Received: 22 October 2018
Revised: 21 December 2018
Accepted: 27 December 2018
DOI: 10.1002/bin.1659
LITERATURE REVIEW
A review of behavioral interventions to enhance
sports performance†
Merritt Schenk | Raymond Miltenberger
Child and Family Studies, University of South
Florida, Tampa, Florida, USA
Correspondence
Raymond Miltenberger, Child and Family
Studies, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL
33620, USA.
Email: miltenbe@usf.edu
Research on applied behavior analysis and sports performance has become an increasingly popular subject. It
involves using behavioral measures to assess the utility of
numerous interventions to enhance athletic performance.
We identified 101 studies published since the late 1960s
focusing on behavioral interventions to enhance sports performance. To determine the breadth of the current
research, we identified each sport and the different interventions used to improve performance. Of the studies
included in this review, research has investigated 23 interventions with 21 sports. The purpose of this paper is to
review the current literature regarding what procedures
have been evaluated, the results of this research, some of
the limitations, and future directions of behavioral research
on sports performance enhancement. In doing so, this
review will allow readers to easily browse the current literature by the sport or intervention of interest.
KEYWORDS
applied behavior analysis, sports, sports performance enhancement
1
|
I N T RO DU CT I O N
Behavior analytic research on sports performance has been published as early as the late 1960s. It appears that
Rushall and Pettinger (1969) published the first sports‐related behavioral research in Research Quarterly, and shortly
after Rushall and Siedentop (1972), in Development and Control of Behavior in Sports and Physical Education, broadly
described various methods that could be used to apply behavior analysis to sports. Following this early work, more
researchers began publishing articles regarding sports and behavior analysis. For example, Komaki and Barnett
†
The authors thank Trevor Maxfield for his contributions to the research.
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© 2019 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/bin
Behavioral Interventions. 2019;34:248–279.
SCHENK AND MILTENBERGER
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(1977) demonstrated that instruction, feedback, and positive reinforcement increased football players' correct play
execution. Other procedures, such as negative reinforcement (Allison & Ayllon, 1980), modeling and prompting
(Fitterling & Ayllon, 1983), self‐monitoring and graphical feedback (Critchfield & Vargas, 1991), behavioral rehearsal
and feedback (Rush & Ayllon, 1984), simulated practice (Scott, Scott, & Howe, 1998), and behavioral skills training
(BST; Tai & Miltenberger, 2017) have also been implemented to enhance sport performance. Although most of
these studies use a multicomponent intervention, they often assess novel component combinations or apply an
intervention to a scarcely studied or unstudied sport or target behavior.
A recent poll found that three quarters of adults in the United States played sports when they were younger, and
one quarter of adults continue to play sports throughout their lives, with more than 50 different sports included
(Sports and Health in America, 2015). Additionally, participating in sports has numerous physical and social benefits
to the athlete. Furthermore, it is reported that 63% of people in the United States describe themselves as sports fans
(Carroll, 2005). This demonstrates the significance of sports within society and indicates the importance of a
continued focus on the research of sports‐related behavior.
Perhaps as a result of the prevalence of professional sports and the widespread participation in sports across
countries, there has been a proliferation of sports research in the field of applied behavior analysis (ABA) over the
past several decades. Recent publications (e.g., Luiselli & Reed, 2015; Martin, 2015) describe how behavior
analytic techniques have been utilized to address a wide range of behaviors across multiple sports and populations.
This research is based on principles and procedures of behavioral science established over the past 80 or more years
(Granpeesheh, Tarbox, & Dixon, 2009; Martin, Thompson, & Regehr, 2004). Therefore, a continued interest in the
application of ABA in sports seems warranted.
Although other publications have emphasized the utility of behavioral science in sports (e.g., Lee, 1993; Luiselli &
Reed, 2011; Martin, 2015; Rushall, 1975; Rushall & Siedentop, 1972) and reviewed directions of behavioral research
regarding sports (e.g., Luiselli & Reed, 2015), the last study to review the literature regarding ABA applications to
enhance sports performance was Martin et al. (2004). Much research on ABA and sports has been published since
publication of the Martin et al. paper in 2004. Furthermore, Martin et al. was limited in that it only reviewed articles
with single‐subject designs. Thus, there is not a current review comparing and contrasting the various behavioral procedures that have been used to enhance sports performance and the different sports targeted with a behavioral
intervention. The purpose of this paper is to review the research applying behavior analytic procedures to performance enhancement across sports.
2
2.1
METHOD
|
|
Inclusion and exclusion criteria
Two inclusion criteria were used to identify studies for review. First, a behavioral intervention had to be implemented in each study. A behavior intervention includes using any form of an intervention that might alter an observable behavior. Second, the target behavior was sport performance consisting of the measurement of an athlete's
observable behavior. Regarding performance enhancement, a sports intervention can target the behavior of the individual playing the sport, or it can target the behavior of the individual coaching the players. Studies were excluded if
the focus was solely on physical activity (i.e., exercise promotion) rather than sports performance. Although increasing physical activity can be part of sport performance enhancement, the purpose of such research is generally on
health outcomes as opposed to performance enhancement. Additional sports‐related studies were excluded if the
focus was therapeutic instead of performance based (e.g., using a sports activity to decrease anxiety), the focus
was not on performance of a skill related to an organized sport (e.g., throwing a ball), and if the study was not
written in English.
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2.2
SCHENK AND MILTENBERGER
Search criteria
|
We searched the literature via databases using the specific search terms “Sports” and “Behavior Analysis” together.
These terms were searched in databases of PsychINFO, ERIC, PsychArticles, and Education: A SAGE full‐text
collection, from which 146, 20, 96, and 26 articles were identified, respectively. We identified other studies by
cross‐checking reference lists of published articles and book chapters. All studies were then evaluated using the
inclusion criteria.
2.3
Interobserver agreement
|
Interobserver agreement (IOA) was calculated by having independent reviewers assess the different types of interventions used in each study and then dividing the number of agreements by the number of agreements plus disagreements. IOA was conducted for all included articles. In order to get to near 100% agreement, the lead author and
research assistant independently evaluated every article. Then, the research team reevaluated any articles with which
there were disagreements in order to conclude which interventions were used. This resulted in a final IOA score of
100% and seemed most appropriate to ensure the highest degree of confidence regarding the content of the
reviewed studies.
2.4
Sports studied
|
Performance in 21 different sports was assessed across the studies that met inclusion criteria, but some sports were
categorized together for simplicity. For example, many sports such as golf, swimming, and basketball are not
ambiguous. However, some sports require further clarification. Football in this paper refers to American football,
and soccer is used for what other countries generally call football. Baseball includes baseball and softball. Martial arts
is used as a broad term to describe more specific forms such as Judo, Aikido, or Capoeira. Gymnastics refers to any
sport that takes place in the gymnastic setting (e.g., balance beam or floor exercise). Dancing refers to any form of
competitive dance. Skating refers to any form of competitive skating. Track and field is used to describe any event
that normally takes place in track or field competition (e.g., running, pole vault, and discuss). Also, tennis refers to
tennis or table tennis.
2.5
Procedures studied
|
Several categories of procedures were identified throughout the literature. Certain procedures were consequences
of the target behavior (e.g., reinforcement), whereas others were antecedents of the target behavior (e.g., instruction or modeling). Additionally, some procedures, although occurring after the target behavior occurred, were not
considered a consequence of the behavior. For example, verbal feedback is not decidedly reinforcement; instead,
it could conceivably be a contingency‐specifying stimulus that describes the behavior that will result in reinforcement. Additionally, some procedures were designed to teach a certain skill set that would, in turn, result in performance enhancement (e.g., relaxation training or visual imagery). Categories of procedures and their descriptions
follow.
2.5.1
|
Consequence procedures
Procedures were categorized as consequence procedures when some stimulus was introduced contingent on
performance and was clearly described to function as reinforcement or punishment.
SCHENK AND MILTENBERGER
251
Positive and negative reinforcement
A reinforcement procedure is any programmed consequence delivered or removed contingent on behavior intended
to increase the likelihood of that behavior occurring. We only included studies as using positive or negative reinforcement if it was explicitly stated in the study that positive or negative reinforcement was a programmed component of
the intervention, or if praise, positive feedback, or specific social positive statements (e.g., “great job,” “well done,”
etc.) were provided by the behavior change agent contingent on a correct target response.
Auditory feedback
This procedure, sometimes referred to as Teaching with Acoustical Guidance (TAGteach; Quinn, Miltenberger, &
Fogel, 2015), involves providing auditory feedback (a click from a clicker) when a subject correctly performs a step
in a specific behavioral sequence. The auditory feedback has been shown to function as a form of reinforcement
as it increases correct performance of multiple skills (Quinn, Miltenberger, James, & Abreu, 2016).
Token reinforcement
A token reinforcement procedure uses specific conditioned reinforcers that can be exchanged for other reinforcers at
a determined time. A token reinforcement intervention component was included only if it was explicitly stated that a
token economy or token reinforcement was used to enhance performance.
Chaining
Chaining is a method used to teach a complex behavior by breaking it into a number of steps and teaching the steps
one at a time (through prompting, fading, and reinforcement) starting with the last step or with the first step and
proceeding sequentially until the entire sequence of behaviors occurs together.
2.5.2
|
Antecedent procedures
Procedures were categorized as antecedent procedures when the stimulus was introduced at the beginning of each
session or trial or before the behavior occurred in an attempt to evoke the behavior.
Instruction
Instruction includes any time an experimenter or coach provided specific statements, descriptions of expected
behavior, or verbal prompts to a coach or player as instruction for expected performance.
Goal setting
Goal setting involves setting clear, measurable goals for performance stated as a specified unit of behavior to be
achieved (e.g., swim × laps in 10 min).
Expert modeling
Expert modeling includes any time an individual demonstrated the target behavior for a subject. The expert could be
a coach, a professional athlete, or any other individual considered to correctly execute the behavior for the purpose
of modeling. Expert modeling could be live or delivered via video.
Video modeling or instruction
Video modeling or instruction includes any time a visual electronic device (e.g., TV or computer screen) was used to
provide verbal and or visual instruction including words, diagrams, and images of people engaging in the target
behavior. This procedure was included anytime it was explicitly stated that a visual electronic device was used,
and it was clearly stated that this device was used to provide instruction or modeling as an intervention component.
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SCHENK AND MILTENBERGER
Sometimes, the video modeling would use an expert model. Thus, both procedures would have been included for
such a study (e.g., Zetou, Tzetzis, Vernadakis, & Kioumourtzoglou, 2002).
Physical prompting
A physical prompting procedure, in which a coach or researcher manually guided the athlete's behavior, was included
only if it was explicitly stated that physical prompting was a programmed intervention component.
2.5.3
|
Feedback procedures
Procedures were categorized as feedback procedures when information about the athletic performance just
exhibited was introduced following an instance of behavior.
Verbal feedback
Verbal feedback includes any time the experimenter, coach, or peer provided statements about performance in
response to a subject engaging in the target behavior. We did not categorize the procedure as verbal feedback if it
was used as a component of video feedback.
Video feedback
Video feedback includes any time a visual electronic device was used to provide feedback to a subject following his
or her engagement in the target behavior. When video feedback was used, verbal comments (verbal feedback) on the
behavior in the video were also provided.
Self‐monitoring
Self‐monitoring is anytime the subjects of the study keep a record of their engagement in the target behavior.
In some studies, this was also called self‐recording.
Public posting
Public posting is when participants' performance data are posted in a place visible to a variety of people to influence
athletic performance.
Graphical feedback
Graphical feedback is any time graphs are used to provide subjects feedback regarding their athletic performance.
However, if graphical feedback was posted so others could observe the graphed data, the procedure was only categorized as public posting.
2.5.4
|
Skill training procedures
Procedures were categorized as skills training procedures if they included teaching and requiring the subjects to
engage in some behavior that was not necessarily the target behavior but as a result improved their correct
engagement in the target behavior.
Self‐talk
Self‐talk is a procedure that varies slightly across studies but in all cases focuses on covert verbal behavior consisting
of positive thoughts to control negative thoughts, which might help facilitate performance enhancement.
SCHENK AND MILTENBERGER
253
Self‐imagery
Self‐imagery is a procedure that varies slightly across studies but in all cases focuses on covert behavior where the
subject imagines some event that can or has happened resulting in performance enhancement. Self‐imagery was
called imagery rehearsal and mental practice in some studies.
Relaxation training
Relaxation training refers to breathing, stretching, and covert verbal or imaginal exercises that are purported to help
an individual obtain a calm and focused mental state or decrease anxiety or autonomic arousal, resulting in performance enhancement. This is different from self‐talk and self‐imagery because the covert component of self‐talk
and self‐imagery is to focus on the target behavior, whereas the covert component of relaxation training is to focus
on reducing muscle tension and other physiological stresses that can affect performance.
Behavioral rehearsal
Behavioral rehearsal refers to anytime the subject was required to engage in the target behavior outside the context
of critique or other intervention components with the intended purpose of improving the subject's ability to correctly
engage in the target response. This procedure was also referred to as practice, imitation, or role‐playing in some
studies.
Simulated practice
Simulated practice refers to any instance where the subject engaged in some form of the target response in a setting
involving some form of a visual electronic simulated setting to promote performance enhancement in the actual setting. Some responses were verbal, some were remote controlled, and some were physical responses. These responses
then resulted in performance enhancement of the target motor skill‐related behavior. This was also referred to as
virtual practice at times.
Acceptance and commitment therapy
Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT) refers to a covert exercise intended to help individuals accept their
current thinking patterns and eventually commit to overt action to allow them to adequately deal with specific
problems, resulting in performance enhancement (see Hayes, Luoma, Bond, Masuda, & Lillis, 2006).
2.5.5
|
Other procedures
Procedures were categorized as other procedures when they included multiple components and types of procedures
that were used concurrently.
Behavioral skills training
BST refers to a specific intervention involving the systematic use of instruction, modeling, rehearsal, and feedback
(see Himle, Miltenberger, Gatheridge, & Flessner, 2004).
Habit reversal
Habit reversal refers to a multicomponent intervention in which a participant is provided awareness training,
taught a certain competing response, and experiences specific contingencies that facilitate correct responding
(see Miltenberger, Fuqua, & Woods, 1998).
Discrimination training
Discrimination training refers to learning to engage in specific behavior in the presence of appropriate discriminative
stimuli (e.g., swing a bat in a precise way when a baseball is thrown to spin at a certain rate).
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TABLE 1
SCHENK AND MILTENBERGER
Published studies sorted by sport
Sport
Target behavior
Procedures
Citation
Baseball
Teach how to hit ball and recognize
balls and strikes
Increase individual offensive
efficiency average
Improve curveball hitting performance
Backward chaining, discrimination
training
Money as Sr+
(Simek & O'Brien,
1988)
(Heward, 1978)
Discrimination training by cue fading
(Osborne, Rudrud, &
Zezoney, 1990)
(Little & Simpson,
2000)
Basketball
Decrease response to negative
thoughts to improve overall
baseball performance
Acceptance and commitment therapy
Increase foul shooting percentage
Improve foul shooting accuracy
Relaxation training, self‐imagery,
video modeling
Instruction, verbal feedback, video
modeling, video feedback, expert
modeling
Relaxation techniques, self‐talk
Improve foul shooting accuracy
Relaxation techniques, self‐imagery
Improve foul shooting accuracy
Goal setting, self‐imagery
Improve overall field‐goal percentage
Relaxation techniques, self‐imagery,
video highlights with inspirational
music
Social positive reinforcement,
punishment (Time out from
practice)
Imagery rehearsal, self‐talk,
relaxation techniques
Improve shot form
Decrease fouls, increase
“assertiveness”
Increase correct execution of
defensive performance
Improve foul shooting accuracy
Cycling
Dancing
Football
Teach individuals to be proficient in 9
essential basketball skills
Improve shot accuracy
Verbal feedback, instruction, social
positive reinforcement
Instruction, expert modeling, forward
chaining, Sr+, physical prompting
Self‐imagery
Improve standing start
Verbal feedback, video modeling
Improve pressure distribution when
pedaling
Improve pressure distribution when
pedaling
Auditory feedback, graphical feedback
Improve ability to engage in specific
competition related movements
Improve efficiency of three specific
dance steps
Auditory feedback, video feedback
(Hamilton & Fremouw,
1985)
(Kearns & Crossman,
1992)
(Lerner, Ostrow, Yura,
& Etzel, 1996)
(Templin & Vernacchia,
1995)
(Connelly, 1988)
(Kendall, Hrycaiko,
Martin, & Kendall,
1990)
(Kladopoulos &
McComas, 2001)
(Lambert et al., 2016)
(Shapiro & Shapiro,
1985)
(Jennings, Reaburn, &
Rynne, 2013)
(Broker, Gregor, &
Schmidt, 1993)
(Sanderson &
Cavanagh, 1990)
Auditory feedback
(Quinn et al., 2016)
Public posting, praise as Sr+
(Quinn, Miltenberger,
Abreu, &
Narozanick, 2017)
(Quinn et al., 2015)
(Fitterling & Ayllon,
1983)
Improve movement proficiency
Improve execution of three specific
ballet exercises
Auditory feedback
Social positive reinforcement, verbal
feedback, instruction, expert
modeling, physical prompting,
rehearsal
Improve execution of route running
and blocking
Improve execution of offensive
blocking
Public posting
Improve execution of tackling
technique
Improve efficiency of movement and
play execution of offensive
backfield
(Hall & Erffmeyer,
1983)
(Aiken, Fairbrother, &
Post, 2012)
Instruction, verbal feedback, social
positive reinforcement, expert
modeling, rehearsal
TAGteach, instruction, shaping
Instruction, verbal feedback, social
positive reinforcement
(Ward, Smith, & Sharp,
1997)
(Allison & Ayllon, 1980)
(Harrison & Pyles,
2013)
(Komaki & Barnett,
1977)
(Continues)
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SCHENK AND MILTENBERGER
TABLE 1
(Continued)
Sport
Target behavior
Procedures
Citation
Improve execution of wide receivers'
blocking, route running, and initial
release
Public posting plus verbal feedback,
verbal feedback plus goal setting
and public posting, verbal
feedback plus goal setting
Removal of aversive coaching as Sr−
(Smith & Ward, 2006)
Improve execution of tackling
technique
Improve execution of tackling
technique
Improve execution of pass blocking
technique
Improve execution of tackling
technique
Improve fluency of movement
response to offensive play
Improve position accuracy during pass
and run plays; increase total tackles
made
Golf
Improve overall shot making
Improve club head speed; club face
angle; tempo; and tempo
consistency
Improve chipping form and accuracy
Improve all aspects of swing
Improve swing form accuracy and
decrease swing variability
Improve shot accuracy and decrease
number of strokes to complete a
round
Decrease number of strokes to
complete a round
Gymnastics
Hockey
Horseback
Riding
Public posting, goal setting
(Stokes & Luiselli,
2010)
(Stokes, Luiselli, &
Reed, 2010)
(Stokes, Luiselli, Reed,
& Fleming, 2010)
(Tai & Miltenberger,
2017)
(Christina, Barresi, &
Shaffner, 1990)
(Ward & Carnes, 2002)
Instruction, backward chaining, expert
modeling, Sr+
Graphical (but only data) feedback,
verbal feedback, video feedback
(Simek, O'Brien, &
Figlerski, 1994)
(Bertram, Marteniuk, &
Guadagnoli, 2007)
Instruction, verbal feedback,
video modeling, video feedback,
expert modeling
TAGteach
(Post, Aiken, Laughlin,
& Fairbrother, 2016)
Helmet stickers as Sr+
Verbal feedback, video feedback,
TAGteach
Behavioral skills training
Simulated practice
Video feedback, verbal feedback
Expert modeling, instruction,
backward chaining, Sr+
Self‐monitoring, rehearsal
Enhance power and distance control
when putting
Simulated practice
Improve rope dancing/climbing
Instruction, verbal feedback,
video modeling, expert modeling
Improve accuracy and ability to do
backward walkovers, front
handsprings, and reverse kips
Improve accuracy and ability to do a
double leg circle on a pommel
horse
Improve accuracy of three skills on the
uneven bars
Instruction and verbal feedback,
social positive reinforcement,
expert modeling, rehearsal
Self‐modeling, expert modeling,
video modeling
Video modeling, video feedback
Increase number of beam skills done
per practice
Goal setting, public posting, verbal
feedback, self‐monitoring, graphical
feedback, social positive
reinforcement
Increase number of goalie saves
Self‐talk
Decrease time in penalty box;
decrease number of penalties;
increase penalty shot accuracy
Self‐imagery
Improve execution of three riding
skills
Video feedback
(Fogel, Weil, & Burris,
2010)
(Guadagnoli, Holcomb,
& Davis, 2002)
(O'Brien & Simek,
1983)
(Kirschenbaum,
Owens, & O'Connor,
1998)
(Fery & Ponserre,
2001)
(Magill &
Schoenfelder‐Sohdi,
1996)
(Allison & Ayllon, 1980)
(Baudry, Leroy, &
Chollet, 2006)
(Boyer, Miltenberger,
Batsche, & Fogel,
2009)
(Wolko, Hrycaiko, &
Martin, 1993)
(Rogerson & Hrycaiko,
2002)
(Silva III, 1982)
(Kelley & Miltenberger,
2016)
(Continues)
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TABLE 1
SCHENK AND MILTENBERGER
(Continued)
Sport
Target behavior
Procedures
Citation
Kickball
Improve sportsmanship
Tangible prizes as Sr+, token economy
Increase attentive behavior and
decrease disruptive behavior to
improve performance
Token economy
(Hupp, Reitman,
Northup,
O'Callaghan, &
LeBlanc, 2002)
(Reitman, Hupp,
O'Callaghan, Gulley,
& Northup, 2001)
Improve accuracy in performing
certain techniques
Increase variability and generality of
punching and kicking techniques
Video feedback
Martial Arts
Rowing
Decrease time taken to complete race
Decrease time taken to complete race
Increase total distance covered during
a 40‐min period
Social positive reinforcement
(Differential reinforcement)
(BenitezSantiago &
Miltenberger, 2016)
Harding, Wacker, Berg,
Rick, & Lee, 2004
Goal setting, relaxation techniques,
self‐imagery, self‐talk
Goal setting, relaxation techniques,
self‐imagery, self‐talk
Instruction (associative video tape),
two different dissociative video
tapes (music or past race)
(Thelwell & Greenlees,
2001)
(Thelwell & Greenlees,
2003)
(Scott, Scott, Bedic, &
Dowd, 1999)
Rugby
Increase number of ball carries, tackles
made, successful kicks, and
takeaways won
Goal setting
(Mellalieu, Hanton, &
O'Brien, 2006)
Skating
Improve execution of correct relay
tagging
Improve symmetry of circles and
quality of turns across multiple
“figures”
Improve execution of all “figures”
Increase number of jumps and spins
performed; increase number of
times practicing routine with music;
decrease off‐task behavior
Increase number of laps and drills
completed; decrease off‐task
activity; decrease time taken to
complete race
Graphical feedback, verbal instruction,
social positive reinforcement
Instruction, self‐talk
(Anderson &
Kirkpatrick, 2002)
(Ming & Martin, 1996)
Self‐talk
Instruction, verbal feedback,
self‐monitoring
(Palmer, 1992)
(Hume, Martin,
Gonzalez, Cracklen,
& Genthon, 1985)
Goal setting, self‐talk, self‐imagery,
self‐monitoring
(Wanlin, Hrycaiko,
Martin, & Mahon,
1997)
Instruction, verbal feedback, social
positive reinforcement, physical
prompting
Social positive reinforcement, verbal
feedback, expert modeling,
rehearsal
Instruction, rehearsal, simulated
practice, verbal feedback
Public posting, goal setting, verbal
feedback
Video feedback
(Luyben, Funk,
Morgan, Clark, &
Delulio, 1986)
(Rush & Ayllon, 1984)
Soccer
Improve execution of side‐of‐the‐foot
passing
Improve execution of heading,
throw‐ins, and goal kicks
Improve execution of receiving and
passing the ball
Improve on‐field position
Increase number of effective coaching
strategies used by coaches
Swimming
Teach three swimming skills
Instruction, physical prompting
Increase number of laps swam
Self‐monitoring, verbal feedback
Improve execution of general
swimming technique in children
with spina bifida
Decrease stroke errors; increase
correct stroke execution
Video feedback
Video feedback, expert modeling,
rehearsal, instruction, verbal
feedback
(Ziegler, 1994)
Brobst and Ward
(2002)
(Partington, Cushion,
Cope, & Harvey,
2015)
(Rogers, Hemmeter, &
Wolery, 2010)
(Schonwetter,
Miltenberger, &
Oliver, 2014)
(Dowrick & Dove,
1980)
(Hazen, Johnstone,
Martin, &
Skrikameswaran,
1990)
(Continues)
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SCHENK AND MILTENBERGER
TABLE 1
(Continued)
Sport
Tennis and
Table
Tennis
Target behavior
Procedures
Citation
Decrease stroke errors
(Koop & Martin, 1983)
Decrease number of total strokes
Expert modeling, physical prompting,
punishment, verbal feedback,
social positive reinforcement
Self‐monitoring, public posting
Increase number of lengths swam
Self‐monitoring, graphical feedback
Increase productive behavior;
decrease nonproductive behavior
Improve practice attendance and
overall work output
Increase coaches correct use of
rewards and feedback
Increase number of laps swam
Music provided as Sr+
Self‐monitoring, instruction
(Polaha, Allen, &
Studley, 2004)
(Critchfield & Vargas,
1991)
(Hume & Crossman,
1992)
(McKenzie & Rushall,
1974)
(Rushall & Smith, 1979)
Attention, candy, and money as Sr+
(reinforcer preference assessment)
(Rushall & Pettinger,
1969)
Improve overall serve
Instruction, video modeling
Improve serve form and accuracy
Instruction, video modeling,
video feedback, expert modeling
Improve non‐dominant forehand
volley
Improve correct hitting trajectory
Instruction, verbal feedback, Sr+,
video modeling, expert modeling
Instruction, verbal feedback, video
modeling, video feedback,
simulated practice, expert
modeling
Instruction and verbal feedback, social
positive reinforcement,
expert modeling, rehearsal
Social positive reinforcement (DR)
(Bouchard & Singer,
1998)
(Emmen, Wesseling,
Bootsma, Whiting, &
Van Wieringen,
1985)
(Hebert & Landin,
1994)
(Todorov, Shadmehr, &
Bizzi, 1997)
Improve execution of forehand,
backhand, and service swings
Improve execution of forehand,
backhand, and service swings
Improve execution paddle swing
Improve strategic ball‐placing
performance
Improve execution of service swing
Improve execution of service return
Improve execution of service swing
Improve execution of forehand
and backhand swings
Decrease inappropriate outbursts
Decrease inappropriate outbursts
Improve execution of service return
Track and
Field
Decrease time taken to complete race
Decrease time taken to complete race
Increase distance of hammer and
discus throw; increase correct
execution of throwing form
Increase total distance ran
Increase height of pole extension
when approaching launch point
Volleyball
Improve receiving the ball
Self‐monitoring, public posting
Video modeling, expert‐modeling,
physical prompting, verbal
feedback, video feedback
Self‐talk
(Allison & Ayllon, 1980)
(Buzas & Ayllon, 1981)
(Carroll & Bandura,
1982)
Self‐talk, instruction
(Landin & Hebert,
1999)
(Rikli & Smith, 1980)
(Scott et al., 1998)
(Van Wieringen,
Emmen, Bootsma,
Hoogesteger, &
Whiting, 1989)
(Ziegler, 1987)
Habit reversal
Verbal instruction, public posting
Video modeling, simulated practice
(Allen, 1998)
(Galvan & Ward, 1998)
(Haskins, 1965)
Relaxation techniques, goal setting,
self‐imagery, self‐talk
Instruction, verbal feedback,
expert modeling, rehearsal
Instruction, video modeling
(Patrick & Hrycaiko,
1998)
(Shapiro & Shapiro,
1985)
(Maryam, Yaghoob,
Darush, & Mojtaba,
2009)
(Wack, Crosland, &
Miltenberger, 2014)
(Scott, Scott, &
Goldwater, 1997)
Video feedback, instruction
Video modeling, simulated practice
Video feedback, instruction
Goal setting, verbal feedback,
visual feedback
Verbal prompting, audible sound
when goal reached functioned as
Sr+
Instruction, expert modeling, video
modeling, video feedback
(Barzouka, Bergeles, &
Hatziharistos, 2007)
(Continues)
258
SCHENK AND MILTENBERGER
TABLE 1
(Continued)
Sport
Target behavior
Procedures
Citation
Teach overhand pass and serve
Expert modeling, verbal instruction,
rehearsal, video modeling
Expert modeling, instruction,
video modeling, video feedback
(Zetou, Fragouli, &
Tzetzis, 1999)
(Zetou et al., 2002)
Improve ball setting and serving
Weight lifting
Improve execution of power clean
Video instruction, rehearsal
(Sewal, Reeve, & Day,
1988)
Yoga
Improve execution of three
specific poses
Video self‐evaluation and video
feedback
(Downs, Miltenberger,
Biedronski, &
Witherspoon, 2015)
3
RESULTS
|
Using the search criteria and reference lists of other articles, we found 101 articles that met the inclusion criteria of
this review. Table 1 provides a summary of these articles categorized by sport. There were 23 different procedures
used to enhance performance related to 21 different sports. Numerous behaviors were targeted for improvement
across procedures and sports, with 82 different target behaviors across the articles (some studies did assess
multiple behaviors simultaneously). Categories of target behaviors include improving general technique and form
(e.g., Anderson & Kirkpatrick, 2002 helped speed skaters improve their relay tagging form), increasing work output
(e.g., Wolko et al., 1993 increased the number of beam skills engaged in during gymnastic practices), decreasing problem behaviors (e.g., Connelly, 1988 decreased the number of fouls that basketball players committed), improving
performance‐related measures (e.g., hockey goalie save percentage, Rogerson & Hrycaiko, 2002), and teaching
new skills (e.g., Lambert et al., 2016 taught a teenager with autism to correctly engage in nine essential basketball
skills). To address the breadth of the literature, we categorized the articles by sport targeted and by procedures used.
3.1
|
Participant characteristics
Although not all studies described the age or sex of the participants, a total of 1,523 individuals participated in the
studies included, of which 514 children, 997 adults, and 12 did not have their ages listed. Participant ages ranged
from 4 to 61. Although all studies focused on performance enhancement of athletes, some studies intervened on
the coach's behavior to facilitate performance enhancement. For example, Stokes and Luiselli (2010) demonstrated
that altering the number of coach interactions with their players increased the likelihood that a high school football
player engaged in proper tackling technique. Of all experiments, 18% improved coach behavior, and 93%
improved competitor behavior. Percentages are greater than 100 because some experiments focused both on
coaching improvement and competitor performance enhancement. Skill levels for each study included recreational
participation (e.g., Rikli & Smith, 1980; 41%), competitive club sport or studio (e.g., Quinn et al., 2015; 31%), collegiate
(e.g., Silva, 1982; 25%), high school (e.g., Stokes et al., 2010; 8%), and international (e.g., Scott et al., 1997; 1%). The
percentages were calculated using the skill level assessed in each experiment divided by the total number of experiments (109) within all studies. The percentages equal slightly more than 100 because some experiments assessed
multiple competition levels.
3.2
|
Procedural characteristics
Of the 23 different procedures identified, we categorized the following four procedures as consequence
interventions: positive or negative reinforcement, auditory feedback, token reinforcement, and chaining (Table 2).
Twenty‐three studies implemented a positive or negative reinforcement procedure. For example, Heward (1978)
x
(Fitterling & Ayllon, 1983)
x
(Heward, 1978)
(Rush & Aylonn, 1984)
(Reitman et al., 2001)
x
x
(Quinn et al., 2017)
x
x
(O'Brien & Simek, 1983)
(Quinn et al., 2016)
x
(Luyben et al., 1986)
(Quinn et al., 2015)
x
x
(Lambert et al., 2016)
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
(Koop & Martin, 1983)
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
(Kladopoulos & McComas, x
2001)
(Hupp et al., 2002)
(Hume & Crossman, 1992) x
x
(Hebert & Landin, 1994)+
(Harrison & Pyles, 2013)
(Harding et al., 2004)
x
x
(Connelly, 1988)
(Fogel et al., 2010)
x
(Buzas & Ayllon, 1981)
(Broker et al., 1993)
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
(Continues)
x
x
(Anderson & Kirkpatrick,
2002)
x
x
Citation
(Allison & Ayllon, 1980)
Additional procedures
Forward or
Sr+; Auditory Token
Verbal
Video
Public Behavioral Self‐
Expert
Graphical Physical
Goal
backward
Sr‐ feedback economy chaining
Instruction feedback feedback posting rehearsal monitoring modeling feedback prompting setting
Consequence procedure
Published studies sorted by consequence‐based interventions
Consequence table
TABLE 2
SCHENK AND MILTENBERGER
259
(Continued)
x
x
(Stokes & Luiselli, 2010)
(Stokes et al., 2010)
x
x
Note. + means that video modeling was also used
(Wolko et al., 1993)
x
x
(Simek et al., 1994)
(Stokes et al., 2010)
x
(Scott et al., 1997)
(Sanderson & Cavanagh,
1990)
Additional procedures
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
Forward or
Sr+; Auditory Token
backward
Verbal
Video
Public Behavioral Self‐
Expert
Graphical Physical
Goal
Sr‐ feedback economy chaining
Instruction feedback feedback posting rehearsal monitoring modeling feedback prompting setting
Consequence procedure
(Rushall & Pettinger, 1969) x
Citation
Consequence table
TABLE 2
260
SCHENK AND MILTENBERGER
SCHENK AND MILTENBERGER
261
provided monetary reinforcement to professional baseball players contingent on successful at bats. At the end of
each week, the three players with the highest efficiency average were given monetary reinforcement, resulting in efficiency averages increasing for most of the participants. Seven studies implemented an auditory feedback procedure.
For example, Quinn et al. (2015) used TAGteach to enhance the performance of competitive dancers. Each time a student engaged in correct performance of a step in a dance move, the dance teacher provided auditory feedback with a
click from a clicker. Three studies implemented token reinforcement procedures. For example, a token reinforcement
procedure was used by Reitman et al. (2001) and was shown to be more effective than medication at decreasing disruptive behavior and increasing attentive behavior for students playing kickball. Finally, two studies used forward or
backward chaining. For example, O'Brien and Simek (1983) used a backward chaining procedure with mastery criteria
to improve shot accuracy of golfers. Once each golfer mastered the easiest and closest shot, the shot difficulty and
distance was increased until the golfers reached all mastery criteria. We categorized the following five procedures
as antecedent interventions: instruction, goal setting, expert modeling, video modeling, and physical prompting
(Table 3). Twenty‐two studies implemented an instruction procedure. For example, Ziegler (1987) provided vocal
instruction to teach intermediate tennis players to engage in proper self‐talk techniques. Participants' forehand and
backhand return performance was enhanced as a result.
Thirteen studies implemented a goal‐setting procedure. For example, Mellalieu et al. (2006) implemented a goal‐
setting procedure to increase engagement in five performance behaviors of Rugby players. In this instance, no additional incentives were provided for reaching their goals, although goal setting is often implemented in conjunction
with some form of reinforcement for goal attainment. Nine studies implemented an expert modeling procedure.
For example, Shapiro and Shapiro (1985) used expert modeling to enhance the performance of high school track
sprinters. Using this procedure in conjunction with others, the runners' correct movements were increased, and incorrect movements decreased, resulting in an improvement in time it took to finish a race. Eight studies implemented a
video modeling or video instruction procedure. For example, Boyer et al. (2009) used video modeling in conjunction
with video feedback to enhance three gymnastics moves with young gymnasts. The students watched a video on an
expert performing the movement and then watched their own performance on video to compare with the expert.
Finally, three studies implemented a physical prompting procedure. For example, Fitterling and Ayllon (1983) used
physical prompting along with other procedures to increase the ability of young ballet dancers to maintain correct
posture while performing four dance exercises.
We categorized the following five procedures as feedback interventions: verbal feedback, video feedback, public
posting, self‐monitoring, and graphical feedback (Table 4). Twenty‐three studies implemented a verbal feedback procedure. For example, Schonwetter et al. (2014) used verbal feedback along with self‐monitoring to increase the number of laps swam during practice by competitive swimmers. They demonstrated that descriptive verbal feedback
helped enhance performance when other interventions might not produce substantial effects. Fourteen studies
implemented a video feedback procedure. For example, Kelley and Miltenberger (2016) used video feedback to
enhance horseback‐riding skills by recording the target behavior and immediately showing the rider the video while
describing the correct aspects of the performance and providing further instruction for incorrect aspects of the performance. Ten studies implemented a self‐monitoring procedure. For example, Rushall and Smith (1979) used self‐
monitoring in conjunction with instruction to enhance a swimming coach's verbal reinforcement repertoire, leading
to the performance enhancement of the swimmers. Eight studies implemented a public posting procedure. For example, Ward et al. (1997) used public posting to improve route running of collegiate level football players. They showed
that player route running was perfected as a result of publicly posting performance feedback after each practice.
Finally, four studies implemented a graphical feedback procedure. For example, Wack et al. (2014) used graphical
feedback in conjunction with goal setting and verbal feedback to increase the distance that five college‐age females
ran. In some studies, public posting included graphs of subject performance (e.g., Quinn et al., 2017).
We categorized the following six procedures as skill training interventions: behavioral rehearsal, self‐talk, self‐
imagery, relaxation training, simulated practice, and an other category that includes complex interventions
(Table 5). Twelve studies implemented a self‐talk procedure. For example, Landin and Hebert (1999) demonstrated
x
x
x
(Galvan & Ward, 1998)
(Hume et al., 1985)
(Kladopoulos &
McComas, 2001)
x
x
(Hebert & Landin,
1994)
(Jennings et al., 2013)
x
x
(Hazen et al., 1990)
x
(Harrison & Pyles,
2013)
(Hall & Erffmeyer,
1983)
(Fitterling & Ayllon,
1983)
x
x
x
x
x
x
(Emmen et al., 1985)
x
x
(Carroll & Bandura,
1982)
(Brobst & Ward, 2002)
(Boyer et al., 2009)
x
x
(Barzouka et al., 2007)
(Bouchard & Singer,
1998)
x
(Anderson &
Kirkpatrick, 2002)
x
x
x
(Allison & Ayllon,
1980)
(Baudry et al., 2006)
x
x
(Aiken et al., 2012)
Citation
Additional procedures
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x*
x
x
x
x
x
x
(Continues)
x
Goal
Video
Expert
Physical
Verbal
Video
Public Behavioral Self‐
Sr+
Graphical TAG Relaxation Self‐ Self‐
setting Instruction modeling modeling prompting feedback feedback posting rehearsal monitoring or Sr− feedback Teach techniques talk imagery
Antecedent procedure
Published studies sorted by antecedent‐based interventions
Antecedent table
TABLE 3
262
SCHENK AND MILTENBERGER
(Continued)
x
(Lambert et al., 2016)
x
x
(Rikli & Smith, 1980)
(Rogers et al., 2010)
x
(Scott et al., 1999)
(Shapiro & Shapiro,
1985)
x
x
(Scott et al., 1997)
(Sewal et al., 1988)
x
(Rushall & Smith,
1979)
(Rush & Ayllon, 1984)
x
(Post et al., 2016)
(Patrick & Hrycaiko,
1998)
(O'Brien & Simek,
1983)
(Ming & Martin, 1996)
x
x
(Maryam et al., 2009)
x
x
(Magill &
Schoenfelder‐Zohdi,
1996)
(Mellalieu et al., 2006)
x
(Luyben et al., 1986)
x
x
(Koop & Martin, 1983)
x
x
(Lerner et al., 1996)
Additional procedures
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
(Continues)
x
x
x
Goal
Video
Expert
Physical
Verbal
Video
Public Behavioral Self‐
Sr+
Graphical TAG Relaxation Self‐ Self‐
setting Instruction modeling modeling prompting feedback feedback posting rehearsal monitoring or Sr− feedback Teach techniques talk imagery
Antecedent procedure
(Komaki & Barnett,
1977)
Citation
Antecedent table
TABLE 3
SCHENK AND MILTENBERGER
263
(Continued)
Additional procedures
x
x
(Ziegler, 1987)
(Ziegler, 1994)+
x
x
x
Note. + means that simulated practice was also used
x
(Zetou et al., 2002)
(Wolko et al., 1993)
x
x
(Ward & Carnes, 2002)
(Zetou et al., 1999)
x
x
(Wanlin et al., 1997)
x
(Wack et al., 2014)
x
x
(Thelwell & Greenness,
2003)
x
x
(Thelwell & Greenlees,
2001)
(Van Wieringen et al.,
1989)
x
(Swain & Jones, 1995)
x
(Todorov et al., 1997)+
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
Goal
Video
Expert
Physical
Verbal
Video
Public Behavioral Self‐
Sr+
Graphical TAG Relaxation Self‐ Self‐
setting Instruction modeling modeling prompting feedback feedback posting rehearsal monitoring or Sr− feedback Teach techniques talk imagery
Antecedent procedure
(Smith & Ward, 2006)
(Simek et al., 1994)
Citation
Antecedent table
TABLE 3
264
SCHENK AND MILTENBERGER
x
(Bertram et al., 2007)
(Guadagnoli et al.,
2002)
(Galvan & Ward,
1998)
(Fitterling & Ayllon,
1983)
x
x
x
x
(Emmen et al., 1985)
x
x
x
x
x
x
(Dowrick & Dove,
1980)
(Downs et al., 2015)
(Critchfield & Vargas,
1991)
(Carroll & Bandura,
1982)
(Broker et al., 1993)
(Brobst & Ward,
2002)
x
x
(BenitezSantiago &
x
Miltenberger, 2016)
x
x
(Baudry et al., 2006)
(Boyer et al., 2009)
x
(Barzouka et al., 2007)
(Anderson &
Kirkpatrick, 2002)
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
(Continues)
(Allison & Ayllon,
1980)*
x
x
(Aiken et al., 2012)
x
x
Citation
Additional procedures
Verbal
Video
Public Self‐
Graphical
Sr+
Auditory Behavioral Video
Expert
Goal
Physical
Self‐ Self‐
feedback feedback posting monitoring feedback Instruction or Sr− feedback rehearsal modeling modeling setting prompting talk imagery
Feedback procedure
Published studies sorted by feedback‐based interventions
Feedback table
TABLE 4
SCHENK AND MILTENBERGER
265
(Continued)
x
x
(Rush & Ayllon, 1984) x
(Rikli & Smith, 1980)
(Quinn et al., 2017)
(Post et al., 2016)
(Polaha et al., 2004)
(Partington et al.,
2015)
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
(Magill &
Schoenfelder‐
Zohdi, 1996)
(McKenzie & Rushall,
1974)
x
(Luyben et al., 1986)
x
x
x
x
(Koop & Martin, 1983) x
x
x
x
(Komaki & Barnett,
1977)
x
x
x
x
x
(Kladopoulos &
McComas, 2001)
(Kirschenbaum et al.,
1998)
(Kelley &
Miltenberger, 2016)
(Jennings et al., 2013) x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
(Continues)
x
x
(Hume et al., 1985)
x
x
x
(Hebert & Landin,
1994)
x
x
(Hazen et al., 1990)
Additional procedures
Citation
Feedback procedure
Verbal
Video
Public Self‐
Graphical
Sr+
Auditory Behavioral Video
Expert
Goal
Physical
Self‐ Self‐
feedback feedback posting monitoring feedback Instruction or Sr− feedback rehearsal modeling modeling setting prompting talk imagery
Feedback table
TABLE 4
266
SCHENK AND MILTENBERGER
(Continued)
x
(Shapiro & Shapiro,
1985)
Note. + means that simulated practice was also used.
(Ziegler, 1994)+
x
x
(Wolko et al., 1993)
(Zetou et al., 2002)
x
(Ward et al., 1997)
x
x
x
(Ward & Carnes,
2002)
(Wanlin et al., 1997)
x
x
(Van Wieringen et al.,
1989)
x
x
(Todorov et al., 1997)+ x
(Wack et al., 2014)
x
x
x
(Smith & Ward, 2006) x
x
(Stokes et al., 2010)
Additional procedures
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
Verbal
Video
Public Self‐
Graphical
Sr+
Auditory Behavioral Video
Expert
Goal
Physical
Self‐ Self‐
feedback feedback posting monitoring feedback Instruction or Sr− feedback rehearsal modeling modeling setting prompting talk imagery
Feedback procedure
(Schonwetter et al.,
2014)
(Sanderson &
Cavanagh, 1990)
(Rushall & Smith,
1979)
Citation
Feedback table
TABLE 4
SCHENK AND MILTENBERGER
267
Citation
x
x
(Palmer, 1992)
(Osborne et al., 1990)
(Ming & Martin,
1996)
(Little & Simpson,
2000)
(Lerner et al., 1996)
(Landin & hebert,
1999)
(Kirschenbaum et al.,
1998)
x
x
x
x
x
x
(Kendall et al., 1990)
x
x
x
(Kearns & Crossman,
1992)
(Hazen et al., 1990)
(Haskins, 1965)
(Hamilton &
Fremouw, 1985)
(Hall & Erffmeyer,
1983)
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
(Fitterling & Ayllon,
1983)
x
(Fery & Ponserre,
2001)
x
(Christina et al., 1990)
(Allison & Ayllon,
1980)*
(Allen, 1998)
Additional procedures
%
+
#
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
(Continues)
x
Behavioral Self‐ Self‐
Relaxation Simulated
Sr+
Verbal
Video
Video
Expert
Goal
Physical
Self‐
rehearsal talk imagery training
practice
Other Instruction or Sr− feedback feedback modeling modeling setting prompting monitoring
Skill training procedure
Published studies sorted by skills‐based interventions
Skills training table
TABLE 5
268
SCHENK AND MILTENBERGER
(Continued)
x
x
(Wanlin et al., 1997)
(Ziegler, 1987)
x
x
(Thelwell &
Greenlees, 2003)
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
Note. # = Habit reversal; + = ACT; % = Discrimination Training; $ = BST.
(Ziegler, 1994)
x
x
(Thelwell &
Greenlees, 2001)
x
x
x
x
(Templin &
Vernacchia, 1995)
(Tai & Miltenberger,
2017)
(Silva III, 1982)
x
x
(Rogerson &
Hrycaiko, 2002)
(Rush & Ayllon, 1984) x
x
(Scott et al., 1998)
Additional procedures
$
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
Behavioral Self‐ Self‐
Relaxation Simulated
Sr+
Verbal
Video
Video
Expert
Goal
Physical
Self‐
rehearsal talk imagery training
practice
Other Instruction or Sr− feedback feedback modeling modeling setting prompting monitoring
Skill training procedure
(Patrick & Hrycaiko,
1998)
Citation
Skills training table
TABLE 5
SCHENK AND MILTENBERGER
269
270
SCHENK AND MILTENBERGER
that a self‐talk procedure helped female collegiate tennis players improve their use of strategic advantages, such as
hitting the ball behind their opponent. Nine studies implemented a self‐imagery procedure. For example, Templin
and Vernacchia (1995) used a self‐imagery intervention in conjunction with relaxation training to increase the field
goal percentage of five male collegiate basketball players. Seven studies implemented a relaxation training procedure. For example, Kearns and Crossman (1992) used relaxation training in conjunction with self‐imagery to increase
the percentage of foul shots made by male collegiate basketball players. Seven studies implemented a behavioral
rehearsal procedure. For example, Hazen et al. (1990) used behavioral rehearsal in conjunction with multiple other
treatment components to improve competitive swimmers' ability to correctly engage in direction transitions
between lengths swam. Four studies implemented a simulated practice procedure. For example, Christina et al.
(1990) demonstrated that a male collegiate football linebacker increased his directional response accuracy to the
opposition during actual play by training response accuracy to a video highlight using a joystick to indicate which
movement he would make given the movements of the offense. Furthermore, Scott et al. (1998) used simulated
practice to help tennis players identify direction of their opponents serve more quickly by verbally responding to
a video recording of an individual's serve. Finally, ACT, BST, habit reversal, and discrimination training interventions
were implemented in one study each. For example, Little and Simpson (2000) used ACT to decrease the number of
negative thoughts that five collegiate softball players had, in turn, facilitating performance enhancement. Tai and
Miltenberger (2017) evaluated BST for teaching safe tackling skills to young football players. They provided instructions listing all the steps in a safe tackle and then modeled safe tacking. They then had the participants practice
tackling and provided feedback, pointing out what steps were done correctly and what steps needed to be
improved. Allen (1998) demonstrated that a habit reversal intervention helped an adolescent tennis player decrease
his angry outburst to increase his overall performance. Finally, Osborne et al. (1990) used discrimination training by
placing specific marks on baseballs that were thrown as curveballs and then fading the size of the lines to help collegiate baseball players discriminate between the spin of curveballs and other types of pitches.
3.3
|
Study design characteristics
The most common experimental design was a multiple baseline across subjects (38). For example, Kladopoulos and
McComas (2001) demonstrated that a behavioral intervention increased the number of foul shots made when it
was sequentially introduced across three collegiate basketball players. A multiple baseline across behaviors was the
second most common design (15). For example, Fogel et al. (2010) showed that four out of five behaviors related
to a golf swing were enhanced by sequentially implementing a TAGteach procedure for each behavior and that these
behaviors generalized to other golf clubs. Allen (1998) used a multiple baseline across settings to demonstrate that
the behavioral intervention helped enhance a tennis player's overall performance by decreasing inappropriate outbursts, first in the practice setting and then in different tournament settings. Eight studies included an ABAB reversal
design. For example, Hume and Crossman (1992) showed that contingent music for on‐task behavior increased the
amount of productivity by competitive swimmers each time it was implemented. The ABAB design was only appropriate for evaluating interventions that focused on performance enhancement rather than skill acquisition. Five studies included a multielement design. For example, Wolko et al. (1993) demonstrated that one treatment was more
effective at increasing the productivity of gymnasts compared with another treatment and a baseline by having
the subject experience all conditions during each week and counterbalancing their implementation over the course
of the study. Four studies included a changing criterion design. For example, Scott et al. (1998) decreased the amount
of time it took competitive tennis players to identify their opponent's serve. This was done by sequentially decreasing
the maximum required latency with which the subject was allowed to engage in the correct response. Also, three
studies included a multiple‐probe design. For example, Shapiro and Shapiro (1985) demonstrated high school athletes
could improve three separate track‐related behaviors by sequentially introducing the intervention across behaviors
after an improvement occurred with the previous behavior. Additionally, six studies used modified ABAB designs
SCHENK AND MILTENBERGER
271
in which multiple conditions were evaluated. For example, Baudry et al. (2006) demonstrated that the behavioral
intervention enhanced the performance of gymnasts more substantially than traditional coaching or specific instructions. Not all studies used designs that clearly demonstrated experimental control, however (25). Such studies
included AB case studies (Maryam et al., 2009), group designs with statistical analysis (e.g., Rikli & Smith, 1980),
ABA reversal designs (e.g., Polaha et al., 2004), and one study that began assessment with the treatment phase
(Christina et al., 1990).
4
|
DISCUSSION
The focus of this paper was to review published research to highlight the scope of behavioral research related to
sports and to summarize the applicability of behavior analysis to sports environments. Overall, this line of research
has provided a substantial contribution to behavior analysis by showing that multiple interventions produced
meaningful effects across numerous athletic behaviors. All of the included studies used objective behavioral
measures, and nearly every study produced discernible improvement in the target behaviors. However, there are
particular aspects of the research to discuss.
First, there are several terms that have been used non‐operationally throughout the literature. For example, the
term “behavioral coaching” has been used to describe a number of different coaching techniques when a behavioral
intervention was added, and it is often compared with standard coaching techniques that do not include a behavioral
intervention. Most often, behavioral coaching was similar to BST in that it included instruction, modeling, rehearsal,
and feedback. However, these four components were not always present in a behavioral coaching intervention, and
other components were sometimes added. Seniuk, Witts, Williams, and Ghezzi (2013) provide a full history of the
term behavioral coaching and provide an alternative definition to operationalize the term as a behavior analytic
technique. We believe the term, behavioral coaching, is sufficiently vague to warrant discontinuing its use.
Instead, researchers should identify the specific behavioral interventions they are investigating.
Second, somewhat similar to the vague use of behavioral coaching, there is a lack of clarity in the effects of
individual intervention components because interventions were generally part of a package. Although these package
interventions result in some loss of experimental control (regarding certainty of which component affected behavior),
there are several likely reasons that they were used: (a) they produced favorable effects; (b) it is difficult to separate
certain components in a sports setting without making the intervention seem peculiar to an athlete, which could, in
turn, be detrimental to the intervention process; and (c) the focus of the research is more on performance enhancement in general, as opposed to an analysis of which components best facilitate performance enhancement. Although
the last reason seems counterintuitive because identifying the component that best facilitates performance enhancement would allow for the most efficient interventions to be used, when working with athletes, time is of the essence
for the participants. Therefore, a desire to improve the science may be trumped by their need to improve performance, although these are not usually mutually exclusive. Some studies (e.g., Rikli & Smith, 1980; Smith & Ward,
2006) have assessed the efficacy of intervention components regarding behavior change, but future research could
further assess the components that best facilitate performance enhancement when conducted in a setting that is less
time sensitive. Furthermore, future research could assess the utility of different interventions across different sports
and age ranges. For example, video feedback might prove useful for adolescents but ineffective for young children, or
BST might be effective for teaching a correct golf swing but ineffective for teaching correct swimming strokes.
Third, as with many fields, the literature on the application of behavior analysis to sports appears to suffer from a
publication bias problem, in that nearly every study reported positive results for the intervention. Very few articles
reported partially negative results regarding the intervention. For example, Lerner et al. (1996) found that only goal
setting produced improvements in basketball free‐throw shooting for most subjects instead of the package intervention of goal setting and self‐imagery. In fact, the additional procedure of self‐imagery actually diminished behavioral
improvement. Osborne et al. (1990) introduced cues as discriminative stimuli to signal types of pitches thrown, and
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they reported an increase in hitting curveballs. However, this did not appear to generalize to unmarked balls, and
players actually hit unmarked balls worse overall during the experiment compared with baseline. Moreover, hitting
only increased when larger cues were used, and behavior returned to approximately baseline levels when the cues
were made smaller. One reason the abundance of positive results could be a problem is that some studies reported
small but significant findings (e.g., Aiken et al., 2012 found their result statistically significant with p = 0.04, but graphical analyses showed little to no difference). Although statistics can identify differences between data sets, statistically significant results are not the same as substantial and socially significant results. A possible explanation for
the mostly positive results could be the abundance of package interventions. Thus, by using multiple procedures, it
could hedge the bet, so to speak, that interventions would be a success. Although it is encouraging to see the variety
of behavioral procedures used to facilitate performance enhancement across sports, readers should exercise caution
when all procedures seem to produce similar behavioral improvements. That being said, the focus of the studies was
the subject's behavioral improvement, so it is not surprising to see mostly successful interventions.
A number of studies were not included in this review even though they focused on sports performance. First,
some studies discussed the utility of interventions as opposed to evaluating their implementation (e.g., Crews &
Boutcher, 1986; Lacy & Goldston, 1990; Smith, Smoll, & Christensen, 1996; Virués‐Ortega & Martin, 2010).
Such studies are useful for expanding the application of behavior analysis, or establishing useful measurement
techniques and behaviors of interest, but they were not the focus of this paper. Second, other studies measured
and discussed sports performance in the context of providing further applications of behavioral science but did
not expand into performance enhancement. For example, different quantitative analytic approaches have been used
to demonstrate the application of behavioral science to sports environments. Vollmer and Bourret (2000),
Romanowich, Bourret, and Vollmer (2007), and Alferink, Critchfield, Hitt, and Higgins (2009) demonstrated that
the matching law could be used to accurately describe basketball players shot selection, and Seniuk, Williams, Reed,
and Wright (2015) extended these findings to describe shot selection of professional hockey players. Furthermore,
Roane, Kelley, Trosclair, and Hauer (2004) used behavioral momentum theory to describe patterns of behavior in
women's college basketball. Although this line of research is providing an exciting direction for behavior analysts, it
does not evaluate interventions but rather provides descriptions of behavior analytic principles applied to sports;
therefore, we did not include such articles in our review (for an in‐depth review of quantitative analytic techniques
as they are applied to sports, see Reed, 2011). Future research could assess the utility of using quantitative models
to facilitate performance enhancement and inform interventions.
There are multiple gaps in the literature that could be addressed by future research on behavior analysis and
sports performance. Although video technology has been extensively used in sports, research could be conducted
to identify which components of video technology best facilitates performance improvements. For example, several
studies have evaluated the utility of video modeling and video feedback (e.g., Aiken et al., 2012; Post et al., 2016;
Todorov et al., 1997) and reported that both procedures helped improve performance. Also, multiple studies have
evaluated the utility of video feedback alone (e.g., Guadagnoli et al. 2002; Partington et al., 2015) or video modeling
alone (e.g., Maryam et al., 2009) and reported positive results. However, other studies have reported that both of
these procedures are not always effective when facilitating performance enhancement (Emmen, Wesseling et al.,
1985; Rikli & Smith, 1980; Rothstein & Arnold, 1976; Van Wieringen et al., 1989). The negative results reported in
these studies though are likely due to poor experimental designs or the use of dated video technology. Regardless,
further research should be done to determine the utility of video technology and its multiple components in enhancing sports performance.
One procedure that has not been included in the previous discussion of behavioral analytic procedures in sports
is the simulated practice procedure included in this paper. The proliferation of computer‐based technology has
influenced nearly every aspect of human behavior including sports and has manifested in several forms. For golf,
there are simulators where an individual can actually swing clubs and hit golf balls on a completely simulated golf
course. The introduction of the video game console allows players to remotely control avatars that engage in all
responses related to virtually every sport. Outside of sports, flight simulators are a common teaching tool that have
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been shown to decrease the cost of pilot training by reducing the number of in‐flight learning trials by as much as
50% (Lintern, Shepard, Parker, Yates, & Nolan, 1989). The use of flight simulators has also resulted in equal levels
of successful performance compared with individuals trained using only actual flight trials (Gopher, Weil, & Bareket,
1992; for further review of the use of simulated environments to facilitate sports performance, see Farrow, 2013).
As the technology continues to improve, future research should investigate the utility of simulations in facilitating
performance enhancement.
Similar to Martin, Thompson, and Regehr (2004), we found no studies that focused on the performance
enhancement of professional athletes. This is not surprising, however, as most teams or clubs fund and provide
psychological assistance to professional athletes for the benefit of the team. Therefore, inadvertently providing
propitious information regarding performance enhancement to rival teams might result in unfavorable advantages
to competitors, as many professional teams represent a multimillion dollar organization whose success compared
with their rivals can affect income. Interestingly, many of the interventions discussed (e.g., instruction and video feedback) are already being used in most professional sports. Therefore, it would likely prove fruitful if behavior analytic
research could expand into the realm of professional sports.
Overall, our findings identify the range of behavior‐based sports research on performance enhancement
over that last five decades. Our review provides substantial evidence that behavior analysis has much to offer
athletes in many sports. Over 100 studies have been conducted, which indicate a variety of behavioral procedures
can be used across numerous sports to effectively facilitate performance enhancement. Whether it is playing catch
in the backyard with one's parent, scoring a goal to help a team win, attempting to set world records at the Olympics,
or simply being an informed casual observer, sports serve an invaluable function in nearly every culture and
society, and this body of research establishes methods that can be used to improve an individual's ability to engage
in these behaviors.
CO MPLIANCE WITH ET HICAL STANDARDS
ETHICAL APPROVAL
This is a review paper, so no ethical approval was required.
INFORMED CONSENT
This is a review paper, so no informed consent was required.
CONF LICT OF INT E RE ST
The authors declare no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of
this article.
ORCID
Raymond Miltenberger
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6331-298X
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How to cite this article: Schenk M, Miltenberger R. A review of behavioral interventions to enhance sports
performance. Behavioral Interventions. 2019;34:248–279. https://doi.org/10.1002/bin.1659
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