability, cost per watt
and scale of application (MW range in this study) [16]. The firstgeneration PV technology (which includes monocrystalline and
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Renewable energy (RE) technology is getting attention in many
countries across the world. The capacity addition of RE systems
was over 260 GW in 2020 [1]. This addition is ∼50% more
than the previous value. This record-breaking capacity addition
occurred despite an economic slowdown from the COVID-19
pandemic. Solar energy continued to lead this RE capacity addition in 2020 [2]. This lead can be attributed to its most negligible carbon footprint, versatile applications and competitive cost.
Hence, solar photovoltaic (PV) systems are expected to be seen
everywhere soon [3].
A typical megawatt (MW) scale solar PV (SPV) power plant
consists of PV modules, combiner boxes, inverters, transformers,
DC and AC cables, mounting racks, protection and monitoring equipment [4]. Many scholars carried out the performance
analysis of SPV power plants. For example, Ajithgopi et al. [5]
investigated the operational performance of a 2-MW SPV power
plant in India and reported a performance ratio of 73.39% and
a capacity utilization factor of 15.41%, respectively. Aoun [6]
carried out an energy analysis for a 20-MW grid-connected SPV
power plant in Adrar, Algeria, and estimated that the average value
of performance ratio, system efficiency and capacity factor was
71.71%, 10.82% and 20.76%, respectively.
The detailed steps in the design and sizing of SPV are reported
in some literature. Most of these documents discussed the design
steps for rooftop SPV (both grid and off-grid). Shukla et al. [7]
presented a detailed design of an off-grid SPV system proposed
on the rooftop of a hostel building, including the procedure to
size main components. Al-najideen and Alrwashdeh [8] provided
an overview of the design of a grid-tied solar photovoltaic power
plant for a building roof in Mu’tah University, Jordan. These
authors carried out the design based on mathematical equations
for specific energy. The differences in design procedures between
rooftop and land-based SPV systems can be attributed to two
reasons. Firstly, a typical rooftop SPV system’s proposed capacity
is tens or hundreds of kWp due to rooftop constraints and characteristics (available area, slope, orientation). Secondly, the design
of rooftop SPV systems is often depended on the load demand.
Some academic documents or technical reports reported the
design and sizing of MW scale SPV power plants. A developer’s
guide prepared by International Finance Corporation highlights
that the design of an SPV power plant follows some general thumb
rules and specific factors of the project location, such as solar
insolation, temperature, sun position, etc. [9]. A group of university researchers prepared a design document for a 60-MW gridconnected SPV power plant. This document included the plant
layout, substation design and associated balance of the system.
Kalita et al. [10] discussed the theoretical design procedure of a
2-MW grid-interactive SPV power plant proposed for different
locations in the north-eastern part of India. In a master’s thesis
by Fedorov [11], a methodology focusing on SPV market study,
component selection, preliminary and detailed sizing for SPV
system design proposed for a contaminated area in Falun, Sweden,
was described.
Since the numerical design aspects of the SPV power plant
were not presented in a single source, information available from
different academic sources is gathered. For instance, Choudhary
et al. [12] reported the design calculations for estimating the minimum inter-row distance between PV arrays. Sreenath et al. [13]
designed a PV array, inverters and transformers for a hypothetical
SPV power plant in Malaysia. Ong et al. [14] collected land use
data of different solar projects and concluded that 5.5 acres per
MWac are required for fixed-tilt SPV power plants in the USA.
Denholm and Margolis [15] estimated the land area needed to
meet electricity uses from SPV in the USA and reported that a
solar electric footprint of around 181 m2 area is required per capita
in a baseline scenario.
Only a few documents (including technical reports) discussed
the complete design and sizing of MW scale SPV power plant
components. The design of a solar power plant with multiple
inverters (say 5 MW SPV plant) is slightly different from those
with a single inverter (say 100 kWp SPV plant). None of the
authors attempted to report the detailed design of a utility-scale,
grid-connected SPV power plant per the author’s knowledge.
Also, the area required for SPV systems reported in the literature
is often based on simplified assumptions. Though SPV is a landintensive technology, little focus has been given to studying land
use requirements in the previous literature. In addition, land
footprint analysis of the grid-connected SPV power plant has not
been reported anywhere. The main objectives of this paper are the
following:
S. Sukumaran et al.
polycrystalline SPV modules) has good conversion efficiency, is
commercially available and has a low cost per watt [17]. Hence,
this PV technology is widely used in large-scale SPV installations
[18–20].
Inverter: The DC energy produced from the SPV array is
transformed to AC energy with the help of inverters. Central
inverter and string inverter configuration are the main types.
Compared to string configuration, central inverter configuration
has a low cost per watt, high reliability, reduced design complexity
and ease of installation. Highly efficient inverters (more than 95%)
with total harmonic distortion of less than 3% is preferred. These
specifications reduce electrical losses and ensure power quality
(pure sine wave). The output voltage of the inverter shall be
415 V at 50 Hz (three phases). Typically, the inverter has built-in
protective devices in case of an incident such as overvoltage, overcurrent, over/under grid frequency, overtemperature, lightning or
surge voltage conditions. These protective features safeguard the
inverter as well as the PV array from internal or external sources.
String combiner box (SCB): A certain number of PV strings
are connected parallel with SCBs. These boxes are covered entirely
by insulated materials with an IP54 degree of protection. This is
needed to withstand the sunny outdoor climate. In addition, each
incoming string is provided protection components such as DC
isolators, DC fuses and surge protection devices (SPDs).
Step-up transformer: It steps up the inverter’s output voltage
and facilitates the electric grid’s interconnection. Transformers
with an efficiency of more than 95% have minimum energy losses.
Oversized transformer leads to an increase in the cost head and
energy losses. Typically, the maximum loading capacity of the
transformer is 95%. A trip relay is activated when the rated
capacity of the transformer crosses 95%. Similar to the case of
the inverters, the protection devices are fixed at the input and
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output side of the transformer to safeguard in case of an incident such as overvoltage, overcurrent, over/under grid frequency,
overtemperature, lightning and surge voltage conditions.
DC and AC cable: The electrical connection between PV modules, PV string and SCBs and SCB and inverter (DC input) are
carried out by DC cables. Single-core DC cables with copper
strands are typically used since the current flow is comparatively
low on the PV array side. Furthermore, due to its exposure to
sunlight throughout the day, DC cables with ultraviolet and ozone
protection properties are selected [21]. In addition, the cable must
withstand maximum DC voltage up to 1500 V and ambient temperature up to 70◦ C. AC cables of appropriate size facilitate energy
flow from the inverter to the transformer and transformer to
the point of interconnection (switchyard). Typically, Aluminium
XLPE insulated cables are selected and are either paved underground or in a cable tray. Also, these cables are expected to have
a lifetime of 25 years and are supplied preferably by a reputed
manufacturer accredited to ISO 9001.
Switchyard: This is the point at which the SPV power plant is
physically connected to the electric grid (point of interconnection). Typically, the SPV power plant’s maximum capacity shall
be less than 75% of the maximum demand. The main components of the switchyard include power and energy meters, current
transformer (CT), potential transformer, bus bar, incoming and
outgoing feeders and different AC protection systems such as circuit breakers (CBs) (SF6/Vacuum), DCfuses, isolators and SPDs.
Typically, a substation consists of the following: (1) the primary
transformer (if present) steps up the input of the feeder bus (say
11 kV) to the desired voltage level (say 132 kV); (2) the CT is used
to obtain a suitable current for energy meters and relays (usually
between 1 A and 5 A); (3) CBs and relays—when relays detect an
overcurrent condition, it commands the CB to break the circuit
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Figure 1. Pictorial representation of a solar photovoltaic power plant.
Solar farm: siting, design and land footprint analysis
the RTU cubicle, associated cards and SCADA-ready switchgear.
In addition, the requirement for wireless monitoring of plant
performance through the internet is an added advantage.
3 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.1 Geographical site information
This study showcases a detailed procedure for designing an MW
scale solar power plant. The location and plant capacity are the
main prerequisites for applying the developed methodology. It
is worth noting that this design procedure can be used to any
location. A 5-MW capacity was chosen in this study for the ease
of doing calculations.
A vacant site in Madurai, India, is selected to apply the proposed methodology. This site has latitude and longitude of 9.9◦ N
and 78.1◦ E. The altitude of the selected area is ∼200 m from
sea level. Approximately 50 acres of vacant land is earmarked
based on the Google Earth’s visual inspection. This site’s solar
irradiation, temperature and wind speed are 5.10 kWh/m2 /day,
27.3◦ C and 3.5 m/s, respectively (based on satellite weather data).
An overview of the main design steps developed for the SPV
power plant is shown in Figure 2. The study hypothesized that an
SPV power plant constitutes a fixed-tilt array installed on shadefree land with a DC capacity of ∼5 MW. Also, a Microsoft Excel
spreadsheet was created to perform the calculations and design
steps of the SPV power plant.
3.2 Sizing of the system
The sizing and selection process of the MW-scale SPV power plant
is divided into the following steps.
Step 1—Selection of correction factors and DC to AC ratio:
In the wake of safety concerns, the following factors are used
during the sizing of the SPV system.
1. Temperature Correction Factor (FTC ): The ambient temperature slightly influences the open-circuit voltage of the
PV module. The temperature coefficient of open-circuit
voltage is negative for crystalline-based PV modules. Therefore, the open-circuit voltage increases with a decrease in
ambient temperature. To accommodate this variation, 125%
of open-circuit voltage is considered for all design calculations. This factor is mainly used for components on the DC
side of the SPV system.
2. Irradiance Correction Factor (FIC ): The short-circuit current of the PV module increases rapidly with increased
solar irradiation. A safety factor is needed to protect the
equipment from this possible current spike at the time of
exceptionally high solar insolation. All electrical components are designed with the application of an irradiance
correction factor of 1.25.
3. Over Current Multiplier (FOC ): A safety multiplier of 125%
is provided for all current calculations. This multiplier is
added along with the irradiance correction factor.
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till the normal level is averted (saving the plant from breakdown);
(4) capacitor banks are installed to stabilize harmonics associated
with three-phase currents to maintain above 0.90 power factor;
and (5) surge arresters are needed to protect the four terminals
connected to each feeder transmission line.
Protection devices: These are needed to avoid casualties at
times of short circuits and lightning. SPDs are employed in SCBs,
inverters, transformers, switchyards, etc., to protect the equipment from high voltage surges. An SPD is required when there
is no SPD in the inverter or if the distance between SCB and the
inverter exceeds 10 m. In SCBs and switchyards, fuses are installed
to break the circuit when overcurrent flow occurs during faulty
conditions. High rupturing capacity fuses manufactured from
ceramic components are typically used due to their durability and
quick action. Also, CBs of different ratings are employed to protect
the SPV power plant components. The widely used gas in circuit
breakers is SF6 (sulfur hexafluoride). Due to its high dielectric
strength, it has a high arc interrupting ability for 3–765 kV class.
DC and AC isolators are also used to isolate a part of the circuit
as and when needed.
Earthing system: The excess current generated at faulty events
such as short circuits or lightning events provides a low resistance
pathway through earthing. It helps to safeguard the life and assets
from electric shock, fire hazards or lightning. All the SPV power
plant’s electrical components and mounting frames are protected
via the earthing system. For MW scale SPV power plants, the type
A and type B earthing systems are commonly used. Earth rods are
the most common type A electrodes. A minimum of two rods with
a length of at least 1.5 m is required per down-conductor. Also, the
distance between the earth rods must be two times its length. The
commonly used type B electrodes are strip conductors. It consists
of a standard mesh that spans over 20 × 20 m. A combination of
type A and type B conductors can be used in some instances [22].
Lightning arrester (LA) system: Lightning protection is
required to protect the staff, plant components, other equipment
and buildings in case of lightning strikes. Also, the initial
investment for MW scale SPV power plant is significant.
Furthermore, the practical difficulties associated with the repairs
or component replacements are also substantial [22]. Hence, the
implementation of external lightning protection systems of the
large-scale PV systems is a desirable precautionary measure.
The air termination system is the commonly applied lightning
protection technique in SPV applications. It typically consists
of a free-standing rod, isolated support and concrete basement.
The basements are connected to the respective earthing pit. This
system can be configured as isolated or non-isolated from the PV
arrays. The isolated lightning system is typically chosen as it can
resist high-risk damage from the lightning strike.
Data monitoring system: A reliable method for monitoring
and logging the operational data (1- or 5-min interval) is selected
for MW scale SPV power plant. It consists of hardware (such as
pyranometer and temperature sensor) and software components
(SCADA). The weather parameters (such as solar irradiance, the
temperature at different points) and electrical parameters at DC
and AC sides are recorded. The provision of SCADA also includes
S. Sukumaran et al.
4. DC to AC Ratio (RDCtoAC ): An essential factor is the ratio
between the plant’s DC capacity and the inverter’s AC output. This ratio can vary from 0.8 to 1.2. As a trade-off, a DC
to AC ratio equal to 1 is considered in the present study. In
other words, all inverters’ rated AC output power is assumed
to be similar to the cumulative DC power capacity of all PV
modules at STC conditions.
a series (Nms) to form a string. The maximum and the minimum
numbers of PV modules possible in a string are calculated using
equations 1 and 2, respectively:
Step 2—SPV sizing and selection: The PV technology selected
for the proposed SPV power plant is monocrystalline. Compared
to polycrystalline technology, monocrystalline PV modules have
higher conversion efficiency with a slightly higher cost per watt
due to pure silicon. A PV module of the selected technology
with a power output rating of 300 W or above is chosen, which
aids in a more straightforward installation process and effective
space utilization. A certain number of modules are connected in
(2)
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V1
Nmsmax =
V3 ∗ FTC
V2
Nmsmin =
V3 ∗ FTC
(1)
V1 is the maximum value of the maximum power point tracking (MPPT) voltage of the inverter, V2 represents the minimum
value of MPPT voltage of the inverter and V3 denotes MPPT
voltage of the PV module. A set of PV strings is connected to
the inverter’s input terminals simultaneously [7]. The maximum
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Figure 2. Flow chart for the proposed methodology.
Solar farm: siting, design and land footprint analysis
number of strings attached in parallel to an inverter depends on
the inverter’s input current and short-circuit current of the PV
module. In equation 3, the short-circuit DC current of the inverter
is denoted by Iininv (SC) and the short-circuit current of the PV
module is denoted by Ipv(SC).
Nstrperinv(MAX) =
Iininv(SC)
Ipv(SC) × FOC × FIC
Nstrtot = Nstrperinv × Ninv
(10)
Npv = Nms × Nstrtot
(11)
NstrperSCB =
Nstrperinv
NDCinpINV
(12)
NSCBperINV =
Nstrperinv
NstrperSCB
(13)
(3)
(4)
NSCBtot = NSCBperINV × Ninv
The open-circuit voltage and short-circuit current of the string
is calculated using equations 5 and 6. In addition, the string
voltage must be less than the maximum value of system voltage. In
the present study, the maximum value of system voltage is taken
as 1000 V.
Vstr = (VOC × Nms )
(5)
Istr = Ipv(sc)
(6)
Vstrmax = (Vstr )
(7)
Step 4—Inverter’s design and selection: It is assumed that
central inverter configuration is desirable due to low cost per watt,
high reliability, reduced design complexity and ease of installation. Choosing an inverter with 500 kWac or above power rating
for MW scale SPV power plant is reasonable. Since RDCtoAC = 1,
the collective power of the individual inverters (Pinv ) must be
equal to the SPV power plant’s capacity. The number of inverters
(Ninv ) required for an SPV system can be found using equation 8.
The plant capacity is denoted by Pc :
Ninv =
Pc
RDCtoAC × Pinv
(8)
Step 4—Transformer design and selection: Transformers with
more than 95% efficiency are chosen to minimize energy losses.
The transformer’s primary voltage and the inverter’s output voltage have to be equal. The required number of transformers (Ntrf )
is calculated using equation 9. Ptrf denotes the power rating of the
transformer.
Pc
Ntrf =
(9)
RDCtoAC × Ptrf
Step 5—SCB sizing and selection: At first, the total number
of strings (Nstrtot ) needed for the SPV power plant is calculated
using equation 10. The total number of PV modules (Npv ) is the
product of the modules per string and number of strings. The
ratio between strings per inverter and DC inputs of inverter gives
(14)
A certain number of strings are connected to the input terminals of SCB. The cumulative current of strings must be less than
the SCB’s short-circuit current. The voltage and current at the
output terminals of SCB are estimated using equations 15 and 16.
Then, using equation 17, the number of PV modules connected
per SCB is calculated.
VoutSCB = Vstr
(15)
IoutSCB = Istr × NstrperSCB
NpvperSCB = NstrperSCB × Nms
NpvperINV = NpvperSCB × NSCBperINV
(16)
VinINV = VoutSCB
(19)
IinINV = IoutSCB × NSCBperINV
(20)
(17)
(18)
Step 6—DC and AC cables sizing and selection: Proper sizing
of cables in the SPV power plant is important to ensure safety
and minimize the DC side and AC side losses. The DC cable
or AC cable is sized to carry the maximum current (expected)
value with minimum voltage drop. The maximum value (Imax)
is taken as 1.56 times the actual current for DC cable sizing.
While for AC cable sizing, the cable is oversized by 25% above
the continuous current than it might handle (as safety practice).
Based on the maximum value of current to be carried, a cable is
selected from the datasheet at first, and its cross-section in mm2 ,
resistance and reactance are noted (usually ohm/m). Since the DC
system has positive and negative pathways, a length cable factor,
n = 2, is considered. The length of the cable (Lcable ) corresponds
to the distance between the start point (say component A) and
the endpoint (say component B) in meters (m). Since the circuit
for the AC side of the SPV power plant is not purely resistive, the
power factor is taken as 0.9 in this study. It is to be noted that cos
ϕ = 1 and hence sin ϕ = 0 for DC circuit. Nr denotes the number
of runs in AC cable. The voltage drop (Vd ) is calculated at first.
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The best value of Nms is chosen so that power input to the
inverter (Pininv ) closely matches the inverter’s DC power.
Pininv = Nms × Nstrperinv(MAX)
the strings per SCB. Similarly, the number of SCB per inverter is
estimated using equation 13.
S. Sukumaran et al.
Then, the percentage change in Vd is estimated with respect to
actual voltage (Va ). The actual voltage (Va) for the DC systems
depends on the Voc of PV modules and the number of modules
in the string. The phase–phase voltage is considered as the actual
voltage for a three-phase AC system. A voltage drop of less than
1% is desirable. However, a voltage drop up to 3% is acceptable.
ImaxDC = IDC × FOC × FIC
Pout × FOC
1.732 × VL
(22)
Iccc > Imax
(23)
VdDC = ImaxDC × Rcable × Lcable × n
(24)
VdAC = ImaxAC × (Rcable × cos ∅ + Xcable × sin ∅) ×
%Vd =
Vd
× 100
Va
Lcable
Nr
(25)
(26)
Step 7—Protection devices sizing and selection: The proper
rating of protection devices is estimated based on the system voltage and maximum current value. In SCB, DC fuses are provided
for each input string of SCB for protection against over-current.
Typically, DC isolators in SCBs are double-pole type, rated for
DC operation, and capable of breaking under full load current.
For most protection devices, the sizing depends on the maximum
value of current flowing through it. Based on this value, the
nearest available model is chosen. The voltage across its terminals
determines the SPD and LA rating. A bidirectional energy meter
consists of CT (connected parallel to load) and PT (connected
across the load). As a safety measure, an overvoltage factor (1.25)
is multiplied with voltage calculations.
DC Fuse rating = ISC × FIC × FOC
Orientation of PV modules: The orientation of PV modules for a
fixed-tilt system is chosen to maximize annual energy generation
(theoretical). In this regard, the PV array is fixed at an angle from
the horizontal (tilt angle (θ t )), which aids in maximizing the solar
collector area. Based on a review of several large SPV installations,
a tilt angle equal to the site’s latitude is chosen [20]. The azimuth
angle of the SPV array located in the northern hemisphere is taken
as true south (or vice versa) [23]. In addition, the tilt angle can be
adjusted according to weather patterns. However, it is neglected as
the proposed SPV system is not seasonally tilted. The inclination
of the site’s terrain is to be considered along with the tilt angle.
MMS: The PV modules are mounted at a specific orientation
based on the predetermined design in a fixed-tilt system. PV
modules can be arranged in landscape or portrait position in
MMS (or racking frame). Also, PV modules can be single-stacked,
double-stacked or multi-stacked. In this study, single-stacked and
portrait-fixed configuration is chosen. Since these structures are
installed in the outdoor environment, it must be robust and
corrosion-resistant. In addition, it must be accredited to the IP67
rating.
Inter-row distance (Dr ): It is defined as the distance between
two adjacent rows of PV array, which is depicted in Figure 2. The
height of the PV module depends on the module length (Lm )
and tilt angle (θ t ). The length of the shadow (Lsh) at a particular
time can be estimated using equation 37. The azimuth angle and
altitude angle (sun’s position) of a location can be obtained from
its sun path diagram. Typically, the altitude and azimuth angle of
the sun on 21 December at 9 am are considered (possibility for
longest shadow). The minimum value of the inter-row distance
(Drmin ) is calculated [12]. The distance between the ground and
lower edge of the PV module (Ho) is typically around 50 cm.
H = Ho + (Lm × sin θt )
Lsh =
(27)
H
tan θalt
Dmin = Lsh × cos θaz
IDCISO = ISC × FIC × FOC
(28)
VratingSPD = Max.system voltage
(29)
AC Fuse rating = Iouttrf × FIC × FOC
(30)
IACISO = Iouttrf × FIC × FOC
(31)
VratingLA = Vouttrf × FOV
(32)
IprimaryBE,IsecondaryBE = Iouttrf × FOC , 5A
(33)
VprimaryBE , VsecondaryBE = Vouttrf × FOV , 110V
(34)
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(35)
(36)
(37)
GCR: It is the ratio of total PV module area and the ground area
of the SPV array. This surface coverage index provides an insight
into the land utilization of the SPV system. GCR is always below
1, typically between 0.3 and 0.7. In equation 38, Lpva is the length
of PV array and Lpitch is the inter-row pitch.
GCR =
Lpva
Lpitch
38
3.4 Land footprint analysis
The land requirement of the SPV power plant can be classified
as direct-impact area and total-impact area. The area needed for
SPV arrays, inter-row spacing, walkway, access roads, inverter
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ImaxAC =
(21)
3.3 Site design and layout
Solar farm: siting, design and land footprint analysis
Table 1. Assumptions of land use requirement for SPV power plant.
Values
Remarks
Distance between adjacent PV Modules
Type of module position
Number of modules per MMS
Type of stacking in MMS
Number of PV modules in arranged vertically in MMS
Gap between adjacent MMS
Road width
Number of strings in a section
Number of MMS lengthwise
Number of MMS width-wise
Area covered by inverter building
Area for control room building
10 mm
Portrait
-s
Double stacked
2
0.5 m
3m
25–60
3–10
5–10
500 m2
1000 m2
Accommodate expansion of module frame
Typical configuration in SPV installations
Designed as per site conditions
To reduce the length of racking frame
Assumption
Space for walkway
Aids movement of service vehicles
Assumption
Assumption
Assumption
Assumption
Assumption
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Particulars
rooms and other built areas is considered the direct-impact area.
The entire area enclosed inside the SPV power plant site (typically protected by fencing) corresponds to the total impact area
[14]. Although the land requirement varies with site conditions,
an attempt is based on generalized site layout and reasonable
assumptions. Table 1 provides a list of assumptions considered to
assess land footprint for SPV power plants.
The area calculation varies with PV technology and type of
mounting (fixed or tracking). So, this area calculation is suitable for crystalline silicon PV technology-based fixed-tilt groundmounted SPV system. It is assumed that PV modules are arranged
in portrait versions (Figure 3). The length of MMS, Lr (including
PV modules), and width of MMS, Wr (including PV modules),
are calculated using equations 39 and 40:
Lr = (Wm × Nmrh ) + Dmm × (Nmrh − 1)
(39)
Wr = (Lm × Nmrv ) + Dmm × (Nmrv − 1)
(40)
Several PV arrays on the MMS are grouped to form a section
(Figure 4). Nrsl denotes the number of modules mounting structure lengthwise; Nrsw denotes the number of modules mounting
structure width-wise. The length (Ls) and width of a section (Ws)
can be calculated using equations 41 and 42. Each row of PV array
is separated by inter-row distance (Dr). Between adjacent MMSs,
a gap distance is provided as a walkway (Dw). This arrangement
is intended to make the maintenance activities and clean PV
modules easier without disturbing the energy generation.
Ls = (Lr × Nrsl) + Dw × (Nrsl − 1)
(41)
Ws = (Wr × Nrsw ) + Dr × (Nrsw − 1)
(42)
Asec = Ls × Ws
(43)
In the direct-impact area of the SPV plant, a number of individual sections of the PV array are arranged together. The number
Figure 3. Simplified representation of shading scenario in SPV array (sample).
of sections can be calculated using equation 44. It is suggested to
have an equal number of modules mounting structure width-wise
and length-wise.
Nsec =
Nstr
Nrsl × Nrsw
International Journal of Low-Carbon Technologies 2022, 17, 1478–1491
(44)
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S. Sukumaran et al.
Table 2. Bill of materials for the proposed solar farm.
Parameter
Value
PV module
Technology
Peak power
Configuration
AC power output
Number of inputs
Open circuit voltage (Max)
Power
Primary voltage
Secondary voltage
Number of cores
Conductor material
Number of cores
Conductor material
Monocrystalline
365 Watts
Central
1000 kWac
16
1000 V
1000 kVA
410 V
11 kV
Single core
Copper
Multicore
Aluminum
Inverter
SCB
Figure 4. Sample representation of PV module arrangement.
Transformer
If Ns Number of sections, Wroad width of the road, Area covered by road infrastructure (Aroad) in PV plant area is estimated
using equation 45. In a study by Fu et al. [24], the width of a typical
service road in an SPV site is reported as 3 m. The overlap of the
area between two adjacent PV array sections is smaller and hence
neglected.
DC cable
Aroad = Ns × (Ls × Wroad + Ws × Wroad )
(45)
The components of SPV power plants such as inverters, transformers and switchgear protection requires isolation from the
external environment. Hence, separate buildings (mostly prefabricated) are erected in different locations of SPV sites. In addition,
a control room is also constructed to perform SCADA monitoring, office space and battery bank. Actrl denotes the area required
for the control room. It is assumed that an inverter room is
provided for each section of the PV string. Ainvr denotes the
area needed for the inverter room. Both of these areas include
the set off from SPV array to eliminate the shading. So, the total
area needed for buildings (ABA ) of SPV power plants is given by
equation 46:
ABA = Actrl + (Ainvr × Ninv )
(46)
Considering all sections of PV array, roadway and building, the
direct-impact area (ADI ) of the proposed SPV plant is estimated
using equation 47. It assumed that 5% of the direct-impact area
(A1 ) is needed for setback from the site boundary fencing in
the wake of possible shading. Since the site landscape affects the
SPV array installation, an additional 30% land area is added as a
contingency.
ADI = (Asec × Nsec + Aroad × ABA )
(47)
AOA = 5%of ADI
(48)
Acon = 30% (ADI + AOA )
(49)
The total impact area (ATI ) of the proposed SPV plant is
calculated using equation 50.
ATI = (ADI + AOA + Acon )
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AC cable
4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
At first, the design of PV array, inverters, combiner boxes, DC
and AC cables and protection devices is presented. A single-line
diagram and site layout of the proposed SPV power plant is also
provided in this section. Finally, the results of the land footprint
analysis are described.
4.1 Components sizing and bill of materials
Each step-up transformer has a capacity of 1 MVA with a primary
voltage of 410 V and a secondary voltage of 11 kV. A summary
of selected components for the solar farm is given in Table 2. The
specification of the main features is also provided in Appendix 1.
4.2 Component selection and detailed plant design
The proposed 5 MW SPV power plant consist of monocrystalline
SPV modules with power ratings of 365 Wp is selected for. The
power conversion efficiency of this PV module is 18.4% at standard test conditions. The maximum and the minimum number
of PV modules in a string are calculated to be 15 and 20, respectively. The maximum number of strings that can be connected to
the selected inverter is estimated as 142. From Table 3, a string
consisting of 19 PV modules is desirable for the proposed 5 MW
SPV power plant because of the close match with the DC power
of the inverter (1000 kW). Also, the open-circuit string voltage is
below the system voltage (1000 VDC) in this configuration. The
total number of strings is estimated to be 710. Hence, the number
of PV modules required for the SPV power plant is approximately
13 490.
A 1000-kW central inverter from a renowned manufacturer
is selected as a power conditioning unit. It has an efficiency of
98%. It can operate continuously at climatic conditions between
−40◦ C and 62◦ C. This inverter is capable of unity power factor
at rated power. Nine DC inputs are present. The MPP voltage at
40◦ C varies from 625 to 850 V. Considering a 1000-kWac central
inverter, five inverters are needed for the proper operation of the
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Component
Solar farm: siting, design and land footprint analysis
Table 3. Possible arrangement of PV module connection to the selected inverter.
Number of PV
modules in a string
Max number of
strings per inverter
Power at inverter’s
input (kW)
Voltage it Inverter’s
input(V)
Current at inverter’s
input(A)
15
16
17
18
19
20
142
777.45
829.28
881.11
932.94
984.77
1036.6
616.5
657.6
698.7
739.8
780.9
822
1601.76
Is this configuration
acceptable
Cable start point
Cable end point
Length (m)
C.S.A (mm2 )
Voltage drop (%)
String conductor
SCB output
Inverter output
Transformer output
SCB input
Inverter input
Trans input
Switch yard
25
25
5
5
4
35
300
25
0.61
0.94
0.0356
0.0032
Table 5. Rating of selected protection devices for the proposed SPV system.
Location
Component
Specification
SCB
DC Isolator
DC SPD
DC Fuse
AC Fuse
AC isolator
LA
Energy meter
1000 Vdc , 15 A, 2 poles
1000 Vdc , 40 kA
15 A
80 A
11 kV, 100 A
33 kV
CT: 60/5 A, Class 1
PT: 11 kV/110 V, Class 1
Switch yard
proposed SPV power plant. Each step-up transformer has a capacity of 1 MVA with a primary voltage of 410 V and a secondary
voltage of 11 kV. A total of five transformers are required to step up
the output voltage of the inverter. An extra 250 kVA transformer
can also be considered for accommodating the variation in power
factor. The energy generated will be injected to the nearest substation at 11 kV voltage level through the transmission line. Also, 16
strings are connected to an SCB whose output voltage and current
are 780.90 V and 180 A, respectively. Hence, the total number of
SCBs needed for SPV power plants accounts for 45.
With less than 1% voltage drop, 4 mm2 DC cables are used
as string conductors. From the output of SCB and input of the
inverter, 35 mm2 copper cable is used. The main features of
DC and AC cables for the proposed SPV system are shown in
Table 4. A 300 mm2 × 7 run AC cable was selected to carry
current from inverter output to transformer input. A 25 mm2 cable
is sufficient to withstand the current flow between transformer
output and switchyard. Selected protection devices for the proposed SPV power plant are depicted in Table 5. The single line
diagram of the proposed SPV system is shown in Figure 5. The
sample arrangement of MMS in a PV array section and the single
line diagram of the proposed SPV system is shown in Figures 5
and 6.
Figure 5. Sample representation of the arrangement of MMS in a PV array section.
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Table 4. Main features of DC and AC cables for the proposed SPV system.
S. Sukumaran et al.
4.3 Site layout and GCR value
The tilt angle for the PV array in Madurai is selected as 10◦ . The
inclination of the MMS is taken as the tilt angle based on the
assumption that the ground surface is flat. Double-stacked and
portrait configuration is selected for PV arrays. This arrangement
is typical for land-based SPV projects. All the 19 PV modules of
the string are accommodated into a single MMS. Therefore, 710
numbers of MMS are required for the entire SPV power plant.
For this scenario, the minimum inter-row distance to avoid selfshading is 0.93 m. Based on these conditions, the GCR for the
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International Journal of Low-Carbon Technologies 2022, 17, 1478–1491
proposed configuration is 0.78. The top view and side view of the
proposed PV array is shown in Figures 7 and 8, respectively.
4.4 Land footprint and cost analysis
The entire 5 MW SPV farm is composed of 15 sections of PV
array. Each section is spread over 2361.82 m2 approximately. It
consists of 49 units of MMS arranged into seven rows and seven
columns. The direct-impact area required for the solar power
plant is estimated as 43768.41 m2 . An additional 30% of the land
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Figure 6. Single-line diagram for the proposed solar farm.
Solar farm: siting, design and land footprint analysis
Figure 7. Side view of SPV arrays for the proposed SPV layout.
area is assigned to accommodate site-related space requirements.
The total-impact site is found to be 59743.89 m2 or 14.77 acres. It
was observed that the direct impact is located within the boundary
of total land area and hence requires lesser land area than totalimpact area. Since the total impact area varies with site conditions,
it is difficult to estimate its accurate value. However, the land
requirement for the direct-impact area is not much influenced
by the site conditions. It can be calculated based on the SPV site
layout plan. Economic analysis indicates the profitability of the
installed PV system. It gives an idea about the recovery of invested
amount and profit gain. For the solar farm as per various databases
and authors’ experience in solar farm projects, the overall cost
break-up of the solar farm is presented in Figure 9. However,
the cost can vary widely in different places, as each country has
its policies and prices. Table 6 summarizes the various estimated
financial parameters of the solar farm. Although the initial investment in the solar farm is very high, the project will be attractive with the reasonable tariff and carbon credit revenue. Based
on cost calculations, the solar farm in Madurai is economically
beneficial with a favorable payback period, net present value and
internal rate of return. This parameter is also crucial to address
the sustainability aspects of the project.
4.5 Discussions
The higher power rating PV module is used in some operational
SPV power plants. Many SPV installations have PV modules with
a rating of 300 Wp or above. For instance, 325 W [18] and 315 W
[19]. String inverters can also be employed for MW-scale solar
power plants. It offers modularity, which makes maintenance easy
5 CONCLUSIONS
In this paper, the detailed design of a 5-MW grid-connected
solar farm is carried out. In addition, the inter-row distance and
land area requirement is estimated. The following conclusions are
drawn:
• The proposed solar power plant comprises 13 490 numbers
of PV modules with a 365 Wp rating. Nineteen numbers of
PV modules will constitute a string. One hundred forty-two
numbers of strings will be connected to an inverter of 1 MW
rating.
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Figure 8. Top view of SPV arrays for the proposed SPV layout.
[18]. Several 60 kW inverters are used in an SPV power plant
installed in Irbid, Jordan [25]. The inter-row distance varies with
the location of the SPV system. For an SPV power plant located in
32o latitude, an inter-row distance of 2 m was reported. Similarly,
the inter-row distance for the SPV power plant in Eastern Turkey
is 4.55 m [25]. The 2.5 MW SPV plant in Navrongo has an interrow space of 3 m to minimize the module-to-module shading
[26]. A detailed step is presented in this study to estimate the land
use requirement of SPV power plants. However, the value varies
depending on the landscape conditions of the site on a case-tocase basis. In a study by [25], the area covered by a 5-MW SPV
power plant is reported as 58 300 m2 . The 2.5-MW SPV plant
in Navrongo is spread over 48562.30 m2 of land [26]. The land
required for Uganda’s 10-MW SPV power plant was 34 acres or
3.4acres/MW [27]. This closely matches the area estimated for
this study’s proposed 5-MW SPV power plant. Fthenakis and Kim
[28] studied the average land requirements during the lifetime
of RE sources and concluded that the SPV system needs the
least land area. However, it is subjected to variation in regional
and technological conditions. Most large-scale SPV power plants
are divided into blocks to ease electrical connection. Eight main
blocks are in India’s 10-MW SPV power plant [4]. Similarly, a
10-MW SPV power plant in Uganda is assembled into 43 SPV
arrays in which each array comprises ten smaller units [27]. For
SPV power plants near the equator, a slightly higher tilt angle
can be provided to aid the self-cleaning of modules. For example,
the latitude of Uganda’s 10-MW SPV power plant is 1◦ 33 N.
However, the tilt angle is 10◦ [27]. An improvement in energy output occurs with the periodic cleaning of SPV modules, say twice
a month. The cleaning schedule can be adjusted with the rain
season. In this respect, self-cleaning thin film PV glazing systems
can be considered in further works [29]. Also, a higher cleaning
frequency is suggested for SPV systems located in arid/desert
regions. In any type of PV//T system design, vacuum medium and
vacuum glazing technologies can be utilized to minimize thermal
losses [30, 31], and highly thermally dissipative extended surfaces
can be preferred to enhance heat transport from surface to heat
transfer fluid [33]. The total length of solar cable in a typical MWscale SPV project ranges up to few km [32]. The optimization
of cable size and cable length reduces energy loss. This energysaving may be equivalent to energy generation worth a few lakhs
per annum.
S. Sukumaran et al.
Table 6. Summary of the financial parameters.
Plant life
25 years
Plant capital investment cost
Average sunshine hours
Annual energy yield
Operation and maintenance cost
Inflation
Discount rate
Interest rate
Payback period (year)
NPV
LCOE
2 million USD (0.400 USD/MW)
5.5 hrs
7522 MWh/year
2%
3.5%
10%
11%
4.9
0.803 million USD
8.8 cents/kWh
• The energy output from five such inverters will be fed to
the nearest electric substation using a transformer of 1 MVA
capacity. The DC and AC cables are selected such that the
voltage drop is less than 1%. It is observed that the ratings
of protection devices mainly depend on current value.
• For an SPV array proposed in 10o latitude and 78o longitude,
the inter-row distance is estimated as 1 m. The required number of MMSs will be 710. It is observed that the length of MMS
mainly depends on the number of PV modules in a string. For
the proposed SPV system, this length is estimated as 10.61 m,
approximately equal to the width of 10 PV modules.
• Based on reasonable assumptions, the total land use requirement of the proposed SPV system is observed to be
43768.41 m2 (around 3 acres).
• The design procedure presented in this study is focused on
technical and safety factors. With due consideration to the
market trends, component cost and availability, there is a
scope to improve the developed design methodology.
• The practical implication of this study is to streamline the different solar farm design approaches, which will benefit energy
professionals and policymakers. In addition, the design and
land footprint analysis of tracking SPV systems can be the
focus of future works.
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International Journal of Low-Carbon Technologies 2022, 17, 1478–1491
DATA AVAILABILITY
The data and information used in this research study can be
shared upon personal request to the authors.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors are grateful for the financial support of the Universiti Malaysia Pahang (www.ump.edu.my) through the Doctoral
Research Scheme and PGRS1903172 for the first author to pursue
his doctoral research. The authors are also thankful to the Russian
Science Foundation grant no. 22-19-20011 support of South Ural
state university.
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