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towards
commitment
lives
of
others
to
the
needs
service,
and
to
the
environment.
Risk-takers
They
with
and
courage
explore
new
defending
Balanced
emotional
and
others.
unfamiliar
ideas,
and
and
strategies.
understand
balance
to
the
the
and
uncertainty
independence
They
They
give
thoughtful
experience.
They
are
to
order
able
to
importance
achieve
Reective
in
situations
have
are
brave
of
and
spirit
to
articulate
in
beliefs.
They
and
limitations
iv
roles,
their
approach
forethought,
of
and
their
intellectual,
well-being
consideration
assess
support
personal
to
their
understand
learning
and
for
own
their
physical,
themselves
learning
strengths
personal
and
and
development.
What constitutes misconduct?
A note on academic honesty
It
is
of
vital
importance
appropriately
when
that
credit
all,
have
property
work,
owners
it
of
must
be
is
used
ideas
rights.
acknowledge
owners
information
After
of
to
the
To
of
in
your
(intellectual
have
based
on
an
and
information
your
is
result
or
original
ideas
with
the
work
you
oral,
Therefore,
completed
for
all
language
used
or
and
referred
of
others
quotation
or
whether
must
paraphrase,
Where
in
such
Plagiarism
is
or
assessment
plagiarism
and
or
may
unfair
component.
collusion.
dened
as
the
representation
of
the
work
are
the
sources
another
of
of
person
the
ways
as
to
your
own.
avoid
The
plagiarism:
Words
and
ideas
of
another
person
used
to
your
sources
form
of
some
written
use
must
one’s
arguments
must
be
acknowledged.
are
verbatim
are
direct
●
Passages
that
quoted
must
be
be
appropriately
more
in,
an
fully
assignments,
assessment
expression.
to,
or
results
gaining
individual
support
own
one
that
student
piece
●
or
any
includes
following
acknowledged.
in
behaviour
Misconduct
ideas
and
in,
advantage
work.
property)
authentic
Misconduct
enclosed
within
quotation
marks
and
acknowledged.
acknowledged.
●
CD-ROMs,
Internet,
How do I acknowledge the work of others?
treated
The
way
the
ideas
that
of
footnotes
you
acknowledge
other
and
people
is
that
through
you
the
have
use
email
and
in
any
the
at
the
●
The
sources
of
illustrations,
bottom
of
a
page)
to
be
from
(placed
provided
another
information
not
is
need
part
of
to
a
at
the
when
end
you
document,
provided
provide
‘body
of
in
a
of
a
quote
or
document)
or
another
footnote
for
knowledge’.
is,
●
the
You
information
That
Works
of
theatre
do
all
not
need
to
be
footnoted
as
they
are
that
and
resources
based
should
should
that
you
include
magazines,
resources,
that
part
of
include
a
formal
list
of
you
used
all
in
CDs
your
resources,
newspaper
and
should
forms
of
A
information
your
data,
material
graphs,
must
they
are
be
not
your
own
work.
art,
arts,
whether
or
be
of
visual
music,
lm,
dance,
a
part
arts,
of
a
and
where
work
takes
the
place,
is
dened
student.
as
This
supporting
misconduct
by
includes:
allowing
work.
works
use
one
of
of
●
Internet-
art.
the
presentation.
You
work
as
can
bibliography
is
to
how
nd
the
a
reader
same
compulsory
in
by
to
be
copied
another
or
submitted
student
duplicating
work
components
for
and/or
different
diploma
assessment
requirements.
‘Formal’
forms
of
misconduct
include
any
action
several
must
or
work
assessment
The
including
articles,
your
of
gives
you
an
unfair
advantage
or
affects
the
provide
results
full
maps,
the
that
accepted
if
acknowledged.
Other
means
similar
must
for
books,
be
denitions
●
listing
must
journals.
knowledge.
Bibliographies
the
media
and
programs,
use
another
assumed
photographs,
creative
Collusion
do
books
the
are
summarize
document.
as
on
or
paraphrase
closely
sites
electronic
way
computer
acknowledged
endnotes
web
used
of
bibliographies.
(placed
other
same
audio-visual,
Footnotes
messages,
of
another
student.
Examples
include,
viewer
taking
unauthorized
room,
misconduct
material
into
an
examination
information.
the
extended
during
an
examination,
and
essay.
falsifying
a
CAS
record.
v
Contents
Introduction
The
nature
of
Introduction
Global
to
the
Politics
2
Human rights
2.1
The
1
course
development
and
group
perspectives
Globalization
are
brief
human
history
to
the
Course
Companion
issues:
When
levels
we
think
of
politics
People,
and
levels
of
analysis
of
power
colonial
community
and
politics
period
(circa
13
1800
to
and
further
of
Greece
46
society
and
human
rights
and
Rome
47
49
societies
1950+)
reading
Declaration
2.2
The
United
Human
50
and
its
initial
51
Nations’
Universal
Declaration
Rights
52
15
Universal
Declaration
of
15
Human
2.3
1
rights
considerations
12
The
References
human
8
of
The
46
7
The
concept
of
evolution
Capitalist
The
rights?
5
Ancient
Geographic
46
3
The
Political
rights
2
A
Introduction
human
2
What
Individual
of
Power, sovereignty and international
The
three
human
Rights
52
“generations”
of
rights
56
relations
Universal
1.1
Power
Human
The
nature
Power
in
of
power
context
and
The
18
statehood
contemporary
Other
types
Violence
1.2
1.3
The
of
and
nation
world
power
state,
control
Social
order,
The
violence
power
and
modes
cultural
relativism
ideology
and
power
and
and
Nations
treaties,
the
law
human
Nations
rights
system
61
20
The
practice
20
The
politicization
21
of
of
human
2.4
Conclusion
2.5
Exam-style
2.6
References
3
Development
3.1
The
of
rights
human
rights
questions
71
and
further
reading
26
role
of
“development”
in
politics
to
afliation
80
and
agency
civil
society
1.6
References
with
reading
81
and
key
concepts
84
brief
history
of
development
87
42
Levels
3.2
vi
politics:
units
36
A
further
global
other
33
questions
and
in
32
Development
Exam-style
80
30
Links
1.5
77
24
Development
(new)
68
70
Introduction
The
66
28
community
Communities
59
25
Communities
From
57
22
actors
United
law
rights
United
global
1.4
and
the
structural
social
Non-state
in
rights
human
18
legal
States
rights
18
of
analyses
91
Contested
meanings
of
development
92
Contested
meanings
of
development
92
Human
development
Sustainable
97
development
4.4
Evolution
of
conict
Manifestations
98
of
177
conict,
including
non-violence
Measuring
development
Third-party
3.3
Factors
impacting
development
involvement
factors
Social
factors
111
factors
Conict
112
Environmental
factors
3.5
pathways
Models
118
development
for
developing
the
economy
Conclusion
citizenship
skills
Links
education
health
roles
of
and
3.7
References
4
Peace and conict
4.1
The
Key
4.2
of
and
peace
and
reading
Just
194
New
194
directions
4.7
Exam-style
4.8
References
Index
questions
and
further
196
reading
202
205
conict
138
in
and
links
of
with
other
peace,
units
142
conict
143
of
Conclusion
142
meanings
denitions
and
of
peace,
violence
143
conict
Justications
4.3
further
Introduction
Types
191
132
143
conict
reconciliation
institutions
129
violence
Different
justice
130
questions
concepts
including
of
130
politics
Contested
and
GDP
women
Exam-style
role
healthcare
and
3.6
global
work
188
126
between
Changing
post-conict
and
engagement
Improving
121
126
for
and
towards
118
Concern
186
116
development
Approaches
resolution
Peacebuilding,
4.6
Contemporary
of
conict,
intervention
transformation
and
3.4
humanitarian
108
4.5
Economic
in
108
including
Political
177
100
of
158
violence,
including
War
Theory
164
Causes
and
parties
Causes
of
conict
171
Parties
to
conict
175
to
conict
171
vii
About the authors
Max
and
Kirsch
four
books
Queer
Theory
working
our
on
and
The
For
Social
would
like
to
the
Mathur
Singapore.
of
where
course
with
the
numerous
policy
briefs
Foundation
Japan
Chiel
(BA)
Global
Politics
United
Global
to
the
and
the
of
worked
and
papers
She
a
in
an
Fellow
She
of
Delhi,
from
has
Trends
by
University,
New
authored
and
Japan
and
the
a
Prospects’
journals,
the
Fellowship
Leaders
based
assignment
relations
recipient
Unit
4,
History
Michael
of
invited
former
to
Japan
of
An
Groningen,
Politics
that
experienced
taught
laid
the
and
Gillett,
and
The
International
Baccalaureate
and
The
International
Baccalaureate
Guide
(MA)
he
has
the
pilot
and
phase
at
Conict
for
currently
also
at
International
foundations
online
afliated
in
the
Peace
examiner,
he
and
both
during
face-to-face
IBO
Relations
Organisations
having
subjects
Mooij.
International
Global
rst
(Chiel)
Heleads
Jenny
is
and
post-graduate
peer-reviewed
where
features,
her
(India).
Okita
Opinion
a
Associate
Drivers,
in
is
for
Analyses
Delhi
Saburo
after
the
effects
currently
to
an
Maastricht,
for
Public
Rajaratnam
Prior
international
New
S.
as
College
teachers
scholar
instructor
Relations:
the
2017
redevelopment,
of
Giant,
currently
global
Technological
University
course.
World
is
second
Nanyang
International
the
the

introduced
one
Human
Mathur.
Institute.
For
May
TOK
2004.
College,
Politics.
Politics
in
the
Fellow,
she
for
He
current
research
course
in
of
Control ,
Research
Studies
the
Program
at
He
there,
the
Wake
Arena .
and
in
author
Everglades.
Arpita
commentaries.
studied
Atlantic
Studies
by
chapters,
contributions
Netherlands.
3,
also
University,
University
Relations
UWC
the
change,
the
the
Private
of
Now,
Chair
is
following:
Studies,
doctorate
book
and
Mooij
Utrecht
Unit
Defense
a
the
‘India-Japan
Agency
substantial
social
independent
Fellowship,
under
Defense
for
has
on
Live
He
In
Global
analysis
Florida
was
Disney:
the
an
Singapore,
Nehru
monograph
at
at
Institute
Jawaharlal
she
in
We
formerly
conducted
RSIS
India.Arpita
and
isan
was
International
level
the
She
including,
one
thank
to
UNESCO
Way
rapid
in
and
University.
Rethinking
Exclusion
The
Dr.
at
viii
entitled
concerning
Singapore,
For
and
contributions
School
articles,
monographs,
lives
Arpita
Atlantic
Change ,
substantial
in
Anthropology
journal
colonialization
author
of
Florida
Inclusion
two
ethnography
at
many
and
daily
internal
Professor
Rights
and
Dimensions,
on
is
Cultural
the
teaches
introduced
workshops
organisations.
for
Global

IBO.
the
DP
to
Program
Global
Developers
Politics,
Final
for
Assessment,
Syllabus content
Unit 1
This
and
are
Power, sovereignty and international relations
unit
focuses
legitimised
examined,
success
Key
in
on
at
their
achieving
concepts:
the
levels.
interactions
their
power,
Learning outcome
dynamics
various
aims
of
The
in
and
power
roles
global
and
of
politics
objectives
sovereignty,
how
state
are
are
is
manifested
non-state
discussed
actors
and
their
evaluated.
legitimacy,
Prescribed content
it
and
interdependence
Possible examples (intended as a star ting point only: for many
topics, local and current examples will be more appropriate
than the ones listed, and many more examples are listed than
are expected to be covered during the course)
Nature of power
Denitions and theories of
•
power
Types of power
Denitions and theories of power, e.g. Nye, Mearsheimer,
Gramsci, Lukes, Wolf
•
Types of power, e.g. hard vs. soft; economic, military, social,
cultural; individual vs. collective; unilateral vs. multilateral
Operation of state
States and statehood
•
States and statehood, e.g.
power in global
State, nation, nation-state, stateless nation, types of state
politics
(e.g. unitary states, federal states, confederations)
Democratic states
Militarised states
Fragile / failed states
Rising states
The evolving nature of state
sovereignty and legitimacy
•
The evolving nature of state sovereignty and legitimacy of
state power, e.g.
of state power
The Westphalian conception of state sovereignty and
present-day challenges to this (e.g. globalization, supra-
nationality, humanitarian intervention, indigenous rights)
Domestic and international sources of legitimacy
for state
power (e.g. possession and use of force, international law
and norms, recognition by other states due to economic and
balance of power considerations, consent of the governed
through political par ticipation – or not)
ix
Function and
The United Nations (UN)
•
impact of
The UN, e.g. UN Char ter, General Assembly, Security Council,
other organs and agencies
international
Intergovernmental
•
IGOs, e.g. World Trade Organisation (WTO),
International
organizations and
organizations (IGOs)
Monetary Fund (IMF), European Union, African Union, Arab
non-state actors in
League, ASEAN
global politics
Non-governmental
•
organisations (NGOs),
NGOs, e.g. Red Cross/ Red Crescent, Amnesty International,
Human Rights Watch, Greenpeace, BRAC
multinational corporations
•
MNCs, e.g. Unilever, Philips, IKEA , Lenovo, Tata
•
Trade unions, e.g. International Trade Union Confederation
•
Social movements, e.g. Occupy, Avaaz.org, Billion Voices
(MNCs) and trade unions
Social movements,
resistance movements and
•
Resistance movements, e.g. Arab Spring, Orange Revolution in
violent protest movements
Ukraine, Zapatista Rebellion
•
Violent protest movements, e.g. FARC, Hezbollah, Naxalites, Al
Qaeda
Political par ties
•
Political par ties, e.g. the Republican and Democratic par ties
in the US, CDU and SPD in Germany, the Communist Par ty in
China
Informal forums
•
Informal forums , e.g. G20, G8, G2, World Economic Forum,
World Social Forum
Nature and extent
Global governance
•
Global governance, e.g. UN Security Council resolutions,
of interactions in
climate change agenda, Basel accords on nancial regulation,
global politics
WTO trade agreements, regional decision-making
Cooperation: treaties,
•
collective security, strategic
Treaties, e.g. Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty, Montreal
Protocol
alliances, economic
•
Collective security, e.g. NATO, Organization of American States
cooperation, informal
•
Strategic alliances, e.g. China’s alliances in Latin America and
cooperation
Africa, US-Taiwan, US-Israel, India-Afghanistan
•
Economic cooperation, e.g. bi- and multilateral trade
agreements, regional economic integration, facilitation and
regulation of international production
•
Informal cooperation, e.g. extraordinary rendition, technology
harmonization, cultural exchange
Conict: interstate
•
Interstate war, e.g. Iraq, Afghanistan, Sudan and South Sudan
•
Intrastate war, e.g. Syria, Ukraine
•
Terrorist attacks, e.g. 9/11, Mumbai bombings
•
Strikes and demonstrations: local examples
war, intrastate war,
terrorist attacks, strikes,
demonstrations
x
Unit 2: Human Rights
This
unit
focuses
surrounding
Key
on
human
concepts:
the
nature
rights
human
are
and
practice
of
human
rights.
Debates
examined.
rights,
justice,
liberty,
equality
Learning outcome
Prescribed content
Possible examples
Nature and
Denitions of human
•
evolution of human
rights
Denitions of human rights, e.g. through notions such as
inalienability, universality, indivisibility, equality, justice, liber ty
rights
•
Developments in human rights over time and space, e.g.
The UN Universal
Human rights milestones, e.g. civil and political rights,
Declaration of Human
economic, social and cultural rights, gender rights, children’s
Rights (1948)
rights, indigenous people’s rights, refugee rights
Internationalization of human rights, e.g. universal
jurisdiction, international humanitarian law
Developments in human
rights over time and space
Codication,
Human rights laws and
protection and
treaties
•
Human rights laws and treaties, e.g. role of custom, human
rights in constitutions (e.g. South Africa, Brazil), International
monitoring of
Covenants on Civil and Political Rights and on Economic, Social
human rights
and Cultural Rights, Convention on the Protection of
the Rights
of Migrant Workers, Rome Statute
Protection and
•
Protection and enforcement of human rights at dierent levels,
enforcement of human
e.g. national cour ts and police, International Cour t of Justice,
rights at dierent levels
International Criminal Cour t, Inter-American Commission on
Human Rights, Cambodia Tribunal
Monitoring human rights
•
agreements
Monitoring human rights agreements, e.g. ombudsmen, Human
Rights Watch, Amnesty International, Red Cross/ Red Crescent,
monitoring elections
Practice of human
Claims on human rights
•
rights
Claims on human rights, e.g. labour rights,
indigenous land
claims, movements for gender equality, debates about same
sex marriage
Violations of human rights
•
Violations in human rights, e.g. forced labour, human tracking,
forced relocation, denial of prisoners of war rights, child soldiers,
violations of freedom of speech, violations in the name of
prevention of terrorism, gender discrimination
Debates
Individual vs. collective
surrounding human
rights
•
Individual vs. collective rights, e.g. Western, Asian and African
conceptions, indigenous conceptions
rights: diering
Universal rights vs. cultural
•
Universal rights vs. cultural relativism, e.g. Sharia law, honour
interpretations of
relativism
killings, hate crime laws, consumer rights
justice, liber ty and
Politicization of human
•
Politicization of human rights, e.g. use of human rights for
equality
rights
political gain, humanitarian arguments, responsibility to protect,
use of sanctions
xi
Unit 3: Development
This
unit
may
off
in
Key
focuses
help
a
or
on
stand
what
in
the
comprehensive
concepts:
development
way
sense.
of
Debates
development,
means,
people,
it
can
be
communities
how
and
countries
surrounding
globalization,
pursued
development
inequality,
are
and
what
becoming
better
examined.
sustainability
Learning outcome
Prescribed content
Possible examples
Contested
Dierent denitions
•
meanings of
of development,
meeting basic needs, improved capabilities, achievement of political
development
including sustainable
and social freedoms, well-functioning institutions, lifestyles that
development and
respect the ecological constraints of the environment
Economic growth, a fairer income distribution, reduction in pover ty,
well-being
Measuring
•
development
Gross National Product, Gini Index, Human Development Index, Human
Pover ty Index, Gender-related Development Index, Genuine Progress
Indicator, Inclusive Wealth Index, Happy Planet Index, corruption
indices, trust indices
Factors that may
Political factors
•
Ideologies, history of and persistence of conict, stability,
promote or inhibit
accountability, transparency, legal frameworks, political consequences
development
of dierent development paths, decisions about the allocation of aid,
political culture, culture of bureaucracy, vested interests
Economic factors
•
Access to resources, increasing resource constraints, infrastructure,
debt, access to capital and credit, aid, trade, foreign direct investment
(FDI), income distribution, informal economy, vested interests
Social factors
•
Values, cultures, traditions, gender relations, migration
Institutional factors
•
UN, IMF, World Bank , WTO, par tnerships between developing countries
Environmental
•
Pathways towards
Models of
development
development
Geography, resource endowment, consequences of climate change on
people and communities’ lives
factors
•
Modernization and post-modernization theories (e.g. Rostow,
Inglehar t), dependency theories (e.g. Cardoso, Wallerstein),
neoliberalism (e.g. Washington consensus), state capitalism (e.g.
China, Russia), capability theories (e.g. Sen, Nussbaum)
Approaches for
•
Trade liberalization, expor t orientation, commodity-led growth,
developing the
tourism, entrepreneurship, knowledge economy, circular economy,
economy
complementary currencies
Approaches for
•
developing society
Concern for citizenship skills and engagement, improving education
and healthcare, changing roles of women, more ecological living,
indigenous revitalization movements
Debates
Globalization: wins
surrounding
and losses
•
Facts about development of standard of living and assessment of
realization of human rights, well-being and oppor tunity for dierent
development:
groups of people within and between societies, environmental impacts
challenges of
of globalization
globalization,
Inequality: how
•
Oppor tunities for and limits of state, IGO and NGO action, (e.g. global
inequality and
impor tant a factor in
regulation of MNCs and cross-border nancial ows, role of local
development?
regulation of conditions of work , power of lobbies)
sustainability
Sustainable
xii
•
Oppor tunities for and limits of state, IGO and NGO action (e.g. progress
development: which
in global climate change negotiations, role of regional, national and
way forward?
local policies for sustainable development)
Unit 4: Peace and Conict
This
unit
emerge
Key
focuses
and
on
what
develop,
concepts:
and
peace,
Learning
peace,
what
conict
can
conict,
be
and
done
violence
to
violence,
build
a
mean,
how
lasting
peace.
conicts
non-violence
Prescribed content
Possible examples
Contested
Dierent denitions of
•
meanings of
peace, conict and violence,
peace, conict
including positive peace and
outcome
Dierent denitions of
Peace: e.g. negative peace, balance of power, peace in
dierent political traditions and religions, feminist peace
and violence
structural violence
Conict: e.g. through scale of conict from e.g.
disenfranchisement through to interstate war
Violence: e.g. direct violence, cultural violence
Types of conict
•
Types of conict, e.g.
Territorial conict (e.g. Western Sahara, Russian claims,
disputes in the South China Sea)
Interest-based conict (e.g. weapon sales, positive
discrimination on the factory oor)
Ideological conict (e.g. political ideologies, free market
versus state-led economy)
Identity conict (e.g. indigenous populations, more
heterogeneous populations in previously homogeneous
states)
Justications of violence,
•
including just war theory
Causes and
Causes of conict
Justications of violence, e.g. humanitarian intervention, self-
defence, religiously or culturally condoned violence
•
par ties to conict
Causes of conict, e.g. greed vs. grievance (e.g. Colombia, Sierra
Leone), territorial control, material interest, resource scarcity,
ideology, threatened identity, perception
Par ties to conict
•
Par ties to conict, e.g. states, intrastate groups, protest groups,
individuals
Evolution of
Manifestations of conict,
conict
including non-violence
•
Manifestations of conict, e.g. demonstrations, civil
disobedience, violent protests, guerrilla warfare, terrorism,
genocide, civil war, interstate war
Conict dynamics
•
Conict dynamics, e.g. Galtung’s conict triangle, positions-
interests-needs, conict cycles
Third-par ty involvement
•
in conict, including
Third-par ty involvement, e.g. weapon embargoes, NATO
involvement, election observers
humanitarian intervention
Conict resolution
Peacemaking, including
and post-conict
negotiations and treaties
•
Peacemaking, e.g. UN peace enforcement, imposed settlement,
ceaseres, truces, arbitration, mediation, peace treaties,
transformation
peacekeeping, peace enforcement, military victory
Peacebuilding, including
•
Peacebuilding, e.g. truth and reconciliation commissions (e.g.
reconciliation and work of
Sierra Leone), cour ts (e.g. Cambodia, International Criminal
justice institutions
Cour t), forgiveness
xiii
Key concepts
The
following
below)
weave
should
be
extension
which
The
core
to
is
in
course
any
with
of
where
both
to
and
below
where
key
concepts
conceptual
order
access
units,
that
a
explored
concepts
indicates
sixteen
when
equip
(with
brief
throughout
working
students
with
with
a
explanations
the
the
course.
core
the
political
issues
are
the
order
which
listed
in
concepts
concepts
them
can
they
add
and
attached
are
most
should
value
to
the
be
to
in
each
likely
to
they
This
surface,
at
and
the
framework
HL
with
examined.
unit.
addressed
provided
They
units
conceptual
understand
four
the
thread
any
appear
unit
but
the
afliation
the
point
in
of
intention
the
discussion.
Concept
Explanation
Power
Power is a central concept in the study of global politics and a key focus of the course.
Power can be seen as ability to eect change in the world and, rather than being viewed
as a unitary or independent force, is as an aspect of relations among people functioning
within various social organizations. Contested relationships between people and groups
of people dominate politics, par ticularly in this era of increased globalization, and so
understanding the dynamics of power plays a prominent role in understanding global
politics.
Sovereignty
Sovereignty characterises a state’s independence, its control over territory and its ability
to govern itself. How states use their sovereign power is at the hear t of many impor tant
issues in global politics. Some theorists argue that sovereign power is increasingly being
eroded by aspects of globalization such as global communication and trade, which states
cannot always fully control. Others argue that sovereign states exercise a great deal of
power when acting in their national interest and that this is unlikely to change.
Legitimacy
Legitimacy refers to an actor or an action being commonly considered acceptable and
provides the fundamental basis or rationale for all forms of governance and other ways
of exercising power over others. The most accepted contemporary source of legitimacy
in a state is some form of democracy or constitutionalism whereby the governed have a
dened and periodical oppor tunity to choose who they wish to exercise power over them.
However, even within an overall framework of legitimacy, individual actions by a state can
be considered more or less legitimate. Other actors of global politics and their behaviours
can also be assessed from the perspective of legitimacy.
Interdependence
For global politics, the concept of interdependence most often refers to the mutual reliance
between and among groups, organizations, areas and states for access to resources that
sustain living arrangements. Often, this mutual reliance is economic (such as trade), but
can also have a security dimension (such as defence arrangements) and, increasingly, a
sustainability dimension (such as environmental treaties). Globalization has increased
interdependence, while often changing the relationships of power among the various
actors engaged in global politics.
Human rights
Human rights are basic rights and entitlements which many argue one should be able
to claim simply by vir tue of being a human being. Many contemporary thinkers argue
that they are essential for living a life of dignity, are inalienable, and are universal.
The Universal Declaration of Human Rights adopted by the United Nations in 1948 is
recognized as the beginning of the formal discussion of human rights around the world.
xiv
Justice
There are a number of dierent interpretations of the term justice. It is often closely
associated with the idea of fairness and with each getting what he or she deserves,
although what is meant by deser t is also itself contested. The term justice is also closely
associated with rights and what individuals can legitimately demand of one another or
their government.
Liber ty
The term liber ty refers to having freedom and autonomy. It is often divided into positive
and negative liber ty, with negative liber ty often dened as freedom from external coercion
and positive liber ty dened as a person having the freedom to carry out their own will.
Some scholars reject this distinction and argue that in practice one cannot exist without
the other.
Equality
Egalitarian theories are based on a concept of equality where all people, or groups of
people, are seen to have the same intrinsic value. Equality is therefore closely linked to
justice and fairness, as egalitarians argue that justice can only exist if there is equality.
Increasingly, with growing polarization within societies, equality is also linked to liber ty, as
dierent people have dierent oppor tunities to carry out their own will.
Development
Development is a broad based and sustained increase in the standard of living and
well-being of a level of social organization. Many consider it to involve increased income,
better access to basic goods and services, improvements in education, healthcare and
public health, well-functioning institutions, decreased inequality, reduced pover ty and
unemployment and more sustainable production and consumption patterns. Although
the focus of development debates in global politics is on issues faced by developing
countries, all societies and communities face questions about how to best promote well-
being and reduce ill-being. Development is typically measured through indicators such
as longevity and literacy as well as income per head, but other measures, such as carbon
footprint and subjective well-being, are being included in many metrics.
Globalization
Globalization is a process by which local, regional and national economies, societies
and cultures are becoming increasingly integrated and connected. The term refers to
the reduction of barriers and borders, as goods, services and ideas ow more freely
between dierent par ts of the world and people. Globalization is a process which has been
taking place for centuries but the pace has quickened in recent decades, facilitated by
developments in global governance and technology and powered by cheap energy. By
now, it is widely acknowledged that globalization has both benets and drawbacks and
that its proceeds are not evenly distributed.
Inequality
Inequality refers to the unequal access to resources that are needed to sustain life and
communities.
It is closely connected to discussions of power in a globalized world and
who holds the rights to these resources and their proceeds. Inequality can be examined
both as a phenomenon within and between societies.
Sustainability
Denitions of sustainability begin with the idea that development should meet the needs
of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their
needs. Sustainability today has three elds of debate – environmental, sociopolitical and
economic. In global politics, mechanisms and incentives required for political institutions,
economic actors and individuals to take a longer term and more inclusive well-being
perspective in their decision-making are par ticularly impor tant.
Peace
Peace is often dened as a state of both non-conict and harmonious relations.
Many also
refer to peace as a state of non-conict among personal relations, par ticularly with oneself
and one’s relationship with others. Peace is the ultimate goal of many organizations that
monitor and regulate the relationships among states.
xv
Conict
Conict is the dynamic process of actual or perceived opposition between individuals,
groups or countries. This could be opposition over positions, interests or values. Most
theorists would distinguish between non-violent and violent conict. In this distinction,
non-violent conict can be a useful mechanism for social change and transformation,
while violent conict is harmful and asks for conict resolution.
Violence
Violence is often dened as physical or psychological force aicted upon another being.
In the context of global politics it could be seen as anything manmade that prevents
someone from reaching their full potential (e.g. structural violence). This broader denition
would encompass unequal distribution of power and discriminatory practices that exclude
entire groups of people from accessing cer tain resources.
Non-violence
Non-violence is the practice of advocating one’s rights without physically harming the
opponent. It often involves actively opposing the system that is deemed to be unjust,
through for example boycotts, demonstrations and civil disobedience. It is argued by
theorists that non-violence can often draw international attention to a conict situation
and that it could provide a fer tile basis for post-conict transformation.
xvi
Introduction
Glob
bal
The nature
e of Glob
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The
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interact.
International
Baccalaureate
Global
politics
Organization,
guide,
2015
1
INTRODUCTION
Introduction to the course
The
global
changes
The
of
politics
that
course
rapid
is
power
issues
and
of
human
an
social
dominating
course
have
taken
time:
rights;
the
course
presents
specic
interests
broad
in
framework
world;
material
world
the
that
now
course
a
can
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as
and
range
and
a
it
on
four
the
and
that
are
subtitle
areas
times.
that
now
of
“people,
are
major
relations;
conict.
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can
These
denitions
studies
for
signicant
exploration
international
studies
of
has
of
contemporary
issues
students.
case
guide
how
the
and
case
and
in
explanatory
peace
and
wide
serve
functions
covering
and
examples
politics
multidisciplinary
focuses
teachers
for
and
sovereignty
concepts
of
examination
world
With
development;
the
current
in
also
stage.
power,
The
a
unique
while
world
politics”,
our
a
interdisciplinary
change,
the
is
place
and
ground
exploring
evolved
and
be
adapted
concepts
ideas
the
how
to
present
about
our
investigations
politics
changed
in
over
the
time.
Individual and group perspectives
Throughout
concepts
and
of
the
and
group
course
it
perspectives.
multiple
points
and
encountered
we
examples
are
of
part
of
at
inuence
and
to
in
key
political
various
develop
an
individual
appreciation
understanding
the
and
how
group
the
through
your
perspectives
individual
issue
deepen
experiences
important
additional
the
a
life
approach
you
view,
environments
on
help
issues
personalities,
depending
can
to
issues
of
our
religion;
useful
political
many
of
Three
also
This
complexity
unique
is
contemporary
study
the
we
are
of
social
act
in
gender,
of
the
global
and
politics:
cultural
global
politics.
ethnicity
perspectives
will
be
and
relevant
stake.
What is a concept?
Gender
Always used as a noun, a concept is an
Gender
is
an
important
form
of
identity,
and
can
be
socially
constructed
abstract idea that includes categories of
as
well
as
biologically
determined.
Gender
values
can
also
change
experiences or phenomena that are of the
dramatically
over
time.
In
the
last
century,
feminist
movements
same set of thoughts, impressions and
successfully
drew
attention
to
women’s
inequality
in
education,
beliefs. For example, a concept album
employment,
the
home
and
in
politics,
and
these
issues
remain
could be an album made with similar
pertinent
in
all
human
societies.
Today,
gender
relations
in
global
relations
between
songs that express similar thoughts or
politics
refers
to
contested
and
changing
power
men
styles of music. A concept car is dened
and
women
in
which
men
often
dominate.
Many
key
aspects
of
global
by the design of the car, often of an
politics
such
as
human
rights,
development
and
conict
remain
highly
experimental variety, creating a new set
gendered,
and
issues
such
as
literacy,
migration,
sexual
violence
and
of presumptions and expectations of how
disease
continue
to
impact
on
men,
women
and
children
differently.
the car will perform and be designed.
Increasingly
gender
theorists
argue
that
dominant
understandings
of
In global politics, concepts are bundles
masculinity
may
be
the
key
to
making
sense
of
how
gender
relations
of ideas that refer to phenomena or
in
global
politics
affect
us
all.
International
organizations
such
as
experiences. Each unit has key concepts
the
United
Nations
continue
to
promote
both
gender
awareness
and
that represent what is emphasized in
combat
discrimination
towards
women
through
the
policy
of
gender
that section. The experiences, thoughts
mainstreaming.
However,
it
is
important
to
remember
that
many
and phenomena they refer to are always
countries
and
communities
still
have
different
ideas
about
the
rights
and
connected to the other concepts and units
roles
of
men
and
women
in the course, and should always be seen
be
as par t of the whole of global politics.
2
a
political
act
in
itself.
and
that
learning
about
gender
can
be
seen
to
G L O B A L
P O L I T I C S
C O U R S E
C O M P A N I O N
Ethnicity
Ethnicity
group.
for
is
a
form
example,
and
history.
makes
an
their
national
identity
within
cultural
of
rights.
in
terms
ethnic
societal
there
identity
a
an
and
Although
ethnic
descendants
and
of
Individuals
may
be
different,
ethnic
Categories
based
and
racial
membership
share
similarities
particular
identities
of
group
no
group
on
such
formal
many
as
to
may
ethnic
characteristics,
language,
describe
wish
ethnicity
an
agreement
people
and
of
common
beliefs
about
what
themselves
preserve
overlap
this
with
as
status
both
identication.
Religion
Religion
usually
refers
has
religions
world
in
so
own
narratives,
being
of
a
assert
answers
lives.
certain
of
the
from
of
and
are
rituals
The
identities
set
to
the
belief
a
questions
a
way
other
and,
for
to
divine
and
life,
people
to
social
of
both
serves
communities
in
an
the
combined
sources
of
religion
and
a
these
code;
aspect
and
fact
the
meaning
share
moral
personal
the
of
generate
strengthen
global
hand,
origins
important
with
to
or
a
identity
one
death,
norms
is
On
nd
members
community
devotees
Religious
dimension.
about
hand,
often,
religious
systems.
social
powerfulness
religion
authority
religious
and
On
of
religions.
dimensions
diverse
personal
forth,
member
most
a
a
provide
and
their
to
both
social
that
the
religions
inuence
of
politics.
Globalization
“Global”,
or
specialized
a
natural
that
“globalization”,
and
more
process
correspond
those
powerful
global
system
public
that
to
has
the
not
centres
new,
exploratory
missions
of
of
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integrated
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and
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The Silk Road was an ancient trade network that stretched from China to the Mediterranean. Trade along this route greatly enhanced the
development of Europe, the Indian subcontinent, Persia and China.
3
Sea
INTRODUCTION
examples
other
The
of
how
cultures
city
states
examples
of
people
and
of
have
long
traveled
great
distances
to
interact
with
communities.
the
peoples
Inca
Empire
spread
over
or
the
Kingdoms
thousands
of
of
miles,
away
places
to
social
purposes.
Egypt
are
traveling
trade
and
other
to
far-
interact
for
Globalization and social change
What
has
distance
take
changed
at
which
is
the
these
place
and
at
functions.
The
world
more
of
in
the
human
no
longer
in
military
to
the
has
since
existed
which
50
history
population
tenfold
past
before
at
vaporize
earth.
well
are
also
now
one
as
smaller
instantly
point
of
has
global
than
which
age,
one
bomb
changes,
changes.
globe
can
human
We
communicate
the
all
advanced
every
big
in
environment
that
which
instantly
As
it:
pre-industrial
technology
point
than
more
our
now
changed
years
resembles
and
politics
has
grown
1700,
the
speed
transactions
to
on
there
can
from
the
other,
The ruins of Machu Picchu, sacred
wars
and
disasters
are
seen
by
populations
in
real
time
rather
earth
who
have
than
days
city of the Inca Empire
or
weeks
later
and
contact
with
Groups
ranging
to
adapt
to
occurring
all
other
the
indigenous
from
from
they
have
with
capital
course
have
outside
have
At
humans
communities
worldwide
their
the
and
often
countries
same
undermined
time,
the
to
governments
production,
boundaries.
but
on
not
been
in
cultures.
reacted
earth,
reacted.
government
in
no
and
small
changes
on
are
groups
peoples
populations
This
there
as
rebelled
Climate
have
change
authority
in
of
in
has
the
and
changes
affected
way
investment
poorer
had
areas
against
differed
changes
have
local
by
that
those
governments
and
policy.
recognizes
that
politics
is
now
a
complex
social
process
TOK
and
that
it
is
almost
Global politics falls within the
organization.
area of knowledge known
affects
as the human sciences.
in
geographic
How are the methods used
in
the
to gain knowledge in global
reorganizing
all
From
facets
daily
of
always
the
integrated
local,
society
organization.
social
life
of
to
and
all
communities,
regional,
plays
Global
of
on
the
a
various
to
part
politics
world’s
regions
and
levels
national
in
the
has
and
cycles
become
citizens
as
of
it
geographic
global,
and
a
is
politics
changes
major
player
constantly
nations.
politics similar or dierent to
This
course
will
observe
and
analyse
these
changes
through
the
actions
the methods used in other
of
people,
power
and
politics.
Together,
these
add
up
to
an
integrated
disciplines in the social
whole
that
is
not
a
monolith
but
a
starting
point
for
the
discussion
sciences, such as economics
and
analysis
of
the
way
the
world
has
changed
and
where
it
is
moving
or psychology? How are they
towards.
The
students
to
course
has
been
designed
their
own
interests
with
options
for
teachers
and
similar or dierent to the
explore
as
they
develop
and
change;
methods used in the natural
as
you
explore
the
course,
we
hope
that
it
will
help
sciences?
many
4
complex
facets
of
the
world
as
it
is
today.
bring
together
the
G L O B A L
P O L I T I C S
C O U R S E
C O M P A N I O N
Introduction to the Course Companion
This
book
is
Course
in
politics
and
designed
global
its
now
encounter
the
Companion,
always
integrating
routes
interaction,
been
to
the
Victorian
(Edo).
India
used
(long
Europe
media
on
by
for
that
century,
it
since
with
travel
of
goods
Change
mobile
imagine
having
to
a
concepts
The
with
result
the
IB
meanings
and
primary
contemporary.
always
Diploma
of
those
there
content
near
has
global
issues
However,
the
the
East
was
to
to
the
and
their
that
of
humans
and
been
far,
a
and
constant
all
radio,
West
and
the
printing
growth
It
levels.
that
fostered
that
then
press
not
the
to
Can
or
as
on
you
Silk
in
Tokyo
Road,
Africa
and
expansion
growth
have
until
living
thrived
the
the
“globalization”
television
theatre
accompanied
was
humans
Athens
East),
and
cultural
and
onward,
the
and
Rome
Kabuki
Americas,
encounter
all
London
to
social
Ancient
century
the
cultures.
on
in
Japanese
exporting
changed
occur
encouraged
theatre
fourteenth
trade,
phone,
to
all
by
a
of
of
the
been
spurred
growing
the
twentieth
we
know
it
today,
earth.
now
imagine
headphones?
Can
life
L TA
a
key
encouraged
and
India
we
and
continues
without
who
among
that
touched
you
basis.
As
of
printing
and
on
interacting
have
the
of
supplement
cultures
West
Cape
is
cultures.
from
the
however,
has
course,
Marlowe,
started
focusing
beginnings
trade
the
specialization
and
the
before
human
the
and
and
introduce
day-to-day
merchants
and
from
a
human
Particularly
mostly
will
commerce
from
Shakespeare
It
travellers,
of
and
on
like
peoples
transformation
Trade
accompany
components,
we
have
to
politics.
you
Thinking and
communication skills
call?
the
What
1970s,
if
to
did
for
nd
not
a
telephone
work
example,
(as
most
when
on
a
did
street
not
in
corner
New
people
had
physical
whether
our
home
to
make
York
a
phone
City,
USA,
in
over
their
use)?
ghts
With
the
since
The
lives
oor
of
pieces
way
the
a
of
we
tribes
that
of
of
from
our
by
or
how
in
its
to
the
groups
–
or
a
–
shack
look
communities
change
simple
found
the
Tokyo
inhabitants
settled
continue
Kenya,
gathering
now
tower
gathered
most
different
live
residential
tin
that
Maasai
and
that
in
world’s
their
of
the
of
lived
the
protected
very
have
parts
peoples
on
lived
few
the
in
only
by
you
has
discuss
how
changed
were
born.
such
as
the
from
previously.
the
remaining
world,
the
partner,
seventy-eighth
different
settlements,
lifestyles
remote
is
a
world
are
the
Even
nomadic
hunting
very
past.
Maasai warriors look out over the Laikipia Plateau, Kenya
5
INTRODUCTION
The
hit
Massai
by
Guinea
that
in
journey
high-speed
use
may
the
tools
come
The
course
and
that
it
a
all
changes
has
The
as
a
it
is
current
is
complex
to
problems
Many
of
of
around
us
the
in
The
in
are
necessities
avoid
learn
effort
to
the
are
own
us
to
to
in
takes
life
often
New
clothing
some
will
see
places
has
and
in
and
all
will
required
At
rapid
and
other
food),
what
and
and
as
global
is
we
to
observe.
Most
extreme
to
look
for
to
the
world.
conduct
time,
a
and
recognize
solutions
travel,
nations.
made
contemporary
same
politics
world’s
celebrated.
nd
and
Global
the
regions
areas
to
of
politics
cycles
assumptions
be
to
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global,
Globalization
behind
to
organization
geographic
the
often
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us
of
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place.
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more
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economy.
water
a
beyond
to
are
you
levels
national
peoples
and
migrate
as
complex
social
terms
world
as
to
meanings
be
wear
in
communities,
global
to
of
plays
appreciate
an
and
multiple
around
politics
cattle
highland
diversity
change
look
dangerous
business
peoples
changes
make
a
as
whole
living,
subsistence,
to
or
to
conicts.
all
of
understand
describe,
contemporary
as
world’s
experiencing
(such
and
daily
world
us
human
facing
to
the
global
forced
dangerous
challenge
an
in
the
possible
not
today’s
globe
communities
nd
are
on
regional,
space
their
the
the
studying
participate
of
centres
result
reorganizing
on
taught
being
to
in
requiring
has
differences
importantly,
and
peoples
instead
a
of
others.
integrated
organization
player
transforming
examine
is
their
Globalization,
more
in
and
peoples
urban
life
politics
constantly
subject,
in
creates
daily
local,
integration
Globalization
that
the
SUVs
anywhere.
geographic
major
understanding
politics
of
in
with
remotest
made
always
geographic
become
citizens
From
the
both
that
almost
facets
in
are
pages,
assumes
is
roads
almost
similarity
organization.
affects
that
from
following
encourages
along
vehicles;
us
in
the
understand
issues
such
as
our
world
beliefs
and
and
is
interpret
poverty,
setting
practices
aside
of
meaning
racism,
and
our
others.
as
we
own
We
beliefs
must
approach
environmental
disasters.
Recent
the
contributions
scope
changed
of
the
production
countries
our
way
of
to
we
goods
the
to
studies
for
former
in
industrialization
the
the
the
of
in
women
phenomenon
West
and
role
to
different
visions
cultures
of
that
of
study
global
goods;
consumption
has
states.
colonial
At
shifted
the
social
has
unnoticed
same
countries
exposed
during
from
in
–
a
the
the
lot
the
has
of
as
the
look
good
a
basic
face
of
of
early
example
States
populations
in
the
Eurocentric
United
rule.
became
a
the
bringing
colonial
peoples
broadened
time
mimics
organization,
colonialized
have
Globalization
example,
industrialization
globalization
of
for
states
capital-intensive
early
politics
communities.
daily
colonial
in
went
of
human
former
forms
formerly
of
produce
re-industrialization
is
the
of
–
the
experiences
The
voices
subject
for
and
students
of
TOK
globalization,
Are there times when we are
of
the
providing
dominant
corrections
to
assumptions
about
peoples
outside
West.
morally obliged to act on what
As
another
example,
the
reaction
of
indigenous
peoples
that
are
are
now
now
we know?
threatened
6
by
the
power
and
authority
of
outside
forces
G L O B A L
frequently
Mexico
taking
to
the
endangered
ghting
to
by
of
researcher
has
a
benets
of
ethics,
all
or
For
research
proposals
research
not
is
Nash
put
an
that
how
and
All
of
make
other
harmed
or
put
in
go
us
the
in
are
groups
are
hundreds
that
the
ethics
carry
is
to
out
“do
danger
no
subject,
by
of
work
harm”.
(IRB),
the
now
the
more
that
and
have
who
a
code
Likewise,
research
which
whether
research
C O M P A N I O N
even
means
conducting
Board
the
it
our
or
study
organizations
institutions
Review
role
of
C O U R S E
Southern
which
organizations
academic
that
these
back
tells
we
which
sure
Guinea
and
academic
harms.
Zapitistas
New
may
(1994)
into
the
and
globalization,
Institutional
to
From
complex
tenant
universities
of
life
more
be
primary
to
is
of
professional
required
human,
June
must
have
stage.
Indonesia
ways
potentially
the
colleges,
in
become
thought
it
world
economics
years.
concern.
much
the
maintain
thousands
of
the
cultures
P O L I T I C S
animal
or
are
reviews
after
or
An EZLN banner draped across a
the
gate in Mexico City; the tex t reads
concluded.
“Everything for everyone!” The
Ejército Zapatista de Liberación
The
sections
in
this
Companion
follow
the
primary
units
of
the
course
and
Nacional (Zapatista Army of
their
key
concepts
and
themes.
They
may
or
may
not
be
followed
in
order
National Liberation, commonly
according
to
the
teacher’s
arrangement
of
topics.
Learning
ways
to
place
known as the Zapatistas)
yourself
within
the
context
of
global
politics
is
one
of
the
major
objectives
are a revolutionary militant
of
this
book.
group based in Chiapas, the
southernmost state of Mexico.
1
Political issues: When we think of politics
Politics,
the
as
most
formation
Traditional
without
do
of
not
as
stable
internal
the
given
level
the
level.
of
The
World
their
developed)
globalization
“political
Given
of
the
place
come
to
politics
the
the
or
of
politics
play
and
state
rest
events
no
(band)
groups
the
role
exclusionof
is
elaborated,
and
any
are
in
entity.
to
produce,
hegemony,
society.
actions
a
“Political
that
are
in
on
is
that
popular
was
of
accepted
knowledge
through
over
the
state.
local
by
when
powerful
What
or
is
missed
community
academic
through
1950s,
less
the
regional,
the
Second
states
(and
consolidated
particularly
less
formations.
industry
have
during
have
denitions.
there
gathering
of
taken
maintenance.
politics
inuence
and
particularly
and
development,
taken
transformative
taken
goal
actions
governing
inclusion
Gramsci
international,
of
that
and
the
entities
works
global,
as
its
by
be
the
other
formation,
The
would
and
however,
issues”
state
to
or
example,
state
ruling
denition
their
social
the
refers
state
hunting
Antonio
denition
the
for
so
the
formations.
particularly
and
recently,
of
taught,
of
With
denition,
assumed
and
power
More
on
and
War
power
power
this
“state”
disciplines
politics.
between
state
that
entity,
philosopher
this
actions
been
assume,
competing
agreement
arena
The
are
and
the
political
issues”,
have
governing
maintaining
the
us
maintenance
denitions
that
have
peoples
of
and
the
meaning
Regional
on
a
broader
changes
past
on
50
in
with
years,
numerous
both
and
global
and
not
conicts,
multinational
the
politics
onset
of
“politics”
more
social
politics
levels
the
a
growing
and
inclusive
meaning.
organization
political
included
that
issues
in
organizations,
has
have
traditional
an
1
This
discussion
Organization,
is
from
Global
guide,
International
Baccalaureate
2015
7
INTRODUCTION
increase
climate
stage.
in
poverty
change,
Politics
is
international
entities
their
now
often
minds
the
of
CEOs
of
is
many,
everyday
for
labour
with
no
rights
have
lives
and
power
longer
are
deeply
daily
in
lives.
all
as
and
and
effects
to
the
communities
and
inuence
a
the
come
resources,
simply
a
organization
ill-being,
Political
and
issues
permeate
all
Dening
an
situation
they
making
can
of
state
of
world
and
geographic
from
outside
phenomenon
but
a
an
of
select
an
oral
presentation.
on
all
po li ti ca l
is
to wa r ds
of
social
coffee;
culture,
central
is
think
they
are
theme
and
that
the
motivate
they
unifying
about
issues
occupy
entrepreneurs;
they
and
interaction
Political
distributed
matters
levels
of
of
global
climate
eng a g i ng
i ssu e
ofte n
the ir
i mp or tant
in
a nd
appr o p r i a te
to
local
cup
power
on
global
policy-makers;
and
people
of
and
art,
part
of
the
operates
engage
affect
a
in
their
in
their
well-
or
politics.
change,
Taking
relating
issues
politics.
co nce p ts
and
a
the
theme
s tud y i ng
progres s
determine
for
how
question
examination.
and
over
world
found
intere s ti ng
key
and
history
how
political
aspects
the
in
wider
be
the
are
any
survival.
particularly
between
and
reveal
and
the
including
example
is
issues
is
critical
corporations
media
Importantly
political
communities
for
politicians
grounded
course,
social
of
issue
calls
global
they
This
our
political
and
agendas
discussed
our
a
invites
are
in
of
compete
Politics
they
the
part
indigenous
among
confronted
politics,
permits,
populate
of
violence,
reality.
global
that
and
examples
bodies
boundaries.
global
For
are
as
in
an
the
and
or d e r
fo r
re e cti ve
of
fo cu s
the
you
in
fo r
of
to
the
st e p
for
g lo ba l
see
co re
the
hi gh e r
r ea l -wor ld
key
unde rs t a n din g
e xa mp le s
as pe ct
w i de r
e a rl y
the
s t u de n t s
p oli t i c s.
con n e c t io n s
u n i t s,
to
e ng a g em e nt
l eve l
c a se
a ct ivi t y
st u d ie s
f or
Geographic levels and levels of analysis
In
this
course,
world.
the
For
political
analysis
is
analysed.
politics
the
In
(1974)
also
these
global
The
into
the
were
analysis
”what”
now
in
the
the
or
all
most
in
the
and
the
and
of
global
with
discussed
Wallerstein
geographic
“semi-peripheries”,
and,
found
of
being
local,
as
of
unit
is
study
Immanuel
economy,
whole
the
that
levels
separated
commonly
and
the
regional,
of
inhabited
”whom”
“peripheries”
world
the
study,
theorist
system
of
geographic
found
national,
systems
world
the
under
intersecting
“cores”,
roles
area
levels
global
a
of
from
until
in
the
recently,
analysis
of
politics.
core
economi e s
countries,
and
or
common
the
their
designations
unit
run
smallest
entity,
that
world
on
a
international,
argued
the
the
to
levels
community
addition,
depending
8
global,
below.
to
most
of
refers
politics,
major
The
are
of
level
world
the
concept
spaces
a
global
the
the
areas
w e re
per i p he r ie s
mos t
the
mos t
we r e
r e a di ly
the
c a pi t a l- in t e n si ve
l ea s t
e xp loi te d
by
a nd
p ower fu l
c a pi t a l- in t e n si ve
the
c or e
c ou n t r ie s
e c on om ie s
by
G L O B A L
ARCTIC
P O L I T I C S
C O U R S E
C O M P A N I O N
OCEAN
PACIFIC
OCEAN
ATLANTIC
OCEAN
PACIFIC
OCEAN
The
world
economy
INDIAN
OCEAN
Core
Semi-periphery
Periphery
0
2000
0
the
2000
extraction
of
l a b o ur,
peripheral
countr i e s
with
units
these
relationships
the
that
peripheries
core.
Many
system
in
of
ca pi ta l
a nd
r e p re s ente d
a na lys i s
wa s
und e r pl a ye d
an d
also
Miles
Kilometers
c o m m od it i es ,
th e
that
the
d e ve l opi n g
t h ey
r ol e
s e m i- pe r ip he ri e s
q ue s ti o ne d
Wallerste i n’s
the
the
th e
e m er g e nc e
a r gu i n g
th at
a
t he
se mi -
Th e
p ro bl e m
un i di re c t i on a l
p eo pl e
sh a pi ng
sudde n
a na lys i s,
as s u m e d
of
in
and
n at i on s .
in
pr a c t ic e s
of
the
wor ld
of
the
w or ld
s ys t e m
TOK
e xi st e d
How can we judge whether one
long
before
the
bi r th
of
g l oba l
cap ital is m
in
the
16 00s ,
th e
s t a rt i n g
model is better than another?
point
The
of
his
terms
observ a ti o n.
dened
below
designations
are
in
today.
the
may
world
dominate
functioning
recently
and
from
and
Below
are
Eastern
as
of
colonial
the
terms
system.
global
institutions,
illustrate
or
operations.
They
units.
There
institutional
question
city
are,
in
areas
forces.
had
was
a
are
strong
that
affect
affect
the
example,
Europe,
loss
for
of
while
on
the
other
regions
and
until
countries
the
Eastern
political
inuenced
these
each
strategies
the
inuence
The
cause
states
the
on
easily
distinguish
however,
and
or
the
used
seen
United
which
governmental
considered
a
commonly
most
as
level
nature
also
for
that
capital-intensive
Eastern
Union.
major
colonial
more
So,
dominated
Soviet
recognize
economy,
Europe
change
in
both
day-to-day
powers.
such
the
legislatures
the
local
and
interrelations
and
most
Levels
inclusive
stronger
Europe
the
(former)
global
clearly
of
domination
just
operations
Union
culture
Soviet
regions,
of
ones,
more
represent
dominating
Soviet
cultures
politics
the
are
to
While
local
of
the
meant
Nations
they
are
or
on
and
of
analysis
the
World
portray
areas
conducted,
levels.
one
or
local
as
national
levels
are
that
not
are
of
of
discrete
not
Depending
more
the
forms;
Bank,
just
but
questions
varying
of
institutional
functional,
geographic
issues
operate
study
units
departments
among
many
as
through
on
these
the
terms
9
INTRODUCTION
will
the
be
employed
sphere
among
of
many
as
global
that
descriptive
politics.
could
be
mechanisms
The
used
illustrations
for
these
and
key
concepts
provided
are
within
only
examples
terms.
Global
In the context of global politics, the term global describes events and trends that
have far-reaching and long-term impact across the globe, cutting geographic
areas. Examples include economic globalization, climate change, appeals to
human rights, water depletion, global governance (the United Nations), and the
organization of corporations.
The United Nations Climate Change Conference, 2016
National
National refers to the geographic boundaries of a par ticular state. Topics that
could be studied under this level include (but are not limited to) economic
crisis or economic change, political and legal reforms, changes in governance,
questions of cultural practice (education, languages) and geographic borders.
International
For our purposes, the term international represents events and trends that
have a narrower impact than global events and trends. Nonetheless, they have
implications for several geographic areas, for example, a par ticular region (see
below), but not only limited to that region. Examples include various international
organizations, Non-governmental organizations (NGOs), multi-national
corporations (MNCs), international law, and international trade, diasporas and
migratory movements.
10
G L O B A L
P O L I T I C S
C O U R S E
C O M P A N I O N
Regional
Regional for our discussion refers to
units of analysis that cover specic
geographic areas, such as the Middle
East, Central Asia, Western and
Eastern Europe, sub-Saharan Africa,
South Asia, Asia-Pacic, Latin America,
among others. Topics that could be
studied under this level could
include (but are not limited to) the
European Union, Nor th American Free
Trade Agreement, the Arab League, the
The logo of the African Union
African Union, and movements that
cross geographic boundaries (such as
indigenous claims to land, or the re-
emergence of languages) and ecological
dimensions.
Local
Local in the context of global politics is the geographic area where social
organization is created and where culture is transmitted from one generation
to the next. It is always in relation to larger geographic spheres, and it is the
place where cultural practices are defended against outside intrusion. This level
can represent a geographic space as small as a gated community or as large
as a city or region. “Local” is dened by its inhabitants and the practices of its
residents. The incorporation of globalization and its consequences on time,
access to resources and control over labour and social reproduction have altered
the way that social scientists think about the local. In the attempt to integrate
shifts in political inuence resulting from global processes, globalization studies
have tended to marginalize the local and its role in determining the course of
globalization and global politics.
Aid is handed out following a typhoon in the Philippines
11
INTRODUCTION
Place
In the context of global politics and its analysis, place is the geographic location
where action occurs. It can be the position of bounded communities, states and
countries where peoples live and reproduce over generations or it may be the
locale of conict grounded in ethnic rivalry or economic competition. It is a site
of aliation and by denition, either positive or negative, of common interests.
Its par ticular usefulness as a concept for the study of global politics is in the
discussion of boundaries, settled populations, migration and immigration. Place
is often the unit of analysis for peoples ghting for their autonomy against the
demands and power of external forces, and the politics of place is integral to
the discussion of space and the destruction of political, economic and cultural
boundaries.
Space
Space as a unit of analysis in global politics has increasingly become a term of
debate in the analysis of the autonomy of peoples, regions and nations around
the globe. As with “local” and “place”, space is a social construct. Many now
claim that “place” is an outdated term as the concept of space argues against
geography as a unit of analysis in the study of political power and capital
accumulation. The increasing movement of peoples around the globe has also
questioned the impor tance of place as a key concept in the analysis of global
politics, but it is often forgotten that while global strategies are frequently aimed
at controlling geographic spaces, they may also reinforce the resistance of local
struggles based on the politics of place. What is impor tant to consider, however, is
that both place and space are social constructs and may be integrated according
to the actions and social organization of populations. While unions and multi-
national corporations, as examples, exist over space, their membership and
management is deeply grounded in the politics of place.
The concept of community
The
idea
of
sciences.
community
Until
relatively
stable
interests,
mutual
interaction
the
on
but
In
these
over
have
Can
led
we
further,
social
talk
of
across
is
intertwined
time.
the
most
not
only
for
25
commonly
or
from
the
years,
and
those
one
analysis
standard
outside
the
the
that
advent
spread
landscapes,
it.
debates
the
of
the
diverse
of
view
of
human
and
of
of
and
was
that
dimensions
the
of
life
next.
and
globalization
denitions.
territory
or,
communication
maintaining
boundaries
community
globalization
featured
identity
satellite
beyond
social
similar
that
social
to
assumed
of
the
reproducing
processes
methods
interests
denition
about
held
in
remained
with
ecological
constraints
introduction
similar
of
aspects
of
however,
rethink
With
people
generation
to
place?
of
had
transmission
intention
spatial
ones,
culture
basis
past
scientists
with
within
The
and
the
concepts
community
groups
traits
and
debated
of
based
basis
emotional
the
most
community
and
groups
physical
peoples
it
without
technologies,
interest
and
During
the
cultural
include
transmitted
terms,
solidarity.
of
denition
geographically
support,
must
that
one
the
face-to-face
institutional
(schools)
is
1980s,
as
a
community
communities
12
the
the
has
role
and
become
and
place
of
G L O B A L
The
debates
migration
groups
keep
around
and
and
the
people
face-to-face
French
to
in
on
sense
do
and,
this
as
such,
recent
among
their
the
one
stability
and
So
as
from
of
of
are
then,
the
over
time
and
ability
place
place;
reproduction.
this
the
and
time
These
driven
to
of
putting
space,
often
the
cries
By
and
according
as
the
outside.
most
than
have
rallying
territory
can
community.
association,
of
that
rather
long-term
the
of
taste”,
them,
the
social
cultures”
often.
Internet
to
of
role
C O M P A N I O N
interest
interactions
viewed
sense
the
afliation
denition
physical
the
the
by
”communities
intrusion
”taste
years,
is
the
groups
many
dened
social
people
over
founded
time,
under
many
encourage
that
raised
are
they
of
and/or
Thepossibilities
have
the
increasingly
the
can
global
by
the
reasoning,
on
communities
different
by
the
not
the
or
remains
The
same
as
of
agency
politics
and
the
of
is
as
term
their
forces
long
based
existed
globalization
the
in
people
altered
as
existence
of
around
the
for
agreement
short-term
have
boundaries
for
the
geographically
people
has
of
useful
that
maintain
eliminating
and
as
community
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creation
interaction
to
of
usefulness
conditions.
term
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voice
of
while
vehicle
for
reproduction
dynamics
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concept
studied.
of
the
those
of
the
others
and
have
of
plays
an
power,
as
as
a
their
social
term
community
who
Internet
organization
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of
Those
defending
culture
elimination
meaning,
of
use
from
destruction
and
is
denition
the
globe.
our
of
studies
the
world
narratives
that
provide.
use
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the
movements
vessels
topic
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the
of
the
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circumstances
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for
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questions
of
the
specic
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depend
the
on
difcult
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be
that
of
circumstances.
Internet
force
of
arises
under
scientists
specic
communities
over
opening-up
question
of
under
and
communities
as
been
in
as
referred
become
than
Space
change
broadening
describing
it
rather
or
has
include
reproducing
C O U R S E
communities.
With
in
ghting
taste”
these
around
has
maintenance,
of
such
maintain
traditionally
contested.
of
and
and
connected
Jacobs
debate
afliation
”communities
market
Whether
community
movements
community
technologies
Jane
the
have
of
become
the
of
of
maintaining
interests
themselves
part
maintenance
emphasis
in
of
interaction.
Communities
resistance
concept
similar
anthropologist
become
time
spread
with
reproduce
has
the
diasporas
P O L I T I C S
it
are
as
vehicle
land
for
too
loaded
insisted
that
and
defence
the
extremely
globalization
the
of
Some
with
of
analysis
the
of
role
in
will
creation
forces
have
past
culture
global
in
outside
position
important
and
unit
communication
against
organization.
is
a
interested
of
will
and
advocated
denition
and
”community”
and
the
politics,
social
discussion
boundaries,
of
space
place.
People, power and politics
An introduction to the study of globalization and politics
This
Companion
with
the
pages.
of
a
Each
set
topic
key
of
has
been
concepts
section
and
brings
circumstances,
under
discussion,
organized
themes
with
and
either
it
a
how
so
that
that
will
each
be
of
contemporary
others
through
the
sections
discussed
have
excerpts
in
example
explored
from
the
or
the
begins
following
description
particular
monographs
that
13
INTRODUCTION
emphasized
to
the
that
all
units
providing
peoples
and
the
topic’s
an
further
examples
the
back
with
the
as
have
been
of
on
rst
discussions
pages
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gives
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us
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used
in
for
you
focuses
current
into
section
or
on
change,
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be
relate
nd
people,
both
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of
social
sections
reading,
can
that
will
experience
discussion,
research
the
debates
show,
which
the
insight
material
and
ix–xiv
section
emphasizes
providing
suggestions
that
the
that
globe
While
tables
to
integration
around
references
or
As
relate
structural.
conclude
topic
focus.
then
including
investigated
for
work.
Examples of the study of globalization
Our
discussion
worldwide
traders,
our
condition
Our
of
globalization
travellers,
discussion
basis
of
interaction
as
and
our
and
animals;
and
the
this
thus
is
not
of
it
contemporary
course
of
has
peoples
members
social
the
knowledge
of
far
a
emphasized
new
nomadic
is
the
that
of
that
this
Humans
communities
type
changes
process.
globalization
have
as
reveals
under
occurred
that
is
the
Companion.
presence
of
global
relations
in
the
forms
of
trade
Class discussion
routes
What would constitute good
1400
evidence in global politics?
of
and
AD;
denitions
economic
have
and
which
to
as
Lee
market
of
notes
worked.
and
form
culture,
of
and
about
are
eld
such
they
we
providing
a
of
as
1200
the
also
who
made
encountered
of
study
daily
we
Eleanor
made
to
description
We
Jesuits,
descriptions
whole
assumptions
in
as
communities.
communities
a
early
especially
ethnohistory
society,
as
globalization
provided
enabling
of
back
between
the
also
many
capitalist
stretches
missionaries,
They
Scholars
countered
and
this
among
traveling
careful
ethnohistory.
Richard
the
from
they
organization
transactions
relations
records
detailed
in
exchange
life
now
refer
Leacock
about
life
counter-balance
and
and
and
before
to
accepted
lore.
The
consistent
scholarly
twentieth
century,
trade
and
the
scale.
Karl
study
international
Polanyi’s
The
Europe
is
David
the
division
from
was
organized
the
14
then
local
how
the
Karl
Marx,
major
an
for
be
so
in
for
“production
or
that
objects
saw
reorganization
evolution
of
is
for
and
others
this
for
the
for
as
(1991).
and
and
most
transition
people
communities’
production
produced
this
not
would
as
that
found
distinction
production
life
as
(1974)
assign
The
goods
takes
well
System
which
be
change
trade.
is
that
in
community
economic
Wolf ’s
as
evolution
their
could
organized
of
when
radical
discussion,
living.
view,
Polanyi
that
a
Eric
World
this
late
Postmodernity
exchange”,
with
and
meaning
own
on
communities
Polanyi’s
for
traded
of
in
the
War,
(1981),
economic
how
use”,
community.
who
works
required
their
community
(1944)
History
Modern
of
in
World
changed
Condition
tasks
change,
goods
The
history
labour,
labour
to
would
labour
without
The
began
Second
seminal
the
of
use,
in
as
“production
produced
of
Wallerstein’s
Harvey’s
signicant
the
Transformation
People
traces
complete
Şavaklar nomadic tribe in Keş iş Mountain, Er zincan, Turkey
the
recognized
Polanyi
globalization
after
division
Great
and
Immanual
are
of
particularly
in
from
necessitate
well
as
a
signify
G L O B A L
P O L I T I C S
C O U R S E
C O M P A N I O N
The colonial period (circa 180 0 to
1950+)
While
the
course
circumstances,
historical
is
to
contemporary
will
to
these
politics
the
were
Most
colonizers
of
the
colonized
Africa
to
the
colonizers
The
the
were
the
of
today.
is
to
It
these
which
period
the
in
way
that
the
globe.
European,
while
America
South
world
is
based
However,
over
Latin
and
and
some
course
colonial
all
from
Caribbean
travelled
events
changed
evolving
ranged
events
have
politics.
signicantly
civilizations
the
to
background
emerged.
history
the
that
global
provide
current
helps
remember
notes
world
about
often
background
important
on
it
and
Pacic.
looking
for
The
free
The colonized and their French colonizers
labour
and
outright,
resources;
genocide.
paternalistic
rule,
not.
the
Most
shipped
labour
some
of
back
in
the
to
What’s
although
more
producing
Colonization
movement
it
was
and
ruling
it
was
brutal
and
experienced
clear
goods
power,
powerful
who
left
while
economies
was
the
a
in
close
more
power
colonized
accounted
such
the
if
not
nuanced
and
and
was
who
country
slavery
as
to,
United
for
and
were
much
States
free
and
countries.
to
remember
societies
the
places
civilizations
resources
important
functioning
many
Other
the
European
in
with
goods
put
from
an
that
here
their
kept
own
them
immediate
simple
to
stop
more
is
that
the
colonized
cultures,
rules
alive
trading
to
and
self-rule
complex
and
and
were
ways
with
began
of
others.
the
societies.
References and fur ther reading
Goody,
Jack
Inclusion
Harvey,
Kirsch,
2006,
and
David.
Max
“Globalization
Exclusion
1991.
2006.
in
the
The
and
Global
Condition
Inclusion
and
the
Arena,”
of
Domestic
pp.
Group,”
31-41,
in
London:
M.
Kirsch,
Routledge.
Postmodernity.
Exclusion
in
the
Global
Arena,
New
York:
Routledge
Leacock,
Eleanor
Cambridge:
Leacock,
and
Lee,
Cambridge
Eleanor.
Richard.
University
1982.
Myths
of
1982.
Politics
and
History
in
Band
Societies,
Press.
Male
Dominance,
New
York:
Monthly
Review
Press
Nash,
New
June
York:
Polanyi,
1984
SUNY
Karl.
Wallerstein,
Wolf,
Eric.
Women,
1944.
The
Immanual.
1981.
Men
and
the
International
Division
of
Labor,
Albany
Press
Europe
Great
1974.
and
Transformation.
The
the
Modern
People
World
without
System.
History.
15
P O W E R ,
S O V E R E I G N T Y
A N D
I N T E R N AT I O N A L
1
R E L AT I O N S
Key concepts
➔
Power
➔
Sovereignty
➔
Legitimacy
➔
Interdependence
Learning outcomes
➔
Nature of power
➔
Operation of state power in global politics
➔
Function and impact of international organizations and non-state actors in
global politics
➔
16
Nature and extent of interactions in global politics
Unit
i
1
foc
o
uses
es
s
on
the
th
sove
v
re
eig
ignty
y,
and
d
wo
orl
r d
Power
ow
w
stag
ge.
leve
v
ve
ls
s,
is
re
of
articular
bas
sed
and
on
the
onal
al
state
a
thei
th
heir
The
e
our
r
worl
rld
rl
in
key
the
th
foundati
fo
ti
t
ion
n
su
ubsta
the
of
f
se
ense
the
k
ke
ey
it
used
o
is
s
live
o
of
the
h
all
it
can
n
an
nd
it
an
nd
not
o
a
ization
i
in
the
daily
da
y
is
functio
unit
the
h
he
al
ll
the
th
uni
n ts
s,
ret
e
u
ur
ned
rst
is
s
now
w
local
al,
time
that
maintena
introductio
i
n),
but
it
now
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d
and
d
our
and
worl
rl
ld.
d
one
e
i
in
te
t
er
rd
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p
that
th
cannot
t
nde
de
d
ence
e
with
t
b
the
local
al,
al
t
es
es
oliti
ti
ics
cs,
and
to
toge
og
ther
e
er
whole.
wh
of
ften
the
as
a
s
power
has
of
most
and
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and
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niq
niqu
e
in
remai
ai
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i
der
req
e
u r
ui
re
ed.
d
and
d
of
been
how
w
so
oc
cia
ial
l
an
n
life
fe
e
dominant
neighbours,
s,
is
a
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d
globa
al.
l
social
from
1
un
nde
d
rpins
th
her
ref
for
re
e,
,
crit
cr
tiq
que
als
l
ls
o
Unit
int
nterconnecte
t
d
ce
at
diffe
fe
erent
leg
e
itimac
im
ma
ac
cy
separated
our
a
is,
,
as
s
there
the
of
vario
io
ous
section
c
rel
e ations”
”
loba
ba
b
al
cont
nt
ten
nt
nation
on
nal
and
d
is
or
r
and
nd
th
his
and
nd
d
b
bu
t
as
1
to
i
in
le
egi
g
around
nd
nd
y
of
f
the
at
ctives
i
it
s
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t
int
nterpret
nt
t
world
d
roles
ro
u
un
it,
and
d
revolve
e
–
o
ob
state
sha
hare
re
e
co
onn
nnecte
n
te
ed
th
he
course
co
o
e
sover
er
e
reign
levels
th
th
he
top
op
pic
cs.
to
be
be
thi
is
g
life
fe
e,
i
use
ed
th
t
is
how
ho
how
Glo
thr
hree
sho
ould
in
for
r
further
e
be
ma
m
aintain
in
n
on
n
socia
ial
ia
ana
naly
al
sis
s
at
an
nd
of
of
f
or
cont
nt
n
tes
e
ted
d
much
mu
h
l
s
so
vereig
ignty,
ig
,
f
fo
cus
s
and
d
interactions
s
aims
p
po
we r ,
wer
we
th
he
look
o
erat
er
a
e
“int
nter
nt
e
na
ati
tional
al
inc
ncreasin
will
con
on
ncept
coo
states;
t
th
e
es
e
is
s
their
their
of
of
the
interd
dep
epen
en
ndent
of
rs,
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o
s
legi
itimi
m sed
of
f
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act
as
s
p
po
wer,
between
which
wh
oth
her
e
of
con
ncep
nc
pts
aniza
za
ation,
and
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levels
le
l
ser
e
ve
for
o
t
th
a
at
to
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n,
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on
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cepts
e
s
course
e
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manifested,
,
achie
ievi
ie
v
b
ba
s s
si
tiat
te s
te
of
f
rna
n
tion
onal
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al
un
u
ders
de
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rs
and
din
lobal
lo
l
interd
rdep
rd
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pen
ndenc
ce
p
pr
o
ov
id
i
de
is
s
non
on-state
t
succ
c
cc
ess
es
s
four
int
wit
thin
we
and
n
nd
and
n
nd
dyna
dy
na
amics
how
our
inte
t
g
gr
atio
io n
io
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discuss
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ed
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ect
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t
ra
community,
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o
ou
r
tion
co
ntry
y
Key questions
1
How is power expressed in global politics?
2
On what geographic levels does global politics operate?
17
1.1
Power
The nature of power
Power
is
a
matter
viewed
as
among
people.
economy
the
to
is
subject
be
Eric
it
matter
Wolf,
In
of
its
his
global
studying
studied
direct
within
is
force
also
but
situational.
as
an
aspect
another’s
actions
a
that
context
inquiry.
Power
in
to
the
order
prominent
it
is
on
power
These
include
social
and
differing
study,
are
theories
cultural,
and
works
Wolf’s
discover
or
has
cannot
be
the
a
It
of
cannot
be
relations
country’s
increasingly
assumed,
patterns
unilateral
will
be
of
whole
types
and
and
become
but
and
that
power
types
of
discussed
relevant
is
needs
bases
the
on
also
power,
hard
and
useful
in
this
as
in
course.
feature
into
such
in
5).
that
t
of
relations,
most
units
politics
that
concept
types
(1999:
the
and
and
power
of
four
interpersonal
concepts
of
study
societies”
multilateral,
power
the
in
power
key
people,
power
kinds
of
structural
the
in
outlined
differently
level
other
of
scholars
analysis,
between
includes
There
social
the
relationships
politics.
to
“power
and
politics,
present
most
application
arenas
global
under
to
social
words,
the
Structural
all
ability
of
Power
independent
situated
and
one
and
institutional
For
The
always
relationships.
or
operates.
power
power.
of
unitary
explored
which
of
a
our
in
study.
military,
soft,
which
to
the
particular
example
throughout
this
Companion.
A collection of international ags in Munich,
Germany
Power in contex t
The
past
wars
in
century
almost
conicts
have
the
in
over
today
Over
in
less
How
the
ethnicity
the
of
revolutions,
globe.
and
adversarial
Millions
and
claims
over
life.
There
are
danger
of
extinction
and
many
more
past
50
years,
dramatically.
US$2.00
from
this
we
the
per
poverty
conguration
More
–
than
day,
that
is
half
and
of
one
some
genocides
have
colour,
reproduce
did
When
are
of
era
to
than
seconds
part
an
ability
the
changed
on
every
been
religion,
common
basic
has
the
many
of
the
child
the
notice
in
world’s
major
violence
these
dire
between
support
that
are
poverty.
resources
ve)
in
conicts
that
population
(under
we
from
of
resources
are
world’s
million
all
communities
that
60
died
what
and
dies
has
now
every
2000
and
lives
three
2006.
happen?
observe
based
on
physical
based
on
race,
the
world
today,
geography,
but
quickly
rst
the
many
revealed
are
also
divisions
divisions
TOK
18
Can we have beliefs
and
or knowledge that are
living.
independent of our culture?
power,
Does global politics seek to
by
discover truths about human
quests
nature, or is it based on
of
assumptions about human
all
nature?
are
ethnicity,
communities
These
contexts
politics
radio
in
for
crises
and
even
peace,
and
the
of
longer
are
to
battles
in
of
of
and
that
peoples,
many
and
with
–
by
we
the
regions
day
tells
and
which
the
stories
of
a
of
countries,
–
daily
nations,
available
conicts
at
and
reconciliation,
who
before.
and
people
their
on
news
globe
been
of
based
attempts
never
or
by
contexts
divisions
citizens
have
ways
the
Every
villages
genocides
peace
ways
isolated
the
authority.
remotest
hopes
and
themselves
interwoven
claims
the
interconnected
no
religion
reproduce
are
now
There
one
region’s
1 . 1 :
wars
and
over
basic
world’s
of
oil
are
another’s
resources.
resources
power
that
the
will
be
and
current
desertication
are
brought
on
warming.
Dams,
of
for
water
pollution
is
water
unusable
for
number
of
have
over
global
often
of
as
and
droughts
and
more
water,
spaces
increasing
food
issues
predict
resources
over
livable
thousands
questions
now
energy
example,
the
become
claims
making
food
which
Scientists
away
by
over
in
industrialization
while
A
used
future
initiated
crises
ways
conicts
by
takes
by
availability
are
authority.
dwarfed
famines
The
P O W E R
affect
miles
of
the
the
away,
Earth’s
production.
may
immediately
be
raised:
●
How
do
local
distribution
decisions
of
affecting
the
●
How
is
determined?
●
Who
decides
resources
global
get
and
made?
Desertication necessitates permanent crop
or
authority
worse,
who
allow
has
the
the
protection in many parts of the world
right
genocide
to
of
build
an
dams
area’s
or
burn
forests,
population?
TOK
●
What
is
a
government,
and
who
decides
what
it
does?
Can a person or group of people
Anthropology
and
of
ways
of
human
history,
Egalitarian
human
tells
older
are
do
and
task
people
not
such
bearing
children.
So
did
how
we
forms
authority?
have
in
a
seen
societies
minus
some
modern
from
live
is,
the
in
by
of
ones.
the
to
the
the
are
the
denition,
on
they
a
just
and
very
thread
of
is
of
the
government
throughout
men
but
an
know what is best for other
people?
context
development.
earliest
sex,
women.
and
forms
even
of
of
the
these
inequality
These
most
women,
between
early
differences
that
to
more
of
that
and
people
society?
chapter
qualitatively
experience
labour
biologically
power,
societies
different
there
ever
complex
culture
The
in
women
of
characteristics
our
recent
between
and
and
are
with
introduction
are
that
hierarchy,
or
age
types
that
younger
difference
not
They
and
common
men
point
and
relatively
aspects
or
different
life,
equality
and
case
this
social
is
societies
today,
life,
a
mean
older
many
social
communities.
between
simple
in
earlier
as
a
by
based
different
get
of
What
experience
We
or
with
community
necessitated,
is
necessarily
younger
are
is
been
among
people
performing
complex
have
and
of
oriented,
maintain
there
human
characterized
groups,
differentiation
divisions
that
government
societies
history,
between
us
reproducing
and
that
cultures
more
different
most
of
from
of
daily
us
life
those
who
A Somali National Government soldier walks past burning debris
lived
hundreds
or
thousands
of
years
ago.
We
following a suspected suicide bombing
are
unique,
indeed.
19
1
POWER,
S O V E R E IGN T Y
AND
I N T E R N AT I O N A L
R E L AT I O N S
States and statehood in the contemporary world
In
contemporary
social
“the
control
will
of
are
many
not
all
our
world
their
the
and
have
society
and
been
today
are
reports
others
(2016),
revolutions
of
recent
as
close
cartels,
same
reason.
Many
no
claim
longer
trade
that
to
the
agreements
of
people
around
many
traditionally
fast
is
a
no
the
has
and
only
a
“states”
longer
to
has
state
of
multi-national
states
with
the
the
from
the
has
and
territory
Arab
become
and
of
violence
that
region
are
questioned
Also,
of
as
and
Yorker
boundaries
been
migration
of
the
in
over
Somalia,
has
as
states
New
inux
outdated
There
and
control
the
countries
states
stability
failed
and
As
corporations.
immigration
of
Mexico
with
of
protect
world,
social
emerge
and
dynamics.
Libya
point.
other
become
sovereignty
questions
maintain
that
and
large
globe
examples
democracy.
failed
mechanisms
promote
internal
include
country
and
the
to
contemporary
many
examples
Colombia
the
own
the
approaching
becoming
as
in
have
can
best-known
Designed
their
functioning
term
legitimate,
nature
are
Tunisia
2011
and
the
We
that
few
that
the
states
states
of
for
have
of
A
dangerously
drugs
they
kinds
successful.
–
are
integration.
people”,
varied
populations.
there
states
social
the
millions
it
by
porous
has
of
been
dened.
9 March 2011: Rebel soldiers ghting against Colonel Muammar Gadda re a Katyusha
rocket near Ras Lanuf, Libya
Other types of power
Beyond
have
and
those
come
its
sources.
Changing
“soft”
power
bring
or
within
making
20
as
about
to
play
a
of
above,
descriptions
try
Nye,
example,
descriptors
the
other
analysts
American
desired
geographic
the
of
as
Joseph
Nature
to
refers
discussed
into
for
Power
of
kinds
level.
of
force
and
those
in
charge;
As
of
their
“soft”
in
his
uses
the
book,
the
coming
names
of
power
lies
to
to
power
Bound
that
in
power
Lead:
The
and
designed
the
“hard”
the
to
are
inuence
more
of
“hard”
from
suggest,
force
reference
nature
terms
interventions
whether
threats
and
understand
(1990),
change,
use
to
outside
power
the
decision-
realm
of
1 . 1 :
negotiation,
of
promises
inuencing
and
added
who
to
this
used
it,
aid,
cooperation
Recently,
matrix,
there
and
seems
the
although
to
be
and
other
descriptor
there
some
of
is
non-military
“smart”
debate
consensus
about
that
means
power
it
has
its
came
rst
use
L TA
been
of
change.
P O W E R
Research skills
from
Research
speeches
made
by
Hillary
Clinton
as
she
ran
for
President
in
the
the
election
in
the
USA.
“Smart”
refers
to
the
combination
of
hard
and
the
ability
to
use
both
when
called
for,
or
one
or
the
other
term
rst
“smart
use
of
power”
soft
and
power,
the
2016
why
it
was
introduced.
when
necessary.
Other
kinds
of
power
used
economic
power,
political
collective
power,
and
to
remember
of
power
power
and
its
and
descriptor
connected
are
being
the
for
to
a
For
use
kind
the
are
must
uses.
this
universal
these
described
conditions
a
that
in
power,
versus
part
of
example,
of
labour
of
not
larger
to
discussion
structural
the
particular
and
social
use
of
and
and
is
important
the
refers
to
Soft
and
the
type
analysis
realms.
power,
situations
It
that
power
power,
versus
power.
analyses,
maintain
to
military
individual
multilateral
Wolf’s
approach
analysis
a
include
power,
descriptors,
be
of
Companion
social
of
social
power
needs
to
strategies
is
be
that
employed.
Violence and structural violence
Class discussion
What
is
violence?
denition
that
However,
that
inherent
to
social
into
the
from
indirectly
concept
social
of
it
seem
is
a
from
that
the
than
becoming
often
causes
obvious
violence
that
is
to
a
is
oppression”
(Farmer,
2004).
and
and
operationally
of
laws
this
then,
object
of
and
kind
the
problems
the
oppression,
of
reason
with
blame
violence
of
inform
however,
maintains
other
for
it
for
poverty
is
occurs
The
unequal
and
the
one
need
that
silence
The
the
to
and
employ
would
If
make
poverty
individual
thus
access
“that
violence,
often
of
–
of
naturally.
state
term.
place
order…
study
the
individual interpretations of the
integrated
social
the
access
What is violence? Discuss your
Derived
situated
States
becomes
the
life.
or
violence
unequal
mechanisms
system.
of
structural
functional.
violence
the
the
certain
to
generates
and
groups
systematically
intended
that
forms
social
exerted
belongs
commonplace
inherently
and
violence
is
a
individuals,
inequality
economy
structural
who
among
less
of
assume
is
through
the
and
world,
violence
cause
problem,
rather
acts
forms
inequality
kept
violence
that
major
failure
is
subtler
political
violence
power
society
structural
of
customarily
physical
diverse
everyone
of
we
today’s
social
by
that
the
which
In
structural
with
integrate
by
–
the
are
theologians,
by
machinery
Along
in
process
liberation
characterized
is,
there
resources.
larger
citizens,
encompasses
nations.
are
As
to
of
protects
itself
resources
those
in
poverty.
Social
study
scientists
of
power
includes
on
an
scales
as
machinery
(Farmer,
vary
One
and
from
of
Farmer
of
been
analyse
analysis
that
organization.
violence,
have
to
the
in
structural
associated
reconstruction
the
household
more
points
suffering,
interested
events
out,
and
of
to
insidious
is
how
the
with
events
violence
around
regional
and
characteristics
erasure
suffering
of
and
as
part
globalization,
history
poverty
the
of
and
a
that
world,
continental
of
structural
and
the
generate
violence
2004).
21
1.2
The nation state, power and modes of social control
The
nation
state,
relationships,
that
there
is
language,
the
area
in
developed
which
nations
States
formal
are
entity.
by
while
Here
the
During the French Revolution less than
50 per cent of the population spoke
French, and even fewer spoke it well.
Here is an example where the state
clearly did come before the nation.
The French Revolution solidied the
role of the state as a generator of
common identity, creating policies
and mandates that united the “French
People” under a dominant language,
culture, and territory.
22
agree
the
both
as
of
with
wishes
the
a
or
by
a
of
of
rules,
have
to
is
formed.
has
formed
the
if
or
they
and
to
it
nation
is
a
less
can
been
that
denes
research
that
classes
is
such
nature
know
clear
a
state
have
when
before
a
state
mechanism
with
a
as
of
that
exist
characteristics
are
a
sense
state.
question,
an
and
as
by
of
Whether
and
living
citizens
many
holders
very
within
not.
the
the
inside
the
for
a
sovereign
state
in
order
the
nation’s
will
of
complicated,
around
those
the
within
of
not
entities
within
of
sovereignty,
others
real,
conict
or
the
entities
political
agreement
become
to
and
are
People
internal
can
elected
independent
They
duties
be
assert
and
we
exchange
issue.
consider
stable
leaders,
force,
the
and
implies
sovereign
While
by
government.
may
labour
characteristics,
the
historically
entities.
has
of
“Nation”
socio-economic
backed
legitimate
leaders,
to
common
sovereignty
is
cultural
refers
whether
laws
there
state
division
entity.
government
is
sovereign
nation
its
been
under
state
leaders
their
of
and
often
Nationalism
exist,
the
nation’s
state,
form
where
complex
territorial
authority
sides
the
also
to
that
is
to
a
stratied
territories
single
we
Here
sovereignty
The French Revolution
a
of
backed
other
subject
population
for
on
has
united
before
sovereignty
people.
place.
are
classied
by
state
nation
takes
exist
governed
not
a
most
result
legal
generally
controlled
are
a
the
existed
theories
for
are
of
and
ethnicity
“state”
which
peoples
identity,
result
political
common
becomes
formation
state
a
the
a
while
formations
state
is
globe
that
state
that
nation
can
be
the
for
a
the
may
problem
1 . 2 :
Nations
and
political
rule.
states
have
T H E
goals
N A T I O N
to
unite
S T A T E ,
people
P O W E R
under
a
A N D
M O D E S
single
rubric
O F
S O C I A L
C O N T R O L
of
TOK
Prison
the
Notebooks,
agreement
always
the
is
when
of
institutional
oppressed
the
it
world
to
of
a
past
of
the
World
emergence
of
so
law
of
the
most
most
centralized
or
of
to
the
their
as
own
well
to
as
with
rally
They
legitimacy
The
legitimacy
the
the
realities
to
or
justify
when
also
the
the
violence,
its
or
of
the
against
The
existence
states
or
object
that
represent
circumstances
social
the
are
population
present
of
that
gender.
and
and concepts we use shape
describe, the world?
denitions
history.
To what extent do the language
not
elites
are
or
for
through
is
or determine, rather than just
discriminated
race
his
hegemony
The
structural
are
Other
its
of
this
ideologies
as
in
harmony
organization
ethnicity,
territories,
of
(2011),
However,
force.
forces.
people
and
goal
creation
uses
state
provide
area
the
the
referred
which
Gramsci
control.
external
resources.
areas,
to
its
The
a
organized
that
for
control
rapidly
are
changing
importantly,
of
It
is
state
their
unusual
governments,
allies,
and
sovereignty,
law,
or
defend
in
the
entities.
ultimate
to
of
the
power
with
these
the
and
by
resources
are
and
groups
often,
of
the
by
These
people
were
central
are
states
to
their
witness
formerly
governments
changes
There
stronger
under
world
that
with
resources.
militated
Westphalian
of
states
are
countries
changing
is
states
among
of
been
on.
territorial
that
has
organized
states
contemporary
between
Some
are
It
3).
states,
states
territories
corporations.
legitimacy
allegiances
challenges
the
to
states
of
and
other
inuenced
conception
of
by
L TA
international
of
political
(2007:
federal
are
unions
so
major
character
of
before
continues:
fragile/failed
types
50
that
organizations.
militarized
and
the
conict
example,
are
us
He
the
states,
various
action,
of
states,
these
for
sovereignty
wars
changing
non-governmental
unitary
multi-national
justify
not
are
militarized
tells
75.
one
international
between
types
approximately
changed
international
authority;
together
of
has
confederations
world,
coming
It
states,
military
were
Crawford
represents
incorporates
centralized
nature
continually
governance.
unitary
of
of
states
states,
differences
contemporary
evolving
States
practice
3).
approximately
century.
sources
of
functioning;
confederations
new
the
political:
territories
changes
many
there
2007:
were
twentieth
forms
with
and,
there
and
power
century,
(Crawford,
important
territories
close
is
democratic
states.
predominately
central
the
common
rising
must
leaders,
particular
and
War
international
states
state
of
generate
often
twentieth
of
an
often
and
by
their
states
confederations,
is
state
circumstances
developments
the
when
advantage
now
of
realities
Second
one
In
the
state
that
internal
is
hegemony:
under
unity
the
by
transforming
start
The
a
then
Antonio
system.
the
and
term
states
peoples
acknowledged
The
he
state
what
its
transforming
the
is
managers
are
the
peoples
managers
because
political
that
of
as
philosopher
mechanisms
incorporates
At
and
threatened
generators
the
the
impossible,
positions
war
state
of
coined
beneciaries
their
Italian
of
possible,
becomes
for
The
state
administration.
Research skills
There
Research
has
been
much
interactions
nationality,
of
debate
trade
about
and
the
possibility
challenges
humanitarian
to
of
this
centralized
intervention,
sort
law,
indigenous
of
state,
such
rights,
as
and
given
It
is
better
conceptualized
as
an
ideal
that
never
of
in
full
completion
as
competing
stakeholders
keep
the
state.
partner,
discuss
With
a
supra-
whether
social
quite
a
model
politics
of
that
most
comes
countries
into
Westphalian
concept
this
movements.
the
the
follow
today.
states
motion.
23
1
POWER,
S O V E R E IGN T Y
AND
I N T E R N AT I O N A L
R E L AT I O N S
Social order, ideology and power
In
order
for
convincing
good,
or
by
resistance
This
power
force
application
of
term
of
is
manifest
public
of
power.
(1999:
4)
simple
terms,
ideology
or
the
liberty
policies
of
a
schemes
world.
and
institutional),
to
direct
to
Antonio
our
the
and
cover
we
by
ideology,
as
range
he
of
used
more
a
we
is
way
are
best
being
developed
of
told,
for
action.
by
that
an
goal
be
in
that
a
“ideologies”
or
manifest
situation,
that
the
national,
the
local
that
ideology,
a
pursuit
supporting
ideology
of
constructs
human
underwrite
example,
with
The
all
about
about
(whether
presented
our
to
thinking
brought
the
notes,
mental
restrictively,
be
through
power”.
for,
entire
of
warfare.
accomplished
of
by
and
prevention
all-out
to
means
and
is
either
justied
and
or
service
the
are
blocking
congurations
When
are
justied,
power
power
administration
thinking
of
be
power
populating
happiness
current
or
or
in
of
representations,
needs
unied
life,
to
must
the
of
ideas
intended
in
suggest
context,
“ideas
between
domains…“ideology”
In
be
forms
relationships
or
it
forms
that
existing
ideology,
“ideas”
rendered
sustained,
existing
whether
the
distinguishes
the
be
that
–
against
justication
Wolf
to
people
hopes
according
Antonio Gramsci, 1891–1937
, wrote widely
on philosophy, politics and linguistics;
he was also a founding member of the
resistance
Communist Par ty of Italy
is
to
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thoughts
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to
Internet
particularly
reality
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against
into
history
problem
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of
place”?
argues:
cannot
go
back…
we
cannot
reject
the
world
of
sociality
which
has
Class discussion
been
achieved
by
the
interlinking
of
all
peoples
into
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global
economy…
we
Is increasing globalization
should
somehow
build
upon
this
achievement
and
seek
to
transform
it
into
an
inevitable?
unalienated
of
capitalist
progressive
Should
this
inevitable?
experience.
The
development,
purposes
position
Even
if
for
rather
be
we
network
of
example,
than
be
the
has
to
rejected
uncritically
accept
places
constructed
be
or
transformed
destroyed.
accepted?
premise
through
Is
that
and
increasing
cannot
for
action
logic
used
(1993:
we
the
for
13)
globalization
resist
TOK
globalization,
remains
Citing
an
how
open
Young,
this
understanding
question,
Harvey
tied
further
to
and
our
call
understanding
of
is
put
place
into
and
use
space.
How can we decide between the
opinions of exper ts when they
posits:
disagree with one another?
The
‘desire
for
unity
or
wholeness
in
discourse’…
’generates
borders,
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dichotomies
and
exclusions’.
In
political
theory,
furthermore,
the
concept
disagreement in the dierent
of
community
‘often
implies
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denial
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space
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and
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insistence
on
‘face-to-face
contexts’.
Yet
there
interaction
among
members
within
a
plurality
of
ways might disagreement be
are
‘no
conceptual
grounds
for
considering
face-to-face
helpful to the production of
relations
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time
distance.’
authentic
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relations
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mediated
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knowledge?
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conict
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in
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communities
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consequences
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have
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communication
period
run
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each
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risk
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loss
other,
networked
to
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globalization.
often
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of
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discriminatory
the
has
communities”
over
presented
pressures
communities
members
the
a
are
promoting
atrocities),
the
subjected
and
communities
implication,
ignore
community
being.
15)
cases
and,
the
between
Other
alienation
(1993:
led
to
livelihood,
and
the
virtual
space
a
loss
reality
often
tragic
the
of
a
and
exclude
29
1
POWER,
S O V E R E IGN T Y
AND
I N T E R N AT I O N A L
the
very
people
created
by
to
access
have
without
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is
in
in
resources
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new
forms
of
are
join
a
as
can
not
and
same
(2001)
dissolving
all
which
of
the
that
“all
has
human
explains
and
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identities
common
communities,
exclusion,
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to
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this
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Harvey
degradation”
to
Italian
to
of
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the
bases
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often
causes
experienced
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results.
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by
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Maria
1993–94,
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India,
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and
due
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idealized.
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communities
communities
basis
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communities,
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resistance
the
cultural
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envisions
us,
valley
and
is
minorities
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exclusion
communities
and
space
his
Italy
dam
Stable
promote
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course,
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communities
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fragmentation
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argument
legitimated,
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survival
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2000).
outside,
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purposeful
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world.
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signicant
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cases
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in
individual
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able
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politics”.
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individuals
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social
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and
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we
As
into
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we
come
physical
67).
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taste”
change
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driven
as
of
feed
analysis.
them.
community
Communities
communities.
that
of
communities
within
“communities
(in
market,
30
is
individuals
and
do
geographic
have
in
the
have
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cultures”
to
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cultures”
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communities
real
conceptualizations
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networks
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noted,
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entities
wider
Jane
driven
to
of
thus
this
by
Jacobs
the
reasoning,
community
by
the
needs
of
1 . 4 :
The
space-time
networks.
new
compression
According
information
networks
of
and
has
been
technologies
an
spirituality.
trend
globalization
and
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use
and
depression,
Castells,
As
an
who
the
1997:
being
alone
Our
(2000:
a
connectedness
Castells
and
new
as
does
virtual
in
the
a
sense
in
have
of
in
array
Castells
our
the
global
of
the
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concluded
between
(2000:
loneliness,
us,
meaning
distance
self?”
virtual
reminds
identity,
observe
and
the
psychoanalyst
are
having
a
computer,
where
the
is
both
pervaded
afliation.
these
to
self
22).
alienation
(Wolton,
Raymond
dreams
about
illuminate
seems
(Wellman,
the
need
lives.
of
unreal
circles
and
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Although
the
be
loss
is
1997,
not
century,
academic
result
interchanges
dependence
of
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our
communities,
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popular
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cites
by
communities
increasing
fosters
we
world
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feelings
studies
as
in
sociologist,
vast
for
patients
society
in
the
his
has
interactions
Wellman
increase
time,
“do
the
the
the
“a
search
asks,
between
calls
same
reected
1998,
in
lost
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to
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heads
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that
has
itself,
isolated
and
of
alienation
23).
that
created
the
he
anxious
namely,
substantial
society
networked
aloneness
has
as
is
Spanish
“integrating
what
Castells
can
a
387).
that
in
are
At
world,
identity,
programmed
developed
why,”
the
Internet
example,
reports
21–22).
earlier
Castells,
in
increasingly
“…
throughout
of
discussed
Manual
instrumentality,”
communities“(2000:
there
to
C O M M U N I T I E S
a
has
cause
also
many
of
real.
the
opposed
to
and
is
is
very
reected
in
by
a
it
the
Internet
and
can
and
for
physical
be
argued,
1990),
that
communities,
online
part
desire
the
self
Wortley,
physical
much
a
that
though
and
communication
that
argue
physical
Even
Wellman
an
created
of
interaction
our
theory
daily
lives
building
that
is
today.
Anti-globalization protests in Seattle, USA
31
1
POWER,
S O V E R E IGN T Y
AND
I N T E R N AT I O N A L
As
R E L AT I O N S
Castells
concludes,
So
end,
Class discussion
in
the
are
virtual
communities
real
communities?
Yes
and
no.
They
Do you agree with Castells’
are
communities,
but
not
physical
ones,
and
they
do
not
follow
the
same
description of vir tual
patterns
of
they
not
communication
and
interaction
as
physical
communities.
But
communities?
are
“unreal,”
interpersonal
diversied
dynamics
The
and
of
question
and
can
In
cases,
these
as
in
sustainability
easily
maintained
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of
long
further
in
most
still
course,
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it
and
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different
of
able
interaction.
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Internet
their
specialized,
sustained
How
work
networks,
remains,
interaction“?
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social
they
them
to
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is
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in
the
are
highly
support
this
by
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at
Mexico,
the
forms
or
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in
use
of
the
resistance.
communities,
hand:
weaken
“sustained
protests
“communities”of
subject
different
weak
represented
see
Zapitistas
They
reality.
reciprocity
Internet-based
the
reproduced.
on
of
389)
what
communication
based
generate
(1997:
last?
plane
they
are
disappear
at
not
quickly,
all.
Communities and agency
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the
if
we
acknowledge
primary
sites
internationalist
to
relegate
global
us,
the
Castro
building
–
from
district
in
Thus,
inherent
in
as
There
the
remains
capital,
that
in
space
place.
But
that
they
though
Inherent
space
in
and
is
doomed
the
Sassen
of
of
the
(1998),
are
as
the
place.
one,
the
continued
to
the
the
engenders
it,
ability
place
for
within
is
as
of
a
tells
cultural
of
the
common
oppositions
rather
between
forces,
in
capital
and
a
to
co-ordinate
of
capital
a
politics.
of
cities
global
action.
politics
1993:
capital
forces
global
particular
opposition
place,
dominating
‘regional
in
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the
particularly
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oppressing
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to
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necessary
postmodernity
his
power
place-bound
shown
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call
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mechanisms
organizing
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15).
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emphasize
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new,
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Harvey
The
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that
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space.
politics
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social
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order
community
modernity
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fact.
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communities
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past
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see
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space.
by
writing,
politics
“rule“,
because
possibilities
32
this
constraints
evaluation
at
easily
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the
transformed
both
contained
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to
contradictions…”
postmodern
are
such
place.
fragmented
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domination,
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prefer
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Harvey’s
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has
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need
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San
he
communities
communities
exist
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practice.
than
politics
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geographic
system
politics
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between
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appeals
24)
then,
override
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Saskia
corporations
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system
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example
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disturbingly,
1 . 4 :
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purposes,
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space
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of
spatial
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there
space,
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framework.
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civil
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nineteenth
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74)
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sphere”,
was
public
destruction
becomes
learn
it,
is,
coercive
over
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sphere,
social
(that
public
called
century.
modern
control
the
the
commodity-
thirteenth
the
“bourgeois
public
see
to
assume
(1991:
system
(to
early
government.
the
we
from
by
and
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part
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separation
function,
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and
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includes
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including
has
civil
times“(1998:
91).
are
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in
events
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back
in
former
to
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and
the
explain
that
and
idea
the
of
are
structures.
the
the
same
increasing
weakening
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–
independent
communities:
it,
politics
put
again,
inuence
State
reintroduced
1980s
afliations
attempted
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society
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debate
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with
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academic
challenged
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142).
sphere
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alternative
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1800s,
from
and
public
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economy
back
an
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of
century
1991:
the
both
period
as
the
the
Jürgen
interfered
between
by
regulate
the
state
after
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production
and
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separated
the
over
authorities
state
into
developed
household
relations,
came
philosopher
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society
feudal
Revolution).
exchange
the
the
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society
State
the
of
from
states
society
of
the
represents
Eastern
Soviet
on
Europe
bloc.
global
the
that
Stemming
33
1
POWER,
S O V E R E IGN T Y
AND
I N T E R N AT I O N A L
from
to
opposition
express
protests,
were
a
all
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it
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lifestyles
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state
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of
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society
1998:
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image
least
Michnik,
in
of
in
that
not
a
like
little
˛sa
Wałe
his
widely
society
about
force
he
where
civil
norms
among
and
seemed
authorities,
state
political
union
Lech
alone,
notion
were
social
sought,
public
organization
the
left
the
link
failed,
parties,
evolved,
Party.
Adam
a
themselves
they
stable
control.
Goldfarb.
88).
Europe
comprised
a
They
88).
versus
established
component
ruling
What
political
writes
saw
initially
system…
Communist
society
TV
reforms
reform-orientated
society
Eastern
that
cultural
(1998:
followed
of
the
the
and
who
sought
institutional
all,”
of
(Goldfarb,
alternative
space
a
the
at
dissidents
across
life”
as
by
that
movement
base
gain
created
socialism.
efforts
governance.
alternative
began
image
to
repressed
challenge
agitation
an
1960s,
Their
were
Spontaneous
radio
individuals
movements
opposition:
the
other
public
avenues
control.
“humanistic”
regimes.
and
labour
Evolutionism”.
The
and
new
of
clandestine
more
institutional
not
the
and
a
brutally
social
example,
social
for
ruling
1950s
organizational
presented
control.
that
an
that
one
of
the
extensive
life,
declare
him,
New
“an
interested
than
before
“A
to
was
more
of
independent
Solidarity,
to
sometimes
Goldfarb,
Party-states,
mechanisms
newsletters,
late
blossoming
of
state
intellectuals
the
were
existent
to
demands
opposition
particularly
led
the
newspapers,
loyal
and
to
opposition
broadcasts
as
R E L AT I O N S
of
social
the
social
cited
diversity
classes
opposition
to
and
ruling
organization.
It
is
important
developments
to
point
proved
out,
as
positive.
Goldfarb
does,
Manipulated
all
xenophobia,
of
as
these
Goldfarb
Members of the Landless Workers’ Movement throw corn towards the gates of the US
embassy in Brazil, in protest against the Free Trade Area of the Americas (FTAA) and the
World Trade Organization (WTO)
34
1 . 4 :
calls
it,
is
very
nationalist
social
alternative
integrated
of
parts
afliation
of
movements
civil
society
circles.
place
the
possibility
the
human
the
the
of
we
Christian
the
in
Guatemala,
Welsh
United
these
of
of
and
For
here
These
and
the
witnessing
of
of
and
the
drives
general
society
to
Workers’
as
that
the
the
common
ll
cause
the
of
maintenance
–
in
the
opposition
of
84).
uncoerced
formed
space”
for
(1991:
particular,
the
in
idea
and
1998,
the
world,
Mexico,
In
from
is
Mayas
culture
Philippines.
resistance
for
from
reassertion
Cherokee
autonomy
of
sphere.
describes
add
this
and
are
actions
the
limiting
around
Zapitistas
of
for
space
term,
Japan
the
public
life
networks
–
real
these
academic
Arato
“the
The
challenge.
(Goldfarb,
Movement,
movements
the
and
movements
in
the
new
in
on
denition,
entities
of
of
dominates,
Cohen
use
society,
that
meaning
relational
Britain
ethnic
exists
a
recognition
Great
the
provided
activity
the
very
domination
ideology
indigenous
98).
a
depends
to
more
(1998:
been
civil
response
wider
civil
like
society
market
set
interest,
Landless
what
a
But
has
all
in
of
outside
the
pursuit
stability.
accounts
are
important
continued
role
in
for
our
discussion
establishing
place
as
of
communities
an
important
site
L TA
their
in
have
on
delineates
in
state
negative
domination.
identity
Brazil’s
Civil
associational
also
now
language
community
and
and
developments
control.
counter
taken
landscape
Europe
model.
struggle.
Europe
state
faith,
political
Eastern
society
corporate
growth
States
in
(1994),
(1991)
assertions
of
the
of
are
the
one
now
free
complete
widespread
to
is
Eastern
Gellner
family,
Thus,
civil
space
where
Walzer
of
same
has
association
sake
293).
of
of
dominance
Similarly,
the
the
that
it
as
part
nationalism
popular
to
of
a
garnered
to
across
Xenophobic
The
much
response
C O M M U N I T I E S
of
Research and self-
management skills
afliation.
need
on
to
the
account
surface
engaging
of
the
rush
for
the
events
at
least,
and
transcend
the
publics
as
“abstract
dened
as
from
unit
has
that
exist
in
institutional
they
on
manual
changing
circumstances.
to
environments.
references
to
the
will
their
have
ultimately
of
to
what
relate
The
subject
own
they
this
all
role
an
change
of
and
structures
as
of
a
global
opinion
tool
interest
public,
on
driven
communities.
public
analytic
The
many
today.
exists
What
the
can
we
and
clarify
groups
have
power
in
is
of
global
focuses
refer
by
of
is
to
of
no
global
by
scale
that,
For
more
the
role
the
on
ideologies
“taste
are
the
power
now
discussed,
the
the
Without
the
that
and
Unit
a
1
guide
ties
to
Each
the
basic
in
public
ideologies
see
Devine,
is
discussion
of
Lippmann,
coercive
1993;
of
Behabib,
1992;
1992;
Fraser,
1995;
Speier,
on
opinion
1992;
Wright,
1995.
for
of
its
rapidly
discussions
to
real-world
discussions
and
interdependence
the
global
key
governance
complete
and
its
and
and
a
politics
lies
legitimacy
the
power
means
politics
global
politics.
and
back
is
here
of
sovereignty,
realms
It
concepts
importance
power,
inuence
the
politics
reference
chances
social
is
represent.
focused
global
communities
geographic
communities”,
communities.
the
that
This
subject
redene
around
ideologies
and
to
addressing
cultures“,
separate
of
arguments
power,
often
Much
following
environment,
concepts
that
that
units
are
but
the
unit.
35
1.5 Exam-style questions
1
Discuss
use
of
the
force
claim
and
that
power
in
global
politics
is
mostly
exercised
through
the
threats.
Examiner hints
Arguments against the claim may include:
●
Responses are likely to include a denition of the concept
aspects of soft power such as political ideals, cultural
norms and social policies may be equally if not more
of power; such as the ability to make someone do
inuential than force
something – often, but not always, by the use of force or
threats – or face consequences; or the ability to achieve
●
the mere possession of resources doesn’t always
a desired outcome through the use of other means, which
result in a country having the power to achieve
could involve the use of both coercive (force and threats)
desired outcomes: sometimes non-material factors
and co-optive mechanisms.
such as changes in strategy and/or leadership can
aect outcomes
Responses may make reference to ideas such as
distinctions drawn between hard and soft power.
●
diplomacy and economic assistance are useful in
Candidates may also refer to the concept of smar t power
fur thering goals and interests
which in eect combines elements of both hard (coercion
●
and payment) and soft power (persuasion and attraction),
persuasion can be eectively used to achieve goals
and preferred outcomes through the use of means
sometimes making it dicult to distinguish where
such as education and propaganda, for example,
coercion star ts and ends. Candidates could also highlight
through the use of social media
the fact that the concept of power is central, yet remains
elusive in nature. Better answers may be able to weave
●
the acquisition and maintenance of instruments of
relevant theories on power into the arguments.
coercive power – military power, arms procurement,
nuclear weapons is increasingly expensive
Arguments for the claim may include:
●
the centrality of military and economic power is
●
incentives such as incorporation into free trade
still accepted by realist thinkers who argue that the
agreements in an era of economic interdependence
possession of superior capabilities is more likely to
work more eectively than coercion
result in successful outcomes for states
●
●
non-coercive means can produce a voluntary
states aspiring to be more powerful still seek to
response from a given state and lead to a more
expand their military capabilities; wealth and
eective and long-lasting result
economic prosperity – seen as key pre-requisites for
●
many transnational issues such as climate change,
building status
pandemics, cybercrime, drug tracking and
and power
terrorism cannot be mitigated through forceful
●
the states that exer t the most inuence globally (for
means.
example, agenda setting in UN) also have strong
Responses should contain references to specic
military capabilities and economic resources
examples. These may be taken, for instance, from the
●
the continued existence of intrastate and
continued emphasis on weapons and arms acquisitions
transnational wars involving non-state actors
by states like China, where rapid military modernization
requires states to resor t to use of force, suggesting
is closely linked to its ambition to become a formidable
that coercion is both eective
political and economic power, like the US or Russia.
and essential
Examples of the increasing use of soft power could be
drawn from Japan’s pacist strategic culture and China’s
●
propaganda, censorship and disinformation continue
so-called charm oensive. Any other valid and relevant
to be used as a means of coercion by state and nonexamples should be evaluated positively.
state actors, for example, ISIS using social media to
attract ghters.
36
1 . 5 :
2
Examine
politics
the
have
claim
that
increased
fundamentally
interactions
changed
the
and
nature
Examiner hints
of
E X A M - S T Y L E
interconnectedness
state
●
Q U E S T I O N S
in
global
sovereignty.
statehood is still highly desired and most
secessionist groups seek to be states and seek full
Responses should include an understanding of the
membership of the UN
concept of sovereignty; for example, they may make
reference to features such as territorial control and the
●
no other actors are as powerful as states, as
principle of non-interference in another state’s aairs.
evidenced by the diculties experienced by non-
The denition may dierentiate between internal and
state actors such as the United Nations in exer ting
external sovereignty. Responses may make reference
power to inuence
to ideas such as the equality of states in international
global issues
law, or may include a brief discussion of Westphalian
●
states still rely on and deploy enormous amounts
sovereignty. Responses may discuss interactions
of military power and control and the world is still
and interconnectedness in global politics by drawing
organized around state-centric security concerns
on key concepts not mentioned in the question, such
●
as interdependence, globalization, development or
states are not necessarily threatened
by globalization and may respond to
sustainability.
interconnectedness by adapting and competing
Arguments for the claim may include:
in other ways for inuence (for example, through
●
globalization, the rise of non-state actors and the
trade, “cultural imperialism”, or the power of agenda
increasing interconnectedness of
setting)
the world are challenges to state power and
●
increased cross- border interactions and
sovereignty, as individual states have
interconnectedness have not necessarily changed
less control
the nature of state sovereignty: there are other
●
states are losing inuence through the pooling of
some aspects of their sovereignty, such as in the
impor tant, often domestically rooted, factors, such as
the growth in inuence of civil society.
case of the EU
Responses should make reference to specic examples.
●
global issues which are cross-border in nature such
as pollution, disease, war or terrorism increasingly
require cooperation and action across state
boundaries, which may then place limitations on
state activity and sovereignty
For instance, candidates could discuss the role of media
in war repor ting (“the CNN eect”) or the phenomenon
of the spread of communications technology and the
attempted control of social media by states, as in the
case of China. They could refer to specic problems that
do not respect state boundaries, such as greenhouse
●
increased specialization in the economic
gases or refugees, for example, from Syria entering
organization of the world means that states are
neighbouring countries. Conversely, they could refer to
no longer self-sucient in many areas but are
states such as China and Brazil, whose inuence has
dependent on each other for vital supplies and
increased in recent years or to the persistence of interservices
state conicts where violation of sovereignty is still the
●
responses to human rights abuses have given rise
most signicant aspect at play, such as in the case of
to the concept of “conditional” sovereignty and to
Russia’s recent disputed behaviour in Crimea.
humanitarian intervention.
Responses should include the candidate’s
Arguments against the claim may include:
●
the centrality of state sovereignty in the international
system has endured despite globalization,
examination of the claim that increased interaction and
interconnectedness in global politics have fundamentally
changed the nature of state sovereignty.
as illustrated by the number of states in the
international community;
37
1
POWER,
S O V E R E IGN T Y
3
AND
I N T E R N AT I O N A L
Power
is
often
resources.
R E L AT I O N S
assumed
Discuss
the
to
be
linked
validity
Examiner hints
●
of
this
to
the
possession
of,
or
access
to,
view.
there are states with abundant natural resources
that have a relative lack of power on the world stage,
Responses should include an understanding of the
as abundant natural resources may go hand in
concept of power.
hand with commodity-led, lower value growth (for
A spectrum of power may be indicated – from inuence
example, DRC)
and capacity through to coercion and force. Candidates
●
even states which have copious resources still face
may discuss power in the sense of international relations,
numerous other challenges that undermine their
and/or in the sense of internal control. Responses may
ability to exercise power or control (for example, the
make reference to dierent types of resources (for
restrictions placed on them by international law, the
example, military, economic, or natural resources), or
structure of international institutions, such as the UN
may, equally validly, focus on one par ticular type of
Security Council, or the inuence of civil society).
resource such as economic resources.
Responses should make reference to specic examples.
Arguments in favour of the view that power is linked to the
Which examples are included is likely to depend on the
possession of resources may include:
selected interpretation of the concept of power and the
●
states that have the most resources do often have
types of resources discussed.
the most power on the world stage (for example, the
Responses could distinguish between states that have
US, China)
hard power arising from the possession of military,
●
history shows us that those with power often come in
economic, and/or natural resources (for example, the US,
and take away resources from resource-rich but less
China, Brazil), and states that have soft power that is not
powerful states
based to such a degree on tangible resources and that
●
within states, those who possess resources tend to
be the powerful actors in the society (for example,
the US, Russia).
can be informational, diplomatic, or cultural, and involve
agenda setting (for example, UK , Norway).
Candidates could discuss the relationship between power
and natural resources in specic countries, for example:
Arguments against the view that power is linked to the
possession of resources may include:
●
power can be dicult to measure (for instance, soft
High natural
Low natural
resources
resources
power, social power, cultural power) and perceptions
Much power
USA , China
Japan
Little power
DRC
Haiti
of power may matter just as much as having tangible
resources
●
resources alone are not power; intention and
capability (for example, eective leadership and
administration) transform resources into power;
38
Responses should include the candidate’s evaluation of
whether power is linked to the possession of resources.
1 . 5 :
4
Evaluate
justice
the
for
claim
that
individuals
state
and
sovereignty
creates
obstacles
E X A M - S T Y L E
for
the
Q U E S T I O N S
realization
of
communities.
organizations such as the UN, the EU, the WTO and
Examiner hints
international NGOs has entailed the setting-up of
Responses are likely to include an explanation of the
agreed rules, laws and practices, including some
concept of sovereignty – which implies that the state
enforcement mechanisms
or government has supreme, unqualied authority.
This is reected in the claim by states to be the sole
●
membership of most of the states in the UN and its
author of laws within their own territory (internal
institutions involves par ticipating states accepting
sovereignty). Internal sovereignty is the location of
and allowing other members to intervene in its
supreme power within the state. External sovereignty
domestic aairs if it fails in its fundamental duty to
refers to the capacity of the state to act independently
protect citizens and communities within its sovereign
and autonomously on the world stage. Candidates should
territory
also briey discuss their understanding of the concept of
●
the international community has been able to
justice.
intervene successfully in cases where injustice
Arguments in favour of the claim may include:
has been meted out to individuals and groups.
Such humanitarian intervention is now increasingly
●
in matters relating to human rights violations and
accepted, and is achieved through coalition eor ts as
atrocities, states and leaders continue to invoke the
well as through international organizations such as
concept of sovereignty. They agree to monitoring and
the UN.
judgments by human rights cour ts and commissions
only to the extent that they choose to. Sovereignty
has, in that sense resisted human rights agreements
Reponses should include reference to specic examples
to suppor t their evaluation of the claim in the question.
Examples that might be used to suppor t the claim
●
many human rights agreements have been ratied
that state sovereignty hinders realization of justice
by states, but with reservations, for example, the UN
to individuals and communities could include the
Convention on Women. For instance, India, Germany
continuation of human rights abuses in Nor th Korea
and Hungary choose not to be bound by cer tain
(including enslavement, murder and mass starvation),
sections of the CEDAW
Somalia, and Sudan, and the fallout of these on the lives
●
sovereign states resent the monitoring of perceived
of people. They could also cite examples of human rights
injustices to both individuals and communities by
agreements that have been ratied, but with cer tain
NGOs and the media
reservations by some states; for example, India, Germany
●
sovereignty continues to curb issues related to
justice for communities and groups such as women,
minorities and gay rights: states set their own limits
on the rights given to such communities, and argue
that this is within their domestic jurisdiction and is
also closely related to cultural and societal practices
specic to their jurisdiction
and Hungary chose not to be bound by sections of the
CEDAW.
Examples that could be used to illustrate the
counterclaim that state sovereignty can no longer
obstruct the realization of justice for individuals and
groups could cite examples of successful humanitarian
interventions such as those in Liberia, East Timor
and Sierra Leone. They could also note cases where
●
sovereignty becomes an issue in cases where an
organizations such as the EC ensure the application of
individual or group seeks political asylum on the plea
EU treaties and legislation through formal infringement
that their human rights are being violated in another
proceedings, or even by referring the member state to
country. In such situations, the sovereignty of the
the European Cour t of Justice. These rules dilute state
country in question clashes with issues
sovereignty.
of justice.
Responses should include a conclusion on whether or not
Arguments against the claim may include:
state sovereignty obstructs the realization of justice for
●
the emergence of signicant international
individuals and communities.
39
1
POWER,
S O V E R E IGN T Y
AND
I N T E R N AT I O N A L
5
Examine
the
diminishing
R E L AT I O N S
claim
in
that
the
signicance
contemporary
global
of
military
power
is
politics.
Examiner hints
Better answers will demonstrate an excellent grasp of the concept of military
power, and are likely to contrast this with other types of power such as
economic power.
They could include discussion of the various components of
power, for example, military, economic (tangible) and leadership (intangible),
or of how power has been viewed dierently by dierent schools of thought.
Arguments in favour of the claim that the signicance of military power has
diminished could include:
●
the increasing weight of variables such as economic interdependence,
transnational actors and international organizations
●
increased globalization leading to less emphasis on individual states and
their individual military
●
power; economic power being equally, if not more, impor tant than military
power, as economic power is required to bolster military power
●
the idea that some issues do not lend themselves to military solutions,
for example, states may avoid using military action if it could negatively
impact future trade agreements etc.
Arguments against the claim that the signicance of military power has
diminished may include:
●
military force remains critical, as shown by the fact that the production of
arms continues to increase
●
the sale of military weapons has become a major factor in the arming of
various contestants for control of resources
●
military power is also still impor tant as a deterrent, etc.
Answers should include reference to specic examples.
These could include
examples such as the anti-military culture in places such as Japan; anti-war
movements, such as the protests against the war in Iraq; or the impor tance of
military power in the conict in Syria.
The responses are likely to end with a conclusion stating to what ex tent
the candidate agrees or disagrees that the signicance of military power is
diminishing in contemporary global politics.
40
1 . 5 :
6
Discuss
on
state
the
impact
of
NGOs,
MNCs,
and
international
E X A M - S T Y L E
Q U E S T I O N S
organizations
sovereignty.
Examiner hints
Better answers will demonstrate an excellent understanding of the concept
of sovereignty, including reference to sovereignty as characterizing a
state’s independence, its control over territory and its ability to govern itself.
Candidates may talk about the role and functions of the state, and then proceed
to explore how and what kind of an impact each of the aforementioned – NGOs,
MNCs and international organizations like the United Nations – has had on state
sovereignty.
Arguments that these actors have no real impact may include:
●
states may control the agenda of many of these organizations
●
the strengthening of national security and national interest due to the
threat of terrorism and to economic interests
●
states sometimes have a choice over whether to align with
recommendations/policies etc from these organizations, rather than these
being compulsory, etc.
Arguments that these actors have a big impact may include:
●
trade agreements
●
corporate demands on state laws, for example, environmental or labour
laws
●
capital ight
●
threats to relocate
●
the ability of these actors to have signicant impact, even bringing down
governments or bringing about severe economic consequences for states,
etc.
The responses should make reference to specic examples, such as (have
no real impact): the EU, the World Bank , and the IMF control the interests of
states; states can ban NGO protests such as in Singapore; the US refused to sign
the Kyoto agreement; (have a big impact): can bring down governments, for
example, Guatemala.
The responses may end with a conclusion/judgment on the impact of NGOs,
MNCs and international organizations on state sovereignty.
41
1.6 References and fur ther reading
Arensberg,
Conrad.
sample.”
American
Behabib,
Selya.
1992.
Arendt,
The
in
Calhoun,
Craig
Cambridge:
1961.
liberal
MIT
“Community
Anthropologist,
“Models
tradition,
ed.,
Vol.
as
63,
object
and
of
public
space:
Jersen
Habermas”,
and
the
public
Goldfarb,
UK:
and
Habermas
as
241–264.
Hanna
Goody,
Jack.
Group,”
sphere.
Arena,”
in
1998.
Civility
University
2006,
M.
pp.
“Globalization
Kirsch,
31–41,
and
subversion.
Cambridge,
Press.
Inclusion
London:
and
and
the
Domestic
Exclusion
in
the
Global
Routledge.
Press.
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2
H U M A N
R I G H T S
Key concepts
➔
Justice
➔
Liber ty
➔
Equality
Learning outcomes
➔
Nature and evolution of human rights
➔
Codication, protection and monitoring of human rights
➔
Practice of human rights
➔
Debates surrounding human rights: diering interpretations of justice,
liber ty and equality
44
The
concept
into
our
politics
what
of
daily
human
lives
during
this
change.
the
means
We
will
United
Nations’
well
the
The
as
key
to
the
for
are
the
on
our
for
and
this
found
and
they
growing
century.
This
evolution
of
have
unit
will
power,
human
Declaration
of
Human
claims
various
topic
of
are
various
from
the
about
its
justice,
incorporated
arguments
in
global
investigate
politics
rights
and
social
before
Rights
in
the
1948,
as
denitions.
liberty
geographic
whether
been
importance
of
on
debates
how
a
understanding
the
Universal
global,
to
and
taken
discuss
concepts
relativity
rights
twentieth
assertions
components
local
has
and
equality.
levels,
from
surrounding
human
rights
These
the
cultural
should
be
universal.
Human
rights
individual
use
of
human
further
power
that
are
and
in
some
rights
our
and
We
also
will
The
as
(such
“generations”
to
by
the
the
concept
we
will
as
what
Karel
types,
We
change
will
we
and
for
for
will
of
with
to
explore
rights
that
are
in
some
questions
and
its
people,
is
always
change,
to
into
this
often
the
three
unit)
initiated
organizations
about
uses,
and
go
used.
complexity
later
to
in
rights
are
non-governmental
concept
of
undergoing
human
the
society
include
they
of
order
and
human
adding
conventions
other
the
fail
continually
division
rights
description
In
culture
purposes
debates
of
the
examinations
of
may
struggle
is
and
terms
complex.
past
aspects
rights
the
which
conclude
at
in
however,
more
political
Vasak’s
and
means
look
rights
covenants
is
the
human
whether
for
understood
collective;
well
of
Nations
ongoing
and
a
human
as
(NGOs).
politics
the
discussions
or
updated
United
as
of
academic
meaning
as
discuss
well
denition
from
as
denitions
usage.
often
of
analysis
politics,
general
positive,
most
rights
what
this
particularly
for
power.
Key questions
1
Are there more signicant concepts that may be used to describe our current
state of global politics and the interaction of people and power on various
levels and for par ticular purposes?
2
Does the generality of the concept of human rights suce to oer goals
for humanity and a reasonable agenda in this era of rapid globalization and
social change?
3
Who would be in charge of that agenda and what problems may it cause?
4
What are some alternatives?
45
2.1 The development of human rights
What are human rights?
The
most
they
are
These
common
rights
rights
nationality,
Human
of
are
by
can
are
and
be
rights
refer
local
global,
and
and
survive,
such
as
those
may
Positive
do
not
claimed
then
we
denition
individuals
universal,
and
rights
humans,
contemporary
held
have
these
rights
education,
that
are
in
two
of
are
sex,
is
that
human.
gender
or
groups.
are
part
of
the
existence
categories:
services
from
rights
they
protected
and
protection
or
that
into
goods
human
boundaries
entitlements
include
of
because
individually
divide
to
simply
by
authority,
that
harm,
allow
places
both
people
to
live
to
and
care.
Negative
outside
rights
agency.
community
within
Many
have
positive
means
act passed in France on 26 August 1
789
negative
with 1
7 ar ticles that dene the rights of
noted
is
that
in
of
that
the
in
and
do
the
not
right
community
the
practice
the
require
intervention
to
the
live,
and
the
absence
individuals
distinction
circumstantial
social
Los
must
in
that
include
largely
East
food
right
rights
by
of
torture,
who
live
self-determination.
political
right
the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, an
and
rights
economic,
A painting depicting the Declaration of
control
them
negative
are
These
rights.
Angeles,
be
elds
For
USA,
provided
wheat
–
by
of
based
between
on
example,
where
outside
Kansas,
a
access
the
lack
forces,
USA,
positive
to
right
of
to
local
but
it
where
and
resources
is
food
is
a
resources
more
the
and
of
a
abundant
1
resources
can
only
be
taken
away
through
external
intervention
citizens and the nation
This
distinction
between
Enlightenment
writers
negative
and
of
the
and
positive
French
rights
is
Revolution,
a
product
where
the
of
concepts
TOK
of
Do the human sciences help
us to understand the human
species as a whole, or just give
insight into par ticular cultural
groups?
liberty,
As
the
fraternity
times
realities,
these
indigenous
Universal
they
and
changed
came
people.
to
been
of
debated
were
economic
include,
Today,
Declaration
have
equality
and
for
most
to
Rights
amended
the
of
and
in
apply
became
example,
denitions
Human
and
taken
control
all
part
rights
human
the
the
to
a
of
start
of
beings.
contemporary
workers
rights
evolution
years
human
of
and
with
these
of
the
rights
as
since.
A brief history of human rights
The
term
society
the
is
“human
Second
World
Declaration
rarely
used
rights
as
we
now
claims
War
there
many
it
is
applied
coming
and
as
Rights
were
organizing
about
a
no
result
social
rights
peoples
around
into
for
the
to
the
their
globe
these
movements
people
many
forms
ancestral
for
use
United
Before
Many
in
contemporary
common
of
(UDHR).
principle.
human
indigenous
by
as
recent,
Human
and
their
demands
46
of
hear
by
rights”
relatively
livable
in
events,
for
lands
that
term
housing
because
the
language,
and
was
human
example,
and
after
Universal
the
invoked
assume
and
1940s,
Nations’
that
–
politics
the
the
working
2 . 1 :
conditions,
the
documented
populations
in
every
lack
part
of
of
medical
the
world
services
D E V E L O P M E N T
and
and
the
place
this
concept
drinkable
of
human
O F
H U M A N
R I G H T S
water
rights
L TA
for
T H E
Thinking and
communication skills
in
is
trade
one
agreements,
that
between
the
is
part
of
countries.
struggle
for
to
a
name
long
a
history
However,
rights
is
few
an
like
–
that
involving
the
globalization
integral
part
of
of
human
relationships
(as
human
discussed
rights
within
in
Unit
and
1),
existence.
With
the
a
partner
concept
rights
and
the
purposes
of
this
course,
our
central
focus
will
be
on
what
into
are
and
who
decides
which
are
enforceable
and
which
are
Cassin,
one
of
the
drafters
of
the
Universal
Declaration
of
in
1948,
used
the
declaration
of
the
French
Revolution
as
a
Again,
however,
the
French
declaration
does
not
account
attempts
at
delegating
human
rights
to
specic
legislative
processes
needed
to
enforce
them.
populations,
Hence
our
other
were
term
Can
on
what
level
(geographic
and
political)
are
it
it
different
ideas
of
rights
discussed
came
into
before
you
general
provide
any
important
examples
question:
Is
and
use?
the
from?
for
this
specic
general
did
starting
that
point.
Where
Human
from
Rights
was
not.
come
René
it
our
human
vocabulary.
rights
discuss
human
when
introduced
For
of
human
for
the
class
to
rights
discuss?
enforced
and
realized
within
societies,
communities
and
ruling
bodies?
Demonstrators protest against Brazilian President Dilma Rousse and the ruling Workers
Par ty at Paulista Avenue in Sao Paulo, Brazil
The evolution of society and human rights
Statements
They
are
of
held
birthright.
intrinsic
to
be
However,
dependent
on
product
complex
have
easy
The
a
of
time
multipart
access
to
question
rights
the
the
and
of
practice
place.
society;
division
resources
when
can
be
found
entitlements
of
and
we
of
The
that
labour
can
in
human
that
identify
a
of
the
beings
rights
is
concept
societies
who
all
human
current
is,
those
of
that
part
religions.
of
contextual,
of
are
human
our
or
rights
multilayered
incorporates
do
world’s
as
both
those
is
a
and
who
have
not.
beginning
for
the
history
of
human
2
rights
is
notes
that
answer.
Rome
while
one
that
this
Many
offer
is
has
a
produced
politically
accept
early
the
charged
commonly
examples
acknowledging
controversy.
that,
of
the
for
Micheline
question,
held
ethical
example,
view
and
one
that
ancient
presentation
the
Ishay
concepts
that
of
of
(2004:
is
6)
difcult
Greece
human
to
and
rights,
punishment
and
47
2
HUMAN
R I G H TS
justice
The
were
latter
recognized
advocated
human
essential
education
as
a
to
our
all,
2004:
consideration
evidence
rights
of
a
to
7).
are
that
rights,
within
moral
on
Earth.
The
as
West
we
there
structures
superiority.
Eric
was
Confucianism
promoted
developments
has
seen
written
does
to
demonstrated
within
signicant
of
beliefs.
which
Islam
have
are
existence
social
and
important
the
but
Buddhist
ecosystem,
Christianity
These
globe.
and
survive
exists
of
Hindu
natural
themselves,
the
of
the
both
still
members
of
ability
and
belief
around
Babylon,
defence
incorporation
societies
provide
a
(Ishay
committee
among
ancient
for
common
advanced
UDHR
the
as
in
included
solidarity
include,
most
present
also
differences
evidence
not
the
the
of
automatically
Wolf
explains
in
often
mistake
current
his
classic
3
Europe
and
the
conditions
societies
argue
that
as
evolved
we
only
developed
the
Wolf
in
universal
at
different
begin
to
similar
during
imposition
the
of
History
see
for
we
all
societies.
speeds
and
signicant
natural
massive
outside
that
powers
varying
similarities
(ecological)
global
in
However,
over
conditions.
among
conditions,
changes
that
and
came
indigenous
social
human
later,
with
social
Some
societies
more
colonialism
organizations.
says,
We
have
an
entity
been
taught,
called
the
inside
West,
civilization
independent
Many
even
to
of
us
which
Europe
crossed
rights
begat
Given
the
Western
with
to
grew
ancient
liberty,
nature
of
of
and
it
human
is
in
the
the
to
this
Rome
to
of
other
West
begat
it,
a
as
there
a
and
the
industrial
United
according
Europe,
revolution.
States,
and
civilizations.
Enlightenment,
the
exists
society
genealogy,
Christian
the
that
West
societies
has
and
of
of
this
yielded
pursuit
is
outside
think
Renaissance
human
fair
rights
that
Rome,
turn
and
can
opposition
democracy
in
written
philosophy,
conception
and
one
believing
Renaissance,
political
classroom
that
begat
democracy,
life,
the
and
of
up
Greece
the
Enlightenment
TOK
Without
historically
have
that
signicantly,
and
People
Christian
the
Industry,
embodying
the
happiness.
rights
conclude
European
and
that
in
its
development
the
most
origin.
We
through
popular
have
seen
how
To what extent are our
different
approaches
and
views
have
States,
denitional
advantage
given
Europe,
and
later
the
United
perspectives determined by
a
in
the
creation
of
belief
systems
around
our membership of a par ticular
human
rights,
and
our
general
perceptions
worldwide
current
ideas
most
have
been
culture? Is it possible to
strongly
inuenced
by
in
the
industrialized
nations.
objectively evaluate the impact
The
assertions
of
cultural
rights,
on
the
other
hand,
is
a
more
complex
of culture on our knowledge and
topic
which
concerns
the
differences
in
systems
on
and
within
different
beliefs?
continents,
the
and
Western
assumption
rights
Just
has
as
we
been
Second
trigger
of
for
safely
of
movements,
resources
designation
rights
The
Human
of
and
Greeks
recognized
Greek
the
as
a
so
the
that
events
the
these
have
generalized
the
of
to
of
the
ideal.
social
the
been
human
movements.
were
Nations’
movements,
religious
driving
the
the
Universal
ethnic
movements
particularly
accepting
One
of
Holocaust
United
indigenous
and
against
development
and
resources
groups
arguments
horrors
struggles,
those
Romans
having
philosophers
“virtue”
for
and
labour
to
to
as
is
and
and
forces
for
wars
the
“generations”
of
below.
and
for
rights
make
commission
Rights,
access
rights
discussed
War
UN’s
and
gender
material
connected
World
the
the
human
can
Declaration
over
48
provided
version
that
always
the
primary
has
central
are
the
considered
Plato
and
two
the
Aristotle
characteristic
of
early
“rights
are
civilizations
of
man”,
often
human
life
cited
and
for
(Ishay
most
the
Ancient
referencing
2007:
63).
2
HUMAN
R I G H TS
and
the
Peace
of
Westphalia,
which
was
instituted
in
1648,
labour
The Magna Carta, or the “Great Charter ” was
could
be
provided
to
advance
a
declining
feudalism
and
a
growing
signed by King John of England on 15 June
industrialization.
Social
changes
were
taking
place
all
over
Europe,
1215, in order to soothe the complaints of
and
were
evidenced
by
the
Magna
Carta
(1215),
the
Charter
of
the
40 Barons in the English countryside who
Forest
(1217),
the
Petition
of
Right
(1648)
and
the
English
Bill
of
Rights
felt that they were not getting a fair share
(1689).
All
of
these
documents
recognized
the
rights
of
the
individual,
of their rights and property from a greedy
culminating
in
the
French
Revolution
that
witnessed
the
nal
demise
king. It stated (in part) that “to no one will
of
feudal
in
social
systems.
These
rights
became
more
prominent
and
embedded
we sell, to no one will we deny or delay
laws
during
the
eighteenth
and
nineteenth
centuries
and
were
right or justice”.
presented
Just 10 weeks after its agreement, Pope
Innocent III destroyed the agreement, and
orders
the
of
in
documents
Europe,
catchphrase
and
solidied
of
charters
by
“Liberty,
the
that
French
Equality
and
revolutionized
Revolution
the
and
social
the
spread
of
Fraternity”.
England fell into Civil War. King John had
These
social
changes
and
the
reorganization
of
rights
and
duties
which
hoped that the institution of the Magna
they
represented
resulted
in
a
more
complex
labour
system
and
a
core
Carta would calm the Barons and then fall
reorganization
of
the
division
of
labour.
by
feudal
No
longer
did
individuals
and
into obscurity, but the Pope saw it as an
families
have
land
designated
lords
on
which
they
could
ruled
over
grow
attempt to weaken royal rights over the
their
own
foodstuffs;
instead,
mercantile
organizations
the
people and, as such, illegal and unjust. The
production
and
distribution
of
goods,
for
which
they
needed
labour
to
rule over the lives and work of people was
keep
running.
Those
without
land
were
forced
to
sell
their
labour
in
important to a feudal system in which the
order
to
buy
those
foodstuffs
that
could
feed
their
families.
With
this
aristocracy owned the land and allowed
reorganization
came
a
reconsideration
of
rights
of
labour
and
and
a
the
naming
stratication
that
became
of
rights
people to work on it for a price.
based
on
labour
The Char ter of the Forest written in
this
that
solidied
1217 was sealed by Henry III, and was a
reworking of the Magna Car ta, assigning
the ownership of the forests to the
it
the
and
goods.
capitalism
the
The
French
the
This
in
of
presented.
after
production
those
evolution
is
often
we
social
Revolution
ability
which
division
to
accumulate
recognized
now
was
as
based
goods
the
control
over
more
on
the
ownership
and
the
means
beginnings
of
the
to
of
trade
era
of
part
of
live.
aristocracy. It was put into law in 1225.
What was impor tant about the Char ter of
the Forest was that it stipulated that any
Capitalist societies
land unfairly taken by the king would be
Capitalist
societies
have
status
differences
and
hierarchies
as
given back to the Barons, and that free
their
core
organization,
and
are
therefore
built
on
the
differences
among
men would have limited use of the land
groups
to
access
the
resources
needed
to
live.
In
contrast,
egalitarian
for special purposes. This was again an
societies
had
no
need
for
“human
rights”
as
such,
as
all
community
attempt to solidify feudal law, through
members
were
by
denition
equal.
Community
labour
was
for
the
which the aristocracy had control over the
production
of
goods
that
were
used
in
the
community
and/or
traded
English forests and land. Much later the
with
other
communities
that
had
items
not
available
locally.
Status
in
Petition of Right (1648) and the English
hunting-and-gathering
societies
was
often
a
temporary
designation
Bill of Rights (1689) established rights for
and
task-oriented
(such
as
building
a
canoe
or
organizing
a
trading
individuals, weakening the feudal system.
expedition),
L TA
It
is
when
and
labour
disappeared
began
to
once
be
in
the
the
task
was
control
of
completed.
others,
whether
through
Research skills
a
1
What
was
between
the
the
mentioned
survival,
relationship
four
feudal
documents
built
the
above?
or
2
Did
these
documents
lead
lord
that
into
principles
Revolution
3
What
was
French
or
the
of
the
selling
the
consumption
of
rights
functioning
of
of
and
the
or
producer
labour
their
social
community
of
one’s
as
a
violation
commodity
becomes
organization.
individual
but
for
is
This
no
in
for
the
others
for
phenomenon
occurs
longer
exchange
a
to
when
the
use
market.
The
to
or
group
that
controls
the
exchange
or
product
gains
power
French
through
their
life.
production
control
over
the
materials
that
are
needed
to
maintain
not?
purpose
of
the
The
produced
for
process
exchange
changes
rather
than
fundamentally
community
when
products
consumption.
Revolution?
Anthropologists
nineteenth
50
the
human
the
labour
individual
the
or
and
have
noted
twentieth
that
this
centuries
change
as
a
often
result
of
happened
colonialism,
in
the
when
are
2 . 1 :
the
autonomous
destroyed
colonial
social
of
for
the
forces
were
managers
sectors
and
with
colonial
human
and
were
brutally
lands
were
the
in
the
major
the
eighteenth
the
their
the
evolution
into
who
were
of
kin
that
worked
period,
we
know
denition,
shipped
groups
and
or
rule.
during
centuries
of
off
physical
occurred
division
These
outside
colonial
nineteenth
R I G H T S
tribal
this
that
labour
H U M A N
groups
by
broad
their
O F
indigenous
During
way
earmarks
the
forces.
names
Slaves
changes
of
of
most
forced
and
of
reconstruction
leaders
D E V E L O P M E N T
was
rule
divided
without
and
the
production;
was
violated.
communities,
With
in
by
outside
tribal
appointed
today
trauma
given
both
societies
outpowered
and
land
rights,
foreign
of
administrators.
them
to
the
benet
easily
of
replaced
and
organization
people
for
evolution
rapidly
expansion
societies
outside
and
T H E
labour,
and
new
This steel engraving shows slaves being loaded on to a ship in 1881
rights
by
were
workers
own
advocated,
and
“haves”
and
violent,
for
labour,
came
the
the
the
and
families
their
that
“have-nots”
initiated
movements,
rights
to
organize
suffrage,
the
won
Rights
for
realities
like
by
recognition
Human
signicantly
political
recognition
entitlements
the
The
universal
education
for
their
protection.
most
in
control
(see
of
Ishay
the
need
workers
of
trade
rights
and
that
unions,
over
9).
to
the
that
social
the
both
among
protection
these
were
the
of
and
child
rights
to
movements
the
precursors
movements,
Universal
the
peaceful
hours,
From
rights
other
led
growing
workday
2004:
for
were
and
of
examples
Declaration
of
1948.
The Declaration and its initial considerations
While
what
they
the
we
are
ideals
now
the
Declaration
agreed
started
to
its
development,
asking
after
for
the
the
his
points,
the
This
in
not
a
of
on
for
on
is
that
of
it
the
had
on
in
its
its
Association
the
sent
to
the
disagreed
to
with
that
had
say
came
In
Executive
Melville
Herskovits,
done
that
many
Western
the
apartment,
Nations.
then
to
that
Universal
Village
who
them
towards
the
differences
Association
to
precursors
remember
together
United
Herskovits,
wrote
orientation
put
Greenwich
by
been
claims.
Africa,
that
important
adopted
as
to
accompanied
committee
Roosevelt’s
serve
important
of
views
his
the
its
main
focused
on
individual.
Western
main
at
beliefs
the
and
time,
audience.
Second
surprising
it
Anthropological
eldwork
disciplines
the
The
was
example,
Enlightenment
rights,
debates
some
Declaration
viewpoints
the
Declaration’s
result
the
Eleanor
particularly
of
focus
many
of
Rights.
Anthropological
and
rights
in
human
American
anthropological
American
European
as
disagree
light
of
to
Human
to
Director
the
precursors
of
Declaration,
had
of
refer
World
behaviour
with
Given
War
and
much
that
the
was
commented
disagreement
the
Declaration
horrors
of
the
on
with
was
a
the
direct
Holocaust,
this
is
outcome.
51
2.2 The United Nations’ Universal Declaration of Human Rights
The
on
United
10
and
all
sets
there
during
to
a
be
The
had
the
is
the
been
The
of
translated
the
barbarous
and
that
Nations
Human
Rights,
document
achievement
developed
and
War,
United
for
was
horrible
World
Declaration
most
standard”
Declaration
Second
repeated.
Universal
1948,
“common
nations.
that
Nations’
December
largely
acts
these
for
on
all
adopted
the
planet,
peoples
and
with
the
recognition
carried
out
by
acts
could
commissioned
a
not
group
nations
be
of
allowed
scholars
The logo of a year-long campaign in
and
activists
from
around
the
world
to
produce
this
document,
and
2008, marking the 60th anniversary
the
Declaration
was
initiated
in
the
New
York
apartment
of
Eleanor
of the Universal Declaration of Human
Roosevelt,
wife
of
the
then
US
president.
However,
despite
the
best
Rights
of
intentions,
and
Western
Eleanor
TOK
the
leaders
societies
Roosevelt
differences
came
these
that
and
was
would
following
and
activists
cultures
forced
just
to
have
document,
–
–
were
concede
to
be
which
representing
often
that
in
accepted.
Eastern
disagreement,
there
outlined
both
would
Out
basic
of
this
rights
and
always
be
collaboration
for
all
citizens
The United Nations’ Declaration
of
Earth.
This
document,
however,
was
not
the
end
of
the
differences
on
of Human Rights claims to be
the
meaning
of
human
rights,
particularly
between
East
and
West.
“universal”. Is there anything
that is true for all cultures?
The Universal Declaration of Human Rights
The
preamble
human
to
the
Declaration
sets
the
scope
of
contemporary
rights:
Whereas recognition of the inherent dignity and of the equal and inalienable rights
of all members of the human family is the foundation of freedom, justice and
peace in the world,
Whereas disregard and contempt for human rights have resulted in barbarous acts
which have outraged the conscience of mankind, and the advent of a world in which
human beings shall enjoy freedom of speech and belief and freedom from fear and
want has been proclaimed as the highest aspiration of the common people,
Whereas it is essential, if man is not to be compelled to have recourse, as a last
resor t, to rebellion against tyranny and oppression, that human rights should be
protected by the rule of law,
Whereas it is essential to promote the development of friendly relations between
nations,
Whereas the peoples of the United Nations have in the Char ter rearmed their
faith in fundamental human rights, in the dignity and wor th of the human person
and in the equal rights of men and women and have determined to promote social
progress and better standards of life in larger freedom,
Whereas Member States have pledged themselves to achieve, in cooperation
with the United Nations, the promotion of universal respect for and observance of
human rights and fundamental freedoms,
Whereas a common understanding of these rights and freedoms is of the greatest
impor tance for the full realization of this pledge,
Now, therefore, the General Assembly proclaims…
52
2 . 2 :
T H E
U N I T E D
N A T I O N S ’
U N I V E R S A L
D E C L A R A T I O N
O F
H U M A N
R I G H T S
Eleanor Roosevelt holding the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, 1949
Ar ticle 1
Ar ticle 6
All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and
Everyone has the right to recognition everywhere as a
rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and
person before the law.
should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.
Ar ticle 7
Ar ticle 2
All are equal before the law and are entitled without any
Everyone is entitled to all the rights and freedoms set for th
discrimination to equal protection of the law. All are entitled
in this Declaration, without distinction of any kind, such
to equal protection against any discrimination in violation
as race, colour, sex, language, religion, political or other
of this Declaration and against any incitement to such
opinion, national or social origin, proper ty, bir th or other
discrimination.
status. Fur thermore, no distinction shall be made on the
Ar ticle 8
basis of the political, jurisdictional or international status of
Everyone has the right to an eective remedy by the
the country or territory to which a person belongs, whether
competent national tribunals for acts violating the
it be independent, trust, non-self-governing or under any
fundamental rights granted him by the constitution
other limitation of sovereignty.
or by law.
Ar ticle 3
Ar ticle 9
Everyone has the right to life, liber ty and security of person.
No one shall be subjected to arbitrary arrest, detention
Ar ticle 4
or exile.
No one shall be held in slavery or servitude; slavery and the
Ar ticle 10
slave trade shall be prohibited in all their forms.
Everyone is entitled in full equality to a fair and public
Ar ticle 5
hearing by an independent and impar tial tribunal, in the
No one shall be subjected to tor ture or to cruel, inhuman or
determination of his rights and obligations and of any
degrading treatment or punishment.
criminal charge against him.
53
2
HUMAN
R I G H TS
Ar ticle 11
Ar ticle 18
1
Everyone charged with a penal oence has the right
Everyone has the right to freedom of thought, conscience
to be presumed innocent until proved guilty according
and religion; this right includes freedom to change
to law in a public trial at which he has had all the
his religion or belief, and freedom, either alone or in
guarantees necessary for his defense.
community with others and in public or private, to
manifest his religion or belief in teaching, practice,
2
No one shall be held guilty of any penal oence on
worship and observance.
account of any act or omission.
Ar ticle 19
Ar ticle 12
Everyone has the right to freedom of opinion and
No one shall be subjected to arbitrary interference with his
expression; this right includes freedom to hold opinions
privacy, family, home or correspondence, nor to attacks
without interference and to seek , receive and impar t
upon his honour and reputation. Everyone has the right
information and ideas through any media and regardless
to the protection of the law against such interference or
of frontiers.
attacks.
Ar ticle 20
Ar ticle 13
1
1
Everyone has the right to freedom of peaceful
Everyone has the right to freedom of movement and
assembly and association.
residence within the borders of each State.
2
2
No one may be compelled to belong to an association.
Everyone has the right to leave any country, including
his own, and to return to his country.
Ar ticle 14
Ar ticle 2
1
1
Everyone has the right to take par t in the government
of his country, directly or through freely chosen
1
Everyone has the right to seek and to enjoy in other
representatives.
countries asylum from persecution.
2
2
Everyone has the right to equal access to public
This right may not be invoked in the case of
service in his country.
prosecutions genuinely arising from non-political
crimes or from acts contrary to the purposes and
3
The will of the people shall be the basis of the
authority of government; this will shall be expressed
principles of the United Nations.
in periodic and genuine elections which shall be by
Ar ticle 15
universal and equal surage and shall be held by
1
Everyone has the right to a nationality.
2
No one shall be arbitrarily deprived of his nationality
secret vote or by equivalent free voting procedures.
Ar ticle 22
nor denied the right to change his nationality.
Everyone, as a member of society, has the right to social
Ar ticle 16
1
Men and women of full age, without any limitation due
to race, nationality or religion, have the right to marry
and to found a family. They are entitled to equal rights
as to marriage, during marriage and at its dissolution.
2
Marriage shall be entered into only with the free and
security and is entitled to realization, through national
eor t and international cooperation and in accordance
with the organization and resources of each State, of the
economic, social and cultural rights indispensable for his
dignity and the free development of his personality.
Ar ticle 23
full consent of the intending spouses.
1
3
Everyone has the right to work , to free choice of
The family is the natural and fundamental group unit
employment, to just and favourable conditions of
of society and is entitled to protection by society and
work and to protection against unemployment.
the State.
2
equal pay for equal work .
Ar ticle 1
7
1
Everyone has the right to own property alone as well as
in association with others.
Everyone, without any discrimination, has the right to
3
Everyone who works has the right to just and favourable
remuneration ensuring for himself and his family an
existence worthy of human dignity, and supplemented,
2
No one shall be arbitrarily deprived of his proper ty.
if necessary, by other means of social protection.
54
2 . 2 :
4
T H E
U N I T E D
N A T I O N S ’
U N I V E R S A L
Everyone has the right to form and to join trade unions
D E C L A R A T I O N
O F
H U M A N
R I G H T S
Ar ticle 27
for the protection of his interests.
1
Everyone has the right freely to par ticipate in the
cultural life of the community, to enjoy the ar ts and to
Ar ticle 24
share in scientic advancement and its benets.
Everyone has the right to rest and leisure, including
2
reasonable limitation of working hours and periodic
Everyone has the right to the protection of the moral
and material interests resulting from any scientic,
holidays with pay.
literary or ar tistic production of which he is
Ar ticle 25
the author.
1
Everyone has the right to a standard of living
Ar ticle 28
adequate for the health and wellbeing of himself and
Everyone is entitled to a social and international order in
of his family, including food, clothing, housing and
which the rights and freedoms set for th in this Declaration
medical care and necessary social services, and
can be fully realized.
the right to security in the event of unemployment,
sickness, disability, widowhood, old age or other lack
Ar ticle 29
of livelihood in circumstances beyond his control.
1
2
Everyone has duties to the community in which alone
Motherhood and childhood are entitled to special care
the free and full development of his personality is
and assistance. All children, whether born in or out of
possible.
wedlock , shall enjoy the same social protection.
2
Ar ticle 26
1
In the exercise of his rights and freedoms, everyone
shall be subject only to such limitations as are
determined by law solely for the purpose of
Everyone has the right to education. Education shall
securing due recognition and respect for the rights
be free, at least in the elementary and fundamental
and freedoms of others and of meeting the just
stages. Elementary education shall be compulsory.
requirements of morality, public order and the general
Technical and professional education shall be made
welfare in a democratic society.
generally available and higher education shall be
equally accessible to all on the basis of merit.
3
2
These rights and freedoms may in no case be
exercised contrary to the purposes and principles of
Education shall be directed to the full development
the United Nations.
of the human personality and to the strengthening
of respect for human rights and fundamental
Ar ticle 30
freedoms. It shall promote understanding, tolerance
Nothing in this Declaration may be interpreted as implying
and friendship among all nations, racial or religious
for any State, group or person any right to engage in any
groups, and shall fur ther the activities of the United
activity or to perform any act aimed at the destruction of
Nations for the maintenance of peace.
any of the rights and freedoms set for th herein.
3
Parents have a prior right to choose the kind of
education that shall be given to their children.
L TA
Research and thinking skills
1
What
events
2
What
rights
by
member
3
Which
4
How
led
does
the
the
establishment
UDHR
propose
of
the
and
Universal
how
were
Declaration?
they
accepted
nations?
nations
have
to
did
human
not
agree
rights
with
evolved
these
since
rights
the
and
initial
why?
declaration?
TOK
Ar ticle 19 states that everyone has the right to freedom of opinion and expressions,
including the right to hold opinions without interference. What would count as
interference in this sense?
55
2.3 The three “generations” of human rights
Our
contemporary
concepts
of
the
of
UDHR
various
that
those
the
The
of
and
participating
Czech
three
activist
rights
peoples
gender
or
rights:
that
access
to
First
resources
Generation
French
individual
and,
emblem of the Republic
also
has
to
include
once
Second
to
They
are
become
most
work,
access
their
Generation
rights,
corresponding
right
to
economic
in
Rights
a
most
especially
development
on
all
of
by
rather
them
who
rights
include
deem
the
women
in
pushed
all
a
religion,
to
for
the
are
common
would
be
all
location,
tenet
of
differentiated
rights,
in
the
correspond
freedom
engage
in
by
violation
parts
the
world.
of
and
social
equality,
over
one’s
“security-oriented
and
to
to
the
and
These
of
rights
head
of
religion
interference.
the
work
of
indivisible.
to
for
liberty
set
include
slavery,
call
the
fundamental
without
roof
live,
division
with
culture,
cannot
economic
a
the
fraternity,
that
political
and
Of
which
that
include
and
rights”
as
reproduce
all
are
the
of
as
of
as
the
food.
they
their
well
as
include
rights
rights,
parties
cultural
These
political
generations
political
to
fraternity.
collective
of
the
and
Third
individual
and
of
economic
levels.
more
often
widely
resistance
socialist
idea
referred
environment,
includes
than
the
them
sometimes
French
geographic
generations
those
are
formation
and
around
to
clearly
the
The
activists,
and
politically,
in
as
to
reasonable
development.
Generation
rights,
live
with
social
campaign
proposed
grounded
French
to
to
non-
communities.
Third
the
act
are
rights
by
corresponded
they
and
are
healthcare,
the
and
document
groups,
reasoned,
back
together
the
referred
individual
and
to
UDHR
key
popularity
Nations,
Growing
Revolution:
on
sold;
torture
Rights
to
us
civil
to
the
social
rst
that
Vasak
common
closely
sometimes
the
families
from
the
Vasak
and
assemble
Generation
right
allow
opinions,
to
freedom
again
correspond
56
have
or
liberty,
for
individual,
and
United
peoples.
universally,
takes
bought
of
of
French
each
Rights ,
concept
importantly,
of
the
the
the
government
participation
rights
dependent
This
of
both
on
As
declaration.
Karel
applied
part
or
the
produce,
differences
are
equal
relies
equality.
supplement
banner
the
–
rights
and
world’s
categories
of
would
to
the
for
in
jurist
government.
they
need
the
features
without
human
connes
cultural
three
be
the
of
right
of
ideals
and
could
a
all
under
into
This
that
the
their
prominent
principles
French Revolution 1
789: Allegorical
of
equality.
the
as
to
defence
of
liberty
organizations
saw
relate
such
the
–
justice,
outside
and
(NGOs)
inclusion
human
and
increased
could
movements,
society
rights,
stakeholders
government
rights
understanding
human
invoked
recognized
of
and/or
Second
long
by
in
political
the
Generation
term.
discussions
public.
More
Debates
rights
by
generally,
2
HUMAN
R I G H TS
The
reaction
other
adequately
countries
place
of
still
go
We s t e r n
While
exists
in
a
of
t o d a y.
the
to
State
Declaration
and
overarching
that
theme.
human
and
and
debates
and
of
the
and
cultural
NGOs
that
the
its
world.
themes
failed
argue
is
that
to
among
H o w e v e r,
Declaration
concretely
rights
use
H o w e v e r,
cultural
variances
to
and
it
the
current
based
on
include
an
realities.
of
principals
little
because
continue
globalizing
more
the
Association
Declaration
contemporary
regional
and
therefore
and
complaint
and
differences
the
States
more
contemporary
the
Anthropological
to
relativity
changing
principles
cultural
origin
us
American
organizations
beyond
awareness
that
the
recognize
rights
debates
of
of
academic
in
the
local
and
specify
the
recognition
beliefs,
the
insistence
doctrines
are
We s t e r n
n o n - We s t e r n
settings
is
contemporary
debates
also
relativity
argue
for
still
s o v e r e i g n t y,
in
the
remind
territorial
4
i n t e g r i t y,
The
national
excellent
and
s e c u r i t y,
comprehensive
Encyclopedia
Britannica
recent
of
basis
With
the
the
end
of
puts
the
Cold
and
was
critique...
The
viewpoint
in
any
or
especially
when
regional
precepts
are
Nor
surprising
is
First
it
Rights
the
held
in
in
in
the
cultural
the
a
foreign
of
of
and
environment.
human
context
took
on
intensied
this
assertion
determined
the
great
a
by
rights
by
idea
–
of
in
the
stating
the
more
–
that
may
seem
human
soon
after
the
second
World
June
1993
by
national
religious
of
stating
and
cultural
end
emerged
that
human
regional
and
many
from
a
Cold
the
the
on
rights
relativist
had
and
political
its
War.
Bangkok
Human
reafrmation
“must
particularities
that
of
traditions.
the
Conference
qualied
backgrounds”),
alliances
minimized
(which
human
local,
problematic,
rights
of
to
of
by
religious
that
rights
scope
the
declaration
of...
the
and
the
UN
North-South
cultural-relativist
fundamentally
philosophical
emerge
more
a
in
in
system
on
in
traditions
that
the
human
and
be
and
should
Vienna
bi-polar
policies
all
it
context
historical,
end
in
expressed
universality
considered
customs
that
debate
and
should
preparation
convened
the
underlying
considers
found
prominently
meeting
of
all
one
entry
the
movement:
War...
society
and
division
supplemented
given
national,
the
relativist
character
rights
economics
discouraged
and
critique
be
various
reects
independent
differences
in
favour
of
5
undivided
Both
the
initial
Declaration
and
the
kinds
many
of
more
about
need
for
are
differences
underdeveloped
to
Western
of
among
reected
This
has
for
character
debates
in
the
resulted
emphasize
women,
discussions
the
contemporary
stakeholders.
perceived
environment,
other
the
the
loyalties.
development
convened
reect
War
complaints
and
economic
have
the
Cold
globalization,
as
laws
in
certain
property,
of
the
access
and
of
examples
and
newly
the
UN
to
resources
treaties
documents
kinds
trade
industrialized,
over
that
that
rights
–
–
led
and
for
to
recognition
industrializing
of
and
areas.
Class discussion
To what extent does the United Nations’ Universal Declaration of Human Rights
represent Western principles only?
58
2 . 3 :
T H E
T H R E E
“ G E N E R A T I O N S ”
O F
H U M A N
R I G H T S
Human rights laws and treaties, human
rights and the law
There
and
have
These
the
been
expand
have
many
upon
renewed
implementation
entitlements
divisions
pointed
of
with
mean
nothing
believes
to
we
rights
the
that
of
a
debates
of
full
we
and
and
with
the
have
like
lived
that
1948
States
the
that
moral
and
this
These
Ignatieff
universals
Kosovo
with
concerning
autonomy.
Michael
moral
emphasize
Declaration.
inalienable
cultural
that
awareness
places
treaties
original
among
rights
paradox
live
in
and
the
economic
point
out:
laws
parts
of
has
human
universals
Rwanda.
paradox
He
since
the
6
Holocaust.
and
We
treaties,
try
but
to
like
reconcile
the
this
concept
paradox
itself,
not
with
all
laws
are
prone
Refugees ee Rwanda in 1994 following the brutal genocide,
which estimates say claimed in excess of 800,000 lives
to
following
them.
laid
bare
was
abrogated,
its
what
unbridled
Declaration.
faith
in
the
have
every
aspect
legally
of
however,
themselves
countries
as
the
foreign
were
did
(page
one
almost
and
can
laws
none
of
of
stage.
the
and
the
French
had
the
same
these
on
of.
With
had
newly
to
are
foreign
to
rights
compelled
almost
The
them
Dutch
feel
no
unconditional
think
colonies
initially
law
5).
many
yet
natural
then,
no
international
to;
Holocaust
accomplish
Holocaust,
end,
entitled
not
when
covenants
an
“The
could
Holocaust,
rights
the
to
the
either”
that
on
coming
such
their
is
like
tyranny
the
treaties,
human
enforceable
powers
of
continues,
looked
pure
Without
Because
been
colonialism
that
world
when
will.
Ignatieff
Declaration
There
problem,
the
As
concede
that
they
independent
follow
The bombardment of Dubrovnik by the Yugoslav People’s
the
Army in 1991, as par t of Croatia’s War of Independence.
tenants
of
the
Declaration,
and
the
interests
of
their
own
In the years that followed, the Balkan Peninsula saw
elites
often
conicted
with
the
human
rights
stated
there.
genocide and massacres that shocked the world.
The
yet
Soviet
did
not
advanced
the
actively
drafting
voting
of
the
covenants
the
or
and
majority
oppose
however,
the
were
yet
its
States
ignoring
that
countries
divisions
to
the
come,
vote
has
have
Of
Declaration
all
all
meetings
of
the
United
and
In
the
(1999:
by
and
passed
Nations.
East
Ignatieff
itself
and
in
that
treaties
drafted
the
the
participated
the
been
the
as
the
distinguished
between
and
have
and
almost
in
on
principles.
that
Declaration
laws
of
in
countries
United
against
still
abstained
capitalist
followed,
the
bloc
6)
by
1948,
West
reminds
us,
The
descent
into
dictatorship
possible
as
a
the
to
state
of
so
many
or
believe
would
individuals
that
be
of
civil
these
war
winning
enough
inside
it.
to
The
newly
had
not
independent
yet
occurred.
independence
guarantee
emergence
the
of
and
states
It
was
freedoms
the
still
freedom
Asian
of
Tiger
The main gates to the Auschwitz Concentration Camp
economies
and
the
rebirth
of
radical
Islam
were
still
decades
in Poland. Estimates put the death toll at this network
away.
The
great
philosophical
conict
between
“the
West
and
of concentration and ex termination camps at 1.25–1.5
the
Rest”
which
has
called
into
question
the
universality
of
million people.
human
rights,
still
lay
in
the
future.
59
2
HUMAN
R I G H TS
In
contemporary
politics,
states
but
as
times,
Ishay
“support
for
rights
allegiance—whether
politics,’
and
else.’
have
the
based
gay,
[Hobsbawm]
nobody
rights
quoting
on
women
explained,
Human
rights
been
noted
intermixed
British
particular
or
ethnic.
‘are
can
identities
realized
‘identity
for
by
Hobsbawm
cultural
of
themselves
be
identity
Eric
or
Promoters
about
never
with
historian
themselves
adding
the
sum
7
total
of
Still,
the
or
minorities’
most
larger
treaties,
of
the
issues
of
climate
sheer
rights
as
towards
of
human
both
rights
who
labour
and
are
and
development,
is
of
the
the
for
and
a
individual
realize
Further,
more
the
the
a
rights
effect
as
(a
of
–
a
and
it
is
a
June
shown
diverse.
cultural
changing
artefacts
their
1999)
absurd
is
in
to
it
treat
of
from
the
everyday
of
regards
has
a
in
outside
practices
rationale
universalist
treat
one
rights,
or
nation
any
capabilities
to
Sen).
made
assumptions
globalization
others
fact
into
a
Cultural
to
–
of
may
their
be
is
making
special
Aspects
cultures
while
in
argued
a
liberal
and
Ethnographic
local
that
instruments
as
individual’s
that
in
us,
absurd
Amartya
globalization
result
these
from
However,
her
globalization,
development.
women’s
an
addressed
Nussbaum
she
is
bodies,
and
participants
“Women
that
globalization
in
has
tells
Martha
the
issue
instruments
various
about
in
all
position
from
arena.
a
to
to
and
the
violations
on
the
movements
as
participates
unit
which
perception
Nash
that
This
her
draws
public
that
example,
understanding
she
activism
questions
positions,
deepening
is
an
confuse
by
their
presented
maintained
homogeneous
have
more
an
concept
there
more
System
cultures,
without
as
Justice,
Conversely,
anthropologist
world
forces
rights,
difcult
the
World
culture.
on
equally
Drawing
she
Social
to
philosopher
rights
rights.
orientation
to
some
as
rights
begins
following
apply
by
well
fear,
enforceable
labour
as
sexual
report
generalities
from
monitored
on
adopted
identity
referred
recent
the
the
American
approach,
and
in
390),
cultural
women’s
are
taking
can
(2007:
women,
(Sex
these
world
note
to
the
they
and
and
see
than
often
More
rights,
with
that
Ishay
Aristotelian
single
are
regularly
them.
shall
unqualied
Universals”
the
we
problem
repressing
rather
been
freedom
documents
They
development
as
respect
against
as
violating
have
address
environment,
ideals
who
that
do
education,
implementation
NGOs,
category.
With
of
laws
states
these
realities.
assumption
given
as
the
of
development
contemporary
Part
change,
statements
States
those
such
number
promised
and
Nations’
rights,
like.
of
covenants
United
housing,
The
interests.”
of
the
making
incorporating
own
existing
maintaining
an
8
autonomy
has
led,
that
for
languages,
a
national
This
world
A bilingual sign on the Llanberis pass in
resources,
Wales, UK
and
60
land)
a
renewed
seen
along
in
with
as
rights
they
those
global
ght
who
the
and
for
and
all
of
indigenous
own
claim
standards.
and
has
signs
becoming
claim
their
teach
Welsh
globalizing
would
industries.
is
market
to
where
English,
of
and
demands
that
symbolizes
the
trade
Wales,
movement
and
against
for
global
Globalization
about
stage
from
to
have
is
areas
history.
questions
the
we
language
geographic
to
example,
as
languages.
cultural
differs
trade
people,
rights,
those
been
must
popular
peoples
to
has
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maintain
be
in
local
designated
in
both
different
maintain
also
who
are
including
resources
given
often
land
(such
their
rise
on
and
as
oil
2 . 3 :
T H E
T H R E E
“ G E N E R A T I O N S ”
O F
H U M A N
R I G H T S
The United Nations human rights legal system
Currently,
and
the
human
The
are
rights
The
growing
Nations
three
–
all
regional
organization
organization
and
of
but
for
and
is
the
United
rights
system
rarely
rights
systems
monitoring
and
–
Africa,
reporting
Europe,
on
abuses.
human
multifaceted
members,
human
responsible
implementation
overarching
states.
a
there
Americas
that
includes
Nations
within
is
all.
and
the
meant
to
Human
its
193
United
apply
rights
member
Nations
to
all
laws
is
United
are
not
9
enforceable,
rarely
the
and
raties
last
as
Human
treaties
Rights
commonly
international
human
Watch
adopted
rights
reports
by
treaties
,
other
the
US
the
United
nations.
ratied
In
States
fact,
were
two
Child
(but
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optional
not
of
the
the
protocols
treaty
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exception
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Women
except
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on
rights
States
abuses
Security
Court,
the
US,
nor
been
in
December
a
has
Iran,
their
has
any
about
Somalia.
treaty
Nauru,
in
Palau,
territories.
brought
powerful
by
US
of
UN
Forms
also
of
Somalia,
failed
by
member
violations.
International
to
of
by
to
United
Nations
Criminal
formally
39
Court
the
human
International
been
states
Tonga.
admit
the
the
the
Against
member
and
2016,
Criminal
Rights
with
ratify
presented
to
of
the
country
As
all
Sudan
refusal
to
the
state,
Discrimination
enforcement
No
on
member
ratied
forward
the
Convention
has
industrialized
rights
the
The
nations’
own
Rights
every
rights
many
the
been
been
human
indicted
All
has
human
with
by
The
of
that
on
2002.
ratied
Elimination
correlates
in
Convention
been
and
inherent
Council
questioned
have
US
(CEDAW),
seven:
the
since
the
problem
United
itself)
has
of
to
individuals
(ICC).
The International Criminal Cour t
TOK
The ICC consists of 123 member states
Research how international
that ratied the Rome Statute, the treaty
treaties are ratied.
which established the ICC in 1998, and
To what extent are international
entered into force in 2002. Seven nations
politics hampered by national
voted against the ratication of the ICC,
sovereignty?
including the United States, China and
Israel. A number of nations have signed
but not ratied the Rome Statute. The
Cour t’s purpose is to prosecute serious
international crimes, such as crimes
against humanity, war crimes and
crimes of aggression. Fur ther action
and consequences of prosecution of
The logo of the International Criminal
Court
individuals by the ICC remain to be seen, and are still being contested by some
member states. China and India, for example, have openly criticized the existence
of the ICC, questioning the legitimacy of an institution that operates beyond
national sovereignty.
61
2
HUMAN
R I G H TS
UN human rights mechanisms
The
of
UN
promotes,
mechanisms.
experts,
The
principal
UN
47
while
topics.
●
others
UN
Human
States,
●
are
Rights
UN
also
and
Procedures:
human
rights
through
human
a
variety
rights
representatives.
are:
body
recommendations
two
a
other
human
peer-review
overall
human
on
rights
process
rights
composed
human
of
rights
mechanisms:
through
records
undergo
years.
independent
conditions
rights
human
independent
intergovernmental
Review:
Special
UN
an
make
States’
every
of
State
manages
Periodic
four
protects
bodies
Council:
Member
rights
by
rights
scrutiny
human
and
composed
led
discuss
Council
Universal
which
are
human
which
The
monitors
Some
treaty
in
specic
bodies:
experts
appointed
countries
ten
or
on
committees
to
monitor
particular
of
topics.
independent
The logo of the Human Rights
experts
that
oversee
human
rights
States’
implementation
of
the
core
UN
Council of the United Nations with
seat in Geneva
treaties.Visit
http://tbinternet.ohchr.org/_layouts/
TreatyBodyExternal/Treaty.aspx to
treaties
and
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Ofce
UN
complaints
of
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rights
and
the
facilitating
assistance
regional
to
High
civil
including
society
national
which
each
and
by
supports
for
the
distributing
engagement.
governments
and
UN
State
Commissioner
coordinates
mechanisms,
see
mechanisms
human
has
Human
work
useful
The
rights
joined.
of
OHCHR
maintains
the
UN
human
information
alsoprovides
country
ofces
and
ofces
Other UN bodies
In
addition
UN
and
The
the
the
and
of
resolves
States
issues
international
issues
related
on
to
human
International
specic
of
mandate,
developing
including
in
protection.
individual
62
Law
Commission
established
in
the
UN
has
codifying
international
areas
pertinent
to
Commission
members
that
is
serve
human
the
Charter,
and
The
mechanisms,
there
to
protection
human
the
human
rights
of
are
other
rights
law:
Organization
also
plays
role
in
an
law,
rights
composed
ve-year
of
34
terms.
important
promotion,
protection
some
rights.
The
relevant
rights
international
Labour
disputes
on
of
human
TheInternational
between
of
UN
procedures
Justice
including
main
development
International
Court
law,
bodies
to
and
standard-setting
on
topics
work
related
to
and
employment.
The
Economic
coordinates
agencies,
themes,
and
the
with
as
Social
Council
of
the
regard
to
economic
well
protection
and
work
as
engaging
activities,
recommendations
UN
in
and
within
the
(ECOSOC)
specialized
its
and
own
social
promotion
formulating
UN
system.
policy
2 . 3 :
In
the
area
of
contributes
ground
refugee
to
legal
assistance
law,
the
UN
High
standard-setting,
to
T H E
T H R E E
“ G E N E R A T I O N S ”
Commissioner
in
addition
to
for
O F
H U M A N
R I G H T S
Refugees
providing
on-the-
refugees.
The logo of the United Nations High
The
United
making
in
the
forum
The
organ
area
Affairs
of
the
discussion
rights.
of
and
of
47
the
and
Its Social,
to
human
the
Assembly
Nations,
(referred
on
composed
equality
General
United
human
Commission
gender
The
of
Committee
for
ECOSOC
UN
Nations
as
Status
States,
rights
the
rights
of
of
is
is
the
may
make
“Third
policy-
Commissioner for Refugees
Cultural
provides
a
well.
a
principal
Its
and
Committee”)
as
Women ,
women.
and
recommendations
Humanitarian
issues,
the
political
subsidiary
forum
work
is
for
body
of
advancing
supported
by
Women
Human
instruments
Rights
Ofce
in
defence
the
of
the
of
High
human
Commissioner
lists
the
primary
rights:
Universal human rights instruments
In addition to the International Bill of Rights and the core
human rights treaties, there are many other universal
●
Declaration on Race and Racial Prejudice
●
Convention against Discrimination in Education
●
Protocol Instituting a Conciliation and Good Oces
instruments relating to human rights. A non-exhaustive
selection is listed below.
Commission to be responsible for seeking a settlement
World Conference on Human Rights and Millennium
of any disputes which may arise between States Par ties
Assembly
●
●
Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action
United Nations Millennium Declaration
The right of self-determination
●
●
to the Convention against Discrimination in Education
●
and of Discrimination Based on Religion or Belief
●
World Conference against Racism, 2001 (Durban
Declaration and Programme of Action)
United Nations Declaration on the Granting of
Independence to Colonial Countries and Peoples
Rights of women
General Assembly resolution 1803 (XVII) of
●
14 December 1962, “Permanent sovereignty over
natural resources”
●
Declaration on the Elimination of All Forms of Intolerance
Discrimination against Women (CEDAW)
●
International Convention against the Recruitment,
Use, Financing and Training of Mercenaries
Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of
Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Elimination of
All Forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW-OP)
●
Declaration on the Protection of Women and Children
in Emergency and Armed Conict
Rights of indigenous peoples and minorities
●
Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples
●
●
Indigenous and Tribal Peoples Convention, 1989
Rights of the child
(No. 169)
●
Declaration on the Rights of Persons Belonging to
●
Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC)
●
Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Rights of
National or Ethnic, Religious and Linguistic Minorities
the Child on the sale of children, child prostitution and
Prevention of discrimination
●
Equal Remuneration Convention, 1951 (No. 100)
●
Discrimination (Employment and Occupation)
child pornography (CRC-OPSC)
●
conict (CRC-OPAC)
●
Minimum Age Convention, 1973 (No. 138)
●
Worst Forms of Child Labour Convention, 1999 (No. 182)
International Convention on the Elimination of all
Forms of Racial Discrimination (ICERD)
Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Rights of
the Child on the involvement of children in armed
Convention, 1958 (No. 111)
●
Declaration on the Elimination of Violence against Women
63
2
HUMAN
R I G H TS
Rights of older persons
●
Guidelines for Action on Children in the Criminal
Justice System
●
United Nations Principles for Older Persons
●
United Nations Guidelines for the Prevention of
Rights of persons with disabilities
Juvenile Delinquency (The Riyadh Guidelines)
●
Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities
●
Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Rights of
●
Declaration of Basic Principles of Justice for Victims of
Crime and Abuse of Power
Persons with Disabilities
●
Declaration on the Rights of Mentally Retarded Persons
●
Declaration on the Rights of Disabled Persons
●
Principles for the protection of persons with mental
illness and the improvement of mental health care
●
Basic Principles on the Independence of the Judiciary
●
Basic Principles on the Role of Lawyers
●
Guidelines on the Role of Prosecutors
●
Principles on the Eective Prevention and Investigation
of Extra-legal, Arbitrary and Summary Executions
●
Standard Rules on the Equalization of Oppor tunities
for Persons with Disabilities
●
Declaration on the Protection of All Persons from
Enforced Disappearance
Human rights in the administration of justice: protection
of persons subjected to detention or imprisonment
●
●
Remedy and Reparation
United Nations Standard Minimum Rules for the
Treatment of Prisoners (The Nelson Mandela Rules)
●
Basic Principles for the Treatment of Prisoners
●
Body of Principles for the Protection of All Persons
Basic Principles and Guidelines on the Right to a
●
International Convention for the Protection of All
Persons from Enforced Disappearance
●
United Nations Rules for the Treatment of Women
Prisoners and Non-custodial Measures for Women
under Any Form of Detention or Imprisonment
Oenders (the Bangkok Rules)
●
United Nations Rules for the Protection of Juveniles
Deprived of their Liber ty
●
Updated set of principles for the protection and
promotion of human rights through action to
●
Declaration on the Protection of All Persons from Being
combat impunity
Subjected to Tor ture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or
●
Degrading Treatment or Punishment
Social welfare, progress and developments
Convention against Tor ture and Other Cruel, Inhuman
●
Declaration on Social Progress and Development
●
Universal Declaration on the Eradication of Hunger
or Degrading Treatment or Punishment (CAT)
●
Optional Protocol to the Convention against Tor ture
and Malnutrition
and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or
●
Declaration on the Use of Scientic and Technological
Punishment (OPCAT)
Progress in the Interests of Peace and for the Benet
●
Principles of Medical Ethics relevant to the Role of Health
of Mankind
Personnel, particularly Physicians, in the Protection of
●
Declaration on the Right of Peoples to Peace
●
Declaration on the Right to Development
●
Universal Declaration on the Human Genome and
Prisoners and Detainees against Torture and Other Cruel,
Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment
●
Principles on the Eective Investigation and
Human Rights
Documentation of Tor ture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or
Degrading Treatment or Punishment
●
Safeguards guaranteeing protection of the rights of
●
Universal Declaration on Cultural Diversity
Promotion and protection of human rights
those facing the death penalty
●
●
Code of Conduct for Law Enforcement Ocials
●
Basic Principles on the Use of Force and Firearms by
Principles relating to the status of national institutions
(The Paris Principles)
●
Declaration on the Right and Responsibility of
Law Enforcement Ocials
Individuals, Groups and Organs of Society to Promote
●
and Protect Universally Recognized Human Rights and
United Nations Standard Minimum Rules for Non-
Fundamental Freedoms
custodial Measures (The Tokyo Rules)
●
United Nations Standard Minimum Rules for the
Administration of Juvenile Justice (The Beijing Rules)
64
●
United Nations Declaration on Human Rights
Education and Training
2 . 3 :
T H E
T H R E E
“ G E N E R A T I O N S ”
O F
H U M A N
R I G H T S
Marriage
Nationality, statelessness, asylum and refugees
●
●
Convention on the Reduction of Statelessness
●
Convention relating to the Status of Stateless Persons
●
Convention relating to the Status of Refugees
●
Protocol relating to the Status of Refugees
●
Declaration on the Human Rights of Individuals who
Convention on Consent to Marriage, Minimum Age for
Marriage and Registration of Marriages
●
Recommendation on Consent to Marriage, Minimum
Age for Marriage and Registration of Marriages
Right to health
●
Declaration of Commitment on HIV/AIDS
are not nationals of the country in which they live
Right to work and to fair conditions of employment
War crimes and crimes against humanity, including
●
Employment Policy Convention, 1964 (No. 122)
genocide
●
Freedom of association
Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the
Crime of Genocide
●
Freedom of Association and Protection of the Right to
●
Organise Convention, 1948 (No. 87)
Convention on the Non-Applicability of Statutory
Limitations to War Crimes and Crimes against
●
Right to Organise and Collective Bargaining
Humanity
Convention, 1949 (No. 98)
●
Principles of international co-operation in the
Slavery, slavery-like practices and forced labour
detection, arrest, extradition and punishment of
●
Slavery Convention
●
Protocol amending the Slavery Convention signed at
persons guilty of war crimes and crimes against
humanity
Geneva on 25 September 1926
●
●
Supplementary Convention on the Abolition of Slavery,
Statute of the International Tribunal for the Former
Yugoslavia
the Slave Trade, and Institutions and Practices Similar
●
Statute of the International Tribunal for Rwanda
●
Rome Statute of the International Criminal Cour t
to Slavery
●
Forced Labour Convention, 1930 (No. 29)
●
Abolition of Forced Labour Convention, 1957 (No. 105)
●
Convention for the Suppression of the Trac in Persons
Humanitarian law
●
Geneva Convention relative to the Treatment of
Prisoners of War
and of the Exploitation of the Prostitution of Others
●
●
Geneva Convention relative to the Protection of Civilian
Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Tracking
Persons in Time of War
in Persons, Especially Women and Children,
●
Protocol Additional to the Geneva Conventions
supplementing the United Nations Convention against
of 12 August 1949, and relating to the Protection
Transnational Organized Crime
of Victims of International Armed Conicts
Rights of migrants
(Protocol I)
●
International Convention on the Protection of the
●
Protocol Additional to the Geneva Conventions of
Rights of All Migrant Workers and Members of Their
12 August 1949, and relating to the Protection
Families (ICPMW)
of Victims of Non-International Armed Conicts
10
●
Protocol against the Smuggling of Migrants by Land,
(Protocol II)
Sea and Air, supplementing the United Nations
Convention against Transnational Organized Crime
Class discussion
Do any of these instruments seem more impor tant than others? Which seem
most applicable to contemporary global politics? Why?
L TA
Research and thinking skills
Which
groups
inclusion
of
or
organizations
these
human
have
rights
been
most
involved
in
the
instruments?
65
2
HUMAN
R I G H TS
The practice of human rights
Since
the
mean
many
has
original
become
Essay
on
waves
The
even
“The
of
Declaration,
things
various
more
Recent
activism
rst
to
was
varied
History
since
the
Eleanor
the
meaning
peoples,
and
of
and
of
human
rights
has
come
the
practice
of
human
rights
Kenneth
Cmiel’s
Review
complex.
Human
In
Rights”,
he
identies
to
three
1940s.
Roosevelt
and
the
initial
drafting
of
the
11
Declaration.
who
were
those
working
rights
drafted
Before
the
as
discussion
of
promoted
the
Habib
Malik,
drafting
tells
of
to
be
the
Holocaust,
on
during
the
Convention
Universal
Declaration.
As
were
meaning
Rapheal
fought
decade.
Human
a
there
the
as
and
next
on
was
and
such
Genocide,
the
until
was
“an
by
the
1990s
crimes
wave
human
for
prominent
Cmiel’s
Lemkin
who
keeping
the
Winston
Rights,
Churchill
and
force
review
many
of
Charles
in
the
(2004:
129)
it...
the
against
set
of
international
General
was
international
that
Assembly
similarly
next
major
law,
and
principles
law.
the
The
day
supposed
to
new
supposed
Genocide
before
matter.
international
the
was
it
adopted
Yet
the
tribunal
world
charging
humanity
in
Cmiel
of
rights.
represented
Amnesty
build
of
binding
the
for
came
what
to
heart
Declaration,
explosion”
was
the
into
with
in
designed
at
turned
exponential
by
growth
International
in
1961)
establishment
Rights
also
was
adopted
with
second
1970s
(founded
the
however,
humans
Diplomat,
Universal
interest
of
of
Lebanese
quickly
someone
the
rights
the
active
European
Nations
waited
This
of
drafting,
a
Convention,
calls
result
the
Convention
rights
activism
United
the
on
initial
us,
this
The
a
UN
the
Watch
Mothers
of
in
of
and
the
Human
New
the
York,
Plaza
Women of the Plaza de Mayo in Argentina
de
Mayo
in
Buenos
Aires,
protesting against missing children during the
and
Helsinki
Watch
groups
Union
and
1970s military dictatorship
in
the
Soviet
Eastern
of
Europe.
activism
NGOs
centre
of
took
the
interested
in
the
the
leading
media
Cmiel
and
the
steadily
international
movements.
66
on
promotion
groups.
UN
with
technologies
and
of
wave
corresponded
communication
it.
This
growth
trade
role,
that
the
leaving
worsened
became
of
globalization,
the
law
cruel
of
a
the
acts
for
the
Nations
against
as
and
came
NGOs
between
1970s,
focus
that
United
and
relationships
during
less
of
interactions
international
distribution
notes
law
of
the
and
the
human
the
with
the
more
peoples
these
NGOs
promotion
rights
2 . 3 :
The
third
and
1990s,
rights,
wave,
health
The
major
London,
human
Human
combating
of
establishment
International
wide
yet
Today
of
be
the
it
rights
to
that
the
emphasized
take
a
back
of
this
headlines
the
of
systemic
hands
of
resources
This
in
in
a
the
problems
the
past
that
around
will
20
has
the
to
come,
resources
ability
of
to
other
be
campus
groups
of
the
in
the
globe.
the
and
the
the
little
attests.
West,
with
research
these
a
has
organizations
these
and
of
groups
status,
have
many
the
rights
masked
the
origin
These
include
attack
on
and
the
a
major
the
in
of
the
labour
consolidation
difference
of
and
power
abuses.
as
as
another
claimed
globalization.
well
chapter
human
1960s
and
have
a
with
signies
of
class
human
as
without
concerned
movements
told,
abuses
of
of
rights.
to
Yugoslavia
very
number
college
publicizing
years
as
draw
human
has
“sidestepping”
the
people’s
solely
outside
that
1980s
women’s
around
as
Court
NGOs
R I G H T S
The
that
full
the
these
abuses
growth
that
capital
the
1970s
began
has
into
of
been
the
distribution
of
world.
of
States’
of
undoubtedly
growth
a
other
made
years
This
nd
economy
rights
distribution
decade.
to
still
interest,
complains
in
rights
Former
late
H U M A N
International
themselves
Criminal
of
the
International
the
political
the
in
include
O F
promote.
and
corporations,
few
paradox
the
to
and
devoted
growth
prominence
story
Amnesty
and
for
came
indigenous
York
renewed
explosion
they
political
a
a
Cmiel
importance
human
multinational
witnessed
the
that
The
all
civil
Tribunal
difcult
seat
is
of
“ G E N E R A T I O N S ”
actively
and
New
International
International
campaigns.
extent
in
be
Geneva,
prominent
on
in
T H R E E
130)
to
organizations,
gained
agendas.
done
would
paradox:
that
of
a
agendas
Amnesty
also
the
in
(2004,
started
justice
Watch
abuses
Criminal
also
range
to
and
of
rights
rights
Rights
Jurists
law
reports
economic
appalling
International
was
Cmiel
human
rights,
Commission
There
as
when
T H E
of
powerful
rights
that
has
also
failed
the
more
UN
begins
grown
to
analyses
to
include
exponentially
deal
with
Convention
nations
to
and
ignore
on
issues
discussions
the
in
uneven
the
past
such
as
the
Landmines
or
the
signicant
issues
for
United
future
populations.
Other
examples
affected
climate
and
millions
change
regions
needing
of
analysis
people,
include
particularly
that
has
caused
around
the
globe.
the
in
growth
China
desertication
in
and
of
dams
India,
villages,
that
and
have
the
communities
TOK
How do the meanings of key terms and concepts within disciplines change over
time? What might constitute progress in an area of knowledge? How could we
know if progress, rather than simply change, has been achieved?
67
2
HUMAN
R I G H TS
The politicization of human rights
The
in
meaning
recent
●
The
of
human
times,
largely
involvement
industrialized
●
The
activist
●
the
The
●
Most
and
of
the
United
in
the
that
practice
the
States
universal
been
other
of
highly
politicized
the
powerful
human
identied
and
nationalized
around
and
enactment
have
has
following:
the
rights.
connection
deployment
of
between
social
labour
growth.
versus
relative
rights
with
regard
to
differences.
rights
powerful
Part
its
of
industrialization
importantly,
the
the
towards
disputes
and
result
movements
effort
cultural
of
a
countries
contemporary
in
rights
as
of
effect
local
outside
growth
the
of
peoples
globalization
and
of
labour
communities
as
practices
they
confront
forces.
of
NGOs
and
the
lessening
of
the
role
of
the
UN
L TA
Research and thinking
in
human
rights
discussions
revolve
around
the
internal
workings
of
skills
the
Research
the
Rwandan
were
the
events
genocide.
roles
and
the
this
conict?
of
United
of
the
What
in
the
nding
hegemony
agreement
humanitarian
where
NGOs
Nations
of
UN,
the
the
mass
killings
writers
familiar
ideals
widest
one-half
China
that
of
the
the
emanating
Universal
that
the
Declaration,
is
Southern
State
result,
Amnesty
Klein]
dictator
Chile]
that
of
life
better
won
are
a
was
well
the
began
the
scale
that
to
of
these
distrust
activists
correspond
between
the
a
the
and
and
line.
recent
the
rich
legal
with
third
poverty
the
that
between
as
until
inhabitants,
UN,
as
UN.
that
their
the
such
studies
opposite
and
In
industrial
poor,
regimes
and
have
is
is
the
absent
social
polestar”.
by
the
who
America
in
Nobel
tied
free
example
of
strategized
Prize
to
in
favour
awarded
the
claim
agenda
Rwanda,
individual
the
beneath
ceiling
“as
by
alone,
of
demanded
therefore,
for
from
limb
closely
and
a
South
and
insightfully
and
of
his
movement
occurring...
68
here
States
Friedman
better
to
or
issues
case
genocide
of
UN’s
the
the
market
in
Milton
the
the
of
1970s,
free
wishes
Peace
of
the
economics
of
of
in
an
Chile
resulting
market
Economics
Nobel
Friedman,
takeover
in
economies.
1976,
Prize
the
while
next
year.
powerful
neo-liberalism.
Moyn
says,
[Naomi
rights
their
expressed
Friedman
rights
as
economist,
International
industrialized
7)
it
Cone
abuses
life
inequality,
take
on
the
provides
US
developers
daily
contradiction
(2015:
many
those
ultra-conservative
Human
living
made
movements
a
is
the
the
around
is
distrust
workings
In
and
NGOs
NGOs,
Declaration
seen.
as
and
general
has
the
As
labelled
internal
ever
example
known
including
from
huge
the
while
Socio-economic
and
not
a
Council
differences
good
Many
by
Universal
case.
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were
population
India,
development
than
widely
followed
with
Security
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recognized.
inequality
and
shown,
killings
be
Nations,
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rather
became
United
The
the
intervention.
massacres
mass
of
and
economic
they
had
to
strip
turned
the
of
of
down
a
the
signicant
is
that
when
neoliberalism
the
blind
problem
theory
no
suggests
followers]
state
eye
less
roots
effect
to
the
of
in
(except
the
the
‘Chicago
were
the
invited
military),
economic
failure
violence
of
–
reasons
rights
which
identifying,
let
boys’
by
[Milton
Pinochet
the
the
violence
movements
is
someone
alone
[the
earliest
to
was
offer
else’s
confronting,
then
human
job
a
–
than
inequality.
2 . 3 :
In
other
words,
domain.
The
but
As
tragedy
have
human
Moyn
of
so
human
far
giant
the
rights
its
to
most
to
–
or
is
path
even
that
of
goes
has
dedicated
failed
they
note,
have
in
“ G E N E R A T I O N S ”
the
focused
to
occupied
merely
unaltered
itself
much
T H R E E
O F
H U M A N
R I G H T S
socio-economic
notes,
little
revolution
ambitious,
respond
rights
whose
movements
7–8)
contributed
neo-liberal
human
rights
(2015:
T H E
so
and
–
at
global
the
unresisted...
intently
establishing
recognize
the
nipping
a
on
state
oor
of
the
Precisely
abuses
for
neoliberalism’s
imagination
heels
because
and
protection,
obliteration
has,
it
of
at
failed
the
12
ceiling
on
What
we
result
of
inequality.
have
identied
active
NGO
here
human
are
questions
rights
of
networks,
politics
Nancy
and
power.
As
a
Scheper-Hughes
The International Criminal Tribunal for
in
her
being
“Danger
enacted
countries
and
in
Endangered
almost
around
the
every
world.
Youth”
country
As
she
tells
in
tells
us
that
Africa,
as
legal
they
sanctions
have
in
are
many
us,
Rwanda (ICTR) was housed in Arusha,
T
anzania (the far thest white building)
until 31 December 2015 when the
Tribunal was ocially closed
In
Africa,
the
human
consciousness
radio,
the
uneducated
Further,
she
globalized
The
The
elite
of
notes,
is
and
is
prosecute
that
educated
human
has
Africans,
rights
“human
values
of
has
rights
our
enforcement,
United
International
Council
movement
not
but
only
given
sometimes
permeated
the
reach
touched
the
of
the
the
lives
transistor
of
ordinary,
people.
political
problem
tribunals
of
idea
rights
such
800,000
the
lack
Tribunal
instance.
The
responsible
Tutsi
and
be
for
some
for
ICTR
the
seen
(Wilson,
of
Committees.
Criminal
an
those
and
Nations
could
times”
one
power
Again,
into
Rwandan
Hutu
her
set
the
genocide
The
by
in
in
most
quoted
by
in
Moore).
transnational
words,
up
being
died.
of
1,
wielded
in
Rwanda
came
educated
as
1997:
the
U.N.
Security
1994
to
nd
which
it
is
and
estimated
International
Tribunal
13
arrested
Even
than
that
59
human
persons
rights
structural
initiated
difcult
focus
on
on
but
NGOs
change
the
both
to
date
human
local
rights
non-intervention
that
actually
regularly
runs
conditions
the
have
the
that
and
has
are
admit
risk
lead
the
even
of
convicted
that
to
the
global
from
8.
focus
the
abuse.
levels,
strengthened
backed
the
masking
only
on
Legal
and,
in
ideals
is
cases,
policies
of
rather
principles
redress
some
neo-liberal
economic
rights
underlying
the
of
free-market
economies.
While
government
principles
do
not
when
it
guarantee
agencies
would
the
resist
seem
calls
for
intervening
necessary
autonomy
to
in
do
that
the
so,
are
name
these
parts
of
neo-liberal
same
of
principles
struggles
to
Class discussion
gain
Do all NGOs have a positive
access
to
or
protect
resources
that
have
belonged
to
existing
social
groups
inuence on human rights?
for
centuries.
oppression,
where
were
Often
the
positioned.
abuses
are
in
abuse
practices
free.
are
places,
Calls
one
as
human
experts
rights
that
at
rights
at
home
the
their
are
collective
the
beginning
evils
own
and
denitional
abuses
occupied
are
protections
as
than
consciousness
NGOs
that
rather
has
class
expounding
serve
assumes
rights
rights
claiming
globe
abuses
interest,
human
human
the
individual
around
while
for
human
rights,
on
collective
Further,
around
while
human
about
bodies
far-off
governments
of
discourse
discussions
governmental
focusing
of
to
power
show,
human
rights
governments
corrections
acts
of
their
assumed.
There
in
developed
poorly
space
and
is
a
by
own
geography
economies
14/15
while
ignoring
or
recasting
abuse
in
the
highly
capitalized
states.
69
2.4 Conclusion
Our
discussion
various
and
debates
enquiry
and
to
the
human
all
into
that
for
to
the
the
that
and
adoption
many
have
then,
is
of
through
the
treaties
been
adaptation.
here,
in
grounded
resources
the
and
their
question
to
rights
agreements
implementation,
promises
covenants
of
lead
their
rights
Declaration
result
human
claims,
access
protections
and
of
contexts,
a
The
critical
human
rights
whom?
Since
the
social
movements
tenets
of
around
rights
1940s,
there
human
the
for
have
built
been
around
rights,
and
NGOs
implementation
various
many
the
of
stakeholders
built
human
globally.
A human rights placard held by a participant in the annual Pride London parade, UK
This
human
rights
approaches
to
successfully
whom
are
gaining
using
human
enacting
rights
debates
between
no
to
whom
they
can
are
be
analysis
of
human
of
around
local,
question
human
a
rights
political
regional,
then
rights
gain
in
basic
have
East
as
a
to
the
to
resources
claim
that
stratagems
differences
challenging
among
and
and
those
those
for
exploitation
far
national,
where
the
the
this
public
has
are
human
the
place
of
and
of
of,
put
and
arguments
further
awareness
long
consist
rights
status
global
ongoing
as
either
class,
and
and
continue
rights
they
international
whether
will
human
how
outdistanced
and
movements
West
what
and
period
economy
furthered
author’s
changing
social
and
what
in
of
one
level.
the
are
to
with
access
terms
monitoring,
and
becomes
or
to
reached
We
crisis”,
led
emphasizing
little
of
directed
thwarted.
The
on
concepts
or
in
and
rights
means
practice
place
“mid-life
identication,
agreement
politics
a
access
change
Human
in
human
rights
social
as
now
has
into
the
and
and
geographies.
confused
the
violations
idea
and
inequality.
Time
will
only
tell
if
human
rights
remain
the
signicant
and
broad
TOK
Is it possible for scientists
to maintain a detached
relationship with the subject
matter they are investigating?
concept
that
political
economy,
may
challenge
those
and
subject
“people,
rapidly
areas
for
the
to
will
and
that
of
stage.
it
turn
the
may
dominate
power
can
a
is
the
at
movement
and
in
make
centre
of
changes
The
seeing
a
combined
new
United
structural
reproduction.
that
the
Once
and
fundamental
thinking
involvement
world
politics”
world,
social
the
example,
structural
require
ways
over
elites
power
organize
alternate
rights
taken
globalizing
inclusion
70
has
violence.
this
peoples
in
the
lessons
provide
difference
As
that
favour
can
be
Kirsch
in
a
to
geographic
learned
for
of
violence
exclusion
that
context
(cf.
in
dialogue
from
way
that
a
direction
Nations
of
with
a
from
human
2006:
25).
2.5 Exam-style questions
1
Discuss
the
concepts
of
extent
to
human
which
cultural
relativism
can
be
used
to
justify
different
rights.
Examiner hints
Arguments that cultural relativism cannot be used as
justication may include:
Responses should include an understanding of cultural
●
relativism and of individual and collective rights, and an
the notion of cultural relativism has been used to
justify controversial cultural practices that infringe
indication of how these have been used in discussions on
par ticularly on individuals’ rights, such as honour
human rights. Responses may also refer to the creation
killing and female
of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) and
genital mutilation
the controversies that have surrounded it. Responses
may also distinguish between cultural relativism and
●
cultural relativism does not allow for cultural
universal rights.
comparisons and may therefore lead to a
misinterpretation of practices within cultures
Arguments that cultural relativism can be used as
justication may include:
●
●
cultural relativism assumes that the practices of
individual cultures represent autonomous rights that
should not be compared to those of other cultures
and the idea can thus be applied to defend many
universal approaches, in their emphasis on the
similarity of all human beings, may be more
successful in defending individual human rights, due
to their emphasis on the commonality of experience
of all human beings.
dierent practices and concepts of rights
Responses should make reference to specic examples.
●
a cultural relativist approach is more successful
than universal approaches, for example, responses
may note that individual rights – on which a great
emphasis is placed in the UDHR – have been
criticized as Western conceptions that have been
forced on non-Western cultures through colonialism
and other forms of coercion
They could discuss Asian, African or indigenous
conceptions of rights that tend to view human rights in
more collective terms. Responses could also mention
more recent developments in universal rights, such as
covenants and treaties against gender discrimination,
for the protection of migrant workers or in favour of hate
crime laws, and so on.
that have often been detrimental to the maintaining
Responses should include the candidate’s evaluation of
of more collective rights around
the extent to which cultural relativism can been used as
the world
an argument to defend alternative concepts of individual
●
cultural relativism may be more successful than
and collective human rights.
universal approaches in defending collective human
rights, given its emphasis on people’s shared
experience within
a culture.
71
2
HUMAN
R I G H TS
2
“Human
rights
industrializing
covenants
and
economies.”
To
treaties
what
limit
extent
development
in
do
with
you
agree
newly
this
claim?
Examiner hints
Arguments that human rights covenants and treaties
do not limit the development of newly industrializing
Responses should include an understanding of the
economies may include:
concept of development and of the nature and intention
●
of human rights covenants and treaties. Responses
human rights covenants and treaties are often not
enforced, or are not enforceable, and therefore they
should also show an understanding of what is meant by
do not limit development
newly industrializing economies.
●
Arguments that human rights covenants and treaties do
it is possible to have development without violating
human rights or environmental standards or treaties;
limit the development of newly industrializing economies
for example, in recent years there have been eor ts
may include:
to promote rights-based approaches to development
●
greater monitoring of labour conditions for human
and sustainability
rights reasons has reduced exibility to organize
●
labour in the process of industrialization
these sor ts of covenants and treaties do not “limit”
the process of development, but instead “improve”
●
trade agreements, agreements between buyers and
the process
suppliers, and self-monitoring by multi-national
●
corporations often specify the ways in which
commodities can be produced and distributed, and
this places limits on how resources, including labour,
can be implemented
●
it could be argued that many countries became
modern states through a process of industrialization,
and that emerging economies should be allowed to
follow the same path. The process of industrialization
by which many presently developed countries
became prosperous was based on practices, such as
child labour during the Industrial Revolution, which
would nowadays be considered to be violations of
human rights,
and would be condemned and/or forbidden
although human rights covenants and treaties may
place limits on some aspects of development, they
also facilitate other aspects, such as education,
technology transfer or international cooperation.
Responses should make some reference to specic
examples. For instance, candidates could discuss the
process of industrialization in a cer tain country, such as
in China or India. They could refer to aspects of specic
covenants and treaties, such as to the International
Covenant of Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (1966),
the Convention on the Protection of Rights of Migrant
Workers (1990), the Rome Statute (2002) or the Kyoto
Protocol (2005), and evaluate how these aspects have or
have not limited development.
by environmental standards and international
Responses should include the candidate’s evaluation
organizations, such as the World Trade Organization
of whether human rights treaties and covenants limit
and the International Labour Organization.
development in newly industrializing economies.
72
2 . 5 :
3
“The
Universal
relevant
for
century.”
To
Declaration
dealing
what
with
extent
of
Human
Rights
human
rights
do
agree
you
(1948)
issues
with
in
this
the
is
no
E X A M - S T Y L E
Q U E S T I O N S
longer
twenty-rst
claim?
Examiner hints
Arguments that the 1948 UDHR is still relevant may include:
●
human rights abuses still persist, so it is needed as much as ever: additional
covenants and treaties have updated the basic tenets expressed in the
UDHR
●
it is formulated in non-prescriptive terms so can be adapted to deal with
dierent sor ts of rights
●
it is the basis for fur ther “generations” of rights including ones that address
current concerns such as education and gender equality
●
the majority of states are signatories so it is a morally aspirational goal for a
great
many nations.
Arguments that the 1948 UDHR is no longer relevant may include:
●
the UDHR is a historic document limited to the vision of the Western states
that created it
●
human rights abuses still persist, so has it proved to be ineectual
●
it does not include contemporary issues like same-sex marriage and gender
rights
●
it does not cater to the diering concepts of rights held in dierent cultures
●
its tenets are not legally enforceable and this has been shown to limit
their eectiveness.
Responses should include a conclusion on the extent to which you agree with
the claim.
73
2
HUMAN
R I G H TS
4
Examine
the
protection
of
effectiveness
human
of
non-state
actors
in
advancing
the
rights.
Examiner hints
Arguments that non-state actors are eective may include:
●
NGOs like Amnesty International are powerful advocates of human rights
in that they can raise awareness of par ticular cases of abuse through
investigations, the organization of social movements, and through the use
of social media internationally
●
NGOs, because of their independent nature, can address the eects of
neglect and other human rights abuses in states
●
the structures of NGOs have more exibility than state structures, which
enables them to be quicker in responding to human rights issues
●
some IGOs like the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR)
and the International Criminal Cour t (ICC) can bypass state sovereignty in
order to uphold and promote human rights.
Arguments that non-state actors are not eective may include:
●
the majority of NGOs are not well suppor ted nancially, so this limits
their eectiveness
●
nancial/personal gain motivations of some members of NGOs can be an
issue
●
large NGOs working with government agencies may be limited in their ability
to act independently and to represent local populations
●
some international campaigns by non-state actors cannot be eective in all
countries because of diering cultural concepts of human rights
●
issues of state sovereignty and power prevent IGOs from bringing
perpetrators of human rights abuses to international institutions of justice
(for example, the United States
and China)
●
some non-state actors have no interest in promoting human rights, or they
may even directly challenge the tenets of the UDHR, and have an agenda
that either neglects or doesn’t recognize par ticular rights (for example,
the Taliban’s renunciation of education for women) – some politically
conservative NGOs actively campaign against others’ perceptions of
human rights (for example, rights to same-sex marriage, or to the use
of contraception to protect against unwanted pregnancy and sexually
transmitted diseases)
●
MNCs – for example, Apple, GE, and organizations like FIFA – make use
of lax labour rights in countries as a way of obtaining cheap labour, often
perpetuating and/or creating dangerous working environments
●
some MNCs are also complicit in the denial of rights such as the land rights
of indigenous groups
●
well-intentioned campaigns, for example, on social media, may be
inaccurate or misleading, for example, #Kony2012, and may sometimes be
based on faulty or limited information.
74
2 . 5 :
5
Compare
and
and
contrast
enforcement
Courts)
with
human
rights
of
an
institutional
human
rights
non-institutional
NGOs,
such
as
(for
approach
to
example,
through
approaches
Amnesty
(for
the
E X A M - S T Y L E
Q U E S T I O N S
ratication
example,
the
Hague
through
International).
Examiner hints
It is not necessary for the response to be equally balanced between similarities
and dierences to achieve the highest marks.
Better answers will demonstrate an excellent understanding of the concept of
human rights; for example they may include references to human rights as often
being regarded as universal, inalienable, equal, and indivisible rights which
people are entitled to purely by being human.
Answers should explore the similarities and dierences between an institutional
and non-institutional approach to the ratication and enforcement of human
rights.
Similarities may include:
●
both try to actively enforce human rights ideals
●
both have controversial aspects
●
both have become increasingly media centred
●
both interact with government bodies and seats of power at various
geographic levels.
Dierences may include:
●
non-institutional organizations such as Human Rights Watch or Amnesty
International are often seen to have sucient inuence to have an eect
on human rights policies, whereas institutions tend to have more prestige,
resources or power;
●
institutional approaches tend to be more state centred, whereas non-
institutional approaches tend to be more informal or more local
●
institutional approaches have to work within systemic frameworks
●
there are possible dierences in how they are nanced.
Candidates may name institutional forums and organizations that consider
human rights beyond those mentioned in the question itself.
Examples may
include the Zapatista rebellion, the International Cour t of Justice, groups such
as Occupy, etc.
They may also discuss specic examples of failures of the
par ticular approaches, for example the fact that none of the major powers have
been brought to the Hague Cour ts.
The response may sum up with a conclusion on the similarities and dierences
between institutional and non-institutional approaches to human rights
ratication and enforcement.
75
2
HUMAN
R I G H TS
6
To
what
in
global
extent
do
politics
the
make
complex
the
realities
concept
of
and
relationships
human
rights
an
of
power
unachievable
ideal?
Examiner hints
Better answers will demonstrate an excellent understanding of the concept of
human rights and the concept of power.
They may then discuss whether the
realities of power make the goals utopian rather than realistic.
Arguments that they are unachievable may include:
●
inherent dierences in resources and oppor tunities
●
they are too idealistic
●
they are unrealistic or impractical
●
reference to the complex links between political and economic power
●
the diculties posed by entrenched belief systems.
Arguments that human rights are achievable may include:
●
there has been progress in gaining recognition of human rights, even in
dicult circumstances
●
power can be seen to be moving away from the state to grassroots, which
links to the impor tance of the individual rather than the state in human
rights.
Answers should make reference to specic examples, such as, for instance,
to the fact that 147 countries ratied the Convention against Tor ture and Other
Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment; or they could refer to the
success of polio vaccination programmes, or to MNC demands, for example, for
free trade zones, etc.
Answers may include a conclusion reecting on how power and human
rights are interlinked, and on the extent to which the complex realities and
relationships of power in global politics make the concept of human rights an
unachievable ideal.
They may, for example, conclude that human rights are
aspirational goals, so it does not matter whether they are achievable or not.
76
2.6 References and fur ther reading
1
Donnelly,
(Second
J.
2003.
Edition).
Universal
New
Human
York.
Rights
Cornell
in
Theory
University
and
Practice.
Press.
2
Ishay,
MR.
2004.
The
History
Ishay,
MR.
2007.
The
Human
of
Human
Rights
Rights.
Reader.
University
(Second
of
California
Edition).
Press.
London.
Routledge.
3
Wolf,
E.
1982.
Europe
and
the
People
without
History.
University
of
California
Press.
4/5
From
the
Encyclopedia
Britannica,
p.
8
of
26.
6
Ignatieff,
Vol
46,
M.
1999.
number
9,
“Human
p.
rights,
the
midlife
crisis”.
New
York
Review
of
Books.
5.
7
In
Ishay,
MR.
2007.
The
Human
Rights
Reader.
London.
Routledge.
Pp
390–391.
8
Nash,
J.
Review
1981.
of
“Ethnographic
Anthropology.
Vol.
aspects
10,
pp.
of
the
world
capitalist
system”.
Annual
393–423.
9
United
Rights
States
Watch,
Ratication
New
of
Human
Rights
Treaties,
24
July
2009,
Human
York.
10
From
the
International
Justice
Resource
Center,
New
York.
11
Cmiel,
K.
Review.
February,
2004.
“The
Moyn,
S.
pp.
recent
history
of
human
rights”.
The
American
Historical
117–135.
12
2015.
Education,
the
“Do
human
Chronicle
rights
Review.
26
increase
May,
pp.s
inequality?”
The
Chronicle
of
Higher
1–23.
13/14
Hughes,
M.
NS.
Inclusion
2006.
and
“Dangerous
Exclusion
in
the
and
endangered
Global
Arena.
youth”
London.
in
Kirsch,
Routledge.
15
From
Kirsch,
Arena.
M.
London.
2006.
“Introduction”
in
Inclusion
and
Exclusion
in
the
Global
Routledge.
77
3
D EV E L O P M E N T
Key concepts
➔
Development
➔
Globalization
➔
Inequality
➔
Sustainability
Learning outcomes
➔
Contested meanings of development
➔
Factors that may promote or inhibit development
➔
Pathways towards development
➔
Debates surrounding development: challenges of globalization, inequality
and sustainability
78
There
are
imparted
dening
such
the
as
many
by
it.
In
the
of
beliefs
goals
an
and
advanced
United
mainstream
generally
denitions
the
States
denitions
reect
the
way,
of
court
Europe,
in
which
and
those
include
capitalist
the
and
power
development
If
you
are
a
mother
living
in
concerned
about
the
our
and
culture
that
your
arguing
ancestors
an
have
can
fate
of
community
based
have
a
their
very
If
a
country
is
newly
includes
of
the
lives
on,
different
China
become
with
and
like
and
strong
India,
and
the
main
of
the
capitalist
economies,
embedded
in
the
government
then
policies
and
goal
the
that
denitions
interest
they
of
development
groups,
disagreements
communities.
internal
largest
by
strife
in
the
and
good
are
the
world,
villages
that
cannot
yet
have
The
they
have
and
the
goals
At
as
and
the
to
but
of
will
the
depended
been
on
power
the
able
to
the
broader,
development,
“people,
This
is
power
in
line
and
with
politics”
a
is
becoming
more
broader
popular,
the
as
human
seen
in
and
environmental
measuring
Happy
Planet
Index
(HPI)
indexes
and
such
Genuine
Indicator
(GPI).
be
a
a
very
basic
level,
continuous
and
well-being
level,
rise
of
the
is
a
development
in
the
social
living
be
organization.
universality
shown
can
by
of
the
dened
standards
the
fact
At
quest
that
the
for
all
societies,
and
communities
some
of
the
for
the
are
indigenous
the
rivers
the
of
of
created
meantime
for
villagers
government,
mount
a
well-being.
The
means
aim
everything
from
to
to
best
pursue
promote
this
goal
their
includes
the
provision
of
elimination
healthcare,
of
This
examines
education
poverty
and
to
the
food.
and
causes
water
of
of
halls
of
and
countries
the
been
provide
in
using
by
conicts
India,
thousands
with
of
have
be
social
generated
within
dams
political
compare
are
will
denition
differing
present
which
industry
submerging
The
example
policy
literally
centuries.
often
among
A
government
agricultural
represent.
of
York.
is
states
systems
New
countries
industries,
reect
the
that
development
development
and
for
different.
of
we
course.
includes
global
Denitions
Paris
to
centres
of
industrializing,
advanced
capitalist
actions,
politics
the
the
then
set
Progress
to
Delhi,
in
and
as
example,
position
an
government
the
dimensions,
goals.
the
their
mounted
indigenous
and
development
threaten
have
taking
New
purposes,
perspective
your
in
that
They
their
encompassing
focus
land
defence,
located
which
community
powers
survive.
economies
more
grew.
the
to
social
For
conditions,
to
ability
international
society,
Western
of
very
those
capitalist
or
resistance
development,
signicant
unit
how
the
it
can
way
people,
of
be
the
those
own
and
the
global
from
and
for
in
individuals,
interests
may
will
means,
stand
well-being
be
Each
The
and
may
just
as
of
debates
each
what
have
communities,
and
in
examined,
denitions
represent.
geographies,
differing
what
countries.
development
differences
differences
goals
development
and
comprehensive
communities
surrounding
noting
what
analysed
may
their
states
come
biases.
Key questions
1
What do we mean by "development"?
2
Who denes "development"?
3
How do we dene "development" for contemporary global politics?
79
3.1 The role of “development ” in global politics
Introduction
Capitalism
is
Because
this
of
functioning
of
the
and
the
social/economic
and
the
development
development
obtained
dominant
position
in
common
power
to
power
provide
use.
promote
The
system
that
the
it
most
vision
the
world
of
and
denitions
capitalism
ideas
today.
capitalism’s
inuential
advocates
their
in
generates,
for
have
the
denition
of
development.
From
classrooms
World
the
Fund (IMF)
capital,
and
is
Unlike
other
requires
its
its
States
in
is
the
on
Fund
dened
theories
this
the
that
development
health
growth
the
(IMF)
as
policy-making
International
and
–
many
based
growth
we
now
(that
is,
other
(USAID),
agencies
–
around
the
and
accumulation
nd
the
in
world),
textbooks
of
about
of
to
most
that
peoples
survive,
or
may
the
emphasize
stability
regardless
nations
and
contradictions:
of
the
whole
while,
capitalist-intensive
of
the
well-being
cultures,
effects
or
populations.
for
example,
countries
of
capitalism
the
results
This
the
United
in
the
world,
citizens
and
28
th
ranked
the
Development
goal.
confusing
of
public
for
non-government
the
of
of
Agency
communities,
some
one
of
ideas
own
needs
results
and
reect
communities,
institutes
US
primarily
many
development
the
the
Monetary
government
development
of
to
(WB),
International
both
The logo of the International Monetary
Bank
it
is
th
37
in
the
provision
of
healthcare
for
its
in
the
th
number
the
37
and
4
year
countries
olds
that
Development
without
US
of
is
higher
only
followed
by
countries
Iceland
while
29
early
form
cent,
Japan,
whose
the
(OECD).
education
per
spends
in
The
among
Canada
most
Luxembourg,
percentage
the
and
on
education
Organization
experience
populations
the
childhood
lowest
the
have
who
Switzerland,
of
of
Russian
per
OECD
of
college
Federation
among
Co-operation
countries;
tertiary
and
14
children
attend
gross
Germany
and
Economic
the
will
attained
education
for
–
are
parents
in
the
education,
national
the
the
Korea,
top
as
product
Netherlands
of
2010.
(GNP),
top
the
1
charts
for
nations
for
expenditures
on
earth,
Education,
has
on
been
Science
and
teachers’
ranked
salaries.
by
Culture
the
Cuba,
United
(UNESCO)
one
of
Nations
as
rst
on
the
poorest
Organization
international
2
mathematics
These
rankings
reading
mean
development
goals,
prominent
the
in
and
This
mean
does
not
directed
only
stakeholders
their
own
example,
and
goals
many
well-being
of
tests.
that
such
there
as
are
profound
education,
denitions
governments
are
80
and
of
and
global
these
development
differences
differences
that
are
in
are
employed
by
policy-makers.
at
that
the
all
spheres
for
development
growth
of
within
development
capital.
any
people
in
their
in
There
complex
within
non-governmental
goals
the
of
many
society,
context
organizations
denitions
capitalist
are
and
of
societies
different
they
may
capitalism.
(NGOs)
development.
have
For
promote
the
3 . 1 :
The
Millennium
Millennium
from
of
the
in
2000,
eradication
of
extreme
social
Bank,
among
the
the
for
IMF
all
of
established
poverty
of
were
a
the
which
and
criticized
African
are
eight
global
development,
and
O F
“ D E V E L O P M E N T ”
by
the
hunger,
to
partnership
for
and
not
they
the
taking
with
goals
P O L I T I C S
Nations
combating
development.
into
account
depended
Bank
G L O B A L
objectives,
for
heavily
Development
organizations
United
worldwide
I N
Group
derived
on
the
(AfDB),
from
development.
most
cited
growth
expansion
of
of
denitions
capitalist
capital.
and
of
development
societies,
Without
economist
economists
agree,
the
and
these
tells
the
as
and
capitalist
therefore
goals
goals,
us,
are
of
development
David
many
system
focused
Harvey,
of
the
would
a
most
on
are
the
prominent
L TA
anthropologist
known
however,
R O L E
emphasized
establishing
goals
the
others,
capitalist
The
to
objectives,
inclusive
World
Goals,
Summit
HIV/AIDS,
These
Development
T H E
well-
collapse.
Thinking and social skills
Because
View
of
the
requirements
of
its
economic
system,
capitalist
economic
the
where
require
a
growth
rate
of
at
least
3
per
cent
per
year
for
it
to
lm
Drowned
Out,
systems
villagers
in
India
function
have
vowed
to
drown
their
village
as
the
with
3
without
Also,
generating
populations
remain
healthy.
capitalism
when
the
issues,
than
US
and
necessarily
Education
another
was
money
of
research,
capitalist
capitalist
nd
workforces,
on
may
the
which
capital
is
be
able
more
the
is
the
Soviet
education
the
United
we
are
States
provision
viewed
of
by
nd
in
era
provide
The
an
today,
policy-makers
on
of
public
an
dollars
to
a
the
class
part
and
train
education
unnecessary
expenditure.
of
a
the
are
discussion
of
by
characters.
its
the
major
there
here?
communities
a
of
of
industries
right
What
that
submerged
name
the
in
development
Is
wrong
being
their
spaces.
differences
portrayed
dams
over
living
denitions
when
than
water
and
Have
National
however,
for
as
of
important
overseas
drops
land
Sputnik,
billions
is
redirect
to
science-related
plentiful).
labour
and
after
on
industry
money
one
period
witnessing
to
reproduce,
Union
was
pharmaceutical
cheaper
to
important
example
with
As
it
to
be
for
in
the
development.
healthcare,
burden
(NIH)
and
enterprises
domestic
and
Health
need
good
available
in
of
(a
competing
Institutes
health
crises.
in
development
beneting
from
redirection
of
that
the
and
are
the
water?
Development in global politics: Links with other units
Each
of
the
four
uni ts
individuals
and
large.
affect
They
cultural
in
a
the
issues
of
A
of
eld
closer
look
makes
two
at
wa y
–
the
the m
a
its
it
st a t e s
c on n e s
W h i le
on e
and
wa y
of
or
e co nom i c
gr owt h ,
in
a
us
as
pol it i c s
ec o n om i c
state
to
of
g l oba l
each
of
b or de rs
t h es e
n ot e
th a t
at
an d
and
un it s
a
is
t hr e a d
a not h er.
h um a n is t ic
de ve lop m e n t )
a ll
so cia l,
i nt e r e st i n g
in
on
a nd
pol i t ic a l ,
th e
is
i m pa c t
un de rs t a nd in g
a lon g
wi t h
g lo bal iz e d
human
wor ld
and
for
and
the
basic
world.
different
aim
for
individuals,
Although
people,
all
the
have
a
term
may
common
hold
interest
advancement.
of
security,
This
on
wor ld.
tog ethe r
universal
meanings
denition
equality.
itse l f,
an
e v i d e nt:
states
as
withi n
s us ta i na bl e
is
such
a l so
co mpr e he ns iv e
communities,
Our
in
ha s
comp le x
(e nco m pa ss i ng
and
promoting
a nd
that
both
s tud y
Development
in
cours e
i nte r connecte d
link s
facts
different
2
of
development
development
1
the
evo l v e
connectivity
this
communi ti e s,
increasingl y
complete
in
development
peace,
overlap
is
is
conict,
evident
related
human
in
the
to
many
rights
words
other
and
of
even
Helen
key
concepts,
gender
Clark
(former
81
3
D E V E LO P M E N T
Prime
Minister
Nations
[A]
(UN)
more
peaceful
prosperous
people...
–
peace,
focus
Ever
world
since
from
centred,
and
making
a
Zealand
and
rights,
the
and
the
narrow
equality
and
today
be
UN
and
be
has
Administrator
possible
without
respect
linked
for
the
That
the
concept
to
has
one
stable
United
helped
of
to
is
of
its
what
the
of
more
all
mandate
broaden
broad,
environmental
to
rights
development
Conferences...
integral
societies,
pillars
which
UN
resolution,
peace-building
the
human
three
understanding
Pioneering
conict
of
(UNDP)):
development.
common
economic
rights,
peace
not
universal
multidisciplinary.
human
and
Program
would
1945,
development...
shifted]
in
New
communities,
human
on
of
Development
the
[has
people-
were
successful
stability,
UNDP
gender
considers
4
Clark
to
sustainable
rightly
notes
imperative
to
respect
human
for
that
have
a
human
in
order
stable
rights,
development.
and
to
have
peace
prosperous
based
on
the
and
security,
society
tenets
of
and
it
is
universal
sustainable
human
Helen Clark ser ved three terms as
development.
Peace,
human
rights
and
impact
on
sustainable
human
development
the Prime Minister of New Zealand,
are
interlinked
for
gender
and
have
an
one
another.
For
instance,
respect
from December 1999 to November
equality
can
help
foster
development.
An
interesting
example
2008
of
this
is
Gender
of
Index.
Japanese
and
is
Japan
Japan’s
also
rising
–
It
a
has
women
often
into
economic
likely
to
have
inequality,
canprove
developed
to
be
country,
been
the
In
impact
hunger
perfect
mentioned
workforce
revival.
an
with
and
that
the
another.
other
breeding
low
would
contrast,
on
a
issues
grounds
the
help
boost
of
the
to
Global
inclusion
productivity
one
example,
related
in
increased
absence
For
for
ranking
variable
poverty,
underdevelopment
conict,
thereby
marringpeace.
Power, sovereignty and development
Power
is
natural,
rich
often
human
countries
rmly
also
set
on
have
their
into
been
Iraq
war
really
to
wi th
as
the
a nd
a nd
m os t
C h ina
of
de ve lop me nt .
capaci ty
to
ta ke
fo r
Beij i ng ’s
successf ul
has
–
US
p os s e ss io n
pa th
Afric a
nd
the
e co nomi c
develop me nt
documented.
also
or
suc h
the
the
own
inroads
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3 . 1 :
independently
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6
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Development and human rights
Another
signicant
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link
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development
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requires
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development
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care
for
human
rights.
human
rights.
83
3
D E V E LO P M E N T
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European
They
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development
complementary.
(EC)
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human
equality
strategies
development
human
improve
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will
are
focus
established
a
of
well-being
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universally
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reinforcing
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7
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process
development.
sanctions
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and
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establish
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trade
in
a
order
connections.
Development and key concepts
Before
of
we
begin
development
each
of
the
our
and
major
discussion
its
many
concepts
of
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relationship
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subject
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development.
These
key
concepts
are:
To what extent do the concepts
globalization,
inequality
and
sustainability.
that we use shape the
The
term
development
was
conventionally
used
in
the
context
of
conclusions that we reach?
economic
growth
multidimensional
political
For
and
society,
same
into
it
that
and
to
an
bringing
time,
ensure
technological
cultural
development
translates
or
changes,
occur,
it
improved
in
also
the
dynamic
a
concept
as
is
advancement.
well
human
has
to
be
needs
of
the
involving
as
the
important
quality
of
sustainable
future
for
to
–
it
social,
remodelling
that
life
dimension
Today,
economic
people
its
that
in
is
a
of
society.
growth
every
is,
planned
are
At
well
taken
also
area
understanding.
generations
more
economic,
of
the
enough
care
of
as
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well.
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Globalization
“by
which
can
the
best
be
peoples
described
of
the
as
world
the
are
interconnectedness
incorporated
into
a
and
single
process
world
9
society”.
In
simpler
interdependence
integration
of
terms,
among
trade,
globalization
countries,
culture,
can
regions
nance,
be
dened
as
and
peoples
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people
and
ideas
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the
increasing
to
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the
global
marketplace.
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is
no
surprise
repercussions
adverse
human
impact
rights
neighbouring
reach
of
borders
84
any
development
another.
not
just
For
on
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in
example,
media
creates
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state
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the
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globalization.
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and
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refugees.
incorporates
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example,
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goods
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across
the
3 . 1 :
North
American
Free
Trade
Agreement
T H E
R O L E
O F
(NAFTA)
“ D E V E L O P M E N T ”
I N
G L O B A L
P O L I T I C S
European
Union
24
hours
Financial
ISO
Trade
markets
Technology
UN
Security
World
Trade
Organization
(WTO)
Global
supply
chains
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networking
ASEAN
Risk
management
2.0
billion
Finance
internet
subscribers
Health
Regional
Global
trade
agreements
standards
What is globalization and what are its benets?
If
globalization
on
all
On
facets
the
be
does
side,
climate
impediments
managed
provides
a
bolstering
At
the
of
jobs
and
connect
there
of
sustainable
effectively.
wider
market,
more
jobs
time,
people
cheaper
a
it
and
is
bound
to
have
an
impact
positive
and
such
environmental
problems,
threat
more
more
is
of
both
as
terrorism,
human
all
of
which
development,
Globalization
higher
negative.
prots
can
sometimes
for
countries,
development.
for
working
goal
the
is
handled
there
in
manufacturing
mean
the
and
closely,
effect
transnational
change
to
world
The
and
same
provide
the
development.
positive
pollution,
are
of
are
units
labour
are
and
employment
great
that
with
disadvantages.
a
shifted
high
to
materials.
of
the
cost
the
in
a
It
can
living
threat
same
mean
as
to
of
countries
time,
local
loss
factories
while
underdeveloped
exploitation
present
of
underdeveloped
At
opportunities
likelihood
conditions
several
countries
that
this
may
countries,
labour,
including
life.
Inequality
Reduction
in
community.
“Humanity
income
is
from
than
more
that
75
an
in
their
a
for
to
this
on
2010,
of
of
the
of
report,
a
for
the
international
prepared
by
the
UNDP
Inequality
in
Developing
average
taking
by
into
population
than
it
in
the
to
in
in
the
cent
the
in
1990s.
and
where
The
In
and
a
size.
income
report
states
poverty
political
self-worth.
social
Countries”,
developing
growth,
acknowledged
long-term
entitled
population
societies
harms
public
and
policy-makers
threat
per
account
was
fullment
11
lives
inequality
relations
sense
are
challenge
report
threshold,
quality
countries
major
a
distributed
certain
the
a
to
Confronting
cent
individual’s
conducted
is
increased
1990
per
unequally
beyond
reduction,
and
Divided:
inequality
countries
More
inequality
According
spheres
global
that
of
life
survey
inequalities
economic
10
development.
There
are
a
wide
development.
range
of
According
views
to
one,
on
how
the
inequality
process
of
affects
the
globalization
process
will
of
ultimately
85
3
D E V E LO P M E N T
benet
trade
only
the
and
add
underdeveloped
open
markets,
to
the
A
few
or
developing
along
prosperity,
with
progress,
the
countries.
culture
growth
of
and
Changes
liberal
such
as
democracy
well-being
of
less
free
will
fortunate
11
people.
development
between
and
does
states.
large
whole
others
have
not
The
opposite
necessarily
rich
organizations,
populations
an
continue
such
become
as
point
translate
to
get
of
into
richer
view,
inequalities
at
multi-nationals,
losers
in
the
global
according
the
are
in
expense
the
real
to
which
societies
of
the
or
poor,
winners
as
actions
to
scheme.
Sustainability
The
term
improve
for
sustainability
the
future
limited
met.
This
would
of
security,
to
simply
human
and
of
This
ensure
include
clean
provision
inclusive
of
generations.
resources
provision
the
lives
for
all
nutrition,
equitable
productive
the
quality
a
ensuring
and
involves
that
meeting
energy
food,
means
beings
a
the
prudent
needs
health,
of
of
number
without
employment
present
and
should
optimal
growing
of
damaging
the
and
gender
everyone
or
use
such
of
as
are
the
environment,
shelter
for
equality,
the
endure
populations
challenges,
clothing
education,
for
that
environment
all,
the
energy
eradication
of
12
poverty.
Platform
The
United
recommends
poverty
eradication,
patterns
natural
of
of
and
changing
base
of
and
Development
unsustainable
production
economic
essential
United
Sustainable
Knowledge
that
consumption
resource
objectives
86
Nations’
and
social
requirements
Nations
and
and
for
promoting
protecting
development
sustainable
Department
and
of
sustainable
managing
are
the
the
overarching
development.
Economic
and
Social
Affairs
3 . 1 :
T H E
R O L E
O F
“ D E V E L O P M E N T ”
I N
G L O B A L
P O L I T I C S
A brief history of development
The
history
does
not
time
after
end
of
discussions
back
the
States.
into
The
given
two
to
reaching
was
that
the
unaccounted
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on
for
make
by
led
War
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around
by
the
around
of
at
of
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(in
and
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in
back
which
to
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marked
the
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world
Union
and
the
was
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of
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and
(GNP)),
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belief
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importantly,
welfare
to
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widespread
emulate
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product
process
The
and
was
understood
industrialization.
country.
human
–
development
traced
War.
gross
imitate
development.
improvement
Cold
and
be
1950s
time
technology
could
can
Soviet
that
developed
countries
the
the
former
modernization
growth
contemporary
beginnings
beginning
science
development
basis
of
theory.
a
the
The
the
and
human
conditions
was
completely.
over
the
dependency
addressed
an
debates
time.
development
status
transition
involving
could
and
developing
gradually
largely
of
economic
and
angle
and
Western
industrialization
and
in
World
camps
concept
to
far
Second
equivalent
was
too
colonization
divided
be
of
go
shift
two
The
to
in
the
theories
question
becoming
prominent
a
1950s
–
of
and
how
an
developed
American
1960s
modernization
were
theory
conducted
and
underdeveloped
and
economic
modern
historian
country
society
Walt
W
.
was
Rostow.
Rostow ’s stages of growth
Rostow
propounded
growth
in
Manifesto
of
●
his
published
economic
The
rst
a
treatise
ve-step
The
in
linear
Stages
1960.
of
process
Economic
According
to
leading
Growth:
Rostow,
A
to
economic
Non-Communist
there
are
ve
stages
growth:
stage
primarily
of
“traditional”
agrarian
society,
a
society
low
level
is
characterized
of
technology
by
a
and
a
rigid
and
13
hierarchical
●
The
second
required
by
the
social
stage
before
structure.
is
marked
by
development
inuence
of
external
emergence
can
take
actors
of
the
place.
through
positive
This
could
improved
conditions
be
stimulated
trade
and
have
been
along
with
communication.
●
The
third
reached
and
when
restructuring
most
important
investment
of
take-off
and
supporting
stage
industrial
social
and
is
said
output
political
to
rise,
the
institutions.
High
mass
●
consumption
and
consolidation
of
development.
Drive
New
to
ideas
People
have
wealth
and
services
(consumer
replace
rapid
welfare
Building
The
infrastructure
that
expands.
the
country.
industries,
needed
are
and
manufacturing
traditional
is
trade
throughout
of
developed
spreads
revolution)
off
society),
systems
economic
fully
growth
(industrial
take
and
growth
for
buy
goods
older
and
industries
Pre-conditions
and
improve
Take-off
and
so
and
technology
Introduction
more
maturity
better
before
society
infrastructure,
development
Based
on
can
subsistence;
financial
take
farming,
fishing,
place;
for
and
transport
and
some
investment
example,
forestry
culture
change.
network,
mining.
money
from
farming,
power
supplies
and
communications.
The Rostow model of development
87
3
D E V E LO P M E N T
It
was
stage,
two.
as
argued
while
that
the
According
corruption,
the
developed
developing
to
the
countries
ones
modernization
distrust,
political
had
continued
to
theory,
instability,
all
be
surpassed
either
obstacles
gender
in
to
the
stage
take-off
one
or
stage
development
discrimination
and
such
civil
14
war
are
The
benets
to
the
were
these
all
internally
and
present
ideas
less-developed
considered
to
developing
of
impediments
development
areas.
be
would
state
had
of
fourth
By
by
the
stage,
towards
model
it
and
it
is
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to
get
and
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out
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populated
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method
to
most
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It
was
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used
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action.
in
a
and
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because
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widely
with
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production
people
at
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governments
and
cities
that
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into
in
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down
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development.
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but
academic
labour
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to
country
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had
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to
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formulating
circular:
failed
works
to
discussions
fault
policy
how
role
to
democracy
system
for
development,
a
at
model
modern
reach
time
is
development.
works;
liberal
development
contemporary
that
expected
a
consolidating
of
critiqued
is
to
critical
development
policies.
and
the
aim
a
development.
were
Capitalism
prerequisites
countries
to
in
Vietnam
deforestation
used
to
accomplish
A US Air Force jet spraying Agent Orange over an area
near Saigon (modern-day Ho Chi Minh City)
Another
example
application
his
collectively,
were
emphasized
that
and
independence
develop
quickly
overthrow
of
to
that
the
came
Latin
that
the
junta
88
many
“the
had
and
the
of
In
elected
power
to
necessitated
admitted
military
Many
people
other
went
have
was
that
or
Boys”.
free
into
the
were
were
for
they
in
theories
labour
a
practices
country
in
to
that
Chile
became
Chile,
in
With
Cone
part
was
the
was
Southern
Allende
United
of
violently
charge
of
States-backed
established
killed.
who,
interference.
the
that
CIA,
and
Chicago,
of
proposed
without
power
the
of
Allende
violence
of
the
Friedman
Friedman’s
throughout
the
was
Milton
reign
1970s
develop
dictatorships
kind
of
University
Salvador
enforced
missing
a
this
sovereignty
the
help
put
of
ideas
the
Chicago
to
dictatorships
Pinochet
the
at
governmental
the
and
With
and
as
successfully.
support
America,
dictatorship.
and
and
establish
strategy.
overthrown
from
the
colleagues
democratically
necessary
of
known
capitalism
of
in
this
region,
3 . 1 :
The
consequences
indicted
house
It
is
arrest
now
region
were
day,
in
of
the
human
in
but
2004,
or
Aires
being
were
now
and
bloody
of
to
see
in
pictures
the
in
he
harm
gather
that
goal
of
this
of
the
an
being
was
felt
today.
He
went
alone,
and
each
while
week
era
the
for
the
was
trial.
the
de
to
To
this
Mayo
know
development
peoples
capitalism
population.
P O L I T I C S
numbers
Plaza
and
G L O B A L
under
in
Argentina.
demanding
created
to
and
similar
in
economists
unfettered
placed
brought
in
I N
Pinochet
was
missing
1980s
children,
region’s
“ D E V E L O P M E N T ”
formally
people
1970s
their
O F
violations.
Contemporary
the
rights
still
Chile
the
of
R O L E
rights
30,000
missing
them.
are
before
least
tortured
the
question
human
died
at
missing
with
happened
and
that
went
mothers
theorists
a
events
with
80,000
Buenos
region,
of
estimated
killed
what
these
charged
and
T H E
over
of
the
Development
this
well-
can
be
business.
The dependency theory
The
1960s
marked
development
theory
were
were
–
and
the
to
development
dependency
Andre
reacting
School,
the
Gunder
with
the
another
theory.
Frank
modernization
started
of
and
Prominent
Celso
theory
common
noteworthy
and
proponents
Furtado.
the
premise
theory
work
that
These
of
the
of
on
this
theorists
Chicago
development
of
TOK
the
What is the dierence between
West
was
only
due
to
its
pursuit
of
capitalism.
This
capitalism
in
turn
is
facts, data and theories? Do
nothing
but
a
mechanism
to
exploit
the
underdeveloped
and
restrain
these terms mean the same
them
from
developing.
The
dominant
countries
are
imperialist
developed
thing in all areas of knowledge?
countries
those
in
such
Latin
as
the
US
America,
and
Asia
Europe.
and
The
Africa,
exploited
countries
include
which
have
been
exploited
These
poor
countries
15
through
methods
cheap
labour
while
the
and
rich
such
raw
as
colonization.
materials
become
richer,
to
the
poor
developed
countries
nd
countries.
provide
As
themselves
a
result,
being
drained.
The
dependency
break
strong
growth
to
step
in
in
process
unequal
order
to
of
theorists
to
ties
attain
promote
import
called
the
with
a
on
the
underdeveloped
developed
level
of
nationalization
substitution
countries
development.
(replacing
of
key
and
The
nations
pursue
state
industries
foreign
imports
internal
was
and
with
to
advised
begin
the
domestic
production).
The Structural Adjustment Programmes
The
1980s
changed
and
resultant
of
structural
incurred
such
as
the
adjustment
Structural
by
known,
the
were
at
the
SAPs
World
Bank.
The
and
a
Bank
banks
entitled
idea
IMF
rising
and
to
prices
to
They
or
programme
the
was
to
plans
they
that
IMF
nancial
and
economic
countries
countries
from
as
in
the
focus
created
about
of
play
and
shift
SAPs
developing
Any
role
role
international
bringing
loans
intervention
The
oil
decided
process.
for
the
development
state
greater
Programmes,
receive
behind
to
a
countries,
institutions.
to
had
due
and
policies
on
down
development.
ination
Adjustment
outlook
scaling
stabilization
reducing
main
the
for
developing
nancial
were
call
However,
economic
international
follow
by
which
encourage
World
and
growth.
The
to
a
multi-nationals
aimed
be
was
markets
programmes
to
during
There
development.
debts
institutions
period
free
capital,
model
a
again.
allowing
private
this
was
yet
came
promoted
chose
and
to
the
decreased
state
16
controls
the
replaced
human
and
by
free
market
environmental
mechanisms.
aspects
of
In
the
process,
development
however,
receded
into
the
89
3
D E V E LO P M E N T
background.
This
for
of
countries
The
SAPs
and
Consensus
set
of
of
US
–
about
and
reforms
resulted
the
a
related
term
10
in
what
sub-Saharan
policy
by
been
and
came
John
trade
nancial
termed
Latin
to
be
known
that
in
had
institutions.
liberalization,
as
the
“lost
decade”
America.
Williamson
recommendations
international
included
policies
coined
has
Africa
as
the
1989
the
Some
privatization,
to
Washington
encapsulate
support
of
these
and
and
a
backing
suggested
liberalization
17
of
foreign
direct
protection
of
investment
property
(FDI)
inows.
It
also
recommended
the
rights.
The Millennium Development Goals
The
year
Human
1990
was
a
landmark
Development
Program.
This
The
moved
HDR
people’s
report
choices
proposed
by
Report
was
focus
and
Nobel
a
with
(HDR)
shift
from
by
away
publication
the
United
from
the
people-centred
strengthening
Prize
the
winner
human
Amartya
of
the
capabilities”,
and
ever
Development
Washington
development
Sen
rst
Nations
Consensus.
by
an
Mahbub
“enlarging
idea
ul
Haq.
Millennium Development Goals
L TA
There
were
failure
In
2015,
the
United
replaced
the
Millennium
Development
seventeen
goals,
how
these
Select
one
examine
made
in
Goals
Nations
with
aspirational
called
the
Development
90
still
strong
currents
of
concern
over
the
apparent
Research skills
Goals.
SDG
this
set
of
“global”
Sustainable
differ
how
Poverty,
water
a
as
a
the
case
progress
area
since
study
has
and
been
2015.
of
security
population.
In
announced
a
in
MDGs.
development
lack
achieved
Research
from
of
the
is
of
now
education,
continued
response
set
the
national
number
It
by
of
time
to
set
out
build
health
a
Most
huge
carried
another
further
on
lack
conditions.
of
section
the
food
of
United
Development
the
strategies
been
on
of
living
and
quandary,
Millennium
development
and
improve
plague
this
2015.
have
to
poor
to
to
eight
year
reviews
development
policies
MDGs
of
out
path
and
the
world’s
Nations
Goals
found
a
to
be
place
member
states
on
effectiveness.
their
towards
achievements
the
thus
and
goal
far.
of
a
3 . 1 :
T H E
R O L E
O F
“ D E V E L O P M E N T ”
I N
G L O B A L
P O L I T I C S
Levels of analyses
Development
in
encompassing
sustainable
its
broadest
economic,
aspects
–
has
sense
human
a
–
and
bearing
on
all
levels
Individual
of
society,
ranging
from
the
individual
to
the
and
global.
For
example,
matters
related
to
poverty
Community
and
at
inequalities
an
individual
leads
to
power,
have
and
problems
and
the
direct
such
malnutrition,
shelter,
a
impact
community
as
lack
lack
very
of
on
level:
of
purchasing
education
survival
of
people
poverty
and
communities.
Development:
These
problems
also
have
repercussions:
a
Economic,
Global
malnourished
cannot
prove
contribute
On
the
mean
and
to
to
be
an
people
more
goods
skills.
This
a
nation
contrary,
that
uneducated
or
in
good
increase
acquire
invest
turn
human
building
in
and
in
the
resource
income
power
mean
a
National
and
Sustainable
or
development.
education
would
Human
population
would
to
and
purchase
acquiring
skilled,
healthy
International
workforce
that
is
an
asset
to
any
country’s
development.
Similarly,
environmental
sustainable
cannot
be
ensured
involvement
of
individuals
and
global
and
Levels of development
level
combined
supported
and
and
the
without
and
Individuals
development
at
efforts.
communities
by
efforts
communities
environmental
at
could
At
is
the
grassroots
important,
regional
help
protection
the
ensure
through
level
and
and
has
to
be
international
Thinking and
communication skills
sustainable
making
L TA
supplemented
level.
protection
development
simple
Divide
alterations
and
additions
to
their
daily
lives
–
such
as
using
solar
or
wind
energy,
rainwater
harvesting
and
energy-efcient
electrical
four
the
same
support
and
as
a
global
efforts.
such
runners
leader
Singapore
buildings
for
any
countries
sustainable
countries
front
time,
in
as
in
development
According
as
this
eld.
reducing
energy
management,
its
set
To
is
one
of
by
policies
synchronization
Environmental
an
and
footprint.
such
2030.
The
with
2009
government
subsidies.
few
to
to
international
have
has
Index,
emerged
80
as
does
In
harvest
urban
group
an
how
three
water
and
of
them
to
to
at
–
more
individual,
national,
international
–
and
these
contribute
storm
for
level
global
each
themes/
studies
development
impact
one
regional,
of
provide
of
another
has
case
community,
cent
not
terms
into
Within
assign
for
than
emerged
per
group
subjects
discuss
Sustainable
certifying
consumption
countries
laws
Protection
Singapore
The
as
and
Australia
example,
targets
or
the
formulate
in
the
carbon
efcient
to
Singapore
cite
forth
production
it
to
Switzerland,
Blueprint
energy
have
class
groups.
ttings.
your
At
the
and
to
in
how
turn
the
can
process
of
18
water
for
boosting
supplemented
Southeast
Nations
2007
by
Asian
the
supply.
countries
(ASEAN)
and
water
regional-level
under
Declaration
MDGs
at
a
on
global
All
these
efforts
the
such
could
as
Association
Environmental
level.
also
those
of
be
development.
effectively
made
by
Southeast
ndings
the
try
Asian
Sustainability
signed
in
to
that
to
Present
the
identify
comprise
class
the
of
and
factors
your
understanding
your
initial
the
term
“development”.
91
3.2 Contested meanings of development
Contested meanings of development
Some
economists
synonymous
believe
with
that
“development”
was
perceptible
quantiable
In
other
national
GDP
,
words,
the
overall
the
simply
economic
product.
GNP
,
sector,
and
This
the
GDP
(an
by
As
in
of
of
growth
of
size
of
of
the
services
An
population)
of
a
a
growth
described
force
as
in
in
a
growth
in
the
the
GDP
per
derived
reduction
in
of
country’s
industrial
measurement
person
or
advancement.
increase
labour
and
per
to
considered
economic
be
an
increase
leads
be
conventionally
technological
simply
income
can
seen,
mean
ratio,
and
GNP
context
and
could
people.
approximation
the
the
in
have
ordinarily
goods
living
rise
we
economic
investment–income
standard
person
mere
used
would
availability
per
a
development.
by
of
the
capita
or
dividing
poverty
and
a
19
consequent
improvement
in
the
lives
of
people.
Gross Domestic Product (GDP) is the total market value of goods and services
produced within a country in one year. This includes income, wages, prots and
consumption.
Skyline of Business Bay in Dubai, United Arab
Emirates
Gross National Product (GNP) is the total economic output including earnings
from foreign investments as well as nal goods produced by a country’s rms
within and outside the country.
The connection between GDP and income
A country produces and sells $1 million wor th of goods in a year. When goods are
sold, rms that produced goods and services earn $1 million. This is income for all
contributors – workers, owners, suppliers and so for th. Thus, production becomes
sale and nally income.
Some determinants of
development
A worker produces $100 wor th of goods daily, which when sold brings in revenue, par t
of which is used to pay wages to the worker. More production will lead to more income
●
Value of goods and services
and increase in wage – rise in GDP or output per person means more income per person.
produced
Source: Secondi, Giorgio. 2008. The Development Economics Reader. London.
●
Savings and investments
●
Natural resources
●
Good quality of human
Routledge, pp. 2–3.
However,
this
understanding
is
rather
limited
and
does
not
do
justice
to
the
resource
much
●
Good governance
●
Good infrastructure
●
Favourable political and
wider
today.
is
the
Central
fact
economic
is
an
connotation
that
to
it
of
the
concept
understanding
is
no
indicators
increasingly
longer
(at
the
the
it
current
measured
individual,
multidimensional
as
is
understood
debate
purely
in
national
and
discussed
“development”
terms
or
dynamic
on
and
of
changes
international
concept
in
level).
involving
It
social,
economic climate fostering
economic,
political
and
cultural
changes,
and
remodelling
of
society.
For
growth, such as democracy
development
to
occur,
it
is
important
that
economic
growth
also
translates
and free market
●
into
an
in
human
improved
quality
of
life
its
understanding.
for
people
in
every
area
a
dimension
to
At
the
same
industrialization
be
92
of
society,
bringing
Modernization and
sustainable
–
that
is,
endure
for
future
generations.
time,
it
also
has
to
3 . 2 :
very
the
belief
challenge
that
it
is
of
a
dening
the
contested,
concept
ambiguous
of
M E A N I N G S
development
and
complex
O F
D E V E L O P M E N T
reasserts
term,
L TA
The
C O N T E S T E D
tied
Thinking and
communication skills
to
the
interest
of
[development]
those
dening
depend[s]
on
it.
As
values
noted
and
on
by
Ravi
Kanbur,
alternative
“Since
conceptions
on
the
1
Note
down
a
set
of
8–10
20
good
life,
there
meanings
and
and
no
for
governments
or
country
society
necessarily
of
being
It
unique
else
and
has
the
has
answer.”
stakeholders,
While
basics
to
The
term
has
ranging
from
international
non-governmental
different
studied.
includes
what
or
different
individuals.
society
signicance
uniform
forms
organizations,
families
is
be
organizations
benchmarks
unique
development
of
food,
considered
diverse
for
clothing
varies
all
and
to
words
to
shelter,
of
the
begin
with
the
most
obvious
and
with
a
term
invokes
ideas
for
the
literature
on
economic
growth
commonly
and
poverty
known
and
fact
that
fundamental
the
causes
wealth
and
to
and
are
the
as
part
halve
of
between
a
twin
of
blueprint
years
below
just
problems
of
understood
development
distribution
of
poverty
prerequisites
the
proportion
the
and
poverty
development-related
problem,
signicant
envisaged
table
the
all
essential
most
the
equitable
indicators
magnitude
of
also
an
MDGs
for
of
and
the
summarizes
future.
with
2015,
number
the
coupled
any
out
2013
by
–
of
income
rst
In
target
of
ensuring
review
of
of
in
of
people.
into
or
what
sets
groups
four
a
and
of
discuss
developing
developed
the
are
from
country
each
for
for
other.
mean
state
It
for
levels
level,
–
Share
1.
with
your
the
at
individual,
national/
regional,
international,
The
what
stakeholders
community,
day
prepare
on
“development”
different
various
MGD
groups,
term
would
one
all.
your
presentation
the
to
per
hunger.
made
of
2000
was
In
a
enormity
US$1
employment
3
both
formed
year
from
well-
to
MDGs
than
progress
a
distribution
the
the
suffering
the
the
different
subtexts
inequality
poverty
less
is
solution
view
leaders
income
people
a
It
equitable
extreme
world
while
of
with
Discuss
eradication
wealth.
and
progress.
The
an
and
policies,
reduction
set
people
1990
halving
the
to
of
you
word
how
different
three
apart
of
the
partner
Divide
and
in
that
considerably.
2
will
with
“development”.
Pover ty reduction and equitable distribution of wealth
We
phrases
associate
the
sections
or
global.
ndings
rest
of
the
class.
Millennium Development Goals: 2013 Progress Char t
MDG GOAL 1: ERADIC ATE E X TREME POVERTY AND HUNGER
GOALS AND
AFRICA
TARGETS
Sub-
ASIA
Eastern
South
Saharan
Southern
OCEANIA
Western
Eastern
L ATIN
CAUCASUS
AMERICA
AND
AND
CENTRAL
CARIBBEAN
ASIA
Reduce
Low
Very high
Moderate
Moderate
Very high
Low
Very high
Low
Low
extreme
Pover ty
poverty
pover ty
pover ty
pover ty
pover ty
pover ty
pover ty
pover ty
Productive
Large
Very high
Large
Large
Very large
Large
Very large
Moderate
Moderate
and decent
decit in
decit in
decit in
decit in
decit in
decit in
decit in
decit in
decit in
employment
decent
decent
decent
decent
decent
decent
decent
decent
decent
work
work
work
work
work
work
work
work
work
Reduce
Low
Very high
Moderate
Moderate
High
Moderate
Moderate
Moderate
Moderate
hunger by ½
hunger
hunger
hunger
hunger
hunger
hunger
hunger
hunger
hunger
*
pover ty by ½
Target already met or expected to be met by 2015
Progress insucient to meet the target if prevailing trends persist
No progress or deterioration
Note: The progress char t operates at two levels. The words in the box indicate the present degree of compliance with
the target. The shades of colour show progress towards the target according to the legend above. *Pover ty progress for
eastern Asia is assessed based on China’s progress only.
Source: http://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/pdf/repor t-2013/2013_progress_english.pdf
93
3
D E V E LO P M E N T
Dening pover ty
Before
taking
simple
sounding
measured?
been
to
from
a
answer
as
human
further,
purely
discussion
question
dened
basic
probing
the
The
simply
meet
the
it
Development
any
both
the
is
of
development
1997
of
food,
of
the
a
“denial
of
to
can
the
it
resources
and
This
shelter.
encapsulated
choices
and
Poverty
has
necessary
However,
stretches
outlook
rather
be
challenging.
reality
is
back
how
and
income.
perspective
as
go
minimum
clothing
that
low
us
and
complicated
clear
aspect
let
poverty
absence
needs
Report
further,
what
becomes
economic
human
is
–
beyond
on
in
poverty
the
Human
opportunities
21
for
ill
a
tolerable
health,
exclusion
A
report
broad
For
a
or
by
of
as
clothes.
For
–
the
vary
of
a
Bank
report
lack
poor
“humiliation,
found
needs.
of
developed
people
social,
what
that
Similarly,
basic
person
the
in
entitled
on
sense
human
of
in
poverty
men
a
Latvia,
being
based
of
in
poor
–
countries
on
and
differences
and
the
include
and
social
Poor
Ghana
is
dependent...
for
different
Kenya
variables.
feeling
and
of
the
people.
poverty
as
described
conditions,
the
age,
encapsulates
perceived
from
housing
of
psychological
means
man
poverty
could
decision-making
countries.
cultural
Voices
necessities
in
deprivations
underdeveloped
other
perspectives
the
the
or
of
involvement
among
and
World
material
poverty
of
unemployment
poverty
instance,
kinds
lack
developing
nationality
range
lack
in
and
about
gender
These
malnutrition,
homelessness
Views
life”.
of
utensils
and
dependency
being
forced
to
22
accept
A crowded favela sits nex t to modern
apar tment buildings in Sao Paulo, Brazil
a
rudeness,
Brazilian,
having
is
“the
medicines,
denitions
needs,
it
insults,
could
economic
cost
food
be
and
of
and
indifference
living,
low
clothes”.
grouped
into
circumstances
the
and
when
salaries
Many
of
and
seek
lack
these
following
social
we
help”.
of
jobs...
perceptions
subheadings:
For
not
and
material
circumstances.
Indicators of poverty
Material needs
●
Lack of resources to meet
Specic needs – when people lack cer tain things essential to them, they are
basic needs of life
deprived, for example, lack of food or housing.
●
Health issues
●
Lack of education and
Pattern of deprivation – not just lacking something, but general conditions in
which people are in need over an extended period of time, for example, not just
literacy
living in bad housing, but not being able to get out of it.
●
Poor living conditions
●
Perilous and unfullling
Low standard of living – low income and consumption over a period of time.
Managing with less than others.
jobs
●
Lack of respect
●
Alienation from community
Source: The World Bank
Economic circumstances
Lack of resources – inability for people to obtain their wants (a lack of resources
is a denition of pover ty, need is a result).
Economic distance – people with less resources cannot aord things that
others can. In competition for scarce resources, such as land and housing, they
cannot aord them even if their income is higher than other people’s elsewhere.
Economic distance means people cannot aord to live where they are.
Economic class – “class” in economic terms is determined by people’s relationship
with the system of production. The economic position of elderly or disabled people, for
instance, means that they are not able to command resources in many societies and
are thus poor.
94
3 . 2 :
C O N T E S T E D
M E A N I N G S
O F
D E V E L O P M E N T
Social relationships
Social class – social position depends on economic position, education, and social
status. Pover ty, for many, is a position of lowest class in which people lack the
power, status, and oppor tunities that others possess.
Dependency – on social assistance or “welfare” – a link between benets and pover ty
is assumed. No distinction made in press between receiving gifts and being poor.
Social exclusion – a term used in the EU to refer to people excluded from society
due to pover ty, vulnerable people (asylum seekers, disabled) or socially rejected
people (AIDS suerers, disabled people).
Lack of entitlement – Amar tya Sen argues that pover ty is not a lack of goods but a
lack of entitlement or legal, social, and political arrangements.
Source: Spicker, Paul. The Idea of Pover ty. Pp. 4–5.
Poverty
can
of
be
caused
by
colonization,
a
number
of
factors.
overpopulation,
These
unequal
range
from
distribution
of
a
wealth,
L TA
history
Research and
communication skills
war
and
ethnic
problems
such
governance.
it
is
conicts,
as
In
imperative
natural
off
the
cut
distribution
in
ethnic
within
a
not
or
has
of
just
gender
country,
for
roots
strategies
Unequal
society
certain
lack
to
poverty
exists
disasters,
employment
development
Eradication
development”.
of
for
effective
of
lack
order
implementing
equitable
and
to
be
of
to
these
tackle
–
often
distribution
the
groups,
example,
education
occur
as
of
villages,
and
improper
sustained
by
combined
wealth
rich
a
to
level,
devising
and
them.
termed
well
at
problems
effectively
wealth
among
of
to
opportunities
and
as
as
or
a
poor,
wide
but
between
towns
with
ensuring
“sharing
and
the
gap
also
in
an
fruits
of
incomes
among
geographical
regions
cities.
Divide
of
four.
one
Increased
poverty
and
inequality
can
cause
harm
and
the
class
Each
into
group
developed
and
in
a
great
number
of
ways.
They
can
lead
to
among
the
poor
and
eventually
to
disorder
in
Such
through
situations
disruption.
reactions
also
impact
Moreover,
such
as
peace
inequalities
strikes,
in
conicts
society
increase
and
the
or
cause
civil
existing
the
outow
of
skilled
and
educated
possibility
people.
The
countries
proves
to
be
more
negative
of
impact
due
inequality
in
countries.
What
government
assist
the
poor
institutions
are
often
not
efcient
or
level
and
each
of
to
the
able
has
these
been
migration
impact
of
poverty
on
fact
inequality
on
these
that
countries?
the
the
poverty
unrest.
and
developing
on
political
the
and
data
economic
of
activities
country.
festering
Research
discontent
chooses
one
obstruct
underdeveloped
development
groups
enough
Discuss
whether
to
economic
growth
a
impact
has
had
effectively.
positive
sections
each
of
on
society
or
all
not
in
case.
95
3
D E V E LO P M E N T
L TA
TOK
Self-management and research skills
Is having more data available
Prepare
a
always helpful in the
growth,
but
production of knowledge?
issues.
study
into
case
study
Compile
could
the
be
data
built
nuances
measures
Inclusive
of
contemporary
incomplete
suffer
This
development
raises
a
alternative
sufce
lters
questions
to
take
down
such
as
environmental
other
growth
social
realization
of
the
and
that
problems
institutions
is
such
side
and
all
of
to
as
not
human
of
disparities
in
environmental
on
been
well,
deeper
including
(GPI),
sustainable
in
and
basis
the
purely
or
to.
for
case.
of
if
of
economic
this
have
also
industrialization,
there
erosion
despite
case
(HPI).
leading
areas
income,
delve
Concerns
the
as
This
conceptualization
provide
damage
we
development
been
growth
same.
development
and
development
necessarily
economic
Index
Index
society.
has
the
and
progress
overall
it
for
Peace
Price
broadened
damage
able
Global
whether
robust
sustainable
development,
discourse
of
of
and
progresses
House
areas
effects
ideally
has
the
and
environmental
this
and
as
on
shown
arguments
unit
and
care
to
over
in
such
has
human
sustainable
discussion
raised
the
this
and
(IWI)
been
economic
as
understanding
without
that
from
supporting
human
Index
development.
would
and
country
development
is
development
a
to
upon
of
Wealth
A
terms
of
continues
While
development
is
an
increasing
Persistence
democratic
robust
economic
growth
23
continue
in
the
to
be
a
cause
understanding
for
of
worry.
wholesome
denition
human
environmental
and
Consequently,
development
and
began
understanding,
to
be
these
so-called
plugged
incorporating
with
both
gaps
a
more
the
aspects.
Means:
Economic
growth
Conditions
Conditions
human
economic
enabling
enabling
development
g ro w t h
Health
Peopleledge
services
and
Educationervices

aapital)
Employmeopportunities
  E f              h u m a     p i t a l
Democracy
Sound
economic
policy
Goal:
Environmentaprotection






Human
development

Economic growth and human development
96
?
3 . 2 :
C O N T E S T E D
basic
objective
M E A N I N G S
O F
D E V E L O P M E N T
Human development
People
create
lives.
are
an
the
real
wealth
enabling
This
may
immediate
of
a
nation.
environment
appear
concern
to
with
be
a
the
for
The
people
simple
to
truth.
accumulation
live
But
of
it
above
excerpt
effectively
The
concept
such
the
sums
as
of
ul
Haq
lead
longer,
●
gain
knowledge
●
have
It
also
a
healthier
comfortable
encompasses
employed,
and
breathe
in
a
of
was
Sen
that
development
and
forgotten
and
Development
human
and
found
out
by
1990
people.
economists
United
them
wealth.
Report
noted
been
to
the
Report,
expression
the
has
enables
in
development:
by
is
creative
nancial
Development
development
way
often
advanced
brought
Human
in
Nations
dened
as
to
lives
standard
other
fresh
Human
core
Amartya
Reports
choices
●
ever
the
development
Programme.
people’s
rst
forms
Development
Development
enlarging
the
what
human
Mahbub
Human
from
up
is
of
healthy
commodities
Human
The
long,
of
factors,
air
and
living.
such
as
possess
the
ability
political
to
be
gainfully
freedom,
guaranteed
24
human
rights
premise
is
that
the
2
that
process
human
the
the
of
of
self-respect.
beings
widening
their
are
process
capabilities
level
these
personal
human
imperative
1
and
–
of
–
for
real
end
people’s
choices
improved
well-being
leisure,
approach
of
development
through
achieved
capabilities
the
This
all
focuses
through
and
the
based
activities.
on
use
two
or
the
it
things:
skills
people
purposes
on
Therefore,
formation
knowledge,
productive
is
of
and
health
make
being
of
active
in
25
political,
The
the
social
or
cultural
proponents
of
this
signicance
of
incomes,
economic
growth
affairs.
concept
does
not
of
human
wealth
or
development
commodities,
necessarily
mean
an
do
but
not
argue
improvement
discount
Living sustainably depends
that
in
on accepting a duty to seek
people’s
harmony with other people
26
standard
of
improve
human
school
of
living.
political
For
instance,
inhabitants
number
not
be
or
choices
an
will
in
higher
as
have
a
an
the
should
an
in
hands
a
a
be
be
attributed
weak
the
few
in
factor
country’s
of
evenly
sustainable
expansion
benets
assist
of
be
to
improvement
Besides,
to
has
signicant
could
enjoy
inclined
the
and
increase
reasons
to
growth
favours
disparities.
leader
power
a
of
able
income
lives
thought
and
This
in
may
or
their
to
this
not
allow
not
an
high
run.
to
and with nature. The guiding
This
rules are that people must
economic
mean
anomaly.
in
needs
share with each other and care
development.
standard
increase
a
long
cultural,
does
in
just
the
human
governance,
poor
in
social,
GNP
this
distributed,
of
income
level
everyone
of
to
poor
due
of
a
for the Ear th. Humanity must
the
living.
The
absence
that
it can replenish. This in turn
may
to
means adopting life-styles and
their
development paths that respect
government
corruption
enjoy
take no more from nature than
A
the
with
fruits
of
GNP
.
this
sense,
It can be done without rejecting
the many benets that modern
technology has brought,
provided that technology also
27
In
and work within nature’s limits.
human
development,
as
noted
by
an
analyst,
is:
works within those limits.
●
of
the
people
–
that
is,
focuses
on
development
of
human
resources
Caring for the Ear th:
through
securing
their
health
and
education
A Strategy for Sustainable Living,
●
for
the
the
●
by
people
quality
the
of
people
position
to
–
stressing
human
–
meaning
inuence
the
fact
that
economic
growth
has
to
fuel
IUCN, UNEP
,
WWF, 1991
lives
this
that
people
process
of
themselves
should
be
in
a
development.
97
3
D E V E LO P M E N T
Human
development,
requires
of
a
a
lot
country.
progressive
of
Some
tax
The
process
and
improving
education
sure
that
of
and
better
making
and
of
in
the
these
systems
human
skills,
skills
forth.
It
is
and
or
be
include
achieved
social
easy
healthcare
capabilities
employment
so
good
development
human
honed
cannot
economic,
could
and
sharpening
these
acquire
therefore,
changes
works
and
participate
that
for
as
a
human
actively
the
vacuum
the
for
levels
ensuring
secondly,
improved
important
credit
two
a
political
facilities
at
through
in
and
poor,
all.
–
rstly,
good
building
nutrition,
follow-up,
capital
in
and
systems
are
making
used
political
to
decision-
underprivileged
sections
of
28
society
are
provided
with
adequate
“social
safety
nets”.
Long
Directly
and
healthy
life
enhancing
Knowledge
human
abilities
Decent
Dimensions
of
standard
of
living
human
development
Participation
Creating
human
conditions
in
political
Environmental
for
security
Gender
has
Human
been
Development
reviewed
by
the
community
life
development
Human
The
and
sustainability
Index
is
UNDP
used
every
to
quantify
year
since
and
rights
equality
development
and
1990.
Sustainable development
“Sustainable
discussed
denitions,
have
One
been
of
development”
term
most
denitions
Common
term
it
Report)
rmly
matter
of
the
subject
international
on
It
development
was
also
promoted
that
meets
the
needs
of
without
compromising
the
future
generations
to
the
MDGs
concept.
of
in
1987.
It
global
report
(or
the
highlighted
as
Thereafter,
UN
at
Rio
a
the
Sustainable
it
a
has
number
of
Conference
Development
adopted
at
and
agenda
discussion
adopted
the
Future”
development”
The
and
and
held
in
“Agenda
21:
Development”.
meet
their
Summit
where
environmental
the
2000
sustainability
and
UN
reduction
poverty
were
envisaged
as
one
of
the
major
areas
of
focus.
The
aim
ability
set
of
of
the
the
of
present
one
for
of
interpretations
is
Millennium
“development
as
of
the
unanimously
Blueprint
widely
sustainable
concern.
fora.
Environment
1992
A
on
urgent
up
found
“sustainable
placed
been
be
of
entitled
“Our
a
and
sum
can
the
Sustainable
to
is
number
well-articulated
development
Brundtland
The United Nations Sustainability Summit at the United Nations General Assembly
A
explanations
offered
the
circulated
today.
out
was
to
reduce
environmental
damage
and
loss
of
biodiversity
own
and
halve
and
sanitation,
the
number
of
people
without
access
to
clean
drinking
water
needs”.
Our
Common
Commission
Future
on
by
The
World
Environment
Development
in
2002
poverty.
The
took
another
yet
World
Summit
signicant
on
Sustainable
step
in
this
regard.
what
does
sustainable
development
mean?
In
simple
terms,
the
balance
the
1990
concept
98
held
reduce
and
But
Development,
and
of
sustainable
development
stresses
the
need
to
three
3 . 2 :
interlinked
foster
protection
nite
the
areas
social
and
need
natural
and
for
to
be
The
concept
The
following
of
in
used
with
poverty,
the
of
The
environmental
is
due
and
ensuring
to
the
care.
consumption
economic
development
and
rests
the
as
fact
The
patterns
social
on
the
like
medical
care,
housing,
TNEMPOLEVED
ursuit
of
a
higher

standard
romotes
food
of
and
living
equality,
to
and
are
stresses
protect
and
by
pillars
below.
necessary
the
World
(WCED).
SOCIAL
eeds
also
D E V E L O P M E N T
development.
three
envisioned
Development
is
resources
concept
objectives
and
that
idea
O F
while
development
Environment
M E A N I N G S
environmental.
contextualizes
sustainable
on
This
caution
alter
process
then
and
development
sustainable
table
for
Commission
economic
generations.
eliminate
resources
conditions
social,
future
have
to
–
economic
C O N T E S T E D
DEVELOPMENT
sanitation
should
not
education
and
ECONOMIC
must
be
met
harm/eloit
equally
for
all.
others.
articiation
in
local
communities
to
address
these
needs.
DEVELOPMENT
ELBANIATSUS


ENVIRONMENTAL
PROTECTION




Source: Adapted from United Nations Environment Programme, What is Sustainable
Development?
Critical objectives and necessary conditions for sustainable development
identied by the World Commission on Environment and Development
Critical objectives
Revival of growth
Necessary conditions
Political system – secures eective citizen
par ticipation in decision-making
Changing quality of growth
Economic system – provides for solution of
tensions arising from disharmonious development
Meeting impor tant needs
Production system – respects obligation to
for jobs, food, energy, water
preserve ecological base for development
and sanitation
Ensuring sustainable level
Technological system – fosters sustainable patterns
of population
of trade and nance
Conserving and enhancing
International system – fosters sustainable patterns
resource base
of trade and nance
Reorienting technology and
Administrative system – exible and capacity for
managing risk
self-correction
Merging environment and
economics in decision-
making
Source: UN Documents, Our Common Future, 1987
99
3
D E V E LO P M E N T
L TA
Thinking and social skills
Note
down
a
country
and
conict
with
set
of
ve
compare
one
developmental
them
another?
with
a
needs
partner’s
of
a
list.
community
Do
some
of
and
the
a
needs
How?
L TA
Thinking and communication skills
For
be
to
most
a
of
growth.
without
a…
the
certain
We
situation?
that
do
How
we
lift
the
do
we
our
prosperity.
way
Those
So
to
days
what
natural
are
do
we
do
growth
in
poverty
while
growth?
“sustainable
How
a
in
create
of
was
do
fuelled
resources.
We
gone…
out
economic
words
growth
of
pact.
people
economic
abundance
burned
suicide
support
mouth
century,
the
consequences.
global
How
last
truth:
believed
Over
this
time
in
regain
but
to
way
model
is
challenging
the
the
to
seemed
our
consumption
constrained
protecting
we
what
mined
that
current
resource
development”,
by
We
environment?
planet
and
balance?…
make
it
It
ecosystems
is
happen
easy
we
to
have
Examiner's hint
to
It
will
touch
be
helpful
upon
a
for
few
you
be
our
to
Time
primary
prepared
social
to
to
make
major
organization,
ensure
and
sustainable,
changes
our
–
in
political
climate
our
lifestyles,
life…
resilient
We
green
are
our
economic
running
growth…
out
The
models,
of
time…
sustainable
st
sources
–
growth
government
documents,
speeches,
agenda
is
the
growth
–
to
cite
in
of
the
21
century.
UN
UN
data
agenda
Secretary
General
Ban
Ki-moon,
Davos,
2011
answers
In
the
speech
quoted
above,
UN
Secretary
General
Ban
Ki-moon
has
and also suppor t arguments as
very
succinctly
outlined
and
highlighted
the
compelling
need
to
follow
well as using secondary sources
the
path
of
development,
while
ensuring
that
this
is
done
in
a
sustainable
such as books, journals and
and
effective
way.
In
two
or
other
the
light
of
the
above
statement,
form
a
group
with
newspaper ar ticles.
three
1
Is
sustainable
2
How
can
3
Suggest
with
ve
and
answer
development
each
development
students
one
at
of
the
ways
sustainable
us
urgently
contribute
individual,
in
the
which
following
the
to
need
questions.
of
the
promoting
community
development
and
can
hour?
sustainable
national
go
level?
hand-in-hand
development.
Measuring development
The
discussion
that
it
is
development
and
over
indeed
briey
a
equally
discuss
development
meanings
complex
as
it
difcult.
some
is
of
term.
old
development
This
The
and
understood
makes
section
some
makes
the
task
below
relatively
it
of
very
clear
measuring
will
introduce
new
measures
of
today.
Gross National Product
Gross
National
produced
prots,
in
rent
purchases,
a
Product
country
and
net
that
a
income
claimed
the
a
value
year
expenditures
exports
income
is
in
[that
country’s
–
is,
100
all
nal
all
consumption,
exports
residents
have
29
by
of
(including
non-residents.
minus
goods
and
incomes
–
services
wages,
investment,
imports])
received
from
interest,
government
along
abroad,
with
any
minus
3 . 2 :
Gross
and
Domestic
services
adding
by
the
Product,
produced
incomes
calculating
expenditures
the
of
a
an
sum
through
on
in
the
other
country
economy
of
the
nal
hand,
in
–
one
consumption,
is
of
the
year.
wages,
uses
C O N T E S T E D
It
value
can
interest,
goods
investment,
and
M E A N I N G S
of
be
all
nal
rents
services,
government
by
–
that
D E V E L O P M E N T
goods
calculated
prots,
O F
or
is,
purchases
30
and
net
imports
(exports
minus
imports).
Human Development Index
The
Human
Development
Development
Sen
and
would
Reports
Meghnad
draw
Desai
attention
Index
since
along
to
has
1990.
with
issues
been
The
of
a
HDI
Haq,
feature
was
who
primary
of
the
developed
saw
it
concern
as
to
a
Human
by
Amartya
measure
people;
one
which
“that
31
is
not
blind
addresses
in
the
to
social
three
gure
below
–
25
of
of
along
a
child
dimensions
people
schooling
country.
aspects
The
with
that
human
of
lives,
human
as
the
GNP
development,
is,
life
expectancy
at
old
and
expected
GNI
aim
per
clearly
above,
capita
is
the
to
birth,
calculate
well-being
is”.
which
years
PPP
ultimate
of
The
are
average
years
the
of
years
of
HDI
the
index
shown
of
schooling
for
each
people.
$
Life
Average
Standard of
Expectancy
Education
Living
at Bir th
Levels
(GNI/capita
+
PPP)
Adult Literacy
Rates
32
According
●
to
National
Haq,
priorities
in
Development
terms
of
economic
progress
also
on
sector
reect
Potential
boost
has
its
growth
or
–
a
if
growth
will
have
economic
Disparities
basis
on
investment
people
equitable
the
which
built
GNP
been
that
●
Human
combining
successfully
●
the
between
of
gender,
is
–
which
with
country
by
in
has
education
to
reveals
are
the
effectively
development.
health
or
following:
The
income
–
rankings
has
been
behind.
choosing
access
countries
social
education,
lagging
Index
built
good
and
market
up
human
economic
health,
it
is
capital,
policies.
very
opportunities,
it
If
can
there
likely
resulting
in
growth.
people
–
income,
the
report
has
geographical
breakdowns
region
and
of
data
on
ethnicity.
101
3
D E V E LO P M E N T
There
High,
are
four
levels
Medium,
and
of
human
development
in
the
HDI
–
Very
high,
Low.
2014 Human Development Index
Very
high
human
High
human
development
Medium
human
development
Low
human
development
development
1.
Norway
50.
Uruguay
103.
Maldives
2.
Australia
51.
Bahamas
103.
Mongolia
3.
Switzerland
52.
Montenegro
103.
Turkmenistan
4.
Netherlands
53.
Belarus
106.
Samoa
5.
United
54.
Romania
107.
Palestine,
States
6.
Germany
55.
Libya
7.
New
56.
Oman
Zealand
8.
Canada
9.
Singapore
Russian
110.
Egypt
Bulgaria
111.
Paraguay
Barbados
112.
Gabon
113.
Bolivia
59.
11.
Ireland
60.
Palau
12.
Sweden
61.
Antigua
14.
United
15.
Hong
Federation
and
62.
Malaysia
63.
Mauritius
64.
Trinidad
65.
Lebanon
65.
Panama
67.
Venezuela
68.
Costa
Barbuda
Moldova
115.
El
China
and
Tobago
Nepal
146.
Pakistan
147.
Kenya
148.
Swaziland
149.
Angola
of
(Plurinational
114.
116.
Kingdom
Kong.
Botswana
58.
Denmark
Iceland
Indonesia
109.
57.
10.
13.
108.
State
145.
(Republic
State
150.
Myanmar
151.
Rwanda
152.
Cameroon
152.
Nigeria
154.
Yemen
155.
Madagascar
of)
of)
156.
Zimbabwe
157.
Papua
157.
Solomon
159.
Comoros
Salvador
New
Guinea
Uzbekistan
117.
Philippines
118.
South
Africa
118.
Syrian
Arab
Islands
(SAR)
16.
Korea
(Republic
17.
Japan
18.
Liechtenstein
19.
159.
Tanzania
161.
Mauritania
(United
Republic
of)
of)
(Bolivarian
Republic
of)
Rica
120.
Iraq
121.
Guyana
Republic
162.
Lesotho
163.
Senegal
Israel
1
Choose one country from the table above.
2
Collect data on all variables related to the HDI. Compare the HDI with the GNP of that country. If there are dierences, what
reasons would you attribute them to?
3
Choose any two countries with similar GNP and see how you would compare them with their HDI scores. Do you nd countries
with low GNP having a high HDI score?
Genuine Progress Indicator
The
“Genuine
Progress
Development”
of
GDP
in
“a
gross
is
yet
Indicator
another
measuring
(GPI):
attempt
development.
A
at
As
Tool
for
moving
Sustainable
beyond
mentioned
the
earlier,
connes
the
GDP
The
GPI
is
33
been
tally
of
of
what
and
are
some
or
variables
of
the
Firstly,
(such
are
the
or
pitfalls
is
as
level
an
of
the
does
for
on
a
role
take
the
the
welfare
of
education,
not
sold”.
to
using
of
GDP
as
country
the
GDP
as
a
measure
play
that
This
facilities,
the
account
any
progressing
society.
in
as
is
intangible
health
such
a
assumption
other
into
development
with
has
country.
the
that
number
important
GDP
critical
a
of
using
based
means
to
are
of
and
associated
well-being
GDP
adding
have
bought
weaknesses
the
There
Secondly,
which
services
transaction
true.
which
development.
activities
progress
thereby
necessarily
distribution)
and
overcome
nancial
developing,
not
tangible
102
to
welfare,
development?
monetary
is
products
formulated
measure
But
of
and
income
process
of
non-economic
volunteer
work,
3 . 2 :
childcare
and
and
progress
GDP
.
This
Robert
when
F
.
he
parenting.
of
society,
point
of
in
was
a
activities
are
are
completely
expressed
speech
to
the
critical
to
ignored
very
aptly
University
the
M E A N I N G S
of
D E V E L O P M E N T
well-being
when
by
O F
computing
American
Kansas
in
politician
1868,
said,
Our
Gross
and
the
National
jails
for
and
the
national
product
education
courage,
Product
the
redwood
their
view
Kennedy
Such
but
C O N T E S T E D
loss
of
does
or
neither
people
the
our
(or
GDP)…
who
our
break
natural
not
allow
joy
of
for
their
wisdom
wonder
the
our
It
It
special
counts
in
health
play…
nor
counts
them.
chaotic
of
our
it
for
our
doors
destruction
sprawl…
children,
measures
learning…,
locks
the
neither
Yet
the
our
measures
of
the
the
gross
quality
wit
nor
of
our
everything,
in
34
short,
except
that
In
order
to
in
of
26
which
the
are
GPI
of
used
factors
parenting,
costs
ll
indicators
which
these
gaps,
including
to
in
all
the
and
life
the
the
worthwhile.
Genuine
social,
measure
volunteer
social
makes
quality
intangible
work
and
Progress
environmental
and
higher
environmental
of
life.
Indicator
and
Beginning
unaccounted
education
setbacks
such
with
then
a
set
factors
the
positives
and
as
uses
economic
GDP
,
such
lessens
deforestation,
as
the
crime
35
noise
pollution.
Some
of
these
indicators
–
+
e
V
o
lu
n
te
er
–
Personal
w
o
rk
e
nd
U
Genuine
m
re
plo
ym
Net
capital
E
C
O
N
C
investment
Indicator
W
a
te
r
p
o
u
ti
o
n
n
r
t
i
l
o
io
n
o
l
o
o
s
l
u
t
f
s
i
o
w
n
–
t
l
a
n
d
s
f
e
o
ll
u
t
e
p
lm
r
a
f
l
sso
s
s
s
t
eta
fo
hc
d
oc
e
na
lp
mi
lC
rof
tse
e
eg
it
–
teN
o
+
–
p
o
o
l
n
m
o
D
n
c
i
t
s
e
ir
N
e
b
a
l
N
o
e
o
n
i
o
t
z
e
O
l
p
e
e
l
d
b
a
e
w
c
r
e
u
n
o
e
s
r
e
r
n
o
N
–
m
a
a
y
il
N
e
A
n
o
d
d
e
k
a
w
rev
–
ll
e
F
O
Progress
pollution
abatement
r
b
M
I
t
en
+
n
t
im
–
o
f
e
e
t
s
i
o
e
–
uA
ot
om
ib
el
a
cc
di
ne
st
C
o
m
m
u
it
n
g
e
s
a
y
s
&
s
r
c
n
I
t
u
s
n
o
c
d
e
t
s
u
j
d
A
v
i
c
S
e
r
h
i
g
t
il
a
u
q
h
n
o
i
l
t
a
p
n
m
o
s
r
e
p
y
o
a
t
r
s
e
e
c
m
i
u
v
s
r
e
n
s
o
s
C
e
l
r
e
b
m
a
u
r
s
s
t
u
n
s
o
d
o
C
c
s
le
b
a
r
u
d
m
c
e
u
e
n
i
eP
d
le
is
u
r
osr
e
s
t
lan
–
e
r
e
h
epx
i
g
+
tidn
+
L
A
I
C
O
S
H
eru
+
Crim
seen
+
–
o
be
below.
–
L
can
–
gure
and
+
the
water
w
in
air,
–
and
–
–
–
ENVIRONMENTAL
Source: http://www.donellameadows.org/genuine-talk-progress-and-the-gpi/
103
3
D E V E LO P M E N T
Inclusive Wealth Index
Social
value
Manufactured
of
Social
capital
The
Inclusive
that
seeks
to
Wealth
offset
environmental
in
the
in
ecosystem
and
a
a
of
state
Social
of
is
a
another
resources
and
so
wealth
and
despite
collapse
long-term
positive
to
change
the
These
higher
human
crucial
using
of
for
three
the
of
economic
include
riches,
beings
their
currencies
existence.
–
of
the
The
very
index
progress,
denes
well-being
and
imbalances
destroying
parameters
It
wealth
development
social,
sustainability.
in
Inclusive
capital
measure
related
development.
environment
being
value
Natural
problems
of
country’s
as
of
capital
Index
the
aspects
distribution
remaining
measures
value
Human
well-
sustainability
people
and
Capital types
inclusive
Manufactured
Natural capital
wealth
as
a
sum
of
the
social
natural,
human
and
produced
capital
capital
all
–
from
assets
which
36
human
Fossil fuels
Minerals
welfare
could
Population by
the
components
age/gender
are
used
of
Depreciation rate
of
Human capital
–
Investment
value
these
in
of
be
each
calculating
capitals,
the
ensured.
of
the
this
The
three
index.
index
By
gathers
table
kinds
below
of
examining
how
shows
capital
much
that
the
stock
wealth
a
Mor tality
country
can
possibly
create
not
just
in
the
present
but
in
probability by
the
future
as
well.
age/gender
By
Lifetime of
Forest resources
using
the
aforementioned
indicators,
plugging
the
loopholes
in
the
index
aims
at
Discount rate
found
using
the
GDP
or
the
HDI
assets
as
Output growth
Agricultural land
Employment
Population
Fisheries
Educational
a
not
measure
cover
of
the
sustainability
to
indicate
development
level
of
the
a
of
country.
value
–
human
of
considering
welfare
For
that
they
do
or
the
environmental
example,
the
index
natural
resources
is
able
being
lost
in
time,
the
results
the
attainment
process
Productivity
of
economic
growth.
At
the
same
are
Employment
also
able
to
indicate
The
Inclusive
whether
the
growth
is
sustainable
or
not.
compensation
study
Labour force by
that
age/gender
of
report
a
GDP
fall
recommended
should
Index,
turn
and
towards
include
Wealth
accounted
from
in
1990
their
that
to
countries
index
for
natural
renewable
the
Report
(IWR)
released
in
2012
carried
countries
together
global
saw
20
in
almost
2008.
of
to
raise
planning
in
quarter
these,
Among
depleting
resources
their
Out
capital.
with
three
as
other
natural
their
order
of
the
many
19
the
resources
Inclusive
to
as
things,
work
Wealth
towards
37
sustainable
development.
Inclusive
Country's
wealth:
Progress,
wealth
well-being
Inclusive
In
inclusive
is
a
positive
human
dollar
social
price)
inclusive
positive,
capital
assets
–
wealth
is
of
well-being
human,
change
across
generations
and
well-being
positive
produced
Source: http://inclusivewealthindex.org/#our-approach
104
sustainability
If
(not
natural
in
is
long-term
defined
all
as
wealth
and
wealth
value
sustainability
approach
is
a
3 . 2 :
C O N T E S T E D
M E A N I N G S
O F
D E V E L O P M E N T
Happy Planet Index
HAPPY
The
Happy
(a
British
to
provide
Planet
think
a
inhabitants.
happy,
In
Life
●
Experienced
expectancy
Life”
in
representing
Ecological
footprint
per
measure
Countries
produced
The
HPI
results,
being.
ve
are
for
Only
are
ranked
every
2012
with
suggests
of
their
use
the
of
Americans
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very
are
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not
2008,
using
rank
possible
of
basis
a
of
citizens
uses
are
able
and
three
indicators:
Report)
question
lives
on
a
called
scale
“Ladder
of
0
to
of
10
life)
consumption
of
positive
being
land
how
or
able
are
of
resources
needed
many
to
–
sustain
a
the
attain
to
and
on
a
For
would
so,
Belize
happy
ranked
in
of
and
Botswana.
long
terms
El
In
lives
are
It
the
if
four
also
the
the
to
well-
top
and
report
reveals
index
everyone
planets
its
high
Salvador,
sum,
low
on
of
or
which
planet.
example,
need
and
sustainable
doing
Colombia,
countries
happy
output.
encouraging
to
close
Chad
living
we
their
index
their
Foundation
countries
country)
environment.
in
can
the
environmental
Qatar,
for
Development
amount
Vietnam,
are
life
which
UN
best
a
the
of
high-income
the
of
Economics
to
HPI,
(computed
to
countries
Rica,
three
that
most
on
unit
country
nine
Costa
bottom
is
no
from
the
patterns
New
the
(measure
of
the
extent
sustainable
respondents
worst
by
the
compute
(drawn
the
consumption
the
to
and
well-being
which
capita
initiated
measures
long
order
●
●
Index
tank)
due
lived
that
to
like
maintain
the
our
38
consumption.
HAPPY
HAPPY
HAPPY
HE ALTH
ECO
ECO
HAPPY
ECO
HE ALTH
HAPPY
HAPPY
HE ALTH
ECO
ECO
HE ALTH
HAPPY
ECO
HE ALTH
Central America, Mexico and Carribean
HPI
59
South East Asia
58.5
57
.1
China
Western Europe
Nor th America
East Africa
45.8
31.6
26.9
105
3
D E V E LO P M E N T
Countries
HPI
in
2050
target
Rica
Life
Exp
Exp
well-being
Footprint
HPI
87.0
8.0
1.7
89.0
rank
1
Costa
79.3
7.3
2.5
64.0
2
Vietnam
75.2
5.8
1.4
60.4
3
Colombia
73.7
6.4
1.8
59.8
4
Belize
76.1
6.5
2.1
59.3
5
El
72.2
6.7
2.0
58.9
6
Jamaica
73.1
6.2
1.7
58.5
7
Panama
76.1
7.3
3.0
57.8
8
Nicaragua
74.0
5.7
1.6
57.1
9
Venezuela
74.4
7.5
3.0
56.9
10
Guatemala
71.2
6.3
1.8
56.9
11
Bangladesh
68.9
5.0
0.7
56.3
12
Cuba
79.1
5.4
1.9
56.2
Salvador
Colour keys:
Life
expectancy
>75
years
60–75
<60
Exp
years
years
well-being
>6.2
4.8–6.2
<4.8
Ecological
<
footprint
1.78
13
Honduras
73.1
5.9
1.7
56.0
14
Indonesia
69.4
5.5
1.1
55.5
3.56–7.12
15
Israel
81.6
7.4
4.0
55.2
>7.12
<1.78–3.56
Countries
HPI
in
rank
Life
Exp
Exp
well-being
HPI
147
Mali
51.4
3.8
1.9
26.0
148
Central
48.4
3.6
1.4
25.3
All
three
components
good
Nigeria
51.9
4.8
1.4
33.6
139th
98th
42nd*
125st
Two components good, one middling
Rank
(out
of
151)
African
One
component
good,
and
two
middling
Republic
Three
149
Qatar
78.4
6.6
11.7
25.2
150
Chad
49.6
3.7
1.9
24.7
151
Botswana
53.2
3.6
2.8
22.6
components
middling
Nigeria
Any
with
one
component
poor
•
Nigeria
has
the
sub-Saharan
Two components poor, or "deep red" footprint
the
region,
expectancy,
well-being,
•
Nigeria's
low
and
it
is
sub-Saharan
Life
in
HPI
rank
Exp
HPI
•
Rank
(out
of
151)
well-being
79.3
7.3
2.5
64.0
Africa
which
Nigeria's
life
28th
13th
77th*
1st
(69.9
years)
Africa
•
If
(54.8
everyone
the
Costa
For
the
Index.
second
It
has
time,
the
Costa
second
Rica
tops
highest
life
the
Happy
expectancy
Planet
in
nations,
of
Costa
experienced
and
the
•
Nigeria's
Denmark's,
•
Costa
the
capita
country
higher
Ecological
than
Footprint
average
life
well-being
with
well-being,
an
Rica's
Japan,
per
the
experienced
has
a
well-being
experienced
but
score
expectancy
country
with
many
•
the
Costa
USA's,
Rica
has
the
highest
higher
of
is
score
is
one
third
lower
than
it
sources,
has
level
than
that
of
of
the
USA,
7.2.
4.1
highest
years
life
lower
than
expectancy,
that
but
of
higher
which
is
78.5
Countries
embraced
produces
99%
committed
reversed
sustainability
of
to
its
energy
Rica's
Ecological
to
for
to
deforestation
becoming
carbon
Footprint
live
within
is
its
still
fair
in
in
its
from
the
Costa
the
Rica's
GDP
per
capita
Life
Exp
Exp
well-being
national
neutral
larger
share
by
2021.
than
of
Kingdom
is
$11,569,
80.2
7.0
4.7
47.9
20th
19th
121st*
41st
renewable
country,
it
and
But
would
planetary
(out
around
a
of
151)
has
Costa
need
United
Kingdom
resources.
•
•
in
rank
years.
Rank
it
twentieth
the
United
policies:
be
quarter
The
UK's
HPI
score
reects
a
high
life
expectancy,
of
high
levels
high
Ecological
of
experienced
well-being,
and
a
very
is
lower
USA's.
•
Average
than
that
•
The
the
in
of
Footprint.
experienced
the
United
Germany
UK's
life
USA's,
well-being
States
but
the
UK
higher
than
(6.7).
expectancy
but
(7.2),
in
lower
is
than
1.7
years
that
of
higher
Japan
than
(83.4
years).
If
everyone
the
had
average
would
need
be
to
order
times
reduce
to
the
citizen
1.7
stay
same
of
Ecological
the
UK,
larger.
our
within
the
This
Footprints
Footprint
world's
means
by
sustainable
a
we
factor
as
Footprint
would
of
2.5
in
environmental
limits.
•
The
UK's
quarters
106
than
it
than
the
Footprint.
the
is
score
average
lower
is
low.
in
is
very
than
both
average
low.
the
in
It
the
world
is
world
average
sub-Saharan
years).
had
the
citizen
would
richer
HPI
than
in
life
experienced
well-being
(4.3)
of
countries
low
5.3.
lower
GDP
USA's.
Rica's
which
of
a
Ecological
same
of
Ecological
Nigeria,
be
per
50%
capita
the
a
size
other
the
Footprint
world's
Rica
Americas,
•
is
like
reects
expectancy
and
average
Footprint
•
low
higher
average,
considerably
Rica
levels
a
population
and
score
Exp
Footprint
Costa
HPI
experienced
Although
Countries
biggest
Africa,
its
GDP
of
per
the
capita
USA's.
is
$35,686,
just
over
three
of
the
USA's.
lower.
is
$2,399,
around
as
3 . 2 :
C O N T E S T E D
M E A N I N G S
O F
D E V E L O P M E N T
The Happy Planet Index (HPI)
The
Happy
measure
Planet
of
Index
sustainable
environmental
limits
(HPI)
is
the
well-being.
into
the
leading
It
global
integrates
measurement
The Happy Planet Char ter
We
need
The
development
being
on
centre
life
and
puts
stage.
expectancy,
It
current
does
and
this
by
experienced
future
using
new
measures
global
Happy
Planet
well-being
example
of
It
that
shows
how
Index
such
blends
build
The
a
rank
much
subjective
picture
Index
uses
experienced
to
us
an
excellent
work
while
the
challenges
in
practice.
faced
by
nations
and
those
with
rich
high
Footprint.
of
of
data
well-being
countries.
well-being
It
is
and
progress
global
and
asks
objective
within
on
life
a
country.
Footprint
question:
achieved
per
unit
the
lives
and
end
that
deprivation
goal
don’t
is
the
cost
may
same:
the
be
long
very
and
earth.
data
expectancy,
Ecological
the
poverty
different,
happy
to
offers
measures
and
levels
HPI
progress.
data
How is the HPI calculated?
The
human
well-
resource-intensive
Ecological
of
of
“how
of
We
to
must
GDP
the
the
those
challenges
creating
resource
balance
with
we
face
economies
well-being
for
By
this
prominence
measures
in
that
that
the
currently
take
21st
deliver
given
seriously
century:
sustainable
all.
consumption?”
Experienced
well-being
×
Life
signing
Call
on
governments
Well-being.
someone’s
them
If
you
life
directly.
well-being
is
is
want
going,
In
Footprint
this
to
know
your
year’s
assessed
using
how
best
HPI,
a
of
bet
is
to
‘Ladder
of
Life’
from
the
the
ask
question
heart
adopt
This
asks
respondents
to
10
the
0
represents
best
the
imagine
possible
worst
the
ladder
they
life,
feel
and
they
possible
report
Resolve
to
Evidence
a
new
of
indicates
overall
life
the
currently
that
this
is
measures
expectancy.
goal
well-being
and
of
for
economic
all
at
decision-
an
to
the
political
fully
will
establish
needed
these
of
human
progress
by
better
working
with
and
partner
organizations
Call
the
step
on
United
Nations
to
develop
an
stand
as
part
of
the
post-2015
framework
effective
measures
progress
towards
the
key
goal
well-being.
for
Life
the
ladder,
that
measure
build
society
indicator
on.
societal
put
called
●
of
sustainable
of
measures
where
that
World
across
Poll.
progress
making
experienced
Gallup
human
delivering
well
●
the
●
to
≈
Ecological
●
we:
expectancy
●
HPI
charter
Alongside
a
better
future:
sustainable
well
being
for
experienced
all.
well-being,
the
HPI
includes
a
universally
The
important
measure
of
health
–
life
HPI
help
We
used
life
expectancy
data
from
the
Human
Development
Ecological
the
Footprint.
A
planet,
society
that
able
that
well-being
the
future
same
Footprint
a
a
The
by
measure
per
capita
HPI
the
of
can
measured
average
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resource
to
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which
are
hardly
uses
measure
patterns,
ha)
consumes
a
of
represent
productive
a
on
it
does
the
state
to
it
does
factor
in
have
issues
caveats.
such
as
The
index
human
is
rights
or
that
have
deforestation
and
an
the
and
the
impact
on
other
ecological
well-being
of
issues
people
for
environment
respectively.
considered
NGO
amount
terms
although
indicators
much
WWF
consumption.
the
that
Ecological
country’s
in
so
available
be
environment
required
(g
but
resources
generations
successful.
as
now,
out
signicant
achieves
abuses
high
points
measure
Report.
not
●
to
2011
of
UNDP
Report
expectancy.
of
of
It
is
land
consumption
global
hectare
of
hectares
land
with
bio-capacity.
Source: http://www.happyplanetindex.org/assets/happy-planet-index-poster.pdf
107
3 . 3 :
The
World
New
but
a
Development
poverty
country
is
homicides
lack
of
affected
economic
groups
a
decreased
marred
has
and
been
The
could
seen,
risk
high
●
by
poverty
violence
major
to
a
are
is
states
war),
for
much
behind.
(battle
D E V E L O P M E N T
that:
declining
lagging
violence
major
growth
dispute
mean
deaths
poverty
a
an
to
redirect
attempt
of
to
their
hinder
military
or
For
or
of
the
every
excess
reduction
War-torn
●
Conicts
countries
the
violence
from
to
civil
world,
three
years
deaths
lags
chance
and
and
from
behind
by
2.7
political
unrest
Besides
which,
resources.
govern
of
a
conict-stricken
the
Congo.
conict
A
area
relapsing,
number
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as
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as
further
following:
neighbouring
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countries
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refugees.
conict,
development,
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available
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forced
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In
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(2011)
I M P A C T I N G
points.
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state’s
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equivalent
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data
countries
Report
F A C T O R S
sectors
governments
including
such
as
social
are
forced
welfare
maintaining
and
the
conicts.
become
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Congolese soldiers, Democratic Republic
also
have
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impact
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the
environment
and
therefore
on
of Congo
wood
for
energy
to
has
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destruction
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leading
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increased
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pollution.
tw
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P
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t
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e
m
e
g
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g
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e
n
r
p
o
a
a
il
z
In
s
n
it
h
t
iw
la
n
o
n
h
tw
orG
fragility
Divide
s
ytiruce
h
o
d
n
a
Conflict
and
Communication and
research skills
n
c
e
t
a
n
d
r
i
o
T
ra
n
s
-n
a
ti
o
rg
o
n
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iz
e
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ri
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t
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r
io
ie
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ifl
n
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w
t
l
a
h
r
a
b
t
f
a
o
e
n
r
t
r
im
In
a
it
o
use
deforestation
il
atmospheric
fuel
due
there
t
and
and
example,
a
charcoal
For
infrastructure
r
of
development.
hydropower
g
o
o
d
s
Liberia’s
a
n
d
s
e
c
u
M
ir
a
t
r
y
k
e
t
s
sustainable
M
fr
o
m
ig
/t
ra
o
s
ta
te
ti
fr
o
a
n
g
il
R
a
d
a
ic
d
n
a
e
s
te
l
m
id
o
e
a
e
d
o
n
ch
human
and
sustainable
development.
your
ndings
Present
the
other
compare
to
notes
s
group
rn
on
y
g
lo
and
how
the
similar
impact
conicts
of
has
or
different
both
been
of
in
these
terms
M
e
a
e
n
in
g
and
m
o
v
e
n
of
development
or
country
on
the
area
m
in
question.
Conict, stability and development
109
3
D E V E LO P M E N T
Ideology and political systems
TOK
For
governments
around
the
world,
development
is
one
of
the
primary
Given that they have access
stated
national
goals.
Of
course,
there
are
different
paths
they
can
take
to the same facts, how is
to
achieve
this
ambition
based
on
the
ideology
they
believe
in.
Liberals
it possible that there can
hold
that
economic
growth
turn
increased
can
be
pursued
with
economic
expansion,
be disagreement between
which
in
fuels
incomes,
raising
demand
for
goods,
jobs
exper ts in a par ticular area of
and
overall
growth.
They
encourage
privatization
and
a
free
market
knowledge?
economy
towards
to
a
spur
Authoritarian
small
group
Every
has
or
its
consensus
the
to
–
on
successes
what
and
and
touted
failures
of
success
stories
as
of
a
Bolivia
decline
under
in
involve
whether
While
growth
Socialism,
economy
the
on
and
the
other
hand,
state-ownership
possession
of
power
by
is
of
a
inclined
property.
leader
or
a
elites.
supporters
development.
key
planned
regimes
of
ideology
had
development.
centrally
liberal,
and
could
liberal
be
the
yet
best
of
there
each
of
have
are
these
socialism,
such
as
well.
such
example
Evo
One
Morales.
extreme
poverty
in
is
a
a
to
been
number
has
or
of
boost
hailed
Despite
been
of
inequality,
as
examples
USSR,
report,
capitalist–
unanimity
option
often
former
to
income
no
models.
the
According
and
authoritarian
there
possible
democracies
development,
failures
socialist,
opponents,
the
much
there
the
and
have
socialist
Bolivia
a
the
of
has
rise
been
regime
seen
in
real
40
minimum
wages
and
social
spending.
Governance: accountability and transparency
Much
of
a
countr y ’s
governance,
such
frameworks,
leaders
who
transparent
to
have
an
also
“expansion
d e ve l opme nt
s ta bi li ty,
politi ca l
have
a
system
cul tur e
p o s i ti ve
w i th
acceler a te d
development
would
as
is
no t
of
a nd
s tr ong
to
be
wha t
re la t e d
to
m a t t e rs
and
ra te.
It
towar ds
e f c i en t
is
wor t h
consi de r ed
note d
in
c on c e rn i n g
t r an s pa re n c y,
b u r ea uc r ac y.
a pp ro ac h
gr owth
o nl y
encom p a s s
a
is
a ccoun t a bil it y,
an
and
ac c ou n t abl e
bur e a uc r a c y
r ei t e ra t i ng
the
e co no m i st
le g al
G ove rn m en t s
mat e r ia l
Am a r t ya
a nd
are
h er e
known
that
s en s e ,
Se n
bu t
terms
as
freed o ms ”.
Corruption indices
The Corruptions Perceptions Index and Global Corruption Barometer are surveys
L TA
Thinking skills
on corruption conducted by Transparency International. According to the 2014
results, of the 175 countries surveyed, public sectors in Denmark , New Zealand,
Divide
into
two
groups
Sweden, Norway and Singapore feature among the least corrupt, while Somalia,
to
work
on
the
following
Nor th Korea, Sudan, Afghanistan and Iraq are ranked as among the highly corrupt.
question:
Survey results reveal that more than two-thirds of the countries score a 50 on
Has
the
China
growing
and
sections
India
of
GNP
in
helped
a scale of 0 (highly corrupt) to 100 (very clean). Moreover, no country scores
all
society?
a perfect 100. The countries with low rankings suer from problems such as
bribery, lack of punishment for corruption and public institutions that do not
respond to the needs of citizens.
The
be
discussion
based
poverty
and
110
on
is
most
should
the
still
fact
rampant
people
from
a
lack
basic
needs.
of
that
still
access
The World Bank also brings out a similar index called the Criminal Procedure and
Investigations Act 1996 (CPIA) Transparency, Accountability and Corruption in
suffer
Public Sector Rating (see map below). The index reects these three eponymous
to
variables in the public sector and assesses variables such as accountability of
those in power and access of civil society to public aairs information.
3
D E V E LO P M E N T
of
any
areas
kind,
such
establish
Ofcial
a
is
the
solid
required
aid
foundation
can
tendency
reliance,
for
even
as
also
it
stronger
has
at
can
governance
could
cost
spent
of
–
the
to
of
stability.
aid
be
it
for
could
a
and
a
of
of
of
and
when
gains
Lack
regard.
promote
work
lack
private
in
help
Japanese
this
pattern
hard
aid
can
The
in
harmful
population.
aggravates
growth.
First,
to
Similarly,
facilities
example
develop
corruption
poor
and
an
self-help,
prove
swindle
only
be
development.
aid
the
can
governments
Moreover,
poor
been
(ODA)
spirit
with
and
infrastructure
industrialization
the
government
aid
and
relief
sound
expunges
A
how
for
of
obstruct
combined
even
ensure
Assistance
states
entrepreneurship.
corrupt
to
establishment
Development
However,
the
aid
as
transparency.
and
become
transparency
on
theproblem.
Social factors
The
on
overall
its
social
milieu
development.
gender
and
of
a
country
Intangible
migration
could
has
variables
have
both
a
very
such
subtle,
as
positive
but
values,
and
powerful,
cultures,
negative
impact
traditions,
effects.
Values, cultures and traditions
The
term
“culture”
and
beliefs.
includes
a
society’s
or
community’s
value
systems
TOK
It
can
This chapter claims that culture
development.
To
helps to shape our values and
and
the
beliefs. To what extent are
impact
we aware of the impact of our
study
culture on what we believe or
partly
know?
responds
condition
(apart
that
on
by
the
two
based
be
social
and
Harvard
on
the
other
religious
to
since
and
ethics
economic
World
Values
religious
factors
such
help
an
of
as
and
society,
aspects
of
to
growth
traditions
they
their
also
Barro
and
Survey,
found
that
in
heaven,
education).
because
For
shape
an
instance,
Rachel
and
study
a
McCleary,
economic
hell
The
they
and
help
have
lives.
Robert
beliefs
growth
impetus
culture
economists,
to
beliefs
provide
with,
values
positively
from
used
begin
an
growth
afterlife
suggested
inuence
individual
43
behaviour
how
noticed
far
given
religious
in
to
church
reduce
In
attendance,
religious
hell,
for
tend
to
such
as
groups,
despite
hard
Culture
out
a
sound
respect,
values
society.
communities
having
work,
and
within
and
It
even
economic
honesty,
also
determine
could
trust
be
clearly
nations
base
and
to
achieve
build
of
a
workforce
and
their
output,
and
discipline
nally
economic
growth
and
have
a
development.
beliefs
–
and
an
increase
culture
creates
an
impression
for
the
economic
performance
as
given
increases
as
attractiveness
of
a
country.
A
culture
clear
of
corrupt
practices
in
with
an
ethos
conducive
to
innovation,
entrepreneurship,
gender
notably
and
racial
harmony
augments
the
attractiveness
of
a
country
as
afterlife
a
–
others,
quality
on
equality
heaven,
ethnic
carried
economic
contrast,
and
some
is
attendance
well
church
than
the
Second,
growth.
productivity.
allocation
some
Values
to
bearing
tend
improve
beliefs,
add
increases
that
more
upon.
For
to
resource
destination
for
investments
as
well
as
a
favourable
location
for
setting
economic
up
operations
for
companies,
institutions
and
organizations.
In
today’s
growth.
global
Barro
and
McCleary.
“Religion
and
Economic
politics,
how
often
this
is
actively
the
case
is
a
matter
of
some
debate.
Growth”.
NBER
Paper
Working
No.
9682.
Third,
culture
growth.
subject
much
uses
to
of
soft
power
continue
growth.
112
could
economic
to
also
The
be
discussion.
tools
to
procure
used
example
the
steady
a
tool
of
China’s
Several
assure
a
as
of
analysts
world
supply
of
“soft
power“
so-called
of
have
its
to
“charm
further
offensive”
commented
peaceful
resources
in
that
intentions
order
to
is
the
Beijing
and
pursue
its
3 . 3 :
F A C T O R S
I M P A C T I N G
D E V E L O P M E N T
China–Africa trade grows
The
cultural
providing
according
Scientic
and
per
sector,
income
to
statistics
and
of
developed,
the
could
employment
released
Cultural
Herzegovina’s
cent
if
and
by
the
Organization
GDP
came
employed
from
people
add
to
the
probability
opportunities.
United
in
Nations
(UNESCO),
cultural
For
Educational,
5.72
per
activities
Colombia
had
of
instance,
in
jobs
cent
2011,
in
the
of
Bosnia
while
2.1
cultural
44
sector
in
revenue
many
for
it
many
is
A
Bridge
artists,
teachers
visions
to
civil
and
create
society
a
could
to
be
has
that
also
Development,
intellectuals
order
to
on
a
network
enable
used
to
providing
noted
UNESCO
cohesive
in
also
countries,
generally
employment).
Culture:
and
Culture
earner
(although
service
as
2012.
this
attract
jobs
is
under
to
a
to
often
it
aims
a
major
to
low-paying
to
exchange
politicians,
be
–
income
programme
which
platform
among
them
most
initiated
tourism
and
known
bring
ideas
and
professionals
involved
in
development
projects.
In
contrast,
trade
lack
of
and
investment
Tata
discipline
Motors
India
in
all
their
violent
against
culture,
cultural
societies,
moved
following
protesting
union
are
what
strikes,
loss
attributes
communities
factory
protests
they
out
by
called
of
or
the
farmers
a
of
that
a
labour
deter
country.
state
in
“forcible
hours
both
of
For
West
2008.
The
and
example,
Bengal
farmers
snatching”
a
interest
of
in
were
their
land
45
without
adequate
compensation.
113
3
D E V E LO P M E N T
Gender matters
Gender and sustainable
Gender
development
clearly
Women
have
a
vital
role
boost
development.
to
Their
to
have
a
close-knit
favourable
position
relationship
of
women
in
and
examples
society
and
growth.
A
society
in
which
acts
women
as
have
and
access
is
to
opportunities
provides
an
environment
for
the
full
of
capabilities
(the
ability
to
read
and
write,
have
a
long
and
therefore
healthy
essential
the
development
expansion
participation
that
management
rights
and
development
in
a
environmental
and
show
achieve
life,
earn
a
respectable
living
and
also
take
part
in
decision-
sustainable
making)
and
the
freedom
of
social,
political,
cultural
and
economic
development.
choices,
Rio
Declaration,
1992
to
and
existing
thus
gender
opportunities,
Integrate
gender
perspectives
in
programmes
concerns
policies
for
In
and
purely
and
would
recognize
that
empowerment
are
have
can
and
a
also
link
future.
commitments
women’s
and
equal
and
help
of
children,
education,
women,
employment.
Enhanced
uplift
generate
Healthy
adding
business
opportunities
additional
and
directly
reproductive
development.
literacy
children
and
will
keep
to
health
Studies
reduction
population
income
educated
a
good
and
women
and
quality
low
infant
of
mortality
of
have
shown
fertility
rates.
that
there
Fewer
and
Besides,
in
check
women
and
have
a
also
big
slow
hand
down
in
and
distribution
of
food
and
are
central
to
the
food
of
the
family
workforce
in
and
the
community.
agricultural
An
additional
sector
will
involvement
increase
food
of
the
production.
for
contribution
of
the
myriad
roles
that
women
can
play
in
leadership
society
cannot
be
disputed.
This
has
been
acknowledged
and
and
documented
decision
degradation.
storage
development
economy,
political
empowerment.
to
The
the
facets
employment
rights,
opportunities
participation
in
property,
We
female
access
different
development
common
our
and
are
important
security
ensure
create
between
production,
reafrm
education,
provision
empower
healthier
environmental
our
terms,
help
resource.
healthier
sustainable
and
freedom
There
women’s
is
for
economic
–
others.
gender
would
and
above
Declaration
human
equality
edge
discrimination
economic
support
productivity,
development.
We
an
and
sustainable
Beijing
has
in
many
reports
on
development
(see
left).
We
will
discuss
making.
a
few
of
these
matters
in
the
section
on
the
capabilities
approach
later
in
Rio+20
thisunit.
Migration
Factors driving migration
Migration
is
generally
dened
as
the
“crossing
of
the
boundary
of
a
46
●
Inequalities in education,
human rights, jobs,
resources
political
This
or
administrative
includes
people
as
movement
well
as
encompassing
●
unit
of
economic
the
for
a
certain
refugees
and
migrants.
phenomenon
of
minimum
uprooted
Migration
is
globalization.
period
and
one
It
of
time”.
displaced
of
has
the
both
variables
positive
and
Demand for and supply of
negative
impacts
on
development.
labour
Migration
●
can
provide
an
impetus
to
the
economic
growth
and
the
Relatively cheap
development
of
a
recipient
country
simply
due
to
the
fact
that
it
international transpor t
involves
●
the
transfer
of
skilled
workforce
as
well
as
labour
force,
both
Easy electronic
of
which
are
required
to
increase
productivity
and
GDP
in
purely
communication
economic
●
doors
networks
productivity.
to
have
the
and
also
gives
set
up
to
considered
add
the
to
the
the
way
be
foreign
returning
leading
lack
and
the
spend
to
to
in
young
workforce
any
gaps,
thereby
often
send
for
come
out
on
ll
a
immigrants
them
food,
basic
exchange
or
ventures
further
to
education
human
migrants
entrepreneurial
raised,
that
inow
paving
resources
are
GDP
capital
its
Additionally,
families,
to
Countries
facilitate
their
which
114
terms.
Transnational family
of
needs.
the
their
in
and
their
home
back
poverty
also
–
add
country.
members
towns
the
increasing
housing
recipient
employment.
open
money
of
They
family
can
to
and
all
to
of
the
This
opportunity
with
the
3 . 3 :
The
positive
migration
impact
F A C T O R S
I M P A C T I N G
D E V E L O P M E N T
of
contrasts
with
Other
the
negative
effect
on
FOR
economic
growth
The
most
$1
EVERY
a
equity
of
both
obvious
human
skilled
being
labour.
“brain
resource
and
The
resources
a
exploit
its
of
takes
GAIN
–
host
a
Foreign
direct
investment
44
of
a
repayments
on
large
debt
14
investors
42
countries
59
c
taken
number
unrest
in
Refugees
section
of
THEY
out
by
foreign
The
Lending
to
rich
sometimes
social
population
foreign
can
advantage.
country.
form
10
34
migrant
away
the
become
LOSE
MORE
Illicit
to
from
human
country
immigrants
leads
Aid
workers
the
Profits
presence
3
6
unskilled
valuable
to
shares)
oft-discussed
drain”
the
&
COUNTRIES
Interest
from
(stocks
country.
Remittances
loss
3
and
DEVELOPING
of
flows
Charitable
Portfolio
development
official
the
financial
flows
THAN
$2
93
the
that
migrant
an
added
burden
on
limited
resources.
Ecacy of national and local institutions
Indigenous
Local
and
national
contributors
critical
are
a
and
link
part
in
in
of
the
the
the
executing
institutions
process
process
of
multi-tier
activities,
of
are
signicant
growth
and
development.
development
governance
resources
stakeholders,
by
virtue
system
and
their
of
actors
They
the
planning,
are
fact
and
a
that
they
coordinating
distribution
into
the
wider
society.
What
makes
almost
these
all
institutions
aspects
of
relevant
and
development,
critical
ranging
is
from
also
the
food,
healthcare,
protection
of
the
environment
and
of
income,
require
efcient
planning
and
local
have
in
environmental
and
development
their
knowledge
States
and
support
duly
a
vital
role
management
because
and
practices.
of
traditional
should
their
recognize
identity,
fact
and
interests
and
enable
housing,
effective
participation
in
equitable
the
distribution
their
communities
their
education,
and
other
and
culture
that
people
communities
achievement
of
sustainable
implementation
development.
at
the
and
grassroots
well
connected
important
with
An
the
role
hands
countries,
was
of
to
initiated
with
expanded
village
and
the
its
area
of
committees
has
for
writing
in
2000
work.
and
programme
a
–
made
and
a
a
of
be
health
involves
–
can
in
ground
play
a
very
tandem
in
institutions
one
of
the
Development
Rio
Declaration
Environment
on
and
1992
could
poorest
Programme
non-governmental
and
The
NGO
literacy
and
are
learning
itself.
spaces
health
involving
began
workers,
The
earmarked
centres,
women
its
gradually
development
community
community
programmes
the
Development,
level
seen
the
There
arithmetic,
they
development
community
from
to
traditions.
national
as
difference.
and
conditions,
local
may
closest
Developpement.
facilitators
and
villages
et
such
It
and
are
Community
by
Jeunesse
areas
local
values
where
they
process
development
on
that
to
the
national
year
(NGO),
focus
committees
the
Africa,
a
reading,
adapted
culture,
further
in
Considering
accelerating
how
Mali,
organization
work
in
indigenous
example
join
level.
and
hygiene
making
47
them
If
independent.
local
and
national
development,
In
they
communities,
prone
to
institutions
can
have
societies
corruption,
a
and
can
be
effective
potentially
countries
fragmented
or
where
suffer
in
harmful
from
bolstering
impact
these
as
well.
institutions
problems
such
as
are
lack
115
3
D E V E LO P M E N T
A patient visiting a clinic in Mali,
Africa
of
experience,
could
The
notion
versus
of
“development
environment”
be
in
sourcing,
of
inefciency
way
to
a
new
better
is
view
and
literacy,
with
the
distribution
omissions
on
of
their
the
same
fact
that
resources
part
process
these
would
of
are
development
signicant
actors
among
society,
have
negativeimpact.
a
any
kind
the
environment
and
sustainable
development
are
critical
in
of
the
discourse
and
practice
of
development
goals
in
today’s
environmental
essential
The
environment
is
directly
related
to
the
daily
lives
of
all
to
individuals.
sustain
of
Environmental factors
world.
stewardship
lack
keeping
has
aspects
which…
or
or
In
usage
Safeguarding
given
skills
derailed.
It
is
no
surprise,
therefore,
that
environmental
sustainability
is
development.
one
World
Bank,
World
Bank
Atlas,
1997
of
the
most
In
considering
be
noted.
climate,
the
One,
has
signicant
impact
the
an
impact.
At
to
other
countries
makes
it
easier
to
doing
health
so.
and
fostering
capital
Similarly,
that
and
region
a
easier
and
people.
ill-health
by
on
level,
material
climate
and
out
country,
macro
have
of
set
geography
of
a
transport
well-being
diseases
of
of
location
access
of
MDGs
a
on
of
turn
an
few
also
a
and
could
lines
and
and
This
not
just
decreases
the
costs
on
greater
bearing
output
things
weather
coastal
impact
have
negative
their
with
but
have
that
a
affects
development.
labour,
weather
have
in
countries
chances
and
leaders.
development,
which
Climates
therefore
world
on
the
overall
chance
the
of
human
contribution
to
TOK
development.
Is it possible to have knowledge
helpful
in
A
good
furthering
climate
that
supports
agricultural
production
is
also
development.
of future events? Are some
Impact of climate change
areas of knowledge better
equipped than others to make
predictions about the future?
Climate
and
they
a
depend
direct
in
change
countries
and
additional
by
116
to
the
opposes
harming
survival.
on
rising
disasters
shermen
problems
healthcare
sustainable
destroying
and
change
rainfall
seawater
development.
the
and
levels,
agricultural
the
most.
Disease,
a
fall
Intergovernmental
poor
in
are
productivity
Panel
on
Climate
of
in
turn
and
face,
having
results
and
hitting
poor
malnutrition
bringing
human
Change
which
are
temperatures
production,
to
on
warming
This
hunger
likely
Communities
resources
global
higher
affect
the
very
patterns.
that
that
and
and
Climate
weather
droughts,
natural
farmers
cost
for
impact
oods,
other
directly
are
about
resource.
released
in
A
are
added
report
2007
3.4
Contemporary pathways towards development
Models of development – neoliberalism, state
capitalism and capability theories
Neoliberal theories (Washington Consensus)
Neoliberal
theories
of
development
form
a
very
signicant
contemporary
Neoliberal development
aspect
of
development
theories.
The
neoliberal
model
of
development
model: the main features
that
●
Open competition
of
best
●
emerged
people
for
during
and
the
the
state
the
1970s
economic
to
endorsed
growth
minimize
its
and
the
belief
that
development
intervention
and
for
of
leave
a
the
well-being
country
the
it
market
was
free
to
Free market
function
●
Limited state intervention
●
Comparative advantage
●
Individual self-interest
classical
●
the
on
own,
theorist
market
Neoliberal
setting
Adam
regulates
thinkers
production
Privatization of state
its
and
wages
Smith’s
itself
and
concept
towards
believe
that
distribution
of
prices.
the
the
of
the
goal
many
the
the
ways
hand”
economic
is
and…
in
“invisible
of
market
wealth
This
reinforced
under
which
growth.
“optimal
optimal
space
for
the
vehicle
for
social
49
mobility”.
enterprises
pursue
●
It
is,
according
protectionist
to
policies
them,
for
counterproductive
domestic
industry.
for
These
the
state
theorists
to
stress
Deregulation
the
need
to
supported
also
of
1817
that
by
book
at
a
The
the
need
and
on
of
the
and
for
expansion
the
removal
privatization
advantage,
rst
principles
of
political
specialize
in
the
than
Furthermore,
welcome
Washington
others,
the
foreign
Consensus
of
exports.
tariffs
neoliberal
and
by
economy
production
thereby
This
of
gaining
path
has
based
David
in
on
he
that
the
that
in
argues
they
advantage
requires
be
They
Ricardo
which
goods
an
to
barriers.
development
forward
the
cost
of
and
put
should
lower
relationships.
permit
policy
comparative
countries
produce
a
deregulation
emphasize
theory
his
follow
can
in
trade
countries
investment.
was
a
term
coined
by
the
English
economist
Trade liberalization
John
Williamson
Trade liberalization is any act
advocated
that would make the trade
in
regime more neutral, nearer
formulated
to a trade system free of
it
government intervention.
reform,
order
out
by
for
of
a
the
in
1989
US
to
as
10
debt
trade
set
of
crisis
capture
government
countries
a
to
pull
out
policy
that
had
liberalization,
a
and
of
few
reforms
international
the
mire
reforms
begun
policy
in
of
1982.
at
Latin
Some
and
nancial
economic
targeted
deregulation
unanimously
of
institutions
instability.
America
these
privatization
to
It
included
and
was
help
tax
encouraging
50
inward
foreign
direct
Deregulation
in
the
investment.
involves
market
Privatization:
by
the
removal
of
barriers
to
competition,
legislations
and
laws
government
Transfer
of
ownership
of
assets
to
the
private
sector.
L TA
Thinking and social skills
Mary
With
a
partner,
This
the
neoliberal
model
neoliberal
the
IMF
down
a
The
What,
Why
and
How
of
Privatization
of
World
development
Bank.
These
found
support
institutions
in
policies
supported
set
forth
similar
policy
Afterwards
critique
the
way
and
prescriptions
write
Shirley,
of
by
development.
M.
discuss
or
for
those
developing
countries
that
were
facing
problems
note
drawbacks
of
while
following
the
Bank
introduced
path
of
import
substitution
in
the
1980s.
The
World
this
the
Structural
Adjustment
Programme
(SAP),
a
set
of
model.
policy
118
prescriptions
that
had
to
be
applied
by
countries
to
recover
from
3 . 4 :
their
and
economic
real
woes.
wages,
These
C O N T E M P O R A R Y
included
elimination
of
cuts
subsidies,
in
P A T H W A Y S
government
trade
T O W A R D S
D E V E L O P M E N T
expenditure
liberalization
and
raising
51
agricultural
as
a
prices.
precondition
came
under
The
implementation
for
the
receipt
criticism
for
not
of
any
of
the
lending
eliminating
SAP
was
from
the
poverty
and
also
put
Bank.
creating
forth
The
SAP
more
dependency.
State capitalism (China, Russia)
State
has
capitalism
the
and
thereby
from
the
of
minority
be
and
the
described
control
utilizes
ups
inuence
or
can
supreme
the
over
market
downs
of
a
government
equity
positions
as
both
a
for
political
market
in
in
political
system
production
the
in
the
It
economy,
or
which
usage
advantages,
system.
companies
and
by
by
state
capital
protected
involves
either
the
of
a
“widespread
owning
providing
majority
subsidized
52
credit
and/or
privileges
to
private
companies”.
Governments
could
use
Sovereign wealth funds
different
sphere.
methods
These
and
are
by
could
show
China
that
tools
include
enterprises
owned
and
both
have
exercise
sovereign
national
states.
to
pros
wealth
champion
The
strong
and
a
The
control
funds
rms.
nexus
cons.
exhibited
their
(SWFs),
Many
between
success
consistent
over
politics
of
rate
economic
oil
companies
and
economics
countries
in
A sovereign wealth fund (SWF)
state-owned
national
story
growth
the
the
such
past
few
fund or entity commonly
created from balance of
as
years
53
has
been
touted
the
other
hand,
negative
power
have
who
a
on
ultimately
the
set
of
Moscow,
and
investments,
will
of
New
state
take
and
Delhi
state
to
ownership,
The
the
economic
front.
signicant
economic
decisions
do
into
on
ends
dangers,
political
losers
make
capitalism.
that
taken
politics
winners
of
possibility
expertise
injection
different
the
story
decisions
necessary
[W]ith
success
include
impact
the
as
may
have
Also,
is a state-owned investment
on
payment surpluses, scal
surpluses and so for th.
a
those
may
in
not
so.
economic
is
economic
[S]tate
decisions
regulation
–
that
–
ofcials
about
resonate
Bremmer,
State
an
entirely
in…
Beijing…
strategic
across
global
Capitalism
Foreign
markets.
Comes
of
Affairs,
Age,
L TA
Ian
decision-making,
emerging.
Research skills
2009.
Research
China
state
in
and
Russia
capitalist
China
growing
has
for
been
the
stakeholder
are
in
two
system.
a
few
top
12
exercises
decisions
investments
examples
of
state
story.
years.
government
on
saga
success
past
the
major
The
China’s
The
and
over
that
these
through
countries
GDP
Chinese
companies
control
of
capitalism
as
has
it
following
has
been
government
are
state
is
a
to
the
measure
of
central
the
the
model
the
whether
it
or
to
has
that
state
and
pros
system
success
major
top
countries
following
capitalism
primary
The
through
appointments
the
evolved
consistently
owned.
companies
are
and
cons
decipher
been
a
failure.
posts.
54
They
are
protected
from
competition
by
the
state
mechanism.
L TA
Russia
to
has
maintain
leadership
of
been
people
a
is
following
cordial
known
called
a
similar
relationship
to
exercise
“oligarchs”
system.
with
the
control
wield
All
businesses
government.
over
power
large
and
state
The
Some
Self-management and
research skills
political
enterprises.
money.
have
of
A
Watch
the
online
video
them
to
be
helping
powerful
politicians.
For
instance,
Arkady
on
state
are
capitalism
known
following
group
in
China:
Rotenberg
https://www.youtube.com/
whose
company
earned
prots
while
doing
business
with
state-owned
watch?v=7T302G5wAS4
55
Gazprom
is
alleged
to
have
helped
fund
Vladimir
Putin’s
2012election.
119
3
D E V E LO P M E N T
Capability theory (Sen, Nussbaum)
Amar tya Sen and Mar tha Nussbaum
Functioning – achievement
of a person, what he/she
The
capability
theory
was
propounded
by
famous
economist
and
Nobel
manages to do or be.
Prize
winner
Amartya
Sen
and
has
been
built
upon
and
furthered
For example:
by
●
Escaping mor tality
●
scholars
premise
such
that
necessarily
Working, resting
a
●
Literacy and health
●
Adequate nourishment
human
as
Martha
economic
guarantee
being’s
life
a
is
Nussbaum.
development
good
a
set
quality
of
The
approach
in
terms
of
life
“doings
of
for
and
a
is
rise
people.
beings”
–
based
in
on
GNP
According
termed
the
does
not
to
Sen,
together
56
as
“functionings”.
terms
of
the
The
capability
quality
to
of
life
function
–
can
that
be
is,
evaluated
the
and
assessed
opportunities
to
in
perform
57
●
Achieving self-respect
actions
this
●
they
school
wish
of
to
and
thought,
be
the
what
focus
they
of
want
policy
to
be.
should
be
In
sum,
to
ensure
according
a
to
person’s
Taking par t in community
well-being
and
of
choose
development,
and
to
provide
the
freedom
to
live
the
kind
living
Capability – combinations
of functionings a person
life
spectrum
and
can achieve and reects an
individual’s freedom to choose
they
of
need
nd
variables
political
may
or
freedom.
economic
valuable.
dening
All
of
The
capability
well-being,
these
resources,
require
others
for
approach
instance,
different
political
covers
health,
kinds
freedoms
of
or
a
full
education
inputs
even
–
some
social
58
institutions
and
structures.
between dierent ways of living
Sen’s
conceptualization
further
by
Martha
of
the
Nussbaum.
capability
approach
Nussbaum’s
was
elaborated
contribution
to
the
capability
L TA
Research and thinking
approach
skills
issues.
and
Listen
to
Martha
speaking
on
approach
to
the
has
She
has
societies
particularly
argued
have
a
that
few
noteworthy
people
basic
across
a
capabilities
in
the
eld
of
cross-section
required
for
a
gender
of
cultures
good
life.
Nussbaum
These
capabilities,
in
formulation
according
to
her,
should
be
followed
as
a
guideline
capability
the
of
development
policy.
Some
of
the
central
human
development
capabilities
at
been
as
listed
by
Nussbaum
include:
http://www-personal.
umd.umich.edu/~delittle/
●
ability
●
good
●
ability
to
live
a
life
of
normal
length
nussbaum.htm
Research
the
two
further
health,
nutrition,
shelter
about
to
use
senses,
imagine,
think,
reason
to
conceptualization
capability
theory
similarities
and
realize
all
of
have
the
education
these
of
and
spot
●
ability
to
live
for
others
and
show
concern
differences.
59
●
120
and
theorists’
ability
to
laugh
and
enjoy
recreation.
for
other
human
beings
3 . 4 :
C O N T E M P O R A R Y
P A T H W A Y S
T O W A R D S
D E V E L O P M E N T
Approaches for developing the economy
Trade liberalization and expor t orientation
Trade
the
libe ralization
face
of
failure
Liberalization,
or
a nd
of
e xpo rt
the
the
o ri e n t a t io n
i mpor t
o pe ni ng
be c am e
s ub st i t u t io n
up
bu z z wor ds
m o de l
of
the
ec on om y
wor ld ,
h as
t hu s
of
to
the
in
e co no m y.
t ra de
an d
Trade
investment
with
the
o uts ide
be c om e
on e
of
as
salient
features
Countries
of
have
production
ma ny
countr i es
ad o p te d
and
ex p o r t
e xp or t
of
on
t h e ir
ro ad
or ie n ta t io n
g ood s
in
w h ic h
–
to
is
dened
any
act
that
would
make
the
de ve lop m e n t .
i n c r ea s e
t he y
Liberalization
the
in
p os se s s
trade
regime
more
trade
system
free
neutral
–
the
of
government
c om pa r at i ve
intervention.
advantage
they
free
also
–
in
or d e r
open
the i r
to
ra i se
the
ma r ke ts
le ve l
for
of
i now
the
of
e co no m y.
for e ig n
In
g oo ds
th e
or
pr oc es s ,
S.M.
pr om ot e
Shafeddin,
Liberalization
trade.
Reforms
A
number
of
advantages
have
been
attributed
to
trade
and
in
Trade
Economic
Developing
liberalization
Countries
and
export-oriented
it
expected
is
on
to
enhance
g l o b a l l y.
exports
product
Second,
encourages
growth.
First,
in
development
opening
up
innovation
of
and
the
developing
countries
and
firms
enable
economy
facilitates
and
transfer
to
focusing
of
skills
L TA
compete
economic
Communication and
thinking skills
60
and
technology
enhancement.
The
East
Asian
economies
of
Japan,
Pick
Hong
Kong,
Ta i w a n ,
Singapore
and
South
Korea
came
to
be
a
case
country
as
the
Asian
Ti g e r s
in
the
light
of
their
rapid
economic
on
export-led
growth
and
liberalization
of
the
e c o n o m y.
their
share
of
world
trade
by
exporting
path
including
telecommunication
equipment,
These
countries,
Thailand,
countries
were
Indonesia
followed
and
by
computers
other
Malaysia.
of
liberalization
ndings
China
r e c e n t l y,
the
class.
Discuss
the
fruits
of
have
also
following
a
become
similar
success
economic
stories
in
the
Asian
growth
economic
that
can
be
movement
borders.
just
in
of
and
where
up
brings
to
border
and
rapid
place
growth
of
of
the
into
is
provides
counted
as
kind
of
blurred.
has
economy.
added
In
to
the
for
a
grown
all
parts
is
rapidly
relatively
of
your
society
discussing
liberalization
a
success
If
not,
are
whether
and
growth
story
what
needed
ndings
export-
ends
in
other
to
up
every
as
case.
factors
make
it
a
success?
countries
spent
in
by
spent
visitors
rming
industries
destination
or
up
signicant
helps
money
the
health
sum
oriented
across
many
Currency
revenues
for
has
made
country,
Moreover,
exports
or
business,
travel
approaches
involves
transportation
tourism
host
other
within
leisure,
where
the
two
Tourism
another
of
becoming
telecommunications.
visitors
to
This
world,
are
are
economy.
purpose
growth
exchange
and
the
friends.
borders
the
infrastructure
airlines
and
one
the
globalized
the
foreign
for
by
entrepreneurship
from
travel
relatives
continents
and
developing
people
People
contribution
also
for
increasingly
cheap,
and
used
visiting
an
tourism
and
trickled
arena
Tourism and entrepreneurship
of
have
plan.
and
Promotion
whether
India
down
while
to
and
Southeast
More
your
development
and
growth.
manufactured
61
robotics.
any
followed
export-oriented
Present
goods,
of
has
They
and
increased
that
development
the
based
study
known
by
such
as
cross-
country
and
62
imports
and
it
The
these
The
the
handicraft
goods.
of
for
of
can
the
important
sales
data
in
country
receive
the
forecast
key
remembered,
to
for
sectors
contributor
to
to
however,
a
the
of
residence.
boost
diagram
contribute
long-term
one
visitor’s
with
below
growth
tourism
in
be
under
the
that
kept
the
2030
a
development
tourism
increased
speaks
of
The
is
creates
small-scale
demands
volumes
about
for
their
how
each
economy.
promising,
watchful
of
local
the
eye
making
as
economy.
primarily
an
It
should
low-paying
be
jobs,
so
121
3
D E V E LO P M E N T
the
winners
the
owners
than
US$
9%
the
in
of
the
workers
industry
growth
tourist
of
tourism
establishments
who
keep
the
are
rather
tourist
functioning.
1.3 TRILLION
1/11 JOBS
Promotion
GDP
and
development
of
IN E XPORTS
entrepreneurship
essential
process
$
is
and
of
is
considered
integral
economic
growth.
entrepreneurship?
Schumpeter
the
in
dened
“assumption
designing
of
and
an
component
of
But
Economist
the
what
Joseph
entrepreneurship
risk
and
as
responsibility
implementing
a
business
63
strategy
other
6%
6%
E XPORTS
OF WORLD
OF LE A ST
starting
words,
a
is
group
attempt
convert
economic
can
help
jobs
and
business”.
a
or
to
a
it
individual
or
TRADE
or
process
of
an
activity.
spur
the
by
which
people
idea
In
an
make
into
a
an
business
Entrepreneurship
economy
by
creating
DE VELOPED COUNTRIES
from
making
investors.
entrepreneur
services
these
they
Why tourism matters
adds
are
good
able
to
to
the
exported
would
currency.
also
Apart
advantages,
use
Besides,
a
of
create
GNP
to
an
help
of
products
the
the
in
If
market,
foreign
purely
entrepreneurs
and
country.
overseas
bring
from
capital
successful
can
economic
also
lead
to
innovation.
In
order
have
to
to
be
facilitate
present.
entrepreneurial
infrastructure,
tape”
stable
and
help
a
spirit
procedural
stable
and
economic
to
has
to
be
barriers,
All
these
strong
train
in
the
a
few
and
can
and
the
the
educate
a
conditions
good
presence
create
ventures,
which
people
to
level,
set
a
free
systems
to
educational
of
policies
nancing
coalesce
entrepreneurial
At
by
below,
governmental
funding
factors
signicant
diagram
supported
market,
development.
encourage,
planned
shown
promising
institutions.
viable,
boost
a
entrepreneurship
As
up
it
and
in
sound
of
support
turn
can
“red
and
can
also
enterprises
in
manner.
Economic
Critical
mass
development
of
viable
ventures
Financing
Market
mechanisms
mechanisms
Entrepreneurs
Entrepreneurial
Oppor tunities
Governmental
markets
policies
Infrastructure
tradition
Institutions
Model linking economic development and entrepreneurship
122
3 . 4 :
C O N T E M P O R A R Y
P A T H W A Y S
T O W A R D S
D E V E L O P M E N T
Knowledge economy
We
–
have
discussed
ranging
The
term
recent
is
from
“knowledge
years
based
the
on
signicance
natural
and
“the
resources
economy”
refers
to
of
has
capital
been
knowledge
production,
various
and
and
distribution
drivers
to
a
of
large
gaining
use
force.
prominence
intellectual
and
development
labour
of
in
capabilities.
knowledge
It
and
64
information”.
services
an
Considering
based
on
accelerated
the
fact
that
knowledge-intensive
pace
of
technical
and
it
involves
activities
scientic
“production
that
contribute
advance”,
it
is
and
to
also
Education
65
likely
to
face
the
peril
of
becoming
obsolete
very
quickly.
and
Thus,
training
according
for
a
educated
an
to
the
country
and
economy;
World
to
have
trained
a
sound
Bank,
a
there
knowledge
workforce
are
four
basic
economy
capable
infrastructure,
of
(see
requirements
right)
participating
including
Internet
–
an
in
such
access
to
Economic
Knowledge
enable
the
dissemination
and
communication
of
information;
Information
incentive
and
economy
infrastructure
an
environment
conducive
to
the
dispersal
of
institutional
knowledge,
regime
entrepreneurship,
investment
technology;
along
with
and
resource
human
suitably
use
a
set
that
knowledge.
is
in
of
information
think
able
to
Inherent
tanks,
and
research
understand,
in
this
communication
set
of
centres
create
and
credentials
is
the
Innovation
presence
in
of
a
workforce
technology.
students
to
This
learn
that
requires
how
to
is
able
an
to
adapt
educational
adapt,
not
only
in
to
rapid
system
changes
that
systems
enables
technological
elds,
66
but
in
ways
that
teach
the
art
of
“critical
The four basic requirements of a knowledge
thinking”.
economy
The
knowledge
knowledgeable
expertise
the
and
process
economy
human
intellect
of
to
research
education,
technology
signicant
portion
The
Bank
World
measures
diagram
of
has
countries
below.
ve
countries
and
Norway.
and
and
and
the
an
basis
to
high
of
the
educated
capability
innovate
development.
Sweden,
are
on
the
innovation.
Knowledge
on
include
with
economic
According
They
thrives
create
the
a
thus
resource
pie
It
This
of
includes
kind
Finland,
advance
an
Index
areas
higher
forms
a
countries.
2012,
the
such
in
economy
mentioned
Denmark,
in
their
through
Methodology
variables
performers
of
developed
Knowledge
use
consistently
Assessment
the
and
to
that
in
the
the
top
Netherlands
as
innovation,
67
information
and
economy
technology
(ICT)
and
education.
L TA
Knowledge
communication
Knowledge
index
index
(KEI)
(KEI)
Research and self-
management skills
Economic
institution
Watch
and
the
following
videos
regime
on
knowledge
economy:
index
Education
index
Innovation
index
ICT
index
https://www.youtube.com/
watch?v=2EzOLhYNd84
∙
Tariff
and
non-tariff
∙
Regulatory
∙
Rule
barriers
quality
https://www.youtube.com/
of
law
watch?v=_-8uhMBl6vI
∙
Average
years
of
∙
∙
Secondary
∙
Tertiary
Royalty
and
schooling
enrollment
enrollment
payments
receipts
∙
Patent
∙
Journal
count
∙
Telephones
∙
Computers
∙
Internet
users
articles
The knowledge indices
123
3
D E V E LO P M E N T
Circular economy
Consider
●
the
Mobile
following:
phone
production
manufactured
if
●
there
All
were
clothing
gross
new
prots.
A
typical
primary
aiming
used
tends
ensure
and
LINEAR
TAKE
>
be
reduced
be
UK
to
half
if
the
phones
upon
and
recycled
recycled
and
generate
and
devices.
could
reused
yarn
by
improved
returning
the
into
economy
and
discussed
to
in
could
resources
growth
that
in
a
be
variety
make
cloth
of
or
ways–
even
used
by
used
as
drain
the
for
relies
the
on
development.
goods
that
earlier,
resources.
production
are
has
A
usage
purpose
a
In
of
such
then
consumption
of
circular
a
set-up,
disposed
negative
process
and
manufacturing
economy
allows
of
impact
for
is
the
resources
after
on
a
while
the
are
usage.
This
environment
system
recycling
devised
of
to
material
products.
ECONOMY
LINEAR
industrial
as
on
of
recycled
manufacture
process,
and
They
could
dismantled,
upholstery.
energy
for
to
for
be
incentives
disposed
owners,
stufng
could
AND
CIRCULAR
ECONOMY
ECONOMY
MAKE
>
CIRCULAR
ECONOMY
TECHNICAL
BIOLOGICAL
NUTRIENTS
NUTRIENTS
DUMP
WASTE
TECHNICAL
&
NUTRIENTS
MIXED
BIOLOGICAL
UP
LIVING
ENERGY
FROM
FINITE
SOURCES
ENERGY
FROM
SYSTEMS
RENEWABLE
SOURCES
The linear and circular economies, Ellen MacAr thur Foundation
In
a
circular
two
groups:
economy,
all
kinds
of
material
are
divided
into
primarily
68
●
●
Biological
material
biosphere
without
Technical
material
These
thus
purposed
124
need
for
that
that
to
other
is
non-toxic
harming
be
the
cannot
kept
in
products.
and
can
pass
through
the
environment.
be
the
processed
best
through
possible
the
condition
biosphere.
to
be
3.5 Conclusion
Concern for citizenship skills and
ervatio
ns
n
o
C
engagement
tural
Na
Human
All
living
each
Jobs
making
income
A
p
p
r
o
rp
ci
monocE
policy
t
n
e
m
lac
itiloP
yc
arcomeD
Politics
decision
member
make
of
a
society
society
as
an
and
it
naturally
individual,
in
a
follows
family
that
set-
life-support
People
up
in
or
a
community
order
society.
eta
and
systems
be
p
o
le
ve
d
resources
beings
things,
to
It
is
also
sustainable,
skill
are
sets
to
evident
citizens
in
and
inputs
needs
steady
ensure
involved
national
of
ensure
that
are
levels.
feedback
in
to
of
order
be
for
with
a
contributing
at
is
of
critical
few
to
the
interaction
people
involved
development
imbued
open
and
development
development
An
from
engaged
and
actively
process
global
and
remain
need
they
the
to
progress
to
basic
and
societal,
and
both
system
for
living
adding
value
in
the
form
support
for
the
of
ideas
as
well
as
the
ability
to
together
acquire
This
ensures
that
the
decisions
voice
of
taken
the
by
people
the
has
government.
an
impact
on
S o cia
policies
P
and
actions
taken
by
the
government.
e
a
c
e
i
e
q
u
a
lit
y
and
h
u
m
a
g
n
Building
aware
citizenship
and
skills
would
(the
ability
informed
primarily
to
include
scrutinize
being
problems
at
the
Four dimensions of sustainable development
local
decisions
political
(the
and
ability
dimensions
appropriate
action
community
to
of
recognize
issues
(the
levels),
the
needed
ability
to
solving
social,
to
economic,
solve
participate
problems
those
in
and
ecological
problems)
steps
taking
taken
and
and
taking
towards
a
70
sustainable
thus
an
intrinsic
encourage
We,
future).
the
able
to
Ministers
is
to
rights,
the
and
an
of
the
caring
and
value
to
of
introduce,
(of
the
and
world)
of
or
them
levels,
true
which
of
operation
will
and
international;
public
should
the
and
promote,
enable
work
to
also
pay
open
human
by
to
to
special
peace,
other
dignity
cultures,
and
non-violent
for
citizenship
means.
which
of
at
every
of
every
public
participate
stage
person
in
to
of
cultural
on
Rights
a
and
life
of
the
Integrated
for
Peace,
Democracy ,
an
knowledge
whether
and
Education
education,
gain
institutions,
the
Declaration
Action
active
of
local,
the
1995
civic
method
national
community
or
and
in
affairs.
UNESCO
Recommendation
Understanding,
relating
126
to
committed
education
Human
states
and
dimension.
UNESCO
training
resolutely
citizens
resolve
are
government.
development,
Framework
Member
development
the
strive
engagement
respectful
conicts
all
of
responsible
sustainable
at
and
sustainable
freedom,
prevent
international
for
skills
transparency
Education
able
to
citizenship
quest
and
democracy
necessary
includes
of
educating
appreciate
differences,
[I]t
part
accountability
attention...
human
Building
to
Human
concerning
Education
Co-operation
Rights
and
and
for
Peace
Fundamental
International
and
Education
Freedoms ,
1974
3 :
Citizenship
ability
mind
to
skills
could
critically
different
decisions,
include
think
and
perspectives,
actively
a
broad
enquire
range
about
institutions
participating
in
of
attributes
issues
and
while
policies,
activities,
such
making
tolerance
as
keeping
C O N C L U S I O N
the
in
informed
towards
all
Class discussion
and
communication.
and
knowledge
steering
the
sustainable
gathered
and
society.
through
community
in
way
as
the
to
not
just
insight
Similarly,
the
into
one
heart
in
and
and
in
of
in
but
their
method
effort
a
process
skills,
being
of
and
this.
has
also
the
land
in
Are the most advanced
just
could
and
in
growth? What are the factors
would
impacts
recognized
has
an informed citizenship capable
of contributions to economic
be
this
however,
capitalist countries actively
investing in education to create
resources
other
of
and
be
and
turn
been
idea,
of
participate
causes
methods
The
to
and
that contribute to or work
against this development goal?
the
as
an
to
ensure
be
of
provides
in
below
South
and
framework
train
character
social
and
and
course,
Africa.
documented
disposition
that
box
Keeping
highlights
to
Education,
empower
development.
it
could
which
undertaken
knowledge,
public
foundation
developed.
ensure
education
endeavour,
of
ways
are
capable
peaceful,
information
of
The
attitudes
too.
well-articulated
citizenship
the
own
to
The
a
media,
law
end.
adults
citizens
worthy
training
this
engagement
has
the
building,
and
achieving
such
for
the
for
skills,
towards
citizens
funds
harmony.
Education
the
the
terms
raise
few
these,
of
Similarly,
character
have
Singapore
engaged
of
usage
of
a
into
world
some
respect
children,
of
be
to
people
and
optimum
help
towards
skills
mould
cultivate
living
crux
character
growth
as
target
on
at
to
encapsulate
nation
showing
countries
the
will
documents.
behave.
tool
citizenship
an
the
promotion
Different
forms
by
well
people
effective
To
service,
citizens
cultures
lie
required
community,
government
good
These
citizens
to
building
emotional
citizenship
71
literacy.
Example of youth-led initiative: Activate! Change drivers, South Africa
Activate! is a network of young leaders equipped to drive change for the public good
across South Africa. It connects young people who have the skills, sense of self and
spark to address tough challenges and initiate innovative and creative solutions that
can reshape society. It is a three-year programme for young people aged 20–30,
identied as “activators”, or mobilizers, innovators, connectors, trendsetters and
change drivers .
Year 1 includes a residential learning module that promotes self-discovery, collective
self-reection, leadership, project management and social and political navigation.
The year ’s programme culminates in a
two-day
gathering
of
par ticipants
of
all
types
and
levels.
Year 2 connects activators to one another, deepens their resources and oers
oppor tunities for exchanges and networking.
In year 3, seminars, workshops and online learning platforms enrich activators’
leadership for public innovation.
Activate! “aims to move beyond episodic events. Many have done episodic events! We
want to move to developmental and then transformational, individual, organizational,
societal”, explained Injairu Kulundu, Practitioner with Activate! “If we can ar ticulate it
and take it forward, the power could go much broader than we imagine. What are the
spaces for us to speak about an agenda for social change? Not just to ‘tolerate each
other ’ but really looking at each other and creating change.”
For more information on Activate! see also: http://www.activateleadership.co.za
127
3
D E V E LO P M E N T
L TA
In
terms
of
citizen
engagement,
a
number
of
examples
can
be
cited.
Research skills
Croatia
Go
to
the
create
on
a
link
below
report
citizen
by
ticking
engagement.
You
will
case
studies
nd
a
number
such
mentioned
here.
one
of
or
and
two
as
has
has
on
in
representatives
effective
been
in
of
innovation
and
citizens
consultation
unit
in
called
order
to
on
laws.
Mindlab,
assist
the
Similarly,
including
Denmark
business
government
in
problem-solving.
In
a
to
identify
globalized
and
or
community,
and
interconnected
perceive
world,
themselves
as
not
there
just
is
also
mere
a
need
citizens
for
of
a
people
country
Choose
but
as
citizens
of
the
world.
There
is
thus
a
responsibility
and
to
this
realization,
considering
the
fact
that
any
actions
or
detail.
have
achieving
citizen
public
of
changes
How
an
of
those
those
them
system
developed
attached
work
a
they
the
aim
engagement?
and
the
at
in
an
need
individual’s
international
for
Education
analyse
an
these
plan
level
efforts,
with
problems
a
and
life
have
and
an
vice
UNESCO
few
aims
identify
in
impact
versa.
has
the
family,
Validating
initiated
mind,
feasible
on
such
a
as
solutions
and
Global
reasserting
Citizenship
inspiring
and
nation
people
involving
to
people
http://www.opengovguide.
72
individually
and
collectively
to
bring
about
required
changes.
A
task
com/report-builder/
force
that
is
in
cut
place
across
recommend
recommend
borders
for
innovative
governments
addressed
to
and
can
be
in
set
of
measuring
ways
teachers.
found
a
of
global
imparting
Some
the
core
of
box
the
values
and
citizenship
these
values
suggested
competencies
as
well
and
as
abilities
questions
that
to
can
be
below.
Examples of variables and questions related to Global Citizenship
Education
Knowledge and skills:
●
Knowledge about global challenges and problems (for example, “ To what
extent do global environmental challenges require you to change your own
behaviour?”)
●
Knowledge of languages
●
Use of the Internet and modern ways of communications (for example, “How
often, if ever, do you use a personal computer or mobile phone?”)
Attitudes and values:
●
Global identity and openness (for example, level of agreement with the
statement “A benet of the Internet is that it makes information available to
more and more people worldwide”)
Class discussion
●
Willingness to help others
●
Acceptance of universal human rights, equality
●
Sustainable development
●
Anti-fatalistic attitudes (for example, level of agreement with the statement
“People can do little to change life”)
1
Can the goals on the
right be successfully
Behaviours:
implemented globally to
●
Involvement in civic activities (for example, “Are you an active member of an
create a successful and
NGO?”)
involved citizenry?
●
2
Pro-environmental behaviours (for example, “How often do you make a
What are the factors
special eor t to sor t glass, tins, plastic or newspapers for recycling?”)
that help or inhibit in the
creation of such a citizenry,
Global Citizenship Education: Background Paper on Global Citizenship Education.”
and where has it been sucPaper commissioned by UNESCO for the global citizenship education programme
.
cessful or failed, and why?
Paris, UNESCO.
128
3 :
Improving education and healthcare
An
improvement
in
the
education
system
both
in
C O N C L U S I O N
Interesting facts
terms
of
quality
and
●
quantity
(number
of
people)
will
have
a
direct
and
positive
bearing
on
No country has achieved
the
rapid and continuous
development
of
society.
economic growth without
●
Firstly,
education
individuals
their
to
ability
opens
nd
to
the
doors
employment
provide
the
for
and
basic
economic
earn
needs
of
gains
income.
food,
by
This
at least a 40 per cent
enabling
literacy rate.
facilitates
clothing
and
shelter
●
to
their
families.
Of
those
educated,
people
with
a
higher
level
A single year of primary
of
school increases a boy’s
education
have
more
chances
national
income.
of
earning
higher
incomes,
which
in
future earning potential by
turn
adds
to
5 to 15 per cent and a girl’s
●
Secondly,
Statistics
effects
more
with
●
–
and
also
studies
decreased
job
an
decisions
prove
improving
and
and
all
matters
It
sharpens
cultural.
the
that
and
their
quality
of
be
of
fewer
elevated
in
better
girls
but
has
many
healthier
status
in
even more.
health.
the
positive
●
children,
family
likely to survive past the
age of 5.
citizenry
skills
human
takes
economic,
and
A child born to a literate
mother is 50 per cent more
along
powers.
political,
the
to
education
aware
–
people
thus
decision-making
educated
on
enables
fertility
opportunities
increased
Thirdly,
and
education
informed
attitudes
resource
of
and
environmental,
a
of
people,
better
social
thus
●
Doubling primary school
attendance among
impoverished rural children
country.
can cut food insecurity by
up to 25 per cent.
Apart
from
it
helps
also
need
for
under
a
human
and
promote
education
to
to
a
use
sustainable
to
programme
attempts
economic
achieve
known
education
of
development.
sustainable
as
to
dividends
Education
“empower
education
for
development,
UNESCO
has
stressed
development
for
through
Sustainable
people
to
the
education
Development
assume
Source: http://www.
canadianfeedthechildren.ca/
that
what/education
responsibility
73
by
create
sustainable
ensuring
increasing
them
and
more
critical
education,
to
the
countries
and
also
their
well
better
reap
eld
benets
Such
to
good
a
skills
to
ensuring
of
children
also
work.
when
means
and
people
help
this
wellness
in
they
grown
aim.
are
societies
good
health
would
productivity
more
if
to
revising
healthcare
Besides,
resource.
as
individuals,
of
done
education,
achieve
increases
education
be
of
people
optimum
This
to
well
help
good
chances
at
human
healthcare
of
First,
access
work.
to
as
healthcare
whole.
the
has
level
among
education
good
performance
health.
and
of
enhances
the
be
a
This
basic
curriculum
with
workers,
own
as
as
those
better
a
development
and
be
the
get
and
sustainable
formulating
Besides
people
awareness
pursue
future”.
efciency
income
children
are
up
will
Improved
augmented
in
in
as
with
can
good
prove
health
savings
for
Schoolchildren in Kathmandu, Nepal
individuals
and
families.
incurring
expenditure
purposes,
such
Lastly,
a
a
signicant
destinations
Such
the
as
healthy,
on
curing
education,
skilled,
factor
or
setting
even
at
could
in
more
when
up
that
spent
could
nutritious
and
countries
add
to
be
food
productive
factories
turn
are
diseases
educated
positive
investments
country
Resources
are
and
the
on
utilized
for
or
savings.
even
workforce
looking
at
acts
as
investment
manufacturing
development
other
of
hubs.
society
and
large.
129
3
D E V E LO P M E N T
Links bet ween health and GDP
L TA
Poor
health
reduces
GDP
per
capita
by
reducing
both
labour
productivity
Research skills
and
1
Can
a
you
the
relative
size
of
the
labour
force.
identify
country
where
Higher
investment
child
education
fertility
and
in
Higher
Labour
dependency
mortality
by
force
mortality
ratio
reduced
and
early
retirement
and
healthcare
has
contributed
to
the
Lower
GDP
development
of
the
per
capita
country?
2
Are
there
that
have
countries
Adult
de-invested
Reduced
Child
in
education
and
illness
labour
illness
and
productivity
malnutrition
therefore
future
hurt
the
prospects
of
Reduced
many
of
its
citizens?
access
to
Child
natural
resources
and
malnutrition
global
Reduced
schooling
Reduced
and
economy
investment
impaired
in
cognitive
physical
capital
capacity
Source: Ruger, Jennifer Prah, Jamison, Dean T and Bloom, David E, 2001
Changing roles of women
On women
●
Two-thirds of the 774 million adult illiterates worldwide are women (same
propor tion for the past 20 years across most regions).
●
The vast majority of more than half a million material deaths in 2005 occurred
in developing countries.
●
Globally, women’s par ticipation in the labour market remained steady
between 1990 and 2010; gender gap in labour force par ticipation was
considerable at all ages except early adult years.
●
Occupational segregation and gender wage gaps continue to persist in all
regions. International Labour Organization (ILO) statistics clearly prove that
women’s average wages are from 4 to 36 per cent less than men.
●
Becoming heads of state or government was elusive – there are very few
countries where women comprise critical mass (more than 30 per cent) in
national parliaments, with a worldwide average of one woman in six cabinet
ministers.
●
Women underrepresented in private sector – only 13 out of 500 largest
corporations in the world have a female CEO.
●
Fewer women than men par ticipate in high-level decision-making related to
the environment.
Source: United Nations, The World’s Women 2010, Trends and Statistics
130
3.6 Exam-style questions
1
Evaluate
poorest
the
view
people
Examiner hints
in
that
globalization
countries
with
the
harms
lowest
rather
than
benets
the
incomes.
Arguments against the view may include:
●
Responses should include an understanding of the
globalization fosters employment possibilities that
previously did not exist
concept of globalization, for example, the idea that
societies and cultures are becoming increasingly
●
globalization oers new oppor tunities to the poorest
integrated and connected, and that goods, services and
people: it is national structures and policies that may
ideas are owing more freely as barriers and borders
not allow people to benet from these
are reduced. They may also consider the meaning of
●
globalization brings with it developments that
the phrases “countries with the lowest incomes”, or “the
benet entire populations, including the poorest
poorest people”, for example, referring to denitions
people, such as an improved knowledge of nutrition
such as the World Bank denition (2013) of a low income
and health and the building up of communications
country as being a country with a per capita income of
infrastructure.
less than US$1035 per year and a poor person as being
someone living on less than US$1.25 per day. Responses
may also include a discussion of what is meant by
“harm”, for example, making reference to concepts such
as structural violence, and by “benet”, for example,
economic benets, technological benets, social
benets, and so on.
Arguments that suppor t the view may include:
Responses should contain references to specic
examples. Candidates could, for example, give examples
of multi-national corporations that exploit child labour,
or that use suppliers who tolerate dangerous working
conditions, or operate in poorly regulated countries
to avoid health and safety legislation, for example,
the well-repor ted collapse of the Rana Plaza factory
building in Bangladesh, killing or maiming many workers,
●
even though the process of globalization has
where garments for several global clothing chains were
accelerated in recent years there has been an
manufactured.
increase in economic and social inequality within
many countries
Examples of globalization working in favour of the
poorest people in the poorest countries could include
●
the richest countries have gained most from
the setting-up of micronance organizations such as the
globalization through their multi-national
Grameen bank that syndicate loans to entrepreneurs in
corporations, their ability to nance and build up
developing countries, or the rising impor tance of mobile
large scale operations anywhere in the world and the
phone technology in facilitating economic activity in subpredictability of their political environments and legal
Saharan Africa.
frameworks
Responses should include the candidate’s evaluation of
●
globalization leads to many dierent forms of harm,
the validity of the view put forward in the question.
including the exploitation of cheap labour, erosion of
local cultures and large scale environmental damage.
132
3 . 6 :
2
Discuss
until
the
the
state
view
and
common
that
sustainable
non-state
actors
development
can
be
will
persuaded
never
or
E X A M - S T Y L E
be
forced
Q U E S T I O N S
achieved
to
act
in
interest.
Examiner hints
Arguments against the view may include:
●
Responses should include an understanding of the
many state actors are proactive and take action
themselves to promote sustainable development, no
concepts of sustainable development, as well as of
persuasion or coercion from outside is needed
state and non-state actors, and an attempt to explain the
phrase “act in the common interest”. This may be dened
●
outside attempts at “interference” are not always
in dierent ways, for example, as the common interest
welcome – states need to be seen to make decisions
of people within a par ticular region or country, or as the
for themselves, and undue external attempts at
common interest of humanity in general. Integral to the
persuasion may in fact have the opposite eect to
question is the idea that “the common interest” may
that anticipated
mean dierent things to state and non-state actors now
●
many NGOs and other non-state actors already
and in the future. Non-state actors such as NGOs and
promote sustainable development, and need no
multi-national corporations may envisage sustainable
persuasion of its benets. This willingness is not just
development in very dierent ways.
limited to NGOs: businesses, who traditionally were
“Acting in the common interest” implies a discussion of
seen as opposing sustainable development, but have
whether or not state and non-state actors will need to
been increasingly cooperating with eor ts towards
be persuaded, or forced, to act together in the common
attaining sustainable development, where they have
interest to achieve sustainable development, and this
found easy ways to do this
need for cooperation is the most fruitful line of inquiry.
●
However, some candidates may interpret the phrase
dierently, and discuss whether each group will need
to be persuaded, or forced, to act individually in the
common interest. This interpretation should also be
accepted and valid points rewarded.
nally, on a pessimistic note, it could be argued that
force or persuasion are futile, because sustainable
development is an impossible ideal. The whole area
is so complex and highly contested that greed, self-
interest and/or national priorities will always be given
precedence over, or be interpreted as, the common
Arguments may follow an environmental, sociopolitical or
interest, so getting state and non-state actors to
economic perspective, and responses may also consider
cooperate with each other is an unachievable ideal.
the timeframe given (“never ”).
Responses should contain references to specic
Arguments in favour of the view may include:
examples. For example, activities such as logging in
●
development so far has not been sustainable, so
Sumatra, and felling in the Amazonian rainforest are
persuasion or force is likely to be necessary to
seen by the global community as militating against the
produce action for the common good – the failure
common interest, but the governments of Indonesia and
of the climate change agenda to achieve signicant
Brazil, and local and international business interests,
change so far, despite growing evidence of increasing
often seem unwilling to respond to these concerns. The
environmental damage, indicates this
shing industry provides fur ther examples, for example,
●
state and non-state actors need to work together,
otherwise sustainable development is unlikely to
grow, but each group is likely to need persuasion or
force to encourage it to do this, given their diering
agendas. Non-state actors on their own cannot
force action in the common interest: they may, for
example, lack the political and/or other power needed
the failure to address the problem of overshing, and the
failure of arguments for the necessity of doing this.
Examples of successful cooperation between state and
non-state actors to work for sustainable development
could include, for example, cases where governments are
nancing development initiatives that are managed by
NGOs.
to enforce change; conversely, states acting on
Responses should include the candidate’s discussion of
their own may not be able to bring about changes as
the validity of the view put forward in the question.
eectively as when acting in concer t with non-state
actors, who often have a greater potential for bringing
about practical changes (for example, MNCs), and for
mobilizing popular suppor t for policies (for example,
NGOs).
133
3
D E V E LO P M E N T
3
Discuss
the
migration
view
can
that
both
Examiner hints
●
social
help
factors
and
such
hinder
as
gender
relations
or
development.
where discouraged, inward migration may go
underground, leading to people-smuggling, slavery,
Responses are likely to vary in focus depending on
and the diver ting of state resources to police these.
how development is conceived of, for instance, if it is
Inward migration may lead to greater income
conceived of in material terms then social factors will
inequality, visible in areas of deprivation and
be viewed from a material perspective only. Better
impoverishment, and estranging of local people
responses will dene development as incorporating
●
all aspects of a whole population’s well-being, and so
migrants are not protected leading to exploitation,
discuss a wider range of social factors, and whether or not
lack of belief in the rule of law
these help and/or hinder development. Gender relations
or migration are suggested as examples in the question,
●
but candidates are free to discuss one of these, both of
on housing and community services, diversity
not always leading to social cohesion, causing
Arguments in favour of the view that social factors can
integration diculties
help development may include:
●
inward migration: migrant populations are likely to
be primarily young and male so add to the existing
cultural aspects: language diculties, poor race
relations leading to social tensions, pressure
these, or any other social factor/factors of their choice.
●
values: corruption hinders development, rights of
traditions and traditional decision-making may inhibit
changes needed for development.
labour force – unskilled and skilled – in the receiving
Responses should contain references to specic
countries; migrants abroad may remit funds to
examples to support the “help” and “hinder ” aspects of
families back home to suppor t education and
the question. Examples could include: countries which
healthcare
have suered “brain drains” and the loss of skilled workers
●
gender relations: women’s empowerment, for
through migration, leading to lower than expected rates of
example, through education, political par ticipation
development might include the Philippines and Bulgaria;
or take up of economic oppor tunities (for example,
countries in which female participation in the workforce is
the receipt of microloans), increases the likelihood of
low or limited by cultural factors, leading to lower rates of
development for families and communities
development might include Saudi Arabia, Iran, Pakistan;
countries in which perceptions of corruption might inhibit
●
values: honesty, commitment to human rights,
business initiative and international trade, leading to
upholding of the rule of law are all helpful in
lower rates of development might include Zimbabwe,
promoting development
Myanmar or Venezuela; or corruption and political instability
●
cultural aspects: immigrants may bring cultural
(Afghanistan). Candidates may also cite countries that have
diversity, energy and innovation
not been able to develop due to international isolation (for
●
traditions may stimulate tourism, and traditional
example, North Korea), and argue that this isolation is due
values often inspire craft/ar tisanal industries.
to social factors.
Arguments suggesting that social factors can hinder
development may include:
●
outward migration – emigration can lead to brain
drain, gender imbalance, greater pressure on gender
relations, loss of working age population, loss of
educated people who are most mobile; immigration
can lead to lower wages
134
Responses should include the candidate’s evaluation of
the validity of the view put forward in the question.
3 . 6 :
4
Examine
without
the
view
that
addressing
successful
political
development
cannot
be
E X A M - S T Y L E
Q U E S T I O N S
achieved
inequality.
Examiner hints
Arguments against the view may include:
●
Responses are likely to include an explanation of political
if development is narrowly conceived to mean
measurable, aggregate, economic growth, it could
inequality. This might be phrased as the extent to which
be argued that a country is developing even though
groups are unequal in their inuence over the decisions
political inequalities persist
made in governance structures, noting in a development
context that political inequality is often associated with
●
it can be argued that tolerating inequality through
economic inequality and rigid social hierarchies.
suppor ting political elites will benet everyone in the
Arguments that suppor t the view that successful
long run through the trickle-down eect and because
development cannot be achieved without addressing
these elites are best-placed to make decisions for the
political inequality may include:
rest of the population
●
if development is broadly conceived to incorporate
●
the advancement of development for groups such
all aspects of the whole population’s well-being, not
as subsistence farmers, refugee communities or
just economic growth, this by denition requires a
indigenous groups not par ticipating in the formal
commitment to equality, including political equality
economy is a prerequisite for the granting of greater
political equality
●
a more democratic government is more likely to
engage with development eor ts because it is held
●
●
international organizations such as the World Bank
accountable by the whole population including by
liaise and delegate the power to political elites to
the most needy
address development needs
people and communities with low levels of
●
MNCs and NGOs are more powerful in aecting
development may be unable to make their voices
development outcomes than
heard due to a lack of access to education and
political actors.
healthcare, and so do not have the power to inuence
Responses should contain references to specic
decisions about their own concerns
examples. Candidates could, for example, give examples
●
the granting of political rights to groups such as
of countries where political inequality has been high and
subsistence farmers, refugee communities, women,
development low due to the rule of long-running autocrats
or indigenous groups not par ticipating in the formal
or cliques such as in Nor th Korea, Congo, or Sudan.
economy is a prerequisite for development
Responses should include the candidate’s evaluation of
●
there is evidence that in unequal societies resources
the validity of the view put forward in the question.
are often diver ted away
from development.
135
3
D E V E LO P M E N T
5
Evaluate
stable
claim
that
development
government
the
and
a
lack
of
through
aid
relies
heavily
on
a
corruption.
Examiner hints
Better answers will demonstrate an excellent understanding of the concept
of development and the concept of aid.
They may also distinguish between
dierent types of development, such as human and sustainable development,
and dierent types of aid.
Answers may also contain an explanation of the
meaning of the terms “stable government” and “lack of corruption”, and may
contrast development through aid to development through other methods.
The
focus of the question is on the factors that enable development, rather than on
the removal of obstacles to development (emphasized at the time of the MDGs).
Arguments suppor ting the claim may include:
●
that development depends on the removal of barriers such as corruption
●
that corruption can lead to a misallocation of resources, and to resources
not being used for their intended purpose
●
that development relies on stable governance and infrastructure.
Arguments against the claim may include:
●
that often the countries that need aid are exactly those that have unstable
governments and issues with corruption
●
that the success of development relies far more on factors other than the
two mentioned, such as nancial stability
●
that bureaucracy can actually stie economic activity whereas corruption
and bribes can stimulate/facilitate economic activity.
Answers should make reference to specic examples such as Transparency
International, worldaudit.org, the Corruption Perception Index, UNDP
, the UN
Convention against Corruption, etc.
They may also make reference to specic
examples of countries where instability and corruption have postponed
development, such as in Sudan, and to countries where a relative stability and
lack of corruption have promoted it, such as in Chile.
Responses may end with
a conclusion/judgment on whether development through aid depends on stable
government and lack of corruption.
136
3 . 6 :
6
The
fundamental
weakness
Millennium
Development
are
to
actually
be
of
development
Goals)
achieved.
To
is
their
what
goals
lack
extent
of
do
(such
focus
you
E X A M - S T Y L E
as
on
agree
Q U E S T I O N S
the
how
with
targets
this
claim?
Examiner hints
Better answers will demonstrate an excellent understanding of the concept
of development and may also contain explanations of concepts underlying
par ticular goals such as environmental sustainability, pover ty or hunger.
Answers may focus on the example provided of the Millennium Development
Goals and the setting of development targets for realization in 2015, or they
may focus on other examples of development goals.
Arguments that this is a fundamental weakness of development goals may
include:
●
the lack of focus on methods
●
the lack of dened responsibilities for rich countries.
Answers may also identify other weaknesses of development goals, such as
to the need to fur ther develop some targets, for example, equality and gender
issues, or to the need to respond to the changes in the political climate since
9/11.
Arguments that this is not a fundamental weakness of development goals may
include:
●
it was justiable to set the MDGs without guidance on how to achieve them
because they were intended to raise consciousness about development
issues
●
development goals help with the classication of issues into dened
categories
●
they provide a focus for political consensus at international level.
Answers should make reference to specic examples, which could for instance
be drawn from the UN Secretary General’s annual progress repor t, or from the
experience of individual countries.
Responses may end with a conclusion/judgement on the extent to which it is
helpful to set such targets without specifying the means of achieving them.
137
3.7 References and fur ther reading
1
From
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www.OECD.org,
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139
P E A C E
4
A N D
C O N F L I C T
Key concepts
➔
Peace
➔
Conict
➔
Violence
➔
Non-violence
Learning outcomes
140
➔
Contested meanings of peace, conict and violence
➔
Causes and par ties to conict
➔
Evolution of conict
➔
Conict resolution and post-conict transformation
Political
terms
interactions
of
peace
or
various
case
revolve
around
involved.
history
of
studies
shaped
frameworks
however,
conict
issues
The
moves
study
number
an
to
of
of
peace
tool
for
further
The
the
restrict
not
or
better
study
approach,
politics,
of
using
with
it
an
Furthermore,
discipline
over
is
of
and
law,
so
on.
not
a
perhaps
academic
study
resolve,
conict
of
do,
and
as
and
It
as
many
utilize
could
be
however,
be
a
legal
is,
is
a
more
matters.
does
should
and
It
conict.
people
instance
They
and
allows
in
of
one
over
character
peace
this
area
seen
as
starting
a
seen
as
allow
us
a
useful
point
to
from
and
the
the
claims
and
as
to
may
is
about
in
claimed
another.
the
protest
that
Regardless
allow
ways
the
involve
non-violent
it
does
and
leads
it
history,
sciences,
approach
discipline.
conict
interactions
geography,
that
making
criticized,
of
interdisciplinary
studies,
normative
violence
and
an
sometimes
discipline”
similarly
human
for
knowledge
often-practised
is
of
parties
how
balance
task.
“trigger”
politics
rst
conicts.
However,
“pure
peace
understanding
global
the
the
causes
complicate
in
or
organizations)
the
in
the
parties,
imbalance
the
exception
(intergovernmental
original
conict
and
protest,
the
of
its
in
fact,
between
these
motivates
further
In
without
challenging
environmental
valuing
criticism,
that
conict
of
the
a
that
from
will
these
violent
reduces
is
viewed
both.
intricacies.
expertise
the
them
conict
methods
and
that
that
causes
psychology,
criticism
people
its
an
IGOs
oversimplify
away
and
peace
mathematics,
to
understanding
explore
how
“scarcity”
models
root
and
of
interests
(non-governmental
or
overgeneralization
identify
of
how
arisen
conict
clash
relations,
them
often
almost
their
further
have
interactions
between
NGOs
enable
are
combination
dynamics
“religion”
will
these
countries
a
the
important
just
or
(perceived)
inuences
organizations),
never
a
of
Unpicking
has
power
between
conict,
to
for
a
this
of
the
deeper
understand,
and
conicts.
Key questions
1
What are the types of power used in resolving conict situations?
2
What is the role of the United Nations Security Council in mediating conict?
141
4.1
The role of peace and conict in global politics
Key concepts and links with other units
Power, sovereignty and international relations
Power
can
plays
itself
resolve
conict.
of
is
ruler.
often
of
It
is
require
therefore
into
their
plays
an
peace
and
often
used
example,
important
to
The
role
as
see
led
two
the
to
to
peace
the
in
and
to
that
of
often
of
have
challenge
the
the
a
particular
the
support
isolation,
of
The
erosion
examples
undermine
conicts
imbalance
attempt
legitimacy
interdependence
in
power
intervention.
protesters
try
a
forcefully
also
are
when
and
difcult
response.
to
has
Non-violent
rulers
conict,
humanitarian
migration
emerges
question.
country’s
global
is
and
often
increasingly
a
in
intervention
Terrorism
Conict
called
legitimacy
for
humanitarian
impact.
leaders
role
Power
through,
sovereignty.
global
the
important
conicts
emergence
state
an
create
and
for
they
various
actors
conict.
A large anti-war rally, opposed to the Vietnam
War, in Washington DC, USA
Human rights
Human
rights
are
interpretations
rights
from
reinforces
peace.
their
in
the
person
the
need
and
it
centre
violence
or
for
Post-conict
past,
peace
a
at
of
group.
post-conict
many
in
The
equality
societies
often
of
include
conicts.
their
emphasis
on
to
achieve
a
struggle
with
as
though
peacebuilding
withholding
“positive
often
seems
Certain
denition
durable,
justice
through
sustainable
coming
may
peace”
to
lose
amnesty
terms
out
or
with
against
forgiveness.
Development
Structural violence
In
the
wider
important
interpretations
role
in
that
the
of
peace
structures
and
conict
through
development
which
some
plays
countries
an
appear
This term refers to any type of
to
have
become
more
developed
than
others
are
considered
“structurally
inequality embedded into a
violent”.
The
media
and
transport
developments
related
to
globalization
society that prevents people
impact
on
how
much
we
know
about
conicts
across
the
globe
and
how
from meeting their basic needs.
quickly
certain
conicts
come
nations
into
can
being
respond
and
how
to
them,
they
can
thus
be
impacting
on
how
resolved.
Theoretical foundations
Although
in
their
the
acknowledge
various
main
the o re tica l
interpreta ti o ns
the
global
of
ce ntr a l
poli ti ca l
founda tio ns
what
r ole
mo tiv a t e s
of
co nic t
of
g lo ba l
hum a n
in
the
po li t ic s
b ei n g s,
r el a tion s
di f fer
th e y
a ll
be t we e n
the
a ctor s .
Levels of analysis
Issues
of
global
problems
issues.
how
For
the
Without
peace?
that
142
now
example,
safety
can
migration,
that
on
were
and
increasingly
that
their
in
just
a
or
simply
of
of
how
global
it
of
can
affect
media
theinternal
on
a
become
domestic
impact
the
are
also
make
mainly
profound
that
can
practice
home,
to
considered
considered
those
level
actions
the
used
have
terrorism
traditionally
not
widespread
security
nowadays
of
are
community
justify
conicts
acts
a
the
perpetrators
Many
country
importance
arise
a
on
other
be
at
community
or
really
regions
reporting
problems
and
importance.
society
single
scale;
global
violence
global
a
importance.
grand
about
of
a
through
it.
state
Issues
are
4.2
Contested meanings of peace, conict and violence
Introduction
Terminology
Peace and conict
related
to
peace
and
conict
is
often
highly
contested.
The
A person’s denition of peace
denition
of,
for
example,
eye
beholder”
“peace”
or
“terrorism”
seems
to
be
“in
the
and conict terminology
of
the
–
for
example,
a
person’s
position
may
inuence
can, among other factors, be
whether
or
not
they
see
someone
as
a
terrorist
or
a
freedom
ghter.
inuenced by their
Achieving
universal
challenging,
want
to
labelled
in
see
a
of
harmonious
as
narrow
a
living,
issues,
that
dene
main
to
inuenced
used
be
historian
different
violence
so
peace,
to
claim
they
are.
There
understanding
peace
is
not
include
to
it
as
to
or
to
too
NGOs
also
can
position
∙
interest
∙
culture
∙
aims
∙
contextual situation
∙
denition of other terms.
argue
and
are
not
cultural
Despite
inuence
understand
∙
may
easily
may
different
terms.
be
States
societies
these
violence
important
be
to
sustainable
that
are
of
proven
interests.
environmental
able
of
has
how
these
their
they
in
is
experienced
impossible
each
to
dene
of
the
one
main
about
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the
conict
often
driven
and
An
a
Roman
often
of
a
what
is
that
of
peace,
Lastly,
conict,
are
peace
period
interrelated
on
terms
describing
form
agreeing
they
denitions
200-year
Empire.
so
by
their
worker
different
without
concepts
so
factor
aid
Romana,
are
term
is,
complicating
contexts.
the
by
are
actually
talking
about
and
topic
Another
different
efforts
peace
this
what
the
key
that
the
it
L TA
to
in
talking
peace
related
Particularly,
have
be
than
accordingly.
differently
a
seems
so
thinkers
peacebuilding
relative
the
rather
from
terms
think
and
of
to
interpretation
their
of
order
they
of
denitions
concepts.
the
ought
often
in
any
Similarly,
denition
drastically,
these
of
think
denition
inuence
people’s
behaviour
Many
as
of
stakeholders
themselves.
broad
peaceful
traditions
are
various
violent
favour
yet
as
acceptance
other.
violence
Thinking and research
skills
and
1
non-violence
seem
to
be
undenable
without
using
one
or
more
Write
down
denition
the
other
concepts.
And
if
we
can’t
agree
on
the
denition
of
one,
it
to
agree
on
the
of
it
to
Dierent denitions of peace, conict and violence
How
do
Why
are
Is
word
“peace”
is
used
in
many
different
ways
and
in
contexts,
from
the
casual
Arabic
greeting
it
denition.
they
because
“As-salamu
the
six
“Peace
be
upon
you”)
to
the
formal
different?
of
one
elements
alaikum”
mentioned
(meaning
differ?
they
many
of
different
a
other.
classmate’s
The
peace.
is
Compare
difcult
your
of
announcement
in
in
the
box
a
above?
press
conference
countries.
of
Clearly
an
the
inter-state
two
ways
peace
of
accord
using
between
“peace”
are
two
not
the
warring
2
same.
Look
that
For
examples
of
the
usage
of
“peace”
one
can
go
back
hundreds
up
claims
to,
for
example,
Leviticus,
the
third
book
of
the
Torah
or
In
Chapter
26,
verse
6
it
will
you
pass
grant
afraid.
peace
I
through
will
in
the
land,
remove
your
and
savage
country.
or
IGO
promote
do
they
Old
peace?
What
states:
would
I
to
How
interpret
Testament.
NGO
of
peace.
years
an
you
beasts
will
lie
from
down
the
and
land,
no
and
one
the
will
sword
make
will
not
their
have
inuenced
denition?
different
is
it
How
from
yours?
143
4
PE ACE
AND
C ON F LIC T
Although
seems
to
physical
Te
violence.
Ching
there
religious
interpret
(a
free
of
can
In
as
about
fundamental
would
[p]eople
texts
peace
be
peace
would
desire.
be
Whereas
Leviticus
violence,
the
the
same
of
in
where
time
Taoism)
different
one
(600
ways,
does
BCE )
emerged,
in
not
China
which
this
have
one
to
the
fear
Tao
explains
that
when:
there
with
their
is
desire,
no
supposedly
Laozi
interpreted
situation
text
content
When
be
a
equates
it
simple,
all
equals
to
a
everyday
things
peace
lack
of
are
to
a
desire
lives,
at
lack
–
in
harmony,
and
peace.
a
of
physical
state
of
internal
harmony.
In
“Creating
Professor
of
University,
Antioch
the
most
of
and
may
concept”.
regard
desirable
their
own
interpreting
Smoker,
of
formerly
there
Their
very
use
nal
and
perhaps
a
of
very
they
Groff,
California
Professor
of
Peace
six
stages
term
“in
interpretation
do
to
provide
perhaps
a
of
of
at
evolution
reveals
peace
peace.
clear
the
State
Studies
the
“evolution”
interpretation
narrow
Linda
at
the
broadest
(1996) ,
Studies
are
inevitable
denition,
from
Peace”
Future
that
preferred
peace
and
argue
the
and
Cultures
Science
Paul
University,
peace
they
Global-Local
Political
as
of
that
the
Regardless
overview
broadest
of
form.
r
e
c
e
t
o
i
c
c
i
i
t
t
s
s
i
i
l
l
o
o
H
H
F
e
B
N
a
o
l
i
m
a
t
s
n
r
c
t
s
i
n
e
c
u
G
n
a
n
i
e
a
r
-
-
p
t
o
p
e
r
u
f
f
o
f
l
a
o
c
a
r
e
c
e
u
a
s
e
w
r
a
A
s
b
e
c
n
e
Environmental
Global
ecaep
International
retuO
Between
states
PEACE
Within
states
Community
Family
and
individual
Inner
peace
From a narrow to a broad denition of peace.
Source: “Creating Global-Local Cultures of Peace” by Paul Smoker and Linda Gro (1996),
Peace and Conict Studies
Examiner’s hint
Be aware of the background of your sources and how this inuences their views
and reliability. In the highest markband for Paper 2 it is expected that dierent
views are evaluated. In this case, you could investigate who Paul Smoker is and
how, among other factors, his British background and professorship may have
inuenced him.
144
4 . 2 :
C O N T E S T E D
M E A N I N G S
O F
P E A C E ,
C O N F L I C T
A N D
V I O L E N C E
Narrow forms of peace
Peace
be
in
its
(in
the
page
called
Both
or
“absence
power
war
in
very
peace
widespread
also
ties
in
rst
there
the
in
that
with
of
the
is
is
in
no
of
war
of
peace.
horrors
share
“the
as
of
the
bombs
peace.
this
is
the
no
Groff
the
of
and
most
peace.
original
“peacekeeping”.
deployment
to
peace
imbalance
well
the
interpretation.
Nations
1956
desert
or
forces”.
there
interpretation
interpretation
United
of
likelihood
consider
argue
war”)
view
world,
dropping”
Smoker
in
a
an
enduring
could
longer
to
the
could
negative
They
even
due
Someone
The
of
When
could
peace”
previous
“balance
war.
not
erupting
It
the
interpretations
to
forms
“negative
on
broader
relation
war
as
diagram
slightly
a
narrowest
interpreted
of
armed
“peacekeepers”
Egyptian
separate
Sinai
Israel
and
Egypt
UN Secretary General Dag
successfully
established
peace,
in
the
sense
that
it
separated
two
Hammarskjöld visits United
warring
“kept
parties
the
way
for
The
fact
the
that
the
“Balance
of
peace
forces”
identifying
to
a
lack
or
the
an
lack
of
theory
that
power
on
be
related
the
amount
no
of
single
Within
various
to
war.
state,
even
be
to
Some
as
of
10
to
would
if
sign
an
argue,
it
and
still
but
the
saw
in
the
that
2014
treaty
outbreak
that
the
of
people
forms
are
of
as
large
was
of
civil
and
pro-Russian
with
the
violence
absence
stability
of
there
pro-Russia
the
(the
between
outbreak
both
refers
still
The
when
balance
the
the Brazilian contingent.
blocs
can
peace
certain
rst UN “peacekeepers”. This is
by
this
existence
stability.
War,
forces in the Sinai deser t, the very
dominant
peace–it
interprets
prevent
when
other
the
Nations Emergency Force (UNEF)
peace.
theory
single
to
however,
or
a
that
Cold
further
power
interpretation.
international
means
discrimination
also
association
and
–
through
Ukraine
of
stability
of
hence
a
war
interpretation
global
the
countries.
a
this
could
years
departure
internal
refers
it
it
of
paved
Internationally,
various
and
as
support
that
end
peace
presence
of
two
interpretation
opposite
view
forces”
past
not
the
peacekeepers
1967
the
hegemonic
the
throughout
country
his
peace
violence,
forces
could
of
between
stability
governments,
decided
presence
interpreted
domestic
a
the
Union
today.
the
leader,
negative
Though
in
ofcial
prevented.
prevention
fought
“balance
led
of
the
the
with
The
between
narrow
argues
the
War
this
power
furthers
them.
withdrawal
signal
be
likely
stage)
and
in
of
vacuum.
wars
example,
of
more
within
often
could
between
their
Day
beyond
balance
war
proxy
protests
ongoing
is
war
and
Six
use
war
power
the
minister
Union,
goes
global
of
pro-European
prime
a
groups
For
the
imbalance
supreme
the
of
superpower
absence
years
treaties
how
peace
the
global
10
widespread
also
of
prevented
for
outbreak
conrms
one
and
peace”
could
of
European
that
war
not
suffering
is
still
and
possibly
from
oppression.
145
4
PE ACE
AND
C ON F LIC T
Wider forms of peace
T
wo
wider
structural
Martin
interpretations
violence”
Luther
in
King
of
the
peace
are
diagram
(1963)
“positive
above)
equated
and
positive
peace”
(“the
“feminist
peace
with
absence
of
peace”.
justice,
a
system
1
in
which
“fathers
this
by
people
of
peace
arguing
violence
respect
and
research”,
that
peace
indirect,
presence
of
of
and
one
social
another”s
Professor
is
the
for
Johan
absence
structural
justice;
dignity
of
violence,
example,
worth.
Galtung,
violence,
and
the
and
that
equal
One
further
both
the
developed
direct,
positive
or
of
physical
peace
“egalitarian
is
the
distribution
2
power
indicate
just
that
resources”
without
economic
Assessing
the
maintains
(Journal
development,
development,
development
that
well-managed
“life
of
but
of
Basic
the
and
Research
there
would
removal
states,
expectancy
prison.
Peace
Economics
literacy
physical
of
needs
no.23:9).
not
any
form
be
well
This
peace
Professor
could
are
be
of
in
would
and
not
inequality.
Paul
quite
met
–
Streeten
high
a
in
zoo”
a
(1995:
3
xiv).
Countries
that
could
be
considered
“prisons”
or
“zoos”
in
terms
of
NGOs claiming to aim for peace: Greenpeace
Greenpeace is one of the most
well-known non-governmental
organizations aiming
to
expose
L TA
essential
global
to
a
environmental
green
and
problems,
peaceful
future
and
to
force
the
solutions
which
are
Greenpeace mission statement
Thinking skills
The organization claims to be committed to non-violence and, in line with Gandhi’s
What
are
the
pros
and
tactics of actively opposing and challenging one’s enemy (see 4.2), it has sparked
cons
of
interpreting
peace
controversy over what some see as the aggressive way in which it carries out
as
“environmental
or
“holistic
peace”
some of its campaigns. Greenpeace itself suered from violence, one of the most
gaia-peace”
as
notorious incidents being the sinking of the Rainbow Warrior by agents of the
Greenpeace
seems
to
do?
French secret service, which resulted in the death of a photographer.
Examiner’s hint
For your internally assessed
engagement activity, make
sure you include alternative
views. (To reach the highest
markbands in criterion D,
there must be “evidence of
evaluation of the political issue
from multiple perspectives”). If
you were to engage with a local
Greenpeace branch, you should
also research critics of the
organization. Perhaps you could
Greenpeace’s goal is to ensure the ability of Ear th to nur ture life in all its diversity.
even track down someone who
Therefore, it seeks to
is opposed to their local plans.
146
●
protect biodiversity in all its forms
●
prevent pollution and abuse of Ear th’s ocean, land, air and fresh water
●
end all nuclear threats
●
promote peace, global disarmament and non-violence.
4 . 2 :
if
development
you
from
follow
the
peaceful
if
and
human
“balance
you
of
rights
forces”
advocate
M E A N I N G S
record
may
O F
be
interpretation.
“positive
peace”
as
P E A C E ,
C O N F L I C T
considered
They
the
peaceful
would
correct
A N D
be
V I O L E N C E
L TA
their
C O N T E S T E D
Research skills
far
interpretation
Visit
the
Index
ofpeace.
Global
website
Peace
(www.
visionofhumanity.org).
By
focusing
on
the
individual
level,
rather
than
just
global
or
state
They
structures,
“feminist
peace”
further
extends
the
interpretation
of
interpret
process
to
include
the
removal
of
any
form
of
discrimination.
Even
though
of
discrimination
occurs
based
on
gender,
“feminist
peace”
does
this
form
of
discrimination
over
other
forms.
It
simply
optimal
the
feminist
peace
researchers
who
put
this
interpretation
human
not
though
satisfy
harmony
this
those
with
further
people
nature
stretches
who
and
the
argue
denition
that
we
of
should
peace,
strive
it
to
probably
the
widest
live
more
1
in
2015:
What
use
ourselves.
interpretations,
“holistic
gaia-peace”
living
harmony
potential
(Global
to
Peace
and
83).
does
Do
Perhaps
environment
forward.
Index
Even
“a
refers
ourish.”
to
as
underpins
not
for
emphasize
which
a
the
lot
peace
peace
indicators
to
measure
you
agree
do
they
peace?
with
“holistic
them?
inner-outer
peace”,
environment
and
relate
being
peace
at
ease
to
with
in
with
the
2
yourself.
Pick
a
country
apply
Groff
and
Smoker
explain
how
“holistic
gaia-peace”
is
a
“holistic
where
human
beings
are
seen
as
one
of
many
species
earth,
and
the
fate
of
the
planet
is
seen
as
the
most
peace
From
this
point
of
view,
peace
means
living
sustainably
with
the
think
second
spiritual,
“if
you
don’t
to
peace.
If
be
Jihad
disappointment,
Holistic
at
how
related
entails
strong
inner-outer
you
peace
abilities,
example,
Greater
not
inner-outer
love
with
yourself,
the
concept
is
and
also
your
further
of
human
includes
here
own
shortcomings,
Greater
struggle
of
was
applied
others?
Jihad
in
dealing
for
Singapore
with
in
other
new
introspection,
institutions
or
reection,
adapt
nancing
mechanisms,
objectives
and
with
and
ways.
Former
innovation
institutional
international
narrower
of
peace
applied?
UN
argues
are
arrangements
solidarity
a
skills
Mahbubani(2015)
humility,
current
than
Research and thinking
and
needed
and
clear
the
IGO
or
NGO
that
you
[f]irst,
or
broader
This
temptations.
used
Kishore
a
Islam.
Revisit
Ambassador
if
interpretation
is
towards
rather
the
phrase
else”
peace
the
also
often-heard
someone
you
internal
peace,
The
can’t
emotions
peace
peace.
can
to
the
of
L TA
The
for
and
holistic
dimension
yourself
you’re
temptations
can,
religious,
love
country
lower
environment.
interpretation,
often
Would
that
rank
higher,
The
it.
and
would
harmoniously
to
important
you
goal”.
interpretations
inhabiting
of
the
and
peace
broader
theory,
and
narrower
to
design
develop
new
prioritisation
of
researched
Does
and
it
t
into
Smoker’s
peace
(page
on
page
one
six
of
143.
Groff
stages
of
144)?
4
Here
he
The
identies
human
ambiguity
what
could
be
seen
as
“inner
peace”
as
a
catalyser
for
well-being.
of
the
term
L TA
global
goals.
“peace”
can
be
further
explored
Thinking skills
through
When
frequently
used
conict
resolution
terminology:
peacekeeping,
can
peacebuilding.
We
may
think
that
these
are
working
towards
the
however,
as
the
diagram
below
shows,
they
do
or
of
an
in
its
original
interpretation
addresses
a
physically
to
achieve
the
end
of
ghting
between
two
parties,
in
negative
peace.
Peacemaking
would
then
be
working
peace
treaty
foreseeable
to
ensure
future.
establishment
of
that
negative
Peacebuilding
justice
and
peace
interprets
will
be
peace
maintained
as
positive
or
global,
ultimately
to
a
better
situation.
Do
towards
your
a
conict
other
led
words,
local
violent
where
conict
example,
not.
personal,
Peacekeeping
be
“productive”?
same
Think
“peace”,
conict
peacemaking
“good”
and
for
classmates
agree?
the
peace,
the
equality.
147
4
PE ACE
AND
C ON F LIC T
PREVENTION
TOK
conflict
formation
What role do the emotions of
individuals play in inuencing
events and decisions in global
politics?
social
violent
change
conflict
PEACEBUILDING
PEACEKEEPING
conflict
transformation
PEACEMAKING
Peacekeeping, peacemaking, peacebuilding; all working towards the same “peace”?
Though
the
the
most
narrow
widely
interpretation
used
used
would
necessarily
not
as
it
one,
frequently
is
other,
of
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“Conict”
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How can we know that
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aims
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achieve
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The
easy
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148
violence
saturated
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harmony
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http://www.theguardian.com/
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religion in conict:
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–
commentisfree/2013/jul/02/
religion-wars-conict
1
as
With which author do you
agree the most? What are
a
your reasons?
6
Christian
and
a
Muslim
Debate
Religion
(2013),
four
authors
ask
themselves
2
what
the
role
of
religion
is
in
the
contemporary
world.
Woodlock
What is the inuence of
argues
the authors’ personal
that
“[r]eligion,
unfortunately,
provides
a
useful
cover…
for
the
evil-
knowledge on this topic
hearted”
and
Smart
adds
that
the
idea
that
“most
of
the
wars
of
history
and what is the role of
have
been
caused
by
religion
is
demonstrably
false”.
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seem
to
shared knowledge?
suggest
that
it’s
too
easy
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“religion”
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3
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.
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demonstrating
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149
4
PE ACE
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“against
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8
demonstrations”.
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1)
and
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Thehomepage
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150
the
of
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10
whenever
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What constraints and
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be
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taken
safety
11
of
others
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risk
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nation’s
security
and
stability”.
151
4 . 2 :
so?
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delays…
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carries
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translation”
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Similarly
Galtung
Peace
to
denes
aspiring
1994).
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for
parties
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15
2005).
inuence
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peace
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violence.
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violence
force
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most
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way
“cultural
interpretation
of
interpretation
global
considered
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violence
“violence”,
society
violence”,
of
distribution
and
of
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legitimizes
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use
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term
violence.
Campaign against domestic violence in India. Bell Bajao or “Ring the Bell”
153
4
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Perhaps
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Research skills
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Look up statistics for domestic
would
violence in your country, for
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example, through the World
more
Health Organization or the
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national statistics bureau.
children.
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perpetrators)
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16
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says,
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women,
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home
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report
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What would be the reason
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state
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h
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e
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n
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r
i
p
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a
d
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t
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n
Prevalence of lifetime physical violence and sexual violence by an intimate par tner.
In
its
2015
Injury
Intimate
Prevention
Physical
violence
throwing,
hitting,
violence
They
to
by
someone
Duluth
domestic
“the
pattern
dominate
154
to
of
his
is
how
weapon
size,
or
intimate
to
US
National
also
the
control”
Abuse
in
or
other
their
pushing,
Center
for
by
be
of
adding
the
that
considered
also
at
the
uses
to
of
Physical
acts.
“coercing”
as
of
heart
punching,
use
above
developed
interpretation
are
and
person.
any
shoving,
slapping,
object),
another
Intervention
individual
partner”
scratching,
commit
below),
expands
an
the
hair-pulling,
against
violence
(see
and
knife,
people
should
Domestic
that
of
to:
shaking,
(gun,
other
violent
further
actions
limited
strength
Violence
“power
(the
not
choking,
coercing
be
of
violence,
They
a
Surveillance
states:
interpretation
Model
highlighting
behaviour.
of
body,
includes
the
but
biting,
use
one’s
also
expand
forcing
The
or
Violence
Control
includes,
grabbing,
burning,
restraints
Partner
and
or
“violence”.
in
relation
violence
of
violent
Programs)
include
intentionally
control
interpretation
of
violence.
or
4 . 2 :
C O N T E S T E D
M E A N I N G S
V
O F
IOL ENC
P E A C E ,
A N D
V I O L E N C E
E
L
S
A
I
C O N F L I C T
C
E
X
S
U
Y
A
H
L
P
Using
coercion
and
Making
and/or
to
•
do
threats
carrying
out
something
threatening
commit
to
to
threats
hurt
leave
suicide,
her
her,
to
to
report
Using
intimidation
Making
looks,
•
her
afraid
actions,
smashing
her
by
things
property
•
using
gestures
•
destroying
abusing
Using
her
to
economic
welfare
drop
•
making
charges
•
her
making
pets
•
displaying
Using
weapons.
emotional
her
do
illegal
things.
abuse
abuse
Preventing
her
from
job
•
getting
Putting
or
keeping
a
making
feel
ask
for
money
•
giving
her
•
taking
her
money
•
bad
know
about
or
about
have
family
making
•
her
calling
her
•
playing
making
mind
her
games
think
•
she’s
crazy
humiliating
her
access
POWER
to
•
herself
not
•
her
down
an
names
allowance
letting
her
her
•
making
her
feel
guilty.
income.
AND
CONTROL
Using
Using
male
Treating
like
isolation
privilege
Controlling
her
a
servant
•
making
sees
the
big
decisions
•
acting
like
the
being
the
and
where
‘master
of
the
castle’
•
what
talks
she
to,
goes
to
define
men’s
•
she
who
she
limiting
using
reads,
her
outside
jealousy
and
to
women’s
does,
what
•
involvement
one
she
all
justify
actions.
roles.
Using
children
Making
her
feel
Minimizing,
denying
guilty
and
about
the
•
the
children
using
•
children
to
relay
visitation
to
threatening
•
blaming
using
Making
light
and
taking
of
the
abuse
messages
harass
to
take
children
not
her
concerns
her
about
it
abuse
didn’t
seriously
•
saying
the
the
happen
•
shifting
away.
responsibility
for
abusive
P
behavior
H
Y
caused
•
saying
L
she
A
it.
U
S
I
X
C
E
A
S
L
V
I O L E N C
E
The Duluth Model of Violence
The Duluth Model
The makers of the Duluth Model of Violence have decided not to make their
wheel gender neutral as “[m]aking the Power and Control Wheel gender neutral
would hide the power imbalances in relationships between men and women
that reect power imbalances in society. By naming the power dierences, we
can more clearly provide advocacy and suppor t for victims, accountability and
oppor tunities for change for oenders, and system and societal changes that end
violence against women.”
1
Do you agree with their decision? Why (not)?
2
Are they similar to any of the (par ts of) countries in the char t above?
3
What would be the reason for those numbers?
4
What are the diculties of obtaining reliable statistics about domestic
violence?
155
4
PE ACE
AND
C ON F LIC T
Many
psychologists
aggression
does
not
it
is
a
perfect
(“any
want
learned.
actually
If
to
be
This
society
have
weighed
behaviour
harmed”)
was
(for
in
on
intended
largely
is
a
to
natural
motivated
example,
a
society
people
are
or
inherently
culture
needs
aggressive,
to
nd
a
then
way
of
R.
instinct
indeed
a
humans
or
our
used
support
of
from
games
versus
They
examples
their
of
whether
another
person
phenomenon
by
the
question
achieving
of
to
how
and
nurture
with
who
or
whether
of
whether
positive
peace)
is
Lorenz,
Various
Bushman
dispute,
are
argued
favour
arguing
B.
be
us
that
aggressive
a
and
and
the
middle
both
2014
aggression
to
is
animal
behaviour
theorists
aggressive
that
with
Bushman,
human
learning
raised
opposite:
always
and
compared
“instinctive”
the
will
it.
Baumeister
children
argue
aggression
living
often
hypothesis.
to
Baumeister
nature
Freud
nature.
education,
video
learned.
this
of
and
to
examples
is
theorists,
part
behaviour
media
debate
possible.
society
The
the
harm
of
used
inuence
of
behaviour
ground
learning
in
and
18
instinct
are
relevant
nature–nurture
one
camp
statement
on
argument
(that
the
debate
interpretation
“nature”
debate
is
for
or
was
understanding
has
the
made
Violence”
from
by
a
been
A
is
not
aggression.
politicized
concerted
number
(seebelow).
violence
far
often
other.
human
of
scientists
Even
natural)
in
by
attempt
though
a
rather
The
supporters
to
through
they
bold
of
neutralize
“the
presented
and
rm
the
Seville
their
way,
over.
Seville Statement
“Believing that it is our responsibility to address from our particular disciplines
the most dangerous and destructive activities of our species, violence and war;
recognising that science is a human cultural product which cannot be denitive or
all encompassing; and gratefully acknowledging the support of the authorities of
Seville and representatives of the Spanish UNESCO [United Nations ducational,
Scientic and Cultural Organization], we, the undersigned scholars from around the
world and from relevant sciences, have met and arrived at the following:
1
It is scientically incorrect to say that violence is genetically determined.
2
It is scientically incorrect to say that it comes from our animal past.
3
It is scientically incorrect to say that, in the process of human evolution,
there has been a greater selection for aggressive behaviour than for
other kinds of behaviour.
4
5
It is scientically incorrect to say that humans have a “ violent brain”.
It is scientically incorrect to say that violent behaviour is genetically
inherited.’
Do you agree with the Seville Statement on Violence? Why (not)?
TOK
The Seville Statement was criticized for “discredit[ing] pyschology and scientists
because it uses science to pursue political objectives”.
Should scientists refrain from statements like this?
156
4 . 2 :
Galtung
argues
acknowledges
but
argues
injustice”–
in
favour
the
that
the
C O N T E S T E D
of
broadening
widespread
there
may
unequal
M E A N I N G S
be
and
suffering
more
the
P E A C E ,
denition
from
people
unfair
O F
direct,
suffering
distribution
of
of
C O N F L I C T
violence.
physical
from
wealth
A N D
V I O L E N C E
He
violence,
“social
and
power
19
(see
diagram
clear
there
this
is
enough
food
Perhaps
can
below).
perpetrator
be
structures
Galtung
states
us
reaching
immigrant
“foreign
virus
in
suffering
one
the
can
world,
people
that
may
obvious
and
we
then
society
be
less
victim,
has
have
still
be
built
visible,
but
it
is
the
there
less
systems
dying
that
as
no
from
“cause”
is
real.
to
no
If
distribute
starvation?
this
suffering
violence.
that
any
our
human-made
potential
Denmark
sounding
(HIV)
in
how
considered
from
not
food
equally,
the
This
and
not
name”
patient
dying
invited
and
societal
should
a
for
South
because
of
a
be
a
structure
considered
job
interview
African
lack
of
human
access
preventing
“violence”.
because
An
of
a
immunodeciency
to
medication
would
20
both
be
considered
“violence”
according
to
this
interpretation.
Violence
Personal
Structural
(direct)
(indirect)
(also
Absence
personal
Absence
of
structural
violence
as
referred
“social
to
injustice”)
of
violence
(also
referred
to
or
or
as
Negative
Positive
peace
peace
“social
injustice”)
PEACE
Galtung
did
violence
Cultural
stop
there
peace).
violence
legitimize
of
not
(and
the
is
He
the
inculcated
world.
They
in
us
as
convince
broadening
coined
prevailing
structural
superiority/inferiority
are
with
also
[and
on
children
us
this
is
and
the
and
violence,
class,
race,
shape
way
the
term
attitudes
direct]
based
the
interpretation
“cultural
beliefs
making
sex,
our
things
that
it
and
they
and
natural.
and
assumptions
are
justify
seem
religion,
of
violence”.
Feelings
nationality
about
have
us
to
and
the
be.
21
William
T.
Hathaway
TOK
In what ways are factors such as gender and nationality “inculcated in us as children”?
In what ways do these factors shape our assumptions about ourselves? In what ways
do these factors shape our assumptions about other people?
157
4
PE ACE
AND
C ON F LIC T
There
are
many
regardless
of
could
refer
forces
and
our
jobs”
leader
the
to
for
164).
conict
explored
not
a
an
or
not
of
you
further
structural
to
physical
to
a
violence
job
are
a
understanding
of
the
further
of
the
religious
place
will
is
is
of
often
therefore
in
on
interpretation
it
armed
stealing
explored
violence,
and
or
We
its
are
women”s
broad
legitimization
justied,
through
interview
“a
is
forward.
“foreigners
that
with
put
violence
that
justify
agree
violence
arguments
argument
text
and
remainder
or
the
immigrant
religious
to
on
recruiter”s
injustice
analysis
with
monopoly
justications
social
direct
agree
inviting
to
(the
the
which
we
the
Whether
in
in
state’s
referring
“violence”,
in
a
police,
kitchen”
page
ways
whether
be
used
further
unit.
L TA
Thinking skills
Revisit your interpretation of peace. Is it similarly broad or narrow to your
interpretation of violence? Why (not)?
Types of conict
Traditionally,
any
conicts
this
realist
so
many
coni ct
it
focus
Conicts
(for
are
Project
the
Conict
Data
conict,
use
inter-state,
of
conict
around
or
by
in
the
mo s t
re cent
ty p o l og y
mediati o n,
the
Dr
coni cts
the
m os t
the y
wh o
and
T he
an d
s ta t e
an d
Ho we ver,
m a i n t ai n
f r om
Upp su l a
r e no wn e d
ad di t i on
wit h
te r ro ri st
i n vo lve d
of
COW
wi t h
not
Wa r
re c o rd er s
( COW)
the
of
vi ol en t
c on i c t
c on ic t ,
is
or
U n ive rs i t y
a rm e d
i n t e rn a l
by
ar e
wh e t he r
Co rr e la t e s
the
s ubdi vid e
i nte r na ti ona li z e d
“no n- state
betw e e n
which
of
to
c on ic t ,
a ct o rs
con ic t .
whi ch
the
st a t e s.
di f c u l t
in
inte r- sta t e )
the
two
on
of
g r oups .
Mi chig an
common
contention
pr ote s t
in
The
of
eng a ge d
of
typ o l o g y
f oc u se d
a l li an c e s
i ncr e as in g l y
a ctive l y
us e d
between
Another
is
or
Univ e r s i ty
extra– s ta te ,
conict.
conict
is
la r ge l y
s ta te s
cha r a cter i ze d
Prog r a m,
a
sta te
a cto r s
inte r p e r s ona l
violence
of
the
ha s
othe r
no n- vi ol e nt
often
example,
physical
state
to
a nal ys is
w i th
on
non-stat e
organizations
it
had
and
int o
i nt r a -
ca t eg or y
of
a ctor s ” .
of
conic t
pa rtie s .
C hri s to pher
ap pe a r
to
is
On
be
on
the
the
b a si s
M oor e
b a si s
of
of
hi s
i de n t ie d
c e n t r ed :
da t a,
t he
ma in
m an y
ve
in t e re s t ,
is s ue
ye a rs
a r e as
val u e,
22
relationship,
and
Wallensteen,
Sollenberg
the
contested
where
the
s tr uctur e
( 19 96:
and
incompatibility
use
of
armed
Sollenberg
which
force
6 0 –6 1) .
dene
concerns
between
two
armed
government
parties,
of
conict
and/or
which
at
as,
territory
least
one
is
the
23
government
As
we’ve
aims
of
seen,
seem
results
in
One
the
to
“25
a
state,
results
in
incompatibility
clash.
If
this
at
here
clash
battle-related
least
battle-related
refers
then
deaths”
25
turns
it
is
to
how
deaths.
two
physically
considered
or
moreparties’
violent
an
and
“armed
conict”.
24
We
of
may
conict
therefore
internationalized
158
parties
divide
and
has
to
armed
internal
be
the
conict
conict.
government
into
of
a
inter-state,
state.
extra-state,
4 . 2 :
C O N T E S T E D
M E A N I N G S
O F
P E A C E ,
C O N F L I C T
A N D
V I O L E N C E
60
50
stciflnoc
40
30
fo
Internationalized
Intra-state
.oN
20
10
0
1946
1956
1966
1976
1986
1996
2006
Year
Armed conict by type according to the Uppsala Conict Data Program (UCDP)
Inter-state conict
In
inter-state
primary
who
conict
warring
rst
stated
incompatibility,
government
diagram
type
of
that
70
prevalent
rare
in
and
the
However,
Economic
Report
state
and
been
over
the
past
been
10
years.
World
Forum
Global
that
is
one
of
a
Risks
inter-
of
the
leaders
decision-makers.
of
rather
2015
concerns
example
this
not
past
shows
be
The
has
has
the
conict
main
must
shows
conict
years
the
parties.
above
the
parties,
recent
An
interSudanese soldiers on a South
state
conict
is
the
border
dispute
between
South
Sudan
and
Sudan,
Sudanese tank in the border
which
erupted
in
2012.
South
Sudan
was
originally
part
of
Sudan,
region 2012
but
voted
for
the
Advisory
Cambridge,
are
“a
independence
Board
number
central
and
of
Andrew
of
parts
2011
for
claims
the
Latin
referendum.
Risk
that
hot-spots,
Africa,
of
a
Centre
Coburn,
regional
eastern
subcontinent,
the
in
Studies
for
America
the
European
and
at
the
Director
University
inter-state
including
eastern
The
margins,
emerging
of
conict,
obvious
of
there
Middle
the
East,
Indian
South-East
25
Asian
powers’
’.
Ex tra-state conict
Extra-state
above,
has
Timor.
It
territory
war.
In
extra-systemic)
conict,
been
1975,
occurs
and
the
European
conicts
(or
not
between
can
be
period
powers
were
seen
since
a
state
further
of
then
a
in
the
of
we
can
into
large
period
see
of
wars
the
outside
war
the
of
in
diagram
conquered
group
colonial
parts
of
also
Indonesia
non-state
subdivided
colonization
and
rather
and
as
when
and
world
its
East-
own
imperial
by
mainly
decolonization,
these
common.
159
4
PE ACE
City
GDP
from
at
AND
C ON F LIC T
Inter-state
risk
(US$
war
threat
Lines
conflict
A
Bn)
B
Very
high
High
threat
threat
C
Moderate
D
Low
of
of
inter-state
inter-state
threat
of
of
conflict
conflict
Conflict
with
Conflict
among
world
superpower
state
conflict
inter-state
other
states
conflict
0.00 – 8.23
8.23 – 16.4
threat
of
inter-state
E
Major
power
with
some
F
Major
power
with
very
conflict
threat
low
of
conflict
threat
of
conflict
16.4 – 24.6
G
Conflict
is
possible
but
no
scenarios
identified
24.6 – 32.9
Map of Inter-state Conict Risk, University of Cambridge and Cytora
32.9 – 41.1
Internationalized and internal conict
Internationalized
a
and
internal
states.
This
type
end
of
the
The
Ukrainian
whereas
(the
the
past
foreign
and
By
Cold
the
200
China,
far
the
War.
the
have
Asia
state
of
years
all
of
most
the
been
had
the
two
deadly
the
of
an
wars,
the
the
most
two
major
from
(1991)
Asia
of
from
as
with
the
this.
Russia
part
conict).
States,
by
of
a
or
of
Over
without
Russia,
is
Spain
the
there
and
armed
internal
states.
Berlin
was
a
Wall
rise
sub-Saharan
violent
conict.
conicts,
wars
intra-state
state
other
of
and
armed
civil
support
since
powers,
recognized
conict
break-up
of
example
Western
of
other
1950.
affected
concentration
an
by
from
prominent
either
United
armed
1990s,
government
inter-state
government
Union
the
is
received
intervention
Soviet
including
civil
in
before
form
of
more
supported
considered
fought
time
Since
become
has
the
intervention
internationally
occurred
regions
highest
conicts,
Pakistan).
of
–
between
with
revolution
largely
between
the
conict.
the
most
were
without
around
the
be
widespread
occurs
collapse
armed
is
opposition
could
the
has
Ukrainian
Crimea
which
groups
Particularly
The
occurs
groups
conict
government
Russia
This
opposition
state
armed
pro-Russian
by
conict
opposition
intervention,
conict.
and
of
annexation
Ukraine–
160
internal
state
with
(Afghanistan
(1989)
of
intra-
African
In
2013,
13
intra-
and
4
PE ACE
AND
C ON F LIC T
sour,
for
certain
example,
conicts.
In
instances
conict
could
of
–
have
other
a
a
as
of
in
violence.
that
the
The
Sierra
Leone
which
lasted
big
2002,
role
than
a
in
painful
past
cases
occurred
until
history
relations
particularly
memory
such
parties
long
problematic
or
in
marriage
of
–
ethnic
violence
during
Civil
for
still
11
years
plays
society
decade
the
War,
a
more
later.
Similarly,
Armenians
today
what
a
see
hundred
happened
years
ago
in
From 1915, the Ottoman
government initiated the
systematic extermination
the
Ottoman
Empire
International
as
an
Association
integral
of
part
Genocide
of
their
Scholars
identity.
William
President
Schabas
of
calls
the
it
28
of approximately 1.5 million
“one
Armenians living in present-day
Turkish
Turkey. Many were depor ted
of
the
three
people
(limited)
great
would
genocides
disagree
contemporary
–
of
the
and
twentieth
this
plays
Turkish–Armenian
a
century”,
very
large
but
role
many
in
the
relations.
through death marches leading to
the Syrian deser t.
Data conicts
Abramson
TOK
claims
inaccurate,
or
of
data”.
relevant
“[d]ata
conicts
untrustworthy
In
can
be
caused
information...
conicts
there
are
or
often
by
inadequate,
different
interpretations
disagreements
about
what
How do we know whether to
actually
happened
during
an
argument
(in
interpersonal
non-violent
trust data that is presented
conicts)
or
example,
the
a
battle
or
massacre.
Information
can
be
distorted
by,
for
to us?
could
its
very
emotional
well
importance,
particularly
strong
The
that
Commission
[t]o
as
and
rights
for
set
up
for
of
the
the
committed
South
of
the
persons
make
the
victims
the
events
acknowledging
in,
or
or
they
downplaying
that
the
were
other
party’s
Truth
and
Reconciliation
aim:
and
and
period
of
are
information
highlight
African
causes
parties
events.
investigation
during
whereabouts
other
conict
hiding
without
following
nature,
the
in
often
them
the
the
that
interest
regarding
states
provide
possible
an
parties
painful
feelings
law
have
state
such
the
establishment
extent
from
1
of
gross
March
violations;
the
of
as
complete
violations
1960…
of
and
granting
of
a
picture
human
the
fate
amnesty
or
to
29
The
who
difculty
here,
discrimination,
“all
the
is
relevant
full
disclosure
especially
in
obtaining
of
after
that
all
a
the
long
relevant
period
“complete
facts.
of
violence
picture”
and
and
agreeing
on
facts”.
Interest conicts
Interest
conicts
occur
when
there
are
perceived
or
actual
competitive
interests.
Moore
162
4 . 2 :
Many
of
local
natural
groups
environment.
about
In
the
the
because
United
world
it
may
M E A N I N G S
protest
have
O F
against
P E A C E ,
the
there
by
drilling
into
into
rock,
is
a
erce
A N D
V I O L E N C E
extraction
consequences
Kingdom,
C O N F L I C T
for
the
debate
fracking,
the
a
around
resources,
C O N T E S T E D
process
of
extracting
high-pressure
water
gas
mixture
the
the
earth
causing
and
the
injecting
gas
to
ow
to
the
30
surface.
Water
and
whereas
impact
minor
fuels
energy
companies
through
possible
fossil
oil
environmental
by
the
would
groups
transport
earthquakes
moving
have
of
and
potential
a
argue
huge
it
clear
it
has
nancial
a
amounts
encourages
investment
interest
signicant
of
a
water,
from
this,
chemical
continued
away
in
environmental
usage,
reliance
on
renewable
sources.
Inverness
Aberdeen
SCOTLAND
North
Sea
Edinburgh
United
Kingdom
NORTHERN
IRELAND
Isle
of
Man
Dublin
Ireland
Limerick
Amsterdam
The
Cork
Hague
Netherland
Antwerp
Brussels
Lille
Plymouth
Belgium
En
sh
gli
a
Ch
e
nn
l
Luxemberg
Guernsey
Map of actual (red) and proposed (yellow) fracking sites in the United Kingdom and local
Friends of the Ear th groups campaigning against it
Many
other
interests.
conicts
The
spokespeople
the
revolve
Arab-Israeli
of
both
around
conict
parties
lay
is
(the
often
claim
to
perception
seen
as
of)
such
exclusive
competitive
because
right
of
ownership
of
land.
163
4
PE ACE
AND
C ON F LIC T
Structural and value conicts
L TA
Research and thinking
Structural
skills
conicts
interaction,
are
unequal
caused
control,
by
destructive
ownership
or
patterns
of
distribution
behaviour
of
or
resources
[and]
Moore’s categories of conict
unequal
1
power
and
authority.
Can you think of a conict
Moore
that is mainly “structural”
The
and one that is mainly
nal
Inequality
based on “value”?
and
2
two
it
can
in
categories
itself
often
can
lead
Moore
be
to
seen
identies
as
tensions
a
form
are
of
between
structural
conict
those
and
value
(structural
who
aim
to
conicts.
violence)
create
more
Why is it impor tant to
equality
and
those
who
may
protect
the
“status
quo”.
identify the main area of
Value
conict?
conicts
revolve
around
“[d]ifferent
criteria
for
evaluation
ideas
or
31
behaviour…
would
P
.
be
different
much
Huntington,
no
longer
the
a
supported
who
clash
immense
ways
of
by
argued
of
life,
the
that
ideologies,
criticism
he
ideology
and
American
in
the
but
received
a
–
religion.”
political
post-Cold
clash
of
This
scientist
War
world
civilizations.
including
Edward
category
Samuel
there
was
Regardless
Said’s
of
thoughtful
32
“The
Clash
those
of
who
Ignorance”
think
in
article
–
of
versus
terms
“east
Huntington
west”
has
or
struck
“Islam
a
chord
versus
with
Western
liberalism”.
For
a
mediator
conict,
as
order
solve
to
that
as
and
it
a
is
in
like
the
all
conict
up
to
a
Moore
end
that
other
it
is
is
the
important
related
progresses
mediator
do
to
to
real
We
people’s
Moore
identify
where
problems.
so
like
area
the
should,
feelings,
address
main
progress
is
area
to
be
however,
memories
these
newly
of
made,
not
and
goals
risen
in
forget
–
issues.
Justications of violence, including Just War Theory
As
violence,
have
this
wife
does
complete
come
both
up
violence.
d i r e ct
wit h
Som e
not
wife
housework
her
a nd
ma ny
s tr uctur a l,
di ffe re nt
j us ti ca ti ons ,
disobeys
wife
husband
is
wa ys
for
so
wid e spr e a d,
t hr ou g h
e xa m p le ,
is
accepts
unfaithful
of
the
wh ic h
h on ou r
s oc i et i e s
th ey
ju s t ify
k il li n gs ,
a re
none
given
reasons
100
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80
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70
60
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a
World Health Organization’s study into domestic violence: justications for violence
4 . 2 :
embedded
legal
the
state’s
legalized
the
of
a
new
of
the
Unite d
This
levels,
tend
widely
to
co untri e s,
ha ve
bo th
Just
for
fro m
nd
tha n
to
fo r
a re
to
in
s oc i et a l
vi ol en c e .
So me
pr ac t ic e
of
t he
as
wa r
it
V I O L E N C E
the
or
u s ua l ly
In
le g al i z ed
“Just
and
o ve r
A N D
con du c t
be en
Wa r
the
h u n dr ed s
n e e ds
do c t ri n e
the
a re
fr am e wo rk .
c on ic t
to
in
s e lf-d e fe n c e
for c e s ,
wh et he r
( R2P )
m il it a r il y
as
kn own
g oi n g
C O N F L I C T
i n t e gr a t ed
l ar g el y
de vel op ed
P ro t ec t ”
the
le g a l
P E A C E ,
c o n c er n in g
d eba t e d
a nd
but
or
h a ve
for
has
hot l y
such
ar m ed
p ri n c ip le s
T he or y
is
p er s ona l
o the r s,
that
r e as ons
i nte r ve ni ng
the
jus ti ca ti ons
accepted
s p e c i c a ll y
a ri s e n
the
it
it s
O F
bee n
o the r s,
th r ou g h
T he se
War
r e ce ntl y
n e c e s sa r il y
co ns t it u t i on
“R e s p o ns i bil i ty
justications
various
vi ol ence
Na tions.
wa r.
more
not
M E A N I N G S
whe r ea s
country’s
co v e r s
during
but
hav e
pr i nci p l es
which
expanded.
on
betwe e n
set
years,
a nd
co untr ie s ,
monop o l y
the
conduct
of
through
Theory”,
we
cultur e
relations
war,
through
of
in
frameworks
C O N T E S T E D
to
be
pr ovi de s
s itu a t io n s.
At
i nt er n a t ion a l ,
may
be
m or e
ju s t ifyin g
vi ol en c e
is
widespread.
On
the
with
personal
references
level,
to
stating
that
Health
Organization’s
violence
shows
indicated
they
had
the
hadn’t
over
more
least
one
the
the
their
than
of
40
these
it”.
victims
was
from
clergy
the
often
seem
from
the
or
behaviour
by
simply
World
often
or
of)
cent
of
as
their
focus
claiming
to
provide
on
to
also
because
a
had
been
countries
people
saw
at
justication
jihad”
to
“an
protect
male-dominated,
societies
religion
violence.
Karo-Kari,
justify
or
“primarily
thought
family
by
have
engaging
a
The
family
in
against
illicit
relations.
male
often
brought
in
eye
killings,
committed
extra-marital
honour
,
honour
to
the
In
violence,
an
use
to
culture
practice
of
Pakistan,
women
to
who
to
pre-marital
order
eye”
Patriarchal,
dishonour
member
texts
religion
for
for
Islam.
or
to
religious
legitimizations
Judeo-Christian
“lesser
peace,
represent
or
are
violent
nature
violence.
or
is
our
human
housework,
(parts
per
justify
domestic
justied,
the
reasons
to
and
The
into
husband
various
Apart
the
that
aim
religion
study
completed
In
often
deserved
violence
disobeyed
unfaithful.
for
“they
we
culture,
their
or
restore
must
kill
this
the
33
female
in
question.”
Patel,
The
to
Pakistani
prevent
the
or
thought
government’s
punish
that
this
these
type
limited
killings,
of
S.
2008
response
furthers
violence
is
A poster showing Félicien Kabuga, wanted for his alleged role in the
“justied”.
The
Global
Slavery
Index
of
2013
Rwandan genocide. Kabuga was allegedly heavily involved in the
reports
the
widespread
practice
of
(modern)
radio station RTLM, as well as Kangura magazine.
165
4
PE ACE
AND
C ON F LIC T
slavery
forms
2014
its
report
slavery
or
and
either
are
other
justication
of
slavery
gives
the
closely
people’s
we
ourselves
or
to
Rwandan
genocide,
estimated
90
to
per
the
dehumanizes
example
violence
unhuman
referring
“through
of
not
cent
them
is
by
Other
of
and
other
RTLM
party
“to
Portraying
makes
it
seem
as
are
the
upon
up
own
party,
During
the
(an
cockroaches”,
party
violent
our
Through
listeners
the
The
and
justify
other
its
other
though
we
humans.
clean
the
tolerated
opponent.
to
as
or
endemic”.
“[r]eligion
which
the
called
population)
minority.
in
characteristics
the
station
the
ways
that
where
dehumanizing
treat
sanctioned
practices
Mauritania,
subhuman
radio
Tutsi
culturally
slavery-like
interrelated”.
ascribing
allow
or
in
such
a
way
behaviour
is
justied.
Historically,
allowed
to
to
neutralize
group
of
lethal
manner.
up
is
violence,
in
may
Many
of
prison,
as
are
a
A
non-state
are
a
form
the
that
of
agent
actors,
a
by
of
justied
can
be
performed
in
groups
and
to
its
use
countries
Even
of
locking
structural
Furthermore,
through
form
of
normally
is
biases
legitimized
also
then
country’s
was
a
generally
restrained
22
awed
murder
the
a
force
keep
and
state.
a
actor
forces
form
as
are
or
attack
guerrilla
be
seen
services
Torture
a
to
Taser
in
least
the
to
in
the
react
at
one
physical
seen
violence.
seem
also
or
police
considered
terrorist
from
to
violence
secret
has
about
allow
in
world
the
called
widely
expected
be
is
Tasers
practised
violence.
that
both
concerns
still
state
being
usually
could
state’s
claimed
line
legitimized
be
forms
police
normally
around
the
using
riot
many
is
that
ofcers
country
minorities
the
in
which
then
violence.
be
the
penalty
form
(limited)
even
of
they’re
systems
legitimized,
or
there
death
certain
accepted
Police
hooligans
Laws
would
legal
structural
use
suspect,
though
The
another
against
generally
violence.
(though
people
many
a
nature).
violence,
and
is
football
accepted
to
it
use
allowed
seen
interest,
as
and
it
prevented.
such
as
the
TOK
Revolutionary
Do people sometimes act
like
against their own interests?
the
Islamic
state’s
and
the
likely
domestic
legal
group’s
legitimize
the
original
elected
president,
various
el-Sisi,
in
countries,
as
the
therefore
military
provide
similar
these
system
but
is
violence
that
with
the
of
a
to
the
this
may
the
certainly
Egypt
and
Morsi
of
accepted
the
the
violence
with
in
their
country,
further
The
democratically
condemned
military,
have
agree
government.
the
president
with
retrospectively
may
of
yet
normally
particular
new
removal
is
successful
countries
were
violence,
one
be
organizations
of
countries
of
of
adjusted
the
leader
legitimization
may
accepting
to
to
violence
rulers
other
Morsi,
the
forms
whether
often
by
led
of
(FARC)
on
actors
as
and
Mohammed
many
leaders.
if
actions
Egypt
current
imprisonment,
use
monopoly
themselves
the
actions
Colombia
regardless
However,
establish
of
to
accepted
legitimize
military
166
are
Forces
unjustied–
objectives.
struggle
then
State
generally
considered
their
Armed
Abdel
sentenced
status
quo
perpetrated
by
Fattah
to
life
and
by
Egypt’s
4 . 2 :
C O N T E S T E D
M E A N I N G S
O F
P E A C E ,
C O N F L I C T
A N D
V I O L E N C E
Case study of Haiti, ranked third on the Global Slavery Index 2014
HAITI
Index
rank
Index
rank
Estimated
3
number
of
people
in
modern
slavery
237,700
3
Government
response
Vulnerability
to
Population
GDP
(PPP)
to
modern
modern
slavery
slavery
C
71.9%
10,317,461
per
capita
(Int$)
$1,703
Numbers
enslaved
237,700
Prevalence
they are allowed to go sporadically, this is in such a way
that they are unable to keep on top of schoolwork and
Haiti is the least developed
fall behind or drop out. Restavèk children are commonly
country in the Americas, where
Government
deprived of the nur turing and attention a child needs to
pover ty has contributed to use
response
grow and ourish.
C
of the restavèk system. This is
Vulnerability
a common cultural practice that
Haitian
involves children being sent to
acrossthe
work for other families, usually
domestic
because their own parents do not
exploitation.
have the means to care for them.
restavèks,
children
are
border
work ,
also
into
child
vulnerable
the
to
Dominican
labour
and
trafficking
Republic
commercial
for
sexual
71.9%
The common understanding of this practice is that children
by
S treet
are
criminal
children,
vulnerable
to
often
street
runaway
crime
or
or
expelled
trafficking
gangs.
will have access to school and be provided for in a way
Although children make up the majority of victims of
that their families cannot accommodate. However, many
modern slavery in Haiti, adult victims have also been
restavèk children experience exploitation in the home of
identied in forced labour in agriculture, construction
their caretakers, including forced domestic service, and
and forced prostitution within Haiti, in the Dominican
chronic verbal, physical, and sexual abuse.
Republic, other Caribbean countries, the United S tates,
The children come from the impoverished rural areas
and South America. Up to 200 women every year are
of Haiti, or from within poor urban areas, and labour in
tracked into Haiti from the Dominican Republic, for
households in the cities. Much of the housing in urban
sexual exploitation. Women living in Internally Displaced
areas is extremely basic, lacking facilities like running
Persons (IDP) camps, which still exist following
water and reliable access to electricity. Everyday tasks
the ear thquake of January 2010, are vulnerable to
like cooking, cleaning and fetching water can be extremely
commercial sexual exploitation and forced labour.
arduous, and this is why many families take on a restavèk
1
What examples of direct violence can you nd in
child. Some are forced to work very long hours, performing
thetext above?
dangerous chores or tasks, such as carrying heavy loads,
2
What examples of structural violence are occurring
being exposed to dangerous trac, and cooking with
inHaiti?
materials that have a damaging eect on their bodies.
3
Many are physically abused, and some sexually abused
How would these forms of violence be justied?
Would you agree with these justications?
as well. Often, they are deprived of schooling, or where
In
international
one
that
waged
and
Catholic
tried
to
relations
regulates
the
conduct
scholars
reconcile
in
which
it
to
war”.
ad
bellum,
such
the
If
one
more
of
as
there
of
the
Just
evil
were
establishment
behaviour
of
accepted
the
(war
Theory
and
or
Just
of
the
War
can
and
taking
just
conduct
for
St
for
be
are
to
war,
the
traced
with
go
jus
being
is
to
who
situations
recourse
to
in
it
back
Augustine
lives)
reasons
is
which
permissible
during
Theory
norms
reasons
Aquinas
“conditions
the
“rules”
War
Thomas
just
the
oldest
specically
war.
St
something
seemed
After
developed.
war,
war,
bello,
followed,
jus
was
a
war
167
4
PE ACE
AND
C ON F LIC T
can
Jus
ad
Jus
be
right
bellum
considered
legal;
whereas
a
war
not
fought
for
the
in
reasons
and
in
the
right
manner
is
considered
a
war
of
bello
aggression.
Aggression
Competent
Principleof
authority
proportion
do
so,
refers
against
to
a
state’s
another
use
state’s
of
force,
territory
or
or
an
imminent
sovereignty
–
threat
unless
34
use
of
force
is
in
response
to
aggression.
Goldstein,
The
Principle
Just
to
the
basic
criteria
for
a
war
to
be
fought
for
the
2004
right
of
cause
discrimination
reasons,
●
it
or
jus
ad
requires
a
bellum ,
are:
“competent
authority”
to
declare
and
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thewar
Right
Necessityor
intention
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●
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is
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●
the
war
is
fought
with
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the
war
is
used
●
waging
the
●
there
a
The
criterion
as
the
a
pursuit
the
last
of
right
a
“just
cause”
intention
resort
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war
is
proportional
to
the
act
that
triggered
it
lastresort
is
introduced
reasonable
of
to
a
hope
competent
ensure
that
of
success.
authority
only
states
was
originally
could
declare
war
Proportionality
and
not
some
private
problems
as
to
the
or
organ
armies
with
and
this
constitutional
such.
O’Brien
criterion:
(2009)
“there
competence
of
a
may
identies
be
disputes
particular
ofcial
35
Reasonable
hope
of
a
state
to
initiate
the
to
whether
In
other
words,
it
is
ofsuccess
often
debatable
according
Just War Theory and its conditions for just reasons and
principles for just conduct
that
to
many
a
as
country’s
non-state
For
example,
the
government
the
Houthis
and
claim
in
took
countries,
the
does
a
right
not
act
is
accepted
Charter
“may
forces
that
as
member
is
close
Security Council session in which it voted unanimously to increase
humanitarian aid in Syria
states
to
Security
Charter
of
is
by
is
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Can
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competent
Nations
Council
sea,
or
land
maintain
and
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a
generally
a
by
rights”
that
clear.
United
to
are
some
considered
is
air,
peace
the
by
others.
Security
signed
universally
Council
against
not
also
necessary
international
the
it
the
the
is
is
war.
country
Nations
is
of
be
This
body
action
be
by
a
government
42
that
such
may
the
interest
United
the
states
a
criticized,
Article
take
restore
the
problem
“revolutionary
against
their
often
authority.
Since
in
claim
followed
launch
organization
authority”?
though
Council
go
of
supported
that
to
to
rebelled
most
terrorist
were
other
right
who
of
are
steps
The
the
Yemen
but
“competent
Even
right
control
organizations
or
the
constitution.
actors
considered
168
war”.
security.”
the
193
Nations,
accepted
or
that
competent
it
the
authority.
4 . 2 :
C O N T E S T E D
M E A N I N G S
O F
P E A C E ,
C O N F L I C T
A N D
V I O L E N C E
Just cause
Examiner's hint
Perhaps
even
more
complex
and
debatable
is
the
“just
cause”
condition
of
In your Paper 2 essays,
Just
War
Theory.
One
of
the
main,
generally
accepted,
just
causes
is
“self-
Engagement Activity and Higher
defence”.
The
United
Nations
Charter
also
acknowledges
this
in
Article
51:
Level presentations, make sure
Nothing
in
collective
the
present
self-defence
if
Charter
an
shall
armed
impair
attack
the
occurs
inherent
against
a
right
of
individual
Member
of
the
or
United
Nations.
you include the arguments
of both sides. Even though
you may more strongly lean
towards one side, it’s impor tant
However,
it
is
often
unclear
Resolution
to
Authorize
how
far
this
“self-defence”
goes.
In
the
Joint
to include the other par ty’s
the
Use
of
United
States
Armed
Forces
Against
Iraq
arguments and to assess those.
(2002),
the
Bush
[w]hereas
Administration
Iraq’s
demonstrated
destruction,
the
those
weapons
launch
Armed
Forces
to
or
risk
that
a
provide
capability
the
to
and
current
surprise
them
that
willingness
Iraqi
attack
regime
against
international
the
to
will
use
United
terrorists
weapons
either
States
who
of
employ
or
would
L TA
mass
argues
its
do
Research and thinking
skills
so,
Research
and
the
extreme
magnitude
of
harm
that
would
result
to
the
United
States
the
arguments
its
citizens
from
such
an
attack,
combine
to
justify
action
by
the
United
defend
2003
“just
war
invasion
cause”
principle
is
certainly
stretched
here,
and
the
legality
agree
has
been
debated
ever
right
just
cause
other,
of
the
Iraq.
intention
and
condition
cannot
possibly
means
change
unjust,
just
belligerent
have
just
and
peace”
its
causes.
always
with
them
Do
or
Try
to
argue
the
case
since.
from
The
bellum
of
not?
the
ad
for
itself.
you
The
used
States
36
to
jus
and
Also,
in
that
a
country
objectives
“right
mind
as
during
can
the
intention
the
ultimate
only
war
pursue
to
requires
object
of
the
the
the
war
view.
argue
include
that
the
don’t
other
How
for
point
difcult
is
something
agree
of
it
to
you
with?
a
37
dening
what
(O’Brien,
constitutes
“a
just
2009).
and
The
lasting
difculty
here
is
clearly
L TA
lasting
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peace”.
Walzer
Necessity
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the
be
seen
that
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seen
or
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resort
thing
an
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as]
last
on
refers
the
ideology
must
cause
for
mind
that
strive
to
for
the
of
sees
requirement
the
war
but
war
decision-makers.
as
hegemony
celebration
that
a
in
as
a
natural
which
should
not
Militarism
can
element
“military
necessary
and
of
society
means
last
[are
resort
Watch
and
not
means
video
and
on
this
from
Just
ve-minute
philosopher
Emeritus
Princeton
War
Professor
Michael
at
Walzer
38
of
achieving
whether
makers,
change”
war
but
was
the
(Jabri,1996).
really
recent
the
last
leaks
of
Often
option
on
sensitive
it
is
the
difcult
minds
to
of
information
unearth
the
from
decision-
about
how
going
to
countries
justify
war.
Chelsea
bigthink.com/videos/
(Bradley)
Manning
and
WikiLeaks
reveal
war
is
sometimes
considered
this
sold
michael-walzer-on-justas
the
rst
option
and
it
is
then
considered
how
can
be
to
the
war-theory
public.
The
proportionality
means.
minor
states
is
If
there
incident,
that
also
weighed
Lastly,
if
against
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acceptable
ad
bellum
jus
bello .
jus
has
to
respect
Once
during
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again,
war
good
probable
the
still
dictates
of
border
under
evil
that
war
conditions
be
in
ends
the
War
to
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just
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Do you agree with Walzer?
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another
O’Brien
success
cause”
(2009).
justied.
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justify
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result
honoured,
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is
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proportionality
must
the
expected
success,
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probable
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has
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during
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war,
case,
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the
goal.
169
4
PE ACE
AND
C ON F LIC T
A Handicap International weapons clearance exper t, standing by a stockpile of shells and
other explosive weapons near Misrata.
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citizens
attacks
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discrimination,
again,
by
with
Libya’s
intentional
170
Libya
2011,
by
a
its
used
who
argue
open
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be
as
to
War
nations.
4.3
To
Causes and par ties to conict
be
have
able
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situation.
there
as
are
well
actions.
understand
back
many
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factors
as
parties
to
go
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the
who
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such as history, help us
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easier
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psychologists
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171
4
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accelerate
Fiske,
though
dehumanization.
West
be
met
as
in
what
of
and
dehumanization,
during
fear
may
could
be
them
example,
process
Human
and
dehumanization
“greed
the
meet
Scale
of
often
around
this
übermensch
The
also
(Harris
often
strengthen
in
practices,
we
will
ignoring
discriminatory
oneself.
status
terms
the
outgroups.
century
show
The
what
to.
grievance”
debate
is
perhaps
one
of
the
most
Thinking skills
well-known
Greed versus Grievance: With
reference to specic examples,
which do you think plays a
bigger role in conict: greed or
grievance?
Hoefer’s
than
we
debates
research
often
concerning
indicates
perceive
the
that
them
to
causes
conict
be,
as
of
conict.
groups
they
are
Collier
more
calculate
the
and
rational
“availability
40
of
nance”,
say
it
is
“the
easier
to
grievance,
in
conict
(1996)
are
to
cost
but
argues
this
that
to
as
Yugoslavia.
He
as
and
“simple”
rebellion”,
quantify
(Collier
referred
of
“greed
doesn”t
and
all
the
too
easily
classies
states
of
this,
that
a
“military
factors”
mean
Hoefer
cause
and
that
2004:
compared
grievance
563–595).
religious
conict,
according
“it
cannot
advantage”.
or
for
to
to
plays
ethnic
explain
a
Michael
in
“widely
why
role
Brown
hatreds”
the
former
held”,
some
Critics
related
minor
E.
“ancient
example,
him
factors
view
disputes
are
41
more
violent
groups
than
of
others”:
perceptual.
of)
and
factors
the
a
country
security
homogenity
others”.
with
a
their
own
very
172
it
vice
and
than
weak
then
Brown
central
security.
can
can
be
than
others”.
places
more
lead
Brown
ethnic
the
of
a
a
identies
lack
and
of
weak
state.
also
argues
that
example
and
ethnic
many
of
states
prone
Somalia
groups
geography,
as
that
over
This
providing
more
four
violence
cultural/
groups
“are
to
control
to
minorities
government
terms
as
He
predisposed
political,
has
classied
then
provides
In
homogeneous.
some
government
versa.
have
resolve
economic/social,
country”s
control
or
to
make
structural,
If
governmental
own
harder
“that
for
a
lack
conict
country
provide
however,
of
their
that
to
(parts
lack
for
Somalia
is
4 . 3 :
Structural
Weak
Factors
Ethnic
Economic
security
concerns
A N D
P A R T I E S
T O
C O N F L I C T
Factors
problems
Discriminatory
geography
Political
economic
systems
Modernization
Factors
Discriminatory
Exclusionary
Inter-group
Elite
Economic/Social
states
Intra-state
C A U S E S
political
national
institutions
Cultural/Perceptual
ideologies
Patterns
politics
of
cultural
Problematic
group
Factors
discrimination
histories
politics
The underlying causes of internal conict, Brown, 1996
The
are
political
largely
groups
have
system
and
another
factors
related
authoritarian
met
of
the
and
in
with
the
it’s
less
the
Syrian
be
lowered
reported
banner
rapid
a
fuel
that
quite
process
the
system
subsidies
–
out.
in
political
for
large
the
“Raising
modernization,
the
Syria
to
to
direct
is
outbreak
erupted
of
like
introduction
political
group
over
a
The
particular
King
new
of
violence
downturn
When
and
it
with
can
Jordan
was
Abdullah.
playing
of
were
inadequacies
discrimination.
prices
the
If
demonstrations
the
Economic
protests
war
violence.
favoured
abdication
to
system”.
through
when
the
lead
certain
Certainly,
role.
to
political
a
lead
and
another
2012
value
will
contributed
play
of
themselves
not
al-Assad
broke
asked
stated,
does
conict
than
in
the
Alawites
war
inuence
rightly
that
factors
protesters
of
–
conict
fairness
represent
Bashar
civil
political
bigger
its
of
country
repression
to
domestic
and
system
likely
regime
cause
type
political
economic/social
often
can
“the
opportunities
if
then
minority
that
to
One
re”.
The
technologies
Car toon in The Times depicting how, through social media, Tunisia
“unfriended” its dictator Ben Ali
173
4 . 3 :
C A U S E S
A N D
P A R T I E S
T O
C O N F L I C T
Par ties to conict
Conict
time
and
it
often
can
the
starts
draw
owners
in
of
with
a
authorities,
on
behaviour
change.
even
We’ve
though
motives
state
for
actors
other
that
people
conict
involvement.
important
an
a
morally
state
is
in
and
assassinations
by
expected
their
are
states
legally,
“bring
a
as
United
state
may
actors
and
rights
actors
to
or
different
States
perpetrator
local
Depending
unitary
certain
non-state
over
group
conict
have
between
the
on.
the
seen
can
have
that
and
so
within
often
but
protest
involve
and
party
distinction
that
Israel
to
role
parties,
a
quickly
forces
conict
The
one
can
police
parties
the
conict
between
non-
and
may
are
L TA
as
both
plant
factors,
within
of
conict
power
their
Targeted
criticized
and
amount
A
residents,
is
responsibilities,
have.
local
seen
the
limited
others.
nuclear
national
their
a
many
not
justice”.
Thinking and research
skills
heavily
Non-
Language and conict par ties:
state
actors
may
not
be
hindered
by
these
expectations.
The
types
of
war
Find a local newspaper (hardidentied
on
in
this
chapter
indicate
that
intra-state
wars
are
the
most
copy or online) and look
widespread
variant
of
war,
and
that
war
between
states
is
in
decline.
up an ar ticle about a local
In
violent
intra-state
conicts
governments
are
often
confronted
with
conict between an NGO and a
groups
labelled
“terrorists”
or
“guerrillas”.
The
language
used
to
depict
business or local authority.
oneself
and
conict.
rebels,
or
It
the
other
is
does
make
a
dissident,
militants
reports
the
as
party’s
are
actions
expected
in
terms
the
2003,
goals.
support
Jabri
their
87).
the
are
value-laden.
were
This
serves
that
in
In
often
to
of
talking
ghters,
war
claims
perception
reports
freedom
are
2003
p.
in
whether
terrorists,
these
(Roy,
and
to
of
soldiers
“quasi-terrorists”
important
difference
insurgents,
many
Iraqi
hugely
the
delegitimize
conict
situations
Is the wording used more
news
“militia”
the
How are the par ties
described in the ar ticle?
resistance
American
called
1
about
armed
positive towards one par ty
or
than the other?
other
people
2
country:
Visit the NGO’s website or
consult leaets or other
forms of communication.
As
a
conict
escalates
towards
violence
and
as
the
“war
mood”
takes
hold
of
How do they describe the
entire
populations,
the
dissident
from
either
camp
or
the
peacemaker
from
the
conict situation?
onlooking
rather
external
than
world
can
become
subject
to
social
contempt
and
censure
admiration.
Jabri,
Encarnacion
of
various
have
a
et
al.
parties
large
(1990)
to
the
inuence
developed
core
on
a
conict
the
model
parties.
conict
and
that
shows
These
the
“third
generally
the
1996:
6
proximity
parties”
closer
can
they
TOK
are
In what ways can language be
to
the
core
parties,
the
better
will
they
understand
the
situation
but
also
used to inuence, persuade
the
more
biased
will
useful
for
they
be
towards
one
or
the
other
party.
Sometimes
or manipulate people? Are
it
may
be
a
mediator
to
be
as
uninvolved
whereas
in
other
as
possible
in
order
there fundamental dierences
to
be
as
neutral
as
possible,
cases
it
may
be
useful
for
between language and the
the
mediator
to
be
as
close
as
possible
to
the
conict
parties
as
this
may
other ways of knowing in the
give
them
more
power
to
push
for
a
solution
or
their
knowledge
of
the
TOK course?
conict
parties
can
be
used
to
resolve
the
issue.
Actively
Marginal
Uninvolved
inuential
parties
parties
Core
parties
parties
“The impact of concerned par ties on the
resolution of disputes” in Issues in Third
Embedded
parties
World Conict Resolution by eds. Lindgren,
Wallensteen, and Nordquist, Uppsala University
175
4
PE ACE
AND
C ON F LIC T
Conict
are
mapping
analysed,
important
parties
not
may
of
parties.
always
not
in
between
the
complex
web
or
have
and
the
a
This
be
as
is
that
the
East
as
Muslim
Brotherhood
and
much
relations.
A
perseverance
–
the
a
and
has
This
account
as
process
publicly
state
this
as
tried
already
to
analyst,
however,
to
understand
the
various
between
relations
a
sense
ties
a
rather
that
wield
Islamic
the
should
conict
are
conict
make
creates
covers
An
the
actors
example,
only
conict
fully
of
acknowledged
for
web
conict
inuence
non-state
–
of
outcomes.
relations
parties
Economist
below).
into
power
and
complex
the
to
understanding
which
The
and
(see
take
role
in
dimensions
behaviour
highly
visible.
to
various
gaining
their
a
wielded
patience
is
way
parties
has
where
conict
this
often
Middle
it
to
conict,
and
various
acknowledged
their
in
the
process
within
obvious
always
conict
a
causes
element
involved
various
is
from
State
openly
have
parties
and
relations.
The
main
political
Who
rifts
openly
in
backs
the
Middle
East
whom
Russia
IRAN
Kurdistan
Syrian
“Dawn”
Houthi
Regional
gov’t
gov’t
rebels
Gov’t
(Tripoli)
Islamic
LIBYA
YEMEN
IRAQ
SYRIA
State
“Dignity”
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rebel
Iraqi
gov’t
groups
Yemeni
gov’t
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gov’t
Qatar
Turkey
United
Bahrain
Arab
Kuwait
Emirates
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Muslim
Egyptian
brothergov’t
Morocco
hood
EGYPT
The Middle Eastern mesh according to The Economist. 3 April 2015, 14:27 by the Data Team
Conict
to
raise
muted,
a
to
variety
this
176
parties
their
will
have
issue.
openly
of
be
ways
several
Their
and
in
in
in
they
the
can
next
the
can
indiscriminately
which
discussed
options
behaviour
methods
evolve
violent.
try
to
chapter.
they
from
Third
inuence
choose
restrained,
parties
conict
to
or
also
use
even
have
parties.
All
4.4
As
Evolution of conict
we
must
conict
can
Conict
pursue
of
lying
by
issues
the
for
get
their
that
and
is
are
are
can
criticized
for
or
protect
by
the
it.
parties’
have
a
not
they
citizens
potential
is
aws
decide
news,
to
dynamism
attitudes
and
behaviour
are
been
are
far
when
the
the
third
real
reason
the
idea
of
in
targeted
from
deeper
unearthed
increases
share
often
development
of
the
The
yet
who
it
can
emergence
positive
on
manifestation.
protest.
always
recent
However,
see
and
statements
further
not
The
like
often
which
parties’
may
conict.
seems
safeguarded
up
can
non-violent
conict
also
we
intensication
complexity
they
the
community
heavily
The
and
in
to
conict
covered
itself.
–
as
and
of
through
tactics
behind
intervention
not
options
terror
either
party
phases
complexity
Also,
involved
international
or
several
its
ourselves
various
from
intervention
humanitarian
state
to
time.
conict
parties
have
goals,
adds
over
experienced
through
parties
their
conict
evolve
have
go
that
by
of
the
their
generally
own
accepted
doctrine.
Manifestations of conict, including non-violence
The
formation
can
manifest
Allport
the
of
(1954)
other
talking
our
jokes
and
in-
our
group
and
jokes.
directed
at
this
start
We
many
based
probably
country,
by
it
is
the
all
on
the
know
can
generally
group
According
prejudgments
jokes
with
the
in
obviously
we
dynamics
Gordon
make
about
or
hostile
inhabitants
our
countries
acceptable
to
antilocution,
about
minorities
neighbouring
it
subsequent
ways.
harmlessly
particular
harmless,
where
and
different
relatively
ourselves
seems
atmosphere
outgroups
in
behaviour
can
neighbouring
Although
an
of
themselves
country
and
or
other
groups.
can
be
hurtful
and
to
ridicule
the
it
create
outgroup.
Newspapers in New York repor t on Egyptian
The
prejudiced
behaviour
can
further
manifest
itself
through
avoidance
President Hosni Mubarak leaving oce
(“I
never
go
to
that
part
of
town
as
rst
three
stages
it
is
entirely
inhabited
by
that
group’
’)
following the 2011 revolution
or
discrimination.
structural
physical
step
it
violence
attack
from
can
a
lead
previous
door”
if
comes
it
the
end
to
more
the
out
up
famous
the
to
of
of
not
did
experimenters
shock
on
the
blue,
that
From
behaviour,
if
on
too
the
so
may
we’re
model
we
the
went
can
bigger
the
as
to
likely
see
like
a
outrageous
into
were
“in
a
as
the
the
“foot
in
request
this
we
in
inict
of
science”.
hypothetically
away
chance
to
to
name
Every
previous
none
big
system
asked
the
stages:
unaddressed
demonstrated
far
that
the
two
so-called
person.
straight
of
compared
drawn
the
nal
and
This
an
forms
seems
and
subjects
another
quite
it
severe.
Milgram
compared
is
indeed
participant
on
for
unchecked
refuse
which
subjects
it
considered
gradually
request.
in
be
behaviour,
participants
perhaps
the
we
shock
bad
is
seem
another
many
Allport’s
in
but
same
participant,
prejudiced
suffering
not
how
electric
asked
continued.
further
prejudice
experiment
shocks
seem
other
does
explains
lethal
had
Though
extreme
more
one
can
foundations
and
experiment
a
the
if
Milgram
rigged
lay
extermination.
the
severe
could
genocide,
fullling
administering
voltage
and
next
principle
increasingly
In
and
joke
act
the
may
The
of
to
If
the
perform
them
sooner
we
increase
level.
we
have
a
would
to
lethal
have
address
prevent
future.
177
4
PE ACE
AND
C ON F LIC T
Prejudiced behaviour can manifest itself in increasingly severe ways:
TOK
The Milgram Experiment
Antilocution
Hostile talking, including jokes
Avoidance
Keeping a distance, but without actively inicting harm
Discrimination
Active exclusion from rights
Physical attack
Violence against the person
Ex termination
Indiscriminate violence against the entire group
Watch the BBC’s replica of
the Milgram experiment:
https://www.youtube.com/
watch?v=BcvSNg0HZwk
1
What makes a number of
these people provide lethal
shocks to another human
The
violent
manifestations
of
conict
we
are
often
confronted
with
being?
on
the
dene
4.2),
news
are
wars
terrorism
and
conventional
and
it
is
acts
of
often
warfare
terrorism.
used
and
to
Though
smear
terrorism
are
the
it
is
other
rather
difcult
party
different
to
(see
in
a
Class discussion
variety
of
ways,
from
actions
to
clothing
the
use
of
weaponry
and
the
legality
of
the
Find a real-life example for each
(see
table
below).
Guerrilla
warfare
seems
to
share
type of “behavioural prejudice”
characteristics
with
conventional
warfare,
as
guerrillas
usually
seek
mentioned in the table on the
recognition
as
an
“ofcial
army”.
However,
they
often
also
employ
right.
similar
tactics
guerrillas
in
Unit size in battle
Weapons
Tactics
Targets
Intended impact
size
of
as
terrorists,
generally
violent
aim
to
non-state
and
governments
label
these
actors
and
groups
their
who
are
targeted
“terrorists”.
control
of
The
large
by
increase
territories
Conventional war
Guerrilla
Terrorism
Large (armies, corps,
Medium (platoons,
Small (usually less than 10 persons)
division)
companies, battalions)
Full range of military
Mostly infantry-type light
Hand guns, hand grenades, assault
hardware (air force, armour,
weapons but sometimes
ries, and specialized weapons, e.g. car
ar tillery, etc.)
ar tillery pieces as well
bombs, barometric pressure bombs
Usually joint operation
Commando-type tactics
Specialized tactics; kidnapping,
involving several military
assassinations, car-bombing,
branches
hijacking, barricade, hostages etc.
Mostly military units,
Mostly military, police, and
State symbols, political opponents,
industrial and transpor tation
administration sta, as
and the public at large
infrastructure
well as political opponents
Physical destruction
Mainly physical attrition of
Psychological coercion
enemy
Control of territory
Yes
Yes
No
Uniform
Wear uniform
Often wear uniform
Do not wear uniform
Recognition of
War limited to recognized
War limited to the country
No recognized war zones, operations
war zones
geographical zones
in strife
carried out worldwide
International
Yes, if conducted by rules
Yes, if conducted by rules
No
Yes
No
No
legality
Domestic legality
General Characteristics of War, Guerrilla and Terrorism. Based on Ariel Merari, from Belfer Center for Science and International Aairs
paper series, “Harvard University Twenty-rst Century Terrorism: The Denitional Problem of Complex Political Environments” Marcial
Garcia Suarez, January 2008
178
4 . 4 :
sometimes
Shabaab
they
make
on
have
opponent
the
the
it
difcult
following
right
with
to
more
use
often
monopoly
violence.
denition
terrorism
a
of
below).
Some
governmental
mentioning
from
The
the
pamphlets
provide
or
not.
justify
used
Violent
use
or
not
left
other
is
the
in
him
range
non-violent
their
his
of
may
or
any
protest
is
A
refer
they
as
a
contest
claim
stronger
the
agreeing
These
state’s
upon
characteristics
terror
on
an
he
was
seems
attack
island
by
for
a
to
the
not
self-
violent
their
a
of
vital
on
seeking
between
attention
C O N F L I C T
Al-
support.
element
camp
seeking
ghting
in
some
the
about
generally
nancial
commonality
and
for
to
non-violent
their
decision
religious
may
claim
often
Cuban
the
or
they
and
cause
The
use
should
Fidel
be
used
ideological
texts
able
his
by
texts
often
violence
Castro
because
arguments
or
protestors
to
ideological
state.
Revolution
religious
more
with
youth
violent
choice.
similar
and
often
difculty
anymore,
are
opponents,
other
from
and
study
groups
O F
public.
they
successful
are
publicity
dealt
a
case
identied
explanations
violence,
to
both
general
manifestos
or
and
the
the
name
things.
that
they
state
of
have
Oslo
protestors
of
methods
violence
protestors
that
and
justications
the
similar
had
among
the
Schmidt
perpetrator’s
protestor
media
against
Particularly
in
as
(see
protest
weaponry
Regardless
A.P
.
them
Violent
violence
Norwegians
district
the
glorication,
non-violent
ght
terrorism,
(see
terrorist.
label
resources,
organizations
on
to
page).
E V O L U T I O N
that
to
use
argued
he
opponent
non-violent
to
the
argument
effective.
Key characteristic elements of terrorism
1
The demonstrative use of violence against human beings
2
The (conditional) threat of (more) violence
3
The deliberate production of fear in a target group
4
The targeting of civilians, non-combatants and innocents
5
The purpose of intimidation, coercion and propaganda
6
The fact that it is a method, tactic or strategy of conict waging
7
The impor tance of communicating the act(s) of violence to larger audiences
8
The illegal, criminal and immoral nature of the act(s) of violence
9
The predominantly political character of the act
10
Its use as a tool of psychological warfare to mobilize or immobilize sectors of
the public
Which characteristics are highly debatable and dicult to apply? Look up a recent
act of violence that was labelled “terrorism”. Do all the characteristics apply to that
case?
Schmidt, AP
. 2004. “ Terrorism, the denitional problem”.
Case Western Reserve Journal of International Law.
Vol 36, pp. 375–419.
179
4
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AND
C ON F LIC T
Crisis group repor t on Al-Shabaab’s terrorist actions in Kenya
Kenya: Al-Shabaab – Closer to Home Nairobi/Brussels
25 Sep 2014
In its latest brieng, “Kenya: Al-Shabaab – Closer to Home”, the International
Crisis Group highlights Al-Shabaab’s growing presence and increasingly frequent
attacks and the muddled response of Kenya’s government, security services and
political elite. Anti-terrorism operations perceived to target entire communities
have exacerbated feelings of marginalization and persecution, par ticularly of
the Muslim minority, and are feeding directly into Al-Shabaab’s messaging and
recruitment.
The brieng’s major ndings and recommendations are:
–
The wider danger of Al-Shabaab’s tactics in Kenya lies in its ability to use
existing religious and ethnic fault lines to deepen the country’s political and
social divides.
–
Kenyan political elites need to acknowledge the domestic terror threat
and form a common action plan together with the country’s senior Muslim
leadership to counter extremist recruitment.
–
The government should put into practice the recommendations of the 2008
Special Action (“Sharawe”) Committee set up to address the concerns of the
Muslim minority: these include measures to end institutional discrimination
against Muslims and their more propor tional representation in senior public
service appointments.
–
The government and its security services need to identify and isolate
the specic Al-Shabaab threat and not conate the actions of extremists
with specic communities – especially in the nor th east and the coast –
whose past and present grievances make them suspect in the eyes of the
state. It must reappraise its anti-terrorism practices and operations, that
are perceived as collective punishment of Muslims and par ticular ethnic
groups. It should also allow for transparent investigations and redress where
operations have exceeded the law or breached constitutional rights.
“Kenya’s 4.3 million Muslims have been historically marginalised, especially in
the nor th east and along the coast”, says Cedric Barnes, Horn of Africa Project
Director. “If the government wants to cut grassroots suppor t for Al-Shabaab, it has
to address the widespread institutional and socio-economic discrimination felt by
Kenyan Muslims”.
“ The blame for growing radicalisation in Kenya lies less in the weaknesses of the
country’s institutions than in the unwillingness of political leaders to put aside
par tisan divisions,” says EJ Hogendoorn, Deputy Africa Program Director. “ Their
playing politics with terrorism compounds an already volatile situation.”
1
Research the size, inuence and control of territory of Al-Shabaab. Apply the
general characteristics of war, guerrilla and terrorism to the organization. To
what extent can they be considered a terrorist organization?
180
4 . 4 :
E V O L U T I O N
O F
C O N F L I C T
Misconceptions about nonviolent conict
1
It is widely believed that violence always works quickly, and nonviolent
struggle always takes very long. Both of these beliefs are false.
2
Nonviolent struggle is often believed to be weak , but in fact it can be very
powerful. It can paralyse and even disintegrate a repressive regime.
3
Nonviolent struggle does not need a charismatic leader.
4
Nonviolent struggle is a cross-cultural phenomenon.
5
Nonviolent struggle does not require any religious beliefs (cer tainly no
specic religious beliefs), although at times it has been practised with
religious motives.
6
Nonviolent struggle is not the same as religious or ethical, principled
nonviolence, but a very dierent phenomenon. This distinction must be made
clear and not downplayed.
7
Although it is still widely believed that this technique can succeed only
against humanitarian and democratic opponents, it has at times been
successful against brutal regimes and dictatorships, including Nazi and
Communist ones.
8
It is said by some people and groups that nonviolent struggle only succeeds
by melting the hear ts of the oppressors. However, it has been coercive and
even destroyed extreme dictatorships.
Sharp, Gene. 2003. There Are Realistic Alternatives.
Boston, Massachusetts. The Alber t Institution.
The stategic logic of nonviolent protest
1
It enhances domestic and international legitimacy which increases pressure
on the target.
2
Regime violence against nonviolent movements is more likely to backre
against it.
a)
It can result in the breakdown of obedience among regime suppor ters
[and] mobilization of the population against the regime
b)
and can lead to international condemnation of the regime, leading to
sanctions or aid for the nonviolent campaign.
3
Nonviolent resistance campaigns appear to be more open to negotiation and
bargaining because they do not threaten the lives or well-being of members
of the target regime.
a)
The public views nonviolent campaigns as physically nonthreatening and
violent campaigns as threatening.
b)
When violent insurgents threaten the lives of regime members and
security forces, they greatly reduce the possibility of loyalty shifts.
Stephan, Maria J and Chenoweth, E. 2008.
“ Why civil resistance works. The strategic logic of nonviolent conict”.
International Security. Vol 33, pp. 7–44.
181
4
PE ACE
AND
C ON F LIC T
The
effectiveness
of
protest
was
researched
by
Stephan
and
Chenoweth
L TA
Research and self(2008)
who
found
that
violent
campaigns.
non-violent
campaigns
are
twice
as
successful
as
management skills
Listen to Fidel Castro
only
used
in his own words here:
more
https://www.youtube.com/
many
watch?v=67ZWBl-66H8
and
successful,
the
to
be
cause
against
support
protest
a
of
the
(see
to
the
not
paying
regime.
The
regime’s
to
the
or
Milivojevic
student
and
in
is
In
the
student
protestors
As
analysis
has
on
“the
laid
the
has
had
a
terrorist
led
many
can
be
Apartheid
United
and
to
Mandela
society
is
a
normally
therefore
this
is
one
above).
of
the
non-violent
attention
it
can
uses
supporters
least
be
Stephan
consider
draw
violence
of
the
withdrawing
success
can
of
their
non-violent
(see
15 1
of
for
case
on
a nd
hi m
for
a
So uth
r e mind s
have
As
against
trained
including
following
page
the
for
support).
c al l s
G an d hi ,
M a n de la
and
no n -vio le n t
r e si s t an c e
by
U ni t ed
st r u g gl e
S t at e s
of
t he
t e r ro ri st ,
Af ri c a ’s
ra the r
Afri c a
the
bu i ldi n g
was
s t r ug g l es
br a n de d
win g
ha s
in di s pu t a bl y
he
t ra n s it i on
abo ut
de ath s
a
tak in g
e qu a li t y
si m i la r
mi li t ar y
but
de p re s se d
r a c ia l
( A N C)
n on -vi ol en t
a ft er
t ha t
f or
a nd
Con g r es s
l ea d e rs h ip
us
22).
G an d hi
the
is
education
protests
campaign,
the
the
Ce r ta in ly
Na tion a l
fo rme r
to
to
which
Popovic,
(gure
they
general
upon
struggle,
through
r e si sta n c e ” .
Ki n g ’s
S outh
R oy
Roy
the
support
businesses
on
of
can
obedience
example,
elements
then
study
and
hi s
(for
pillars
nances,
they
people’s
non-violent
pillars
pr es e nt-d ay
which
convincing
from
since
with
and
(implicit)
the
these
Ar undha ti
Afri ca n
by
their
non-violent
no n-v io le n t
i m pa ct
thi s
and
the
in
support
are
the
regime’s
Emp ir e ,
a nd
in
a
forces
non-violent
visualized
organize
opponent
removing
range
for
involved
Egypt
cred i te d
consta nt
is
superiority
These
an
ways
nancial
Yugoslavia
b r a nd
and
their
have
to
page
Indi a
nd
element
handbook
dem o cr a cy.
States,
to
support”
organiza ti o n
largely
of
at
the
with
of
Bri ti s h
still
in
or
is
opponent
weaponry,
“pillars
Mand e l a ’s
to
of
withdraw
pr i e s ts
profound
faced
terms
key
Egyptian
foundations
mighty
role
to
were
in
the
The
likelihood
forces
how
on
high
worldwide.
a
of
mentioned
King
in
often
in
The
former
groups
the
large
they
the
protestors,
expected
based.
they
a
why
(see
protestor.
when
may
(2003)
protest
reasons
the
and
numerical
their
various
their
is
Djinovic
leaders
Milosevic
and
so-called
power
is
weaken
security
military.
of
for
especially
play
power
power.
taxes)
Sharp
and
protest
page).
protestor
to
non-violent
regimes
Gene
non-violent
protestor
opponent,
weak
to
choice
protestors
the
that
non-violent
number
opponent,
that
or
protestor,
superior
population
a
the
non-violent
undermine
a
previous
non-violent
about
logical
joining
potentially
a
of
argue
according
give
the
non-violent
opponent
As
but
Chenoweth
may
democratic
misconceptions
protest
to
against
One
the
of
f at e
K in g ,
p os it i ve l y
fr om
of
the
Gan d hi
pe a c e fu l
s tr ug gl e .
L TA
Thinking skills
Non-violent protest and the pillars of suppor t
1
Identify an authoritarian regime. What are its “pillars of suppor t” and how do
they suppor t the regime?
2
How could a non-violent protest group win those pillars over to remove their
suppor t to the regime?
182
4 . 4 :
E V O L U T I O N
O F
C O N F L I C T
Analysis of some of Egyptian President Sisi’s pillars of suppor t by the Centre for Applied Non-Violent
Action and Strategies (CANVAS)
1
Security forces: The Military The military has taken
this judiciary is very powerful and entirely inherited
on too big a social role in Egyptian society, and the
from the Mubarak regime. They cer tainly seem
administration of Sisi seems to be a continuation of
aligned with Sisi at the moment, but as was already
that anti-democratic trend. There have almost always
mentioned, they have created massive international
been military leaders at the head of the Egyptian
problems for him by their violation of international
state, and they enjoy a fair amount of independence
human rights standards, par ticularly with the jailing
from the executive, and often enjoy respect from the
of foreign journalists. They also enjoy signicant
populace. They were aligned with [former president]
oversight of the election process. Ultimately, the
Mubarak until they saw the tides shift in society and
judiciary seems to be in a cooperative tension with
decided to back the revolution instead. Most consider
Sisi, and the future is uncer tain.
that the military launched the Tamarod movement that
4
Media The media in Egypt is a major regional player
ousted [former president] Morsi, and the coup was a
and has many prominent newspapers and television
time of national rallying around the military. Many of
stations. Television is the most popular news source,
the protestors chanted, “ The military and the people
with 2 state-run channels, 6 regional channels, and
are one hand.” Fur ther, many have considered Sisi’s
20 new independent channels. The 2011 revolution
presidency to be restoring military order in a way that
also spurred many Egyptians to go online, and as of
will save Egyptian society from insecurity and unrest.
2012 there were nearly 30 million Egyptians using
As previously mentioned, the military in Egypt is
Internet access, and 14 million using Facebook . Both
deeply tied into the economy. Much of the country’s
Facebook and Twitter are being used by prominent
infrastructural and economic projects are managed
political forces in society to garner suppor t as social
by the military, including hospitals, factories, clubs,
network use rises. During the Mubarak era, media
construction, and real estate. Therefore, similar to the
was primarily state-run and suppor tive of the regime,
police, the main way that the military might become
but since the 2011 revolution there has been a
estranged from Sisi is if his economic reforms are
resurgence of independent media sources that now
signicant enough to really hur t them economically.
compete with state-run media. Most independent
2
Economic Elites Since the Egyptian economy has
sources are strongly ideologically tilted towards
become increasingly crippled by the instability
either the secularist liberal agenda, or the Islamist
following the 2011 revolution, the country is struggling
agenda. While Sisi has control of the state-run
to gain and keep investments. The economic elites
media, Pandora’s Box seems to have opened and
are a diverse group, and at least par tly tied in with
the profusion of news sources and Internet users
the military and corrupt bureaucracy. They seem to
does not seem to be getting any smaller. Sisi’s
suppor t Sisi in terms of the stability he promises but,
jailing of prominent journalists that try to cover
similar to the military, the suppor t might wane if his
the suppression of the Muslim Brotherhood has
economic reforms cut too deep into their agenda. It
had a dampening eect, but it has not stopped the
is possible, however, that the economic reforms he
resurgence of independent media. He may need to
makes will mainly aect the poorest in society and
cour t the liberal secular independent media if he is to
will not turn the elites against him.
maintain or grow popular suppor t. Therefore, it may
be that the media is one place that can put signicant
3
Judiciary The judiciary in Egypt enjoys a surprising
pressure on him to suppor t some of the most critical
amount of independence from other branches of
and impor tant reforms needed in this next phase of
government, and they can be seen exer ting this power
building up Egyptian society.
now. Most judges were appointed by Mubarak , and
remain loyal to the undemocratic vision of stability
See the full 30-page repor t here: http://www.canvasopedia.
through repression that his rule represents. There
org/images/books/analysis/Egypt_Analysis_2014_11_
seems to be no clear plan for dealing with the fact that
anex3.pdf?pdf=Analysis-Egypt
183
4
PE ACE
AND
C ON F LIC T
The
dynamic
parties’
TOK
nature
oversimplify
on
key
of
motivations,
a
conict
actions
conict,
elements.
offer
Galtung’s
makes
and
it
difcult
impact.
support
conict
by
to
Various
allowing
triangle
fully
understand
models,
the
which
analyst
separates
to
attitude
may
focus
and
What role do models play in the
behaviour
from
each
other
and
explains
how
they
inuence
each
human sciences? Is this similar
other
and
the
actual
conict,
or
contradiction,
between
the
parties.
The
or dierent to the role they play
Positions–Interests–Needs
model
separates
what
we
say
from
what
we
in other areas of knowledge?
want
and
deeper
the
from
and
conict
conict
third
cycle
nds
party
Galtung
what
unearth
separates
from
display
towards
other
in
To
actions
that
altogether
the
be
and
the
with
of
draw
of
have
of
that
a
the
other
into
oneself.
nature
In
of
its
this
take
conict
of
analyst
conict
the
party.
phase
response
one
will
to
in
could
must
it
to
dig
Lastly,
which
be
the
from
a
core
and
and
conict
If
(see
each
diagram
through
various
versa)
and
a
like
it
to
that
the
change
the
lack
of
is
open
met
groups
This
for
goals
remain
demonstration
apparent
have
demonstrating
behaviour.
triangle
they
incompatibility
attitudes
may
the
between
inuence
vice
starts
would
subsequent
groups
(and
original
the
can
spiral”
group
closed.
inuence
the
a
the
goals
backtrack
attitudes
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of
behaviour
elements
authorities
see
their
protest
its
by
plant,
to
the
escalating
conict.
like
and
three
ever
national
other
and
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power
simplicity
conict
a
each
incompatibility
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core
or
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or
conict,
therefore
from
of
appropriate
inuenced
would
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all
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the
local
and
attention
goals
calls
nuclear
protestors
allowing
identication
the
parties
other.
been
changed
the
conict,
attitudes
each
need,
necessities
party.
Galtung
violence,
each
the
for
what
understand
closure
may
the
what
below).
and
conict
parties,
really
basic
allows
itself
or
we
the
could
hold
then
incompatibility
of
visualizes
ways
the
to
express
dynamic
components.
The
conflict
triangle
TOK
C(onflict)
How might we decide if one
model, theory or explanation is
more useful or convincing that
another?
The conict triangle. Theories of conict: Denitions, Dimensions, Negations, Formations
by Professor Johan Galtung, 1958
The
Positions–Interests–Needs
compared
see
the
tip
conicts,
to
be
need
for
an
it,
this
has
most
mainly
see
hidden.
in
its
been
of
it
is
the
hiding
of
reasoning
may
relations
to
(see
faced
position
Russia
argument
Russian
model
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the
However,
often
the
iceberg.
and
Russians
using
arguably
184
we
is
ethnic
only
of
pursuing.
interest,
of
with
undermined
its
is
by
an
below
a
or
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it
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actions.
need
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this
but
claim,
developments
or
the
perhaps
Maybe
for
only
level.
defending
Ukraine,
the
is
iceberg
sea
party,
claim
with
justify
government
below)
with
the
as
the
rights
it
is
deeper
security,
such
in
claim
which
the
Baltic
4 . 4 :
States
becoming
support
the
for
Syrian
Russian
draw
to
an
–
European
opposition.
line.
The
“shared
they
by
should
parties
are
Russia
and
relates
to
are
Ukraine
pro-Russian
need
for
neither
in
full
Russia
fully
and
personal
members,
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with
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–
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may
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and
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an
be
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as
Ukraine’s
to
but
model
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concerns.
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identity
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just
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conict.
argue
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both
security
domination
is
of
the
another
maybe
or
well
lies
to
to
used
be
Crimea
both
needs
parts
to
often
the
Ukraine’s
As
C O N F L I C T
pro-
seems
that
the
it
also
deeper
organizations
applies
seen
the
then
is
in
the
felt
what
Western,
answer
Western
if
issue:
also
security
of
claims
resolve
important
pro-Western,
to
model
overcome
incompatible
able
(simplied)
ousting
O F
European
support
government
However,
Russian,
global
or
seem
ownership.
safety
conicts,
needs”
Russia’s
Positions–Interests–Needs
or
that
the
2014
from
and
Ukraine.
be
NATO
and
Positions–Interests–Needs
addressed,
mentioned,
may
conict.
safety
and
Kosovo
president,
Russia
have
its
It
interests
unresolvable
annexed
Union
independent
Ukrainian
the
nd
an
E V O L U T I O N
and,
as
Ukraine
important
in
Ukraine
Russia.
global
The
as
to
local
below.
Person
B
Positions
Shared
interests
and
Interests
values
Needs
Shared
needs
and
fears
Positions, interests and needs. Floyer, 1995
The
conict
through
cycle
identication
and
then
may
of
be
occur.
of
change.
aspect:
a
and
perhaps
the
school
the
parties
counsellor
may
–
may
parties
clarity
also
are
you
them
teachers
the
conict
the
in
are
some
straight
a
ghting,
sit
stuck
a
need
you
them
principal
complex
to
can
in
the
rst
act
then
the
as
If
to
to
talk
two
the
but
they
the
violent
social
change
an
cycle
outright
phase
but
to
social
important
separate
them
(peacemaking)
pupils
peacekeepers
with
conict
turn
vicious
violent
mentioned
conicts,
can
through
have
down
start
As
and
of
From
well-known,
(peacebuilding).
rst
conict
conicts
from
dynamics
through.
negotiations,
peacebuilding.
in
the
go
goals,
visualizes
can
of
can
of
however,
and
move
cycle
before
before
with
provide
conicts,
reconcile
yard,
a
through
violence
it
visualization
incompatibility
conict
conict
a
phases
transformed
(peacekeeping),
and
the
party
The
if
of
the
Many
formation
victory
provides
showing
are
–
ghting
peacemaking
before,
should
in
separating
and
conict
be
used
the
models
with
caution.
185
4
PE ACE
AND
C ON F LIC T
Third-par ty involvement in conict, including
humanitarian inter vention
Third
parties
violent
and
party
into
force.
The
can
way
conict
in
on
the
conict
ways
of
their
which
own
(see
act
the
as
Depending
arbiter
the
and
many
on
gets
they
judge,
and
power
of
negotiator,
a
the
power
third
case
to
consultant
a
third
conict
or
with
often
they
six
have
common
non-
party,
the
both
turn
conict
pacic
the
their
in
identied
consider
submit
in
the
have
ways,
arguably
engage
involved
conict
the
to
different
could
actively
Keashly
that
parties
or
they
party
in
Fisher
conict
an
as
third
in
interventions
intervention
below).
of
a
interest
parties.
third-party
can
conicts
party,
over
they
in
core
a
willingness
involved
Violent
depends
violent
be
non-violent.
and
third
and
so
the
party,
forth.
Typology of pacic third-par ty inter ventions
1
Conciliation, in which a trusted third-par ty provides an informal
communicative link between the antagonists for the purposes of identifying
the issues, lowering tension and encouraging direct interaction, usually in the
form of negotiation.
2
Consultation, in which the third-party works to facilitate creative problem-solving
through communication and analysis, making use of human relations skills
and social-scientic understanding of conict etiology [that is, causes] and
dynamics.
3
Pure Mediation, in which the third-par ty works to facilitate a negotiated
settlement on substantive issues through the use of reasoning, persuasion,
eective control of information, and the suggestion of alternatives.
4
Power Mediation, which encompasses pure mediation but also moves
beyond it to include the use of leverage or coercion on the par t of the
mediator in the form of promised rewards or threatened punishments, and
may also involve the third-par ty as monitor and guarantor of the agreement.
5
Arbitration, wherein the third-par ty renders a binding judgment arrived at
through consideration of the individual merits of the opposing positions and
then imposes a settlement which is deemed to be fair and just.
6
Peacekeeping, in which the third-par ty provides military personnel in order
to monitor a ceasere or an agreement between antagonists, and may also
engage in humanitarian activities designed to restore normalcy in concer t
with civilian personnel, who may also assist in the management of political
decision-making processes such as elections.
Ronald J. Fisher, “Methods of Third-Par ty Intervention” from Berghof Handbook
for Conict Transformation, 2011, Berghof Research Centre for Constructive
Conict Management www.berghof-foundation.org/handbook .
As
discussed
previously
military
intervention.
it
article
under
and
security”
intervention”
The
so-called
forego
from
186
the
42
are
has
of
there
The
the
under
UN
undermined
genocide,
to
full
war
only
The
the
to
limited
but
realist
ethnic
if
number
Security
only
gradual
Protect
sovereignty
crimes,
a
Nations
Charter,
threat.
“Responsibility
right
are
United
if
principle
“fail
cleansing
to
and
justications
may
“international
emergence
doctrine”
they
of
Council
of
or
of
R2P
,
crimes
peace
“humanitarian
state
protect
for
sanction
sovereignty.
argues
their
that
states
populations
against
humanity”
4 . 4 :
(see
below).
their
the
With
citizens
–
international
Médecins
so
from
Sans
many
Sudan
examples
of
states
to
it
seems
Syria
community
Frontières
to
–
support
openly
this
arguing
indeed
failing
like
obvious
an
development.
against
it,
there
to
E V O L U T I O N
O F
C O N F L I C T
protect
choice
But
for
with
must
be
even
more
to
it.
United Nations 2005 World Summit: Responsibility to protect
populations from genocide, war crimes, ethnic cleansing and crimes
against humanity
1
Each individual State has the responsibility to protect its populations from
genocide, war crimes, ethnic cleansing and crimes against humanity.
This responsibility entails the prevention of such crimes, including
their incitement, through appropriate and necessary means. We accept
that responsibility and will act in accordance with it. The international
community should, as appropriate, encourage and help States to exercise
this responsibility and suppor t the United Nations in establishing an early
warning capability.
2
The international community, through the United Nations, also has the
responsibility to use appropriate diplomatic, humanitarian and other peaceful
means, in accordance with Chapters VI and VIII of the Char ter, to help protect
populations from genocide, war crimes, ethnic cleansing and crimes against
humanity. In this context, we are prepared to take collective action, in a timely
and decisive manner, through the Security Council, in accordance with the
Char ter, including Chapter VII, on a case-by-case basis and in cooperation with
relevant regional organizations as appropriate, should peaceful means be
inadequate and national authorities manifestly fail to protect their populations
from genocide, war crimes, ethnic cleansing and crimes against humanity...
United Nations, “2005 World Summit Outcome”
Successive
favour
Moon
of
Secretary-Generals
humanitarian
referred
Boutros-Ghali
Wheeler
to
in
(2011)
the
work
laying
have
from
the
intervention.
of
the
his
United
Current
predecessors
foundations
identied
some
for
of
Nations
Ko
the
the
have
argued
Secretary-General
Annan
doctrine.
arguments
and
Ki-
Boutros
Bellamy
for
in
Ban
and
and
against
42
humanitarian
of
intervention.
intervention
whatever
is
has
from
genocide
basic
human
The
to
United
which
“the
moral
happening
community
obligation
is
the
and
in
is
parts
to
put
the
The
forward
to
“highlight[s]
provide
some
justication
there
are
The
several
be
in
counter-arguments:
interpreted
work
and
2011
Gadda
formed
opponents
that
was
in
the
the
basis
of
for
that
basis
based
targeted
the
of
different
legal
largely
actively
reservations
many
the
is
on
his
for
R2P
can
ways,
own
The
citizens
intervention,
R2P
it
“protect
we
moral
have
a
of
human
a
military
and
could
legal
abused,
a
be
be
basis
one.
rights”,
considered
for
have
used
argued
Libya’s
in
Libya
leader
Council
that
can
doesn’t
intervention
though
future
provided
selectively,
intervention
Security
be
apply
legal
Council-sanctioned
what
intervention
and
civilians
“common
importance
could
also
not
the
of
of
of
military
principles,
aware
international
argument
Security
be
it
us
favour
is
provide
that
make
the
in
forward
cases
would
lacking.
of
how
put
humanitarian
R2P
opponents
the
historical
which
can
and
should
explain
Second,
interventions.
why
argument
would
intervention,
media
world
arguments
universalist
intervention.
humanitarian
obvious
the
intervene,
Another
Charter
the
If
of
killings”?
others.
Nations
of
case”.
all
means
mass
rights”
help
One
resolution
many
of
the
here.
187
4.5
Conict resolution and post-conict transformation
With
ever
violence
expanding
and
peace,
interpretation
Perhaps
“let’s
to
a
at
again
is
but,
often
before
treaty
has
together,
point
hands”
conict,
the
still
a
conict”
saw
that
peace
the
changed.
treaty”
anything,
we
have
learned
from
and
over
the
element
but
may
signature
conict
a
under
bringing
in
the
is
that
are
the
the
process
the
or
closure
even
or
increasingly
transformation
the
“the
has
as
of
in
conict,
that
past”
vital
resolution,
reconciling
we
“it’s
of
surprising
Peacemaking,
a
is
a
not
the
ink
conict
made
or
if
far
dried.
is
is
“resolving
some
shake
conict
of
interpretations
it
up
peace
parties
towards
argument
needed
by
fully
parties.
World leaders meet in Belarus to discuss a
Peacemaking , including negotiations
ceasere in Ukraine
and treaties
As
discussed
ways,
often
from
change
(a
neutral
to
reach
ideal
the
previously,
during
place
an
it
to
is
this
Based
and
it
on
his
on
done
role
start
into
argues
dependent
be
The
may
evolve
Berridge
is
can
arbitration.
process:
meet)
as
in.
to
the
agreement.
mediator”
stage
peacemaking
consultation
of
with
active
that
the
experience,
it
in
many
the
different
peacemaker
offering
“good
suggestions
is
difcult
nature
of
however,
the
he
or
to
pressure
identify
conict
has
can
ofces”
“the
and
identied
Mediation
some
The ideal mediator
mediator
or
1
characteristics
seen
may
as
be
that
closer
impartial
on
generally
to
one
the
benet
party
than
particular
a
mediator
the
other,
conict.
A
(see
but
left).
is
This
ideally
powerless
ideal
impartial
mediator
may
should be perceived as
work
in
certain
cases,
but
often
it
is
an
advantage
when
the
mediator
can
impar tial on the specic
offer
pressure
when
needed.
As
negotiations
can
take
a
long
time,
it
is
issues dividing the par ties
important
for
a
mediator
to
be
able
to
commit
sufcient
energy
and
time
to
to a conict
the
2
conict.
In
1978,
US
President
Jimmy
Carter
devoted
13
days
in
a
row
should have inuence, if
to
the
negotiations
between
the
Egyptians
and
Israelis,
and
even
though
not more eective power,
this
may
seem
like
a
minor
commitment,
it
was
far
from
it,
considering
relative to [the conict
that
he
also
had
to
deal
with
other
pressing
national
and
international
par ties]
issues.
3
should possess the ability
to devote sustained
attention to the dispute
4
should have a strong
incentive to reach a
durable agreement
However,
Egypt
and
as
situation
the
attention”
Israel
to
Palestinians.
over
it
is
many
in
the
soon
Iran
and
vaguely
years.
As
the
as
the
reached,
Berridge
important
Harvard
as
was
therefore
formulated
argues
the
Project
has
focus
he
did
parts
mediator
negotiations
mediator
Negotiation
Egyptian–Israeli
Carter’s
a
tend
to
strong
offers
a
Peace
was
not
of
on
“devote
the
treaty
should
be
“lengthy,
of
issues
the
concerned
be
trying
to
stay
additional
between
such
sustained
that
generally
motivation
number
Agreement
other
the
available
and
costly”
involved.
The
suggestions
to
Berridge, GR. 2005.
the
“ideal
mediator”,
which
include
underlying
interests”
the
all-important
creative
approach,
Diplomacy Theory and Practice,
“focus
on
Needs
model
and
needs
(as
in
the
Positions–Interests–
pp.204–206.
188
–
see
page
185),
and
the
art
of
listening
rather
than
talking.
4 . 5 :
C O N F L I C T
R E S O L U T I O N
A N D
P O S T- C O N F L I C T
T R A N S F O R M A T I O N
Some principles of “Interest based negotiation’’
1
Separate the people from the problem and try to build
4
Avoid zero-sum traps [mutually exclusive goals] by
good working relationships
2
brainstorming and exploring creative options
Facilitate communication and build trust by listening to
5
Anticipate possible obstacles and work out how to
each other rather than by telling each other what to do
3
For
on
Focus on underlying interests and core concerns, not
Ramsbotham, Oliver. 2010. Transforming Violent
demands and supercial positions
Conict, Radical Disagreement, Dialogue and Survival.
an
outsider
during
magazine
about
of
Der
not
Spiegel
Minsk
between
subsequent
two
is
involved
the
relations
it
negotiations.
individuals
with
overcome them
treaties
Peacebuilding
Even
the
to
an
and
address
fully
never
their
and
complete.
in
there’s
to
Ukraine
no
has
of
German
into
and
approach
what
interviews
The
insight
Ukraine,
conict
II)
understand
memoirs
interesting
and
ongoing
I
is
to
the
regarding
parties
(Minsk
aims
picture
treaty
and
easy
with
provides
II
the
events
always
the
stakes,
the
conict.
guarantee
it
for
those
news
coming
the
make
gone
personal
The
clear
that
lasting
peace.
that.
The Minsk negotiations and Minsk II Treaty
The War Nex t Door: Can Merkel’s Diplomacy Save Europe?
By SPIEGEL Sta, 14 February 2015
[German] Chancellor Angela Merkel has often been
accused of hesitancy. But in Minsk this week , she
committed herself to helping nd a way to quiet the
weapons in Ukraine. The result was a cease-re. But
it is fragile and may ultimately be disadvantageous
for Ukraine… Debaltseve is a small town in eastern
Ukraine, held by 6,000 government troops, or perhaps
8,000. Nobody wants to say for sure. It is the hear t
of an army that can only put 30,000 soldiers into the
eld, a weak hear t. Until Sunday of last week , that
hear t was largely encircled by pro-Russian separatists
Pro-Russian rebel ghters launch ar tillery grad rockets
and the troops could only be supplied by way of
towards Debaltseve, Ukraine
highway M03. Then, Monday came.
Separatist ghters began advancing across snowy
elds towards the village of Lohvynove, a tiny
settlement of 30 houses hugging the M03. The
separatists stormed an army checkpoint and killed a
question marks, one which can only succeed if all
par ties dedicate themselves to adhering to it. Whether
that will be the case is doubtful. The Minsk deal is brief
respite. Nothing more. But it is a success nonetheless.
few ocers. They then dug in —and the heart of the
During the 17 hours in Minsk’s Palace of
Ukrainian army was surrounded…
Independence, there was much at stake. First and
Given the intensity of the situation, Germany and
France together took the initiative and forced the
Wednesday night summit in Minsk , Belarus. The long
night of talks, which extended deep into Thursday
morning, was the apex of eight days of shuttle
diplomacy between Moscow, Kiev, Washington and
Munich. With intense focus during dozens of hours of
telephone conversations and negotiations across the
globe, the German chancellor helped wrest a cease-
re from the belligerents. It is a fragile deal full of
foremost, the focus was on demarcation lines and
local elections, it was on ending the killing in eastern
Ukraine. But there were several larger questions on
the table as well, questions focusing on Russia’s
relationship with Europe and whether it will be
possible to avoid an extended conict with Vladimir
Putin’s Russia. They were questions focusing on
how to deal with an aggressor: Is it wise to make
concessions to Putin? And at what point does
compromise become appeasement?
189
4 . 5 :
C O N F L I C T
R E S O L U T I O N
A N D
P O S T- C O N F L I C T
T R A N S F O R M A T I O N
Once the talks were nished, there was no press
Ukraine’s integrity, have shown her the limits of her
conference held. Just before noon, Merkel, Hollande,
inuence. But the European order is not constructed
Putin and Poroshenko left the Minsk palace. “ We are
in Berlin alone. What was achieved in Minsk has little
hopeful” is all the German chancellor would say of the
to do with Merkel’s power. It has more to do with her
result of the long night of talks…
political skill and her persistence.
It is always good when the weapons go quiet, but Merkel
1
To what extent was Merkel an “ideal mediator ” (see
has achieved little beyond that. Separatist leaders along
p.188) and did she follow the principles of “interest-
with a determined Putin, who knows that the West is not
based negotiations” (p.189)?
prepared to spill the blood of its soldiers to defend
Peacebuilding , including reconciliation and work
of justice institutions
After
peacekeeping
(separating
the
violent
Development trends in restorative and retributive justice
conict
parties)
agreement
between
peacebuilding.
and
still
as
process
a
is.
that
to
and,
forgiveness,
of
society,
parties
This
Susan
antagonism
respect,
and
peacemaking
the
has
conict
often
Opotow
“can
its
move
most
mercy,
mutual
formerly
one-size-fits-all
people
It
can
compassion,
and
conflict”.
blueprint
from
Justice as retributive
Justice as restorative
Justice as punishment
Justice as healing
Justice according to law
Justice according to truth
it
Justice as adversarial
Justice as reconciliatory
Justice as retaliatory
Justice as forgiveness
Justice as condemnation
Justice as merciful
Justice as alienation
Justice as redemptive
Justice as impersonal
Justice as human centered
Justice as blind
Justice as sensitive
Justice as humiliation
Justice as honor
mutual
can
shared
harmony
But
for
comes
reconciliation
foster
a
an
overlooked,
ambitious,
healing,
in
parties)
been
describes
coexistence.
at
(reaching
“[t]here
foster
vision
among
is
no
reconciliation”
43
(2001).
The
societies
to
bring
to
offer
are
the
four
to
of
with
of
a
these.
of
Hawaii
(see
advantages
for
to
are
the
beaten
may
and
their
or
Leone
a
“the
truth
Leone
Truth
and
ways
in
faced
receives
Truth
with
has
to
a
and
and
their
But
“the
been
of
are
ho’o
each
say
as
system
in
done
to
the
his
the
house
Reconciliation
has
in
its
chance
“formally
disadvantages
of
extreme
process”
often
street.
when
a
can
the
reconciliation
how
form
Commissions
they
of
(see
a
ponopono
provide
some
about
done
offered
normalization
the
returns
and
retribution,
harm
Reconciliation
past”.
and
that
happened
have
the
offenders
argues
of
through
practice
counted
has
Truth
justice
questions
they
amnesty
“Restorative justice in transitional Sierra Leone”. Journal of Public
repairing
the
research,
justice
established
or
is
painful
corpses
actual
Restorative and retributive justice. Apori-Nkansah, Lydia. 2011.
Administration and Governance. Vol 1, number 1.
which
Opotow
victims
the
dealt
and
between
what
and
of
Apori-Nkansah
example
of
and
combination
bureaucratization
many
like
Truth
restoration,
page).
in
a
justice,
combination
Lydia
local
silenced
conict,
to
Sierra
a
disadvantages.
the
involved
how
feel
and
One
repeatedly
relative
Sierra
a
and
are
not
many
following
costs
how
a
differences
perpetrators
violence”
victims
the
justice.
acknowledge
at
or
through
through
are
unearth
both
crimes
Commission,
and
There
of
post-conict
the
example,
tribunal
identies
restorative
aim
past,
crimes
revenge,
right).
for
Looking
Reconciliation
or
via,
for
ignore
Commission,
violent
war
(2011)
altogether
amnesty
its
options
perpetrators
Reconciliation
any
basic
they
Lastly,
when
were
people
murderer
opposite
Commission
of
theirs.
and
191
4
PE ACE
AND
C ON F LIC T
encountered
the
forget
from
events
problem
the
that
past,
in
parts
rather
of
than
the
country
address
it
was
customary
to
them.
The Ho’o ponopono approach
A man is asleep in his home. He is awakened by some noises, and he gets
up in time to catch a young boy eeing the home with some stolen money.
The police are called. The young boy is known to the police, obviously a
“delinquent” and as they say: “ Three strikes and you’re out.”
The place is Hawaii. In Polynesian culture there is a tradition combining
reconstruction, reconciliation, and resolution. The ho’o ponopono (setting
straight) is known to others through cultural diusion, for example, to
the owner of the burglarized house. He looks at the boy and thinks of him
spending 20 years in prison. He suggests to the police, “Let me handle this
one.” It transpires that the boy’s sister is ill, and the family is too poor to pay for
medical care. Every dollar counts.
Ho’o ponopono is organized. The man’s family, neighbors, and the young
boy and his family sit around a table: there is a moderator not from the
families and neighbors, but the “wise man/woman.” There are four phases:
facts, sharing responsibility, joint reconciliation, and closure. Each one is
encouraged to sincerely present his or her version: why it happened, how,
and what would be the appropriate reaction. The young boy’s reason is
questioned, but even if the reason is accepted, the method is not. Apologies
are then oered and accepted: forgiveness is demanded and oered.
The young boy has to make up for the violation by doing free garden work for
some time. The rich man and neighbors agree to contribute to the family’s
medical expenses. And in the end the story of the burglary is written up in a
way acceptable to all. That sheet of paper is then burnt — symbolizing the
end to the burglary but not to the aftermath.
TOK
Is this rewarding the burglar? If this restores all par ties, reconciles them, and
How can the emotional
resolves the conict, then what is the harm?
testimonies of victims
Abu-Nimer, Mohammed, ed. 2001. Reconciliation, Justice and Coexistence.
of relatives in Truth and
Theory and Practice. Lanham, p. 18.
Reconciliation Commissions
1
Do you know of any local forms of restorative justice? What would be the
create more knowledge in the
advantages and disadvantages of such systems?
path to discovering the truth
of what happened? Are they
2
Would it also be possible to apply ho’o ponopono to more serious crimes, for
example involving murder? Why (not)?
more or less valid than clinical
evidence, such as DNA?
Some
“it
of
of
can
the
advantages
diminish
violence.
In
addition,
Disadvantages
victors
the
on
the
prosecuted
are
also
denying
from
192
are
a
for
their
and
acts
costly
learning
that
establishing
it
can
that
Tokyo
more
affair
vengeance
could
of
in
be
criminal
avoid
of
the
law”.
justice
be
slow,
well
because
violence,
and
partial,
to
lead
that
cycle
for
as
are
continuing
seen
attributable
event
tribunal
a
respect
criticized
very
acts
the
be
can
properly
and
details
they
trials,
involvement
the
can
a
and
enhance
tribunals
defeated,
Nuremburg
of
individual
rule
of
imposed
narrow,
individuals
governments.
to
many
an
the
like
were
Courts
perpetrators
preventing
receiving
by
and
the
relatives
apology.
4 . 5 :
C O N F L I C T
R E S O L U T I O N
A N D
P O S T- C O N F L I C T
T R A N S F O R M A T I O N
Rethinking Truth and Reconciliation Commissions: Lessons from Sierra Leone
●
●
After an eleven-year civil war that became
Before a truth commission or TRC is initiated in a
internationally notorious for mutilation, sexual
par ticular setting, it is impor tant to establish whether
violence, and the targeting of children, a Truth
such an exercise has popular suppor t—not only
and Reconciliation Commission (TRC) began its
among local NGOs but also among ordinary survivors.
public hearings in April 2003. Increasingly, truth
●
Truth commission repor ts can provide crucial
commissions are regarded as a standard par t of
frameworks for debates about violence and
conict resolution “rst aid kits.”
repression, and can foster the development of
●
Despite pressure from local NGOs and human rights
stable national institutions. Sierra Leone’s Truth and
activists for a TRC, there was little popular suppor t for
Reconciliation Repor t oers this framework . But where
bringing such a commission to Sierra Leone, since
there is no popular suppor t for a truth commission,
most ordinary people preferred a “forgive and forget”
we need to nd alternative ways of producing such
approach…
●
repor ts.
●
In nor thern Sierra Leone, social forgetting is a
●
Where a truth commission or TRC is initiated, it will be
cornerstone of established processes of reintegration
more eective if it builds upon established practices of
and healing for child and adult ex-combatants.
healing and social coexistence. If we discount or ignore
Speaking of the war in public often undermines these
such processes, we may jeopardize any form of social
processes, and many believe it encourages violence.
recovery.
In Sierra Leone’s TRC, however, sensitization materials
Shaw, Rosalind. February 2005. Rethinking Truth and
and commissioners’ speeches promoted the healing
Reconciliation: Commissions from Sierra Leone. United
and reconciliatory powers of verbal remembering,
States Institute for Peace special repor t 130.
often explicitly discounting local understandings of
This is a summary of the repor t. The full repor t is available
healing and reconciliation in terms of social forgetting.
here: http://www.usip.org/sites/default/les/sr130.pdf
●
People in both urban and rural locations were divided
about the TRC, and in several communities people
collectively agreed not to give statements.
The
International
those
Criminal
perpetrators
to
its
founding
of
genocide,
aggression.
destroy,
in
involved
document,
crimes
or
was
in
in
the
against
Genocide
whole
Court
offers
the
most
Rome
part,
a
as
serious
Statute,
humanity,
dened
another
war
“acts
national,
it
option
crimes.
deals
crimes
ethnical,
prosecute
According
with
and
committed
to
the
the
with
racial
or
crime
crime
of
intent
to
religious
44
group”.
not
all
The
powerful
also
International
countries
have
nations,
increasingly
Criminal
become
such
as
the
criticized
for
a
Court
member,
United
is
limited
including
States,
Russia
its
focus
on
Africa
same
time,
William
by
the
some
and
and
fact
that
the
most
of
China.
the
many
It
is
years
its
TOK
procedures
take
Association
for
up.
At
the
Genocide
Scholars,
calls
Schabas,
President
of
the
In post-conict peacebuilding,
it,
should the international
perhaps
the
most
innovative
and
exciting
development
in
international
law
community always strive
since
the
creation
of
the
United
Nations…
From
a
hesitant
commitment
in
for incorporating local ways
1945,
to
an
ambitious
Universal
Declaration
of
Human
Rights
in
1948,
we
of gathering knowledge (or
have
now
reached
a
point
where
individual
criminal
liability
is
established
“removing” it, through social
for
those
responsible
for
serious
violations
of
human
rights,
and
where
pious
wish.
an
forgetting) after a conict?
45
institution
is
created
to
see
that
this
is
more
than
just
some
193
4.6 Conclusion
The
study
of
important
of
peace
and
situations,
the
from
Martin
With
in
in
King
more
lead
have
An
who
an
incredibly
understanding
thoughtful
to
more
used
example
inuenced
of
complex
the
approach
constructive
the
study
could
Aung
be
of
to
conict
actions.
peace
how
Sang
and
Gandhi
Suu
yet
intricacies
Kyi’s
Many
of
conict
to
inuenced
non-violent
Myanmar.
many
politicians
and
well-intentioned
any
Many
of
rather
constant:
the
many
offering
threat
factors
psychological
to
approach
that
the
seem
of
in
the
a
“quick
an
to
to
importance
x”
is
inuence
the
peace
well
our
and
so
impact
importance.
conict
search
lives
balanced
utmost
and
the
them”,
could
improve
reasoned,
of
resources,
versus
that
to
evidenced,
conict
of
“us
developments
conict
us
them,
dimensions
new
and
a
can
predecessors.
remains
better
comes
remove
peace
a
turn
and
also
conict
With
change-makers
Luther
struggle
and
conict
which
positive
learn
peace
venture.
for
on.
our
appear
power,
Yet,
the
there
approach
are
to
future.
New directions
Throughout
will
be
seemed
as
a
the
less
against
simplied
according
to
they
fail
have
These
could
is
from
similarly
Yet
by
and
politics
Islamic
State
issues.
both
in
Those
the
and
combating
seemingly
this
“lone-wolf”
of
by
on
a
of
for
in
the
very
Many
as
such
mass
Norwegians
who
island.
but
on
but
Similarly,
War
is
still
paradigm,
in
and
a
“clash
in
them,
in
into
in
the
rise
leaders
be
now
the
of
of
trying
West
to
will
calling
the
Psychologists
mass
German
are
guided
to
the
not
to
Islamist
conict.
in
made
Some
argue
not
of
it
societies
that
are
many
particularly
the
speak
often
or
combat
have
it
by
murder
media
to
have
message.
own)
religious
motivated
drawn
Internet
decided
Islamic
to
are
developments
more
conict
conict.
frustrations
resolve
the
the
referring
well
their
the
The
cultural
their
are
have
committed
side
Simply
and
ways.
acting
aims,
a
and
not
spread
innovative
(those
and
and
perceived
Cold
truth
drawn
through
could
will
media
to
some
cultural.
conict.
largely
ourselves
bear
nations
phenomenon,
political
person
Norwegian
it
still
are,
conicts
liberalism.
reasons,
East
this
nd
founders
Western
of
to
been,
global
capitalism”
picking
members
terrorists
terrorists
certain
self-glory.
name
new
through
easier
combating
drawn
a
its
Middle
terrorism
not
for
simply
nancial
complexity
is
often
is
individuals
economical
the
communication
reasons
many
of
not
have
past
subsequent
versus
we
those
of
War
the
Western
explained
recognize
Terrorism
and
all
many
because
psychological
194
that
fundamentalism.
power
Islam
conicts
World
conict,
“communism
different
range
organization
Second
rest”
that
not-so-distant
oversimplications
very
often
argued
the
Huntington,
recognize
might
State
the
between
these
to
in
in
The
the
Samuel
civilizations”
Although
we’ve
Perhaps
complex.
“fascism
often
unit,
complex.
pursuit
out
69
the
youngsters
refrain
from
4 . 6 :
mentioning
the
“copy-cats”
who
concerning
dening
ignore
name
also
terrorism,
of
terrorist
seek
someone
not
suspects
self-glory.
giving
it
a
So,
terrorist
the
so
as
not
regardless
or
not,
attention
to
of
what
that
the
inspire
the
if
C O N C L U S I O N
so-called
complexities
we
chose
terrorist
to
was
actually
seeking?
There
are
conict
many
in
the
concerning
and
how
media
Some
ever,
state
will
allow
groups
of
for
misery
that
is
a
questions
and
and
are
may
perceive)
nation
some
people
it
questions
How
deal
sort
will
of
feel
happening
How
anything,
we
way
will
are
the
will
develop,
American
them
loss
are
in
in
we
world.
There
directions
law
of
are
So,
no
probably
their
the
lastly,
lead
to
Will
between
local
will
and
last
social
similar
struggles?
peaceful
exposed
easy
peace
particularly
hegemony
most
so
of
power?
solidarity”
living
because
future?
they
the
gradual
empower
around
peaceful
long
the
“international
that
this
concerning
international
with
this
arguing
not
more
if
will
sovereignty?
the
experts
yet
more
future.
to
we
answers
time
the
see
to
(and
these
more.
195
4.7 Exam-style questions
1
Evaluate
conict
the
success
away
from
of
third-party
violence
Examiner hints
and
involvement
towards
in
positive
transforming
one
intra-state
peace.
Reasons why third-par t involvement may not succeed:
●
Dierent arguments may be considered depending on
the third-par ty involvement is imposed and not
desired by at least one of the par ties in conict
which intra-state conict is used in the answer, and it
is expected that the answer will evaluate the validity of
●
if the involvement includes a mediation process that
those arguments in the context of the chosen conict.
is in the public domain, actors are likely to play to
Responses are likely to include an explanation of the key
their constituents for domestic political gain
terms from the question, such as third-par ty involvement
●
extremists commit acts of violence to destroy trust in
(identifying dierent options for intervention, for
the negotiation process
example, armed military, diplomatic, economic), conict
transformation, intra-state conict, violence, and positive
●
peace. They may also highlight the impor tance of
the wrong individuals from the par ties in conict are
involved and they do not have the suppor t of the rank
negative peace as an interim stage.
and le engaged in the conict – no mandate
Reasons why third-par ty involvement may succeed:
●
●
some conicts are long-running and seemingly
there is a suppor tive external environment with a
intractable, or the violence has been extreme and
strong regional and international dimension
wounds are extensive – mediation or negotiation are
not possible
●
the par ties in conict will benet from the
transformation to peace (negative and positive) more
●
criteria that would determine success
than they can benet from an extension of ghting
●
the par ties in the conict agree to the third-par ty
involvement
there is a failure to identify and implement the
●
the third par ty may withdraw its involvement and
leave the conict unresolved, and possibly even less
tractable.
●
the third par ty has the trust of all par ties, is genuinely
neutral, detached from the reasons for conict, and is
Responses should refer to one specic intra-state
not seeking to take control in the conict
conict. While there are many denitions of intra-state
conict, examples chosen would typically have a high
●
the third par ty has the necessary political, nancial,
level of violence, within the internal boundaries of a state
and/or administrative status
and with the established authority or government as one
●
●
the third par ty has the resources and exper tise
of the par ties in conict. Students may give examples of
(knowledge and skills) to act as a mediator between
ethnic or civil conicts which are less obviously/explicitly
warring groups and to help lead them to a peaceful
intra-state conicts, however, a broad denition should be
resolution
accepted.
neutral observers, for example, election observers,
The end of the Cold War marked a fourfold increase in the
can change the behaviour of protagonists
use of United Nations peacekeeping forces in intra-state
conicts around the globe. Some appropriate examples
●
third par ties have the power to transform a conict
could be Kashmir, the former Yugoslavia, Cambodia,
through the use of weapon embargoes, nancial
Nicaragua, Sri Lanka, Darfur, Afghanistan, Iraq or, more
freezes, and/or trade limitations or by enhancing the
recently, countries aected by the Arab Spring.
status of the weaker par ty in an asymmetric conict,
thereby bringing the stronger par ty to accept value in
negotiation.
Responses should include the candidate’s evaluation of
whether or not third-par ty involvement can transform a
conict towards peace, and under what circumstances.
196
4 . 7:
2
“The
of
use
this
of
violence
claim,
with
can
never
reference
to
be
at
legitimate.”
least
one
Discuss
violent
the
E x a m - s t y l e
q u e s t i o n s
validity
conict
you
have
studied.
Examiner hints
Arguments against the legitimization of violence may
include:
The focus of this question is on the moral and ethical
●
dilemma that warfare and violence cause given that in
violence doesn’t solve anything but leads potentially
to more violence – conicts may escalate and spill
most societies killing is regarded as wrong, and therefore
over into other areas, harming innocent civilians
if violence is to be presented as legitimate there will be
religious, legal and ethical formulations needed to outline
●
theological/ethical arguments against taking human
the legitimacy of war and violence. Depending on the
life under any circumstances, or causing undue
conict(s) used as an example, responses could look at
suering
religious perspectives, or at legal aspects, for example,
●
violence often involves material destruction, for
the Geneva Convention, the Nuremberg Principles, or the
example, of infrastructure, livelihoods, and resources
UN Char ter, or at moral perspectives.
that may take years to normalize and be very costly
Arguments used to legitimize violence may include:
to replace
●
religious legitimacy: violence can be justied in
●
non-violent protests can be equally or more eective,
theological terms, for example, in pursuance of a
and peaceful solutions through diplomatic means are
“holy war ” or “physical jihad” by Judaism, Islam,
likely to be more sustainable.
Hinduism, Buddhism, Christianity, and so on
Responses should contain reference to at least one
●
legal legitimacy: violence as a response to a
example of a violent conict. This may, for example, be
perceived international threat, following the passing
through the concept of a state monopoly on violence
of a UN resolution (for example, the UN Char ter
(Weber) with the formal decision of a state to go to war,
Chapter VII regarding the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait
or counter-examples of non-state actors who claim
(UNIKOM), or the NATO-led intervention in Libya
legitimacy, for example, that they are acting in self-
●
moral legitimacy: the use of violence by states could
defence. Non-state examples could include Nor thern
be regarded as a lesser evil to achieve a greater
Ireland, Israel-Palestine, South Sudan, Ukraine, the Arab
good, such as to avoid an undue loss of human life,
Spring, Syria/Iraq, Kashmir.
or to defend its citizens, and defend justice, or in
Responses should include the candidate’s conclusion on
opposition to structural violence, such as unfair laws,
whether or not violence can ever be legitimate.
discrimination, threat(s) to livelihood, or in response
to forced migration, or lack of resources; Max Weber ’s
ideas on the state’s monopoly on violence could be
relevant
●
the need for self-defence by individuals or
communities, for example, by indigenous groups,
needing to protect themselves against outside (or
local) aggression; or in revolt against an occupier, for
example, the violence by Shiite groups against the
US-led invasion of Iraq
●
“Just War Doctrine” provides an ideal platform for
analysing the legitimacy of war and violence: jus ad
bellum provides the legitimacy for going to war. Last
Resor t, Legitimate Authority (State), Right Intention
and Just Cause, Chance of Success, Ultimate Goal of
Peace and Jus in Bello, provide the legitimacy for how
the war is fought; violence must be propor tional and
discriminatory (not target non-combatants).
197
4
PE ACE
AND
C ON F LIC T
3
Peacebuilding
given
with
much
this
is
less
arguably
funding
more
and
important
attention.
To
than
peacemaking,
what
extent
do
yet
you
it
is
agree
claim?
Examiner hints
Responses should include the candidate’s understanding of the concept of peace,
and distinguish between the processes of peacebuilding and peacemaking. They
may refer to negative peace, that is, the absence of direct physical violence and the
end of warfare, as the essential rst step in any peacemaking process. Responses
may then contrast this with positive peace, which has to do with tackling post-
conict structures of violence in order to build sustainable peace.
Arguments that suppor t the claim may include:
●
peacebuilding, in which civil society is rebuilt through re-establishing social
institutions such as medical facilities and schools, is essential for the
promotion of social justice and the rebuilding of civil society
●
in many situations the world’s attention, and international eor ts, are directed
towards funding and suppor ting the earlier stages of peacemaking – that is, the
achieving, monitoring and maintaining of a state of negative peace
●
once negative peace has been achieved and the most visible forms of
suering have subsided, world attention tends to be directed elsewhere, and
international suppor t is for thcoming only from nations that have vested political
and economic interests in the country or area in question.
Arguments against the claim may include:
●
the most expensive and most impor tant eor ts have to be directed towards
ending armed conicts, as it is in these that human suering and human rights
abuses are likely to be at their worst
●
establishing and then maintaining a newly achieved peace demand the
greatest commitment, as the situation is likely to be at its most sensitive in the
immediate aftermath of the conict
●
peacebuilding is likely to be suppor ted in cases where direct economic and
political benets are associated with post-war reconstruction, for example,
where expensive infrastructure developments are under taken for the benet of
domestic or third par ties with vested interests. However, in these scenarios, the
building of low-cost social and educational institutions may be a low priority.
Responses should contain references to specic examples. These may be taken,
for instance, from the break-up and reconstruction of the former Yugoslavia; the Iraq
war and post-war reconstruction; the truth and reconciliation commission in South
Africa; peacebuilding eor ts in Rwanda or in Cambodia following the UN-backed
withdrawal of Vietnamese forces and the UN-suppor ted elections, though any
appropriate examples should be rewarded.
Responses should include the candidate’s view of whether peacebuilding is much
more impor tant than peacemaking, and whether it receives less funding and
attention.
198
4 . 7:
4
Discuss
even
why
the
non-violent
most
powerful
protest
of
is
sometimes
able
to
E x a m - s t y l e
achieve
success
q u e s t i o n s
against
opponents.
Examiner hints
Arguments for why non-violent protest may not achieve
success against powerful opponents:
Responses should draw specically on candidates’
●
understanding of relevant key concepts, such as power,
fragmentation: any divisions among the protesters
will make non-violent protest ineective against the
conict, and non-violence, and may also touch on the
most powerful opponents
theoretical foundation of pacism given for this unit,
or on the theoretical foundations of unit 1. Candidates
●
in asymmetric conicts, the available violent
may distinguish between hard and soft power. They
responses are often guerrilla war or terrorism and
may explore the nature of conict, perhaps using a
such tactics allow the more powerful opponent to
theoretical construct such as Galtung’s conict triangle to
justify the use of their hard power and excessive
identify that in conict there is always a contradiction or
violence to achieve their objectives; protesters
situational cause of conict which is then manifested in
turning to violence, and especially to the
dierent ways. Responses may explain that conict can
indiscriminate use of extreme physical violence,
be symmetric or asymmetric (they do not have to use
with no regard to international opinion or to controls
this exact term) and that it is in asymmetric conicts that
(by bodies such as the International Criminal Cour t)
non-violent protest is most often used.
will rule out the eectiveness of allied non-violent
protests, by losing them the moral high ground
Arguments for why non-violent protest can achieve
success against even the most powerful of opponents:
●
●
closure or failure of communications and mass or
the power of rulers derives from consent by
social media will weaken the power of non-violent
the subjects; non-violent action is a process of
protest.
withdrawing consent and thus is a way to challenge
●
harsh punitive measures may be taken by the
the key problems of dictatorship and other systems
powerful par ties against the protestors that may
of oppression, genocide, and war
eectively silence their opposition, at least in the
●
in asymmetric conicts, where the weaker par ty’s
shor t term: “might” may suppress “right”.
hard power capabilities are often limited, using the
Responses should contain references to specic
soft power of non-violent protest to challenge the
examples. The standard examples of non-violent protests
stronger par ty may be a more eective mechanism
are those of Mahatma Gandhi and Mar tin Luther King.
to achieve an accommodation of the weaker par ty’s
Unless these examples are well structured – that is,
vital interests
unless theory is present, backed up by the examples –
●
in cer tain cases, especially where open
they are often unpersuasive. Candidates could consider
communications, publicity and the interest of the
more recent examples, such as the popular movements
world media exist together, non-violent tactics
in dierent countries that eventually led to the collapse
can alter the conict symmetry by redening the
of the Soviet Union; the 1990s protest against Apar theid
conict in terms of rights and by denying the use of
in South Africa; or the rst Palestinian Intifada, which, it
unrestricted power to the more powerful par ty
can be argued, led to the Oslo Peace Process. Non-violent
revolutions of the Arab Spring could also be addressed.
●
communications and modern social media have
changed the ability of non-violent protest to
Responses should include the candidate’s views on why
challenge even the most powerful opponents (for
non-violent protest might or might not achieve success
example, see Erica Chenoweth and Maria Stephan’s
against powerful opponents.
2012 book Why Civil Resistance Works: The Strategic
Logic of Nonviolent Conict)
●
the likelihood of success for a non-violent protest is
enhanced by the fact that there is such a wide variety
of methods which can be applied in dierent contexts
(Gene Sharp’s Theory of Power presents 198 such
methods of non-violent action).
199
4
PE ACE
AND
C ON F LIC T
5
“Transforming
armed
interrelationship
of
conict
towards
peacemaking,
peace
peace
relies
keeping
on
and
an
peace
building.”
Discuss.
Arguments for reliance on an interrelationship may
Examiner hints
include:
Better answers will demonstrate an excellent
●
understanding of the concepts of peace and conict, and
peace building, and how these three interrelate.
if the infrastructure and stable governance is not in
place then the peace will not last
will explain the terms peacemaking, peace keeping and
Although
●
if there is no reconciliation and reconstruction then
it is expected that candidates should explain what is
conict may reignite, and there may be lasting
meant by armed conict, it should be noted that providing
psychological resentment etc.
lengthy denitions of terms should not form the main
Arguments against reliance on an interrelationship may
par t of the essay.
The focus should be on discussing the
include:
interrelationship between the three concepts named in
the question:
●
the view that as soon as armed conict has stopped,
peace has been achieved, so you don’t need the
●
peacemaking may be described as armed
other elements.
intervention with the possible use of force (violence)
to separate par ties in conict.
Answers may discuss
whether it is always and only dened as this, for
example, discussing whether eor ts at diplomacy
may not also count as peace-making.
Candidates could also argue that lasting peace relies on
other factors, such as the protection of human rights,
and fair access to resources, in addition to these three
elements.
Answers may make reference to specic
examples, such as to Afghanistan and Iraq, where the
●
peace keeping may be described as maintaining
emphasis is on reconstruction, or to where the lack of all
the status quo with armed force and with the use of
three activities for securing peace has meant that conict
unarmed observers between par ties in conict with
has returned, or to where they have successfully been
their agreement.
implemented together to establish peace.
●
peace building may be described as the building
Answers should include a conclusion on whether
of positive peace and the infrastructure of civil
peace does rely on an interrelationship of these three.
society, for example, education, access to health
Candidates may bring in a practical reection such as
care, local services and governance structures, and
that although all three might be needed this is not always
the removing of psychological scars of violence.
possible to implement – for example, if resources are
Candidates may refer to the concept of peace as
limited, then it might be preferable to use these in more
often being dened as a state both of non-conict
urgent peacemaking situations rather than tying them up
and of harmonious relations.
in peacekeeping and peace building eor ts.
Candidates should discuss the relative impor tance of
each process to the others and how each contributes
to a successful peace process.
The more sophisticated
answers may identify that international interest and
suppor t for the process will usually have declined or
disappeared before peace building has been embarked
on.
200
4 . 2 :
6
“If
a
person
would
been
be
died
hard
quite
from
to
C O N T E S T E D
tuberculosis
conceive
unavoidable,
medical
resources
To
what
extent
an
obligation
do
to
in
the
you
of
but
if
he
world,
agree
identify
this
and
M E A N I N G S
in
as
the
dies
with
from
it
violence
the
prevent
P E A C E ,
eighteenth
violence
then
O F
view
since
is
that
structural
century
it
today,
C O N F L I C T
might
despite
V I O L E N C E
it
have
all
the
present”
(Galtung).
those
power
in
A N D
have
violence?
Examiner hints
Better answers will demonstrate an excellent understanding of what is meant by
structural violence. Candidates may discuss the impor tance of understanding
dierent concepts of peace and violence: peace as the absence of war and
direct violence, or peace as the absence of all violence, including structural
violence as in this reference.
Candidates may include specic discussion of
Galtung and the context of the 1960s and 1970s and how this is relevant today
(the quotation, from 1969, comes from the context of the Cold War and the clash
between dierent ideologies): however it should be noted that this should not
be the focus of the response.
Arguments that those in power have an obligation may include:
●
economic and social policies should include equal access for everyone
●
those in power have a primary obligation to meet the basic needs of all
people
●
health care provisions like vaccinations are a basic need
●
governments have more formal obligations and responsibilities than NGOs,
MNCs, etc.
Arguments that they do not have an obligation may include:
●
there is no such thing as structural violence
●
epidemics are natural and unfor tunate events rather than the responsibility
of governments
●
it is the responsibility of individuals to take care of themselves, and the
managers of power have no obligation to do so.
Answers may make reference to specic examples, such as to places where
deaths due to tuberculosis are still happening, such as in rural Haiti; or to where
water is still the cause of a high percentage of communicable diseases, such as
in India, or to where deser tication and other negative environmental impacts,
with resulting implications for health, occur due to the building of dams, for
example, as in the Three Gorges Dam over the Yangtze river.
Candidates should include a conclusion on the extent to which they agree that
those in power have an obligation to prevent structural violence.
201
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203
Conclusion
The
are
world
focused
up
has
to
a
on
a
a
global
daily
holistic
that
we
scale.
on
the
basis.
ground
has
changed
Each
the
units
These
are
the
of
nation
up
the
a
in
role
or
resist
on
a
The
so
the
those
Politics
on
of
examples
the
The
the
that
and
in
we
the
of
global
a
on
Course
units
have
of
present
the
power
the
the
this
role
for
the
With
that
politics.
important
it
is
not
people
who
they
the
in
institutions
people
on
grounded
the
that
study
students
can
and
can
concepts
determining
primary
for
concepts
and
Companion
in
politics
the
possibilities
teachers,
how
and
a
global
Companion,
a
anymore
we
have
can
also
to
are
are
of
are
sub-
only
who
that
either
faced
and
play
accept
with
examples
interest
to
within
With
the
contemporary
presented
assessed
to
designed
matter,
analysis.
choose
related
are
what
most
subject
subjects
be
of
be
complex,
analysis.
there
global
activity,
and
work
exciting
is
the
will
will
of
any
on
their
their
in
the
individual
experience
My
active
exciting
and
of
will
us,
culture,
continue
as
The
and
for
the
disasters
answer
is
healthy
and
benet
As
to
all.
change
as
advances,
require
ask
me
world,
that
to
at
to
that
assure
place.
There
four
an
the
given
seem
always
these
while
geographic
contemporary
involvement,
and
to
globalization
students
hope
natural
by
continue
my
dis-involvement.
ahead
past
themselves.
and
politics.
their
an
or
and
Many
including
apathy
much
from
circumstances,
restructure
are
livable
for
new
whether
their
differs
circumstances,
conicts,
discussion
them,
now
levels
politics
and
remains
204
but
and
a
seeing
evolved.
global
play,
politics
and
organizational
parts
many
live
thoughtful
semester
our
of
and
geographic
crises
the
course
react
as
the
where
organizations
formations,
students
elucidate
all
history
populations
and
global
is
to
is
present
action
have
provide
into
now
politics.
how
add
what
life.
way
area,
and
four
are
understanding
daily
social
to
This
are
has
that
analyze
important
subject
comes
levels
together
realities
further
function.
the
show
are
unit’s
that
politics”
Diploma
and
and
subjects
approval
the
that
emerged
we
here
global
to
day
us
what
presented
present
of
contribute
personal
While
course
that
and
help
approach
are
concepts
politics
that
contemporary
examples
nation-states,
teachers
focus
them.
how
have
Companion
basis.
Global
they
into
power
states
key
that
This
geographic
background
how
relationship
maintaining
daily
that
of
those
the
past.
various
to
that
viewing
politics
the
concepts
how
units
includes
“people,
make
and
the
of
on
are
historical
and
integrated
understanding
focus
for
included
understanding
that
four
it
that
politics
ground
The
with
from
With
framework
have
of
and
different
contemporary
happening
on
changed,
signicantly
it
sometimes
open
end
the
mind
of
many
dominate
will
that
is
units
and
realities
depend
the
no
world
room
have
shown,
discouraging,
it
I N D E X
development
79,
80–1
Index
approaches
brief
A
history
capability
accountability
aid
changing
110–11
concern
111–12
for
theories
roles
for
contested
capability
capital
theories
capitalist
economy
121–5
120
women
meanings
of
theory
130–1
skills
and
engagement
development
126–8
92–6
89
development
and
conict
development
and
human
development
and
peace
development
in
83,
108–9,
142
120
types
rights
83–4
state
factors
of
circular
economy
Forest,
England,
1215
links
and
improving
change
education
(circa
1800
12–13,
society
to
1950+)
and
agency
of
analyses
to
afliation
theories
factors
and
Goals
(MDGs)
90
118–19
108–11
sovereignty
and
development
82–3
2
Rostow’s
concept
of
community
143,
171,
177,
conict
conict
dynamics
conict
mapping
factors
conict
resolution
83,
interest
142
159
of
war,
guerilla
economic
development
trade
162–3
conict
98–100
manifestations
conict
177–83
of
directions
non-state
conicts
parties
to
conict
power,
sovereignty
and
value
international
Bill
conicts
158–70
in
impact
equality
164
conict
186–8
Rights,
relativism
of
cultural
rights
human
peace
48
export
49–50
1689
50
121–2
protection
climate
change
99
116–17
questions
rights
and
power,
112–13
121
3
exam-style
57–8
121–2
orientation
116
development
cultural
export
142
ethnicity
111–12
and
126–8
of
environmental
142
161–2
involvement
conict
relations
123
129
environment
175–6
62
99
entrepreneurship
entrepreneurship
161
conicts
and
English
(ECOSOC)
94
124–5
liberalization
engagement
194–5
Council
economy
and
education
160–1
Social
economy
tourism
160
internal
of
circumstances
knowledge
159,
internationalized
third-party
and
and
economic
142
conicts
structural
warfare
Economic
circular
conict
relationship
development
E
108–9,
178
rights
inter-state
89
162
characteristics
human
(SAPs)
86
188–91
conict
terrorism
Programmes
184–5
176
148–53
development
general
119
Adjustment
sustainable
extra-state
87–9
112–16
capitalism
sustainability
conicts
growth
171–4
Structural
denitions
of
194
state
of
stages
12–13
social
141,
causes
custom
100–7
Development
30–2
power
cultures
90–1
development
32–3
political
communities
types
129
15
neo-liberal
new
110
healthcare
33–5
communities
data
and
28–30
Millennium
conict
systems
85–6
measuring
communities
concepts
97–8
political
116–17
levels
period
from
110–11
49–50
inequality
civil
transparency
33–5
antiquity
colonial
and
130
development
ideology
climate
GDP
127
society
classical
to
126–8
human
Activate!
84–5
accountability
124–5
health’s
skills
81–2
111–12
50
government
citizenship
142
politics
119
globalization
Charter
global
50–1
capitalism
the
83,
104
societies
economic
credit
the
111–12
capital
civil
of
citizenship
dependency
C
developing
86–90
132–7
71–6
conict
sovereignty
orientation
extra-state
conict
196–201
and
international
relationships
36–41
121
159
D
data
conicts
dependency
F
162
theory
89
First
Generation
Rights
56–7
205
INDE X
G
GDP
International
Law
international
mindedness
GDP
and
health’s
income
(ILO)
62
1
links
to
international
politics
international
relations
2,
GDP
global
roles
1,
development
geographic
individual
of
in
and
examples
internal
142
conict
160–1
of
130–1
(GPI)
J
102–3
Just
7–8
global
politics
justice
perspectives
8–12,
2–3
restorative
142
Gross
Domestic
Gross
National
of
social
and
globalization
change
politics
4,
14
of
Justice
62
191–3
and
retributive
justice
191
knowledge
13–14
49–50
human
custom
Product
Product
see
see
123
L
laws
and
economy
5–7
49
warfare
Court
K
study
and
laws
167–8
146
reconciliation
142
100–1
natural
142,
165,
169–70
International
84–5
ancient
Theory
cause
142
the
power
War
just
81–4
8–12
foundations
globalization
guerilla
5–7,
group
3–4,
development
92,
Indicator
2,
levels
theoretical
people,
women
analysis
globalization
Greece,
of
Progress
politics
levels
17,
130
113–14
changing
Genuine
10
92
internationalized
gender
GNP
Commission
92
49–50
rights
legitimacy
GDP
GNP
17,
laws
and
treaties
59–60
142
local
institutions
local
politics
115
11
178
M
H
Magna
Happy
Planet
healthcare
(HPI)
105–7
to
GDP
130
97–8
Human
Development
Index
human
rights
45,
56–7,
Greece
and
poverty
101–2
1215
50
94
114
Millennium
(HDI)
England,
needs
migration
links
development
ancient
Carta,
material
129
health’s
human
Index
Development
and
multinational
hunger
Goals
(MDGs)
90
93
corporations
(MNCs)
25–6
70
Rome
49–50
N
brief
history
of
human
rights
46–7
nation-states
capitalist
societies
development
evolution
laws
and
of
and
human
society
treaties
rights
national
institutions
national
politics
negative
rights
of
10
47–8
46
59–60
human
rights
188–9
68–9
interest-based
practice
of
human
rights
51,
negotiations,
human
rights
legal
system
theories
rights
and
cultural
relativism
are
189–91
human
rights?
organizations
(NGOs)
25–6,
146
57–8
non-state
what
2015
118–19
61–5
non-government
universal
189
Belarus,
51
neo-liberal
UN
negotiation
66–7
Minsk
UDHR
115
83–4
negotiations
politicization
22–3
50–1
conicts
161
46
non-violent
Egypt
protest
142,
181–2
183
I
ideology
24
O
ideology
and
development
110
overpopulation
Inclusive
Wealth
Index
indigenous
people
inequality
85–6
(IWI)
174
104–5
115
P
peace
inter-governmental
organizations
(IGOs)
141,
143,
denitions
inter-state
conict
159,
188,
143–4
160
development
interdependence
17,
conicts
internal
conict
International
142
146
162–3
human
rights
narrow
forms
142
173–4
Court
of
Justice
International
Criminal
International
Labour
Court
of
peace
145
62
new
(ICC)
directions
Organization
194–5
61
pacic
third-party
interventions
in
conict
186
62
peacekeeping,
206
83,
142
Greenpeace
interest
194
25–6
peacemaking
and
peacebuilding
147–8
I N D E X
power,
wider
sovereignty
forms
peacebuilding
of
147–8,
peacemaking
147–8,
interest-based
mediation
Minsk
people
international
relations
142
states
146–8
191–3
188–91
negotiation
and
conicts
164
structural
violence
21
denitions
2015
189–91
sustainable
England,
1648
50
four
in
the
contemporary
world
20
153–8
sustainability
Belarus,
climate
Right,
statehood
structural
189
188
negotiations,
of
22–3
states
13–14
Petition
place
and
peace
86,
97,
147
development
change
98–100
117
dimensions
126
12
political
systems
politics
7–8
110
T
terrorism
international
politics
local
11
politics
national
people,
regional
rights
poverty
94–6
poverty
power
trade
politics
13–14
11
treaties
nation-states
equitable
distribution
of
wealth
93
22–3
18
non-state
actors
25–6
text
sovereignty
and
development
in
social
context
states
and
UN
of
II
51,
of
25–6
Treaty
189–91
and
ideology
statehood
power
52
the
Declaration
52–5
26–7
international
and
in
power
the
relations
human
rights
instruments
63–5
human
rights
legal
61
human
rights
mechanisms
142
system
24
contemporary
world
62–3
20
state
types
(TNCs)
110-11
18–19
sovereignty
order,
corporations
82–3
UN
power,
121
59–60
Minsk
UDHR
power
118–19,
112–13
U
power
and
56–7
145
of
power
Rights
liberalization
transnational
and
179–80
121–2
transparency
reduction
17,
178,
Generation
traditions
46
13–14,
nature
10
and
politics
positive
Third
tourism
politics
power
10
responsibility
to
protect
populations
187
20–1
UN
Commission
UN
General
UN
High
UN
Human
UN
Ofce
on
the
Status
of
Women
63
26–7
violence
prejudiced
and
structural
behaviour
violence
references
191–3
and
human
peace
77
conict
sovereignty
of
the
62
Social,
United
138–9
rights
and
power,
reading
Rights
(OHCHR)
UN
further
development
63
Commissioner
for
Refugees
63
177–8
R
reconciliation
Assembly
21
Council
High
Commissioner
Humanitarian
Nations
see
62
and
for
Cultural
Human
Affairs
Rights
Committee
63
UN
Universal
Declaration
universal
rights
of
Human
Rights,
UN,
1948
see
UDHR
57–8
202–3
and
international
relationships
42–3
V
regional
politics
11
values
relationship
conicts
112–13
161–2
value
religion
3,
conicts
violence
peace
21,
142
147
denitions
Rome,
ancient
natural
Rostow’s
164
112
laws
49
Duluth
and
stages
of
custom
growth
49–50
Haiti
87–9
153–8
Model
155
167
justications
Seville
of
violence
statement
on
164–70
violence
156
S
Second
Generation
social
development
social
order
social
relationships
society
W
war
24
power
95
funds
Consensus
118–19
wealth
poverty
17,
and
178
Washington
wealth
sovereignty
state
56–7
99
47–8
sovereign
space
Rights
119
142
sovereignty
women
and
reduction
sovereign
development
82–3
wealth
and
equitable
funds
distribution
of
wealth
93
119
63
changing
roles
of
women
130–1
12
capitalism
119
207
Adapted
‘The
en/,
version
World
of
Health
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Figure
1.5
Report
WHO
‘Links
1999,
1999,
between
accessed
reprinted
by
health
11/11/16
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p.
12
Excerpt
of
http://www.who.int/whr/1999/
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 
Massachusetts,
The
Albert
Einstein
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reprinted
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permission.
permission.
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33:1

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
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2015
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Ltd,
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Extract
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

 
by
by
permission
of
Pan
Macmillan
Australia
Pty
Ltd.
Andrew
Floyer
Acland,
1995,
reprinted
by
permission
of
the
author.
Excerpts
from
 

Berridge
2010,
reprinted
  ,
by
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of
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
The
and
 ,
Prevention,
www.cdc.gov,
reprinted
by
permission.
Berghof
Handbook
II,
Opladen/Framington
Hills:
Barbara
link:
Budrich
Publishers,


Quotation
by
William
T.
Hathaway,
2013,
reprinted
by
permission
of
the
author.
handbookII.pdf.



Axell
and
Peter
Wallensteen,
1993,
 
October
2005,
©
2005
United
Nations,
reprinted
with
the
permission
of
the
 www.ucdp.uu.se
United
Nations.

Excerpt
University).
from




Taylor
&
Francis
Ltd,
http://www.tandfonline.com).
permission.


  
Cambridge;
and
Cytora
Ltd,
reprinted
by
permission.



War
Project.
Nkansah,
 

2011,
reprinted
by
Vol.
1,
No.
1,
Macrothink
Institute,
www.macrothink.org,
reprinted
by
permission.
permission.
Figure
and
short
excerpts
from

Excerpt
from
 edited
by



permission.
permission
and
permission
conveyed
through
Copyright
Clearance
Center,
Inc.
Excerpt
from
 

copyright
Commission,
reprinted
by
permission
of
The
Department
of
Justice
©
2001
Cambridge
University
Press,
reprinted
by
permission.
and

Constitutional
Development
(DOJ&CD),
Truth
and
Reconciliation
Commission
Excerpt

from
 


Violence
against
Women’,
Hughes
and
Excerpt
from
Philippe
Bourgois,
reprinted
by
permission.
http://www.who.int/gender/violence/who_
multicountry_study/summary_report/summary_report_English2.pdf,
Page
10,
 by
James
R.
Crawford,
Oxford


beating,

by
site’,
copyright
©
World
Health
Organisation
2005,
reprinted
by
permission.




 copyright
http://www.walkfreefoundation.org/resources/,

reprinted
by
permission.
©
International
Communication
Association,
Inc.

 http://www.walkfreefoundation.org/resources/,
reprinted
by

of
permission.
postmodernity’
by
David
Harvey,
in
Jon
Bird,
et.
al.
 ,
London:


reprinted
by
permission
of
the
United
Excerpt
Nations.
from
‘Capitalism
and
reproduction’
by
Mariarosa
Dalla
Costa,

 
Excerpt
from
Article
51
of
the
United
Nations
Charter,
©
United
Nations,
for
reprinted
by
permission
of
the
United
Political
Ecology,
reprinted
by
permission
of
Taylor
&
Francis
Ltd,
www.
Nations.
tandfonline.com
on
behalf
of
The
Center
for
Political
Ecology.

Excerpt
from

by
Jeffrey



Cambridge
University
Press.
https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/us/
Excerpt
Excerpts
from
 by
Vivienne
Jabri,
published
by
from
 by
Michael
Walzer,

Manchester

University
Press,
1996,
reprinted
by
permission
of
IPR
License.
Although
we
have
made
every
effort
to
trace
and
contract
all
copyright
holders
 

by
Michael
E.
Brown,
by
permission
ed.,
©
1996
Massachusetts
Institute
of
Technology,
reprinted
publisher
of
The
MIT
18
from
‘The
Impact
of
Concerned

by
Parties
(eds.)
on
the
Resolution
Lindgren,
of
Wallensteen,

  Vol.


 
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GLOBAL
POLITICS
Written by syllabus developer and UNESCO Chair in Human and Cultural Rights
Author
Max Kirsch, this course book has been developed directly with the IB. By
Max Kirsch
embracing a truly concept-based approach, this text provides the most
comprehensive coverage of the new syllabus, developing politically engaged
learners who can think critically about the changing 21st century world. Full
assessment suppor t is included for the strongest results.
O xford course books are the only DP resources developed with the IB.
This means that they are:
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The most comprehensive and accurate match to IB specifications
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Written by exper t and experienced IB examiners and teachers
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Packed with accurate assessment suppor t, directly from the IB
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Truly aligned with the IB philosophy, challenging learners with fresh and
What's on the cover?
topical TOK
Paper lanterns floating on
the River Motoyasu
Build critical and independent thought,
strengthening assessment potential
Global case studies keep learning fresh and
develop out ward-looking learners
Also available, from Oxford
enilnO
978 0 19 835499 4
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