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Contents
Preface...........................................................................................................................................vii
About the Authors.........................................................................................................................ix
About the
1
Contributors
The English
.................................................................................................................x
Vocabulary................................................................................................................1
1.1
Native
Vocabulary....................................................................................................................1
1.2
Borrowed
Vocabulary..............................................................................................................1
1.3 Learning
New Vocabulary.......................................................................................................2
1.4
Unfamiliar
Words....................................................................................................................3
1.5
Memorizing
Base Forms .........................................................................................................3
1.6
Base Form Sets 1 and 2...........................................................................................................4
2
Word Structure ..............................................................................................................................5
2.1
Morphemes, the
2.2
Classes of
2.3
The
2.4
The Stem
Extender
2.5
Multiple
Affixes........................................................................................................................9
2.6
Base Form
3
English
Units of
Meaning ........................................................................................5
Morphemes.............................................................................................................6
Stem..................................................................................................................................8
Sets 3 and
Prefixes
3.1
English
3.2
Relational
3.3
Negative
3.4
Numerical
..................................................................................................................8
4 .........................................................................................................10
and Suffixes
.....................................................................................................11
Prefixes......................................................................................................................11
Prefixes
.................................................................................................................11
Prefixes....................................................................................................................13
Prefixes ................................................................................................................13
ii
3.5 English
Suffixes......................................................................................................................13
3.6 Inflectional
Suffixes ...............................................................................................................13
3.7
Suffixes .............................................................................................................13
Derivational
3.8 Verbal Suffixes........................................................................................................................14
3.9
Adjectival
Suffixes..................................................................................................................14
3.10
Nominal
Suffixes .................................................................................................................15
3.11
The Adverbial
3.12
Common
3.13
Base Form Sets 5 and 6.......................................................................................................17
4
Morphological
4.1 Variant
4.2
Suffix............................................................................................................16
Suffixes ................................................................................................................16
Rules ...................................................................................................................19
Forms of
Morphological
Morphemes ..............................................................................................19
Rules.............................................................................................................20
4.3 Base Form Sets 7 and 8.........................................................................................................20
5
Deletion
Rules..............................................................................................................................21
5.1 Vowel
Deletion.......................................................................................................................21
5.2 E-Deletion..............................................................................................................................22
5.3 S-Deletion ..............................................................................................................................23
5.4
D-Deletion .............................................................................................................................24
5.5 Vowel-C-Deletion..................................................................................................................25
5.6
N-Deletion.............................................................................................................................25
5.7
X-Deletion
.............................................................................................................................26
5.8
Base Form
Sets 9 and 10 .......................................................................................................27
6
iv
Content
Word
Analysis
..............................................................................................................................29
6.1
Word
Analysis ........................................................................................................................29
6.2
The
Word
6.3
Word
Analysis
6.4
Summary................................................................................................................................34
6.5
Base Form
Analysis
Method
..................................................................................................30
Tips................................................................................................................34
Sets 11 and
12 .....................................................................................................35
7
Change Rules................................................................................................................................37
7.1 Assimilation
...........................................................................................................................37
7.2
Weakening..............................................................................................................................41
7.3
Derivation ..............................................................................................................................43
7.4 E-Change................................................................................................................................44
7.5
T-Change................................................................................................................................45
7.6 V-Change................................................................................................................................45
7.7
Fused
7.8
Base
8
Other
Forms...........................................................................................................................46
Form
Sets
13 and
14 .....................................................................................................49
Rules ..................................................................................................................................51
8.1
Addition
Rules .......................................................................................................................51
8.2
Spelling
Rules.........................................................................................................................52
8.3
Base Form
9
Sets 15 and
16 .....................................................................................................55
Unpredictable
Processes
.............................................................................................................57
9.1
Metathesis
..............................................................................................................................57
9.2
Rhotacism
..............................................................................................................................58
9.3
Ablaut .....................................................................................................................................58
9.4
Latin-Greek
9.5
Base Form
Correspondences
Sets 17 and
..............................................................................................59
18 .....................................................................................................61
10
Meaning Shift...............................................................................................................................63
10.1
Narrowing
............................................................................................................................63
10.2
Widening..............................................................................................................................63
10.3
Degeneration
10.4
Amelioration........................................................................................................................65
.......................................................................................................................64
10.5 Synecdoche...........................................................................................................................65
10.6
Association...........................................................................................................................65
10.7
Cultural
10.8
Metaphor..............................................................................................................................66
10.9
Base Form Sets 19 and 20...................................................................................................68
Shift .......................................................................................................................66
Contents
11
Processes.........................................................................................................69
11.1
Derivation ............................................................................................................................69
11.2
Compounding
Word Formation
11.3 Functional
Back Formation
11.5
Clipping
11.6
Acronymy.............................................................................................................................70
11.7
Eponymy
11.8
Onomatopoeia.....................................................................................................................71
11.9
Blending
11.10
Root
Creation
11.11
Folk
Etymology..................................................................................................................72
11.12
Combinations
of
11.13
Base Form
Sets 21 and
Summary
Glossary
13
Glossary
...................................................................................................................70
...............................................................................................................................70
of
..............................................................................................................................71
...............................................................................................................................71
Rules
Rule Summary
....................................................................................................................71
and
Word
Formation
Processes..................................................................72
22 .................................................................................................73
Glossary
of
Terms
...............................................................................75
..............................................................................................................................75
of Terms.........................................................................................................................76
of Base Forms and
Base Forms
Index
Reverse Glossary of Roots .........................................................81
.......................................................................................................................153
Number
Base Forms...................................................................................................................156
Reverse
Glossary
Bibliography
Content
Shift ...................................................................................................................70
11.4
12
vi
.....................................................................................................................69
of
Roots..........................................................................................................157
..............................................................................................................................173
Preface
Alarge vocabulary
usare
judged
is always an asset. Students, teachers,
Examination
and the Law School
of potential
academic and professional
It is not surprising,
therefore,
Admissions
that
These books range from
thirty
politicians,
salesmen, lawyersin
by our ability to use words. The creators of admissions
days to scholarly
supplied
with lists
improving
their
vocabulary.
of
Of course, some
memorization
a rich vocabulary
fact all of
Graduate Record
one of the best indicators
success.
many books have been written
brightly
dictionaries
Test consider
tests such asthe
colored
paperbacks
of word-roots.
on the subject
that
Most rely heavily on
words or, at best, word elements that they
is a necessary part of vocabulary
of vocabulary
offer to double
memorization.
must commit
building.
enrich-ment.
your vocabulary
to
memory, thereby
However, the authors
of the
New English Dictionary estimate that there are approximately 600,000 English words, not including
nouns
or the inflected
wordsthose
you
a long list
of
of verbs. So the chances
will come across in your readingis
of unrelated
on that list, but
Fortunately,
forms
words, and
and practical
word elements rather than
treat as separate
entities are really
programs.
only different
However,
forms
and predictable
ways.
Afew relatively
rules determine
which form
This
method requires
even the various forms
of the internal
than
These
methods
Far from
enrichment
of certain
uses of familiar
words
makes sense to learn
word elements these programs
basic entities.
of a word element
Furthermore,
outlined in this
you to analyze
memoriz-ing
only the
being a new idea, this is the basis
many of the
These forms
will increase
words or
your aware-ness
words.
book are based on
words you
of words at
memorize all the
these rules
among
are related
will appear in a given word. By
would take to
learning
of words and of the relationships
will allow
plu-ral
set of
Many words are com-posed
English. It, therefore,
muchless effort than it
of word elements.
structure
methods of vocabulary
unusual
will know
the right
these rules and the basic elements they affect, you can greatly enlarge the number
your command.
The
more tedious
you
wayto enlarge your vocabulary.
to each other in orderly
simple
Nothing is
just
systematically.
whole words whenever possible.
of vocabulary-building
memorizing
memorizing,
meaningful elements that occur again and again in
of a number
learning
small.
when you are done
will not have added to your vocabulary
there is a moreefficient
of your
in
The readers are
modern linguistic
have never seen before and to
princi-ples.
understand
words.
This book is divided into two
main sectionsthe
text and the glossary. In the text
for relating
of word elements
and take up other relevant
the different forms
structure
of words and the processes by which the sounds and
the end
of each chapter
increase
your
are exercises to test your
word analysis skills.
we discuss the rules
topics such as the general
meanings of words change over time.
understanding
of the
At the end of the first section is a summary
preceding
At
material and to
of the rules presented and
a glossary of terms.
vi
The second section is a glossary
This glossary, although
because it contains
form
of the
major Latin and
comprehensive,
is smaller
only the basic forms
a root
by looking
up its
occur in
English.
lists in other vocabulary-building
and affixes that
books
of the roots and affixes: that is, those that cannot
by the rules given in the text. In addition,
you can find
Greek word roots
than comparable
meaning.
we have included
Werecommend
be related to anoth-er
a glossary of roots in reverse order so that
that this book
be used in conjunction
with a
good up-to-date desk or collegiate dictionary. A good dictionary for this purposeis the American Heritage
Dictionary of the English Language. The latest in the series of New Collegiate Dictionaries published by
Merriam Websteris also a good choice. It will also often be useful to consult the Oxford English Dictionary,
whichcontainsfar moreentriesthan a deskor collegiate dictionary. The OxfordEnglish Dictionaryis available
for
usein the libraries
of
many educational
institutions
and in
many public libraries
online. Another dictionary with a very large number of entries is
as well. It is also available
WebstersThird NewInternational
Dictionary, Unabridged. It is also available in the libraries of manyeducational institutions
libraries. The online version is called Merriam-Webster Unabridged Dictionary.
Occasionally, students
or not useful.
deciphering
process. Alarge
of science, technology,
in
and
book, our intent
is not to teach individual
words never seen before. It would, of course,
words. And something
words is an ongoing
medicine.
many pub-lic
words used in this book in exercises or as examples are obscure
However, unlike in the usual vocabulary
rather a method for
only familiar
object that some of the
and in
further
users of this book should
number
of new words enter
The process of creating
keep in
words but
not be possible to do that
using
mind is that the coinage of new
English every year, especially from the realms
new words is always ahead of the recording
of it
dictionaries.
We wish to thank
Thanks also to
Note to teachers:
is available
viii
Karen
Kerry
The instructors
by contacting
Prefac
Duchaj and
Giardinelli,
Kendall
Nancy Sreenan for all they
Donna
Harris, and
manual for this text,
Hunt Publishing.
did to
Denise Strohmaier
which contains
makethis edition
for their
better than the last.
help on the reverse glossary.
an answer key and additional
exercises,
About
theAuthors
Clarence
Sloat
Clarence Sloat received
his Ph.D. in
he was Professor of Linguistics
Amerindian
Linguistics
the
Department
English
Institute
and Phonology.
for
for two years.
for a total
of twelve
University
of
years.
Washington;
Humanist
experience includes
During that time
of Academic
coauthored Introduction
Linguistics
National
of
Washington in 1966, after
of Oregon for fifteen
he served as Director
His awards include:
Advanced
Fellowship,
years. He has authored
Services for
Program
and
in
of Graduate Studies in
the
American
Head of the
American
for the
which
years, specializing
Research Assistantship,
Fellowship,
Endowment
having served as President and
firm, for twenty-three
subjects involving
University
University
a year and as Director
Department
Societies; and Younger
from the
He also served as Chair of the Linguistic
Foundation,
education
Linguistics
and English at the
National
Council
Humanities.
English
Linguistics
Science
of Learned
His other
pro-fessional
CEO of Pacific Language Associates, a pri-vate
and coauthored
a number
of articles and
to Phonology in 1978. Heis now retired, but still actively publishing articles on
Native Americans.
Sharon Taylor
Sharon Taylor received
Ph.D. in
Linguistics
properties
of English
University
of Oregons
English Institute
international
her Bachelor
from
the
of
Beta Kappa) in
Oregon in 1980.
Anthropology
Her dissertation
words. From 1979 to 1981, she worked as Coordinator
American
at Lewis-Clark
English Institute
and from
of Academic Services at the
1981 to 2004 as Director
State College where she also taught
of articles
She has also co-authored
two
she still
on teaching
handbooks
gives workshops
on teaching
of the Intensive
word analysis to college students,
to Phonology in 1978
word analysis and on the properties
on teaching
in 1973 and her
was on the idiosyncratic
students, and high school teachers. She co-authored Introduction
and has written a number
now retired,
of Arts degree (Phi
University
word analysis in
public schools.
of English
words.
Although
she is
word analysis.
i
About
theContributors
Karen
Karen
Duchaj
Duchaj received
her Ph.D. in
was on individual
Linguistics
appreciation
from
of humor.
University in 1991. Her research area is sociolinguistics,
Northwestern
University in 1999,
Her
English is from
M.A. in
focusing
where her dis-sertation
Northern
on names, address forms,
Illinois
speech com-munities,
and identity. Sheis a memberof the Linguistic Societyof America,as wellasthe American
Name Society, and the Atlantic Provinces Linguistic Association/Association de Linguistique des
Provinces Atlantiques. She has been a member of the linguistics faculty at Northeastern Illinois
University for eleven years, where her teaching
specialties include
the history
of the
English language.
Nancy Sreenan
Nancy Sreenan received
1978 and her
her Bachelor
M.A.in Linguistics
English as a Second Language at the
NEIU since 1999. She haslived in
as well as in
Norwegian.
Mexico and throughout
She analyzes
of Fine Arts from the School
from
Northeastern
Illinois
of the
Art Institute
University (NEIU)
of Chicago in
in 1998. She hastaught
City Colleges of Chicago since 1985, and has taught linguistics
both
the
Norway and Finland
and travelled
United States. She has studied
words wherever she goes and enjoys teaching
widely in
Europe and
Japanese, French,
at
Asia,
Russian, and
her students to do the same.
The
English
Vocabulary
The
English
vocabulary
is
made up of two
kinds
of
wordsnative
and
borrowed.
1.1 NATIVE
VOCABULARY
Native wordsarethose broughtto England by ourlinguistic forefathers,the Anglesand Saxons. Wordslike the,
and, for, and go have been a part of English for a thousand years or more. Native words such asthese are the
backbone
in
of the language.
learning
example,
English.
they
For the
Words
include
that
most part, they
came
to
are the short,
us directly
from
familiar
Anglo
Saxon
words that
usually
have
every speaker
has
quite
meanings.
simple
mastered
For
words for:
1. body partseye, foot, ear
2. family relationshipsfather,
wife,son
3. everyday objectsstone, house,cow
4. physical actseat,
drink, sleep
5. physical characteristicsred,
Such words, although
The remaining
small, quick
a vital component
four-fifths
of the English language,
are composed
of borrowed
make up only about
one-fifth
of the vocab-ulary.
words.
1.2 BORROWEDVOCABULARY
English speakers have always been great borrowers.
that fills
a need, wejust change the pronunciation
Whenever werun across a word from
enough to
the language.
We have been doing this for
hundreds
long,
ones, came originally
other languages.
difficult
Borrowed
sources.
The
Greek).
English
and
pre-English
speakers
have been
fact,
tribes
whose language
eventually
became
on the
European
the
traders
words come
while
these
from
tribes
still
three
from
lived
makeit acceptably
of years. As a result,
majority
are borrowed
borrowing
English
mainland.
from
borrowed
These
most English
from
the
these
languages
words
early
some other language
English and incorporate
classical
from
Latin
it into
words, particularly
the
languages
and
for
the
borrowings
(Latin
many centuries.
Roman
soldiers
were
carried
In
and
to
the British Isles as part of the tribesmens linguistic baggage.Wordslike dish, butter, street, and cheesewere
borrowed
at this
time.
These
words
have been in the language
for
so long
that
they
have come
to
resemble
native English words. Wordsborrowedfrom Latin atalater time, such ascomplex,
detract,and resolution,look morelike the original Latin becausethey havenot had
time
to
become
English
were
fully
Anglicized.
borrowed
from
Most
classical
of the
Latin
technical
and
and
Greek
obscure
during
the
English
speakers
words
last
eight
FUN FACT
Phagophobia is either
the FEAR of EATING
in
hun-dred
orthe FEAR
of being EATEN.
years.
Another
group
borrowing
of
borrowed
French
words
words in large
came
from
numbers
French.
since
the time
of the
have
Norman
been
conquest.
Words
like beef,people,and moneywereborrowed oversix hundred yearsago. BecauseFrenchis an offspring
of Latin, manyFrench borrowings, such as nation, infant, and misery,look like Latin borrowings.
ascafe, receive, and menu,are distinctly French.
The remaining
non-native
English
words
come from
a variety
of languages
Others,such
including:
Arabicalgebra, crimson, guitar, candy
Chineseketchup, tycoon,typhoon, rickshaw
Gaelichooligan, slug, whiskey,slob
Hindidungarees, swastika, pajamas,thug
Italianalto,
opera, buffoon,spaghetti
American
English
Indians.
For example,
speakers
have
also
borrowed
many
place
names
from
the
languages
of
the
American
ChoctawOklahoma
AlgonquinMassachusetts,
Michigan
IroquoisOhio
OjibwaMississippi
Other than
all
place
Amerindian
names
such
words in
as these,
English
that
we have borrowed
are
not place
very little
names
are
from
words for
American
animals,
in the old world. Some examples are canoe, tomato, woodchuck,and tomahawk.
words
with
Native
American
(American
Indian)
Indian
plants,
languages.
and things
Almost
not found
Do not confuse native English
words.
1.3 LEARNING
NEWVOCABULARY
There
are three
occurs
when
you
ways to learn
absorb
words
very rapidly.
learning
in
this
hear
many
word so
As you
occurs
people
think
vocabulary-building
ANALYSIS
wordsby
a
grow
absorption,
often
older,
that,
you
by
without
absorb
memorization,
conscious
words
and
effort,
more slowly,
by analysis.
ABSORPTION
you
Small
learn
but you
it.
children
never completely
stop
way.
MEMORIZATION
method
new
or read
when
of
you
when
make a conscious
they
think
about
decision
learning
to
commit
new
words.
a
It is
word to
memory.
also
method
the
This is the
used
in
most
programs.
involves
memorizing
together
to
form
before,
divide
it into
familiar
How
can these
three
ways
in
English
lend
are
usually
rather
words.
a set
Once you
of frequently
have
pieces,
and find
of learning
themselves
to
short
and their
words
different
recurring
word
parts
word
analysis,
you
mastered
out its
be applied
learning
meanings
are
then
learning
a
word
how
you
these
parts
have never
go
seen
meaning.
to
methods.
quite
and
can take
the
In
concrete.
English
vocabulary?
general,
Further,
native
The
words
different
are easily
of
words
absorbed.
kinds
They
many are high frequency
words
like
mother, me,and and. Such words are absorbed early in the process of learning the language. Of course, there
are some low frequency native words,like tilth and thane, which,if you know them at all, you probably mem-orized.
Butthey arein the minority. The nativevocabularyalso hassomerecurring pieces,like the be-in beget,
behave,bemoan,andthe -hoodin manhood,brotherhood,and neighborhood.Sosome analysisis possible.But
2
Chapter
1
|
The
English
Vocabular
for the
most part, native
Some common
absorbed,
Sofew
words are the ones we absorb.
words borrowed from exotic languages, such as Arabic candy and Chinese ketchup, are also
but for low frequency
words borrowed
words have been taken from
parts do recur, as in the ty-of
seldom that they
The words
have little
from
such languages,
there is little to be done but
each source that there are scarcely any recurring
tycoon and typhoon, or the the al-of
memorize.
parts. And even when the
algebra and albatross, they appear so
value in analysis.
most easily analyzed in
English are the classical borrowings
and the early French ones. This part of
the vocabulary has manyrecurring pieces,such asthe re-of respect, retract, and reduce, and the -ion of action,
traction, and motion. Because manyof the less common wordsin English are classical borrowings, the ability
to analyze them
will greatly increase
your reading
vocabulary.
1.4 UNFAMILIARWORDS
If you like to read, you
will encounter
surprising,
therefore,
words they
have never seen before.
Three types
of words are particularly
TECHNICAL
words are those
several hundred thousand
that even people who pride themselves
different
words during your lifetime.
on the size of their
likely to be troublesome:
technical
vocabularies
words, archaic
It is not
often come across
words, and new words.
used by some group to talk about their specialty. If you encounter
a word like
pediment,appellate,or myotomy,you probably wont know whatit means.Unlessyou happento bean archi-tect,
a lawyer,
or a doctor, you
would have little
reason to learn these
words.
ARCHAIC words are those that once werecommon but are now rare. You probably do not use wordslike noc-ument
or disloign or profanate,although your great-grandfather mayhave. Archaic words often appearin
older literary
works.
NEW words can also be a problem.
Many words are added to English every yearso
manyin fact that the pub-lishers
of WebstersThird International Dictionaryfind it necessaryto publish a supplement betweenprint-ings.
It takes time for speakers to learn all these new words. The words multimedia
and hypertext, for example, did not exist until quite recently.
FUN FACT
So, how does a person deal with problem
and patience and a large,
of
most unfamiliar
up-to-date
dictionary,
wordsalthough
few of us have unlimited
time
words like these? If you have enough time
Anthropopathism is
you can search out the definitions
very new words
may still cause difficulty.
and patience and still fewer the stamina
the assignment of
HUMAN FEELING
to something not
But
needed to
carry around a copy of WebstersThird International Dictionary.It weighseleven
human, as a deity
or an animal
pounds.
Therefore, it is a great asset to be able to analyze unfamiliar
of reference
materials. In this
book, you
words
without the aid
will learn to do such analysis.
1.5 MEMORIZING
BASE
FORMS
In order to analyze classical
words, you
borrowed
from
Greek. These
English
words. By
Latin
and
memorizing
will need to
a relatively
memorize the
word
parts, called
small
number
most commonly
BASE FORMS,
of these forms,
recurring
occur in
parts of words
many thousands
you can enrich
of
your vocabulary
dramatically.
At the end of each chapter,
to
with the
we will list a group
memory as they are presented.
of base forms.
The easiest way to
You should
commit
these forms
do this is to copy each base form
and their
meaning on the opposite side. You can then shuffle the cards so that you avoid learning
order. Also, base forms
that you know
Be sure to learn these forms
exactly
well can be removed from
as they
are given.
Base forms
mean-ings
onto a small card
the forms
in
the stack.
appear to the left;
Chapter
1
|
The
English
meanings appear to the
Vocabulary
3
right and are surrounded
to learn
all forms
and
by single quotation
marks. Where more than
one form
or
meanings.
1.6 BASE
FORM
SETS
1AND
2
Set 1
Set 2
anthrop man,
due lead,
human
being
auto, tauto self
pull
de-away,
down, from
erg, org, urg work
eu-good,
well
log, leg speak,
gen, gon, gn birth,
write, study
phag eat
iatr treat
pre-, pro-, prae-before,
re-, red-again,
forward
path feel,
back, down
phil love
Chapter
1
|
The
suffer, illness
per-through,
se-apart
4
origin
English
Vocabular
very
meaning is given, be sure
Word
Structure
2.1 MORPHEMES,
THE
UNITS
OFMEANING
People often tend to think
and
of words asindivisible
Mississippi are exactly that.
indivisible
units of
Often, native English
meaning.
many words like run, apple,
borrowed
words represent a sin-gle,
meaning.
Most classical borrowings,
on the other
hand, are composed
of two
meaning. The word rearm, for example,
can be divided into two
weapons and re-means
meaning of rearm, to
the
And, indeed,
words and non-classical
again.
So the
or
more smaller
units, re-and
provide
again
arm.
units, each
with its own
Armmeans provide
with
with weapons, is a composite
of
meanings of its parts.
The meaningful
pieces that
First,
morphemes
units of language.
have individual
Consider the
make up words are called
do not come apart into
MORPHEMES.
smaller
If you break a morpheme into
meaningful
smaller
Morphemes
have four
defining
pieces. They are the smallest
pieces, you get sounds.
But these sounds
meanings.
word
1.
m+a + n
2.
ma + n
3.
m + an
man, for example. It can be divided three
different
that
have a separate
It is hard to imagine
Sometimes the sound
each of the sounds
-n does have a meaning. It
present
past participle
grow
grown
see
seen
take
taken
give
given
draw
drawn
However, the -n in
m + a + n could
man does not
ways:
marks the past participle
mark the past participle
of the
word
ma.
charac-teristics.
meaning-ful
meaning.
of verbs such as these.
do not
Similarly,
the segment
an sometimes
meaning does not apply
segment
carries the
here. The an of
m, of course, carries
meaning one
man simply
no meaning in
word
man (m,
single
morpheme.
meaning of the
ma, an, n) has a meaning that is part of the
Asecond characteristic
overall
of
meaning of the
morphemes is that
word.
as in an apple. But obviously
mean what the an of an apple
this
means. The
English.
Each morpheme in a word usually carries part of the
of the
(indefinite),
does not
each
word. Since none of the possible segments
meaning of
morpheme typically
The word unsportsmanlike,
for
man, we assume that
has a meaning that
example,
man is a
contributes
can be divided into
to the
the following
morphemes.
/un
+ sport
+ s + man + like/
Weknow that the
remains,
which has still
Finally, if
another
characteristic
of
meaning because when we remove it from
different
And if
meaning. If
we remove
man, the
sports, the remaining
contributes
we then
some important
Afourth
blocks for the formation
characteristic
some, like
of
as in the
are units of sound.
word rearm.
only in the
many other words.
not to confuse
Sometimes, the
morphemes
Morphemes act
Most morphemes are quite short.
with syllables.
morpheme and syllable
divisions
The word
Mississippi, for instance,
The word boys, on the other
has four syllables
hand, is
made up of two
defining
characteristics:
but, in
morphemes (boy
word
combinations.
But
Morphemes are units
of a word will coin-cide,
However, this is not always the case. Some words have more syllables than
and some have fewer.
morpheme.
morpheme occurring in
They are not found
of words. The same blocks appear over and over in different
morphemes is that they can be of any length.
mor-phemes
word.
You often find the same
disarm, and
yet again.
yet. Clearly, each of the
meaning of the
what
is sportsman,
sports, is different
different
arm are good examples.
Mississippi, are not. It is important
meaning; syllables
unsportsmanlike,
what remains
word remaining,
piece to the
morphemes is that they are recyclable.
words. The morphemes re-and
remove like,
word sport is still
They also occur in restate, respect, reply, army, armament,
as building
of
meaning.
unsportsmanlike
many different
rearm.
un-carries
has a very
weremove the -s from
in
Athird
morpheme
sportsmanlike,
mor-phemes,
English, is only one
+ plural)
within a single
syllable.
A morpheme, then, has the following
four
1. It has a meaning that cannot
befurther
2. It normally
adds
meaning to the overall
3. It often appears in
4. It
many different
may occupy any number
The study
of
subdivided.
meaning of the
words. (Particularly
word.
true
of classical
morphemes.)
of syllables.
morphemes and how they go together to
make words is called
MORPHOLOGY.
2.2 CLASSES
OFMORPHEMES
There are two
2.2.1
Some
morphemesroots
morphemes that form the basis of words. In the
morphemes con-and
words, such
-ive are affixed.
as herb, ego, nymph,
as whole words are called
other
Words containing
blackberry,
two
airplane,
Chapter
2
port,
ROOTS.
word conducive,
must have at least
are composed
of a single
duc is the basic element to which
one root.
root.
Roots that
can stand
can occur only in combination
by them-selves
with one or
more
The plac of placate and placebo and the pel of propel and expel
never occur alone as words.
or
more roots are called
washboard,
|
and
Every word
FREE ROOTS. Roots that
morphemes are called BOUND
are bound roots; they
6
and affixes.
Roots
ROOTS are
the
major classes of
Word
COMPOUNDS.
or of bound roots:
Structur
Compounds
microbiology, telegraph,
may be composed
anthropomorphic.
of free roots:
2.2.2
Affixes
AFFIXES
are
and
affixes.
other
relation
to
attached
to
morphemes
the
Affixes
root.
the
that
must be attached
are
of three
Those
right
of the
attached
root
are
to a root
types,
depending
to the left
of the
SUFFIXES;
and
or combination
of roots
on
occur
where
root
those
are
they
PREFIXES;
inserted
into
FUN FACT
in
The
those
the
root
MOVEMENTof
plant toward
are
from
INFIXES.
a
or away
LIGHTis
called
phototropism
In
English,
in
some
prefixes
usually
way. Consider
add
information
how these
prefixes
to
or
alter
the
act.
all of these
words
are also
verbs.
In
Typically,
English
prefixes
transact
to
act across
interact
to
act between
enact
put
into
the
word
about
belongs
to,
but
Suffixes,
on the
this
function
act is a verb,
the
only
other
nature
and
of the
the
meaning.
hand,
often
change
a word from
one part
of speech
action
(noun)
act (verb)
active
(adjective)
active
(adjective)
activity
(noun)
active
(adjective)
activate
(verb)
activate
(verb)
activation
change
the
DERIVATIONAL
derivational
able,
to
Infixes
are
affixes
are
are affixes
In fact,
of
part of speech
AFFIXES.
a verb,
rare.
to
are suffixes.
or root-plus-affix
derive
Derivational
or
make new
prefixes,
such
construction
words
as the
that
appear
only
inside
infix
that
a root.
occurs
In
at
some
all in
languages,
English
infixes
is -n-.
The
static
constant
Stig
stigma
distinguish
Tag
contagious
tangible
carries
words.
no
meaning
Since there
the
infix.
infix
in
is no
enable,
which
changes
an adjective,
are quite
common,
but in
English
they
before
the
con-sonant
is inserted
English.
It is simply
when the
n-infix
forms
in
the
glossary
of
a few
shortened
roots
take
frag,
frang;
tag, tang;
stat,
stant;
Affixes
are
almost
always
bound
forms.
ex (short
Identifying
differ
are called
most
just
last
from
affixes
in their
We have
for
with infix
modern
which
are freer
English,
way of predicting
roots:
Roots
to
word. In
roots.
Stat
they
words illus-trate
are attached
n-infix
frangible
2.2.3
The following
adds
a word
they
en-in
fragile
and
merely
of speech
an existing
from
frag
n-infix
another.
prefix
part
exceptional.
the
certain
of the root
That is, they
without
The
the
(noun)
Root
of certain
each case the
do not change
of suffixes.
act (verb)
Affixes that
root
action
act.
modify
of the
root
act back
that
meaning
of the
to
Notice
the
meaning
react
information
modify
listed
ex-wife
or
the
infixed
an historical
remnant,
will appear,
necessary
it is best just
along
with
their
to the form
to
memorize
corresponding
and so forth.
the
exception
ex-husband),
With
affixes
occur
only
in
forms
conjunction
like
pro
with
a stem.
(short
for
pro-fessional)
Roots and Affixes
in
two
distribution.
ways.
First,
they
That is, they
usually
occur in
have
simpler
different
and
more specific
positions
Chapter
in
different
2
|
meanings,
and
second,
words.
Word
Structure
7
The
morpheme
pter, for
example, is clearly
pter in a word, you can be sure it
a root. It has a very specific
will have something
Further, it can appear at the beginning,
to do with
meaningwing.
middle, or end of a word. So, wefind it at the beginning
wing-fingered
one, in the
middle of apteryx one
The morpheme
pro-, on the other hand, is clearly an affix. It has a much less concrete
fact, it can have any of the following
forward
asin
forth
asin
very
for
asin
pronoun word
substituting
promiscuous mixing
very
has very limited
distribution.
meaning than wing.
In
not difficult
always be identified
to decide
In the glossary
may appear
beginning
only at or near the beginning
is when another
what remains
or an affix.
But in case of doubt,
Every word has at least one root. If all the other
a root
can
morphemes
must be the root.
on page 143, prefixes are indicated
marked with a dash to the left, as in -ate; infixes
and roots appear
of a word. The only time
prefix comes before it, as in deprogram.
whether a morpheme is a root
by a process of elimination.
in a word are clearly affixes,
for a noun
much
It
it does not appear at the very beginning
Suffixes are
wing.
forward
labor
It is usually
wings, and at the end of helicopter spiral
meanings:
as in prolabor favoring
asin
Pro-also
without
or feathers.
of pterodactyl
proclaim cry forth
substituting
favoring
propel push
Whenever you see
wings or at the very least flying
by a dash to the right
are
of the form,
as in
pro-.
marked with a dash on each side, as in -n-;
without a dash, asin pter.
2.3 THE
STEM
A STEM is any construction
a compound
other
to
which another
morpheme
may be attached.
Astem
or a root
with one or
more affixes.
The single root
man is a stem because it can have
attached to it:
manly,
of roots,
morphemes
which affixes
may be added: gentlemanly.
same reason:
ungentlemanly.
mankind, gentleman.
The compound
The compound-plus-affix
construction
Astem always contains
may consist
of a single root,
gentleman
is also a stem to
gentlemanly
is a stem for the
at least one root.
2.4 THE
STEM
EXTENDER
Usually, suffixes are attached
a special suffix
called a STEM
Most of them
are relics
have been lost.
directly to a stem.
EXTENDER
of earlier
The
meaningful
most common
However, sometimes
is added. Stem extenders,
morphemes; they carried
stem extenders
a stem cannot take a regular
unlike
most suffixes,
meaning at one time,
are the consonants
With rare exceptions, the vowels a and e never serve as stem extenders.
-t
duc+t+ile,
-s
repul+s+ive,
-o
pter+o+dactyl,
-i
resident+i+al,
-u
fact+u+al,
8
Chapter
explo+s+ion,
ten+s+ile
phon+o+logy,
real+i+ty,
sin+u+ous,
2
reten+t+ion
|
Word
chron+o+graph
sap+i+ent
punct+u+ate
Structur
but their
until
meaning.
mean-ings
t and s and the vowels o, i, and u.
Note:
scrip+t+ure,
suffix
have no
Other, less common,
semi-vowel
stem extenders include
the consonants
r, n, and
mand the
FUN FACT
y:
Autogamous
-r
polyhed+r+on,
-n
bi+n+ary,
-m
hyd+r+ogen,
tri+n+ity,
pneu+m+atic,
-y
These less common
stem extenders
example,
appear in the
need the
help of another
brach+y+cephalic
glossary
attached
plant.
to the roots
brach(y).
Notice that the -n stem extender
differs from
into the root.
whereas the infix is inserted
There are also complex
They dont
stalag+m+ite
stem,
the -n-infix
stem extenders consisting
athletic, the -ec in gynecology,
are SELF
REPRODUCING.
tach+y+scope,
they
with: for
plants
eth+n+ic
cry+m+otherapy,
bath+y+sphere,
occur
quad+r+angl+e
the -ac in tenacity,
of two
in that the stem extender is added to the end of a
or
more letters.
These include
the -et in genetic and
and the -as in fantasy.
2.5 MULTIPLE
AFFIXES
Often, a word will have morethan
add equal
meaning to the
re-back
suffix,
and in-in.
Reinstate, then,
however, the suffixes
of speech.
The other suffixes
suffixes: -ive,
abstract
which
one prefix or suffix. If a word has morethan
word. The word reinstate,
do not carry
may or
Although
meansput
equal
which
has a suffix
for instance,
meaning having
-ic and -al are both adjective suffixes
philosophic,
which
the part of speech of a word, -ic in philosophical
Redundant
suffixes
also occur in
like ethnic and rustic.
changing the
words like sensitive
adjectives such asimplicitand
A redundant
in this
of the same
word activation
has three
which
word, the last suffix -ion
part
marks
deter-mines
meaning. In the word philosophical,
or being.
means essentially the same thing
determines
sensit, the suffix -itmarks
its
word.
Sometimes, a suffix is added to a stem that already
still have an adjective,
the
one
word determines
marks verbs like equate; and -ion,
carry information
mean-ing:
state. If a word has more than
The last suffix in the
meaning. So, for example,
massive; -ate,
all three suffixes
the part of speech for the entire
one prefix, the prefixes usually
has two prefixes, both of which carry
back in (a former)
meaning.
may not add
marks adjectives like
nouns like fusion.
for example,
The -al can be omitted
as philosophical.
is called a REDUNDANT
and bellicose. Even though
decrepit.
there is no such adjective
It could
it is a necessary part of the form
Chapter
2
of the
|
we
SUFFIX.
Similarly, the -ic of bellicose occurs in
suffix is one that adds unnecessary information.
meaning of the word, although
and
Since the last suffix
Word
be omitted
word.
Structure
as
words
with-out
2.6 BASE
FORM
SETS
3AND
4
Set 3
Set 4
ag act
an-lacking,
not
bio life
ander
male
ced, ceed go,
cid cut,
crat
let go
brach(y)
kill
mal,
dys-bad
male bad
nom law
gam marriage,
sexual
woman,
union
phot,
female
phos light
plec fold
pan,
panta
all
reg
trop
turn,
change
soph wise
10
short
epi-on
govern
gyn(ec)
man,
Chapter
2
|
Word
Structur
straight,
lead
English
Prefixes
and
Suffixes
3.1 ENGLISH
PREFIXES
There are three
NUMERICAL
main types
of
English
prefixes:
RELATIONAL
PREFIXES,
NEGATIVE
PREFIXES,
and
PREFIXES.
3.2 RELATIONAL
PREFIXES
Relational
a list
prefixes, the largest
of relational
group of prefixes, denote relationships
that
prefixes. Some of these prefixes have variant forms,
ab-away
occur in space or time.
Following
is
which are listed in the glossary.
hyper-hypo-infra-iso-meta-ob-para-per-pre-re-se-sub-syn-tele-tra-tr
ad-ambi-ana-anti-apo-cata-cis-con-de-dia-dis-epi-ex-hetero-homo-toward
on
both sides
under
beneath
back
equal
opposite
beyond
away
toward
down
beside
on
the side
of
through
together
before
down
back
across
apart
apart
down
on
together
out
far
different
beyond
same
across
1
3.2.1
Temporal
Uses
As you
can see from
the list
However,
these
provided,
basic spatial
most of the
meanings
are often
meanings
extended
to
listed
express
refer
to relationships
in
temporal
relationships
(those
physical
having
space.
to
do
with time) as well. Thus, pre-before (in front of) also meansbefore in time, asin pre-Columbian and preview.
However,
there
are a few
ante-before
relational
prefixes
that
have only temporal
meanings:
(in time)
neo-new
paleo-old
proto-first
3.2.2
Many
Intensive
relational
Uses
prefixes,
to strengthen
or intensify
mean very,
very
declare to
make very
inflammable
very
to
obdurate
very
hard
perfect
completely
to
convey
of the
stems
to
spatial
which they
and
temporal
are attached.
concepts,
Prefixes,
can
when
(for
very
much
has
a number
with spatial
of
words
and
meanings
phrases
is
not
with
spatial
unusual
in languages.
meanings
that
are
In
addition
used
intensively:
far and away
outright
out and out
and through
Exercise
12
whether each of the following
prefixes is used spatially, temporally,
1.
abduct
7.
disrupt
2.
seduce
8.
hyperactive
3.
incision, ciscut
9. condemn, demnharm
4.
prelude
10.
proceed
5.
extend
11.
prognosis
6. deny, nyno
12.
diachronic
Chapter
used as inten-sifiers,
something)
downright
Determine
be used
clear
altogether
through
also
or completely.
use ofmorphemes
English
used
done
mixing
The intensive
meaning
being
flammable
strongly
prefixes,
the
to
visible
stand
promiscuous
addition
strongly,
conspicuous
insist
in
3
|
English
Prefixes
and
Suffixe
or intensively.
to intensive
3.3 NEGATIVE
PREFIXES
Several
prefixes
in
English
usually
carry
the
state,
or simply
bad.
serve
to
negate
the
meaning not.
meaning
However,
of the
they
can
stem
to
also
which
they
mean opposite
are
affixed.
NEGATIVE
of, lacking,
back
to
PRE-FIXES
original
an-dis-in-non-un-anemic
dishonest
inaccurate
nonexistent
unacceptable
3.4 NUMERICAL
PREFIXES
Most numerical
concepts are conveyed
by roots.
However, there
are a few numerical
prefixes.
di-, dich-poly-two
many
hemi-, semi-much,
half
3.5 ENGLISH
SUFFIXES
Although
are
there
many
are quite a few prefixes in
more classes of suffixes.
DERIVATIONAL
English, the suffixes
The two
greatly
main classes of suffixes
outnumber
them.
English,
person,
inflectional
tense,
there
SUFFIXES
and
SUFFIXES.
3.6 INFLECTIONAL
SUFFIXES
In
Furthermore,
are INFLECTIONAL
suffixes
aspect,
indicate
grammatical
and case. Inflectional
-s
plural
-s
possessive
-s
present
-ed
past
tense and past participle
-en
past
participle
-ing
present
-er, -est
comparative,
suffixes
FUN FACT
distinctions
such
Zoophytesarelow
level organismslike
as number,
sea urchins that have
the characteristics of
both PLANTS and
include:
ANIMALS.
tense, third
person
participle
superlative
3.7 DERIVATIONAL
SUFFIXES
The rest of the suffixes in
suffixes:
VERBAL
English are called derivational
SUFFIXES,
ADJECTIVAL
SUFFIXES,
suffixes.
and
There are three
NOMINAL
Chapter
3
|
major types
of derivational
SUFFIXES.
English
Prefixes
and
Suffixes
1
3.8 VERBAL
SUFFIXES
A verbal
suffix
marks
a word
as a verb.
There
are three
kinds
of
verbal
suffixes:
GENERAL,
CAUSATIVE,
and
is a list
of the
most common
general
verb suf-fixes.
MUTATIVE.
3.8.1
General
Verb Suffixes
General
verb suffixes
simply
mark a word as a verb.
deny,
-y
crucify,
ally,
-e
relate,
deduce,
-t
deduct,
3.8.2
Some
verb
-it,
comply
concede,
contact,
conclude
reject,
depict,
elect
Causative Verb Suffixes
causative
-ize,
rely,
Following
suffixes
specifically
suffixes
-ise
have lost
regularize,
-ite
audit,
-ate
causation.
meaning
legalize,
advertise
expedite,
liberate,
3.8.3
denote
their
ignite,
aggravate,
These
and simply
suffixes
mean cause
mark a word
to
as a verb.
be.
In
some
The causative
words,
suffixes
however,
are:
unite
detonate
Mutative Verb Suffixes
Two verb suffixes, -en and esc,
mark change from
one state to another. These mutative suffixes carry the
meaning
change orbecome. Notethat -en occursin native wordsand -escin classical words.
-en
sharpen,
darken,
-esc
coalesce,
effloresce,
redden
adolescent
3.9 ADJECTIVAL
SUFFIXES
Adjectival
suffixes
the
suffixes
can
mark
mean having,
being,
Following
or pertaining
to,
is a list
of frequently
depending
on the
word.
-al
legal
-ate
ornate
-ent
fluent
-ic
basic
-ive
active
-ous
porous
Other less frequently
14
words as adjectives.
occurring
-an
urban
-ane
arcane
-ant
pliant
-ar
lunar
-ary
customary
-id
fluid
-ile
senile
Chapter
3
|
English
suffixes
with the same
Prefixes
and
Suffixe
meaning are:
occurring
meanings
adjectival
of the
other
suffixes.
These
morphemes
in
-ine
saline
-it
implicit
-ite
finite
-ory
savory
-ose
verbose
Two adjectival suffixes, -able and -oid have very specific
meanings. The suffix -able and its variant forms -ible
and -ble mean
capable of being. . ., asin portablecapable of being carried. Thesuffix -oid means
like
resembling, asin anthropoidman-like.
or
3.10 NOMINAL
SUFFIXES
Another large group
ABSTRACT,
3.10.1
of suffixes
AGENTIVE,
General
mark words as nouns.
There are five types
of nominal
suffixes:
Noun Suffixes
General noun suffixes simply
mark a word as a noun.
They usually
meanthing
or substance.
-a
alga
-on
carbon
-em
emblem
-ory
accessory
-ice
notice
-s
chaos
-in
toxin
-t
cult
-m
poem
-um
album
-men
specimen
-ure
fracture
-ment
pigment
-us
fungus
3.10.2
Abstract
Abstract
noun suffixes
mark a word as an abstract
common
suffixes are
marked with an asterisk (*).
Noun Suffixes
noun and
meanact,
state, process,
or result.
-age
damage
-is
stasis
-ate
senate
*-ism
baptism
*-e
importance
-tude
magnitude
-em
problem
*-y
democracy
*-ion
action
3.10.3
Agentive
Agentive
noun
one
or that
who
GENERAL,
PASSIVE, and LOCATIVE.
The
most
Noun Suffixes
suffixes
mark
a
word
as
meaning
a person
or thing
that
Chapter
3
performs
some
act.
These
suffixes
mean
which.
*-er
astrologer
-eer
auctioneer
-ar
templar
-or
actor
|
English
Prefixes
and
Suffixes
1
3.10.4
Passive
In
to the
addition
Noun Suffix
agent
noun
suffixes,
which
denote
a person
or thing
that
does something,
there
is
one
pas-sive
suffix, -ee, which denotes one who undergoes some action. Thus, there are some sets of words distin-guished
by agent
and
passive suffixes:
payer
payee
employer
employee
3.10.5
The
Locative
final
suffixes
type
of
usually
Suffixes
noun
suffix
FUN FACT
marks
mean place
nouns
that
indicate
a location.
These
Bioscopyis
the medical
locative
where.
EXAMINATION of a
bodyto determine
-ary
granary,
estuary
-arium
planetarium,
-eria
cafeteria,
pizzeria
-ery
cemetery,
cannery
-ory
dormitory,
refectory
-orium
auditorium,
whether it is ALIVE
sanitarium
crematorium
3.11 THE
ADVERBIAL
SUFFIX
Onesuffix in English marks words as adverbs. That suffix, -ly, can be affixed to
corresponding
most adjectives to form the
adverb.
public
publicly
regular
regularly
profuse
profusely
3.12 COMMON
SUFFIXES
Following
is a list
cards
memorize
and
Suffix
of the
most common
English
suffixes.
You should
put these
suffixes
and their
Meaning
process,
noun
action
adjective
porous
noun
expense
noun
recluse
verb
relate
noun
biology
-ous
having,
-e
state,
act,
-e
one
who, that
-e
to
-y
state,
-al
having,
being, pertaining
to, -ing
adjective
floral
-ive
having,
being, pertaining
to, -ing
adjective
active
-ist
one
who
noun
activist
-ism
belief
in, state
noun
atheism
being,
result
Example
state,
Chapter
act,
Part of Speech
-ion
16
pertaining
process,
to, -ing
result
which
_______
3
glosses
them.
act, process, result
|
English
Prefixes
and
Suffixes
on flash
Suffix
Meaning
Part of Speech
Example
-ic
having,
being,
pertaining
to, -ing
adjective
phonic
-ate
having,
being,
pertaining
to,
adjective
ornate
-ate
cause
to
verb
liberate
-er, -or
one
who, that
which
noun
employer
-ee
one
who is _______
noun
employee
-ing
_______
3.13 BASE
FORM
SETS
5AND
6
Set 5
Set 6
apo-away
ad-to,
toward
graph,
gram write
con-,
co-together,
frag,
frang
glot,
glos tongue,
with
break
lat carry
in-,
speech
en-not,
neo new,
op eye,
lacking
recent
look
miso hate
ped,
paed, child,
monoone
ped, pod, pus foot
pel push
sen old
pend, pond hang
spec, skep, scop look,
phyt plant
zo animal
Chapter
3
training
|
English
see
Prefixes
and
Suffixes
1
Morphological
Rules
4.1 VARIANT
FORMS
OFMORPHEMES
We have seen that
morphemes are reusable building
blocks for forming
words.
However,
morphemes
do not
necessarily
look exactlythe same everytime they appearin a word.For example,the morphemepel, meaning
push, whichis part ofimpel and propel,hasanotherform, pul,in impulse and propulsion. Thedifferentforms
of a morpheme are called its ALLOMORPHS.
There are two
kinds of allomorphs:
Theforms pel and pul are allomorphs of the morpheme pel.
those that result from
predictable
changes and those that
do not. The allo-morphs
of pel are predictable. They do not occur randomly in words. Instead, pul occurs if the next sound in
the wordis a consonant, and pel occurs everywhere else.
That pel hasan allomorph pul can be explained by a general rule. This rule applies to many morphemes end-ing
in el or ol. It is stated like this: an e or o followed byl changes to uif another morpheme beginning with a
consonantfollows the l. Thisrule accountsfor the uin impulse and propulsionas wellasthat in catapult,insult,
cult, inculcate, emulsion,and manyother words.
Becausea general rule accounts for predictable allomorphs like pul, you need not memorizethem. Rather, you
can learn
one form
before any rules
for each
morpheme.
The rules
have changed it is called its
Unpredictable
allomorphs,
good example.
There is no way to predict
on the other
will predict the
other forms.
The forms
of a morpheme
Allomorphs
containing
an n-infix
are a
Consider the
words
BASE FORM.
hand,
must be memorized.
when the allomorph
with the infix
will occur.
frangible and fragile. Both allomorphs (with and without the infix) occur at the beginning of the word and
both are followed by the sound, i. Therefore, nothing about the sound structure of the word can be usedto
predict whetherfrang orfrag will appear.
Most unpredictable
longer
allomorphs
are. Some, like those
are the remains
with the n-infix,
of processes that
are ancient fossils,
were once active in the language
dating
back
many centuries.
but no
Others, like the
allomorphs septand heptseven in septennialand heptagon,wereborrowedfrom differentsources.In this case,
sept wasborrowedfrom Latin and heptfrom Greek.Since Greekand Latin arerelatedlanguages,the forms are
similar
but not identical.
Whatever the
Wehave listed all unpredictable
the base form
history
allomorphs
and any unpredictable
of such forms,
however, they
must be memorized.
in the glossary of this text. Predictable allomorphs
allomorphs
devoted to rules for predicting the distribution
are listed for each morpheme.
of allomorphs.
are not listed:
Chapters V, VII, and VIII
Such rules are called
MORPHOLOGICAL
only
will be
RULES.
1
4.2 MORPHOLOGICAL
RULES
The
rules
gravity.
we
will
Laws
are
Morphological
be
should
exceptionless.
rules
Nevertheless,
discussing
they
If
you
have
exceptionsin
useful
because
are
not
step
be
viewed
off
a cliff,
some
they
as laws
you
cases,
represent
FUN FACT
will fall
quite
patterns
like
the
every
a few
rather
law
time.
work, it
will leave
the
morpheme
in the
base form,
which
you
than
random
already
knowin
this case,pel. Therefore, exceptions are not a problem. In fact, they are easierto
interpret
than
allomorphs
the
rule
Whether
can
that
apply
have
to
been changed
a particular
by rule.
morpheme
or not
Dostoyevskyand
Van Gogh,had a
exceptions.
change.If the rule works,it will workin the waystated. For example, pel always
becomespul whena consonantfollows. It never becomespal or pil. If the rule does
not
Many artists and
writers, including
of
depends
brain CONDITION
called hypergraphia
that causedthem to
WRITEor DRAW
EXCESSIVELY.
on three
things:
1.
The shape
of the
morphemethat
is,
2.
Where in the
word the
morpheme
3.
What other
morphemes
occur
what sounds
occursat
the
it contains
or how
beginning,
middle,
many syllables
it
has.
or end.
near it.
Thus,the rule that changeseto uin impulse only affects morphemes1) endingin el or ol, 2)that occur atthe
beginning
or in the
Morphological
RULES.
those
rules
Those that
that
middle
of a word,
are of three
change
add a sound
to
types.
a sound
in
a morpheme
and
3) are followed
Those that
the
remove
morpheme
are called
by a
morpheme
a sound
ADDITION
a
begins
with
a consonant.
morpheme
are called
DELETION
other
sound
are called
CHANGE
RULES.
RULES.
In the
next chapter,
to some
from
that
we will look
And
at dele-tion
rules.
4.3 BASE
FORM
SETS
7AND
8
Set 7
Set 8
anti-against,
den,
odon
can,
tooth
ex-, ec-out,
flec bend,
opposite
away
turn
hypo-under,
cyn dog
col live,
grow
hema,
em blood
hetero different
not
enough
homo-,
it go
produce
onym name
seg cut,
proto
first
tele-far
20
hyper over,
Chapter
much
pyr fire
nom,
super,
homeo-same
poly-many,
par beget,
FUN FACT
too
4
|
much
Morphological
theo god
Rule
split
The ancient Romans
called stones that
could be used to
create FIRE pyrites.
Wenow usethe word
to refer to only one
kind of stone:
a gold colored iron
sulfide also known
asfools
gold.
Deletion
Rules
A number
called
of
morphological
DELETION
rules
in
English
involve
the loss
of some
sound
from
rule.
This rule
accounts
a
morpheme.
for the
alternate
Such rules
are
RULES.
5.1 VOWEL
DELETION
The
most common
prefixes,
such
of these is the
VOWEL
DELETION
anti-apo-cata-dia-meta-anti+pathy
The same rule affects roots
many
would look
apo+logy
ap+anthropy
cata+log
cat+egory
dia+meter
di+uretic
meta+morphic
met+onymy
and suffixes.
auto+graph
aut+ism
miso+gyny
mis+anthrope
theo+logy
poly+the+ism
cre+ate
cre+at+ion
exactly like another
peri-(per-),
prefix if vowel deletion
occurred
usually
do not undergo this rule.
ana-(an-)
The vowel deletion rule removes the last vowel of a morpheme if the following
as in the right-hand
follows,
of
ant+agonize
auto-miso-theo--ate
Prefixes that
forms
as the following.
column
of words listed.
as in the left-hand
column,
If the following
morpheme
begins
morpheme begins
with a consonant
with a vowel,
or no
mor-pheme
the rule does not apply.
2
In English morphology,the sound h usually behaveslike a vowel rather than a consonant. Therefore, mor-phemes
beginning with h also causevowel deletion.
anti-apo-cata-para-ant+helion
ap+horism
cat+holic
par+helic
It is important
keep
to
their
vowel
that
follows.
note
that
even
when
this
rule
they
is restricted
occur
next
to
to
morphemes
a
morpheme
of two
beginning
bi-de-re-bi+ped
or
more
with
vowels.
a vowel,
One-vowel
as in
the
morphemes
right-hand
col-umn
bi+ennial
de+duce
de+oxidize
re+ply
re+act
Exercise
Circle the
word in
each
pair that
has undergone
1.
theology
theanthropy
2.
autistic
automatic
3.
monism
monogamy
4.
misanthrope
misogynist
5.
telescope
telautograph
6.
catalog
cathedral
7.
homorganic
homogeneous
vowel
deletion.
5.2 E-DELETION
Another common deletion rule affects morphemesthat end in either -er or -or. The E-DELETION RULE
deletesthe e or oif the following morphemebegins with a vowel.
mater
mater+nal
matr+ilineal
member
dis+member
membr+ane
meter
dia+meter
metr+ic
salt+peter
petr+ify
peter
This rule, like
vowel
this
also
22
rule
deletion,
affects
stems
usually
affects
consisting
act+or
actr+ess
ancest+or
ancestr+al
aviat+or
aviatr+ix
en+ter
entr+ance
Chapter
5
|
Deletion
Rule
morphemes
of a root
and
of two
or
more syllables.
However,
unlike
vowel
dele-tion,
suffix.
FUN FACT
An astrocyte is a
CELL that hasthe
shape of a STAR.
Exercise
Circle the words that
have undergone
e-deletion.
1. androgynous
5.
remember
2.
meter
6.
philande
3. central
7.
center
4.
8.
remembrance
metric
5.3 S-DELETION
Athird deletion rule, S-DELETION, affects morphemesbeginning with ans,such asthe following:
ser
in+ser+t
ex+er+t
spec
re+spec+t
ex+pec+t
sist
re+sist
ex+ist
secu
con+secu+tive
ex+ecu+tive
spir
in+spir+e
ex+pir+e
Asyou canseefrom theseexamples,if a morphemebeginning with ans is precededbythe prefix ex-,the ini-tial
s is lost.
LEARNMOREABOUTLINGUISTICS!
To write rules like the ones found
to represent rules in this
in this chapter, linguists
book. This shorthand
widely used. The
main difference is that in
However, in this
book, for the sake of consistency
English alphabet to represent
The rules take the following
A
? B/
D ________
where Ais the sound
sounds
We use a form
phonology,
sounds
are represented
with spelling,
where it is
using a phonetic
we will usually
useletters
alphabet.
of the conven-tional
sounds.
form:
E
being affected,
English, the notation
Some symbols
?
Bis what it changes to, and
D and E show the environment
used in this
above reads: A
notation
becomes B when it occurs between
of other
becomes
/
when it occurs
C
any consonant
[+voice]
voiced
V
any vowel
[-voice]
voiceless
+
morpheme
Lets look
at this
notation
D and E.
are:
nothing
?
of this shorthand
phonology,
where this change happens.
So, in plain
s
use shorthand.
has a different look in generative
for a rule youve just learned:
the s-deletion
boundary
rule.
/ x +_________
Orin other words, s becomes nothing (i.e., is lost)
Try writing formulae
whenit occurs after a morpheme ending in x.
for the other rules as you learn them.
Chapter
5
|
Deletion
Rules
23
LEARNMOREABOUTLINGUISTICS!
Whats really
happening in the s-deletion
The letter
in English, except at the beginning
x
Try it! Say these
words aloud:
box, rocks,
the ones ending in the spelling
cks.
rule?
of words, actually
Sox, socks.
consists of two sounds together:
The words ending in the letter
Both are the sound combination
x
should
/ks/.
sound like
/ks/.
Nowlets look atthe wordexpect. The morphemes
in it are/ex +spec +t/. Butex is phonetically/eks/,
isnt
it? This puts two /s/s next to one another in the
word: /eksspekt/.
English phonotactic constraints (rules of sound combinations) do not allowthe pronunciation of two /s/s
nextto oneanotherin a wordlike this. (Dont confusethis withspellingtwo ss, asin possible.)
To resolve this
that
problem, the s-deletion
wesaw in the
rule
drops the second
morphemes is now gone, and
we have the
pronounced
/s/. The result is that the letter
s
word expect.
Exercise
What sound
1.
or sounds
have been deleted from
pyrolatry
____
2. isandrous
____
3. extant
____
4. expectation
____
each of the following
words?
____
____
5.4 D-DELETION
Another deletion rule, D-DELETION, affects morphemes ending in d. Whenevera morpheme beginning with
s follows one ending in d,the dis deleted.
24
cid
de+cid+e
de+cid+s ion
decision
clud
con+clud+e
con+clud+s+ion
conclusion
pend
ex+pend
ex+pend+sive
expensive
plod
ex+plod+e
ex+plod+sive
explosive
trud
pro+trud+e
pro+trud+sile
protrusile
Chapter
5
|
Deletion
Rule
Exercise
Circle the word in each set that
has undergone
1. abrasive
abrade
2. divide
division
3. pretend
pretense
4. extensible
extend
5. collide
collision
d-deletion.
5.5 VOWEL-C-DELETION
VOWEL-C-DELETION affects morphemesendingin a vowelfollowed by c or g.If the verbsuffix -y is added
to one of these morphemes,boththe final vowel andthe c or g are deleted.
spec
spec+tacle
sp+y
plec
im+plic+it
im+pl+y
fac
de+fec+tion
de+f+y
fic
cruci+fix+ion
cruci+f+y
neg
neg+ate
de+n+y
lig
re+lig+ion
re+l+y
Note: The changes occurring
in the
morphemes in the center column
will be discussed in
Chapter 7.
5.6 N-DELETION
The final two
deletion
rules
However, in each case, the
we will consider
are somewhat
morpheme is a very common
different.
one that
They affect only one
appears in
morpheme
each.
many words so the rules are use-ful
to know.
Thefirst one of these morpheme rules is N-DELETION.
if the following
morpheme
begins
with a consonant.
an+emic
a+theist
an+onymous
a+pathy
an+archy
a+political
an+orexia
a+trophy
an+oxia
a+symmetry
N-deletion removes the n of the morpheme an-not
The examples that follow
illustrate
this rule.
Notethat the sound h behaveslike a vowel once more,so wefind forms like these.
an+hydrous
an+harmonic
an+hedral
Chapter
5
|
Deletion
Rules
2
This rule
maylook
suspiciously
like a rule you learned in grade school to
help you remember
when to use the
articles a and an. Thatrule says:use an before wordsbeginning witha vowel or an h, and usea before words
beginning
with a consonant.
Basically, this is the same rule as the one we have been discussing. It is stated dif-ferently,
but the results are the same.
an apple
FUN FACT
anarchy
an historical
event
a pear
anhydrous
Veternarians
apolitical
sometimes prescribe
an anticoprophagic
Thisrule doesnot applyto other prefixesendingin n such asen-or in-.
medicine that
PREVENTS dogs
from EATIN
Exercise
Circle the
words that
have undergone
n-deletion.
1. aphotic
2. anaerobic
3. anomalous
4. anarchy
5. asystematic
6. atomic
5.7 X-DELETION
The other rule affecting only one morpheme,X-DELETION, deletesthe x of the prefix ex-out, away when
the
following
morpheme
begins
with
a voiced
consonant.
A VOICED
CONSONANT
is
one that
involves
vibration of the vocal cords. In English, the voiced consonants are b, d, g,j, l, m,n, r, v, w,y, z. The remaining
consonants,those madewithout vocal cord vibration, arecalled VOICELESS.Thex remainsif either a voice-less
consonant
or a vowel
follows.
Voiceless consonants
p
ex+pel
t
ex+tend
k(q)
ex+quisite
s(c)
ex+cise
Vowels
a
ex+alted
o
ex+odus
e
ex+empt
u
ex+uberant
ex+it
h
ex+hale
m
e+mit
i
Voiced consonants
j
26
b
e+bullient
d
e+ducate
l
e+licit
g
e+gress
r
e+rase
e+ject
v
e+volve
Chapter
5
|
Deletion
Rules
LEARNMOREABOUTLINGUISTICS!
Did you know that
Try this!
you dont
Put your thumb
aloud [ffffvvvvffffvvvv],
to
and forefinger
made
with
memorize
this
English vowel sounds
which consonants
gently on the front
going back and forth
what you feel your larynx
A sound
have to
of your throat
between the sounds [f]
doing. You should feel a vibration
vibration
are voiced.
is
called
are voiced and
voiced,
Asfor consonants,
which are which, put your fingers to your throat
while
which arent?
(where
your larynx
and [v], all the
is).
Then say
while paying attention
during [v] that you dont feel during [f].
a sound
made
English includes
and try them
without
it is called
voiceless.
All
both voiced and voiceless. If you forget
out!
5.8 BASE
FORM
SETS
9AND
10
Set 9
Set 10
ante-, anti-before,
ana-back,
again
anth flower
cata-down,
away
aster star
chrom color
copro dung
dis-, di-away,
greg flock
fer, pher, phor bear,
iso equal
hyd(r) water
maniintense
meta-beyond
desire
old
not
send
later worship
morph form
metermeasure
stat, stit, st stay, stand
multi many
tag, tang touch,
feel
Chapter
5
|
Deletion
Rules
2
as
k,
by
th
t,
p,
conso-nant
x.
ex-,
and
out,
consonant,
the
any
ch,
followed
except:
mit
ducate
quisite
pel
prefix
gress
alted
tend
rase
ject
volv
licit
is,
X-DELETION
sh,
+bullient
bath.
+
+
+
+
ex
ex
ex
ex
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
ex
ex
ex
ex
ex
ex
ex
voiced
s,
When
meaning
Deletes
away.
The
a
in
that
f,
ex
a
begins
n.
an-,
following
not.
h)it
like
the
consonant
the
pathy
political
+
+
+
+
+
an
an
an
an
an
theist
a
symmetry
trophy
prefix
N-DELETION
When
meaning
The
morpheme
Deletes
with
behaves
vowel.
(except
c
g:
-y
or
and
C/G
ending
c
+
+
mor-phemes.)
suffix
y
really
tion
ion
+
but
vowel
but
+
y
but
+
+
lig
lig
+
+
re
re
acle
up
y
rule
verb
DELETION
+
+
fec
fac
+
+
vowel
VOWEL
g.
a
Morphemes
With
Deletes
neg
in
spec
fac
(This
or
de
chews
spec
spec
e
sion
+
+
de
lig
s
d.
an
mor-pheme
in
ending
sive
a
with
+
morpheme
vs.
vs.
d.
ending
after
a
RULESRULE:
cid
cid
+
+
de
de
pend
pend
+
+
ex
ex
D-DELETION
d.
When
Morphemes
Deletes
beginning
comes
in
s.
ex-.
s.
begin-ning
initial
t
t
an
+
DELETION
t
t
prefix
+
vs.
+
+
vs.
vs.
the
with
the
spec
ser
ser
spec
sist
sist
S-DELETION
+
+
+
+
+
+
Morphemes
Deletes
After
ex
ex
re
in
ex
re
or
of
or
end-ing
-or,
that
-or.
begins
ane
e
or
or
+
the
ess
ilineal
ic
+
+
ify
suffix
-er
consisting
+
vowel.
-er
following
+
+
a
in
o.
in
E/O-DELETION
the
Morphemes
morpheme
mater
end
root
meter
peter
the
If
stems
member
Deletes
with
act+or
2
h.
stem
root
kinds
or
dont
with
or
multi-vowel
last
ion
all
and
DELETION
+
begins
a
vowels.
to
andry
the
helic
vowel
morpheme.
agonize
following
hellion
egory
ism
androus
of
ist
horism
holic
uretic
+
+
a
+
+
ate
+
+
+
+
+
+
act
+
+
more
affixes
the
VOWEL
morpheme
morphemes
Deletes
with
of
extender
or
(Mono-syllabic
morphemes
Applies
vowel
change:
re+
miso
anti
apo
If
change?
What
What
morpheme?
What
environment?
EXAMPLES:
1.
28
Chapter
2.
5
|
Deletion
Rules
3.
cata
dia
auto
theo
anti
cre
apo
cata
para
Word
Analysis
In
Chapter
method
1, three
methods
of expanding
English
words
of
for
your
classical
origin
vocabulary
is
analysis,
were identified.
often
Among
referred
to
these
the
as decomposition
most efficient
or
WORD
ANALYSIS.
6.1 WORD
ANALYSIS
Word analysis
a
with
is a process involving
number
memorization,
common
base
forms
you
can compute
the
meanings
process
of analyzing
unknown
which
of
and
computation,
morphological
of
many unfamiliar
words for
and imagination.
rules,
as you
are
words. In this
now
chapter,
To begin,
doing.
you
These
must
are
the
mem-orize
tools
we will discuss the step-by-step
meaning.
Word Analysis
Imagination
Computation
om ut
on
Memorization
emor
on
2
6.2 THEWORD
ANALYSIS
METHOD
When
the
you
analyze
a
word,
word is analyzable;
us look
at each
6.2.1
The
morphemes
to
you
and
commit
to
tools
of
word
analysis.
reviewing
you
Imagine
that
are reading
you
Is
word
and
the
will
until
play
words
do not look
while,
such
being
ones
1.
words
you
like
and you encounter
candidate
for
from
exotic
borrowed
it is
tools,
the
you can recall
them
and the
analyze
word
new
common
you
under-stand
words.
base forms
of
better
well. In fact,
you.
If
you
did
Also,
practice
available
only
overlearn
thisnot
detecting
the
and sharp,
you
them.
one
rules
can
other
at
work.
begin
analy-sis.
be analyzed.
easy
to
detect.
words
They
we have
out at you.
you
do not know.
Remember
that
some
do
contain
the
languages
not
The first
thing
words
cannot
you
morphemes
must
be ana-lyzed.
you
have
lack
the
common
prefixes
been
working
with.
for
example,
at the following
Look,
and
suffixes
you
have learned.
of letters (such as sh and gh) not found in classical words.
After
you
have been
analyzing
words
list.
Which
words strike
unanalyzable
words.
These
for
a
you
as
analyze?
necropsy
4. jactation
11.
jujitsu
5.
mackinaw
12.
pease-pod
6.
orate
13.
shibboleth
7.
wentletrap
14.
If you
picked
monotrophic
3, 5, 7, 8, 11, 12, and
Basque,
not candidates
a word
analysis?
of rules.
10.
Objibwa,
Dutch,
analysis.
If you
for
13, you can already
West African,
encounter
detect
Japanese,
an unfamiliar
Middle
English,
word that
cannot
and
words
Hebrew.
be analyzed,
came,
They
look
are,
it
up
dictionary.
But once you
begin
have determined
Parse the
The first
step in
process
of its
that
a word is, indeed,
one that
can
be analyzed,
you
is
Word
analyzing
called
morphemes,
a word is to
divide
it into
its
component
morphemes.
a word
has
been
we separate
PARSING.
To show
that
including
stem
extenders,
word reduction
would be parsed re+duc+t+ion.
30
6
Chapter
|
Word
FUN FACT
Erotomania is a
PSYCHOSIS in
which a person
analysis.
6.2.3
all
Let
tools,
can
3. jailai
This
meaning.
your
a word
paronymous
can
its
that
these
whether
determine
9.
the
6) compute
determine
Without
tools
2. isomagnetic
in
2)
well-honed
have your
opah
therefore,
them;
and
a part
a possible
are
the
not
numbers
affect
analysis.
considerably.
8.
from
of
Once you
dextrorotory
respectively,
to
the
become
vocabulary
by the same set
will jump
could
you
Learn
They contain letters (such as w) and combinations
They just
that
more numerous
more readily
be for
they
the
a textbook
words
do they
unanalyzable
rules
Word as Analyzable
this
words
nor
know,
nature.
must be able to
are the
As with any job,
your
second
the
Native
them
have increased
will be like
is,
words.
memory
part
and
the
Rules
it
Identify
Usually,
and
easier
would
memorized;
5) gloss them;
the
too,
yourself
base forms;
rules,
6.2.2
ask
its
you
is a crucial
But, first,
and
more base forms
practicing
Soon that,
base forms
The
morphological
thingyou
4) identify
its
order.
Base Forms
and rules
know
unfamiliar
Memorization
Keep
steps in
1)
analyze
easier the task.
the
must:
3) parse it;
of these
Memorize
impossible
you
Analysi
with
plus
parsed,
marks (+).
Thus, the
believesthat a
stranger or celebrity
is in LOVE with
him or her.
Here are some hints to help you parse new words. First, look
you know? If so, parse these first.
What is left
at the word carefully.
will then
Does it have prefixes or suf-fixes
be easier to deal with. So, for instance, if you
wish
to analyze the word reduction, you will first peel off the suffix -ion and the prefix re-. Then, look for stem
extenders. The -t on the end of duct is a good candidate since t is afrequent stem extender. If you remove the
t, whatis left, duc,looks very muchlike aroot.
The second step, then, is to identify
root,
with or without
affixes.
the root,
root
port
root+suffix
portable
prefix+root
import
prefix+root+suffix
important
Compounds
of two roots,
two roots are relatively
with or without
rare.
Find the
of the
of the
that
words
most commonly
have a sin-gle
Words containing
more than
are very common.
less common.
every word
must have at least one root. If you have
you have made a mistake.
Morphemes
word into its component
morphemes; that is, the form
word. English
affixes, are somewhat
word has no root,
Base Forms
Once you have parsed the
the
of the
configurations
When parsing, remember
parsed in such a way that your
6.2.4
or roots,
The following
morphemes, it is necessary to determine
morpheme
before any rules have been applied.
the base forms
To do this, you
of
must
applythe rulesin reverse.So,for instance,if a word hasthe surfaceform autarchy,it will be parsedaut +arch
+ y. However, becausevowel deletion has applied, the actual baseform of the first morpheme is auto. This is
where your skills as a detective come into play. You havelearned a baseform auto, but not aut. You have also
learned a rule, vowel deletion, to explain what happened to the o in autarchy. You can therefore befairly cer-tain
that the first
forms
6.2.5
morphemeof autarchyis auto. Theform of the word autarchy, parsedand withits base
restored, is indicated
Gloss the
with slash
marks (/): /auto+arch+y/.
Word
The next step is to assign a meaning, or gloss,
to each
morpheme and to the
whole word. This process is called
GLOSSING. For instance, the word autarchy is composed of the morphemes auto, meaningself, archgov-ern,
and -y state of. Noticethat glossesareindicated by single quotation marks(). A good glossfor autarchy,
then, is state
of self government.
Notice that, in a gloss, the
meanings do not always occur in the same order as the
morphemes in the
word.
Frequently, in fact, they occur in the reverse order. Consider the word podiatrist, for example. Podiatrist is
composed of three morphemes:podfoot, iatr treat and-ist one who. The glossfor the entire word,howev-er,
is not foot
treat
Notice, too, that in
one who but one
producing
who treats the foot.
an understandable
word gloss you
must not only decide on the
most logical
orderfor the morphemeglosses,you mustsometimes add grammatical markers.Thetense markers ontreats
and the definite article the are not part of the
an understandable
meaning for the
Although it is sometimes
morpheme glosses; but they are nevertheless necessaryto pro-duce
English phrase.
The goal in glossing, remember,
word from the
meanings of its parts. This is
necessary to add grammatical
information
is to produce
a logical
where your imagination
to the gloss, you
and compre-hensible
comes in.
must be very careful not
to add otherinformation that is not presentin the morphemes.
In glossingthe word dentist,you haveonlythe
morphemesdenteeth and -istone who,but glossingdentistone whoteeth is hardlysensible.Youarethere-fore
constrained to add a neutral verb like do. A good glossfor dentist would be one who doessomething to
teeth. The morphological information in dentist does not allow the glossone whofixes teeth. Although that is
the dictionary
definition,
fixing is not specifically
mentioned in the
morphemes.
This
mayseem trivial
in rela-tionship
to dentist,a wordyou alreadyknow. Butit becomesfar lesstrivial whenyou areanalyzing unfamiliar
words. One of the
most common
errors
madein glossing is adding information
Chapter
not present in the
6
|
Word
morphemes.
Analysis
3
Remember,a glossis not a dictionary definition.It is aliteral definition basedon the meaningsof the mor-phemes
in the
word.
Another
common
error
The final
suffix
of a word,
is failure
you
to incorporate
the information
will remember,
usually
carried
tells
what
by a derivational
part
of speech
the
suffix
word
into
the
gloss.
belongs
to.
So, if
a word ends in -ion, we know it is an abstract noun; if it ends in -ize, weknow it is a causative verb, and if it
ends in -ous or -al, we can be fairly certain it is an adjective. Of course, this method is not fool-proof. Some
suffixes,such as-ate, can marknouns, verbs,and adjectives,andindividual words maysometimes be decep-tive.
Usually,
however,
the final
or derivational
suffix
is a good
indicator
of
part
of speech.
If
a word
ends in
an agent noun suffix, then its gloss mustbe in the form of an agent noun. For example, the -er on the end of
astrologer tells usthat the gloss musttake the form one whostudies the stars, whereasthe -y on astrology tells
us its
gloss
A third
the
must
be the
common
morphemes
meaning,
conjunction
glossing
in
part
study
a
with the
error
word.
of the task
of the
stars.
is choosing
Since
base
of glossing
meanings
is
of the
an inappropriate
forms
often
deciding
other
have
for
one
one
of
than
meaning
is
most logical
in the
word.
For example,
which
morphemes
meaning
more
FUN FACT
possible
Lithofractor is an
explosive compound
in
of nitroglycerine
usedfor
the wordincise is composed of the morphemesin-\ in, into, cidcut, kill, an s stem
extender, and the verb suffix -e. Although it would be possible to glossincise kill
in,
this
makes little
gloss is cut
into.
will almost
always
6.2.6
sense in the sentence
If two
equally
Compute
the
doctor
incised
glosses
can be
made, the rest
correct
the tumor.
BREAKING
The best
ROCK.
of the sentence
choice.
Meaning
Once you have assigned the
technical
logical
give a clue to the
The
word aliteral
ones, have dictionary
meaning, you
definitions
may or may not be finished.
that are very similar
to their literal
analysis is necessary. Compare, for example, the glosses of the following
Many words, particularly
meanings. In such cases, no fur-ther
words with the definitions
given
for them in the American Heritage Dictionary.
Word
Gloss
brachypterous
having
short
demophobia
fear
of people
Abnormal
dendrology
the
study
The
monochromatic
having
phyloid
resembling
phytophagous
plant
For words like these, glossing is sufficient
are this easy. Sometimes,
the current
Definition
wings
Having
of trees
one color
short
a leaf
fear of crowds
botanical
Having
Feeding
to determine
the full
meaning of the
meaning of a word has drifted
some
word.
study of trees
only one color
Resembling
eating
wings
a leaf, leaflike
on plants
However, not all words
distance from
its original
gloss.
Consider,for example,the worddecide. Decidemeans
literally cut away. Butthis gloss will clearly notsuffice
as a definition for decide. You cannot say The
meansto
conclude
hunter decided the underbrush
or settle: that is, to cut away all alternatives
with a machete. Decide now
but one. None of this extra information
is pres-ent
in the morphemesof decide.Fortunately, mostof the wordsthat haveundergonesuch extreme meaning
changes are words you already
If the information
is found
Often the combination
Consider the following
Chapter
The definitions
in the gloss is insufficient
may help.
sentences.
in the gloss and the context
32
know.
6
|
Word
to tell
you the
Analysi
words are usually quite similar
meaning
of the
word, the context
of gloss and context is enough to tell
Can you determine
of the sentence?
of rare
the
you
meaning of the underlined
to their
in
glosses.
which the
what the
word
word
means.
word from information
1. Doctorsbelievethat endogenousdepressionis causedby a biochemicalimbalance.
2. Syndactylismof the lower extremity is lessrare. . . it is not uncommon to seetwo of the toes united as
far
as the first
interphalangeal
joint.
3. They are generally excellent xenagogues and delight in guiding people through their country.
4. Specialfurnaces werecontrolled by the assistance of electrical pyrometers.
In
each of these
sentences,
there
are clues to the
meaning
of the
underlined
word. In
sentence
2, for
example,
the meaning of syndactylism, state of having digits together, is restated later in the sentence astoes united.
If the gloss of syndactylism did not give sufficient information, this sort of reinforcement should clarify the
meaning
of the
word.
LEARNMOREABOUTLINGUISTICS!
Now that
youre learning
Of course, you can look
all of these new words, you
up the pronunciation
may be wondering:
in a dictionary.
knowing which syllable to stress. Taking two
How do I pronounce
However, one shortcut
that
them?
can help is sim-ply
words you already know, photograph and photography,
noticethat phtograph is stressedonthe first syllable and photgraphy onthe second.
Does this
mean that
order to determine
English stress is unpredictable?
the stress, but for the classical
No. There are words that
you
will have to look
words in this book, some general
up in
patterns exist. First, its
important to notethat Englishstressis determinedfrom the end of the word,notthe beginning. For many
nouns and adjectives, stress
the
penultimate
(second from
will fall
on the antepenultimate
(third
from
the end) syllable; for verbs, often
the end).
Letslook atthe examples,photographand photography,both nouns.
Wedividethem into syllables(not morphemes!),starting with photograph.
PHO
+
to
+
graph
XX
antepenultimate
3rd
from
X
penultimate
end
2nd
from
syllable
beats
ultimate
end
end
Nowheres photography:
pho
+
TO
+
more to
+
phy
XX
X
X
antepenultimate
penultimate
ultimate
In both cases, notice that its the antepenultimate
There is
gra
English stress than this,
syllable that receives the stress.
but this is a useful place to start.
Chapter
6
|
Word
Analysis
3
6.3 WORD
ANALYSIS
TIPS
Here
1.
are
some
tips
that
Only classical
will
words
be
can
helpful
in
analyzing
be analyzed
words.
using the
2. Classical words never contain the letter
w.
3.
Begin
then
4.
Most words gloss from
parsing
5. EVERY
by removing
WORDHAS
the
suffixes,
methods
the
outlined
in this
book.
prefixes.
right to left.
AT LEAST
ONE ROOT. If you have analyzed a word as having
PREFIXES
CAN BE USED INTENSIVELY.
no root, you have
misparsed.
6.
ALL RELATIONAL
If you cannot
make sense of a gloss
because of the prefix, try glossing the prefix asvery.
7. Suffixes other than the final suffix
8.
often carry
A gloss is not the same as a dictionary
of the
definition.
morphemes in a word; a dictionary
9. Every stem contains
at least one root.
10. STEM EXTENDERS
ALWAYS FOLLOW
11. Stemextendersandthe -n-infix
no meaning.
definition
A gloss is a meaning
made up only of the
often contains
cultural
A STEM; they
additional
never follow
meanings
material.
a prefix alone.
haveaform but no meaning.Therefore,they appearin the parsebut
not in the gloss.
12.
When a root ending in a consonant
is followed
by a root
beginning
with a consonant,
a vowel stem
extender (o, i, u, y) will usually appear between the two roots.
13.
14.
Classical words of three
WHAT CANNOT
or
more syllables are usually stressed on the third
BE PREDICTED
MUST BE MEMORIZED;
syllable from
what can be predicted
the end.
need not be
memorized.
15.
Glosses should
be parsimonious
(short
and simple
while still capturing
the
meaning in grammatical
English).
6.4 SUMMARY
English has an extremely
rich and varied vocabulary.
No speaker knows all the
It is, therefore,
have a method for analyzing
unfamiliar
useful to
The method outlined
Step 1:
here involves
cannot
frustration,
Step5:
be analyzed
up in the dic-tionary.
morphemes and rules in this book. To save yourself time
to analyze is a candidate
and
for analysis.
Parsethe word. Thatis, divideit into its component morphemes.Peeloff familiar affixesfirst;
the root
or roots.
Restore
the baseforms of any morphemesthat haveundergonerules.
Assigna glossto each morphemein the word. Then,createalogical phrasecomposed ofthe
literal
morphemes.
This phrase is the gloss for the entire
word, also called its
meaning.
Determine the meaning of the word. For many words, this step is unnecessary becausetheir literal
meanings are the only
34
using the
word you are trying
glosses of the individual
Step 6:
them
word as analyzable. Native words and words borrowed from exotic lan-guages
be sure the
then try to identify
Step4:
without looking
six steps.
Memorizeas manycommon baseforms and morphological rules as possible.
Step 2: Identify the unfamiliar
Step3:
words
words in the English language.
from
their
larger
Chapter
meanings they
have. But other
words have meanings that
gloss. In such cases, it is necessary to look
at the context
discourse in
which the
meaning.
6
Analysi
|
original
Word
word appears to determine
its
have drifted
of the sentence
away
or
6.5 BASE
FORM
SETS
11AND
12
Set 11
arch,
Set 12
archae first,
govern
cad fall
ero physical
love
ambi,
amphi
brad(y)
slow
dendr tree,
equi even
peter rock
lith, lit stone
behind
on both
sides
bush
mortdeath
post, poster after,
both,
stru, struc build
rh, rrh flow
ten hold
son sound
top place
spir breathe
ven bring,
come
vor eat
vir male,
man
Chapter
6
|
Word
Analysis
3
Change
Rules
The rules that
we considered
we will now look
in
at affect
a
Chapter
morpheme,
5 all
not by
make the
morpheme
shorter
making it shorter,
by deleting
but by changing
some
sound.
The rules
one of its
sounds.
The rule
that changes e to uin propulsion is an example of such a rule. There are several types of change rules. Let us
begin
by considering
two
of the
most common
types:
assimilation
and
more like
a sound
weakening.
7.1 ASSIMILATION
Often
some
sound
in
is called
ASSIMILATION.
7.1.1
Total
a
morpheme
There
changes
are two
to
types
become
of assimilation:
total
in
a nearby
assimilation
and
morpheme.
partial
This
process
assimilation.
Assimilation
TOTAL ASSIMILATION occurs whena sound changesto becomeexactlylike a nearbysound. The d of the
prefix ad-to, toward is a good example of a sound that undergoes total assimilation. In mostcases,the d of
ad-becomes the same sound asthe first consonant of the following morpheme. Thus,the prefix in each of the
following wordsis actually ad-.
ab+breviate
an+nul
ac+count
ap+peal
af+fect
ar+rive
ag+gressive
as+sign
al+leviate
at+tend
The d of ad-assimilatesto every consonant except m,j, and v, but it doesnot assimilateto vowels, orto h,
which
again
behaves
as a vowel.
ad+mit
ad+ept
ad+just
ad+opt
ad+vance
ad+it
ad+apt
ad+here
Note: The final d of afew roots also assimilates totally to afollowing
s. The mostcommon of these roots are
sed, grad, and ced: comparesedentary/session,gradual/progressive,procedure/process.Thisrule appliesto
these few
morphemes instead
of D-deletion
(see 5.4).
3
The b ofthe prefixsub-down, under undergoestotal assimilation whenfollowed by a morphemebeginning
with c,f, g, m,p, or r asin the following examples.
suc+cess
suf+ficient
sug+gest
sup+port
sur+reptitious
The b of the prefix ob-to, toward, against also assimilates totally
with c,f, or p.
when followed by a morpheme beginning
oc+casion
of+fer
op+pose
Before all other sounds, sub-and
ob-remain in their basicforms.
sub+arctic
ob+edient
FUN FACT
sub+orn
ob+ituary
sub+divide
ob+durate
DIVINING the future
by examining the
sub+ject
ob+ject
sub+merge
ob+noxious
sub+human
ob+ligation
sub+tract
ob+trude
patterns madeby
thrown BONES is
called osteomancy
The xin the morpheme ex-assimilates only to afollowing f.
ex+tract
ef+fort
ex+pel
ef+fect
The n of the prefixesin-in, in-not, and con-totally assimilatesto a following l, r, or m. The prefix syn-behaves
in the same waybut doesnot appearbeforestems beginning withr.
lr
in-in
m
ir+radiate
im+migrate
in-not
il+logical
ir+rational
im+mature
con
col+lect
cor+rode
com+mit
syn-il+luminate
syl+logism
sym+metry
Exercise
Underline
the
prefix
in each
of the
words that
the
prefix.
1.
confuse
6.
attract
2.
affable
7.
admonish
3.
syllable
8.
corrupt
4. subnormal
9. occidental
5. allude
38
Chapter
10. observe
7
|
Change
Rules
has undergone
total
assimilation;
then
give the
base form
of
7.1.2
Partial
PARTIAL
it.
There
Assimilation
ASSIMILATION
occurs
are two
types
Nasal
Assimilation
7.1.3
of partial
when a sound
assimilation:
becomes
NASAL
and
more like
a neighboring
sound
but
not exactly
like
VOICING.
The morphemesin-in, in-not,
con-and syn-also undergo assimilation before p and b. But in this case,the
assimilation is only partial. That is, the n at the end of these morphemes changes to m, which is morelike p
and b than n but not exactly like them. The sounds p, b, and m are all made by pressing the lips together,
whereasnis made with the lips open. The change from nto mtherefore makesit easierto pronounce the word.
The change of nto m before morphemes beginning with p or bis called NASAL ASSIMILATION.
pb
in-in
im+bibe
in-not
im+probable
im+balance
Ccon
com+pel
com+bine
syn-im+port
sym+pathy
sym+bol
The following
chart
lists
the
prefixes
that
undergo
total
or partial
assimilation.
Nasal assimilations
are under-lined.
Nasalassimilation also affects the n-infix whenit is followed by a p or b, asin the wordincumbent. The root
in this caseis actually cub, asin incubate but with the n-infix: /cu-n-b/. The n-infix becomes mby assimilat-ing
to the following b.
FOLLOWING CONSONANTb
c
n
ad-sub-ob-in-en-con-syn-ex-dis-ab-sub-ob-im-em-com-sym-ef-dif-FIGURE
ac-suc-oc-f af-suf-of-g ag-sug-il-col-syl-im-em-com-1
al-m
an-p
ap-sup-op-im-em-com-sym
ar-sur-ir-cor-sas-t
at-Chapter
Prefi
sym-r
1.
Prefixes
with assimilated
allomorphs.
7
|
Change
Rules
39
Exercise
Mark the
words that
have undergone
and those that have not undergone
total
assimilation
T,those that
1. supply
_____
7.
empathy
_____
2. impending
_____
8.
syllogism
_____
3. adjective
_____
9. corrode
_____
4. combustion
_____
10. imbalance
_____
5.
obnoxious
_____
11. irregular
_____
6. symbiotic
_____
12.
_____
7.1.4
Voicing
have undergone
nasal assimilation
N,
any rule 0.
constrict
Assimilation
Another type of partial assimilation affects morphemes ending in g when a morpheme beginning with s or t
follows. In these cases,the g becomes a hard c. The explanation for this change lies in how these sounds are
made.To produce the voiced sound g you mustvibrate your vocal cords. The sound hard c is basically the same
sound asg, but madewithout vocal cord vibration. Botht ands are also madewithout vocal cord vibration.
So, wheng comesinto contact with one of the voicelesssoundst or s,it changesto its voicelesscounterpart c.
This process is called
VOICING
ASSIMILATION.
Following
are some
morphemes
that
undergo
voicing
assimilation.
root
without
assimilation
with
assimilation
ag
ag+ent
ac+t
frag
frag+ile
frac+ture
leg
leg+ion
selec+t
reg
reg+ulate
erec-t
seg
seg+ment
sec+tion
Thesame processaffects morphemesendingin the voicedsound b.In this case,the b changesto its voiceless
counterpart p
scrib
inscrib+e
inscrip+tion
sorb
absorb
absorp+tion
Onlyafew morphemesendin b. So mostcasesof voicing assimilation
changegto c.
FUN FACT
Female hypergamy is
the tendency of
womenthroughout
the world to choose
men who are taller,
older, and of
higherstatus.
40
Chapter
7
|
Change
Rule
Exercise
Mark the
words that
those that
have undergone
have undergone
voicing
two
have been done for you.
1.
practical
total
assimilation
assimilation
T, those that
V, and those that
__V___
7.
obstruct
_____
2. attune
__T___
8. conjunction
_____
3. illusion
_____
9. lecture
_____
4.
_____
10.
embolism
_____
5. insect
_____
11. irrelevant
_____
6. symplex
_____
12. infraction
_____
pragmatic
have undergone
have not undergone
nasal assimilation
N,
any rule 0. The first
7.2 WEAKENING
Another
type
of change rule affects the
depend on the location
of the
morpheme in the
types of weakenings: a-weakening
7.2.1
vowels in certain
morphemes.
These rules,
called
word and, in some cases, what sounds follow
WEAKENINGS,
it.
There are two
and e-weakening.
A-Weakening
A-WEAKENING affects morphemes containing the vowel a.If a morpheme containing an a appears anywhere
in a word except the first syllable, the a of the basic form will become e. This rule can be seen at work in the
following
sets of words.
ann
ann+ual
bi+enn+ial
apt
apt+itude
in+ept
cand
cand+le
in+cend+iary
cap
cap+ture
ex+cep+t
damn
damn+ation
con+demn
Exercise
Circle the
1.
words below that
have undergone
a-weakening.
perfect
2. inspect
3. faction
4. reception
5. reflect
6. adept
Chapter
7
|
Change
Rules
4
7.2.2
E-Weakening
Asecond weakeningrule affects morphemeswith an e in the baseform. If a morphemecontaining an e
appears anywhere but the initial
E-WEAKENING,
can
be seen
syllable and is followed
at work in the following
reg
reg+ular
incor+rig+ible
spec
spec+tacle
con+spic+uous
ten
ten+acious
con+tin+ent
sed
sed+entary
pre+sid+ent
leg
leg+ion
di+lig+ent
If
the
morpheme
is followed
by a consonant,
the
by a vowel, the e becomes an i. This rule, called
sets of
e-weakening
words
rule
below.
does
not
apply.
cor+rec+t
in+spec+t
con+ten+t
se+lec+t
Also, if the
base form
of a morpheme
itself
ends in
more than
one consonant,
the rule
does not apply.
ab+err+ent
at+tend+ant
de+pend+ent
syn+erg+ism
7.2.3
Double-Weakening
In some
words, both a-weakening
and e-weakening
affect the same
morpheme. If a morpheme containing
an
a appearsin non-initial position and is followed by a vowel, a-weakeningapplies;the resulting e canthen
undergo e-weakening.For example,the morphemetag, whenit appearsin the wordcontiguous, has under-gone
both
Below
weakenings.
are some
examples
tag
of base forms
that
can
undergo
a-weakening
double weakening
integrate
contiguous
fac
defect
deficient
cap
inception
incipient
42
Chapter
7
|
double
Change
Rule
weakening.
Exercise
words that
have undergone
a-weakening
with an A, those that
an E, and those that
Mark the
have undergone
no weakening
with a 0. The first two
1.
explicate
__E___
2.
affect
__A____
3.
assiduous
_____
4. incontinent
_____
5.
_____
homicide
6. reside
have undergone
e-weakening
with
have been done for you.
_____
7.3 DERIVATION
A display
of the
base forms
of all the
morphemes in a word before they
undergo
any rules is called the
UNDERLYING FORM of the word. Thus,the underlying form of the word contiguous is /con+tag+u+ous/.
Underlying forms
are always enclosed in slash
marks. The form
of a word after all applicable
rules have applied
is called its SURFACE FORM. Surfaceforms are underlined orin italics. Contiguous is a surface form.
The underlying
form
the surface form
of a word, the list
presented together,
of rules that
apply to it, the changes that result from
make up a DERIVATION.
The derivations
those rules, and
of the words contiguous,
autism,tactile, ametric,correct, proceed,and anthropologyaregiven below:
1.
2.
Underlying
con+teg+u+ous
e-weakening:
con+tig+u+ous
Surface form:
contiguous
Underlying
/con+reg+t/
form:
Assimilation:
Voicing
4.
/con+tag+u+ous/
a-weakening:
Total
3.
form:
Assimilation:
cor+reg+t
cor+rec+t
Surface form:
correct
Underlying
/auto+ism/
form:
Vowel deletion:
aut+ism
Surface form:
autism
Underlying
form:
/tag+t+ile/
Assimilation:
tac+t+ile
Voicing
Surface form:
tactile
Chapter
7
|
Change
Rules
4
5.
Underlying
6.
7.
form:
/an+meter+ic/
N-Deletion
a+meter+ic
E-Deletion
a+metr+ic
Surface form:
ametric
Underlying
/anthrop+o+log+y/
form:
Surface form:
anthropology
Underlying
/pro+ceed/
form:
proceed
Surface form:
Manywords,such as proceedand anthropology,do not undergorules. Theyaresimply compositesofthe base
forms
of their
morphemes. In such
/anthrop+o+log+y/.
because, by looking
or
words the underlying
Words like these are said to
at the surface form,
more rules are said to be OPAQUE.
form is the same as the surface form:
be TRANSPARENT,
or to
you can see the underlying
The more rules that
/pro+ceed/
have TRANSPARENT
form.
apply to a word, the
Wordsthat
more opaque it
and
MOR-PHOLOGY
undergo
one
will be. The
wordcontiguous, withtwo rules applyingto its root, is quite opaque. Mostwordsareeither transparent or only
slightly
opaque.
7.4 E-CHANGE
Achange rule which that we have already discussed at some length affects morphemes ending in el or ol. If a
consonant follows one of these morphemes,the e or o of the baseform changesto u. The second wordin each
of the following
sets has undergone
e-change.
pel
propel
propulsion
cel
cellar
occult
col
colony
culture
ol
adolescent
adult
Notice also that baseforms containing al can undergo e-change if they havefirst undergone weakening sothat
the basic a has become an e.
sal
salient
result
calc
calculate
inculcate
The derivation for result,then, would beasfollows:
Underlying
/re+sal+t/
a-weakening:
re+sel+t
e-change:
re+sul+t
Surface
44
form:
result
Form:
Chapter
7
|
Change
Rule
7.5 T-CHANGE
Another changerule affects morphemesending in t. Whencertain suffixes are addedto a morphemeending
in t, the t changesto the sound [s]. This[s] maybespelled either s or c. Thesuffixesthat causet-change are
-y, -e, -is, and -ia. This rule accounts for related pairs of words such as analytic/analysis; vacant/vacancy;
dyspeptic/dyspepsia; important/importance.
The first of the suffixes that cause t-change is the -y that makes
abstract
nouns.
vacancy
/vac+ant+y/
secrecy
/se+cre+t+y/
democracy
/dem+o+crat+y/
ecstasy
/ec+stat+y/
The second is the abstract noun marker -e.
adolescence
/ad+ol+esc+ent+e/
importance
/in+port+ant+e/
assistance
/ad+sist+ant+e
Thethird is the abstractsuffix -is.
genesis
/gen+et+is/
stasis
/stat+is/
synthesis
/syn+the+t+is/
The fourth is the noun suffix -ia condition.
dyspepsia
/dys+pept+ia/
anesthesia
/an+esthet+ia/
amnesia
/an+mn+et+ia/
kinesthesia
/kin+esthet+ia/
7.6 V-CHANGE
Thefinal changerule we will consider affects morphemesendingin v. Whenone ofthese morphemes
is fol-lowed
by a consonant,the v changesto a u.If a vowel or no soundfollows, the v remainsin its baseform.
nav
naval
nautical
av
aviary
auspicious
volv
revolve
revolution
salv
salvage
salutation
Chapter
7
|
Change
Rules
4
7.7 FUSED
FORMS
Certain
morphemes
appear
together
frequently
and,
when
they
do,
almost
always
have
a fixed
meaning.
For
example,the forms -o, log, and -y together form -ology whichalmost alwayscan beglossedthe study of. Such
combinations
of
morphemes
are called
FUSED
FORMS.
Below
are some
common
fused
forms
and
their
measurement
by
glosses.
46
Morpheme
Surface Form
Gloss
+alg+ia
-algia
_______
+arch+y
-archy
government
+cid+e
-cide
the
+col+ous
-colous
living
+crat+y
-cracy
government
+ec+tom+y
-ectomy
surgical
+fac+y
-fy
to
+i+fer+ous
-iferous
bearing
+iatr+ics
-iatrics
the
science of treating
+later+y
-latry
the
worship
+mani+ia
-mania
obsession
with
+mant+y
-mancy
prophecy
using
+miso+___+ist
-miso____ist
one
+o+gen+ous
-ogenous
originating
+o+lit+e
-olite
_______stone
or fossilized
______
+o+lith
-olith
______stone
or fossilized
______
+o+log+y
-ology
the
+o+meter
-ometer
a thing for
+o+meter+y
-ometry
the
+o+tom+y
-otomy
surgery
+par+ous
-parous
producing
+phil+e
-phile
one
+phil+ia
-philia
the love
+phob+e
-phobe
one
who fears
+phob+ia
-phobia
the
fear of
+phor+ous
-phorous
bearing
+scop+e
-scope
a thing for looking
+trop+ic
-tropic
turning
Chapter
7
|
Change
Rule
pain
by
act of killing, a substance for killing
in, on, or among
by
removal
of
make
________
of
who hates
in
study
of
measuring, a
measurement
unit of
of
on
who loves, that
which benefits from
of
(toward)
at
t
p.
by
or
a
ag,
a
b:
begin-ning
seg;
ending
tio
and
s
a
+
as
an
[k]
reg,
with
c
such
VOICING
PARTIAL
followed
ture
becomes
sorb
sorp
+
+
root
adb
adb
pathy
bol
+
+
sym
sym
ile
becomes
with
scribe
ent
ag:
leg,
g
+
+
frag
frac
sorb:
frag:
t
g:
b
ASSIMILATION:
+
+
ag
ac
morpheme
a
When
morphemes
The
hard
ending
in
sorb,
frag,
root
the
a
root
of
in-not,
syn-together,
end
syn
begins
m
b
with
with
con-,
the
or
in-in,
to
and
NASAL
pel
bine
p
at
PARTIAL
following
port
and
probable
bibe
balance
+
+
a
n
+
+
+
+
im
im
im
im
con,
ASSIMILATION:
the
morpheme
The
with
prefixes
changes
If
com
com
migrate
mature
in,
together,
m
or
m
begins
l
with
an
or
syn-becomes
metry
TOTAL
l
syn-together,
of
following
an
logism
+
n
+
ASSIMILATION
the
morpheme
The
with
prefix
syl
If
sym
ASSIMILATIONRULE:
in-not,
r
or
begins
m,
with
r
con-,
in-and
or
in-in,
mit
TOTAL
l,
of
PARTIAL
following
rode
and
m,
an
n
+
con-becomes
luminate
logical
+
+
il
il
radiate
rational
+
+
ir
ir
+
ASSIMILATION
l,
the
+
+
im
im
+lect
morpheme
The
with
prefixes
an
If
together,
AND
col
cor
com
f,
begins
p
c,
TOTAL
or
ob
a
against
TOTAL
ob-to,
f,
of
following
pose
durate
edient
casion
ject
trude
+
+
+
+
+
ob
ob
ob
ob
ob
c,
ituary
fer
b
ASSIMILATION
+
+
+
p
the
NOT:
morpheme
The
with
prefix
becomes
oc
or
op
of
If
toward,
RULES:
or
p,
f,
begins
m,
c,
r
a
sub
g,
mon
or
TOTAL
f,
sub-down,
port
of
gest
cess
following
p,
arctic
ject
repetitious
ficient
+
+orn
c,
b
CHANGE
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
ASSIMILATION
m,
the
NOT:
morpheme
under
prefix
The
with
becomes
If
suc
suf
sug
sum
sup
sur
sub
sub
sub
g,
r
d
v,
h
the
j,
sed,
conso-nant
vowel.
m,
final
as
a
ad-becomes
(seden-tary/session;
and
the
roots:
as
because
TOTAL
every
ad-to,
of
following
ced
h,
breviate
consonant
d
mit
nul
sound
except
peal
count
+
+
+
toward;
of
grad,
grade/progressive;
procedure/process)
Before
and
of
same
+
ad
ad
ad
ad
+
NOT:
The
behaves
here
+
+
the
morpheme.
prefix
vance
+
just
rive
leviate
+
+
+
a
+
gressive
fect
few
ASSIMILATION
ab
ac
af
an
ag
ap
al
ar
first
change?
What
morpheme?
What
What
environment?
EXAMPLES:
1.
2.
3.
Chapter
7
|
Change
Rules
47
u
to
begins
ending
is
consonant.
changes
V-CHANGE
following
a
v
-v
the
Morphemes
morpheme
The
with
in
naval
nautical
If
aviary
auspicious
ecstaticecstasy
importantimportance
revolve
revolution
salvage
salutatio
dyspepticdyspepsia
anestheticanesthesia
be
may
are
the
to
ia
ending
which
c.
morphemes
suffixes
and
-t.
or
in
T-CHANGE
the
s
to
[s],
changes
-is,
t
-e,
-t.
When
Morphemes
The
added
in
ending
sound
-y,
vacantvacancy
spelled
democratdemocracy
secretsecrecy
assistantassistance
geneticgenesis
syntheticsynthesis
staticstasis
ANDV-CHANGEDOUBLE
the
T-,
ending
sion
begins
changes
+
t
escent
t
E-,
o-of
-ol
+
consonant,
pel
or
ony
following
E-CHANGE
a
lar
form
+
+
ol
ul
+
+
ad
ad
ture
cul
+
e-or
+
+
+
+
el
+
pul
u.
the
Morphemes
morpheme
with
in
base
the
If
pro
pro
oc
col
cel
to
cul
by
a
e,
posi-tion
an
then
one
i
>
uous
the
e
followed
t
and
grate
tion
+
t
becomes
+
than
>
is
ient
ient
+
+
+
+
+
e
i
a
becomes
tac
a
WEAKENING:
sule
tig
>
tory
non-initial
and
more
a
+
the
teg
+
fec
fic
+
+
cep
cip
+
+
in
in
+
+
e
+
a
i:
>
DOUBLEWEAKENING;
Morphemes
no
vowel
containing
In
consonant
The
vowel.
and
an
con
a
de
con
de
cap
in
fac
ible
uous
&
i:
an
word
E-,
vowel.
a
first
i
is
ent
ent
a
+
the
>
+
in
ent
+
the
e
+
by
and
A-,
+
rig
tacle
in
becomes
ular
e
spic
+
acious
tin
entary
sid
+
ion
+
e
+
E-WEAKENING:
+
+
+
+
lig
+
i
+
>
Morphemes
Anywhere
vowel
containing
The
except
syllable,
followed
e
reg
spec
con
incor
con
ten
pre
sed
di
leg
RULES:
e:
word
an
a
e
first
iary
the
>
ial
t
+
in
+
the
+
nation
a
le
CHANGE
ual
in
+
becomes
demn
ture
a
+
itude
+
a
enn
ept
cep
cend
+
+
+
A-WEAKENING:
e
+
+
+
+
>
Morphemes
Anywhere
containing
vowel
The
except
ann
syllable.
a
bi
change?
RULE:
What
What
What
morpheme?
environment?
EXAMPLES:
1.
48
Chapter
2.
7
|
Change
3.
Rules
apt
in
cand
in
cap
ex
damn
con
7.8 BASE
FORM
SETS
13AND
14
Set 13
av bird,
Set 14
fly
ab-,
abs-from,
away
alg pain
cap, cup take,
contain
dem people
cere, cre come
forth,
fac do,
cosm universe,
make
gn, gnor, gnos know
cub, cumb lie
grad step,
en-, in-in,
go
grow
world
into
leg choose
prag do
rapt burst
sed sit,
sal jump
sub-down,
solv loosen
trans-, tra-across,
stay
under
beyond
Chapter
7
|
Change
Rules
4
Other
Rules
In this
chapter
we will look
at two
more types
of rules:
addition
rules
and spelling
rules.
8.1 ADDITION
RULES
ADDITION
RULES
classical
morphemes
8.1.1
U-Addition
are rules
in
that
English:
add some
u-addition
sound
and
to
a
morpheme.
There
are two
addition
rules
that
affect
p-addition.
U-ADDITION affects morphemes or stems ending in gl or cl. If a suffix beginning with a vowel is added, a u
is inserted between the g or c and the following 1. The words in the right-hand column have undergone
u-addition. Note:Thesilent -e suffix doesnot trigger u-addition.
angle
angular
circle
circulate
particle
particulate
spectacle
spectacular
uncle
avuncular
The u-addition rule sometimes also affects morphemesendingin bl, asthe word pair hereillustrates.
ambulate
amble
8.1.2
P-Addition
Asecondaddition rule, P-ADDITION, inserts a p betweenthe final mof a morphemeand afollowing voice-less
consonant, usually at. Thefollowing word pairsillustrate this rule.
assume
assumption
redeem
redemption
P-addition,
English.
like
assimilation,
makes
words
easier
to
pronounce.
It
affects
both
classical
However, the p is both pronounced and written in classical borrowings,
and
native
words in
whereasit is usually
5
pronounced
contains
but not
written in native
words. Say the following
native
words aloud and you
will see that each
a [p].
dreamt
something
warmth
8.2 SPELLING
RULES
Unlike the rules
of certain
major spelling
we have been discussing,
morphemes
rules that
SPELLING
without changing
affect classical
FUN FACT
their
RULES change the appear-ance
pronunciation.
morphemes:
There are three
x-replacement,
consonant
Manyfamous people
are megacephalic;
that is, they have
unusually LARGE
HEADS.
doubling,
and y-change.
8.2.1
X-Replacement
The first of these rules affects
morphemes ending in the sound [k],
hard c. When an s follows the c, the
sequencec+sis replaced by an x. Thisrule is called X-REPLACEMENT.Following aresome wordsthat have
undergone
x-replacement.
equinox
/equi+noc+s/
complex
/com+plec+s/
haruspex
/har+u+spec+s/
pontifex
/pont+i+fac+s/
reflex
/re+flec+s/
Morphemes ending in g are also subject to x-replacement since g becomes [k] through voicing assimilation
whenfollowed by an s. Thefollowing words have undergone first voicing assimilation and then x-replacement.
larynx
/laryng+s/
lexicon
/leg+s+ic+on/
sex
/seg+s/
8.2.2
Consonant
The second spelling
Doubling
rule,
CONSONANT
by a single stressed vowel.
The final
DOUBLING,
affects
consonant
of such a morpheme is doubled if a morpheme
with a vowel is added. Below are some examples
52
controller
/contra+1+er/
preferred
/pre+fr-ed/
propellant
/pro+pl+ant/
recurrent
/re+cr+ent/
transmittal
/trans+mt+al/
Chapter
8
|
Other
Rule
morphemes ending in a single consonant
of consonant
doubling.
pre-ceded
begin-ning
Notice that
doubling
does not occur unless the root vowel is stressed.
conjugate
/cn+jug+ate/
preference
/pr+fer+ent+e/
profiting
/pr+fit+ing/
Ernest Hemmingway
wasfond of
polydactyl cats
(those with MORE
Notice also that, as in the case of the addition
doubling
is
not present in the underlying
FUN FACT
rules, the consonant
form.
resulting
from
THAN THE USUAL
NUMBER of TOES).
Because it is added by a spelling
rule,it doesnottrigger otherrulessuchase-change.Thisis whythe secondl in pro-pellant
doesnot causethe eto changeto u, producing a surfaceform *propullant.
8.2.3
Y-Change
Afinal spelling rule, Y-CHANGE, affects morphemes
that endin a yif the y is precededby a consonant.If such
morphemesarefollowed by any suffix exceptone beginningin i, the final y changesto i. Following aresome
examples
of the y-change rule.
ply
pliant
pity
pitiable
pity
pitiful
rely
reliable
sanitary
sanitarium
auditory
auditorium
victory
victorious
pacify
pacifier
enemy
enemies
If the following suffix begins with ani, however,the y does not change to i. For this reason, the wordsthat fol-low
do not
undergo
y-change.
pacifying
pitying
relying
Neither do morphemes ending in a vowel followed by y undergo y-change, asthe following
wordsillustrate.
dismayed
defrayal
employable
payer
portrayed
Chapter
8
|
Other
Rules
5
a
a
by
one
in
is
followed
-y
except
ending
i.
preceded
and
auditorium
-i.
in
sanitarium
victorious
enemie
final
pacifier
to
Y-CHANGE
is
suffix
pitiable
pitiful
reliable
-y
the
pliant
any
the
Morphemes
consonant
-y.
by
beginning
Then
changed
ply
pity
pacify
auditory
pity
If
rely
enemy
victory
sanitary
root
begins
single
the
a
DOUBLING
consonant
unstressed:
al/
er/
in
and
stress.
ant/
+
+
ed/
follows
ent/
ing/
+
+
+
ol
+
mit
when
final
+
what
pel
vowel
ending
+
fer
carries
the
fit
cur
a
+
+
+
not
+
doubled.
CONSONANT
When
Roots
Then
with
consonant.
But
vowel
preferred
controller
/pre
/contra
is
propellant
profiting
/pro
/re
recurrent
/trans
/pro
transmittal
a
c+s,
in
the
RULESRULE:
the
on/
s/
s/
ending
+
+
+
s/
follows
+
s/
ic
s
[k].
noc
[k].
+
+
replaces
plec
an
s/
X
c
c
+
s
X-REPLACEMENT
+
flec
+
+
+
SPELLING
When
Morphemes
Then
hard
g+s
equinox
hard
complex
/equi
/con
/re
reflex
/seg
sex
/laryng
AND
between
ending
t.
a
added
by
t.
is
assumption
redemption
p
P-ADDITION
and
morphemes
a
ADDITION
m
m.
followed
Root
Then
in
the
If
assume
redeem
-cl,
with
is
or
l.
or
or
-gl
-bl.
vowel
c,
in
g,
inserted
spectacular
following
beginning
is
morphemes
particulate
ambulate
the
angular
u
U-ADDITION
avuncular
circulate
the
ending
a
sometimes
suffix
and
a
Affects
pronounced
Then
and
b
between
added.
If
stems
angle
a
morpheme?
environment?
change?
What
What
What
1.
2.
3.
EXAMPLES:
54
Chapter
8
|
Other
particle
circle
Rules
uncle
spectacle
amble
larynx
/leg
lexicon
8.3 BASE
FORM
SETS
15AND
16
Set 15
Set 16
card,
cord heart,
doc,
dog teach,
fa, pha, fe,
agree
praise
phe speak
fid trust
idio
apt, fit
di,
dich,
dy,
du two
dactyl finger
infra-below
peculiar
mant prophesy
mit,
mis send,
ob-to,
men,
min,
toward
nec(r),
noc death,
secu,
sequ follow
neg not,
sim,
sem
volv turn
same,
do
one
semi-,
mnthink
harm
no
hemi
tract drag,
half
pull
Chapter
8
|
Other
Rules
5
Unpredictable
Processes
In the
preceding
English.
chapters
This chapter
will
we have looked
at the
be devoted
the
to
morphological
historical
rules
processes
that
that
produce
produced
predictable
what are
allomorphs
now
in
unpredictable
allomorphs.
9.1 METATHESIS
The first
process,
of these
called
throughout
the
Children
often
mazagine
processes
changes
METATHESIS,
world.
for
It
is
the
order
a very
has also
natural
occurred
of sounds
in
a
morpheme.
one.
occurred
in
It
has
repeatedly
reverse
in
the
the
metathesizethat
is, they
magazine,aminal
for animal, and psketti
sounds
history
in
earlier
times,
more likely
to
before literacy
become
morphemes
part
was widespread,
of the
were borrowed
The following
words
language
a word.
first
in
are examples
forms
such
today.
A number
one form
of such
and then in
double
nutrient
[rt
spectacle
skeptical
[pek
miscible
mixable
[sk
> ks]
However,
some
is
no
way
of
predicting
metathesis.
say
it is farthest AWAY
from the EARTH is
were
its apogee;the point
whenit is NEAREST
the EARTH is its
of clas-sical
perigee.
as these
a metathesized
vari-ant.
borrowings.
nurture
There
They
for larynx,
they
are
The point in the
moons orbit when
for spaghetti. Adults,
reversed
than
FUN FACT
of English.
too, sometimes metathesize.Theysayrevelant for relevant, larnyx
and relator for realtor.
In
This
languages
> tr]
> kep]
sound
combinations
are
more likely
to
be reversed
than others. Thesequencesk is particularly susceptible,for example. But morphemescontaining susceptible
sequences
the
will
not necessarily
have
metathesized
allomorphs.
Therefore,
all
metathesized
variants
are listed
in
glossary.
5
9.2 RHOTACISM
A secondsuch process, RHOTACISM,results in pairs of allomorphs, one ending in s and the other in r.
Rhotacism wasoncea morphologicalrule by whichs changedto r betweenvowels. Thefollowing word pairs
illustrate
this
rule.
plus
plural
osculate
oral
rustic
rural
robust
roborant
However,
in
Modern
English,
variation
due to
rhotacism
is
no longer
predictable
by this
rule.
In
the
allomorph
endingin s,the sfrequently appearsbetweenvowels. The wordsin the left-hand column representsuchcoun-terexamples.
adhesion
adhere
inquisitive
inquiry
nasal
nares
diagnosis
ignore
Because
of
counterexamples
such
as these,
it
is
necessary
to learn
both
allomorphs.
9.3 ABLAUT
In section 7.2 wesaw how a morphemecontaining an underlying a may,
through weakening,cometo havea
surface e or i. In addition to predictable vowel alternations like these, many English morphemesboth
and classicalshow
rule
unpredictable
governedat
remnants
least
of ancient
not
in
alternations
Modern
of certain
Englishnor
vowels.
were they
morphological
rules
called
ABLAUT
language
which
English,
native
Unlike
weakening,
these
alternations
are not
even
Greek
Latin.
Rather,
are
in
RULESrules
or
they
the
that
were active
more than
5,000
descended,
most of the
underlying
forms
years ago.
In the
original
parent
from
Greek, and
Latin
of roots apparently contained an e. Often, however, ablaut rules caused that underlying e to change to o or to
be deleted entirely. Thus, aclassical root mayappear with the original e,in which caseit is called the E-GRADE
FORM; with an o,the O-GRADE FORM; or with no vowel at all, the ZERO-GRADE FORM.
Following
are some
examples
of classical
morphemes
that
occur in
e-grade
o-grade
zero-grade
generate
gonad
pregnant
mental
monitor
amnesia
legible
logic
symbol
Since
the
memorize
rules
ablaut
governing
ablaut
different
ablaut
problem
are
no longer
variants.
active
in
grades.
FUN FACT
English,
you
must simply
If you are
procumbent, you
are LYING face
DOWN. If you are
recumbent, you are
LYING
58
Chapter
9
|
Unpredictable
Processe
BACK.
9.4 LATIN-GREEK
CORRESPONDENCES
Sometimes,
words
containing
is therefore
useful
a particular
Latin root,
to
know
the
same
something
you
root
have
been
about
how
Latin
and
its
Greek counterpart
will be able to identify
borrowed
into
Greek
English
morphemes
from
both
Latin
differ. In that
or vice-versa.
and
way, if
There
Greek.
you
are three
It
know
impor-tant
correspondences between Latin and Greek morphemes: that between Latin s and Greek h, that between
Latin u and Greeky, andthat betweenLatin fand Greekph.
9.4.1
In
The Correspondence of s to h
Greek, all ss occurring at the beginning of words changed to h. In Latin, these ss remained s. Since the
changefrom sto h did not occurin Latin, wherevera Latinroot begins withs,its Greekcounterpart will begin
with h. Therefore, wefind pairs of wordslike serpentand herpetology
the study of snakes. Theformer wordis
borrowed from Latin and the latter from
the following
examples
Latin
Greek
semiannual
hemisphere
septenary
heptagon
sextet
hexad
saline
halide
9.4.2
Greek. A number of morphemes show this s to h correspondence, as
illustrate.
The Correspondence
of u to y
AnothercorrespondencebetweenLatin and Greek morphemes
is that whereLatin hasu, Greekhasy. Thefol-lowing
words illustrate
this
correspondence.
Latin
Greek
dual
dyad
muscle
epimysium
purulent
pyosis
9.4.3
The Correspondence
of f to
ph
Athird correspondence is that where Latin morphemes havean f, Greek morphemes have ph. The word pairs
that follow
illustrate
this correspondence.
Latin
Greek
prefatory
aphasia
confer
periphery
fantastic
phantom
frenetic
schizophrenic
In all of these correspondences,
there is no way of predicting
which
words will contain
the
Latin form
and
which the Greek.In fact, modern words exist (such astelevision) composed partly of Latin and partly of Greek
morphemes. It is therefore
necessary to
memorize both forms.
Chapter
9
|
Unpredictable
Processes
5
of
of
case
the
a
Latin
than
as
borrowed
both
Greek
hemisphere
heptagon
hexad
halid
dyad
epimysium
pyosis
aphasia
periphery
phantom
schizophrenic
rather
y
ph
CORRESPONDENCES
h
been
containing
described
from
have
Greek
Greek
Greek
words
best
GREEK
=
=
f=
u
root
is
s
English
Greek.
muscle
Unpredictable
LATIN
Latin
Latin
Latin
because
into
same
and
(This
dual
Latin
correspondence,
change.)
semiannual
septenary
sextet
saline
than
and
of
describ-ing
roots
more
original
e.
forms
pregnant
zerograde
amnesia
problem
deleted.
English
an
vowel,
Latin
word
that
be
of
or
active
remnants
native
stem
European
ABLAUT
o,
in
caused
underlying
monitor
are
German
words
ago.
to
rules
o-grade
gonad
symbol
logic
contained
both
a
Indo
the
rules
in
is
and
rules
origin.
years
of
change
change
a
Proto
to
Ablaut
words
occurs
Greek
Most
Unpredictable
ablaut
of
5,000
apparently
mental
Ablaut
e
e-grade
gene
legible
PROCESSESPROCESS:
r.
one
in
s.
other
result,
in
to
the
now,
plural
oral
rural
roborant
plus
osculate
rustic
robust
ending
RHOTACISM
and
changed
vowels.
s,
s
allomorphs
in
of
UNPRDICTABLE
once
between
Morphemes
Unpredictable
but
Pairs
ending
r
not
>ri]
especially
reversed
[sk>ks]
[rt>tr]
[pec>kep]
[ir
[sk>ks]
will
are
are
sound
places).
sk,
metathesized
as
some
change
METATHESIS
containing
have
sequences
such
combinations
sounds
although
Unpredictable
Any,
sequences
susceptible.
morphemes
miscible-mixable
susceptible
necessarily
Sound
allomorphs.
(two
change?
What
morpheme?
What
What
environment?
EXAMPLES:
1.
60
Chapter
2.
9
|
Unpredictable
3.
Processes
nurture-nutrient
birds-bridds
spectacle-skeptical
ask-aks
prefatory
confer
fantastic
mor-phological
which
purulent
frenetic
9.5 BASE
FORM
SETS
17AND
18
Set 17
Set 18
dic speak
ac, acer,
fin end
cent
hundred
chron
time
merg dip,
plunge
para beside,
pter
wing,
beyond
feather
sper, spor seed,
acerb sharp,
dia-through,
fish
ten, tend stretch
longi
long
uter,
scatter
ornith
hyster womb
heli sun
vok speak,
across
geo earth
ichthy
voc,
tip
pon,
call
bird
pos place,
put
tu instruct
Chapter
9
|
Unpredictable
Processes
6
Meaning
Shift
The
meanings
of
words
and
morphemes,
like
other
aspects
of language,
are in
a constant
process
of change.
Of course, there are wordslike cow, eye, and father whose basic meanings haveremained the same for twelve
centuries
or
more.
have already
that
differ
in these
change
And it is
seen that
doubtful
that
many of the
words
considerably
meaning
shifts.
their
meanings
borrowed
from
their
In this
chapter,
literal
into
glosses.
will change
English
As with
we will consider
in the foreseeable
from
Latin
other
some
and
aspects
of the
Greek
future.
of language,
common
However,
have dictionary
we find
ways in
regular
which
we
defi-nitions
pat-terns
meanings
over time.
10.1 NARROWING
Sometimes
that
the
a word
word
has
with
a rather
NARROWED
broad
in
meaning
meaning.
will
For
become
example,
restricted
Samuel
in
scope.
Johnson,
in
When this
his
dictionary
happens,
published
we say
in
1746,definesthe wordsaliva as:Everything that is spit up. This definition includes vomitus and phlegm, as
well assecretions of the salivary gland. Since Johnsons time, saliva hasnarrowed to meanonly the last of these.
Another example is the word pill. Pill came originally from the Latin pilula small ball, from which it narrowed
to a specific kind of small round thinga
medicinal tablet. Recentlysince
1960,in factpill
has narrowed
still
further
in
one
of its
meanings
Morphemes, too, can narrow in
to
a specific
kind
of
medicinal
tabletan
oral
meaning. The morpheme bibl, for instance,
contraceptive.
meantbook
originally. It still
appears withthat general meaningin wordslike bibliography and bibliophile. However,it has narrowedto
meanone specific bookthe sacred book of Christianityin
wordslike Bible, biblical, and bibliomancy.
Similarly, the morpheme pom meansfruit in wordslike pomiculture the cultivation of fruit and pomiferous
fruit bearing, but it has narrowed to meanonly one kind of fruit, the apple, in wordslike pomaceoushaving
the
characteristics
of an
apple.
10.2 WIDENING
More
often,
however,
the
meaning
of
a
word
becomes
broader
in
scope
over
time.
When
this
happens,
we say
the word has WIDENEDin meaning.Anexample of wideningis the wordtoxin. Toxincomesfrom the Latin
wordtoxicum poison for arrows. In the modern word toxin, this meaning has widenedto include all kinds of
poisons. Another example is the word auspicious. Auspicious
means literally looking
at birds
6
/av+spec+i+ous/.
having
Its dictionary
a favorable
augury
definition
attended
by favorable
based on the observation
circumstances
is a widening
of the
mean-ing
of bird behavior.
Morphemescan also widenin meaning.The morpheme mater,for instance, maintainsits original meaning,
mother, in matriarchand maternal,but widensto meansurrounding substancein whichsomething devel-ops
in matrix. It widens still further to meansubstance in material. Similarly, the morpheme dom meant
house originally, as can be seenin domicile and domestic. However,it has widened to meanany area under
control in dominion and domain.
A very common instance
of trade
names
speakers view
that
of widening is evident in our society
have become
common
Band-aid
and
words like
words.
Kleenex
with the large num-ber
Thus, a whole
generation
FUN FACT
of
Mental patients
as generic labels rather than the
names of specific
brands of adhesive strips
and facial tissue.
brand names that
have become household
words.
Following
is a list
suffering from
tachyphagia will
of
How many did you believe to be
RAPIDLY EAT
anything, edible
generic terms?
1. aspirin
9.
2. cellophane
10.
mimeograph
3. corn flakes
11.
nylon
4. cube steak
12.
Raisin Bran
5.
dry ice
13.
thermos
6. escalator
14.
trampoline
7.
15.
yo-yo
16.
zipper
kerosene
8. lanolin
Another common
instance
characteristics.
linoleum
of widening involves
For example,
Following
the use of an individuals
when wesay Shes
of a character in a book to designate anyone
is called EPONYMY.
is alist
a real pollyanna,
with the same trait
of words that
5.
maverick
2.
6.
midas
3. jezebel
7.
quisling
4.
8.
scrooge
martinet
name to designate anyone
we are using
with sim-ilar
what was once the
of excessive optimism.
have undergone
1. casanova
don juan
or not, that will fit
in their mouth.
This type
name
of widening
eponymy:
10.3 DEGENERATION
Frequently,
a
process,
called
word
that
originally
DEGENERATION,
carried
a good
is very common.
or
neutral
meaning
Many of the
will
unpleasant
become
words
negative
and
with
morphemes
time.
in
This
English
once had morepositive meanings.For example,the wordvulgar originally meant
of the people. Thus, Vulgar
Latin
was not just
what the
Romans
wrote
on bathroom
wallsit
was the language
people, as opposed to the Latin used by the scholars. Overtime, however,the
degenerated.
ancestors
Its
view
most prevalent
of the
common
meaning
now, coarse,
rude,
or obscene,
spoken
by the
common
meaning of the word vulgar has
may tell
us something
about
our
man.
Anotherexample of degenerationis the wordsinister. In Latin,sinister meant
on the left. It retains that mean-ing
in some biologicalterms like sinistral facing the left side and sinistrorsespiraling from right to left. But,
becausethe left side wasconsidered unlucky bythe Romansoothsayers,sinisteritself hascometo mean
evil
or ominous.
64
Chapter
10
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Meaning
Shif
Morphemescan also degenerate.The morphemeatr,for instance, meantblack in Latin. It retainsthat mean-ing
in the wordatrousintensely black. Butit hasdegeneratedand now means
evil ormonstrous in atrocity
and atrocious. Similarly, the morpheme grav originally meantheavy, and still doesin gravity and gravid heavy
with child, but has degenerated to meanbad in grave (as a grave mistake) and aggravateto make worse.
10.4 AMELIORATION
Because
of some
to get better.
or positive
word
or
quirk
of the
But sometimes
meaning,
morpheme
human
mind,
meanings
do improve.
or a neutral
improves
word
word to
is called
meanings
are
Sometimes
have a very
much
more likely
an unpleasant
positive
one.
it
has become
more exhalted,
meaning one
the word dexter meanssimply on the right.
mayimprove in
worse than
The process
whereby
to
the
they
are
have a neu-tral
meaning
of a
who
has spiritual
whofeedsthe sheep.In modern
charge
over
a congregation.
Similarly,
But, since the right hand is usually the moreadroit one, dexter in
dexterityand dextroushascometo mean
skill
Morphemes,too,
get
will come
AMELIORATION.
The word pastor has undergone amelioration. Pastorin Latin meantone
English
to
word
orcleverness.
meaning. The morpheme gen,for example, means basicallybirth
or ori-gin.
However,in wordssuch as gentle,generous,and genteel,it hascome upin the world and denotesnoble
birth and the characteristics which presumablyaccompanysuch a birth. The morphemearch hasalso ame-liorated.
The original meaning of arch in Greek wasfirst. This meaningcan be seenin wordslike archaeolo-gy
and archaic. In other cases, however, arch hastaken on the meaning ofmost important, asin architectmost
important builder, archbishop and archangel. It hasfurther ameliorated to meanruling in monarch, patri-arch,
and archonruler.
10.5 SYNECDOCHE
Sometimes
a word or
morpheme that
once referred to a whole entity
shifts to
mean only part of the
whole.
This shift is called SYNECDOCHE. Thus, a wordlike nymph young maiden hasshifted to meanlabia mino-ra
in nymphotomy. More commonly, however, synecdoche involves the opposite shift in meaning: that of a
wordor morphemethat once meanta partto meanthe whole.The wordbureauis a good example.In French,
bureau meanta writing desk. Now,in both Frenchand English,it canrefer to a wholeoffice or government
department,
desks and all.
10.6 ASSOCIATION
The meaning of a word or
morpheme sometimes
or suggests it. For example, the
changes simply
morpheme orchid originally
by ASSOCIATION
meanttesticle.
with a thing that resem-bles
It retains that
meaningin
wordssuch as orchidalgiapain in the testicles and orchidectomyremoval of atesticle. However,becauseof
the similarity
in shape of the testicle to the root
of the orchid
plant, it
has also come to
meanorchid
in
words
like orchid itself, orchidaceous characteristic of the orchid, and orchisany white or magentaorchid. Similarly,
the morpheme galac meantmilk
originally and still does in galactosesimple sugar from milk and galac-tophagous
subsisting on milk. But becausesomeonethought the aggregateof stars,gas,and dust wecall the
Milky Way
looked like milk,galac nowrefersto anylarge group of stars with a definite overallstructure. With
this
meaning,it occurs in
wordslike galaxy and galactic.
Many associative shifts involve
time. In literature,
a change in
such a shift is called
meaning from
METONYMY.
one object to another that is close to it in space or
Metonymy is a frequent
and ongoing
process. For exam-ple,
if you say He drank the whole bottle, you are using bottle to meanthe contents of the bottle, not the bot-tle
itself. A similar example is the morpheme burs. Burs originally meantpouch, as can be seen in medical
terms like bursasaclike bodily cavity and bursitisinflammation
of the bursa. But since a purseis pouch
Chapter
10
|
Meaning
Shift
6
shaped, burs cameto mean
purse and then, by metonymy,to meanwhatis inside a pursemoney. Thislat-ter
meaningcan beseenin wordslike bursary, disburse,and reimburse. Analmostidentical changetook place
with the
basket
morpheme fisc. Fisc originally
used
by the
Roman
tax
meantwoven
collectors.
By
basket. It then narrowed to
metonymy
it
then
came
to
mean the
meanthe kind of money
money
in
the
basket
and
then
made
from
just money, asin fiscal.
Another
kind
of
associative
shift
involves
a change
from
some
substance
or
material
to
an
object
the substance. The word pen,from Latin pennafeather, nowrefersto writinginstruments madefrom many
kinds of materials.Similarly, paper,from papyrus,is now madefrom wood products and ragsrather than the
papyrus
plant.
10.7 CULTURAL
SHIFT
Occasionally
In
such
the
meaning
the
literal
gloss
meaning.
You
will also
cases,
day
of a word
will develop
of the
word
need to
for
exclusively
cultural
not
give
a sufficient
clue
to its
about
the
cultural
situation
in
will
know
reasons.
FUN FACT
pres-ent
Anisogeothermis an
which
it developed.Forinstance,the wordsalary,/sal+ar+y/ glosses
something pertain-ing imaginary line con-necting
to salt.
you
To understand
need
to
know
that
its
the
present
Roman
meaning,
soldiers
a fixed
were
given
compensation
a certain
for
all points on
services,
amount
of
the EARTH with the
SAME average
money
each monthto buy salt. Nothingin the gloss of salarytells you this, however.
TEMPERATURE.
Another word that has undergone cultural shift is trivia.
three
road
thing.
the current
The only
way to
make any sense
meaning insignificant
wasoften a public squarea
of this
matters is to know that in
glosses
gloss in relation
to
Roman times, the place where three roads
met
placefor meetingand gossiping about trifles. Rivalis another example of cul-tural
shift. Rival /riv+al/ is glossedpertaining
be understood
out
Trivia /tri+vi+a/
if you know that
rivals
to the river.What this gloss hasto do with competitors can only
were originally
water wasscarce, it is an easy step from sharing
people
who used the same brook
water to being in competition
and, in times
when
for it.
Wordslike salary and trivia and rival carry within them a glimpse of our cultural heritage. They are fascinat-ing
for this reason.
gloss seems totally
out
However, they
do not lend
unrelated to the context
themselves
to easy analysis. If you encounter
of the sentence in
a word whose
which it appears, go to your dictionary
and find
why.
10.8 METAPHOR
The
most common
to another.
talking
and productive
kind
Often the change is from
about abstract
notions.
of
meaning shift involves
a concrete
the change from
meaning to a more abstract
So they relate abstractions
to common
one sphere of discourse
one. Human beings have difficul-ty
physical
objects and acts. The word
metaphor/meta+phor/ to carry beyondis itself a metaphor.It takes a concrete notion, carrying, and applies
it an abstract sphere,
meaning.
metaphor involves:
the carrying
The
many of the
meanings of
is so pervasive in language
and He
is walking
on air
understand
their
Meanings cannot
actually
of
one realm
meaning from
discuss at all.
obviously.
cannot
often goes unnoticed.
beinterpreted
metaphorical
Hence, the
Yet, in a sense, that is
what
of discourse to another.
words we have considered in earlier chapters are
that it
Phrases such
metaphors. In fact,
as The
population
metaphor
mushroomed
literally,
yet they
do not strike
us as odd because weimme-diately
in language.
Without
metaphor, some notions are extremely
sense.
It is easy to see why metaphor is so common
to
be carried,
words in
English
having to
do with
mental processes have their
dif-ficult
origins in
metaphor.Comprehend,
for example, means
literally to graspvery much. Words meaning
take hold (of some-thing)
also appear as metaphors in the English phrases to
66
Chapter
10
|
Meaning
Shif
grasp
(an idea)
and to
get (a concept).
Similarly,
if you perceivea notion, youliterally take hold ofit.
communicate
understanding.
We also talk
about
Weusethis type of metaphorwhen wesayGotcha! to
examining
thoughts
and ideas
physical objects. For example, when you reflect on a thought, you turn
10.8.1
In
Metaphorical
analyzing
we were
manipulating
mind.
that
encountered
Extension
words, it is sometimes
like Johns
as if
it again in your
necessary
to
uncover
the
metaphors
behavior is egregious and did not know the
occur.
If
you
meaning of egregious, the
a sen-tence
morphemes alone
could not tell you. Egregious/ex+greg+ious/ glossesbeing out of the flock. Looking at the sentenceJohns
behavior
was egregious
a sheep.
Instead,
EXTENSION;
If
someones
the light
of the
you take
behavior
way, the sentence
surrounded
in
as a part
alone
by other
of this
process
gloss,
a concrete
notion
was outside
the
If the
like
flock,
does not indicate.
sentences.
however,
make you conclude
that
the
meaning
of such
a word, you
make a
being
outside
the flock
and apply
of determining
you
would
Fortunately,
speaker
does
not
expect
it to
sentences
seldom
talking
about
continued
be unusual
occur
John,
John
it to
in
an abstract
some
way.
in isolation.
saying:
He
is a bird
or
METAPHOR-ICAL
situa-tion.
But, in
They
what
are usually
alienates
everyone
or Just wait until you hear the awful thing he did! you would assume that egregious meansoutstandingly
bad, whichit does. From egregious, comes the metaphorical image of a bird being chased out of the flockmade
to fend for itself
because it
behaved
in
a way that
annoyed
the
other
birds;
not too
different
from
the
way
wehumanstreat people whosebehavioris antisocial or egregious.It is interesting to note that egregio,the
Spanish cognate of egregious meansillustrious.
Eventhough the English and the Spanish developments have
led
a common
to
from
forms
the
In doing
that
normal,
antonyms,
of being
the
outstanding:
word analysis, it is important
metaphorical
metaphorical.
a.
are
extensions.
words
have
in
English,
both to know the literal
A number
Consider the following
feature.
outstandingly
of
words
have two
Both
develop
bad; in
Spanish,
the
notion
meanings of words and to
current
of
outstandingly
being
apart
good.
makethe appropri-ate
meanings: one literal
and the
other
sentences:
Aelfric translated part of Genesisfrom Latin into
Old English.
b. The prophet Elijah wastranslated into heaven.
The literal
meaning of translate is to
across from
Latin into
carry across. In sentence (a), Aelfric did not literally
Old English. Yet, metaphorically,
he carried the
meanings of the Latin
carry anything
words and phras-es
to his OldEnglishreaders. The mostcommon senseoftranslatein modernEnglishis this metaphoricalone.
Thelesscommon literal senseoftranslateis usedin sentence(b), Elijah wascarried acrossfrom earthto heav-en.
Now consider the following
pair of sentences:
c.
The Celts depended on the Romansfor protection.
d.
Hugelamps dependedfrom the vaulted ceiling.
In which sentence is depend used metaphorically? Since,in sentence (c), the literal
down
would be peculiar,
we assume that
a metaphorical
extension
has taken
meaning of dependto
place. A person
who hangs
hang
on
to youis relying on you for support. But he or sheis notliterally hangingfrom your person.So dependin (c)
is a metaphor.In sentence(d), onthe other hand, dependis used perfectlyliterallythe lamps hung down
from the ceiling.
Obviously,since you already know the common meaningsof translate and depend,you do not needto go
through the process of deduction that explains why translate meansto express something in another lan-guage
or why depend meansto rely on. But for words you do not know, this process maybe necessary.In
many cases,
however,
the
metaphorical
sense
of a word
will be the familiar
sense
and the literal
sense the
unfa-miliar
one.If you know onlythe common, metaphoricalsenseof depend,a sentencelike Huge lamps depend-ed
from the vaulted ceilingwill
seem odd indeed.
But if you know the
meanings of the
morphemes that com-pose
Chapter
Meaning
depend,its less common usage will be clarified.
10
|
Shift
6
As a rule, frequently
Consequently,
true
used words are
more likely to
many of the words you encounter
of technical
and scientific
have taken
on a metaphorical
for the first time
words. Some less common
will have literal
meaning than rare
words.
meanings. This is particu-larly
words, however, have undergone
metaphorical
extension.
Every known language
it at all. If you
interpreting
Metaphor
use of
a demonstration
human thought
of the pervasiveness
of
may make word analysis
Metaphor
more difficult
underlies
many
at times,
of the
Metaphor is a fascinating
the following
without it human language
uses
changing
sentences, for example, there
process. Unravelling
The meanings of
2.
Unfamiliar
most unfamiliar
uses of common
3. If you know the literal
metaphorical
of language
a day
would be colorless
as slang
and
extensions
metaphors.
need not be a mystery if you remem-ber
words are literal.
meaning of a word, the
metaphorical
extension
is usually
discourse.
Set 19
Set 20
brev short
aug increase
grasp
dol suffer
loc place
lig bind
loqu, locu speak
nav boat,
lud play
otear
sail
machbattle
plat(y) flat,
tac arrange
pseudo false
tach(y) fast
sol, hol whole
sol alone,
som body
single
sol(ar) sun
10
|
Meaning
Shif
poetic
world is dependent, to a large extent, on our
words will usually be literal.
of the sentence or larger
Chapter
such
are at least ten separate
10.9 BASE
FORM
SETS
19AND
20
68
we hardly rec-ognize
guidelines:
1.
context
but
most creative
Our ability to relate to and describe a rapidly
metaphor. In the last four
lab seize,
process that
metaphor, try to go through
every sentence you hear literally.
and inefficient.
imagery.
makes use of metaphor. It is such a natural
would like
broad
therm hot,
warm
phon sound,
speech sound
obvious from
the
Word
Formation
Processes
In this
chapter
we will look
at some
most common
processes
and
compounding,
functional
shift,
etymology,
and root
of the
ways in
which
English
move on to the less common
back formation,
clipping,
words
are formed.
We will
ones.
The processes
acronymy,
eponymy,
onomatopoeia,
we will cover
affixes
a stem.
begin
are:
with the
derivation,
blending,
folk
this
book
creation.
11.1 DERIVATION
DERIVATION
is the
formation
we have been considering
in
of
derivation
a new
word
in some
by
adding
detail.
an
affix
Derivation
or
is the
to
most common
Throughout
form
of
word formation
English.
11.2 COMPOUNDING
COMPOUNDING
is the formation
of a new
word
by joining
two
or
more
words
or roots.
consist of two or morefree roots (roots that can stand alone as words) asin catfish /cat+fish/
A compound
may
or of two or more
boundroots asin anthropology/anthrop+o+log+y/. Noticethat a compound, in addition to its roots, can con-tain
other
elements
with those
such
as stem
of another,
extenders
as is illustrated
and
affixes.
in the following
NOUN
VERB
NOUN
boyfriend
VERB
dump
ADJECTIVE
PREPOSITION
Free roots
of one grammatical
class can and
do com-bine
chart.
ADJECTIVE
PREPOSITION
spoon-feed
headstrong
smokeout
sleepwalk
carryall
sit-in
poorhouse
shortchange
bittersweet
roundabout
underarm
overdo
underprivileged
throughout
truck
Notice that compounds are written in various ways:they may be run together as one word, asin boyfriend;
they maybe written with a hyphen, asin spoon-feed; or they maybe written with a space between the parts, as
in dump truck.
6
11.3 FUNCTIONAL
SHIFT
Another
word
SHIFT.
formation
process
Functional
shift
that
occurs
is
quite
common
in
when a word shifts
English
from
is
FUNCT-IONAL
one part
FUN FACT
of speech
to another without changing its form. For example, the noun clone, which came
into the language around 1900, shifted to create the verb to clone about fifty years
The original
pedagogswere
later. Onthe other hand, the verbto commute, whichcameinto usein the late
1800s,hasquiterecentlyshifted to createthe noun a commute. As with mostrecent
Greek slaves whose
job it wasto LEAD
shifts, the noun commute has an informal
intuitively
which
long
time
ago.
form
in
the
form
of a
To discover
word came
the
first,
direction
the CHILDREN
to school
feel. Often, you will not be able to tell
particularly
of a shift,
check
if the
shift
the
etymology
took
place
a
of each
OED.
11.4 BACK
FORMATION
BACK
FORMATION
occurs
when a real
or supposed
affix
of a word is removed
to
make a new
word.
Speakers
often useanalogy in creating words. For example, the word television came into the language in the early 1900s
(before
the
actual
device
was invented).
Then, in
the
1930s,
when
people
needed
a
word for
broadcasting
something on television, they analogizedfrom word pairslike revision and revise and createdtelevise.
Similarly,the verb edit wascreatedfrom editor by analogy with word pairslike baker/bakeand washer/wash.
Backformations like orientate and commentate are objectionable to some speakers. Others,like gruntle (from
disgruntle) and burgle (from burglar), have a humorous feel.
11.5 CLIPPING
CLIPPING
part)
is
is the
word formation
retained.
For
process in
example,
through
which
clipping,
a word is clipped
in two
and
only
one
part (often
the first
we have:
lab from laboratory (or Labrador retriever)
exam from examination
fan from fanatic
flu from influenza
copter from helicopter
busfrom omnibus
Noticethat clippings do not necessarilyoccurat a morphemebreak. Copter,for instance, from /helic+o+pter/
is madeup of the c from the morpheme helic spiral, the stem extender o, and the morpheme pter wing.
Similarly, bus wasclipped from /omni+ibus/ omni all and the Latin plural dative ending -ibus for (so, a vehi-cle
for
all).
11.6 ACRONYMY
ACRONYMY
acronyms
regular
is the
are
process
pronounced
of forming
letter
by letter:
a
word from
JFK,
TV,
the
first
letter
or letters
DNA,
TLC.
Others
are
words:
NATOfrom North Atlantic Treaty Organization
WASP
from
WhiteAngloSaxon Protestant
LASERfrom Light Amplification by Simulated Emissionof Radiation
NOWfrom National Organizationfor
70
Chapter
11
|
Word
Formation
Women
Processes
of a name
pronounced
or
phrase.
as though
they
Some
were
Other acronyms
are formed
from
parts clipped from
two or
more words:
sitcom from situation comedy
Nabiscofrom
National Biscuit Company
Gestapofrom
Geheime Staats Polezei
11.7 EPONYMY
EPONYMY
is the
creation
of a general
word from
a proper
name.
For example,the wordlynch comesfrom Lynchlaw, namedfor
to hang the wretches
harassing the people of Pittsylvania
Such
words
often
have a colorful
County,
Virginia.
Quite a large number
such as diddle, paisley, cardigan, volt, and doily have come into English through eponymy.
that there
a form
are several
dictionaries
of eponyms
history.
WilliamLynch, who,in 1780,led a campaign
both in print and online.
As wesaw in
of words
Enough, in fact,
Chapter 10, eponymy is
of widening.
11.8 ONOMATOPOEIA
ONOMATOPOEIAis the creation of a wordthat imitates asound in nature. Words
like boom,creak, mumble,
crash, click, and tinkle are all the result of onomatopoeia as are many words for animal sounds such as moo,
growl, cheep, woof,tweet, oink, hiss,and meow.This is the only processin which a words sound and meaning
are
not linked
arbitrarily.
change through
However,
time, languages
because
what something
will not agree completely
sounds
on these
like
is
culturally
determined
words. So, whereas cats in
and
may
Thai, Spanish,
Arabic, German, Hebrew, Cantonese,and Finnish say something very similar to the English word meow,
Japanese cats say nyaa and Coeur dAlene cats say pish-pish. Coeur dAlene is a Native American language of
the
Northwest
United States.
11.9 BLENDING
In BLENDING,
a new word is formed
by putting together
part of one word (often the beginning)
and part of
another (often the end). For example,the wordsmogis a blending of the beginning of smoke andthe end of
fog. Other blended words are:
brunch
from
breakfast
palimony
from
pal and alimony
stagflation
from
stagnation
pulsar
from
pulse and quasar
moped
from
motor and pedal
Spanglish
from
Spanish and English
staycation
from
stay (home)
Note that,
asin clipping,
This characteristic
and lunch
and inflation
and vacation
in blending, the source
differentiates
blending from
words are not necessarily broken at
affixation
morpheme
on the one hand and compounding
boundaries.
on the other.
11.10 ROOT
CREATION
ROOT
CREATION
is the invention
Root creation is a rather rare
of totally
new words with no relationship
process, although it
might be the first
to other
words in the language.
one we would think
of when imagining
where new words come from. Some examples of words brought into the language byroot creation are quark,
blimp, slang, quiz, nylon, and googol.
Chapter
11
|
Word
Formation
Processes
7
11.11 FOLK
ETYMOLOGY
FOLK
the
ETYMOLOGY
is
pronunciation
a relatively
or spelling
rare
word
of a strange
formation
sounding
process
borrowing
in
which
so that
it
a new
word
is
created
makes
more sense to
by
changing
English
speak-ers.
For example, when the Spanish word cucaracha was borrowed into English,
English speakers changed it to cockroach, replacing the unfamiliar Spanish sylla-bles
withthe familiar Englishcockrooster and roacha type offish. Similarly,the
Algonquin word musquashbecamein English muskrat,very fitting for a rodent
with musk glands. Wesee folk etymology at work in modern expressions like old
timers diseasefor Altzheimers Disease. Do not confuse folk etymology with the
normal
process
English
sound
system.
of adjusting
In
reader
as to its
origins
by
pronunciation
folk
etymology,
masking itself
of borrowed
the
end
result
with apparently
words to
is
a
word
familiar
conform
that
to the
deceives
the
FUN FACT
An anecdote was
originally a private
storyone
NOT
GIVEN OUT
to the public.
morphemes.
11.12 COMBINATIONS
OFWORD
FORMATION
PROCESSES
Often, words are the result of morethan one word formation process. For example, wesaw that cockroach is
the result of folk etymology. Perhaps becausethe word cockrooster hasa vulgar homonym, it hassince been
clipped from cockroachto form roach. Anotherexampleis the word degauss
to neutralizea magneticfield.
Theroot of degauss,gauss
a unit of magneticflux is taken from the name ofthe German mathematicianKarl
Fredrick Gauss.This eponym then had the prefix de-added by derivation to create degauss.
LEARNMOREABOUTLINGUISTICS!
The terms
used in this text for
other terms
you
for
DERIVATION:
affixation
for FUNCTIONAL
for
ACRONYMY:
word formation
SHIFT: conversion,
initialism
for
BLENDING:
portmanteau
for
ONOMATOPOEIA:
imitation
for
ROOT
novel creation,
CREATION:
ETYMOLOGY:
Chapter
11
|
zero derivation,
zero affixation,
or abbreviation
antonomasia
72
use. Here are some of the
or agglutination
for EPONYMY:
for FOLK
processes are not the only ones in
many encounter:
words
word
manufacture,
modification
Word
Formation
Processe
or coinage
or category
extension
11.13 BASE
FORM
SETS
21AND
22
Set 21
Set 22
bol,
bl throw
agog lead,
cap
head
cur,
don,
dor,
do, da give
cor,
jac throw
noc,
kine,
-osis abnormal
condition
car run
-itis inflamation
hum earth
nyc night
induce
cine
move
mut change
pachy thick
psych mind,
pol city,
state
ques, quer ask
vid, id,
eid see
troph
nourish
somn
spirit
sleep
ver, verg,
vor turn
uxor wife
Chapter
11
|
Word
Formation
Processes
7
Summary of
Rules and
Glossary of
Terms
RULESUMMARY
Name
Vowel
Description
Deletion
Deletes the last
vowel.
Does
vowel
of a
apply
to
not
morpheme
one-vowel
if the following
morpheme
begins
with
a
morphemes.
Deletesthe final vowel of morphemes ending in -er or -or if the following
E-Deletion
morpheme
begins
with
a vowel.
Does not apply
to
one-syllable
morphemes.
S-Deletion
Deletesthe initial s of a morphemeif the prefix ex-is added.
D-Deletion
Deletesthe final d of a morpheme if a morpheme beginning with s is added.
Vowel-C-Deletion
Deletesthe final vowel plus c or g of a morphemeif the verbsuffix -yis added.
N-Deletion
Deletesthe n of the morpheme an-if the following
morpheme begins with a
consonant.
Deletesthe x ofthe prefix ex-if the following
X-Deletion
morphemebegins with a voiced
consonant.
Total
Assimilation
Changes
a sound
so that
Nasal
Assimilation
Changesa final nto
Voicing
Assimilation
it
becomes
exactly
m when the following
like
some
nearby
sound.
morpheme begins with p or b.
Changesa final gto c or afinal bto p whenthe following
morpheme begins with
t or s.
A-Weakening
Changes ato ein
morphemes occurring anywhere in a word except the first
syllable.
7
Changeseto i in morphemesoccurring anywherein a wordexceptthe first
E-Weakening
syllable
if the following
morpheme
begins
with
a vowel.
Changesthe final vowel of morphemes ending in -el or -ol to u if the following
E-Change
morpheme
begins
with a consonant.
T-Change
Changesafinal t to the sound [s] (spelled s or c) if followed by -y, -e, -is or -ia.
V-Change
Changesafinal vto u whenthe following
U-Addition
Affects morphemesor stemsending in gl or cl. Inserts a u betweenthe g(or c)
and the l if the following
morphemebegins with a consonant.
morpheme begins with a vowel.
P-Addition
Inserts a p betweenthe final mof a morphemeand a voicelessconsonant.
X-Replacement
The sequence c+s is replaced by the letter x.
Consonant
Affects morphemesending -VC. Thefinal consonantis doubledif followed by a
Doubling
morpheme
beginning
with
a vowel
spelling
only.
Affects morphemes ending -cy. Thefinal -y changesto i if followed by any suffix
except one beginning in i.
Y-Change
GLOSSARY
OFTERMS
Name
Description
Ablaut
A process, unpredictable in English, whereby an underlying e changed to o or was
deleted.
Absorption
Abstract
The unconscious
Noun Suffix
A noun
suffix
process,
Acronymy
Rule
Adjectival
Suffix
A rule
Adverbial
of forming
which
Noun Suffix
Allomorph
Chapter
a
word
as an
abstract
exposed
noun.
to it repeatedly.
Glossed
act,
state,
that
one
or
a word from
the first
more
are
sounds
letter
added
marks a word as an adjective.
to
or letters
a
of a name
or phrase.
morpheme.
Glossed having,
being,
pertaining
or ing.
A morpheme
Agentive
marks
by being
Asuffix that marksa wordasan adverb(-ly). Glossed
in a _____ manner.
Suffix
Affix
76
in
A suffix
to,
that
of a word
or result.
The process
Addition
learning
A noun
|
is attached
to
word
suffix
that
marks
Glossed one
who
or that
A variant
12
that
Summary
of
a
a root
of a
morpheme.
Rules
and
Glossary
of
alter its
as a person
which.
form
to
Term
or thing
meaning.
that
performs
some
act.
Amelioration
The
meaning shift
whereby the
negative to neutral
Analysis
A method of vocabulary
their
Archaic
Word
Assimilation
component
A word that
Association
The
Back Formation
parts and assigns
meanings based on the
but has fallen
which a sound
becomes
whereby a word or
process in
Blending
The process by which a word is formed
of a morpheme
before any rules apply.
by putting
together
A root
occurs
more other
which
always
A morphological
Classical
Words borrowed into
Stem Extender
affix of a word is removed
(often the end).
Change Rule
Common
morpheme comes to refer to a thing it
and part of another
A verb suffix
Clipping
more like some nearby sound.
(often the beginning)
Causative Verb Suffix
Borrowings
meanings of the parts.
make a new word.
The basic form
Root
words into
out of usage.
which a real or supposed
Base Form
Bound
unfamiliar
or suggests.
Word formation
to
whereby one divides
meaning shift
resembles
morpheme changes from
enrichment
was once common
A change rule in
meaning of a word or
or good.
with
meaning cause to
one or
part of one word
morphemes.
be.
rule that causes a sound to become some other sound.
English from
Word formation
process in
(often the first
part) is retained.
Astem extender that
Latin,
Greek, or Old French.
which a word is clipped in two and only one part
occurs in
many words. The most common
stem extenders
are o,i, u, t, and s.
Compound
A word containing
Compounding
The formation
Cultural
Shift
The
The
or
more roots.
of a new word by joining
meaning shift
to the culture
Degeneration
two
or
whereby a word will come to
or situation
meaning shift
two
in
more words or roots.
have a meaning that is peculiar
which it develops.
whereby the
meaning of a word or
morpheme changes from
good or neutral to negative.
Deletion
Derivation
Rule
Arule that involves
The formation
the loss of a sound
or sounds from
a morpheme.
of a new word by adding an affix or affixes to a stem.
made up of the underlying
the changes that result from
Chapter
12
form
of an analyzed
word, alist
A display
of rules that apply,
those rules, and the surface form.
|
Summary
of
Rules
and
Glossary
of
Terms
7
Derivational
Affix
An affix that changes the part of speech of the stem it is attached to.
Eponymy
The creation
Exotic
Words borrowed
Borrowings
Folk Etymology
Arelatively
changing
of a general
from
word from
a proper
any language
rare word formation
the pronunciation
name.
other than
process in
or spelling
Latin,
Greek, or Old French.
which a new word is created
of a strange-sounding
by
word so that it
makes more sense to native speakers.
Free Root
Aroot
Gloss
To assign a meaning to a word based on the
Infix
An affix that can be inserted
Inflectional
Suffix
which can be a word by itself.
Asuffix that indicates
only into the
grammatical
meaning of its
morphemes.
middle of the root.
distinctions
such as number,
gender, person,
and tense.
Intensive
Prefix
Irregular
Allomorph
A prefix
used to strengthen
strongly,
or completely.
Variant form
or intensify
Relational
the
prefixes
of a morpheme resulting
from
meaning of a root.
Glossed very,
may also be used intensively.
a process no longer
active in the
language.
Locative
Noun Suffix
A noun suffix that
Meaning Shift
marks location.
The gradual shift in the
Glossedplace
where.
meaning of a word from the original
meaning evident in
its gloss.
Memorization
The learning
of a word by conscious
Metaphor
The meaning shift
whereby a word or
meaning to a more abstract
Metaphorical
Extension
Metathesis
effort.
The process of taking
in
a concrete
one.
a concrete
A process, unpredictable
morpheme changes from
notion
English,
and applying
it to an abstract situation.
whereby certain sounds in a word are
reversed.
Morphemes
Morphological
The meaningful
Rule
Arule that
pieces that
make up words.
predicts the changes a base form
will undergo
under certain
circumstances.
Mutative Verb Suffix
Narrowing
A verb suffix that
meanschange
or become.
The meaning shift
whereby the
meaning of a word or
narrower;
Native
Words
78
Chapter
that is, it refers to a smaller
Words that
12
|
Summary
of
have always been English.
Rules
and
Glossary
of
Term
range of subjects.
morpheme
becomes
Negative
Prefix
A prefix usedto negatethe meaningof the root (non-, un-). Glossed
not,
lacking,
Nominal
Suffix
Numerical
Prefix
opposite,bad
A suffix
that
The
Opaque
A word that
Parse
Partial
creation
To divide
Assimilation
marks
a
word
to
prior
condition.
as a noun.
A prefixthat denotesa number(di-two).
Onomatopoeia
Word
or return
of a
that
imitates
has undergone
a word into
A process in
exactly
word
which
one
a sound
or
nature.
more rules.
its component
a sound
in
morphemes.
changes
to
become
more like
another
sound
Passive Noun Suffix
A noun suffix that denotes one who undergoes some action (-ee).
Prefix
An affix
that
A stem
extender
Rare Stem Extender
but
not
the same.
can
be attached
that
occurs
only to the left
only
with
of the root.
certain
roots.
The
rare
stem
extenders
are
r, n, m, AND y.
Redundant
Suffix
Relational
Prefix
A suffix
that
suffixes
are necessary
adds the same
meaning
to the form
as the final
of the
suffix
word but
of a word.
not to the
Redundant
meaning.
A prefixthat denotesa relationship occurringin spaceortime (de-down).
Rhotacism
A process, unpredictable in English, whereby s changesto r between vowels.
Root
A morpheme
Root Formation
that
The invention
forms
the
core
of the
of totally
new
words
word.
with
no relationship
to
other
words in the
language.
Spelling
Rule
A rule
which
changes
the spelling
or combination
of roots
of a
morpheme
and
affixes
without
changing
its
pronunciation.
Stem
Any
root
to
which
another
morpheme
can
be
added.
Stem Extender
A meaningless
morpheme
morpheme
Suffix
An affix
Surface Form
The form
Synecdoche
is
that
be attached
of a word
The
meaning
shifts
to
referred
to
a part
must sometimes
be added
to
a stem
before
anoth-er
added.
can
entity
that
shift
after
only to the
all applicable
whereby
mean only
a word
a part,
of an entity
Chapter
12
or
shifts
|
right
rules
or
Summary
have applied.
morpheme
whereby
to
of the root.
mean the
of
that
a word
Rules
or
once referred
to
a whole
morpheme
that
once
whole.
and
Glossary
of
Terms
7
Total
Assimilation
Transparent
Word
A process in
which a sound
A word that
has not undergone
the base forms
Underlying
Form
of its
changes to become exactly like some nearby sound.
any rules and is therefore
simply
a composite
of
morphemes.
A display of the base forms
of all the
morphemes in a word before they
undergo
any rules.
Unpredictable
Process
Verbal Suffix
A process that at some time in the history
morphological
rule
unpredictable
allomorphs.
Asuffix that either
but is no longer
of the language
predictable
was a predictable
and therefore
results in
establishes a stem as a verb or changes a stem from
a noun or
adjective to a verb.
Widening
The meaning shift
whereby the
meaning of a word or
that is, it refers to a larger range of subjects.
80
Chapter
12
|
Summary
of
Rules
and
Glossary
of
Term
morpheme
becomes
wider;
Glossary of
BaseForms
and Reverse
Glossary of
Roots
An asterisk,
*,
marks the
most frequently
occurring
Theless common stem extendersr,
with:
Prefixes
Set
-n, -m, and -yappear
in parentheses attached to the roots they occur
brach(y).
Other stem
Roots
forms.
extenders
also appear
in
parentheses
are indicated
by a dash to their
right:
are indicated
by a dash to their
left:
are indicated
without
Base Form
any
dashes:
with the roots
they
attach
to:
dyn(am);
gyn(ec)
anti-Suffixes
-able
arbor
Meaning
Examples
A
-a
Feminine
alumna,
-a
NOUN
alga,
-a
Plural
anima,
formula,
automata,
bacteria,
criteria,
media,
curricula,
phenomena
see hab
ab
*ab-,
Julia
papilla
impedimenta,
14
Sophia,
abs--able,
-ible,
-ble
from,
able
away
to
be, suitable
for
(related to hab)
abdicate,
abduction,
abnormal,
abortion,
adorable,
amiable,
notable,
observable,
sociable,
soluble,
abhorrence,
absent,
abstract
audible,
innumerable,
pliable,
tangible,
quotable,
taxable,
vendible
abs--ac
see ab-one
who,
that
which
aphrodisiac,
hypochondriac,
insomniac,
maniac
-ac
being,
having,
pertaining
to
cardiac,
elegiac,
ileac,
theriac
8
-ac
18
STEM EXTENDER
audacious,
sharp, tip, top (relatedto ox)
*ac, acer, acerb
herbaceous, loquacious,
tenacity,
vivacity
acerbic,
acetic, acidic, acidulate,
acidulous,
acme, acne, acrid,
acrimonious,
acrobat, acronym,
acrophobia,
acropolis,
acuminate,
acupuncture,
acuity, acumen,
acute,
exacerbate
-acle
6
that
*ad--ad
which
oracle, oracular, receptacle,
to, toward
spectacle,
spectacular,
spiracle, tabernacle,
abbreviate,
account,
admit,
tentacle
adapt, adduce,
affect, aggressive, alleviate,
annul,
appeal, arrive, assume, attract
group
or unit of
chiliad,
dyad,
monad,
myriad, pentad,
adipogenous,
adipometer,
tetrad, triad
adip
fat
adipescent,
adipophobia,
-ae
plural
algae, formulae,
aer
air
aerate, aerial, aerodynamic,
aerolite,
3
adipose, adiposity
aesth
seeesth
*ag
act (relatedto -agog, agon)
papillae
aeronaut,
aerodyne,
aeronautical,
aeronomy,
aerostate, anaerobic
act, action,
activity,
actual, actuary,
actuate, agenda, agency, agent, agile,
agility,
agitate, ambiguous,
castigate, coagulate,
exact, exigency, fumigate,
-age
condition,
result
22
process,
intransigent,
prodigal,
react, retroactive,
salvage,
teach, induce (related to ag)
*agog
litigate,
navigate,
strategy,
variegate
damage, foliage,
of process
fustigate,
interact,
transaction,
axiom,
enact, enactment,
herbage, lineage,
verbiage
anagogic,
demagogue,
hypnagogue,
emmenagogue,
mystagogue, pedagogue,
pedagogy, synagogue
struggle (relatedto ag)
agon
agony, agonize, antagonism,
antagonize,
agr
field
-al
having,
being, pertaining
to
antagonist,
protagonist
agrarian,
agriculture,
agribusiness,
agriology,
agronomist,
peregrinate
armorial,
astral, autumnal,
floral,
glottal, immortal,
dual, factual,
mental,
mortal,
nasal, neural, oral, papal, personal,
scribal, spherical,
*al, all
82
Chapter
other
13
|
Glossary
of
surgical
alias, alibi, alien, alienation,
Base
Forms
and
Reverse
Glossary
allegory,
allele, allelomorph,
allomorph,
allopatric,
allotrope,
alternative,
altruism,
inalienable,
parallel
of
Root
grow, nourish (relatedto alt)
al, ol
abolish,
adolescence,
adolescent,
aliment,
alimentary,
alimony,
adult,
coalesce,
coalition
alb
13
white
*alg
alb, albescent,
pain
ali
wing
algogenic,
algolagnia,
algometer,
analgesic,
arthralgia,
neuralgia,
nostalgic,
odontalgia,
pleuralgia
alar,
high (relatedto algrow)
am
love
alary,
*ambi,
amphi
both,
on all or both sides
albumen,
alate,
albite,
albuminuria
aliferous,
aliform,
aliped
altigraph,
altimeter,
altiloquence,
altitude,
altisonant,
alto, exalt,
amateur,
amiable,
amicable,
amity,
enemy,
12
albino,
album,
alinasal,
alt
albiflorous,
albocracy,
amiability,
amiably,
amorous,
enmity,
exaltation
enamored,
inimical
ambidextrous,
ambient,
ambition,
ambivert,
amburbial,
amphibian,
ambiguous,
ambivalent,
amphitheater,
circumambient
ambl
walk,
go
amble,
ambulance,
ambulomancy,
circumambulate,
preamble,
amphi
see ambi
ampl
large
-an
having,
ample,
perambulate,
somnambulist
ampliate,
amplify,
amplification,
being,
pertaining
to
-an
one
who, that
amplitude
batrachian,
human,
reptilian,
which
ampliation,
silvan,
mammalian,
suburban
artisan,
cosmopolitan,
lesbian,
partisan,
pedestrian,
pediatrician,
pagan,
veteran
4
*an-*ana--ance
10
lacking,
back,
not
again
anarchy,
anemic,
apathetic,
atheism,
atheist,
atom
anabolism,
anagram,
anaphora,
anatomical,
anatomy,
anodize
addenda,
dividend,
aphotic,
analect,
analysis,
anatomize,
see -ant being, -e
see -ant being, -y
-ancy
-and,
-end
passive
NOUN
multiplicand,
memorandum,
operand,
ordinand,
reverend
4
*ander
man,
male
anadrous,
androcentric,
androgyny,
android,
gynandromorph,
philander,
-ane
having,
being,
pertaining
to
arcane,
13
|
Glossary
of
Base
Forms
and
pachysandra,
polyandry
germance,
transmundane,
Chapter
androgenous,
apandrous,
Reverse
montane,
mundane,
urbane
Glossary
of
Roots
8
anem
wind
anemography,
anemometer,
anemology,
anemophilous
ang
constrict
angina, angustation,
anguish,
anxiety,
anxious
angi
blood
angl
angui
vessel
angina, angioplasty,
angiogram
angle
angular, anguliferous,
triangle,
snake
anguiform,
anguilliform,
rectangle
anguine,
anguiped
anim
mind
animadversion,
animate,
animal,
animosity,
inanimate,
longanimity,
pusillanimous,
21
*ann
year
-ant
being,
having, pertaining
to
9
one
*ante, anti
who, that
before,
annual,
centennial,
millenium,
superannuate,
triennial
flower,
constancy,
defiance,
itinerant,
militant,
pregnancy, radiance
assistant, consultant,
contestant,
defendant,
discriminant,
inhabitant,
intoxicant,
itinerant,
occupant,
participant,
servant, tenant
ante, antebellum,
collection
anticipate,
man,
human
being
antiquarian,
antiquated,
antique,
ananthous,
anther, anthesis,
anthoecology,
anthology,
monanthous,
*anthrop
antecedent,
antedate, antediluvian,
chrysanthemum,
1
perennial,
brilliant,
anterior,
*anth, anthem
annuity,
gallant, importance,
antechamber,
9
unanimous
biennium,
biennial,
applicant,
old
magnanimous,
reanimate,
biannual,
adamant,
which
equanimity,
annals, anniversary,
pliant,
-ant
animalcule,
animus,
antiquity
exanthema,
perianth
anthropophagous,
anthropoid,
anthropology,
anthropophobia,
lycanthrope,
misanthrope,
philanthropist
7
*anti-anti-apec
against,
opposite
antibody,
antichrist,
antidote,
antipodes,
antiseptic,
antonym
apex, apical, apicular,
apiculate,
antipathy,
see ante-tip
apicifixed
aper
open
aperient,
apertometer,
aperture,
malapert
api
bee
apian, apiarian,
apiology,
84
Chapter
13
|
Glossary
of
Base
Forms
and
Reverse
Glossary
of
Root
apiary, apiculture,
apiphobia,
apivorous
5
*apo-away,
from,
off
apandrous,
apocalypse,
apodeictic,
apodictic,
apology,
apoplexy,
apocynum,
apogamy,
apogee,
aporrheum,
apostle, apostrophe,
apostasy,
apothecary,
apotheosis
16
*apt
*aqua
fit,
capable
water
adapt, adaptation,
adept, apt, aptitude,
aptness, coaptation,
ineptitude,
aquarium,
aquapuncture,
aqueduct,
aqueous,
aquiferous,
inept
aquatic,
aquiculture,
aquiform,
aquosity,
terraqueous
-ar
having,
being, pertaining
to
alveolar, articular,
insular,
-ar
see -r
arachn
spider
globular,
granular,
jocular, linear, lunar,
nuclear,
particular,
popular, regular, similar,
spectacular,
stellar, velar, vulgar
arachnean,
arachnid,
arachnophagous,
arachnoid,
arachnophobia,
arachnology
arbiter
judge
arbiter,
arbitrary,
arbor
tree
arbor, arboraceous,
arboretum,
11
*arch
first,
govern, foremost
arbitrate,
arboreal,
arboricole,
anarchy, archaeology,
archbishop,
diarch, archetype,
matriarch,
patriarch,
burn,
dry
-arium
see-ary place and -um
arm
weapon (relatedto art)
arboreous,
arboriculture
anarchist,
archives, ethnarch,
ard, ar
arbitration
architect,
exarchy, hierarchy,
monarch, oligarchy,
triarchy
ardent,
ardor, arid, arson
alarm,
arm, armada, armament,
armigerous,
armistice,
armor,
armory,
arms, army, disarm
arct
bear,
north
Antarctica,
art
skill, capability (relatedto arm)
art, artful, artifact, artifice, artificial,
artillery,
inert,
art
see arth
arter
artery
arctic, cynarctomachy
artisan, artist, artistic,
inertia
arterial,
arteriography,
arteriosclerosis,
arthr, art
segment,
joint
arthralgia,
having,
being, pertaining
-ary
having
(some
number
to
arbitrary,
of) parts
-ary
place
customary,
apothecary,
seminary,
|
Glossary
of
Base
Forms
and
solitary
quinary, ternary,
aquarium,
planetarium,
13
articulate
unitary
estuary, granary,
Chapter
art, arthrology,
arthropod,
binary, quaternary,
trinary,
arteriole,
periartertis
arthritis,
arthroplasty,
-ary
artless,
sanctuary,
solarium,
Reverse
commissary,
mortuary,
Glossary
penitentiary,
sanitarium,
vocabulary
of
Roots
8
9
-as
STEM EXTENDER
enthusiastic,
phantasy, orgasm, sarcasm
asper
rough,
asperifoliate,
asperity, exasperate
*aster
star (relatedto stell)
irritate
aster, asterisk, asteroid, astral,
astrodome,
astrogeny,
astrology,
astronaut,
astrophysics,
-aster
inferior
one who
criticaster,
astrolatry,
astronomy,
disaster, periaster
grammicaster,
philosophaster,
medicaster,
poetaster, stylaster,
theologaster
*-ate
one
*-ate
who, that
having,
which
being, pertaining
to
advocate,
affiliate,
beneficiate,
delegate,
laureate,
magistrate, novitiate,
potentate,
prostitute,
triumvirate
affectionate,
alternate,
collegiate,
delicate, indiscrimate,
irate,
obstinate,
ornate
*-ate
VERB cause
to
aggravate, asphyxiate,
convolute,
elongate, equate, fascinate, fumigate,
athl
sport
infuriate,
liberate,
vacillate,
vegetate
punctuate,
athletic,
athleticism,
segregate,
decathlon,
pentathlon
atmo
air
atmidometry,
atmolysis,
atra
black,
aud
cruel
atmoclastic,
atmometer,
atrabilarian,
hear
atmograph,
atmosphere
atrabilious,
atrocious,
atrocity,
atrosanguineous,
atrous
audible,
audience,
audiology,
audit,
audition,
auditor,
auditorium,
auditory,
inaudible
20
*aug
increase
auction,
auctioneer,
augmentation,
augment,
augur, augury,
August, auxesis, auxiliary,
august,
auxin,
auxology, inauguration
aur
ear
aur, or
gold
aural, auricular,
binaural,
auramine,
aureate, aureole, auric,
auriferous,
aurigraphy,
foretell,
protect
monaural
aurivorous,
aurous,
oriole
auspex, auspices, auspicial,
(relatedto avbird
auster
aurilave,
auriscope,
aurific,
auspec
auriform,
auspicious
and spec)
south
Auster, austral,
australopithecus,
Australian,
austromancy,
Austronesia
2
86
*auto, tauto
Chapter
13
self,
|
Glossary
of
same
Base
Forms
and
Reverse
Glossary
autarchy,
autecology,
autobiography,
autocracy,
autocratic,
autogamy,
autography,
automate,
automaton,
automobile,
autonomy,
autotomic,
tautology,
tautophony
of
Root
automatic,
autonomic,
autopsy,
13
*av
bird,
fly
aviary, aviation,
aviator, avicular
(possiblyrelatedto ov, o)
av, avar
desire
strongly
avarice, avaricious,
avid, avidity
baccate, bacciferous,
bacciform,
B
bacc
berry
baccivorous
bacch
orgiastic
bacchanal,
bacchanialian,
bacchanantic,
bacill, bacter
small
staff, germ
bacilliform,
bacchante,
bacchic
bacillus, bacteria,
bactericidal
ban
bapt
outlaw,
to
desert
abandon,
dip
abandonment,
contraband
Anabaptist,
baptismal,
baptistry,
bar
bar, legal
profession
ban, bandit,
banish, banishment,
baptism,
baptize,
Baptist,
pedobaptist
bar, barrage, barrier,
barrister,
debar,
disbar, embar
bar
weight
baritone,
barium,
barometer,
baroscope,
barbaric,
barbarize,
isobar
barbar
uncivilized
Barbara, barbarian,
barbarous
bas
bottom
basal, base, basic, basicranial,
basify,
basilar, basis, basophil
bas
low
abase, base, basement,
bass, basset,
basso, bassoon, contrabass
bat
beat
abate, bat, bate, battalion,
batter, battery,
battle, battlement,
debate,
combat,
embattle
batrach
frog
batrachian,
batrachite,
batrachoid,
batrachophagous
bath(y)
depth
bathophobia,
bathos, bathybius,
bathycolpian,
bathymeter,
beat
blessed
beatific,
bell
war
antebellum,
bellicist,
belligernecy,
belligerent,
beatify, beatitudes
rebel, rebellion,
*bene, bon
good,
well
bathysphere
benediction,
bellicose,
bellipotent,
rebellious
benefaction,
benefactor,
benefic,
benefice, beneficial,
benefit,
benevolence,
beneficient,
benign, benignity,
bonus
*bi(n)
two
biceps, bicycle, bifurcation,
bigamy,
bilingual,
biped,
biplane,
binary, binocular,
bisect, bivalve, combination,
combinatory,
Chapter
13
|
Glossary
of
Base
Forms
and
Reverse
combine
Glossary
of
Roots
8
3
bib
drink
bib, bibacious,
bibation,
bibulous,
imbibe
bibl
book,
*bio
Bible
Bible, bibliography,
life
bibliomancy,
bibliophile,
bibliopole,
bibliotics
amphibious,
anabiosis,
anaerobic,
autobiography,
biometrics,
21
bl
see bol
blast
embryonic
-ble
see-able
bol, bl
throw,
tissue
extend
see bene
bov, bu
cow,
milk
bathybius,
bionics,
bioplasm,
blastema,
blastocyst,
biopsy,
blastoma,
dermoblast,
ectoblast
anabolism,
holograph,
bolometer,
catabolism,
discobolus,
ecbolic,
emblematic,
hyperbole,
metabolism,
parabola,
bovate, bovid,
arm
biology,
microbe, symbiosis
bucolic,
brach, brac
bibliopegist,
cenobite,
parable,
bon
bibliolatry,
bibliomania,
problem,
boviform,
bugle, butter,
emblem,
symbol
bovine,
butyric
brace, bracelet, brachial,
braciopod,
brachiosaurus,
brachium,
brachiate,
embrace
4
*brach(y)
short
amphibrach,
brachycephalic,
brachydactylic,
brachydont,
brachygraphy,
brachylogy
bradyerotic,
12
brad(y)
slow
bradycardia,
bradypus,
bradyseism
19
*brev
short
abbreviate,
abbreviation,
bronch
windpipe
breviary,
brevilingual,
breviped,
brevirostrine,
bronchial,
bronchitis,
bronchopneumonia,
bradypod,
breve, brevet,
breviloquent,
brevity
bronchophony,
bronchoscope,
bronchotomy
bront
thunder
brontograph,
brontology,
brontophobia,
brontosaur,
brontometer,
brontotherium
brun
brown
bu
see bov
bulb
bulb
burs
pouch,
bruneous,
bulbar, bulbiferous,
money
bursa, bursal,
bursiform,
88
Chapter
13
|
Glossary
of
brunet,
Base
Forms
and
Reverse
Glossary
of
Root
brunette
bulbiform,
bulbous
bursar, bursary, burse,
bursitis,
disburse,
reimburse
C
*cac
bad
cack, cacodemonia,
cacogenics,
cacoethes,
cacography,
caconym,
cacophony
11
*cad
fall
accident,
accidental,
cadaverous,
caducous,
cadence, cadenza, casual,
case, casuist, coincide,
decadence,
deciduous, incident,
occasion, occident,
recidivism
caen
seecen
cal, calor
hot (relatedto cau(s)t)
calc
caldron,
heel
calescent, caliduct,
calorimeter,
caloric,
calorifacient,
calorific
calcaneal,
calorescent,
calorie, caloricity,
calcaneus, calcar, iculate,
recalcitrant
calc
lime (relatedto calcul)
calcul
pebble,
reckon
(related to calclime)
calcicole,
calcicosis,
calcinosis,
calcium
calculable,
calculate,
calculiform,
calciferous,
calcify,
calculation,
calculosis,
calculous,
calculus, incalculable
cali
see calli
calic
see calyc
calli, cali
beautiful
calisthenics,
calliope,
calor
see cal
calyc, calic
cup
caliciform,
cover,
camp
field
campan
conceal
calyculus,
apocalypse,
calyx
eucalyptus,
camp, campaign,
bell
calligrapher,
misocalligynous
calycate, calyceal, calycle,
calycular,
calyp
calligram,
callipygian,
calyptera
campestral,
campo,
campus,
decamp, encamp, encampment
campana,
campanario,
campaniform,
campanile,
campanist,
campanology,
campanulate
8
*can, cyn
dog
apocynum,
canicule,
canaille, canary, canicola,
canine, cynical,
cynophobia,
can
sing,
intone
cynocephalous,
synosure
accent, canorous,
cantata, canticle,
canto, descant, incantation,
incentive,
precentor, recant
cancer
see car
cand
burn,
glow
candelabrum,
candid,
incandescent,
Chapter
13
|
Glossary
of
Base
Forms
and
candent,
candidate,
Reverse
candescence,
candle, candor,
incendiary,
Glossary
incense
of
Roots
8
14
*cap, cup
to
take, contain
accept, acceptance,
capacious,
anticipate,
capacitance,
capable,
capacitor,
capacity, capsule, captivate,
captive,
captor, capture,
emancipate,
encapsulate,
inception,
deception,
except, incapacitate,
incipient,
intussusception,
intercept,
occupy, participate,
participle,
perceptible,
principal,
principle,
recipient,
recuperate,
precept,
receptacle,
recipe,
susceptible,
usucaption
21
*cap
head
cape, capital, capitation,
capitol,
capitular,
capitulate,
captain,
occipital,
precipice,
precipitous,
decapitate,
recapitulate
caper
goat,
impulse
caper, capric, caprice,
capricorn,
capriole,
15
capn
smoke
car, carcin, cancer
crab,
caprigenous,
car
seecerhorn
car
seecur
carb, cr
burn,
carcin
see car
*card, cord
heart,
hypercapnia,
cancer, cancerocidal,
carbon
agree
cancrizans,
carcinectomy,
carcinogenic,
carcinolytic,
carcinoma,
carbohydrate,
carbolic,
carboraceous,
carbonated,
carboniferous,
carbuncle,
accord, accordance,
cordiform,
cancroid,
carcinology,
carcinomorphic
carbon,
cremate
cardiac,
obcordate,
record
carnage, carnal, carnation,
carnival,
concord,
cordate, cordial,
discord,
pericardium,
flesh (relatedto cortec)
misocapnist
cancerous,
cancrivorous,
concordance,
*car(n)
caprine,
capripede
capnomancy,
cancer
capricious,
carnivorous,
caruncle, incarnate,
carnelion,
carnosity,
incarnation,
reincarnate
carp
pluck,
fruit
carpet, carpogenic,
carpophagous,
cart
paper
case
cheese
cast
purify,
carpolite,
cartel, cartogram,
cartography,
cartoon,
cartulary
cartridge,
fortify
caste, castellan, castellate,
castrato, castrension
Chapter
13
|
Glossary
of
Base
carton,
caseate, caseic, casein, caseinate, caseous
castigate,
castle, castlery, castrametation,
90
carpology,
excerpt
Forms
and
Reverse
Glossary
of
Root
castrate,
10
*cata-down,
away, back opposite
catabaptist,
chain
catalogue,
cataract, catarrh,
catechism,
cathedral,
catastrophe,
catheter, cathode,
catoptrics
catena, catenary, catenate, catenoid,
catenulate,
caud, cod
catacylsm,
catagenesis, catalepsy, catalog,
catholic,
caten
catabolic,
catacomb,
tail
concatenation
brevicaudate,
caudiform,
caudad, caudal, caudate,
cephalocaudal,
coda,
longicaudate
caul, col
stalk,
stem
caulescent,
caulicle, cauliculous,
cauliflorous,
cauliform,
cauligenous,
caulicarpous,
cauliflower,
colcannon,
cole, coleslaw, colewort
caust, caut
burn (relatedto cal)
caustic, causticize,
cauterize,
cautery,
holocaust
cav, cavern
hollow
cavascope, cavate, cave, cavern,
cavernous,
cavetto, cavicom,
cavity, concave, concavity,
3
cavin,
excavate
caval
horse
cavalcade, cavalier, cavalry
*ced, ceed
go, let go
accede, access, accessory, ancestor,
antecedent,
cede, cessation, cession,
concede, epicede, excessive, incessant,
intercede,
intercession,
precede, precedent,
predecessor,
necessary,
precession,
procedure,
proceed, recede,
recess, recession, secede, succeed
cel, cl, col
hide, cover (relatedto cil)
cell, cellar, cellophane,
cen, caen
new
caenogenesis,
caenophithecus,
cenozoology,
Cenozoic, Eoocene,
clandestine,
color,
occult
miocene,
cens
judge,
assess
recent
censor, censorate, censorial,
censorious,
censual, censure, census, recension
18
*cent
hundred
cent, centenarian,
centesimate,
centigrade,
centimeter,
centipede,
centuple,
center
centennial,
centesimal,
centurion,
sesquicentennial,
center
centenary,
centgener,
androcentric,
century,
percent,
sexcentenary
center, central,
centralize,
centrifuge,
centripetal,
centrist,
concentrate,
eccentric,
egocentric,
geocentric
cephal
head (see also encephal)
acephalous,
brachycephalic,
cephalate, cephalocaudal,
Chapter
13
|
Glossary
of
Base
Forms
cephalagia,
cephalopod,
dolichocephalic,
encephalitis,
mesocephalic,
microcephalic
and
Glossary
Reverse
of
Roots
9
cer, car, cr, ker
horn,
head, brain,
neck
crotid,
(relatedto corn)
cer, cr
14
separate,
*cere, cre
come
judge, settle
forth,
ceratoid,
cervical,
grow
cerebellum,
cervine, cervix,
criosphore,
keratin,
rhinocerus,
triceratops
cerebral,
cranium,
keratosis,
ascertain,
certain,
certificate,
certify,
certitude,
concern,
crime, critic,
criterion,
decree, discern, discrete,
discretion,
discriminate,
excrement,
incertitude,
recriminate,
secret, secretary
accretion,
accrue, cereal, concrete,
concretion,
create, creature,
crescendo,
crescent, decrease, excresence, increase,
increment,
chem
substance,
chemical
procreate, recruit
alchemy, chemical,
chemist,
chemoprophylaxis,
chemotherapy,
chemurgy
chir
hand
chlor
light
chol
bile,
chord, cord
10
green, chlorine
gall
gut,
*chrom
chiromancy,
chironomy,
chiroplast,
chiropractor,
chiropteran,
chirospasm,
chirotony,
enchiridion
chlorine,
chloroform,
chlorosis,
chlorite
cholagogue,
string
color,
chiropodist,
embellishment
chlorophyll,
choledology,
choleric,
cholerigensis,
cholic,
melancholy
cholera,
cholesterol,
clavicord,
cord, cordal, chord, chordate,
chordion,
chordotomy,
chordotonal,
harpsichord,
notochord,
tetrachord
achromatic,
chromatogenesis,
chromosome,
chromoplasm,
chromotype,
ferrochrome,
monochromatic,
panchromatic,
xanthochromous
16
*chron
time
chrys
gold,
yellow
anachronic,
chronic,
chronology,
chronometer,
diachronic,
synchronic
chrysaniline,
chrysalis,
chryselephantine,
3
*cid
cut,
kill
hairlike
bactericide,
circumcise,
cin
see kin
cine
ashes
fungicide,
homicide,
incisor,
incision,
ciliary,
cinefaction,
incinerate
Chapter
13
|
Glossary
of
Base
Forms
and
decide,
regiscide,
cilium,
genocide,
patricide,
suicide
palpicil,
supercilious
cinerator,
92
concise,
decisive, encisive, excise,
excision, fratricide,
ciliate,
(relatedto celhide)
chrysography,
chrysology
precise, recision,
eyelash,
chronoscope,
chrysanthemum,
chrysoleptic,
decision,
cil
chronicle,
Reverse
Glossary
of
Root
cinereceous,
cinerous,
cinerarium,
cinerescent,
*circ, curv, cor
round,
around
circa, circle, circuit,
circumference,
circumspect,
corolla,
circular,
circulate,
circumnavigate,
circumstance,
corona,
curvature,
circus,
cornice,
curve,
encircle
cis-cit
on
the side of
cisequatorial,
cislunar,
cismontane,
cispontane
summon,
arouse
citation,
(related to kin)
cit
see civ
civ, cit
city,
refined
cite, excite, incite, incitement,
recital,
recitation,
solicit,
solicitude
citadel, citizen,
civilian,
recite, resuscitate,
city, civic, civicism,
civilization,
civil,
incivility,
uncivilized
cl
seecel
clam
cry
clar
out, call
clear,
bright
clas
break
claus
see clud
clav
key, locked
acclamation,
clamor,
declamatory,
exclamation,
proclamation,
reclamation
claret, clarify,
clarinet,
clarion,
Clarence, declaration,
declare
bioclasm, clastic,
see -l
cler
literate
cli, cliv, clin
lean, lie,
clos
see clud
*clud, claus, clos
close
clarity,
oconoclast,
plagioclase
clavichord,
clavicle, clavier,
clavieristic,
claviform,
claviger, claviol,
enclave
clergyman,
bed
exclamatory,
claviature,
conclave,
-cle, -cule
declamation,
cleric, clerical,
acclivity,
client,
clinician,
clinograph,
clerisy, clerk
clientel, clinic,
clinical,
clinometer,
declination,
decline, declivity,
inclination,
proclivity,
enclitic,
recline, synclinal
claus, claustrophobia,
close, closet,
conclude,
conclusive,
conclusion,
disclose, disclosure, enclose, exclude,
exclusion,
include,
exclusive, inclose, inclosure,
inclusion,
recluse, reclusion,
co-coc
preclude,
seclude, seclusion
see con-ripen,
cook
concoct,
concoctive,
decoctum,
cocc
inclusive,
berry,
kernel,
seed, spheroid
precocious
coccidiosis,
cocciferous,
coccoid,
coccolite,
coccosphere,
coccus,
staphylococcus,
cod
seecaud
cl
seecel
Chapter
13
|
Glossary
of
Base
Forms
decoct, decoction,
and
Reverse
streptococcal
Glossary
of
Roots
9
col, cull
filter,
clarify
colander,
colation,
machicolation,
8
*col
live, inhabit,
grow
aboriculture,
colature,
cullis,
percolator,
portcullis
accolent, agriculture,
arboricole,
bucolic, colonial,
colony, cultivate,
horticulture,
culture,
incult,
colonize,
cultural,
lapidicolous,
saxicolous
col
caul
col
seecel
coll
glue
colage, collagen,
colloidion,
col, coll
neck
collectic,
collotype,
colloid,
protocol, taurocol
accolade, collar, colliform,
collum,
dcollet
5
com
see cop
*con-, co-see
together,
with (related to copi)
con
cone
contr
seecounter
cop, com
strike,
copi
abundance,
cognate, cohabit,
cohort,
combat,
commerce,
combine,
committee,
compass,
confirm,
cooperate,
coordinate,
corrupt
cone, conical, conifer,
coniform,
conodont,
cut
supply
collapse,
congenial,
conoid,
conoplain,
longicone
apocope, comma,
sarcoptic,
syncopated
copious,
copy, cornucopia
(related to con-)
9
*copro
dung
coproculture,
coprolite,
coprolagnia,
coprology,
coprolalia,
coprophagous,
coprophilia
cor
seecirc
cor
seecir
cord
seecard
cord
see chord
corn
horn
(related to cer)
capricorn,
corn, cornea, corneous,
corner, cornet,
cornucopia,
*corp
body,
flesh
tricorn,
unicorn
corporal,
corporality,
corporation,
corpulent,
cortec
14
outer
*cosm
covering
cortex, cortical,
decorticate
universe,
cosmecology,
side,
coast
Chapter
13
|
Glossary
of
Base
Forms
corticate,
cosmetic,
cosmogony,
cosmic,
cosmology,
cosmopolitan,
corps, corpse,
corticolous,
cosmetology,
cosmonaut,
cosmos,
microcosm
accost, costa, costal, costar, costate,
costermonger,
94
corporate,
corporeal,
(relatedto car(n))
world, order
cornu,
bicorn, longicorn,
corpuscle, incorporate
macrocosm,
cost
corniform,
cornulite,
and
Reverse
Glossary
of
Roots
intercostal
counter,
contr
against,
opposite
contraband,
contrast,
contradict,
contravene,
counteract,
contrary,
controversy,
counterbalance,
countermand,
countermine,
counterpart,
countersign,
encounter,
incontrovertible
cover
conceal,
protect
coverage, coverlet, covert, coverture,
discove
3
cr
see carb
cr
seecerhorn
cr
see cere
*crat
govern
autocrat,
aristocracy,
democrat,
bureaucrat,
democratic,
plutocrat,
theocracy
cre
see cere
*cre, cred
believe,
trust
credence, credential,
credible,
credit,
creditable,
credulity,
credulous,
creditor,
discredit, incredible,
incredulity,
miscreant, recreant
crin
hair
cruc
cross, important
crust
hard
covering,
point, torment
shell
crinal,
crinet,
crinite,
crinatous
criniculture,
criniparous,
crucial,
cruciate,
crucifix,
crucify, crux, excruciating
crucifer,
crust, crustaceous,
cruciform,
crustal, crustify,
encrust
cry(m)
cold
14
*cub, cumb
cryogenic,
cryopedologic,
cryophorus,
cryotherapy
krypt
hidden
apocryphal,
crypt, cryptic,
cryptorchid,
cryptography,
krypton
lie,
hollow
concubine,
cube, cubicle,
incubate,
incubus,
incumbent,
-cule
see-1
culp
fault,
crime
cul
seecolfilter
cumb
seecub
cumber
hinder
cumul
cryology,
seecrypt
cryph
crypt, cryph,
crymotherapy,
heap
incumbency,
procumbent,
recumbent,
succubus,
succumb,
superincumbent
culpability,
culpable,
culprit,
exculpation,
inculpable,
cumber,
up
decumbent,
cumbersome,
exculpate,
inculpate
cumbrance,
cumbrous,
encumber,
encumberance
accumulate,
cumulate,
cumulative,
cumuliform,
cumulose,
cumulous,
cumulus
cup
desire
concupiscence,
concupiscible,
Cupid,
cupidity
Chapter
13
|
Glossary
of
Base
Forms
and
Reverse
Glossary
of
Roots
95
cup
seecaptake
cur
care
accurate,
curable,
curator,
curio,
manicure,
secure,
22
*cur,
car,
cor
run
car,
career,
see circ
cuss
shake
procurator,
procure,
sinecure
carry,
concur,
corsair,
curriculum,
curative,
inaccurate,
pedicure,
security,
corridor,
curv
curate,
curious,
concurrent,
currency,
cursive,
current,
cursory,
discursive,
excursion,
incur,
incursion,
occur,
precursor,
recur,
recurrent,
succor
concussion,
percussion,
reprecussion,
succussion
cut
skin
cutaneous,
cuticle,
cuticolor,
cutin,
cutis,
subcutaneous
cutl
knife
cutlass,
cutler,
cyan
blue
cyanate,
cyaneous,
cyb
control,
cycl
circle
computer
cybernate,
cutlery,
cutling
cyanide,
cybernetics,
cyanopathy
cyberspace,
cyborg
bicycle,
cyclist,
cyclonic,
cyn
see can
cyst
sac,
cyt
cell
bladder
cycle,
cycling,
encyclopedia,
motorcycle,
tricycle,
blastocyst,
cystitis,
cytogenesis,
cyclone,
monocycle,
unicycle
cystic
cytology,
cytoplasm,
leucocyte
D
16
*dactyl
finger,
digit
dactyl,
dactylic,
dactylogram,
dactylography,
2
dam (n)
loss,
dat
see don
*de-deb
away,
dec
deca,
decem
harm
down,
dactyliomancy,
dactylology,
pamprodactyl,
pterodactyl,
condemn,
from
damnation,
indemnify,
debark,
debauch,
decay,
decrease,
deceive,
decline,
deduce,
debit,
decency,
decent,
decorous,
decorum,
decagon,
13
|
Glossary
of
Base
Forms
and
Reverse
Glossary
of
Root
decapitate,
declare,
deface
acceptable (relatedto dog)
decade,
indemnity
deciduous,
debenture,
decimate,
Chapter
damage,
damn,
owe
ten
zygodactyl
condemnation,
decemvirate,
96
dactylioglyph,
debt, indebted
decorate,
decoration,
indecorous
decalogue,
decennial,
duodecimo
December,
decibel,
decimal,
dei, div
god,
augury
deicide,
deific, deiform,
deist, deity, deodand,
divination,
13
del
wipe
*dem
people
out
divine,
divinity
dele, delete, delible, indelible
demagogue,
deme, demiurge,
democracy,
demogoric,
demotic,
demon
deify, deism,
deodate,
demon
endemic,
cacodemonia,
demonize,
demophobia,
epidemic,
demoniac,
pandemic
demonic,
demonolatry,
eudemon,
pandemonium
7
*den, odon
tooth
dent, dental, dentifrice,
dentition,
dentist,
denture, edentate, indent,
indentation,
indention,
indenture,
mastodon, orthodontist,
periodontal,
soricident
12
*dendr
tree
dendiform,
dendroi,
dendrite,
philodendron,
derm, derma
16
skin
dexter
right
di
day
*di-,
dich-,
dermal,
hand, adroit
dendrophagous,
rhododendron
dermatitis,
dermatology,
dermatosis,
dermopterous,
hypodermic,
pachyderm,
ambidextrous,
dy-, du-di-*dia-bush,
two
dendrochronology,
dendrology,
ectoderm,
taxidermy
dexter, dexterity,
dexterous,
dextral,
circadian,
dial, diary, dismal,
meridian,
meridonal, quotidian,
sine die
dichotomy,
dioxide,
dual,
duality,
dubious,
dextrocardia
diurnal,
diphthong,
dyad, indubitable
see dis-through,
18
across, between,
diagnosis,
opposite
dialytic,
diagonal,
diametric,
diaphonous,
dialect, dialogue,
dianoetic,
diaphonic,
diathermic,
diathesis
diabol,
diabl
devil
diablerie,
diabolical,
diabolism,
diabolist,
diabolize,
diabology,
diabolonian
dich
17
see di-speak,
*dic
give
abdicate,
addict,
dedicate,
dictate, diction,
indict,
interdict,
valedictory,
digit
finger,
toe, number
digit,
worthy,
fitting
dipl
double
(related to di-, plec)
digital,
Chapter
13
|
Glossary
of
Base
digitalis,
dignitary,
indignant,
indignation
and
edict,
predict,
digitation,
prestidigitation
diploblastic,
Forms
malediction,
condign,
diploid,
contradict,
dictum,
verdict
digitigrade,
dign
benediction,
diplocardiac,
diplopic,
Reverse
dignify,
diplococcus,
diplopod,
Glossary
dignity,
of
diplosis
Roots
9
10
*dis-,
di-away,
apart, not, lacking
(relatedto dia-)
differ,
difficult,
direct,
disagree, disassemble,
dishonest,
disobey,
disquisition,
15
div
see dei
doc
see dog
*doc,
dog
teach,
praise
docent,
digest, dilate, dilution,
displace,
dissertatio
docetism,
doctrinal,
docile,
doctrine,
doxological,
indocile,
disbelieve,
disorder,
docility,
document,
doxology,
doctor,
dogma,
heterodox,
indoctrinate,
orthodox,
condolence,
dole, doleful,
paradox
20
*dol, dolor
suffer
condole,
dolor,
*dom
21
*don,
house,
dor, do, da
control
give
dolorific,
dolorifuge,
dolorous,
indolence
domain,
dome, domestic,
domicile,
domify,
dominion,
indomitable,
addition,
anecdotal,
domesticate,
dominant,
domineer,
predominate
condone,
dative, donate, donative,
donor,
dolorimetry,
date,
donatory,
Dorothy, dosage, dose, dosimetry,
dosology, edition,
pardon,
perdition,
Theodore, tradition
dorm
sleep
dormant,
dors
back
dorsad, dorsal, dorse, dorsiferous,
dormer,
dorsigerous,
dormitive,
dorsoventral,
dormitory
dorsum,
endorse
dos
see don
dot
see don
drom
run,
course
acrodrome,
aerodrome,
anadromous,
dromedary,
dromond,
hippodrome,
loxodromic,
palidrome,
prodrome,
syndrome
see di-lead,
du-1
*duc
pull
abduction,
aqueduct,
conduct,
conducive,
deduce, deduct,
ducal, ducat,
duct, ductile, enduce, educate, induce,
introduce,
dulc
sweet
produce,
viaduct
dulcet, dulciana,
dulcifluous,
dulcigenic,
duodeca
twelve
dupl
see dipl
dur
hard,
durable,
reduce,
dulcify,
dulcimer
duodecagon,
lasting
product,
seduce, traducer,
duodecillion,
durance,
endurance,
duodecuple
duration,
duress,
endure, indurated,
obdurary,
dynamic,
dynamo,
obdurate
see di-power
dyn, dynam
aerodyne,
dynamoelectric,
98
Chapter
13
|
Glossary
of
Base
Forms
and
Reverse
Glossary
of
Roots
dynamite,
dynasty,
dynatron
3
*dys-bad,
badly
dysgenics,
dysentery,
dyslexia, dyspeptic,
dysphagia,
dysphasia,
dysphoria,
dyspneic,
dysteleology,
dystrophy,
apostrophe,
dentifrice,
dysuria
E
-e
NOUN
abundance,
-e
VERB
ec-ec
see ex-inhabit
epitome,
hyperbole
concede,
deduce,
relate
ecology, economy,
ecosystem,
ecumenical
eccles
assembly,
church
ecclesia, Ecclesiastes, ecclesiastic,
ecclesiolatry,
ech
reflected
sound,
-ec
STEM
EXTENDER
-ectomy
act
of cutting
repetition
catechism,
passive
NOUN (one
catechumen,
echo, echolalia
gynecology
out
appendectomy,
(see ec-, tom, -y)
-ee
ecclesiology
hysterectomy,
tonsillectomy
who is . . .)
abandonee,
legatee,
appellee, divorcee, employee,
moninee, payee, petitionee,
pledgee, refugee, transferee,
-eer
see r
ego
self
eid
see vid
-el
see *-1
-em
NOUN
ego, egocentric,
categorem,
vendee
egoism, egomanic, egotist
emblem,
problem,
stratagem,
ademption,
exemplar,
exemplify,
peremptory,
pre-emption,
theorem
em
take, buy (related to sum)
exempt,
premium,
redemptio
em
see hem
eme
element
of a system
emic, glosseme, grapheme,
morphophoneme,
morpheme,
philosopheme,
phoneme
eme
vomit
antemetic,
emesis, emetic, emetine,
hematemesis
en-en-en-Encephal
seein-, en-in, into
VERB
embed, enable, enforce, engage, engirdle
seein-, en-lacking, not
brain (see en-and cephal)
electroencephalogram,
encephalography,
encephalology,
encephalitis,
encephaloid,
encephalon,
encephalotomy
-end
endo-see
-and
within
(related to en-in)
endocarp,
endoderm,
endogenous,
Chapter
13
|
Glossary
of
Base
Forms
and
Reverse
endogamy,
endomorph
Glossary
of
Roots
99
-ent
one
-ent
who, that
having,
which
being, pertaining
ent
see es(s)
enter
intestine
ento-entom
within
to
dependent,
dissident, incumbent,
insurgent,
president,
proponent,
resident, solvent,
student,
superintendent
absorbent,
(relatedto en-in)
insect (seein-in
client, correspondent,
and tom)
affluent,
ardent, complacent,
decadent, fluent,
confident,
congruent,
frequent,
incandescent,
proficient,
prudent,
enteralgia,
enteric,
entoblast,
entoderm,
entomologize,
dawn,
early
independent,
pubescent
enteritis,
enterology
entophyte,
entozoic
entomology,
entomophagous,
eo-4
patient,
entomophilans
eoan, Eoanthopus,
Eocene, eohippus,
eolithic
*epi-equ
upon,
over, after, in addition
epact, ephemeral,
epidemic,
horse
epicanthic,
epigone,
Episcopal,
epistle, epistomology,
epitaph,
eponymy
equerry,
equestrian,
equestrienne,
equine, equitation,
12
equi
even, level
epicycle,
epidermis,
Equuleus
equable, equal, equanimity,
equator,
equipoise,
equation,
equity, equivocal,
equivocate
1
-er
see r
*erg, urg, org
work
dramaturgy,
energy, erg, ergate,
ergomania,
ergometer,
George,
metallurgy, orgy, synergism
11
*ero
physical
err
wander,
eryth(r)
love
autoerotism,
go wrong
red
erogenous,
eroticism,
eroticize,
aberrant,
aberration,
erotic, erotica,
erotomania
errantic,
erratum,
inerrant,
unerring
erythema,
erythrism,
err, errant,
erroneous,
error,
erythrocyte,
erythrophobia
*-esc, -sc
become,
change
adolescent,
calescent, coalescent,
convalescent,
crescent, effervescence,
effloresce, florescent,
incandescent,
*es, ent, ont
be,
basic
absent, amphiont,
disinterested,
essence,
halobiont,
essential,
nonentity,
presentation,
esth
perceive
ontogeny,
Chapter
13
|
Glossary
of
Base
and
Reverse
Glossary
of
Root
interest,
ontology,
aesthete, aesthetician,
Forms
entity,
present,
quintessence, represent
esthesiophysiology,
100
frutescent,
nascent, pubescent
anesthesia,
esthetics, kinesthetic
-et
STEM
EXTENDER
athletic,
eth
burn,
light,
ether, ethereal,
delicate
eth(n)
esthetic, genetic,
source
*eu
good,
well
euchrist,
etymologist,
etymologize,
etymon
eudemon,
eulogy, eupeptic,
euphoria,
7
ethyl
ethos
etymography,
etymology,
2
etherize,
cacoethes, ethics, ethnic, ethnocentricity,
ethnopraphy,
etym
etherify,
genesis
Eugene, eugenics,
euphemistic,
euphuism,
eury
broad
aneuryism,
ev
age, time
coeval, longevity,
*ex-, ec-custom
out, away (related to exo)
eccentric,
euphonic,
euthanasia
eurypterid,
eurythermal
medieval, primeval
educate, effect, effort,
eject,
elude, emit, eradicate,
evade, exarch,
excise, exhale, exhort,
exit, exode,
expand, exude
exo-F
15
*fa, pha, fe, phe
outside
speak,
(related to ex-)
spoken about
*fac
do,
exogamy, exogenous,
exopathic,
exoskeleton,
affable,
(related to phon)
13
exoderm,
aphasia, blaspheme,
euphemism,
make
infamous,
infant,
prefatory,
professor,
affect, artifact,
deficient,
defective,
deify, disinfect,
fact, faction,
factious,
faculty, febrifacient,
infection,
imperfect,
perfection,
proficient,
satisfaction,
ratify, refection,
somnifacient,
typify
superficies,
absorbifacient,
somnifacient
to)
false
surface
febrifacient,
default, fallacious,
fallacy, false, falsetto,
falsify, falter, fault, faulty,
fe
seefa
Chapter
13
|
Glossary
of
perfect,
deface, efface, facade, face, facet, facial,
and -ent pertaining
seeferr
office,
pacific,
refectory,
bringing about (seefacdo
farr
magnificent,
manufacture,
orifice,
superficial,
see phan
factor,
fortify,
suffice, terrific,
fan
effect,
effectual, facile,
factory, factotum,
officious,
fal, faul
beneficial,
edifice, efficacious,
malefactor,
facient
preface,
prophet
confection,
effective, efficient,
form (relatedto facdo)
nefarious,
benefactor,
deficit,
edification,
facilitate,
defame,
fable, famous, ineffable,
coefficient,
fac
exotic
Base
Forms
and
Reverse
Glossary
infallible
of
Roots
10
febr
fever
febrifacient,
febriferous,
febrific,
febrificide,
febrificulous,
febrile,
felid, feline, felinophobia,
felinity
febrifuge
fel
cat
felic
happy
felicific,
felicitation,
felicity,
Felix,
infelicitous
fem
woman
effeminate,
female, feme, femicide,
feminine,
*fend
strike,
ward off
defend,
feminist,
feminize
defendant,
defense,
fence, fencer, fencing,
defensive,
fend, fender,
offense, offensive
10
*fer, pher, phor
bear,
send, bring
circumferential,
cruciferous,
confer, conifer,
defer, deferential,
fetiferous,
differ,
fertile,
fertility,
fructiferous,
infer,
metaphor, offer, periphery,
prefer,
preferable,
proffer, refer, sanguiferous,
semaphor,
suffer, transfer,
fer
wild
feral, ferine, ferity,
ferr, farr
iron
farrier,
farriery,
ferrocyanide,
vociferous
ferocious
ferriferous,
ferrolalloy,
ferromagnetic,
ferrotype,
ferrous, ferruginous
ferv
boil,
bubble
effervesce, effervescent, fervency, fervent,
fervid,
fest
feast, joyful
occasion
fervor
festa, festal, festine, festival, festive,
festivity,
fet
unborn
child
festivous, festoon,
effete, fetal, fetation,
fetography,
fiber
fiber
*fid
fiber, fibriform,
trust,
bold
affidavit,
divided
fetiferous,
fibrilation,
fibrin,
fibrosis, fibrous
bona fide, confidence,
diffidence,
infidel,
split,
fibril,
fibroid,
confident,
fid
feticide,
fetus
fibrinogen,
15
songfest
diffident,
fidelity,
perfidious
bifid, fissal, fissile, fission,
fissiped,
fissure,
fissiparous,
palmatifid,
pinnafid,
trifid
fig, fing
form
configuration,
fiction,
disfigure,
fictitious,
figurative,
effigy, fictile,
figment,
figure, finger,
figural,
prefigure,
transfigure
fil
offspring
affiliate, filial,
filiate, filiation,
filicide,
filiety
17
*fin
end,
pay off
confine,
define, definite,
definition,
definitive,
finale, finality,
finance,
finesse, finish,
infinite,
firm
strong
affirmation,
infirm,
102
Chapter
13
|
Glossary
of
Base
Forms
and
Reverse
Glossary
of
finite, finitude,
infinitessimal,
confirm,
infirmities,
Root
fine,
indefinite,
infinitive,
refine
firm, firmament,
reaffirm
fic
fasten
fla, flu
flag,
phleg, phlog
affix, crucifix,
blow
burn
(related to flam)
crucify, fix, fixation,
fixture,
prefix, suffix, transfix
afflatus,
conflation,
flatulence,
flautist,
conflagration,
deflate, flatters,
flute, inflate,
inflation
deflagrate, flagrant,
phlegethon,
phlegm,
phlegmatic,
phlogiston
flagell
whip
flagellate,
flam
flame (relatedto flag)
flagellant,
flagellatory,
flagellata,
flagelliform,
flame, flambeau,
flagellum
flamboyant,
flamiferous,
flamingo,
flammable,
inflame,
flamivomous,
inflammable,
inflammatory
8
*flec
bend,
turn
circumflex,
flexuous,
deflect, flexible,
flexure,
inflection,
flig
strike,
destroy
afflict,
reflection,
affliction,
infliction,
flor, flos, flour
bloom,
flower
conflict,
profligate,
floriculture,
florid,
floscule, floueret,
multiflorous,
*flu, fluc, fluv
flow,
reflex
river
inflict,
profligacy
effloresce, flora, floral,
(related to foli and phyll)
Florence,
florin,
florist,
flour, flourish,
uniflorous
affluence,
confluence,
effluvium,
efflux, fluctuate,
fluent,
flexion,
genuflection,
fluid, fluvial,
effluence,
fluency,
fluvioglacial,
fluviology,
flux, fluxion,
influenza,
influx,
influence,
mellifluous,
reflux,
superfluous
flu
seefla
fluc
seeflu
fluor
fluorine,
flurescence
fluorescent,
(related to flu)
fluv
seeflu
foc
center
fluoridate,
fluorocarbon,
fluorine,
fluoroscope,
fluorosis
focal, focalize, foci, focilate,
focimeter,
focus
fod
dig
fodient,
fossa, fosse, fossiform,
fossil,
fossiliferous
foli
leaf,
sheet
(relatedto phyll andflor)
foll, fool
cavity,
empty
headed
defoliate,
defoliation,
foliaceous,
foliage, foliar, foliate,
folicolons,
folio,
follicle,
follicular,
exfoliate,
portfolio,
trifoliate
folliculate,
folly,
foolery, foolish
*form
shape
conform,
conformity,
deformity,
formal,
formulate,
informal,
nonconformist,
transform,
Chapter
13
|
Glossary
of
Base
Forms
and
deform,
formality,
formula,
information,
oviform,
reform,
uniform
Reverse
Glossary
of
Roots
10
formic
ant
formic,
formicry,
formicate,
formicine,
formicivorous
fort
strength,
ease
comfort,
comfortable,
discomfort,
effort, enforce, force, forcible,
fort,
fortification,
fortress,
fortify,
fortitude,
reinforce
5
fran
see phren
*frag, frang
break,
deflect
fractious,
fraction,
fracture,
fragile, fragment,
irrefrangible,
fragility,
frangible,
infraction,
nucifragous,
refractory,
refraction
frater
brother
confraternity,
fraternal,
fraternize,
fratricide
dentifice,
fren
see phren
fric
rub
affricate,
frig
cold
frigid,
frigorific,
fraternity,
fricative,
friction
frigorimeter,
refrigerator
front
forehead,
fru, frug
fruit,
forwardness
produce
affront,
confront,
effrontery,
frontage,
frontal,
frontier,
fructification,
fructose,
fruciterous,
fructuous,
fruit, fruitage,
frut
shrub
fug
flee
fructify,
frugal, frugivorous,
fruition,
frutescent,
frutex,
centrifugal,
febrifuge,
usufruct
fruticous,
smoke,
fund
vapor
base,
bottom
fumarole,
fumatory,
fumigate,
perfume
fund, fundament,
fruticulose
fugacious,
refuge, refugee, subterfuge,
fum
front,
frontispiece
fugitive,
vermifuge
fume, fumiferous,
fundamental,
fundus,
functionary,
fungible,
profundity
fund
seefus
fung
perform
defunct, function,
perfunctory
furc
fork
bifurcated,
furcate, furcula,
furciform,
furciferous
fus, fund
pour,
melt, blend
affusion,
confuse,
fusion, infuse,
diffuse, effusive, fuse,
profuse, refund,
refuse,
suffuse, transfuse
G
g
see ag
galac
milk
(relatedto lac)
galactagogue,
Chapter
13
|
Glossary
of
Base
Forms
and
Reverse
Glossary
galactin,
galactoid,
galactophagous,
galactorrhea,
galaxy
104
galactic,
galactodendron,
of
Root
galactose,
3
*gam
marriage,
sexual
union
allogamy,
bigamist,
epigamic,
gamete, gamic, gamogenesis,
heterogamous,
garg, gurg, gorg
throat,
abyss
disgorge,
dichogamous,
monogamous,
polygamy
garget, gargle, gorge, gorget,
gurgitation,
gurgle, ingurgitate,
regurgitate
gaster
gel, gl
stomach
solidfy,
jelly, ice
epigastrium,
gastralgia,
gastrolith,
gastromancy,
melanogaster
congelation,
gel, gelable, gelatification,
gelatinous,
*geo
earth
gastropod,
gastrotomy,
gelatigeneous,
18
gastric,
gelatin, gelatinoid,
gelation,
gelid, glacial, glacier
apogee, epigeal, geic, gein, geocentric,
geode, geodesic, geology, geometry,
George, geosynclie,
gem, gemin
twin
geotropic,
gemel, gemeliparous,
gemination,
Gemini, geminiflorous,
gem, gemm
bud,
precious stone
gem, gemmaceous,
gemmation,
2
*gen, gon, gn, germ
birth,
innate
quality,
origin
perigee
geminous
gemmary,
gemmate,
gemmiferous,
gemologist
agnate, cognate, congener,
degenerate,
epigone,
gender, general, generic,
genesis, genetic, genial, genius, genus,
germinal,
germinate,
gonorrhea,
indigenous,
germination,
pregnant,
progenitor,
ingenuous,
progeny,
regenerate
*gen, gon
knee,
angle
amblygonite,
genuine,
diagonal,
goneitis,
orthogonal,
*ger, geront
old
ger
see ges
germ
see gen
ges, ger
carry,
bring,
offer
pentagon, trigonometry
geratologous,
geriatrics,
gerontic,
gerontocracy,
gerontolog
armiger,
belligerent,
gestion,
gladi
sword
glob, glom, glu
gather,
ball
gesture, suggest
agglutinative,
globoid,
5
*gloss, glot
tongue,
speech
seeglyc
glu
seeglob
Chapter
13
|
Glossary
of
Base
Forms
gladiatorial,
conglomerate,
globule,
gladiolus
glob, globe,
glue, gluten, gluteus,
glutinous,
hemoglobin
epiglottis,
gloss, glossal, glossalalia,
glossalgia,
glossary, glossography,
glottis,
gluc
gerund,
gestic, gesticulate,
gladiate, gladiator,
stick,
congeries,
digest, egest, ingest,
gest, gestation,
seegel
gonion,
ageratum,
congestion,
gl
genuflection,
goniometry,
and
polyglot,
Reverse
glottal,
xenoglossy
Glossary
of
Roots
105
glyc, gluc
sweet
glucose, glycerine,
glyph, glyp
carve
anaglyph,
glyph, glyptic,
hieroglyphic,
13
glyptograph,
petroglyph
gn
seegenbirth
*gn, gnos, gnor
to know (related to norm and,
agnogenetic,
agnostic, cognition,
possibly, to not)
cognizance,
diagnosis,
ignorance,
13
glycine, hypoglycemia
gon
seegenbirth
gon
seegenknee
gorg
seegarg
*grad
step,
go
ignore,
gnome, gnosis,
incognito,
physiognomy,
prognosis, recognition,
recognizance,
recognize
aggressive, centrigrade,
degrade, digress,
egress, gradate, gradation,
gradient,
ingress, regression,
6
gram
see graph
grand
great
*graph,
gram
make
lines,
write, record
retrograde
aggrandizement,
grandee,
grandiloquent,
grandiose
agrapha,
agraphia,
biography,
diagram,
grammar,
graphite,
radiogram,
autograph,
calligraphy,
geography,
lexicographer,
grandeur,
anagram,
cablegram,
chirography,
graphic,
grade,
gradual, graduate, ingredient,
epigram,
grammatical,
historiographer,
monogram,
stenography,
program,
telegram,
topography
grat
thankful,
pleased, kind
congratulate,
disgrace, grace, graceful,
graceless, gracious, grateful,
gratification,
gratify,
gratis, gratitude,
gratuitous,
gratuity,
gratulation,
ingrate,
ingratiate
grav
heavy,
bad
aggravate, grave, gravid,
*greg
flock,
gather
aggregate, aggregation,
gravitation,
9
gravitate,
gravitometer,
egregious,
gregarian,
gravity
congregate,
gregarious,
segregatio
gurg
seegarg
gust
taste,
enjoy
degust, disgust, gustation,
gustatory,
gymn
3
naked,
gyn(ec)
nude
woman,
female
gymnasium,
gymnopedia,
gymnosperm,
gymnospore
androgynous,
gynandromorph,
gynarchy,
gyr
ring,
circle
gynecocracy,
Chapter
13
|
Glossary
of
Base
Forms
and
Reverse
Glossary
misogynist
gyration,
gyre, gyroplane,
of
Roots
gymnosophy,
gynecology,
polygyny,
gyrostabilizer
106
gustatious,
gusto
gyroscope,
H
hold, have,live (relatedto -able) ability, able, disable,enable,cohabit,
hab, ab
exhibit,
habeas corpus,
habit, habitable,
inhabitant,
habiliments,
habitat,
inhibit,
habitude,
inhibition,
prohibit,
rehabilitate
hagio
sacred,
saint
hal
seesal
hect
hundred,
many
hagiarchy,
hagiocracy,
hagiography,
hagiolatry,
hagiology,
hagioscope
hectogram,
hectograph,
hectoliter,
hectometer
hedon
pleasure
hedonics,
hedonist,
hedonomania,
hedonometer
seat, surface, side (related to *sed) cathedral, dodecahedron, hexahedron,
hed(r)
polyhedron
17
sun (related to sol sun)
heli
helic
spiral
aphelion,
heliacal, heliocentric,
heliolatry,
heliophobia,
heliotrope,
perihelion
helical,
helicline,
heliotaxis,
helicoid,
helicopter,
helix
helmint,
helminth
worm
anthelmintic,
helminth,
helminthology,
8
hema, em
blood
anemia,
helminthic,
platyhelminth
hemacytometer,
hematic,
hematology,
hemoglobin,
hemophilia,
hematoma,
hemorrahage,
hemostat,
hydremia
*hemi-,
semi-half
hepta, sept
hemicycle,
seven
hemihedral,
hemipterous,
hemisphere,
hemitrope,
hemistich,
semiannual,
semicircle,
semilinear,
semiprecious,
semitone,
heptachord,
heptad,
heptarchy,
heptometer,
semiweekly
heptagon,
September,
septenary, septennial
hemer
day
ephemeral,
ephemerid,
ephemeris,
hemeralopias
hendeca
eleven
hendecagon,
her
see hes
herb
grass,
hendecahedron,
hendecasyllable
herb
herb, herbacious,
herbescent,
herbalist,
herbiferous,
herbary,
herbivorous,
herbous
herp(et),
serp
creep,
reptile
herpes, herpetism,
herpetology,
herpetotomy,
serpentine,
Chapter
13
|
Glossary
of
Base
Forms
and
herpetoid,
herpetophobia,
serpent, serpentiform,
serpentinoid,
Reverse
Glossary
serpigo
of
Roots
10
hes, her
stick,
hold back
adhere, adherent,
coherent,
adhesion,
cohesive,
cohere,
hesitate, incoherent,
inherent
8
*hetero-hex,
different
heterodox,
heterogamy,
heterography,
heterogeneity,
heterogynous,
heteronym,
hexachord,
hexad, hexagon,
hexameter,
hexapod,
hexarchy, sexpartite,
sextan,
heterosexual
sex
six
sextant,
hiero
sacred
sextet
hierarchy,
hieratic,
hieroglyph,
hierocracy,
hierogram,
hierology,
hierophant
hilar
cheerful,
hipp
horse
glad
exhilarate,
hilarity,
eohippus,
hipparch,
hippogryph,
hilarious,
Hilary
hippodrome,
hippomania,
hippopotamus
8
hod
see od
hol
seesol
hom
earthling,
*homo-,
homeo-other,
human
being
homage,
homicide,
hominid,
(related to humearth)
hominivorous,
hominoid,
homo sapiens
same
homeostasis,
homocentric,
homogeneity,
homological,
homologue,
homomorphic,
homonym,
homophonous,
homorganic,
homosexual
hor
hour,
hor
season, time
bristle,
shake
horography,
horologe,
horologist,
horology,
horometry,
horoscope
adhor, adhorrence,
horrible,
horrid,
horripilation,
21
hum
earth,
ground, low
moist,
humic,
*hyd(r)
horrendous,
horrific,
mental state
water
human,
humiliation,
humility,
inhume
humectate,
humid,
humorist,
humble,
humiliate,
inhumation,
anhydrous,
horrent,
horrify,
horror
humifuse,
humor,
10
horometer,
exhume, exhumation,
(relatedto hom)
hum
horologic,
humus,
humidify,
humidor,
humorous
dehydrate,
hydatiform,
hydatoid,
hydrangia,
hydrant,
hydraulic,
hydrocephalic,
hydremia,
hydrate,
hydrogen,
hydrography,
hydrology,
hydromel,
hydropathy,
hydrophobia,
hydroponics
hygr
7
hyper-moisture
over,
above
(relatedto super,sum(m))
108
Chapter
13
|
Glossary
of
Base
Forms
and
Reverse
hygrograph,
hygrometer,
hygroscope
hyperactive,
hyperbole,
hypercritical,
hypersensitive
Glossary
of
Root
hypno
sleep,
hypnotic
trance
autohypnosis,
hypnagogic,
hypnogenesis,
hypnoid,
hypnosis,
hypnotic
7
*hypo
under,
below, insufficient
hypobaric,
hypocenter,
hypochondriac,
hypocorism,
hypocrite,
hypodermic,
hypostasis,
hyps
high,
height
hyster
see uter
hypotaxis,
hypsicephalic,
hypotenuse
hypsodont,
hypsography,
hypsomete
I
13
-i
plural
-ia
condition,
disorder
alumni,
cacti, fungi,
amnesia,
anemia, aphasia, dysphagia,
euphoria,
hysteria, insomnia,
mania, neuralgia,
paraplegia,
-ia
collection
of
nostalgia,
phobia,
area
Australia,
memorabilia,
trivia
Manchuria,
Rhodesia, suburbia,
-ia
flower
2
see -ac
-ian
see -an
*iatr
treat
(medically)
dahlia, forsythia,
gardenia, lobelia,
magnolia, petunia,
iatric,
xenia
iatrogenic,
pediatrician,
-ible
see -able
-ic
having,
being, pertaining
to
Mauritania,
utopia
begonia, camellia,
poinsettia,
-iac
malaria,
paranois,
pneumonia
genitalia, juvenilia,
paraphernalia,
-ia
syllabi
iatromisia,
archaic,
aristocratic,
chronic,
dialectic,
erratic,
geriatrics,
psychiatry
bibliographic(al),
dichromatic,
ethnic, linguistic,
nomadic,
numerical,
phonetic,
plasmic,
elliptic,
metamorphic,
philosophical,
pornographic,
rustic,
syllabic
-ical
see -ic, -al
-ice
NOUN
accomplice,
avarice, cowardice,
imperatrice,
justice,
malice, notice,
novice, precipice, service
18
-ics
science
ichthy
fish
of
economics,
pediatrics,
ichthyoid,
ichthyologist,
ichthyomorphic,
ichthyornis,
physics
ichthyophagus,
ichthyosaur,
ichthyosis,
ichthyotoxin
-icle
see *-l
icon
image
icon, iconic, iconoclast,
iconodule,
iconography,
iconoscope,
iconolatry,
iconastasis
Chapter
13
|
Glossary
of
Base
Forms
and
Reverse
Glossary
of
Roots
109
-id
having,
being, pertaining
to
avid, florid,
intrepid,
fluid,
frigid,
horrid, incipid,
invalid,
lucid,
palid, placid,
rabid, rancid
vid
id
ident
15
same
*idio
peculiar
identic,
identical,
identism,
identity
idiochromatic,
idiom,
idiogenesis,
idiomorphic,
idiosyncrasy,
-ier
see-r
ign
fire
igneous,
having,
being, pertaining
to
idiot
ignitron,
mercantile,
sterile, tactile,
6
most
*in, en-see
not,
ignite,
ignivomous
agile, docile, fertile, fragile,
juvenile,
-im
ignigenous,
ignipuncture,
ignition,
idiolect,
idiopathy,
ignescent,
ignipotent,
-ile
identification,
maximum,
lacking
verile, volatile
minimum,
enmity, ignoble,
improper,
futile,
mobile, senile,
ultimate
illegal, impossible,
inactive,
independent,
optimal,
incredible,
insane, irrational,
irrepressible
14
*in-, en
in,
into
-in
NOUN
-ine
having,
emphasis,
being, pertaining
to
endoderm,
illuminate,
implant,
invade, irrigate,
aspirin,
auxin,
globulin,
Alpine, Benedictine,
canine, crystalline,
marine,
parenthesis
toxin
bovine, cadaverine,
feline, feminine,
masculine, piscine,
plasticine,
saline
16
*infra-insul
below
infralapsarianism,
inframundane,
infrapose,
infrasonic,
infrared,
infraspecific
island,
separateness
insular, insularity,
insulize,
integer
whole,
*-ion
untouched
disintegrate,
integer, integral,
integration,
integrity
condition,
abstraction,
administration,
confusion,
creation,
decision,
declension,
erosion,
exclusion,
falsification,
fusion, improvisation,
process,
of process
manipulation,
ir
anger
irid
rainbow,
13
|
Glossary
of
Base
colorful
Forms
and
Reverse
Glossary
negation,
integrand,
coercion,
persuasion,
pollution,
prevention,
provision,
recession, reversion,
refulsion,
slavation,
subscription,
Chapter
insulin,
peninsular
(relatedto in-, in and tag)
result
110
insulation,
penninsula,
promotion,
stagnation,
tension,
vision
irascible,
irate, ire, ireful
iridectomy,
iridenscent,
of
Root
revision,
iridium,
iris
-is
condition,
result
process,
analysis, anamorphosis,
of process
emphasis,
ellipsis,
genesis, hypnosis,
morphosis,
neurosis, osmosis, stasis, synopsis,
synthesis
-ism
in, state, act
baptism,
capitalism,
communism,
rhotacism
9
-ist
one
who
-ise
see-ize
*iso-belief
equal
Anarchist,
baptist, communist
isandrous,
isobar,
isodeot,
isochronal,
isocracy,
isogloss, isograph,
isometric,
isomorphic,
isonomy,
isopathy,
isothermal
7
*it
go
adit, ambition,
initiate,
coitus, exit, initial,
itinerant,
obituary, sedition,
transit
-it, -ite
having,
being, pertaining
to
composite,
definite,
-it, -ite
VERB
audit, expedite, ignite,
posit, unite
*-itis
inflammation
appendicitis,
bronchitis,
finite, implicit,
22
erudite, favorite,
indefinite,
arthritis,
tacit
bursitis,
cephalitis,
hepatitis,
neuritis,
phlebitis,
pleuritis,
pneumonitis,
poliomyelitis,
meningitis,
tonsillitis,
vagnitis
-ity
see-ty
-ium
see-um
-ive
having,
being, pertaining
to
argumentative,
conducive,
attentive,
conclusive,
comparative,
cursive,
dative,
decisive, defensive, evasive, extensive,
fugitive,
generative,
productive,
-ix
-ize, ise
feminine
administratrix,
VERB cause to
massive, pensive,
representative
aviatrix,
curatrix,
directrix,
executrix,
procuratrix,
advertise,
anglicize,
baptize, chastize,
comprise,
epitomize,
etymologize,
eulogize, exorcise, fertilizer,
neutralization,
organize,
realize, satirize,
vocalize
victrix
nasalize,
patronize,
J
22
*jac
throw,
lay, lie
abject, adjacent, adjective,
conjecture,
dejected,
disject, ejaculate,
eject, infect,
interject,
jactation,
jaculatory,
jactitation,
object, project,
reject, subjacent,
projectile,
subjective,
traject,
trajectory
joc
jest
Chapter
jocose, jocular, jocularity,
13
|
Glossary
of
Base
Forms
and
Reverse
Glossary
jocund
of
Roots
11
jud,
jug,
judge (related to jus)
judg
join
jung
(related to zyg)
adjudicate,
judge,
judicable,
judicature,
judicial,
judicious,
prejedge,
prejudice
adjunct,
conjugal,
conjugation,
jur
seejus
jus, jur
ritual,
law,
equity
(relatedto jud)
judgmatic,
junction,
abjure,
adjure,
conjuror,
justice,
injunction,
subjugate,
conjure,
injury,
jurisprudence,
judiciary,
conjugate,
disjuncture,
jugular,
judgment,
conjurer,
judicial,
jurist,
subjunctive
jurisdiction,
juror,
jury,
just,
objurgation,
perjure,
perjuror,
juvenescent,
juvenile,
juvenilia,
perjury
juven
young
juvenal,
rejuvenate
K
kal
seecalli
ker
seecerhorn
kilo-22
thousand
kine,
move
cine
(related to cit)
kilohertz,
kilogram,
kilometer,
kilowatt
cinema,
hyperkinesia,
kinescope,
kinesics,
kinesiology,
kinetic,
telekinesis
cubicle,
gastrula,
seecrypt
krypt
L
*-l
small
animalcule,
capsule,
icicle,
little,
kettle,
particular,
19
*lab
grasp,
seize
lip
lac
milk
(related
to
galac)
particle,
testicle
analeptic,
androlepsy,
catalepsy,
epilepsy,
nympholepsy,
lab
nuzzle,
astrolabe,
narcolepsy,
organoleptic,
syllable,
syllepsis
bilabial,
labia,
lactase,
lactation,
labiate,
prolepsis,
labiodental,
lacteral,
labret
lactiferous,
lactogenic
lag
rabbit
lag, lang
loose,
lagomorph,
lagomys,
lagopodous,
lagotic
slack,
droop
(related to lagn)
lagn
lust
lal
talk,
lamell
seelamin
lamin,
lamell
babble
lagoetic,
lagomorph,
laxative,
relax
algolagnia,
coprolagnia,
ecdemolagnia,
necrolagnia,
pyrolagnia
delaminate,
laminar,
112
Chapter
13
|
Glossary
of
Base
Forms
and
Reverse
Glossary
languor,
iconolagny,
echolalia,
layer
languid,
of
Root
glossolalia,
lamellate,
laminated,
idiolalia,
lamelliform,
laminitis
lallation
lang
seelag
lapid
stone
dilapidated,
lapidarion,
lapideous,
laps
fall,
expire
collapse,
prolapse,
*lat
carry
lat, later
broad,
side
elate,
elation,
relative,
lapse,
lapsus,
supralapsarian
collatron,
relate,
lazuli
elapse,
lapsable,
relapse,
collate,
wide,
lapis
collapsible,
infralapsarian,
5
lapidary,
lapidicolous,
correlate,
legislate,
dilatory,
oblation,
superlative,
collateral,
dilate,
laterigrade,
latitude,
prelate,
translation
equilateral,
lateral,
latitudinarian,
quadrilateral
10
*later
worship
anthropolatry,
geolatry,
astrolatry,
hagiolatry,
iconolatry,
bibliolater,
heliolatry,
idolater,
idolatry,
plutolatry,
theolatry
lav, lv, luv
wash,
pour
abultion,
alluvium,
colluvium,
deluge,
lavage,
lavation,
pollute,
13
lec
delight
led
strike,
*leg
choose,
esteem,
delicate,
collide,
care
for
(relatedto leglaw andlog)
lavatory,
eluvium,
lave,
lava,
laver,
pollution
delectable,
injure
antediluvian,
dilute,
delicious,
collision,
elide,
diligent,
elect,
neglect,
prelect,
elicit
elision,
elegant,
lesion
intelligent,
sacrilege,
select
seelog
leg
law, charge (relatedto legto
choose and log)
*leg
allege,
delegate,
legacy,
legal,
legislator,
len
soft,
gentle
lenient,
illegal,
legate,
legitimate,
lenis,
illegitimate,
legatee,
legislation,
relegate,
lenitive,
lenity,
privilege
lentitude,
relent
-lent
full
leo(n)
of
lion
corpulent,
fraudulent,
pestilence,
turbulent,
chameleon,
leontiasis,
lep, lepid
scaly
leper,
leuc,
luc
death,
sleep
light,
lethal,
white, colorous,
clear
lev
liber
light,
rise
free
lethargic,
|
Glossary
of
Base
Forms
leproma,
leprosy
lethiferous
leucine,
leucocyte,
Lucifer,
Lucina,
relucent,
translucent
noctiluca,
alleviate,
elevate,
elevator,
levitate,
levitation,
levity,
illiberal,
liberal,
libertine,
13
leopard
leucoma,
leucoplast, leukemia, lucent, lucid,
liberoplast,
Chapter
leonine,
lepidolite,
Lepidoptera,
elucidate,
(related to lumen, lun, and luster)
Leonard,
leontocephalous,
lepidodentroid,
lepidote,
leth
Leo,
opulent,
virulent
and
pellucid,
lever,
liberalize,
libertarian,
levee,
levy
liberate,
liberticide,
liberty
Reverse
Glossary
of
Roots
11
liber
weigh,
consider
deliberate,
deliberation,
equilibrium,
equilibrist,
Libra, librate,
libration,
libratory
20
libr
book
librarian,
lic
permissible,
unrestrained
lic
seeligu to leave
*lig
bind
illicit,
lign
lim
threshold
lin, lign
flax,
line
lingu
tongue,
lip
fat
speech
license, licensure,
licet
alligation,
colligate,
ligation,
liqu
fluid
liqu, linqu,
obligation,
eliminate,
illimitable,
limen,
limitation,
limited,
preliminary,
subliminal,
supraliminal,
limit,
unlimited
align, alignment,
delineate, line, lineage,
lineal, lineament,
linear, lineate, linen,
lining,
linseed, lint,
lingual,
linguate,
matrilineal
linguist,
lipemia,
lipoma,
linguistics
lipid,
lipogenous,
lipoprotein
eclipse, ecliptic,
ellipse, ellipsis
deliquesce, liquefy, liquid,
leave (relatedto lip)
lic
disoblige, ligament,
ligature,
religio
glycolipide,
leave (relatedto liqu)
licentiate,
obligatory,
lipoid,
lip
libretto
licentious,
ligand,
seelin
library,
liquidate,
liquifacient,
liquor
delinquent,
derelict, relic, relict,
relinquish
lit
seelith
liter
letter
alliteration,
literally,
illiteracy,
literary,
illiterate,
literature,
literal,
obliterate,
transliterate
12
*lith, lit
stone
cerolite,
coprolite,
eolith,
granulite,
grapholite,
lithograph,
lithoid,
lithology,
lithophagous,
lithosphere,
litholatry,
collocation,
dislocate,
monolith
19
loc
place
allocation,
dislocation,
location,
local, locale, locality,
locative,
locomotive,
1
locu
seeloqu
*log, leg
speak,
write, study
(related to
leg to choose and leg law)
locus
analogous,
apologue,
apology,
catalogue,
decalogue,
dialect, dialogue,
eulogy, homologous,
illegible,
illogical,
logician,
longi
long
114
Chapter
13
|
Glossary
of
Base
Forms
and
Reverse
Glossary
of
Roots
logical,
sortilege,
longevity,
longicaudate,
longilateral,
longiloquence,
longimanous,
longitute
logic,
paralogism,
prologue,
longanimity,
longicorn,
biology,
horologue,
lexicon,
monologue,
philologist,
18
locate,
locomotion,
longimetry,
syllogism
longipennate,
19
*loqu, locu
speak
allocution,
circumlocution,
colloquium,
colloquy,
colloquial,
elocution,
eloquent,
grandiloquence,
locution,
loquacious,
obloquy,
prolocutor,
interlocutor,
magniloquent,
solioquy,
ventriloquist
19
lu
seelav
luc
seeleuc
*lud
play
allude, allusion,
delusion,
illusive,
collusion,
delude,
delusive, elude, illusion,
interlude,
ludicrous,
prelude,
prolusion
lumen
light
(related to leuc)
illumination,
illumine,
luminosity,
lun
moon,
madness
(related to leuc)
demilune,luna, lunacy,lunar, lunate,
lunatic,
lunation,
sublunar,
lune, semilunar,
sublunary
lup, lyc
wolf
lupine,
luster
clear, pure (related to leuc)
illustrate,
luster, lustral,
lustrical,
lustrous,
luv
seelav
ly
loosen,
dissolve
-ly
ADVERB
lyc
seelup
lumen, luminary,
luminous
lupus, lycanthrope,
lycopodium
lustrate,
lustrum
analysis,
dialysis, electrolyte,
hydrolysis,
litholyte,
lyophilic,
lysergic,
lysogenic,
lysis, paralysis, paralyte
profusely,
publicly,
baptism,
chasm, idiom,
lyophobic,
regularly
M
-m
NOUN
poem, sarcasm,
spasm
m
see amlove
mac
long,
thin
emaciated,
macl
spot,
stain
immaculate,
paramecium
mackle, macle, maculation,
maculature
19
*mach
battle
centauromachia,
gigantomachy,
herpobatrachiomachy,
logomachy,
machopolyp,
machozoid, tauromachy
*macro
long,
large
macrobiotic,
macrocosm,
macrology,
macromastia,
macron,
macrodont,
acromegaly,
magistrate,
magnanimous,
magnificent,
magnify,
macropterous
mag, meg, maj
great, large
majestic,
magnitude,
majesty, major, majority,
maximize,
maximum,
megalomania,
omega
maj
see mag
Chapter
13
|
Glossary
of
Base
Forms
and
Reverse
Glossary
of
Roots
11
4
*mal,
male
bad
malady, maladjusted,
malaria,
malcontent,
malediction,
malefactor,
maleficient,
malevolent,
malice,
malicious,
malign,
malignant,
malignity,
malpractice
man
hand,
handle
amanuensis,
emancipate,
manage, manicure,
man, mn
remain
mand
order
manipulate,
manual,
manumit,
manuscript
7
*mani
intense
desire
manufacture,
immanent,
manor,
permanent,
remnant
command,
commandant,
countermand,
manacles,
manifest,
manse, mansion,
commandeer,
demand,
mandamus,
mandate,
mandatory, remand
automania,
bibliomania,
manic,
mania,
maniac, megalomania
16
mant
prophesy,
divination
astromancy,
ceromancy,
hydromancy,
mantic,
chiromancy,
mantis, mantology,
necromancy
mar
sea
mare, marigraph,
mar
see mir
mascul
male
marina,
marine,
mariner,
maritime, submarine,
transmarine,
ultramarine
emasculate,
emasculatome,
masculine,
masculinity
mast
breast
amastia,
macromastia,
mastitis,
mastodon,
mastodynia,
mastectomy,
maternity,
matricide,
mastoid
25
mater, metr
mother,
womb,
surrounding
math
learn,
mea
go,
material,
substance
study numbers
and forms
pass, passage
matrilineal,
matrimony,
metropolis,
metrorrhagia
matrix,
chrestomathy,
mathematician,
mathematics,
polymath
irremeable,
metritis,
meatal, meatometer,
meatoscope,
meatotome,
meatus,
permeate
attend to (relatedto mod)
med
irremediable,
medical,
medicament,
medicate,
medicinal,
med
middle,
near
medicant,
medication,
medicine,
meditate,
remediable,
remedial,
remedy
immediate,
intermediate,
median,
mediate,
medieval,
mediator,
medial,
mediety,
mediocre,
mediocrity,
melodeon,
melodize,
medium
meg
see mag
mel
song
melisma,
melodrama,
116
Chapter
13
|
Glossary
of
Base
Forms
and
Reverse
Glossary
of
Root
melody,
melograph
mel, melan
mel, mol
dark,
blacken
calomel,
honey
melior
better
melancholy,
Melanesia,
melanian,
melanin,
melanogaster,
melanoma,
melanosis, psilomelane
hydromel,
melis, melitologist,
melliferous,
mellifluous,
molasses
ameliorate,
melioration,
meliorism,
meliority
member
see memor
member
part
memor,
member
of a whole
remember
dismember,
member,
membral,
membrance,
membrum
commemorate,
commemoration,
immemorial,
memorabilia,
memorandum,
memory, remember,
men, min, mon
lead,
project, threaten
memorable,
memorial,
memorize,
remembrance
amenable,
eminent, imminent,
menace,
minatory,
montage,
monticle,
preeminent,
montane,
promenade,
prominent,
promontory
moon,
men
month (related to
mens) catamenia, emmenagogue,
menopause,
menarche,
menorrhagia,
mensal,
menses, menstruation
16
*men,
min, mn
think
(related to
mani
ament, amnesia, comment,
andto mon)
cryptomnesia,
demented,
memento,
mental, mentality,
mentor,
minerva, reminiscent
acumen, regimen,
-men
NOUN
albumen,
mend
defect
amendment,
emendation,
mendacious,
mendicant
mens
-ment
measure
(related to
met(er)
commensurate,
mensural,
mensurate,
NOUN
allotment,
casement,
interment,
pigment,
share,
part
trade,
dip,
dimeric,
meristem,
meritocracy,
meritorious,
middle
mercer, mercy
emersion, immerse,
merganser,
merge, merger,
submersion
mesial, mesocarp, mesocephalic,
Mesohippus,
Mesopotamia,
Chapter
meropia,
commercial,
mercenary,
emerge, emergency,
submerge,
merit,
polymer
immersion,
meso, mezzo
emeritus, isomer,
meretricious,
amerce, commerce,
plunge
inducement,
pavement,
vestment
mercantile,
merg
immense,
commandment,
fragment,
allomerism,
pay, reward
specimen
mensuration
parament,
monomer,
merc
mention,
mend,
dimension,
and men
moon)
environment,
mer
dementia,
13
|
Glossary
of
Base
Forms
and
Reverse
mesolithic,
mesomorphic,
mezzosoprano,
Glossary
of
Roots
mezzotint
11
9
meta-beyond,
changed, after, behind
metabolic,
metalinguistics,
metamorphosis,
metaphysical,
metathesis,
metaphor,
metaphysics,
metazoic,
metastasis,
meteor, method,
metonymny
9
measure (relatedto mens)
*meter
altimeter,
ametropic,
barometer,
diameter,
hexameter,
kilometer,
metrical,
metrology, perimeter,
symmetrical,
asymmetrical,
geometry,
meter, metric,
symmetry,
thermometer,
trigonometry
*micro
small
micrify,
microbe,
microdont,
micrometer,
microphone,
microvolt,
migr
wander
microbiology,
microcosm,
microfilm,
microscope,
microzoa
commigration,
emigrant,
immigrant,
migrate,
emigrate,
migration,
migratory, transmigration
milit
fight
demilitarize,
military,
milli
thousand
militancy,
militate,
millenarian,
milliard,
militarist,
militia
millenium,
millimeter,
milligram,
million,
millionaire,
millipede
mim
copy
min
little,
inferior
mime, mimic,
mimicked,
mimeograph,
mimesis,
mimographer,
mimotype,
comminute,
mimicry,
mimetic,
diminish,
pantomime
diminution,
diminutive,
minify,
minimum,
minometer,
minimize,
minuend,
minuet,
minor,
minus,
minority,
minuscule,
minute
min
see menthink
min
see menlead
minister
serve (relatedto minlittle)
administer,
administrative,
administratrix,
minister,
ministrant,
mir, mar
wonder
at, look
mis
see mit
misc, mix
mix
at
admire,
ministerial,
ministration,
ministry
marvel, miracle,
miraculous,
mirage, mirror
admixture,
apomixis,
intermix,
miscegenation,
miscellany,
miscible,
mixobarbaric,
miser
pity,
wretched
commiserate,
misericord,
5
118
*miso
Chapter
hate
13
|
Glossary
of
iatromisia,
Base
Forms
and
Reverse
Glossary
commix,
immix,
miscellaneous,
miscitation,
mix,
mixture, promiscuous
miser, miserable,
miserly,
miserere,
misery
misandry,
misanthrope,
misogamy,
misogynist,
misology,
misoneism,
misosophy,
misotheism
of
Root
15
*mit,
mis
send,
do
admit,
commission,
compromise,
committee,
demit,
dismiss, emissary,
emit, intermission,
missionary,
missile, mission,
missive, omit,
premise, pretermit,
remit,
mix
see misc
mn
see man
mn
see men
mob, mot
move
submit,
locomotion,
mobility,
moment,
momentous,
mod
moderate,
control,
measure,
momentum,
massive,
labored,
troublesome
motion,
remote
commodious,
commodity,
modal, mode, model,
moderation,
modern,
modest, modify,
mol
mob, mobile,
momentary,
motor, promote,
accommodate,
manner(relatedto med)
promise, remiss,
surmise, transmit
emotion,
motive,
permit,
demolish,
modicum,
modulate,
module
mole, molecule,
molest,
molestation
mol
see mel
moll
soft
emmollient,
mollify,
mollescent,
molipilose,
molluscoid,
mon
remind,
mollient,
mollities,
mollusk
warn
admonish,
demonstrate,
(relatedto mento think)
monition,
monitor,
monument,
premonition,
monish,
monster,
remonstrate,
summon
5
mon
see mento lead
*mono
one
monaural,
monism,
monogamy,
monogram,
monolith,
monochrome,
monologue,
monosyllable,
monograph,
monomania,
monotheism,
monotonous
-mon
mor
STEM
EXTENDER
humor,
manner, custom
acrimony,
matrimonial,
parsimony,
patrimony,
sanctimonius,
testimonial
amoral,
demoralize,
immoral,
moralize,
morals,
morality,
morale,
mores,
morose
mor
stupid
moron,
moronic,
sophomore,
morb
disease
morbid,
morosoph,
oxymoron,
sophomoric
morbific,
morbiferous,
morbigenous
mord
bite
mordacious,
mordant,
mordent,
morsel,
premorse, remorse
10
*morph
form
allomorph,
amorphous,
anthropomorphism,
geomorphology,
morphology,
endomorph,
morpheme,
morphogenesis,
pseudomorph
Chapter
13
|
Glossary
of
Base
Forms
and
Reverse
Glossary
of
Roots
11
11
*mort
death
amortize,
immortal,
immortality,
mortal,
mortality,
mortgage,
mortification,
mortify,
mortuary,
post
mortem
mot
see mob
muc, munc
moldy,
sticky
emunctory,
mucin,
9
*multi
many
muciferous,
mucoid,
multicolored,
mucilage,
mucosa, mucus
multifarious,
multiform,
multilateral,
multiple,
multiplex,
multiplicity,
multiply,
multitude,
multitudinous
mun
common,
public,
gift
communicate,
communion,
communism,
communist,
excommunicate,
municipal,
munc
see muc
mur
wall
immure,
community,
immune,
munificent,
intramural,
immunity,
remunerate
murage,
mural,
mure
mur
see mus
mus
inspire
mus, mur, my
mouse,
muse, museology,
muscle
epimysium,
murine,
myocardium,
myosin,
22
mut
change,
exchange
museum,
commutation,
mutable,
muscle, mussell,
myology,
myosotis,
music
myomancy,
mysicete, perimysium
commute,
mutagen,
immutable,
mutant,
mutation,
mutual, permute, transmute
myc
fungus
mycetoma,
mycology,
mycophagous,
mycoplasm,
mycosis, neomycin,
schizomycete
myria
countless,
myrmec
numerous,
myriancanthous,
ten thousand
myriameter,
ant
myrmecology,
myriad,
myriapod,
myriagram,
myriarch
myrmecophagus,
myrmecophil
see mus
my
N
-n
STEM EXTENDER
nar
see nas
narco
stupor
binary,
maternal, plenary
naracoanalysis,
narcomania,
naracoma,
narcosis,
narcolepsy,
narcosynthesis,
narcotic
nas, nar
nose
nares, narial, nariform,
nasal, nasalize,
nasology,
nasturtium,
nasopharynx,
nasute
nat
swim
natant,
natation,
natatorial,
natatorium,
supernatant
nat
120
Chapter
source,
13
|
Glossary
of
Base
birth, tribe
Forms
and
adnate, enate, native, nature,
Reverse
Glossary
of
Roots
neonate
20
*nav
boat,
sail
aeronaut,
aeronautics,
astronaut,
circumnavigation,
cosmonaut,
ne-16
not
lacking
aquanaut,
nausea, nauseous, nautical,
nautilus,
naval, nave, navicular,
navigable,
navigate, navigation,
nefaroius,
nepenthe,
nescient, neuter
innocent,
innocuous,
internecine,
necrology,
necromancy,
navy
(relatedto negand nul)
*nec(r),
noc
death,
harmful
necrophilia,
necropsy,
necrophobia,
necropolis,
necrosis, nectar, nectarine,
nocuous, noxious,
nocent,
obnoxious,
pernicious
16
not, no (relatedto ne-)
*neg
abnegate,
negation,
negligence,
negative, neglect,
negotiate,
negotiatrix,
renegade, renege
6
negr
see nigr
*neo
new,
recent
misoneism,
neanthropic,
neocracy, neolithic,
neophyte,
nerv, neur
nerve
enervate, innervate,
nervous,
neuralgia,
black
nervousness,
neuritis,
neurosurgeon,
nigr, negr
neonate,
neoteric
aponeurosis,
nervine,
neoclassical,
neologism,
denigrate,
nervy,
neuron,
unnerve
negrita,
Negrophile,
Negro, Negroid,
Negrophobe,
nigrescence,
nigrosine
nihil,
nil
nothing
niter
annihilate,
niter,
nitrogen
nitrate,
nihilify,
nitric,
nihilism,
nihility,
nitride,
nitroglycerine,
noctambulist,
noctilucent,
nil
nitrous
21
no
see gn
noc
see nec
noc, nyc
night
nod
equinox,
knot
noctimania,
nocturnal,
nyctitropic,
nyctophobia
node, nodiform,
nyctalopia,
nodose, nodular,
nodulation
4
7
*nom
*nom,
law,
onom,
onym
system
anomie,
name
antinomy,
astronomy,
autonomous,
autonomy,
binomial,
Deuteronomy,
economy,
metronome
anonymous,
antonym,
homonym,
ignominy,
ignominious,
metonymy,
misnomer,
nomancy,
nomenclature,
nominee,
denominate,
nominal,
nominate,
onomatopoeia,
patronymic,
pseudonym
nona
see nov
Chapter
13
|
Glossary
of
Base
Forms
and
Reverse
Glossary
of
Roots
12
*non-not,
lacking
nonconformist,
nonentity,
nonpartisan,
norm
standard,
not
nov
pattern
abnormal,
enormity,
nona
enormous,
normal,
normative
note
annotate,
connote,
notation,
note, notice, notify
(possibly related to gno)
new
novem,
nonexistence,
nonsense
(related to gnor)
innovation,
nine
marry
nuc, nucl
nut,
kernel
norm,
notary,
novice,
renovate
nonagenarian,
nub
notable,
novel, novelty,
novitiate,
nov,
nonplus,
nonagon,
November,
novena
connubial,
nubile,
nucament,
nuciferous,
nonillion,
nuptial,
nuptiality
nuciform,
nucifragous,
nuclear, nucleic, nucleon,
nucleoplasm,
nucleotide,
nucleus,
nuclide
nud
uncovered
nothing
nul, null
(relatedto ne)
denude,
nude, nudiflorous,
nudist,
nudity
anul, annulment,
nullify,
numer
number
nunc
speak
nudiped,
null, nullification,
nullity
enumerate, innumerable,
numeral,
numeration,
numerator,
numerical,
numerous,
supernumerary
annunciate,
denunciation,
nunciature,
nuncio,
enunciate,
pronunciation,
renunciation
nutr, nurt
nourish
nurse, nursery, nurture,
nutriment,
nyc
see noc
nymph
maiden,
labia
minora
nymph,
nutrition,
nympha,
nympholepsy,
nutrient,
nutritive
nymphitis,
nymphomania,
nymphotomy
O
-o
STEM EXTENDER
anthropology,
nyphotomy,
15
*ob-ocell
to, toward
gynandromorph,
philodendron
obstacle, obviate,
offend,
occasion, occident,
offense, omission,
opposition,
oppress
see ocl
ochl
crowd
ochlesis,
ocl, ocell
eye
binoculars,
octa
eight
ochlocracy,
ochlophobia
monocle, inoculate,
ocellated,
oculist,
octagon,
octagonal,
octangular,
octave, octavo, octet,
octogenarian,
122
Chapter
13
|
Glossary
of
Base
Forms
and
Reverse
Glossary
of
Root
ocellar,
oculate, oculomotor
octopus
October,
octant,
od, hod
way, journey
anode, cathode,
hodograph,
episode, exodus,
method, odometer,
period,
synod
od
song,
performance
melodious,
parody,
melody,
prosody,
monody, ode,
psalmody, rhapsody,
threnody
odon
see den
odor, ol
smell
inodorous,
malodorous,
odoriferous,
odorous,
odor,
olfactory,
olid,
redolent
oeno
wine
-oid
oenanthic,
similar
to
ol
see alto grow
ol
see odor
ole, ol
oil
oenolin,
oenology,
oenomancy,
oenomania,
oenometer,
oenophilist
oenomel,
anthropoid,
arachnoid,
ellipsoid,
haloid, odontoid,
pteridoid,
trapezoi
eucalyptol,
lanolin,
oleic, oleiferous,
asteroid,
planetoid,
oleaginous,
olefiant,
oleograph,
oleomargarine
oligo--ology
few, little
oligarchy,
oligocarpus,
oligogalyctia,
oligocythemia,
oligophrenia,
oligopoly,
oligopsony
seelog
-oma
growth,
tumor
carcinoma,
lipoma,
fibroma,
glaucoma,
sarcoma, syphiloma,
omni--on
all
omnidirectional,
NOUN
omnigenous,
omnirange,
omniscient,
criterion,
harmonicon,
6
seees(s)
onym
see nom
o
see ov
*op
eye, sight, look
at
amblyopia,
optics,
oper
work
ametropia,
operate,
ophid,
ophi
snake
pleon
autopsy, biopsy,
myopic, optical,
optometer,
cooperate,
neuron,
photon,
isometropia,
omnipotent,
omnivorous
epencephalon,
lexicon,
phenomenon,
ont
trachoma
omnifarious,
omniferous,
carbon,
glioma,
mycetoma, osteosarcoma,
optician,
optometrist
inoperative,
opera, operable,
operose
ophidiophobe,
ophiography,
ophiolatry,
ophiomancy
ophthalm
eye
ophthalmia,
opi
opium
opiate, opinophagy,
Chapter
13
|
Glossary
of
Base
Forms
and
Reverse
ophthalmologist
Glossary
opiophyle,
of
Roots
opium
123
opt
choice
or
speak
adopt, co-opt,
formally,
pray
adore, inexorable,
oration,
or
rise,
appear
see aurgold
or
see os
-or
see-r
orb
circle
orch
testicle,
ord
orchid
order
18
see erg
-orium
see-ory place
orn, ornith
bird
orb, orbicular,
orchialgia,
orchidaceous,
orchidectomy,
orchidology,
orchitis
coordinate,
coordination,
-ory
inordinate,
upright,
correct
being, pertaining
to
ordinary,
ordination,
subordinate
ornithic,
ornithology,
ornithoid,
ornithopter,
ornithoscopy,
ornithosis
orthodontia,
orthodox,
orthography,
orthopedics,
auditory,
compulsory,
bone
orthoscopic
cursory,
mandatory,
obligatory,
predatory,
prefactory,
sensory
trajectory,
auditorium,
conservatory,
laboratory,
sanitorium
victory
dormitory,
osseous, ossify, ossuary, ostitis,
osteomyelitis,
os, or
orthoepy,
laudatory,
accessory, inventory,
place
os
insubordinate,
ordinance,
and -um
NOUN
-ory
disorder,
order, ordinal,
ornithophilous,
having,
orchid,
ordain,
ichthyorinis,
straight,
orbiculate,
cryptorchidism,
ornithomancy,
orth--ory
orientation,
originate
orbital
extraordinary,
org
oracle,
orient, oriental,
original,
exorbitant,
orbit,
oracular,
orator, peroration
abortion,
origin,
or
opative, option
mouth,
opening
oral, orator,
osteopathy
oratrix,
orifice,
oscitancy,
osculate, ostiary
-ose
having,
being, pertaining
to
bellicose, cerebrose, comatose,
grandiose,
granulose, jocose,
lachrymose,
morose, varicose, verbose,
vesiculose
21
-osis
abnormal
osm
push,
condition
halitosis,
impel
neurosis, phychosis
endosmosis,
osmometry,
osmosis, osmotaxis,
20
ot
ear
lagotic,
otalgia,
otoplasty,
124
Chapter
13
|
Glossary
of
Base
Forms
and
Reverse
Glossary
of
Root
osmose,
osmotic
otic, otology,
otorrhea,
parotid
otogenous,
-ous
having,
being, pertaining
to
anxious,
carnivorous,
foliaceous,
inconspicuous,
tenacious,
egg (possibly related to avbird)
ov, o
ocyte,
tortuous
ogenesis, olith,
oviduct,
sharp,
impetuous,
pious, simultaneous,
opherectomy,
ox
coniferous,
glamorous,
ophagous,
oval, ovary, ovate,
oviferous,
sour, pointed
oviparous
oxalis, oxide, oxydactylic,
(related to acsharp)
oxmel, oxymoron,
oxyrhine,
oxyopia,
oxyphonia,
paroxyosm
P
pac
21
bind,
pachy
agreement,
peace
compact, impact,
(related to pag)
pact
thick
pachycephalic,
paed
see ped
pag, peg
bind together (relatedto pac)
pacific,
pacifist,
pachyderm,
pachymeter,
pachynema,
pachypteron,
pachysandra
pagan, pectin,
pegamite,
pacify,
pachyglossia,
pachypod,
propagate,
thoracophagus
pal, pol
stake,
spade
impale,
paleiform,
paling,
palisade, palster, palule, paly,
palette, palification,
pole
paleo
long
ago, ancient
paleethnology,
paleoclimatic,
paleography,
paleolith,
paleontology,
Paleozoic
pali(n)
again
pal, pall
cloak,
cover
palikinesia,
palillogy,
palindrome,
palingenesis,
pailial,
pall, palliate,
palliobranchiate,
palimpsest,
palinode
palliative,
palliocardiac,
pallium,
paludiment
pal, pall
pale
appall,
palp
touch,
feel
pale, pall, pallid,
palp, palpable,
palpiform,
3
*pan-,
panta-amphioxious, all,
all embracing
see past
pand, pass
spread
out, go
palpate, palpiferous,
palpitant,
palpitate,
palples
pamprodactyl,
panacea, pandect,
pandemonium,
panegyric,
panoply,
panorama,
pansophy,
pantagamy,
pantheism,
pantheon,
pantomine,
pantophagist,
pan
pallor, palomino
compass,
pantophobia
encompass,
expand,
pass,
passable, passage, passenger, passover,
passport, surpass, trespass
pant
see pan
pap, pop
father,
pope
papa, papacy, papal, paparchy, pop,
pope, popery,
Chapter
13
|
Glossary
of
Base
Forms
and
Reverse
popish
Glossary
of
Roots
12
pap, pup
nipple,
child,
doll
pap, papila, papule, pupa, pupil,
puppet,
puppy
9
par
show
apparent,
par
beget,
produce
apparition,
floriparous,
gemeliparous,
gemmiparous,
parent,
part,
share, equality
multipara,
parturition,
repertory,
par, por
transparent
viper, vivaparous
apart, apartment,
compartment,
compare,
department,
disparity, impart,
up, make ready
(related to para to
17
*para-set
beside,
apparatus,
prevent)
under, beyond,
proportionate
apparel, disparate,
preparation,
resembling
disparage,
par, parcel, parity,
parse, part, portion,
par
oviparous,
primapara,
preparatory,
paradigm,
paradox,
paramedic,
paranoia,
paranthropus,
pare,
separate
paragraph,
parallel,
paranormal,
paraphernalia,
parenthetic
para
prevent
pass
see pand
past, pan
food,
(related to parset up)
dough,
bread
parachute, parapet, parasol, paratroops
companion,
panivorous,
pannier,
pantry,
paste, pastor, pastoral, pastorate,
pasturage,
pat, pass
feel,
undergo
pasture, pastry, repast
compassion,
dispassionate,
passion,
passive, patient
pater
fatherland,
father,
bring about, sponsor
allopatric,
expatriate,
paternal,
paternity,
patriarach,
patrician,
patriotic,
patristic,
patrimony,
patron,
patronage,
patroness,
patronymic,
expatriation,
patronize,
perpetrate,
repatriate,
sympatric
2
*path
feel,
suffer, illness
allopathy,
antipathy,
apathy, empathy,
homeopathy,
pathetic,
pathos,
psychopath,
sympathetic,
sympathize,
sympathy
pe
see poe
pec
stumble,
sin
peccable, peccadillo,
peccancy, peccant
(relatedto pedfoot)
pector
chest
expectorant,
expectorate,
pectoral,
pectoriloquy
pecu
wealth,
property
impecunious,
peculium,
6
*ped, paed
child,
training,
education
peculate,
encyclopedia,
pedagogy,
orthopedist,
orthopedics,
pedant, pedarist,
pediatrician,
pedobaptism,
126
Chapter
13
|
Glossary
of
Base
Forms
and
Reverse
Glossary
of
Root
peculiar,
pecuniary
pedodontia,
pedology
6
*ped,
pod,
pus
foot (related to pec)
biped,
brachiopod,
centipede,
cephalopod,
expedient,
expedite,
expedition,
gastropod,
impede,
impediment,
octopus,
pedal,
pedestrian,
pedigree,
podagra,
pseudopodium,
pedestal,
quadruped,
tripod,
velocipede
5
ped
soil
*pel
push
(related to pedfoot)
pedalfer,
pedocal,
catapult,
compel,
expel,
expulsion,
impulsive,
pulse,
pel, pl
skin
pen
almost
pedologist,
pedology
compulsory,
dispel,
impel,
impulse,
interpellate,
repel,
propel,
repellent,
erysipelas,
pellagra,
pelt,
surplice
peltry,
antepenult,
pulsation,
repulsive
pellagrin,
peneplain,
pellicle,
peninsula,
penumbra
pen, pun
pen
punishment
impunity,
tail
penal,
punish,
punitive
pencil,
penicilliate,
penalty,
penology,
penicillin,
penile,
penis
pen,
5
feather
pin
*pend,
pond
hang,
(related to pter)
weigh,
pay,
pen,
consider
pennate,
append,
pinion,
pinnacle,
appendage,
compensate,
dispense,
pinnate
appendix,
compensation,
expend,
impending,
depend,
expenditure,
independent,
pendent,
pendulous,
pension,
pensive,
preponderant,
expense,
pendant,
pendulum,
perpendicular,
recompense,
ponder,
suspend,
suspense
penta-pept
five
digest
pentagon,
pentahedral,
pentamerous,
pentameter,
pentangular,
pentarachy,
pentasyllibic,
pentathlete,
pentatonic
dyspepsia,
eupeptic,
pepsin,
peptic,
pellucid,
perennial,
perfidy,
permeate,
perspire,
pervade
empirical,
experiment,
expert,
perihelion,
perimeter,
periodontal,
periphery,
peripharsis,
periscope
peptide
2
*per-per,
pir
through
trial
peril,
pirate
peri
pest
around,
near
plague
pest,
pesticide,
pestiferous,
pestilence,
pestology
pet
go
seek
appetite,
compete,
competition,
petition,
Chapter
13
|
Glossary
of
Base
Forms
and
competent,
impetuous,
petulant,
Reverse
impetus,
repetition
Glossary
of
Roots
12
11
peter
rock
Peter, petrification,
petrify,
petroglyph,
petrol,
petroleum,
petrology,
petrous,
anthropophagous,
dysphagia,
saltpeter
1
pha
seefa
phag
eat
exophagus,
phall
penis
mycophagist,
necrophagous,
sarcophagus,
xylophage
ichthyphallic,
phallic,
phalloid,
show, appear (relatedto phot)
phan, phen, fan
galactophagous,
allophane,
diaphanous,
2
seefa
phen
see phan
pher
seefer
*phil
love
phosphene, sycophant
pharmacist,
pharmacology,
pharmacomania,
pharmacon,
pharmac
Anglophile,
bibliophile,
phleg
seeflag
phlog
seeflag
*phob
fear
lyophilic,
ornithophilus,
Philadelphia,
philanthropist,
Philip,
philodendron,
philosophy,
photophilous,
vein
phenomenal,
pharmaceutical,
philology,
phleb
fantasy,
phanatom,
phenomenon,
phe
epiphany,
fancy, fantastic,
hierophant,
drug
phallicism,
phallus
fanciful,
pharmac
phagocyte,
phlebitis,
philter,
xenophilism,
phleboid,
zoophilist
phlebotomist,
phlebotomy
2
Anglophobe,
apiphobia,
claustrophobia,
heliophobic,
hydrophobia,
hypnophobia,
phobia,
xenophobe,
zoophobia
20
*phon
speech,
sound
antiphon,
aphonia,
(relatedto fa speak)
diaphony,
dictaphone,
cacophonic,
euphonious,
gramaphone,
phonetic,
phonic,
phonograph,
phonology,
symphony,
telephone
4
phor
seefer
phos
see phot
*phot,
light (relatedto phan)
phos
phras
speech
aphotic,
phosphene,
phosphorescent,
photic,
photobiotic,
photoelectric,
photogene,
photography,
photometer,
photophobia,
photosynthesis,
phototropism
embolophrasia,
holophrastic,
metaphrase, paraphrase,
phrase, phraseogram,
128
Chapter
13
|
Glossary
of
Base
Forms
and
Reverse
Glossary
photokinesis,
of
Roots
periphrasis,
phraseology
phren, fran, fren
mind,
heart, diaphragm
frantic,
frenetic,
phrenism,
frenzy,
phrenology,
phrenic,
phrenopathy,
schizophrenic
phyl
phylac
phyll
tribe,
class, race
phylarch,
phyletic,
phylon,
phylum
guard
anaphylaxis,
phylacobiosis,
phylactery,
phylactocarp,
prophylactic,
phylaxis
chlorophyll,
heterophyllous,
Phyllis,
leaf (relatedto foli andflor)
phylloid,
phyllomancy,
phyllophorous,
phys
phylogeny,
(related to phyt)
natural (relatedto phyt)
diaphysis,
phylophagous,
phyllotaxis,
sporophyll
metaphysician,
physic, physical,
metaphysics,
physician,
physics, physiogonomy,
physicist,
physiography,
physiology
5
*phyt
grow,
plant
neophyte,
(relatedto phyl and phys)
phytochemistry,
phytopathology,
phytophilous,
pi
pig
holy,
tender
paint,
picture
pil, pill
hair
phytophagous,
phytotomy,
expiate,
piacular,
pitiable,
pity
depict,
pictograph,
picturesque,
capillary,
pin
see pen
pin
seespin
pir
see per
pisc
fish
zoophyte
piety, pious, piteous,
pictorial,
picture,
pigment
caterpillar,
horripilation,
pileiform,
phytology,
depilatory,
mollipilose,
pileous,
pilar, pile,
pilose
piscary, piscator, piscatorial,
pisciculture,
pisciform,
Pisces,
piscine,
piscivorous
pithec
ape
Australopithecus,
pithecoid,
pl
see pel
plac
flat,
calm, pleasant
Pithecanthropus,
pithecological
complacent,
placenta,
implacable,
placebo,
placid, placitum,
placoid,
placula
plag
oblique,
slanting
plagal, plagihedral,
plagiodont,
plas
form,
mold
anaplasty,
plagiocephalisms,
plagiotropic
dysplasia, heteroplasy,
metaplasm, plasma, plaster, plastic,
protoplasm
20
plat(y)
flat,
broad
plate,
plateau,
platitude,
platform,
plating,
platyhelminth,
platypus,
platyrrhine
plaud, plod
clap,
accept
applaud,
implosive,
Chapter
13
|
Glossary
of
Base
Forms
and
explode, explosion,
plaudit,
Reverse
plod,
plausible
Glossary
of
Roots
12
full,
ple
many(relatedto plus)
complement,
complete,
depletion,
ple
see plec
pleb
common
people
expletive,
plenipotentiary,
plenitude,
plentiful,
plenty,
plethora,
replete,
supplement,
supply
plebian,
plebianize,
plebicolist,
plebifaction,
4
*plec,
ple
fold,
tangle
plebiscite,
strike,
stroke
replenish,
plebs
application,
apply,
complicate,
complicity,
comply,
explicable,
ples
plenary,
plenteous,
accomplice,
implicit,
pleg,
deplete,
implement,
explicit,
imply,
haploid,
multiple,
quadruple,
reply,
apoplexy,
paraplegia,
plegaphonia,
complex,
implicate,
perplex,
triple
plectrum,
plegia,
plessimeter,
plessor,
plexor
full
plen
(related to plus)
ples
see pleg
plot
see plaud
plomb
see plum, lead
plum
feather
plum,
plomb,
plumb
lead,
lead
pipe, lead
weight,
straight
plenary,
plenilune,
plenipotentiary,
plenist,
plenitude,
plenteous,
plenum,
plenty,
deplume,
plumage,
plumule,
plumy
aplomb,
plumb,
plumbery,
plentiful,
replenis
plumate,
plumose,
plumbago,
plumber,
plumbing,
plumbism,
plummet
see plus
plur
plus,
more,
plur
many (related to ple)
nonplus,
overplus,
plurifloral,
plus,
plut
wealth,
pluvi
rain
pneu(m)
lung,
Pluto
respiration
plural,
plurifoliate,
plurality,
pluriparous,
surplus
plutarchy,
Pluto,
plutology,
plutomania,
plutocrat,
plutonic,
plutonism,
pluvial,
pluviography,
plutolatry,
plutonian,
plutonium
pluvioscope,
pluvious
dyspneic,
pneodynamics,
pluviometer,
pneogaster,
pneograph,
pneometry,
pneumatic,
pneumatophore,
pneumectomy,
pneuma,
pneumonia,
pneumonic,
pneumonopathy
see ped
pod
poe,
poie
produce,
create
cosmopoietic,
mythopoeic,
hematopoietic,
onomatopoeia,
pharmacopoeia,
poetaster,
prosopopeia
130
Chapter
13
|
Glossary
of
Base
Forms
and
Reverse
Glossary
of
Roots
poem,
poetic,
poesy,
poetomachia,
poet,
21
pol
smooth
*pol
city,
polish,
state
polite,
politesse
acropolis,
cosmopolitan,
decapolis,
isopolity,
megalopolis,
metropolis,
necropolis,
police,
policy, politics,
polity,
propolis
pol
8
circumpolar,
pol
to
sell
pol
see pal
*poly-axis
much,
polar, polarity, transpolar
bibliopole,
many
monopoly,
polyandry,
polychrome,
polyglot,
polygon,
polypetalous,
polytheism,
pom
fruit,
apple
oligipoly
polygamy,
polygyny,
polysomia,
polynomial,
polysyllable,
polyvalent
pomace, pomaceous,
pomander,
pomade,
pome, pomegranate,
pomiculture,
pomiferous,
pomiform,
pomology
18
*pon,
pos
place, put (relatedto post)
appose, component,
deposition,
composite,
exponent,
deposit,
expose, impose,
impostor,
indispose,
pompose,
pose, posit, positive,
opponent,
postpone,
post, posture,
proposal,
propose, proposition,
repository,
superimpose,
opposite,
preposition,
repose,
superpose,
suppose, transpose
pond
see pend
pont
bridge
pontage,
pontine,
pontonier,
pontoon,
transpontine
see pap
pop
popul,
publ
people
depopulate,
populace,
popular,
popularity,
population,
populous,
public,
por
opening,
passage
pore, poriferous,
(relatedto portharbor)
por
see parpart
porn
prostitute
publication,
porotype,
publish, republic
porite,
porosity,
porous
philopornist,
pornerastic,
pomocracy,
pornography
*port
port
carry
deport,
harbor,
deportment,
import,
important,
porter,
portfolio,
portly,
purport,
rapport,
report,
support,
transport
port, portal,
porter,
gate
opportunity,
(related to por opening)
porthole,
pos
see pon
pos
see potdrink
poss
see potbe able
Chapter
13
|
Glossary
of
Base
Forms
disport, export,
and
portico,
Reverse
portable,
portcullus,
Glossary
of
portage,
portiere
Roots
13
11
*post,
after, behind (relatedto pon)
poster
postdate,
posterior,
posthumous,
posterity,
postlude,
post-mortem,
postorbital,
postpone,
postern,
postmeridian,
postscript,
postpartum,
post-war,
preposterous
pot,
poss
be
able,
powerful
ignipotent,
impossible,
omnipotent,
possible,
potent,
potentatiate,
pot,
pos
potam
river,
electric
current
impotent,
plenipotentiary,
potestate,
potables,
potate,
potatory,
potion,
symposium
hippopotamus,
potential,
prepotent
potable,
potamic,
possess,
potentate,
potation,
Mesopotamia,
potamography,
potamian,
potamology,
potamometer
14
*prag
do
apraxis,
impracticable,
practical,
practice,
pragmatic,
praxiology,
praxi
see pre-before,
prae-1
*pre,
impractical,
practitioner,
prae-,
pro-drink
forward,
on behalf
near,
approximately,
of
precede,
praenomen,
precipice,
praesidium,
preclude,
predestination,
predict,
prefer,
preponderate,
preposterous,
prefix,
preterite,
program,
progress,
prolong,
propinquity,
prosit,
protract,
proximal,
proximate
prec
entreat,
prec
pray
worth,
value
deprecate,
imprecate,
precarious,
precatory
appreciable,
appreciate,
precious,
pred
prey
take, seize (related to pre)
prehend
depredate,
depredation,
predation,
predator,
apprehend,
comprehend,
prehension,
press
prin
first,
foremost
predacious,
predatory
prehensile,
reprehensible,
compress,
depress,
impress,
prim,
depreciate,
unappreciated
incomprehensible,
press
imprecation,
oppress,
depression,
oppression,
pressure,
repress,
suppress
primal,
primary,
primate,
primeval,
primitive,
primordial,
reprehend
express,
press,
prime,
primer,
primogeniture,
primrose,
prince,
principal,
privacy,
private,
privilege,
privily,
principle
priv
single,
separate
deprivation,
privation,
privity,
privy
see pre-test,
pro-prob
find
good
approbation,
probable,
probe,
132
Chapter
deprive,
privative,
13
|
Glossary
of
Base
Forms
and
Reverse
Glossary
of
disapprove,
probate,
probity,
Roots
improbity,
probation,
reprobation
probative,
prol
proper
offspring
ones
prolen,
own
proletariat,
prolificacy,
proliferate,
proliferous,
prolific
appropriate,
improper,
proper, property,
proprietor
7
20
*proto
*pseudo
first
(related to pre-)
protocol,
false
protohistory,
protomartyr,
proton,
protoplasm,
prototype,
protozoa
pseudepigraphy,
pseudesthesia,
pseudocorneous,
pseudodont,
pseudodox,
22
*psych
spirit,
soul,
mind
protohuman,
protolithic,
pseudomania,
pseudomorph,
pseudonym,
pseudopodium,
pseudoscience
metempsychosis,
psyche, psychedelic,
psychiatry,
psychoanalysis,
psychogenic,
psychology,
psychopathic,
psychosis,
psychosomatic
psychr
cold
psychrometer,
psychrophilic,
psychrophyte
17
pter
wing,
feather, fern
apteryx,
(relatedto penfeather)
helicopter,
crossopterygian,
dipterous,
macropterous,
peripteral,
pteridoid,
pteridology,
pteridophyte,
pterodactyl,
pteropod,
pterosaur,
proptosis,
ptomaine,
pterygoid
pto
fall
asymptote,
ptosis,
ptotic, symptom
pub
mature,
hairy
puberty,
puberulent,
pubes, pubescent,
pubic
publ
see popul
pud
feel
shame, cast off
impudent,
pudency, pudenda,
pudic,
repudiate
pug(n)
fist, fight (relatedto pug)
expugn, impugn,
pugnacious,
pugil, pugilist,
pugnacity,
oppugn,
repugnant
pun
see pen
pung
prick,
pu, py
foul
point (related to pug)
compunction,
matter
pup
see pap
pur, purg
clean
expunge,
punctual,
punctuate,
pungency,
pungent
empyema,
purulent,
putrescent,
putrid,
punctilious,
puncture,
pus, pustule,
putrify,
pyema,
pyosis,
pyogenic,
pyoid,
pyorrhea,
suppurate
[put
pu, py after pub]
compurgation,
impure,
depurate, expurgate,
pure, purely, purgative,
purification,
purify,
Puritan,
purge,
puritanic,
purity, spurge
Chapter
13
|
Glossary
of
Base
Forms
and
Reverse
Glossary
of
Roots
13
pus
see pedfoot
put
cut,
reckon,
consider
amputate,
conputation,
dispute,
disrepute,
indisputable,
py
see pu
pyg
buttocks
*pyr
fire,
depute,
putamen,
reputation,
repute
callipygian,
pygal,
deputy,
imputation,
impute,
putatiave,
pygidium,
pygopod,
steatopygous
8
fever
antipyretic,
empyreal,
pyretic,
pyrites,
pyrometer,
pyralic,
pyre,
pyro,
pyromania,
pyrophobia,
pyrosis,
pyrotechnics
Q
qua,
qual,
quo
amount
qualitative,
quality,
quantity,
quantize,
quorum,
quota,
quantification,
quantum,
quote,
quasi,
quotient,
quotidian
quad(r),
quatr,
quar
four
quadrangle,
quadrant,
quadrilateral,
quadrumanous,
quarantine,
quadruped,
quart,
quadruple,
quarter,
quarto,
quatrain,
squad,
squadron,
square
acquire,
conquer,
conquest,
disquisition,
exquisite,
inquire,
inquisition,
inquest,
see ques
quer
22
quadrennial,
quadrillion,
*ques,
quer
ask,
seek
prequisite,
query,
request,
qui
rest,
quin,
quinqu
be quiet,
be free,
give,
very
five
require,
acquiesce,
question,
acquit,
quietus,
quit,
requite,
tranquil
quiescent,
quite,
quindecennial,
quiet,
requiem,
requital,
quinqugenarian,
quintessence,
quintillion,
quest,
requisite
quintet,
quint,
quintile,
quintuplets
see qua
quo
R
-r, -ar, -er, -eer,
-ier,
one
who, that
which
-or
actor,
astrologer,
cashier,
charioteer,
cooker,
farrier,
glazier,
masher,
mountaineer,
governor,
sailor,
-r
rad,
STEM
raz
radi
Chapter
flagrant,
scrape (relatedto rod)
abrade,
abrasive,
rascal,
rasorial,
ray
13
|
Glossary
templar,
EXTENDER
of
hydrogen,
irradiate,
radio,
134
tailor,
Base
Forms
and
Reverse
Glossary
of
baker,
tractor,
volunteer
labret
erase, erasure,
radula,
raze, razor
radial,
radiant,
radioactive,
radius
Root
canoneer,
radiation,
radic
root,
basic
eradicate, radical,
radiciform,
ram
radicand,
radicant,
radicle, radicular,
radix
ramage, rameal, ramification,
ramify,
rap
seize, snatch
ramiform,
ramose, ramus
enrapture,
erepsin, rapacious,
rapid, rapine,
rape,
rapt, raptatorial,
rapture,
surreptitious
rat
reckon,
reason
raz
seerad
*re-, red-branch
again,
irrational,
ratable,
rate, ratification,
ratio, ratiocination,
1
back, down
ration,
react, reassure, recall, recipe,
reclamation,
redolent,
recombine,
redemption,
redundant,
refit, reform,
refresh, regurgitate,
relapse, report,
reprocess, resist, retract,
4
re
thing
*reg
straight,
lead, rule, king
address, correct,
dirigible,
rectangle,
rectum,
creep,
ret
reptile
net
rhino
root
interrex,
rectify,
rector,
rectitude,
region,
reglet, regular, regulus
reptant,
reptatory,
reptile, reptilivorous,
reptiloid,
reptilian,
subreption
retiform,
retina
oxyrhine,
rhinal,
rhinolith,
rhinology,
coleorhiza,
red
rhinitis,
rhe, rhy, rrh
flow,
stream,
measured motion
rhizophagus,
rhizotomy
rhodamine,
rhodium,
rhodilite,
rhodophyll,
diarrhea,
hemorrhoid,
rid
laugh
shore
rhododendron,
rhodora,
rheotome,
rheotropic,
rhysimeter,
rhythmic
deride, derision,
ridicule,
ridiculous,
risorial,
risus
risible,
seerobus
robus, robor
strong
corroborate,
rod
gnaw (related to rad)
corrode,
arrive, rivage, rival, river, riverine,
roborant,
corrosion,
erosive, rodent,
ask, take away (relatedto reg)
abrogate,
subrogate,
Glossary
of
Base
Forms
and
robust
corrosive,
erode,
arrogate,
derogatory,
prerogative, rogation,
superogation,
Reverse
rivulet
rosorial
arrogant,
interrogate,
|
rhyme,
risibility,
robor
13
gonorrhea,
pyorrhea, rheometer,
rhyolite,
river,
Chapter
rosary,
Rosicurcian
rheostat,
riv
rog
rhinocerous,
mycorrhiza, rhizogenic,
rhizome,
catarrh,
reticule,
rhinoplasty
rose, roseate, roseola,
11
regime,
regiment,
rhizopod,
ros
direct,
regal, regent, regicide,
rhizoid,
rhod,
corrigible,
erect, incorrigible,
rete, retiary, reticle, reticulated,
nose
rhizo
retraction
real, reality, realize, rebus, republic
(relatedto rog)
rept
rationaliz
Glossary
rogue,
surrogate
of
Roots
135
beak (relatedto rod)
roster
brevirostrine,
longirostral,
rostrate,
rostrum
rot
wheel,
turn
rotary,
rotate,
rotiform,
rub,
ruf
red
erubescence,
rubeola,
13
rud
rough,
ruf
seerub
basic
*rupt
burst,
rur
seerus
rus, rur
country
become
unsound
rotation,
rotatory,
rotund,
rotunda
rotor,
rubefacient,
rubella,
rubescent,
rubric,
rubricate,
rubricund,
ruby,
rufescent,
Rufus
erudition,
rude,
ruderal,
abrupt,
bankrupt,
rudiments
corrupt,
disrupt,
erupt,
interrupt,
irruption,
rupture
rural,
rurigenous,
rustic,
rusticate,
rusticity
-ry
NOUN
chemistry,
NOUN
chaos,
pedantry,
puppitry,
rivalry
S
-s
crux,
defense,
diplomatice,
larynx,
-s
STEM
EXTENDER
linguistics,
compulsion,
*sal,
saul
jump
sal, hal
salt,
sea
ethics,
expense,
sex, tax
division,
illustrate,
13
diacoustics,
economics,
explosion,
persuasive
assault,
desultory,
resilient,
resile,
dissilient,
result,
salacious,
salient,
saltatory,
saltigrade,
halide,
halobiant,
salary,
saleratus,
exult,
insult,
resultant,
sally,
salmon,
saltation,
somersault
halogen,
saliferous,
salad,
salami,
saline,
salt,
saltpeter
21
*salv
safe,
healthy,
salute
insalubrious,
(relatedto solwhole)
san
healthy,
mentally
competent
salubrious,
salutation,
salutatory,
salute,
salvable,
salvation,
salvia,
salvo,
insane,
sane,
insanity,
sanicle,
sanitation,
holy, official (relatedto sacer)
sanct
blood
salutatorian,
salvage,
unsalutory
sanative,
sanatorium,
sanitarium,
sanitary,
sanity
sacrosanct,
sanctify,
sanction,
sangui(n)
salubrity,
salutary,
sanctity,
sanctimonious,
sanctuary,
consanguine,
consanguinity,
sanguicolous,
sanguiferous,
sanguine,
sanguineous,
sanctum
sanguinary,
sanguinolent,
sanguinivorous
sap
taste,
perceive
homo
sapiens,
sapidity,
saporous
136
Chapter
13
|
Glossary
of
Base
Forms
and
Reverse
Glossary
of
Root
insipid,
sapience,
insipidity,
sapor,
saporific,
sapid,
sapr
seesep
sarc
flesh
sarcophagus,
sarcoid,
sat
enough
see sal
saur
lizard
dissatisfaction,
insatiable,
satire,
satiety,
sarcoptic
insatiate,
satisfaction,
sate,
satisfy,
unsatisfactory
brontosaurus,
dinosaur,
icthyosaurous,
saurel,
saurian,
sauropod,
tyrannosaur
ascent,
condescend,
see -esc
-sc
sca,
saracocarp,
sarcous,
satiate,
saturate,
saul
sarcasm,
sarcoma,
scal
climb,
steps
escalade,
scan,
escalator,
scandent,
transcend,
scat, skat
dung
schiz
scatological,
split,
divide
schism,
descent,
scalable,
scansion,
scalar,
scale,
scansorial,
transcendental
scatomancy,
scatoscopy,
schis,
descend,
skatole,
schismatic,
schisogenesis,
scatophagous,
skatoxyl
schist,
schizocarp,
schizoid,
schisophrenic,
conscience,
conscientious,
schisopod
schiz
seeschis
*sci
know,
scia,
skia
scler
discern
shadow,
image,
adscititious,
ghost
hard
scop
see
*scrib
write
conscious,
nescience,
omniscient,
plebiscite,
prescience,
science,
scientific,
scientist,
scilicet,
sciagram,
scialytic,
sciamachy,
sciomancy,
scioptic,
skiagraph,
skioscopy
arteriosclerosis,
scleroma,
sclerotic,
sclerous
sciatheric,
sciotheism,
sclera,
scleroid,
sciential,
sciolism
scleroderm,
sclerometer,
sclerosis,
*spec
ascribe,
circumscribe,
describe,
description,
inscription,
prescribe,
manuscript,
postscript,
prescription,
proscription,
subscribe,
conscript,
inscribe,
proscribe,
rescript,
scribble,
superscribe,
scripture,
superscription,
transcribe
scrut
search
inscrutable,
scrutable,
scrutinize,
scrutiny
2
*se-seb
apart
desegregate,
secret,
tallow,
sec
grease
secern,
secure,
secession,
sedition,
segregate,
select,
sebaceous,
sebiferous,
seborrhea,
sebum
seclude,
seduce,
sedulous,
separate
sebiparous,
see sequ
Chapter
13
|
Glossary
of
Base
Forms
and
Reverse
Glossary
of
Roots
13
14
sit, stay (relatedto hedr)
*sed
seism
shake
assess, assiduous,
dissident,
insessorial,
insidious,
preside,
president,
possess,
reside,
residence,
sedan,
sedate,
sediment,
sessile,
subsidy,
supersede
seismic,
seismism,
seismology,
8
*seg
cut,
split
resident,
residue,
sedentary,
sedilla,
session,
subside,
seismograph,
seismometer
bisection,
dissect,
dissection,
multisect,
secant,
sect, sectarian,
sectary,
segment,
trisect,
section,
sectional,
intersect,
sex,
venesection
sem
seesim
sem
sign
semantics,
semaphore,
sematic,
semasiology,
semene,
semiology,
semiotics
see hemi-seed,
semi-semen
germinate
6
sen
dissemination,
old
semen,
seminary,
semination,
seminific,
seminist,
senate,
senator,
senicide,
seminal,
seminivorous
senectitude,
senile,
seminar,
seminiferous,
senescence,
senility,
senior,
seniority,
senopia
sen
aware,
feel,
think
assent,
consensus,
insensate,
presentiment,
sensitive,
sentence,
sententious,
putrid,
rotten
sept
15
*sequ,
see
sec
sentinel
sapremia,
saprophagous,
sepia,
consecutive,
put,
arrange,
watery
write,
speak
see herp(et)
serr
saw-toothed,
consequent,
notched
Glossary
of
Base
Forms
and
Reverse
Glossary
execute,
persecute,
prosecute,
sect, sectarian,
sequacious,
sequence,
sequester,
desert,
dissertation,
exert,
insert,
serial,
seriation,
series,
sertularian
serolin,
serology,
serum
serra,
serranid,
of
Root
seriatim,
seromucous,
serotherapy,
serous,
serrulate
sequent,
subsequent
exertion,
serriped,
|
septic
obsequious,
assert,
fliud
serp
13
saprophyte,
sepsis,
executrix,
seropurulent,
Chapter
saprobe,
executive,
sequential,
138
sentient,
anatiseptic,
sequel,
ser
sense,
sensuous,
hept
follow
ser
sensation,
sensual,
saprogenic,
saprozoic,
dissent,
nonsense,
resent,
sensible,
senetimental,
sep, sapr
consent,
insensible,
serrate,
serosity,
serricorn,
serv
work
for
deserve, servant, serve, service, servile,
servitor,
servitude,
servomechanism,
serv
keep,
keep watch
subserve, subservient,
servomotor
conserve, conservation,
conservative,
observe, preserve, reserve, reservoir
sesqui
one
and a half,
more by
sesquialtera,
one-half
sex
see hex
sicc
dry
silic
sesquibasic,
sesquicentennial,
flint
sesquioxide,
sesquipedalian,
sesquisulfide,
sesquitertian
desiccant,
desiccate, exsiccate, siccative,
siccation,
siccific
silica, siliceous,
silicoflouric,
silv, sylv
sesquiduplicate,
forest
siliciferous,
silicity,
silicone
Pennsylvania,
silva, silvan, silvate,
silviculture
15
sim, simil,
sem
same,
one
assemble, assimilate,
dissimilar,
dissemble,
ensemble, facsimile,
sempiternal,
similtude,
semplice,
similar,
simple, simplicity,
simulacrum,
simulate,
resemble,
simile,
simplify,
simultaneous,
verisimilitude
sinister
sinu
left,
unlucky,
curve,
fold,
evil
hollow
sinister, sinistra,
sinistrad,
sinistrocerebral,
sinistrodextral,
sinistral,
sinistrorse,
sinistrous
insinuate,
insinuation,
sinuate,
sinuousity,
sinuous,
sinus, sinusitis,
sinusoid
-sis
see -is
sist
to be,remain (relatedto sta(t))
assist, consist, consistency,
insist,
desist, exist,
persist, resist, resistance, resistant,
subsist
sit
food,
eating
skat
seescat
skia
seescia
soci
companion,
parasite, sitology,
ally
sitiomania,
associate, consociate,
dissociate, sociable,
social, society, sociocracy,
sociophagous,
19
19
sol
sol, solar
alone,
single
desolation,
sun (relatedto helio-)
13
|
Glossary
of
sole, solifidian,
soliped,
solipsism,
solitude,
solo
solitaire,
girasol, insol, insolate,
Base
Forms
sociology,
socius
parasol, solamine,
Chapter
soliloquy,
solitary,
insolation,
solar, solarium,
soliform,
solstice, solstitial,
and
Glossary
Reverse
sitiophobia
of
turnsole
Roots
13
20
sol,
whole (relatedto salv)
hol
catholic,
consolidate,
holarctic,
holistic,
holocene,
holograph,
holophrastic,
solid,
13
solv
loosen,
unbind
solidarity,
som
body
absolution,
absolve,
dissolve,
indisoluble,
insoluble,
insolvent,
solubility,
soluble,
solvency,
solvent
acrosome,
sleep (related to sop and hypn)
solemn,
solidity
absolute,
dissolute,
resolution,
solute,
resolve,
solution,
solve,
chromosome,
microsomia,
psychosomatic,
somn
solder,
solidify,
heterosomatous,
22
holocaust,
holohedral,
holotype,
insolvency,
20
consolidation,
holoblastic,
somatism,
somatome,
somatoplasm
insomnia,
somnambulist,
somniferous,
somnific,
somnipathy,
somnolence,
somatology,
somnifacient,
somniloquy,
somnolent,
somnolescent
11
4
*son
sound
*soph
sop,
assonance,
wise,
knowledge
deep sleep (related to somn)
sopor
consonant,
resonant,
sonata,
sonorous,
unison
dissonant,
sone,
sonic,
philosophy,
sophistication,
sophomore,
theosophy
sopite,
sopor,
sonnet,
sophistry,
soporiferous,
soporific,
soporous
sorb
suck
absorb,
absorbent,
sorbefacient,
soror
sister
sort
lot,
spas
condition,
sudden,
type
burst
*spec,
skep, scop
look,
see
resorb,
sororate,
sororicide,
sorority
assort,
assortment,
consort,
consorting,
resort,
sort,
sortilege,
unassorted
spasm,
spasmodic,
sortal,
aspect,
spasmotin,
spastic,
circumspect,
spasticity
conspicuous,
despicable,
episcopal,
especial,
haruspex,
horoscope,
inspect,
introspection,
perspective,
perspicuous,
prospect,
species,
expect,
kaleidoscope,
periscope,
respectful,
retrospect,
specify,
specter,
speculative,
spy,
microscope,
perspicacity,
respect,
scope,
specimen,
spectator,
stereoscopic,
skeptic,
spectacle,
spectrum,
speculate,
stethoscope,
suspect,
suspicion,
telescope
spel
cave
biospeleologist,
speleothem,
sper
hope
desperado,
prosper,
140
Chapter
13
|
Glossary
of
Base
Forms
and
Reverse
Glossary
sorb,
sororial,
spasmotoxin,
6
adsorb,
sorbile
of
Root
spelean,
speleology,
spelunker
desperate,
prosperity
esperance,
17
*sper, spor
scatter,
seed
angiosperm,
diaspora,
asperse, aspersion,
disperse, dispersion,
gymnosperm,
homosporous,
monospermous,
spermatozoon,
sporcarp,
spher
ball,
globe
atmosphere,
bathysphere,
cosmosphere,
hemisphere,
sphericity,
spherometer,
sharp
sphing
bind
point (related to spin)
sporadic,
sporozoan
blastosphere,
sphere,
spheroid,
spherule,
stratosphere
aspic, spica, spicate, spicule, spiculiform,
tight
spiculous,
spiculum
spinchter,
sphincterate,
sphingiform,
sphygm
spermophile,
spore, sporogenesis,
spherical,
spic
intersperse,
spermal, spermatid,
pulse
sphygmic,
sphingid,
sphingometer,
sphygmogram,
sphingoid
sphygmoid,
sphygmometer
spin,
pin
sharp
point (related to spic)
porcupine,
spinal, spine, spinel,
spiniferous,
spinifix,
spinigerous,
spinney
11
*spir
breathe,
animate
aspirant,
aspiration,
conspire,
expire, inspired,
perspire,
spiracle,
spirit,
respiratory,
spir
coil
spirometer,
aspirin,
spiral, spire, spiriferous,
spiroid,
10
engage
in
spor
see sper
*st, stat, stit
stay, stand,
make firm
spirant,
spiritus,
spirochete,
spond
aspire, conspiracy,
suspire, transpire
spirograph,
spirulate
correspond,
spondency,
irresonsible,
respond,
despondent,
responsive,
sponsal, sponsion,
sponso
apostasy, armistice,
arrest, astasia,
astatine, circumstance,
destination,
establish,
drip,
stal
see stol
not flow
stalag(m)
dripping
estate, extant,
seestol
stat
seest
Chapter
13
institution,
isostasy,
reinstate,
rest, restitution,
institute,
obstacle, obstinancy,
restore,
solstice, stable, stability,
stance, stasis,
state, stately, statement,
statesman,
stationary,
static,
stator, statue, stature,
status, statute, statutory,
substance,
substantiate,
superstition
substitute,
epistaxis, stacte, stagnant, stagnate
stalactic,
|
cost,
enstatite,
hypostasis,
instance, instant,
stalagmite,
stall
constituent,
destine, destitute,
iconostasis,
station,
stag
spiricle,
spirogyra,
Glossary
of
Base
Forms
and
stalactiform,
stalagmitic,
Reverse
Glossary
stalactite,
stalagmometer
of
Roots
141
seesteat
stear
steat,
stear
fat
stearate,
covered, ridged (related to teg)
steg
stell
star
sten
narrow
stere
(related to aster)
stearic,
firm,
three-dimentional
steatopygous,
steatorrhea
steganography,
stegosaur
Estelle,
constellation,
stellate,
stelliform,
sting
prick,
urge,
stellify,
stellar,
stellular
stenophagous,
stenosis,
stenothermal,
stenotopic
cholesterol,
mark
stegnosis,
Stella,
stenophyllous,
steric,
steatoma,
steganopod,
stegodon,
steradian,
stereochromy,
stig,
stear, steatite,
steatolysis,
stenographer,
solid,
stearin,
steatogenous,
stere,
stereography,
stereoscope,
stereopsis,
stereotype
astigmatism,
distinction,
distinctive,
distinguish,
instigate,
stenostomatous,
instinct,
sting,
extinguish,
instinctive,
stigma,
stigmata
still
drop
distill,
distillation,
instill,
diastole,
epistle,
stolid,
systaltic
stillatory,
stillicid
sting
seestig
stit
seest
stl
seestol
stol,
stal, stall,
stl
send,
prepare,
make firm
apostle,
peristalsis,
stom
mouth,
opening
anastomosis,
install,
ancyclostomiasis,
colostomy,
cyclostome,
stoma,
stonology,
stomatopod,
stomatous,
stomach,
stenostomatous
strat
army,
organization
strategem,
strategy,
stratocracy,
stratography
strat
stretch,
spread
out
prostrate,
stratal,
stratification,
stratus,
strep
seestroph
streph
seestroph
strig,
string
draw
tight,
narrow,
stroph,
12
*stru,
streph,
strep
struc
Chapter
13
compress,
astringent,
furrow
district,
restrict,
strict,
striction,
stricture,
striga,
strigil,
strigous,
line,
turn
build
|
Glossary
of
constrict,
stringendo,
stringent
anastrophe,
apostrophe,
Forms
and
Reverse
Glossary
constriction,
catastrophe,
diastrophism,
strephosymbolia,
streptococcus,
streptomycin,
strophanthous,
strophe,
construction,
Base
stratosphere,
substratum
instruct,
142
straticulate,
stratiform,
construe,
instrument,
reconstruct,
structural,
substruct,
superstructure
of
Roots
strophulus
destruction,
obstruct,
structure,
stup
styl
stunned,
obtuse
pillar,
writing instrument,
manner
stupefacient,
stupefaction,
stupendous,
stupid,
amphistylar,
astylar, epistyle,
peristyle,
stylite,
stupefy,
stupidity,
stupor
hypostyle,
prostyle, style, stylet, styliform,
stylobate,
stylograph,
styloid,
stylus
suad
14
*sub-urge
dissuade, persuade,
down,
under, secondary,
subactivity,
in place of
subaquatic,
subhuman,
subtract,
persuasive, suasion
subdivide,
subjugation,
subordination,
succor, suffix,
suggest, supplant,
suffocate,
support,
surreptitous,
suspend
succ
juice
sud
sweat
succiferous,
succulent,
exude, sudamina,
sudoriferous,
sulf, sulph
sulfur,
hellish
sulph
seesulf
sum
get,
expend
sulphur,
total (related to hyper)
above
1
sylv
see silv
*syn-highest,
together,
consume,
consumptive,
presume,
presumptive,
presumptuous,
resume,
sumptuous,
consummation,
sumptuary
sum, summary,
summit
superintendent,
(relatedto hyper-,sum(m))
sulfonate,
consumption,
summation,
over
sudatory,
transude
sulphurou
assume, assumption,
subsume,
super
sudatorium,
sudorific,
sulfa, sulfide, sulfohalite,
sulfurize,
sum, summ
succus
supernumerary,
supraorbital
with
idiosyncrasy,
syllable,
syllogism,
symmetry,
sympatric,
symphony,
synastry, synchronistic,
synod,
synonymity,
syndrome,
synopsis,
synthesize,
system
T
-t
one
who, that
-t
STEM
-t
VERB
tab
waste
which
EXTENDER
architect,
catapult,
product,
suspect
active,
poet,
ductile, struction
contact,
away
cult, enthusiast,
deduct, elect, reject
tabes, tabescent, tabetic, tabetiform,
tabid, tabific
tabl
board,
table
tablature,
tabular,
tac
arrange,
order
table, tableau, tablet, tabloid,
tabulate, tabulation
atactic, ataxia, eutaxy, hypotaxis,
isotactic,
syndiotactic,
syntactic,
syntax,
tactic, taxis, taxidermist
tac
silent
reticence,
reticent,
tacit, taciturn,
taciturnity
Chapter
13
|
Glossary
of
Base
Forms
and
Reverse
Glossary
of
Roots
143
19
10
tach(y)
fast
*tag, tang
tachistoscope,
touch,
feel
tachometer,
tachygraphy,
tachylyte,
tachyphrenia,
tachyscope
contact,
contagion,
contiguous,
taph
tomb,
trench
slow
taur
bull
intangible,
tact, tactful,
tactometer,
tactor, tactual,
tangent,
tangential,
tangible,
retard,
build, skill (relatedto text)
tax
taphrina
retardation,
tardigrade,
tardy
tauriform,
taurine,
taurocol,
tauromorphic,
tec, tech
tactile,
epitaph, taphephobia,
minotaur, tauricide,
see*auto
integral,
taction,
cenotaph,
tauto
intact,
integrate,
tauroboly,
2
contagious,
contingent,
taphrenchyma,
tard
tachycardia,
tachyphrasia,
tauromachy,
Taurus
architect,
pantechnicon,
technical,
technique,
polytechnic,
technology,
tectonic
cover
teg
(related to steg)
detect, detective, integument,
protect,
protection,
tectorial,
tectrix,
obtect,
protege, tectiform,
tegmen, tegular,
tegument
tel
perfection
entelechy, teleology,
teleutospore,
teleost, telesis,
telic, teloblast,
telophase,
telson
8
*tele-end,
far
telegony, telegraphic,
telekinesis,
telemeter,
telepathy, telephone,
telephoto,
telescopic,
telesthesia,
television
tem, ten
touch,
temper
state
tempor
try
attempt, tempt,
of things
temptation,
tempter,
tentacle, tentation,
tentative
temper, temperate,
temperature,
(related to tempor)
tempest,
time
contemporaneous,
tempestuous
extemporaneous,
contemporary,
temporal,
temporary,
temporize
12
*ten
hold,
maintain
abstinence,
appurtenance,
(relatedto tenstretch)
continent,
continue,
impertinent,
ten
144
Chapter
pertinent,
retentive,
tenant, tenement,
see tem
13
|
Glossary
of
Base
Forms
and
Reverse
Glossary
incontinent,
tenacious,
tenure
of
Root
content,
detention,
pertinacious,
sustenance, tenable,
tenet,
17
*ten, tend
stretch,
thin
attend, attenuate,
(relatedto ten hold andton)
extenuate, intend,
intense,
intent,
ostentation,
ostensible,
subtend,
superintend,
tender, tendril,
tension,
*ter
between,
see tri
terat
monster
terg
beyond
tent, tenuity,
back
limit,
end
tense, tensile,
exteroceptive,
interior,
exterofective,
interline,
intermingle,
internal,
interoceptive,
interrupt,
intersect,
interstate,
intervene,
interview,
preterit,
interject,
interlace,
intermural,
interpret,
pretermit,
teratism,
teratogenic,
teratology,
teratoma
pretense,
tenuous
exterior,
tergal, tergant,
boundary,
intensity,
interact,
tergiversate,
term
contend,
tend, tendency,
tendron,
preterlapsed,
ter
attenuated,
detent, distend, extend, extensive,
interval,
preternatural
teratoid,
tergiferous,
tergite,
tergolateral
coterminous,
determinate,
determination,
determine,
indeterminate,
interminable,
predetermine,
term, terminable,
terminal,
termination,
exterminate,
terminous,
undetermined
tern
seetra
ter, terr
earth
inter, interment,
subterranean,
terrace, terrain,
terraqueous,
terrarium,
terrestrial,
frighten
terricolous,
territory,
verditer
deter, determent,
terrify,
test
witness,
male reproductive
protest,
deterrent, terrific,
detest, intestate,
protestant,
testament,
testimonial,
four
tetrad, tetragon,
thalass
weave,
compose
testatrix,
testify,
testosterone
tetrameter,
text
obtest,
protestantism,
testate, testator,
testes, testicle, testiculate,
tetra
terrier,
terror
attest, contest,
gland
terrene,
terrevert,
terrigenous,
ter, terr
Mediterranean,
tetrahedron,
tetrapod,
tetralogy,
tetrapterous,
tetrachic,
tetrode
context,
pretext, text, textbook,
(relatedto tech)
textual, textuary,
sea
thalassic,
textile,
texture
thalassocracy,
thalassography,
thalassotherapy
thanat
death
euthanasia,
thanatophidia,
thanatophobia,
Chapter
13
|
Glossary
of
Base
Forms
and
Reverse
thanatology,
thanatopsis,
Glossary
of
Thanatos
Roots
14
thaum
miracle
the
place,
put
thaumatology,
thaumatolatry,
thaumatrope,
thaumaturgy
anathema,
antithesis,
apotahecary,
diathesis, epenthetic,
epithet,
metathesis, parenthesis,
hypothesis,
prosthesis,
prothesis, synthesis, synthetic,
theme,
thesis, thetic
the, theor
look
at
theater, theorem,
theoretical,
theorize,
theory
8
*theo
god
apotheosis,
atheism,
pantheist,
polytheism,
thearchy,
theist, theocentric,
theocratic,
20
theomachy,
theosophy,
theurgy
therolatry,
therology,
theroid
thermal,
thermos
beast
therodont,
*therm
hot,
warm
pantothermal,
thyr
thyroid
thyroid,
therm,
thyroidectomy,
thyrotherapy,
intimidate,
timidly,
ting
dye
-tion
see -ion
titan
great
intimidation,
tinctorial,
titan, titanate,
Titanosaurus,
1
seetom
*tom, tm
cut
thyrotropin
timid,
timidity,
tincture,
titanic,
Titanism, titanite,
tm
thyroproteid,
thyrotoxicosis,
timorous
intinction,
size or strength
theocracy,
theology,
wild
fear
theanthropic,
Theodore, theologian,
ther
tim
atheist, panatheism,
tinge
titaniferous,
titanium,
titanothere
anatomy,
appendectomy,
craniotomy,
diatom,
dichotomy,
entomology,
epitome,
gonotome,
hysterectomy,
tome,
atom,
microtome,
tonsillectomy,
phlebotomy,
trichotomy,
tmema,
tmesis
ton
quality,
pitch
baritone,
(relatedto tento stretch)
intone, isotonic,
monotonous,
tonetic,
monotone,
myotonia, tonal, tone,
tonic, tonometry,
tonoplast,
tonus
12
*top
place
isotope,
topiary,
topic, topical,
topography,
topolatry,
topology,
toponymy,
topophobia,
topophone,
topotype
*tor
twist
contortion,
torment,
torque,
torp
stiff,
numb
torsion,
Chapter
13
|
Glossary
of
Base
Forms
and
Reverse
Glossary
torture
torpedo,
torpescent,
of
Root
extortion,
toroid,
tort,
torturous,
torpor
146
distort,
tormina,
retort,
torsade,
torticollis,
torpid,
tortuous,
torpify,
tot
all,
tox
whole
poison
factotum,
teetotal,
totality,
totipalmate,
totipotent,
antitoxin,
intoxicate,
toxemia,
toxicide,
toxicogenic,
toxicologist,
toxicomania,
toxicosis,
*tra-, tro-, ter-16
anterior,
intramural,
*tract
drag,
pull
tra-across,
beyond
extrorse,
external, interior,
introrse,
retrogress,
attract,
contract,
detract,
extract,
protract,
retract,
subtract,
tract, tractable,
tractile,
traction,
tractive,
traduce, traject,
tractor
transact, transcend,
transcribe,
transfer,
transfigure,
transform,
transhuman,
transition,
translocate,
transmit,
transplant,
transpolar,
transpontine,
transport,
transverse,
traverse
tremendous,
tremor,
shake
tremble,
tri, ter(n)
three
ternary, ternate, tertian,
triangle,
tricolor,
triennial,
trigonometry,
triple,
wear away
ulterior
distract,
trem
rub,
internal,
abstract,
transliterate,
tri, trit
toxic,
toxin
extraordinary,
extroversion,
*trans-,
totitive
see trans-toward
tra
14
total, totalitarian,
tripod,
attrition,
tertiary,
tricycle,
triad,
trident,
trilogy,
trioxide,
trisect, tritheism,
tritocere
contrite,
detrimental,
tremulous
contrition,
detrition,
detritus, trite,
trituration
trib
group,
give
attribute,
contribute,
contribution,
distribute,
retribution,
retributive,
tribunal,
trich
hair
tribune,
holotrichia,
trichina,
leiotrichous,
trichinosis,
trichocarpous,
trichoma,
tro
seetra
troch
run,
round
object
tributary,
trochal,
trichiasis,
trichite,
trichogenous,
trichopter,
trochanter,
trochee, trochoid,
tribe,
tribute
trichology,
ulotrichous
trochate,
troche,
trochometer,
trochophore
3
trop
turn,
change
entropy,
heliotrope,
thermotropism,
phototropism,
trope, trophotropic,
tropical
21
troph
nourish
atrophy,
entrophic,
pedotrophy,
trophic,
trophoblast,
trophopathy,
trud
thrust
Chapter
13
|
Glossary
of
Base
Forms
hypertrophy,
polytrophic,
trophesy,
trophoderm,
trophotropic,
trophozoite
intrude,
abstruse,
extrude, extrusion,
intrusion,
obtrude,
protrusile,
protrusion
and
Reverse
obtrusive,
Glossary
of
protrude,
Roots
14
18
tu
teach,
tub
instruct
hollow
intuition,
intuitive,
tutelary,
tutor, tutorial
tuition,
tuba, tube, tubicolous,
tutelage,
tubicorn,
tubifacient,
tubiflorous,
tubiform,
tubilingual,
tubinarine,
tubular,
tabulation
bump, swelling (relatedto tum)
tuber
protuberance,tuber, tubercle,
tuberculosis,
-tude
NOUN
aptitude,
tuberous
beatitude,
dulcitude,
fortitude,
gratitude, longitude,
magnitude,
pulchritude,
quietude,
servitude,
solitude
tum
swollen,
agitated
contumacy,
contumely,
detumescent,
(relatedto tuber)
intumesce,
tumefacient,
tumefy,
tumescent,
tumid,
tund
see tus
turb
whirl,
wild
disturb,
tumor,
perturb, turbid,
tumul
turbine,
turbulent
tus, tund
deaden,
blunt
contuse, contusion,
obtund,
obtuse,
retuse
-ty
NOUN
amity, audacity, cruelty,
enmity, loyalty,
tyl
cushion,
callus
typ
model,
impression
diety, elasticity,
piety, reality, sanity,
sobriety,
unity, venality,
verity
tylopod,
tylosis, tylostyle
antitype,
archetype,
somatype,
type, typical,
prototype,
typify,
typology
U
-u
STEM EXTENDER
-ule, -ula
see *-l
ult(r)
last,
actual, sinuous,
beyond
punctuate,
antepenultimate,
penultimate,
ultima,
ultimatum,
ultimate,
ultimogeniture,
-um, -us
NOUN
tenuous
ultra, ultraism,
ultramodern,
ultramontane,
ultramundane,
ultramarine
album,
ulterior,
animus, anthropophagus,
apocynum,
atrium,
colloquium,
equilibrium,
quantum,
biennium,
spectrum,
impetus,
speculum,
locus,
stadium,
symposium
umb, umber
shade
adumbral,
umbel,
adumbrate,
umbellate,
umbraculate,
umbratile,
und
148
Chapter
wave
13
|
Glossary
of
Base
Forms
and
Reverse
Glossary
penumbra,
umbelliform,
umbrage,
umbrella,
umbriferous
inundation,
abundance,
abundant,
redundant,
superabundant,
undulant,
undulate,
of
Roots
umber,
umbrageous,
undulous
undine,
ung
smear,
ungu
oily
hoof,
claw
unction,
unctuous,
unguent,
unguentary,
unguiculate,
ungular,
unctuousity,
unguinous
unguiferous,
ungulate,
ungula,
ungual, unguicorn,
unguligrade
uni
one
disunite,
reunite,
unicycle,
uniflorous,
unilateral,
unique,
triune,
union,
unanimous,
uniform,
uniped,
unify,
uniplicate,
unison, unit, unitary,
univalent,
universal,
unite,
universe,
university,
univocal
ur
tail
anthurium,
anurous,
cynosure,
urochord,
uropygium,
ur
urine
urea, urethra,
urogenital,
uran
heavens
uranic,
brachyurous,
uropod,
urosteon,
urostyle
urinal,
urinalysis,
urology,
uranography,
uranology,
urine,
urotoxic
uranolite,
uranometry,
uranoscopy,
Uranus
urb
city
amburbial,
urbane,
-ure
NOUN
suburb,
urbanity,
composure,
creature,
departure,
exposure, fixture,
investiture,
legislature,
measure, mixture,
primogeniture,
structure,
urg
see erg
-us
see-um
us, ut
use
suburban,
abuse,
urban,
urbicolous
debenture,
furniture,
literature,
nature, posture,
rupture,
scripture,
torture
misuse, peruse, usable, usage,
usance, useful, useless, usual, usufruct,
usurp, usury, utensil,
utility,
17
*uter,
hyster
womb,
hysteria
hysterectomy,
hysteria, hysterocatalepsy,
hysterogenic,
uteralgia,
uterogestation,
uxor
wife
utile, utilitarian,
utilize
uxorial,
uterine,
uterolith,
uxoricide,
uterus
uxorious
V
vac, van
empty,
vain
evacuate, evanescence, evanescent,
vacancy, vacant, vacate, vacation,
vacuist, vacuity, vacuole,
vacuous,
vacuum,
vacuometer,
vaniloquence,
vanish,
vanity
vad
go
evade, evasion, evasive, invade, invasion,
pervade, pervasive
Chapter
13
|
Glossary
of
Base
Forms
and
Reverse
Glossary
of
Roots
14
vag
wander
extravagant,
vagabond,
vagal, vagary,
vagrancy, vague, vagus
vagin
sheath
evaginate,
vagina, vaginervose,
vaginismus,
val
strong,
useful
vaginula
equivalent,
invalid,
convalescent,
invaluable,
valetudinarian,
validate,
vaginitis,
vaginotomy,
valedictorian,
valiant,
valid,
valor, valuable,
value, univalent
van
seevac
vari
astraddle,
vas, ves
vessel,
diverse
divaricate, invariable,
duct
vec
see veh
veh, vec
carry
*ven
come,
variegate, variety,
variform,
various,
vary
vas, vase, vasectomy, vascular,
vasomotor,
vesical, vesicle
advection,
convection,
bring
evection,
vehement,
advent, adventure,
contravene,
22
love,
vent
wind
chase
vection,
vehicle
circumvent,
convene, convenient,
convent,
convention,
intervene,
intervention,
covenant,
invent,
invention,
inventory,
peradventure,
prevent, revenue, subvention,
ven
variance,
varied,
vector, vectorial,
12
variable,
variation,
venerable, veneral, venery,
event,
venture
Venus
vent, ventail,
ventiduct,
ventifact,
ventilation,
ventilator,
ventile,
ventometer,
ventose
venter
belly
venter, ventral,
*ver, verg, vor
turn
adversary, adverse, advert, advertise,
ventricle,
anniversary,
avert, controversy,
conversation,
converse,
convert,
diverge, divert, inadvertent,
invert,
obverse, pervert,
reverse, reversion,
revert, subvert,
university,
verge, versatile,
verse, versify, version,
vertical,
true
converge,
conversion,
inversion,
universal,
ver
ventriloquist
vertigo,
animadvert,
verdict,
vertebra,
vertex,
vortex
aver, veracious,
verdicial,
veracity,
verification,
verify,
veritable,
verity,
verbal,
verbatim,
verily, verismilitude,
very
ver
seevir
*verb
word,
verb
adverb,
proverb,
verb,
verbiage, verbicide,
verbigerate,
seeverturn
verg
150
Chapter
13
|
Glossary
of
Base
Forms
and
Reverse
Glossary
of
Root
verbid, verbify,
verbose, verbosity
verm
worm
vermicelli,
vermidice,
vermiculate,
ves
see vas
vic, vinc
conquer
vermin,
vermivorou
convict,
conviction,
*vid, id, eid
see
vermifuge,
convince,
convincing,
evict, eviction,
invincible,
victor,
victory,
21
vermicular,
vermiform,
victrix,
advisable,
Vincent, vincible
advise, eidetic, eidolon,
evident, idea, ideology,
kaleidoscope,
provide,
provident,
provision,
provisory,
vin
wine (relatedto oeno)
alert
visit, vista, visual
vigil, vigilance,
vigilant,
12
see vic
*vir
male,
man
vigor, vigorous
vinaceous,
vine, vinegar, vinery,
vineyard,
vinic,
viniculture,
vinous, vintage,
vinc
revise,
video, visage, visible, vision,
visionary,
lively,
idol, improvise,
invisible,
supervision,
vig
evince,
Victoria, victorious,
vinter,
vinometer,
viny, vinyl
decemvir, triumvirate,
virago, virile,
virility,
virtuoso
virtual,
vir, ver
green
biliverdin,
vir
poison,virus
viricide,
virtue,
verdant, vireo, virescent,
virology,
virulent,
virid
viruliferous,
virus
visc
thick,
sticky
viscometer,
viscosity, viscous
vit
life (relatedto viv)
revitalize,
vitae, vital, vitality,
vitalize,
vitr
glass
vitreous,
vitriol,
*viv
live
vitamins,
(related to vit)
vitalism,
vitascope
vitrescent,
vitrify,
vitrine,
vitrite
convivial,
revive, vivacious,
vivarium,
vivid,
vivacity,
vivify, viviparous,
vivisection
17
*voc, vok
speak,
call
advocate,
avocation,
convocation,
convoke, evoke, equivocal, invocation,
invoke,
irrevocable,
provocation,
provoke, revoke, vocable, vocabulary,
vocal, vocation,
vociferous,
vol
fly
vol
will
volant,
vocative,
volary, volatile,
benevolent,
vociferate,
univocal
volcano
malevolent, volition,
volunteer
15
*volv
turn,
roll
circumvolve,
convolution,
devolve, evolution,
vom
vomit
involve,
obvolute, revolt,
revolve,
voluble,
ignivomous,
convolvulus,
evole, involution,
revolution,
volume
vomit,
vomitive,
vomitory,
vomiturition
Chapter
13
|
Glossary
of
Base
Forms
and
Reverse
Glossary
of
Roots
151
11
*vor
eat
apivorous,
carnivore,
hominivorous,
vermivorous,
vor
see verturn
vot
vow
vuls
pull
devotion,
herbivore,
omnivorous,
piscivorous,
voracious
votary, vote, votive
avulse, convulse,
divulsion,
evulsion,
revulsion
X
xanth
yellow
xanthochroid,
xanthoma,
xanthophyll,
xanthous
2
xen
foreign,
xer
strange
euxenite, lipoxeny,
dry
xyl
wood
pyroxene, xenogamy,
xenogenesis,
xenophobia
xeroderma,
xerography,
xerophyte,
xerosis, Xerox
xylan, xylograph,
xerophilous,
xyloid,
xylophone,
xylogomy
Y
-y
NOUN
antipathy,
astronomy,
hysterectomy,
misery, occupancy,
sympathy,
flippancy,
melancholy,
militancy,
poignancy,
privacy,
urgency
-y
STEM EXTENDER
bathysphere,
brachycephalic,
-y
VERB
crucify,
-y
small
baby, kitty, lady
deny,
tachycardia
multiply, reply, spy
Z
6
*zo
animal
mesozoic, protozoon,
spermatozoon,
zoo, zoography,
zoology,
zooid,
zooplasty
yoke (relatedto jug)
zyg
heterozygosis,
zygospore,
zym
ferment,
catalyze
zygodactyl,
enzyme, lysozyme,
zymosis, zymurgy
152
Chapter
13
|
Glossary
of
Base
Forms
and
Reverse
Glossary
of
Root
zygoma,
zygote
zymase, zymology,
BASEFORMSINDEX
1
5
syn-together,
with
anthrop
human
man,
apo-away
con-,
co-together,
pull
frag,
frang
urg work
glot,
glos tongue,
duc lead,
erg,
org,
log,
leg speak,
being
write, study
miso hate
pro-,
prae-before,
re-, red-again,
back,
forward
mono one
down
pel push
se-apart
tom,
pend,
tm cut
pond
hang
phyt plant
2
6
auto,
tauto
self
de-away,
down,
eu-good,
well
gen,
gon,
from
ad-to,
toward
graph,
gram write
in-,
gn birth,
origin
en-not,
neo new,
iatr treat
lacking
recent
op eye,
look
path suffer,
feel, illness
ped,
paed child,
per-through,
very
ped,
pod,
phil love
sen old
phob
spec,
fear
xen strange
training
pus foot
skep,
scop
look,
see
zo animal
7
3
anti-against,
ag act
den,
bio life
cid cut,
let
go
flec
kill
gam marriage,
pan,
away
turn
not enough
it go
dys-bad
gyn(ec)
bend,
hypo-under,
govern
trop
opposite
odon tooth
ex-, ec-out,
ced, ceed go,
crat
speech
lat carry
phag eat
pre-,
with
break
sexual
woman,
union
female
panta all
turn,
par beget,
produce
nom,
onym
name
proto
first
super,
hyper over,
too
much
change
8
4
can,
cyn dog
an-lacking,
not
col live,
grow
ander man,
male
hema,
em blood
hetero
different
brach(y)
short
epi-on
mal,
nom
phot,
homo-,
male bad
law
soph
much
pyr fire
phos light
seg cut,
plec fold
reg straight,
homeo-same
poly many,
split
tele-far
lead
theo god
wise
Chapter
13
|
Glossary
of
Base
Forms
and
Reverse
Glossary
of
Roots
15
9
13
ante-,
anti-before,
old
av bird,
fly
anth flower
alg pain
aster
dem
star
people
copro dung
fac do,
make
greg flock
gn, gnor,
gnos to
iso equal
grad step,
go
meta-beyond
leg
meter measure
rupt
multi many
know
choose
burst
sal jump
mani intense
desire
solv loosen
10
14
ana-back,
again
ab-, abs-from,
away
cata-down,
away
cap, cup take,
contain
cere,
forth,
chrom
color
dis-,
di-away,
fer,
pher,
hyd(r)
later
not
phor bear,
send
water
worship
lie
en-, in-in,
into
do
sed sit,
st stay,
tag, tang touch,
stay
stand
sub-down,
feel
trans-,
11
under
tra-across,
archae first,
govern
cad fall
ero physical
love
card,
cord heart,
agree
doc,
dog teach,
praise
fa,
pha,
mort death
fid trust
peter rock
idio
post,
poster after,
rrh
behind
flow
fe,
phe speak
peculiar
mit,
missend,
ob-to,
toward
do
son sound
secu,
sequ follow
spir breathe
sim,
sem same,
vor eat
volv turn
12
16
ambi,
amphi
brad(y)
dendr
both,
on both
sides
slow
tree,
di, dich,
bush
dactyl
equi even
dy, du two
finger
infra-below
lit stone
mant prophesy
stru,
struc build
men,
hold
nec(r),
top place
min,
come
semi-,
man
tract drag,
13
|
Glossary
of
Base
Forms
and
Reverse
harm
no
vir male,
Chapter
mn think
noc death,
neg not,
ven bring,
154
one
apt fit
lith,
ten
beyond
15
arch,
rh,
grow
world
cub, cumb
prag
morph form
stat, stit,
cre come
cosm universe,
hemi half
Glossary
pull
of
Root
17
20
dic speak
aug increase
fin end
dol suffer
merg dip,
plunge
para beside,
beyond
pter wing,
tend
uter,
ot ear
scatter
stretch
hyster
womb
plat(y)
flat,
pseudo
false
sol,
heli sun
voc,
bind
nav boat
feather
sper, spor seed,
ten,
lig
broad
hol whole
som body
vok speak,
call
therm
hot,
warm
phon sound,
speech
sound
18
ac, acer, acerb sharp,
21
tip
cent hundred
bol,
bl throw
chron
cap
head
time
dia-through,
across
don,
geo earth
dor,
do, da give
hum earth
ichthy
fish
noc,
nyc night
longi
long
-osis
abnormal
ornith
bird
pon,
pos place,
condition
pachy thick
put
tu instruct
pol city,
state
vid, id,
eid see
troph
nourish
19
22
brev short
lab seize,
loc
loqu,
lud
grasp
agog lead,
place
cur,
locu
speak
cor,
-itis inflamation
play
jac throw
mach battle
kine,
tac arrange
tach(y)
sol(ar)
cine move
mut change
fast
sol alone,
induce
car run
psych mind,
single
spirit
ques, quer ask
sun
somn
sleep
ver, verg,
Chapter
13
|
Glossary
of
Base
vor turn
Forms
and
Reverse
Glossary
of
Roots
15
NUMBER
BASEFORMS
1. uni,
mono
union,
2. di, dich, dy, du, bi
universal,
uniform,
monochrome,
unicycle,
monogamy,
monolith,
monotheism,
monograph
dichotomy,
dialogue,
dioxide,
diphthong,
unit, university,
monaural,
monologue,
monosyllabic,
dual, dubious,
biceps, bicycle, bigamy, bilingual,
dyad, indubitable,
biplane,
bivalve, biweekly,
combination
3. tri, tetra
4. quad,
quat
5.
penta,
pente,
quint
triangle,
trioxide,
tricycle,
trident,
tertiary,
ternate
quarter,
quadrant,
pentagram,
squad,
pentagon,
quintile,
quintuplets
6. sex, hex
sextet,
sextuplets,
hexagon
7. sept,
September,
8.
octa
9.
non,
10.
deca, decem
100. cent,
kilo
October,
novem,
ennea
hecto
octagon,
December,
decade,
103 = 1,000
decibel,
mega
million
106 = 1,000,000
billion
109
tera
trillion
1012 = 1,000,000,000,000
= 1,000,000,000
peta
quadrillion
1015 = 1,000,000,000,000,000
exa
quintillion
1018 = 1,000,000,000,000,000,000
deci
one tenth
101
= 0.1
centi
hundredth
102
= 0.01
milli
thousandth
103
= 0.001
micro
millionth
106
= 0.000,001
nano
billionth
109
= 0.000,000,001
pico
trillionth
1012
= 0.000,000,000,001
femto
quadrillionth
1015
= 0.000,000,000,000,001
atto
quintillionth
1018
= 0.000,000,000,000,000,001
Chapter
13
|
Glossary
of
decagon
century
giga
156
quintessence,
octopus
enneagram
yhousand
square
heptagon
November,
percent,
triad, triple, trigonometry,
pentameter,
quintet,
hept
trilogy,
Base
Forms
and
Reverse
Glossary
of
Root
tripod,
REVERSE
GLOSSARY
OFROOTS
Morphemes are separated
by slash
marks / and allomorphs
Meaning
by commas.
Base Forms
A
above
hyper, super
abundance
copi
accuse
crim
act
ag
adornment
cosmet
after
post, poster
again
pali(n)
age
ev
agree
card, cord
air
aer/ atmo
all
omni/
ally
soci
pan, panta/ tot
almost
pen
alone
sol
amount
qua, qual, quo
ancient
paleo
angle
angl/ gen, gon
animal
faun/
ankle
tars
ant
formic/
ape
pithec
apple
pom
zo
myrmec
arm
brach, brac
around
circ, curv, cor/
arrange
tac
ashes
cine
ask
ques,
attend
to
quer/
peri
rog
med
aware
sen
axis
pol
B
babble
lal
back
dors/ terg
bad
cac/ dys/
ball
glob, glom, glu/ sphere
base
fund
battle
mach/
be
sist
beak
mal, male
mar
roster
bear
(animal)
arct/ urs
bear
(carry)
fer, pher, phor
beast
ther
beat
bat
beautiful
cali, calli
Chapter
13
|
Glossary
of
Base
Forms
and
Reverse
Glossary
of
Roots
15
bee
api
beget
par
behind
post, poster
believe
cr, cred
bell
campan
belly
venter
below
hypo-flec
bend
berry
bacc
better
melior
between
ter
beyond
meta
Bible
bibl
bile
chol
bind
sphing/ lig/
bird
av/ orn, ornith
birth
gen, gon, gn/ nat
bite
mord
black
atra/
bladder
cyst
beat
blood
em,
bloom
flor, flos, flour
blow
fla, flu
blue
cyan
13
|
hema/
boat
nav
body
corp/ som
boil
ferv
bone
os
sangui(n)
book
bibl/ libr
both
ambi/ amphi
bottom
bas
brain
car, cer, cr, ker/ encephal
branch
ram
break
clas/ frag, frang
breast
mast
breathe
spir
bring
ven
bristle
hor
broad
lat/ eury
brother
frater
brown
brun
bubble
ferv
bud
gem, gemm
build
tec, tech/ stru, struc
bulb
bulb
bull
taur
ar, ard/ cand/ carb, cr/ caust, caut/ eth/
flag,
Chapter
mel, melan/ negr, nigr
blessed
burn
158
pac/ pag, peg
phleg, phlog
burst
rupt/ spas
bush
dendr
buttocks
pyg
Glossary
of
Base
Forms
and
Reverse
Glossary
of
Root
C
call
voc, vok/
carbon
carb,
care
cur
carry
lat/
clam
cr
ges,
carve
glyp,
cat
fel
cave
spel
cyt
center
foc
chain
caten
mut
chase
ven
cheese
case
port/
chemical
chem
chest
stern/
chicken
alector
ped,
chord
chord
circle
cycl/
city
civ, cit/
clam
plac
clap
plod
claw
ungu
paed
orb/
gyr
pol/
clean
pur,
clear
leuc,
luc/
climb
sca,
scal
urb
purg
clar/ luster
close
claus,
clot
thromb
coast
cost
coil
spir
cold
cry(m)/
frig/
collection
anth,
anthem
color
chrom
forth
cere,
clos,
ven
companion
soci
conceal
calyp/
cone
con
conquer
vic,
constrict
ang
contain
cap, cup
control
dom/
vin
mod
mim
country
pater/
course
drom
cover
calyp/
cow
bov, bu
crab
car,
carcin,
create
poe,
poie
creep
rept
|
Glossary
of
Base
psychr
cover
copy
13
clud
cre
come
Chapter
vec
pector
child
come
veh,
glyph
cell
change
ger/
rur,
rus
pal,
pall/ teg
Forms
canc
and
Reverse
Glossary
of
Roots
15
cross
cruc
cruel
atra
culture
ethn
cup
calic, calyc
curve
sinu
custom
eth(n)
cut
cyb,
cid/ put/ seg/ tom
cyber
computer
D
dance
chore
dawn
eo
day
di
death
leth/
nec(r),
deep
bath(y)
deflect
frag, frang
delicate
eth
delight
lec
depths
bath(y)
desert
ban
desire
cup
devil
diabol,
different
hetero
dig
fod
digest
pept
dip
bapt
diabl
disease
morb
divide
schis, schiz
divided
fid
do
fac/
dog
can, cyn
double
dipl
drag
tract
draw
tight
noc/
mit, mis/ prag
strig
draw
graph, gram
drink
bib/ pot, pos
drip
stag
dripping
stalag(m)
droop
lag, lang
drunken
bacch
dry
ar, ard/ sicc/ xer
duct
vas, ves
dung
copro/
scat
E
160
Chapter
13
|
ear
ot
earth
geo/ hum/ ter, terr
eat
phag/ vor
egg
ov, oo
eight
octa
electricity
potam
Glossary
of
Base
Forms
and
Reverse
Glossary
of
Root
mort/ thanat/
element
eme
eleven
hendeca
empty
vac, van
end
fin/ term/
enough
sat
equal
equi/ iso
even
equi
evil
sinister
expire
laps
tel
eye
ocl, ocell/ op/ ophthalm
eyelash
cil
F
fall
cad/ pto
false
pseudo
fast
tach(y)
fasten
fic
fat
adip/ lip
father
pater/ pap, pop
fault
culp
fear
phob/ tim
feather
pen, pin/ plum/
feel
path/ pat, pass/ tag, tang
female
gyn(ec)
ferment
zym
fever
pyr/ febr
few
oligo/
field
agr/ camp
pter
pau, pauc
fight
milit/ pug(n)
filter
col, cull
finger
dactyl, digit/
fire
ign/
pyr/ vulc
first
arch,
archae/
fish
ichthy/
pisc
five
penta/
quin
flame
flam
flat
plac/ plat(y)
flee
fug
flesh
carn/ sarc
phalang
prim/
proto
flock
greg
flow
flu, fluc, fluv/
flower
anth, anthem/ flor, flos, flour
fly
av
fold
plec, ple
follow
sequ, sec
food
past, pan/ sit
foot
ped, pod, pus
foreign
xen
forest
silv, sylv
foretell
mant
form
fig, fing/
Chapter
13
|
Glossary
of
Base
Forms
rhe, rhy, rrh
morph/
and
plas
Reverse
Glossary
of
Roots
16
fortify
cast
forward
front
foul
matter
pu, py
four
quad, quar, quatr/ tetra
free
liber
frighten
ter, terr
frog
batrach
fruit
carp/ fru, frug/
full
ple/ plen
fungus
myc
gather
glob, glom, glu
pom
G
germ
bacill, bacter
give
don, dor, do, da
globe
spher
gnaw
rod
go
ced, ceed/ grad/ it/
goat
caper
god
dei, div/ theo
gold
aur, or/ chrys
good
ben, bon/ eu
govern
arch, archae/ crat
grasp
lab
grass
herb
grease
seb
mea/ vad
great
mag, maj, meg/ grand
green
ver, vir
grow
cere, cre/ col/ al, ol/ phyt
guard
phylac
H
hair
crin/
hairy
pub
hand
chir/
hang
pend, pond
happy
hard
crust
hard
dur/ scler
hare
lag
harm
dam(n)
hate
miso
head
cap/ car, cer, cr, ker/ cephal
heap
Chapter
13
|
man
felic
covering
healthy
162
pil, pill/ trich
salv/ san
up
cumul
hear
aud
heart
card, cord
heat
therm
heavens
uran
heel
calc
herb
herb
Glossary
of
Base
Forms
and
Reverse
Glossary
of
Root
hidden
cryph, crypt,
hide
cel, cl, col
high
alt/ hyps
highest
sum, summ
hinder
cumber
hold
ten
hollow
cav/ tub
holy
hiero/
honey
mel, mol
pi/ sanct
hoof
ungu
hope
sper
horn
cer, corn
hot
cal, calor
hour
hor
house
human
krypt
dom
being
anthrop/
hundred
cent/
hom
hect
I
ice
glac
illness
path
image
icon
increase
aug
induce
agog
insect
entom
instruct
intense
doc, dog/ tu
desire
av, avar/
intestine
enter
into
in-, en-can
mani
intone
iron
ferr, farr
irritate
asper
island
insul
J
join
jud, jung
joint
arthr, art
judge
jud, judg/
jump
sal, saul
cens/ cer, cr
K
keep
serv
kernel
nucl
key
clav
kidney
nephr
kill
cid, cis
king
reg
knee
gen, gon
knot
nod
know
gn, gnos, gnor/ sci
Chapter
13
|
Glossary
of
Base
Forms
and
Reverse
Glossary
of
Roots
16
L
large
ampl/
last
ult
laugh
rid
law
bar/
lead
lead
(metal)
macro/
jus,
duc/ reg/
plumb,
plum,
foli/
lean
cli,
left
sinister
let
leg/
agog/
leaf
less
jur/
mag,
maj,
meg/ titan
nom
men,
min,
mon
plomb
phyll
clin,
cliv
min
go
ced, ceed
letter
liter
lie
cli,
life
clin,
bio/
light
green
cliv/
cub,
cumb
phot,
phos
vit
chlor
light
lev/ lumen/
lime
calc
lion
leo(n)
lip
lab
live
col/
lively
vig
lizard
saur
locked
clav
long
long/
look
spec, skep, scop
loose
lag,
lang
loosen
solv/
ly
love
am/
phil/
low
bas
hab/
viv
macro
lung
pneu(m)
lust
lagn
ven
M
maiden
nymph
make
fac
male
ander/
vir/
man
ander/
vir
multi/
ple/
many
map
cart
marriage
gam
marry
nub
measure
meter/
middle
med/
milk
164
Chapter
13
|
lac/
mind
anim/
miracle
thaum
moist
hum
Base
Forms
and
Reverse
plus/
poly
mens
meso,
misc,
of
plur,
mezzo
galac
mix
Glossary
mascul
Glossary
psych/
phren,
mix
of
Root
fran,
fren
moisture
hygr
money
burs
monster
terat
month
men
moon
lun/
mother
mater, metr
men
mouse
mur, mus, my
mouth
or, os/ stom
move
cine, kine/
much
poly
muscle
mur, mus, my
mob, mov
N
naked
gymn
name
nom, onom,
narrow
sten
natural
phys
near
med/ peri-car,
neck
onym
cer, cr, ker/ col, coll
nerve
nerv, neur
net
ret
new
neo/ nov/ caen, cen
night
noc, nyc
nine
nov, nona
nitrogen
niter
north
arct
nose
nas, nar/ rhin
not
neg
nothing
nihil,
nourish
troph/
nil/ nul, null
al, ol/ nutr, nurt
number
arith/
digit/
nut
nuc, nucl
numer
O
offspring
fil/
oil
ole, ol/ ung
old
prol
ante, anti/ ger, geront/
one
and a half
one
mono/ uni
opening
aper/ or, os/ stom
opposite
anti-/
order
mand/ ord
orgiastic
bacch
origin
gen, gon, gn
other
al, all
outlaw
ban
over
hyper/ super
owe
deb
Chapter
13
sen
sesqui
|
Glossary
of
Base
contr, counter
Forms
and
Reverse
Glossary
of
Roots
16
P
paint
pig
paper
cart
part
mer/ par, por
pebble
calcul
peculiar
idio
penis
phall
people
dem/
perceive
esth
performance
od
physical
love
pleb/
popul,
publ
ero
picture
pig
pillar
styl
pitch
ton
pity
miser
place
loc/
plague
pest
top
plant
phyt
play
lud
pleasure
hedon
plunge
merg
point
pung
poison
tox
pour
lav, lu, luv/
power
dyn, dynam
powerful
pot,
precious
stone
fus, fund
poss
gem(m)
prevent
para
prey
pred
prick
stig, sting
produce
par
prostitute
porn
pull
duc/ tract
pulse
sphygm
punishment
pen, pun
purify
cast
push
pel/
osm
put
pon,
pos/ ser/
putrid
sep, sapr
the
Q
quality
ton
R
166
Chapter
13
|
rain
pluv
ray
radi
recent
neo
reckon
calcul
red
erythr/
region
clim(at)
Glossary
of
Base
Forms
and
Reverse
Glossary
rhod,
ros/
of
Root
rub,
ruf
remain
man, mn
remember
memor,
remind
mon
reptile
herp(et),
ridged
right
member
serp
steg
hand
dexter
ripen
coc
rise
lev
river
flu, fluc, fluv/
rock
lapid/
peter
root
radic/
rhizo
rough
asper/ rud
potam/ riv
round
circ, curv
rub
fric
run
drom/ car, cur, cor/ troch
sacred
hier/ sacer/ hagio
safe
salv
sail
nav
saint
hagio
S
salt
hal, sal
same
homo,
homeo/ ident/
saw toothed
serr
scaly
lep, lipid
scatter
sper, spor
scrape
rad, raz
sea
hal, sal/
search
scrut
see
spec, skep, scop/
seed
sper, spor/ semen
mar/ thalass
segment
arthr, art
seize
rap
self
auto, tauto
sell
pol
send
fer/
send
stol, stal, stall, stl
seven
sept, hept
umber
shadow
scia, skia
shake
cuss/ seism/ trem
shape
form
point
spin,
sharp
pin
ac, acer, acerb/ ox
shell
crust
shore
riv
short
brev/ brach(y)
shoulder
humer,
show
phan, phen, fan
shrub
frut
side
cost/ lat/ cis
Chapter
vid, id, eid
mit, mis
shade
sharp
sim, simil, sem
13
|
Glossary
of
Base
Forms
umer
and
Reverse
Glossary
of
Roots
16
sign
sem
similar
to
-oid
sing
can/ chore/
single
sol/ priv
mel
sister
soror
sit
sed
six
sex, hex
skill
art/ tec, tech
skin
cut/ derm, derma/
skull
cran
slack
lag, lang
slanting
plag
sleep
dorm/
slow
brad(y)/
tard
small
micro/
min
smell
odor, ol
smoke
fum/
smooth
pol
snake
angui/
pel, pl
hypno/ leth/
sop, sopor
capn
soft
moll
soil
ped
solid
stere
solidify
gel, gl
herp, serp/ ophi, ophid
song
od
sour
ox
source
etym
south
auster
speak
dic/ fa, fe, pha, phe/ or/ leg, log/ loc, loqu/
voc, vok/ nunc
168
Chapter
13
|
speech
glot, glos/ phras
spider
arachn
spiral
helic
spirit
anim
split
fid/ schis, schiz/ seg
sport
athl
spot
macl
spread
pand, pass
stalk
caul, col
stand
st, stat, stit
standard
norm
star
aster/ sider/ stell
state
pol
stay
sed/ st, stat, stit
stem
caul, col
step
grad
steps
sca, scal
stick
glob, glom, glu/ hes, her
sticky
muc, munc/ visc
stomach
gaster
stone
lith, lit/ lapid
straight
orth/ reg
strange
xen
Glossary
of
Base
Forms
and
Reverse
Glossary
of
Root
strength
fort
stretch
strat/ ten, tend
strike
cop, com/ fend/ flig/ led/
string
chord, cord
strong
firm/
struggle
agon
study
leg, log
stunned
stup
stupid
mor
stupor
narco
substance
chem
suck
sorb
titan/
suffer
dol, dolor
summon
cit
sun
heli/ sol
swear
jus, jur
sweat
sud
robus, robor/
sweet
dulc/ glyc, gluc
swelling
tuber
swim
nat
swollen
tum
system
nom
pleg, ples
val
T
tail
caud, cod/ pen, pin/ ur
take
cap, cup/ prehend
taste
gust/ sap
teach
agog/ tu/
ten
dec, decem
test
prob
testicle
orch
thankful
grat
thick
pachy
thin
ten, tend
thing
re
doc, dog
think
men, min, mn/ muse
thorn
acanth
thousand
kilo-/
three
tri, ter(n)
threshold
lim
throat
garg, gorg, gurg
milli
throw
bol, bl/ jac
thrust
trud
thunder
bront
tight
sphing
tighten
strig, string
time
chron/ tempor/
toe
dactyl/
tomb
taph
tongue
glot, glos/ lingu
tooth
den, odon
Chapter
13
|
Glossary
of
Base
Forms
hor
phalang
and
Reverse
Glossary
of
Roots
16
total
sum
touch
palp/ tag, tang/ tem, ten
trade
merc
training
ped, paed
treat
iatr
tree
arbor/
tribe
phyl
dendr
true
ver
trust
fid
turn
flec/ stroph,
strep, streph/ trop/
vor/ volv
twelve
duodeca
twin
gem, gemin
twist
tor
two
bi(n)/
tyrant
tyran
di, dich, du, dy
U
unborn
child
fet
uncivilized
barbar
uncle
uncl
uncovered
nud
under
hypo
unit
-ad
universe
cosm
urine
ur
use
us, ut
V
vapor
fum
vein
phleb
vomit
eme
W
170
Chapter
13
|
walk
ambl
wall
mur
wander
migr/ vag
war
bell/
warm
therm
wash
lav, lu, luv
water
aqua/ hyd(r)
mar
wave
und
wax
cer
way
od, hod
wealth
plut
weapon
arm
weigh
pend, pond/ liber
weight
bar
well
eu
wheel
rot
Glossary
of
Base
Forms
and
Reverse
Glossary
of
Root
ver, verg,
whip
flagell
white
alb/ leuc, luc
whole
sol, hol
wide
lat
wife
uxor
wild
fer/ turb
wind
anem/ vent
wine
oeno/ vin
wing
ali/ pter
wise
soph
within
endo
witness
test
wolf
lup, lyc
woman
fem/
womb
hyster/
wonder
muse
wood
xyl
word
work
gyn(ec)
uter
verb
for
serv
work
erg, org, urg/ oper
worm
helmint,
worship
later
helminth/
verm
worthy
dign
write
graph, gram/ leg, log/ scrib
Y
year
ann
yellow
chrys/
yoke
zyg
young
juven
Chapter
13
|
Glossary
of
Base
Forms
ocher/ xanth
and
Reverse
Glossary
of
Roots
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