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O-Level
Sociology O Level Notes
Features:
-
Sufficient for excelling at both paper 1 and paper 2
Complete course outline, paper pattern with concerned percentages
Concise yet comprehensive enough to be used as a quick revision guide.
Important topics discussed in greater detail to cater syllabus requirements.
Past paper questions after every chapter.
Syllabus and Paper Pattern
Paper 1 – Total 90 marks and 60%.
Time: 2 hours
Unit 1 Theory and methods
Q1 Compulsory question – 45 marks
Unit 2 Culture identity and socialization
Q2 Choice based question (Attempt either Q2 from
unit 2 or Q3 from unit 3 worth 35 marks)
Unit 3 Social Inequality
Q3 Choice based question (Attempt either Q2 from
unit 2 or Q3 from unit 3 worth 35 marks)
Paper 2 – Total 70 marks and 40%
Time: 1 hour and 45 minutes.
Attempt 2 out of 4 questions. One question from each unit.
Unit 4 Family
Q1 (Attempt two questions from the give four, each
worth 35 marks)
Unit 5 Education
Q2 (Attempt two questions from the give four, each
worth 35 marks)
Unit 6 Crime, Deviance and social control
Q3 (Attempt two questions from the give four, each
worth 35 marks)
Unit 7 Media
Q4 (Attempt two questions from the give four, each
worth 35 marks)
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Contents
Unit 1: Theory and Methods
How do sociologists interpret society?
How do sociologists study society?
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Unit-2: Culture, Identity and Socialization
Relationship between individual and the society
Diversity and variation in human behavior
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Unit-3: Social Stratification
What is social stratification?
What are the main features of social inequality and how are these created?
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Unit-4: Family
What are the different types of family
How are family roles changing
What are the changes affecting the family
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Unit-5: Education
The Function of Education
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Unit-6: Crime, Deviance and Social Control
What are crime deviance and social control
What are explanations of crime
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Unit-7: The Media
Who controls the media?
What is the influence of the media?
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UNIT-1
Theory and Methods
O Levels
TEACHERS NOTES
Topics
-
How do sociologists interpret society?
How do sociologists study society?
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Unit-1: Theory and Methods
How do sociologists interpret society?
Intro – What is sociology
-
The study of human social life, groups and societies.
Sociology explores the social factors that shape human behavior and the way that
society influences our daily lives.
Structuralism
- First of the two main approaches towards sociology.
- Macro perspective.
- Societies are seen as sets of structures in which individuals play different roles –
Individuals have little choice.
- Emile Durkheim – suicide: not different in countries but different between countries.
- In societies with support networks – religion – strong connections leads to lower suicide
rates.
- Durkheim used positivist’s methods. Examples: Correlations and causation.
Interpretivism
- Micro level approach in which individual is important.
- We grow up in society norms but always have an opportunity to choose from different
identities. People own thoughts are important. The meanings individuals give to the
society.
- What people say about the crime is important.
- People make the societies.
- Socially available labels:
o Age, gender, social class, nationality, roles in families such as a parent, religious
or political organization.
Conflict vs. consensus approaches
-
Consensus – for equality in society or agreed norms. Status or power: values can be
shared on religion for instance. This is a stable form of society.
Conflict: where values are not shared such as societies with different wealth are
unstable.
Functionalism
- Consensus approach
- Focus on social functions and ask – what keeps the society together?
o Schools help children run economies.
o Families social norms (next generations can learn)
o Prison (to keep criminals off the roads).
Marxism
- Conflict approach.
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-
Different social classes – bourgeoisie (upper class) and proletariat (working class).
Radical change and equality are required.
Politics and economics as well:
o Proletariat will be exploited – on wages – never paid full wages.
o Schools ensure people fail and accept low position in society.
o Mass media distracts the society for the main issues such as capitalism.
Feminism
- Conflict approach.
- Patriarchy exists and males are more dominant.
- Discrimination for women exists in work, education etc.
- Some say feminism is anti men.
- Types:
o Liberal feminist: Argue that equality has been reached and that only equality
promoting laws are required.
o Radical feminists: societies fundamentally patriarchal – need conflict and radical
change.
o Marxist feminist: how class and gender work together.
How do sociologists study society?
What is sociological research?
- The study of human social life, groups and societies.
- Sociology explores the social factors that shape human behavior and the way that
society influences our daily lives.
- Sociologists must select and use evidence in a balanced way or other sociologists may
criticize the research. They focus on group (rather than individual) behavior and discuss
the social influences on human life.
Research Types
- Primary or Secondary
- Different methods of research exist.
- Important to follow proper procedures – others will question your research.
- Positivism vs. Interpretivism (main two approaches to study the society).
Positivism
- Produce quantitative data such as in scientific subjects (chemistry, physics etc.):
o Quantitative data: facts and numerical values.
- Scientists are not guided by values but data.
- Bias may exist in values and sampling methods.
- Experiments are difficult in sociology and therefore questionnaires and surveys are
required for quantitative data.
Interpretivism
- Positivists may be able to describe a social world but interpretivists want to understand
why an action is taken.
- Example: To understand why crime takes place.
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Major differences between positivism and interpretivism.
Positivism:
o Assumes society has objective social facts.
o Support quantitative data.
o Use experiments and questionnaires.
o What kind of group behaves in a particular way?
The Research Process
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
Developing the aims or hypotheses of the research
Carrying out pilot studies
Selecting samples
Collecting data
Analyzing the data
Evaluating the project
Aims and Hypothesis
Sociologists ask questions about the social world. When they carry out research, they put these
questions in the forms of research aims and hypothesis.
Research aim set out what the researcher is planning to investigate and give a clear focus to
the study. Budget etc. depends on the Aims.
A hypothesis is a hunch or informed guess. It is usually written as a statement that can be
tested and then either supported by the evidence or refuted (proven wrong).
Research Aims or Hypothesis:
1. The media causes violent behavior. Hypothesis
2. People have a stereotypical view of women because of the way in which they are
represented in the media. Hypothesis
3. To find out and compare the pattern of divorce of white and Asian families in the UK.
Aims
4. To find out if the family is still important today and to understand people’s experience of
different types of family. Aims
5. Prisons do not help to reduce crime. Hypothesis
Pilot studies
- A pilot study is a small-scale trial run carried out before the main research.
- It can save time, money and effort in the long run because the researcher can check
whether the chosen research method (interview, questionnaire, etc) is likely to be useful.
Selecting Samples
- What is a sample? – A sample is a selection of the population used for a study.
- Why use a sample? – Because it’s expensive and time consuming to question the whole
population.
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How to select a sample? – A sample Is selected from a sampling frame. A sampling
frame is a list of members of the population, for example, a school register, a list of
membership subscriptions or the Royal Mail’s list of postcode addresses.
If the sampling frame is inaccurate it may make the sample unrepresentative (not typical
of the general population). An unrepresentative sample does not allow for
generalizations. Generalizations are statements and conclusions that apply to the whole
population, not just those who have been sampled.
Probability sampling
-
Simple Random Sampling
Each member of the population has an equal
chance of being included.
A computer selectes numbers simply at
random.
Systematic sampling
Involves taking every 'nth' item form the
sampling frame, for example every 4th name
from the register. if the population consists of
1000 people and a sample of 100 is needed
the researcher will select a number between 1
and 10. If this were 5, then the 5th, 15th and
25th names - and so on up to the 995th name
would be selected.
Stratified Random Sampling involves dividing
the population into strata (subgroups), such as
age and gender. The sample selected would
be proportionate to the population. So if there
are 200 boys age 15, in a school of 1000
students, 20 boys would be chosen in a sample
of 100.
Non - Probability Samples
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Snowball Sampling:
This sampling technique requires the researcher to
make contact with one member of the population,
gradually gaining this person's confidence until they
are willing to identify others in the same population
who might cooperate.
Quota Sampling:
In this sampling you are required to include a
number (quota) of people from categories such as
female, teenager, Indian, disabled, in proportion to
their number in the wider population. So if the
population is 10% Indian you must ensure 10% of
your sample is as well.
Purposive Sampling:
This sample is selected according to a known
characteristic, such as being a policeman or a MP. .
Opportunistic Sampling:
This sample involves just using anyone who
happens to be available - it is not particularly
representative so cannot be used to generalise.
Data Collection
- Once a researcher has carried out a pilot study, made any necessary changes to it and
selected a sample, he or she is ready to begin the process of gathering data. Data can
be collected by using one or more methods from a range of research methods such as
questionnaires, interviews and observations. When data is collected by doing research
in the above stated way, it is known as primary data.
- Data collection.
- The research Process.
- Data Analysis.
Data Evaluation
- Before the research can be published it is evaluated by other experienced sociologists.
This form of peer assessment acts as a form of quality control.
Difficulties in research
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Ethical issues effecting Research
- Ethical issues are those issues that have a moral dimensions such as harm of distress
may be caused to the participant.
- People involved so researcher and respondent should not be harmed.
- Some guidelines
o Participant should not harmed.
o Informed consent taken.
o Not invade participant’s privacy.
o Participants should not be deceived.
o The research should be confidential anonymous (whenever possible).
- Ethical issues effecting Research.
- Harm – fully aware of the harm – both physical and physiological.
- Informed consent – What is the research? Information needs to be provided about gray
ideas.
- Invasion of privacy – Does agreement to an interview mean that all questions need to be
answered?
- Deception – Respondents should not be deceived.
The main methods used in sociological investigation – Primary research
- Questionnaires
- Interviews
- Experiments
- Case studies
- Longitudinal studies
- Participation observation
- Non participation observation
- Content analysis
- Triangulation
Questionnaires
- Types of Questions:
o Closes ended: pre coded with limited answer responses available. Example
being (yes or no options to answer a question).
o Advantage is ease of data analysis, disadvantage is not having a required option
– (please specify to cure this problem).
x Scaled questions are also available
o Open questions: Some times can answer at length. Why people choose. Still can
be coded but are more difficult to code compared to close ended.
- Ways of administering questionnaires:
o Self-completion questionnaires: there is no additional guidance from the
researcher. Postal questionnaires have the advantage of larger numbers, but
researchers can’t monitor. It also has a low response rate.
o Structured interviews: the advantage is higher response rate and correct
question understanding. Disadvantage is of time
x Telephonic or face to face is a possibility for conducting the
questionnaire.
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Reliability and validity
-
Reliability: research can be repeated with same responses.
Validity: when findings accurately reflect reality.
Social surveys are reliable mostly but not valid.
Interviews
-
Types
o Unstructured.
o Semi structured (guide is present).
o Focus groups (how people respond in a group. Group dynamics are important
because some people may be silent or dominating).
The interviewer does not need a schedule of questions and it is more like a conversation. Focus
on the interviewee:
-
Guidelines:
o Make interviewee comfortable.
o Certain order should be maintained.
o Language used should be understandable.
o Quite and private setting.
o Quality recording machine (can’t remember everything).
o Some types of questions.
o Introductory questions: can you tell me about?
o Follow up questions: what do you mean by?
o Probing questions: Could you say a bit more
o Indirect questions: Why do people feel?
o Silence: So that more detail can be provided
Strengths:
- Detailed and valid data.
- Flexibility allows for detail.
- Interviewers can access the honestly.
- Bring out info for further study.
Limitations:
- Time consuming.
- Not able to make generalizations as
standard questions not used.
- Less reliable than structured
questions (how would you replicate?)
- Interviewer needs to be highly skilled.
- Responses effected by interviewer
bias:
- Unintentional way the questions are
asked.
- May be effected by interviewer effect:
Interviewer’s age, gender ethnicity.
Experiments
-
Neglected way but the closest to natural science – positivists prefer this method.
They minimize subjectivity (the researcher’s views influence).
Cause and effect relations are being established (dependent and independent variable).
They are reliable and valid.
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Two types:
o Laboratory experiments: artificial setting and flawed – may be spoiled by
Hawthorne effect or observer effect.
o Field Experiments:
x Ethical problems exist.
x People get angry about strange situations.
x Researcher can loose control over the experiment.
x But they are a very effective way of getting to know behavior.
Case Studies
-
A detailed study of one group or event.
Can be qualitative and quantitative.
Example of case study: Car worker in UK factory paid more and behave like a middle
class person. The study was done via the case study method.
Strengths:
- Can explore different aspects of a
case.
- Deep and detailed account of a case.
- If a case is carefully chosen then
wider conclusions can be made.
- Can be tested by other researchers
as well.
Limitations:
- Only apply to case so generalizations
are a problem.
- The findings cannot be replicated.
- Deep involvement of researcher can
influence the findings.
Longitudinal studies
-
A survey taking place at intervals for a long time – Survey and interview.
Generally used by governments.
Panel studies: Where nearly the same people are studied.
Strengths:
- Survey research only a snapshot
whereas this is a long film.
- What factors have contributed for a
change?
- Respondents will provide valid date
as they have been committed.
Limitations:
- Time and commitment are required
from respondents.
- Being a part of this research changes
the participants therefore reality of
responses is still a question mark.
- Inevitable drop out from the research.
Participation and non-participation observation
Participation observation:
-
World of the subject – getting in that:
o Getting in: covert or overt. For covert you need to share characteristics of the
people.
o Staying in: gaining trust – note taking can spoil that.
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Getting out: damage relationships. Being impartial. Detached is the key to
success for this method,
Covert and overt:
o In overt the researcher becomes a full member. The group cannot discover the
true identity. It is hard work and requires some illegal activity. Criminal group
study. Note taking is a problem.
o Overt where the researcher tell the group. Can easily take notes but the group
may behave differently.
o
-
Strengths:
- Validity.
- Deep understanding of the group.
Limitations:
- Overt can affect behavior, as the
respondents know that they are being
studied.
- Reliability low as can’t be done again.
- Can’t make generalizations.
- The researcher needs to have social
characteristics of the group.
- A lot of energy is required for covert.
- Researcher looses objectivity as
he/she becomes close with the group.
Non-Participation observation:
-
The researcher is just observing or video recording.
Used for quantitative data – how many times an action is taken.
Used when groups unwilling to cooperate.
To make sure the behavior is not effected with the presence of the researcher.
Not know the meaning people attach to actions – This is a problem.
People may also accuse the researcher of his or her own assumptions (reliability and
validity is a problem).
Content Ananlysis
-
Study the content of documents and mass media.
Define a set of categories and classifies the material by seeing how much does it
appear.
Media does not show disabled people for instance. Count the number of time disabled
people are shown and count the number of times normal people are show. Bias in media
can be figured out by using this method.
Strengths:
- Statistical form where mass media
can be studied and recommendations
can be made such as asking the
media to show more deaf people.
- Reliable.
- No respondents’ ethical problems are
limited in nature.
Limitations:
- Statistics are interesting but does not
tell us why they are that way.
- What categories to use?
- How to allocate material different
categories.
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Triangulation
-
Triangulation.
When a variety of methods are used.
Strengths:
- Quantitative data with qualitative
(more reliability and validity).
- Check validity of the research.
- Reliability checking various sources.
- Balance between methods.
Limitations:
- Time consuming.
- Researcher needs to be skilled in
both areas.
- Positivists and interpretivist approach
differs and difficult to combine
together.
The importance of evaluating research
-
Three issues:
o Practical: time and money plus response rates and how to transcribe long
interviews is also an important aspect.
o Ethical: anonymity, informed consent, confidentially, harms and risk are all very
important ethical concerns.
o Theoretical: Positivists and interpretivists, Validity, reliability representativeness
and research bias:
x Validity: Accurately reflect reality, participation observation and
unstructured valid. Reliability not strong in these methods. Validity
is more important for interpretivists and less so for positivists.
x Reliability: extent to which results can be confirmed with
repetition. Surveys are more reliable. This is less valid as
respondents are not truthful while responding to surveys.
x Representatives: Sample a smaller version of the population. It
has to be of the same gender age etc. Does it apply to the
population? Sample error; which is the difference between the
population results and sample results, can occur. Sample error
can be reduced by having large random sample or stratified
random results.
x Research Bias: Researchers own views such as political; can
affect the research. Postivists say that this about not happen but
interpretivists say it is acceptable. Research views are an
imposition problem. This can happen through social
characteristics of the researcher.
Data types
-
Primary
Secondary (once was primary).
Qualitative (by interpretivisits).
Quantitative (by positivists).
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Secondary data types
Quantitative secondary data (official stats):
- National and local governments.\
- Hard statistics – Free from any error or incompleteness (birth, marriages and death
rates).
- Soft statistics – depends on people making decisions on what to record (crime and
unemployment statistics).
Strengths:
- Readily available and free of charge.
- Produced by research that is well
planned – more valid, reliable and
representatives.
- Part of longitudinal research thus
shows trends.
- They allow comparisons to be made
over time and between regions.
- For policy makers and sociologists.
Limitations:
- Interprevists argue that these are
socially constructed rather than
objective facts. Increase in motoring
offences or just that police reports
more now?
- Stats are not accurate – UK census
missing 1 million people.
- Politics can affect people.
- Comparisons cannot be made – an
increase in crime rate could just mean
that more activities are illegal now
than in the past.
- Marxists argue that stats reflects the
ruling class. Stats drawing away from
white-collar crimes.
Quantitative Data (non-official stats):
- By religious groups, charities etc.
- UK Sutton trust carries out research that is quantitative in nature.
- Diagrams, Charts, graphs and tables.
Qualitative (historical data):
- Letters and diaries.
- Intention of being published vs. not published (One of the most important questions is
whether it is ethical to publish these if the person is not alive or if the family does not
consent).
- Politician favorable view of themselves (in their books and diaries).
- Autobiographies – many years after the event has taken place? Favorable viewpoint the
person the person involved.
- Some documents not public.
- Household accounts, wills, photographs may not be public data.
- Strengths:
o High in validity.
o First hand accounts of people involved.
o Descriptive details and insight missing in statistics.
- Limitations:
o Unrepresented.
o Check against other sources.
o Biased.
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Media consent.
Newspaper, TV programs, radio shows etc.
Documentaries
There may be bias in programs.
Movies may be a representation of life at that time.
But writer’s imagination also comes into play in movies and books so they may not
depict reality.
Interpreting and evaluating secondary qualitative data is essential.
o Who wrote the text (poor people didn’t write so old text is generally coming from
upper class)?
o Why was the source written – should it be read by others or is it private?
o Is it biased?
o Is it typical for that type of social actor?
o Is it clear how the author meant for the document to be looked at?
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PAGE 26
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PAGE 27
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PAGE 28
0-
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CHILD SOLDIERS
Child soldier. Some words don’t belong together.
It’s bad enough that children’s lives are torn apart by wars they didn’t start. But when they’re
forced into fighting in the conflict themselves, it causes psychological and physical damage that
can often never be repaired.
Every child has the right to go to school and to live free from violence. Using children as soldiers
is a breach of those rights and it is simply wrong.
THERE ARE
ESTIMATED TO
BE 250,000 CHILD
SOLDIERS IN
THE WORLD.
40% OF CHILD
SOLDIERS ARE
GIRLS
Key facts and statistics about child soldiers
• There are an estimated 250,000 child soldiers in
the world today.
• Many rebel groups use child soldiers to fight the
government, but some governments also use child
soldiers in armed conflict.
• Not all children take part in active combat. Some
are also used as porters, cooks and spies.
• As part of their recruitment, children are sometimes
forced to kill or hurt a family member – thus
breaking the bonds with their community and
making it difficult for them to return home.
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PAGE 29
2251/12/O/N/17
1
Source A
In general, family rules about media use in the home are typically less important to children than
they are to their parents. For example, one middle-class British father claimed that he censored
television for his children and would not allow them to watch television after 9pm. However, in
another room, talking to another interviewer his sons (aged 13 and 10) said something very
different.
Quotes from the interview
Interviewer: Do your parents have lots of rules that you follow about television?
Son 1:
No, not really rules.
Interviewer: Rules about what time you have got to go to bed?
Son 2:
Yes.
Son 1:
They tell us to go up to our bedrooms at about 9.30pm and then we just watch
television in our bedrooms until they come up and tell us to switch it off.
Son 2:
They shout at you and tell you to turn it off.
Interviewer: When do they tell you to do that?
Son 1:
At about 11pm.
$GDSWHGIURP0RLUD%RYLOODQG6RQLD/LYLQJVWRQH¶&KLOGUHQDQGWKHLU&KDQJLQJ0HGLD(QYLURQPHQW·
D Using Source A, identify two findings from the interview.
[2]
E Identify two types of interview that might be used to research home life.
[2]
F Using information from Source A, describe two ways researchers attempt to ensure the
validity of their research.
[4]
G Describe two ways the interviewer may cause bias when carrying out sociological research.
[4]
H Describe two strengths and two limitations of the micro approach to sociological research.
[8]
I Explain why it would be difficult to make generalisations from a single interview.
[10]
J To what extent do Marxists and feminists have different views about society?
[15]
PAGE 30
2251/13/O/N/17
1
Source A
Disability Data
25
Key
% population
with disability
20 20 19.3 18
15
10
5
7 6.4 6.3
5.6
2.5 2.1
Sr U
iL K
a
Vi nka
et
na
m
Ba C
h
ng in
la a
d
Pa esh
ki
st
an
In
di
a
Au
st
ra
lia
U
SA
0
7KHGDWDDERYHLVWDNHQIURPWKH¶&HQVXVRI,QGLD:HEVLWH·
The Government believed the statistics were not accurate and the number of disabled people in
India had been seriously underestimated. This may have been because of errors with deciding
who is disabled or people not wishing to admit they were disabled. The Government therefore
trained new official researchers to collect the data accurately for the 2011 census.
D From the evidence in Source A, which two countries have the highest percentage of disabled
people in their population?
[2]
E Identify two methods that could be used to collect data from a large sample.
F Using Source A, describe two reasons why the data collected for India may not be accurate.
[4]
G Describe two strengths of using official statistics in sociological research.
[4]
H Describe two strengths and two limitations of using sampling in sociological research.
[8]
I Explain why large scale research can be difficult.
[10]
J To what extent can objectivity be maintained in sociological research?
[15]
[2]
PAGE 31
06_2251_12_2018_1.1
1
Source A
Diane Reay and her colleagues wanted to study people going to university in the UK, who were
not from traditional middle class backgrounds.
The researchers studied people from six different universities as their sample population. They
gave out 502 questionnaires and followed this up with 53 interviews with students. The qualitative
interviews were thought not to be representative of the whole sample population.
The students were given a free choice to define their own ethnicity. The result was not as the
researchers expected. In the UK the majority of the people are ‘White’ but less than half of the
sample defined their ethnicity this way. One interviewee defined himself by his nationality rather
than by his ethnicity.
Adapted from Moore et. al. Sociology
(a) Using Source A, identify the two research methods used by the researchers.
[2]
(b) Identify two methods that might be used to research who goes to university, apart from those
in Source A.
[2]
(c) Using Source A, describe two problems with the researchers’ methods.
[4]
(d) Describe two reasons why research may be conducted covertly.
[4]
(e) Describe two strengths and two limitations of using self-completion questionnaires in
sociological research.
[8]
(f)
[10]
Explain why sociologists may use triangulation in their research.
(g) To what extent is it possible to generalise from research?
[15]
PAGE 32
06_2251_13_2018_1.2
1
Source A
There was a radio broadcast in 1938 called ‘‘The War of the Worlds’’. The story is about an alien
invasion. Whilst it was not real the broadcast became famous for causing mass panic in parts of
the USA. Many people believed that Earth was being invaded by aliens. The first part of the broadcast
was in the style of news bulletins, which made some people believe that the alien invasion was
real.
In 1940 Hadley Cantril researched the effect this broadcast had on the audience. He interviewed
135 people and found 74 per cent had believed the broadcast was real. However another piece of
research, a large national survey, found different results. In this study only 12 per cent believed
the alien invasion was real.
(a) From the evidence in Source A, identify the two research methods used.
[2]
(b) Identify two ways in which primary data may be biased.
[2]
(c) Using information from Source A, suggest two possible reasons why the results of the interviews
were different to those of the national survey.
[4]
(d) Describe two strengths of using field experiments in sociological research.
[4]
(e) Describe two strengths and two limitations of using non-official statistics in sociological
research.
[8]
(f)
[10]
Explain why research based on media content may not be valid.
(g) To what extent is the positivist approach the best way of conducting sociological research?
[15]
PAGE 33
11_2251_12_2018_1.1
1
Source A
A famous study by Elton Mayo was conducted in the USA in the 1920’s. The study was done in
the Hawthorne factory. Mayo was asked to observe a group of workers and conduct a series of
experiments. This was to allow the owners of the factory to create the best possible working
conditions for them to get the most amount of work completed by their employees. To do this Mayo
experimented with:
•
the levels of heating
•
the levels of lighting
•
the length of rest breaks.
Mayo discovered that, no matter how the working conditions changed, the amount of work completed
always increased. The possible explanations for this were:
1. The working conditions make little difference to the way people work.
2. Mayo’s presence changed the behaviour of the workers.
(a) From the evidence in Source A, identify the two research methods being used.
[2]
(b) Identify two problems researchers might have when interviewing people about their job.
[2]
(c) Using information from Source A, describe two factors affecting the validity of the research.
[4]
(d) Describe two strengths of using telephone questionnaires in sociological research.
[4]
(e) Describe two strengths and two limitations of structured interviews.
[8]
(f)
[10]
Explain why findings from participant observation may be valid.
(g) To what extent is the functionalist view of society correct?
[15]
PAGE 34
11_2251_13_2018_1.2
Source A
Answer Question 1
Life expectancy for selected countries (2010)
88
key
male
83.0
female
82.4
84.3
83.0
82
82.9
83.7
84.2
84.4
84
84.4
86.0
86
78.7
78.3
77.4
76
78.9
77.8
79.4
79.0
78.7
78
79.5
age
(years) 80
79.2
1
74
72
Japan Switzerland Italy
Australia Iceland
Spain
Sweden France Canada
Israel
country
Source: Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, OECD Health Data 2010.
(a) From the evidence in Source A, identify the two countries with the lowest male life
expectancy.
[2]
(b) Identify two reasons for conducting a pilot study.
[2]
(c) Using information from Source A describe two problems sociologists might have conducting
research on a global scale.
[4]
(d) Describe two limitations of using open questions in sociological research.
[4]
(e) Describe two strengths and two limitations of feminist views about society.
[8]
(f)
[10]
Explain why ethical issues may be a problem when conducting sociological research.
(g) To what extent is sampling representative?
[15]
PAGE 35
06_2251_12_2019_1.1
1
Source A
Feminist researchers are often concerned that the balance of power between the researcher and
respondent is likely to affect any data gathered. They argue that the interviewer and the interviewee
should be seen as equals in the research process. Feminists prefer unstructured interviews which
give time and space for the interviewee to offer their views.
In structured interviews the interviewer is the one in control, they direct the questioning and record
the data. In unstructured interviews the interviewees describe their experiences in their own words
with the interviewer acting only as a guide. This is why feminists prefer to use unstructured interviews.
Feminists also like to use focus groups in their research.
Positivists select objective methods that avoid interviewer bias but feminists reject this approach.
Instead feminists claim that developing a relationship with respondents is an essential part of
establishing trust and respect. Positivists also argue that unstructured interviews are very difficult
to repeat.
(a) From Source A, identify two research methods used by feminists.
[2]
(b) Identify two types of observation used by sociologists.
[2]
(c) Using information from Source A, describe two reasons why some sociologists like to use
unstructured interviews.
[4]
(d) Describe two strengths of using a social survey in sociological research.
[4]
(e) Describe two strengths and two limitations of using focus groups in sociological research.
[8]
(f)
Explain why sampling is important for sociological research.
(g) To what extent is validity the most important aspect of sociological research?
[10]
[15]
PAGE 36
06_2251_13_2019_1.1
1
Source A
Devising sociological research can be affected by various factors such as: the researcher’s social
identity, their personal experiences and interests as well as their theoretical perspective and
preferences for particular sociological approaches. Other factors affecting research design include:
ethical issues, time constraints, accessing samples and funding. Doing research can be expensive
so getting funding is important. Many sociologists get their funding from governments or charities.
Although all parts of the research process are important pilot studies are considered essential by
many researchers. A pilot study is a preliminary small scale study that is carried out before the
main research. It can help researchers decide how to carry out a large scale study as well as identify
potential problems with the method, sample or research question.
(a) From Source A, identify two ways sociologists get their funding.
[2]
(b) Identify two examples of sampling frames used by sociologists.
[2]
(c) Using information from Source A, describe two reasons why researchers like to use pilot
studies.
[4]
(d) Describe two strengths of using semi-structured interviews in sociological research.
[4]
(e) Describe two strengths and two limitations of using snowball sampling in sociological research.
[8]
(f)
Explain why sociologists should follow ethical guidelines when carrying out research.
[10]
(g) To what extent are positivist methods the most effective way of carrying out sociological
research?
[15]
PAGE 37
06_2251_12_2020_1.4
The comparative study is a scientific approach to sociological research and is often used by
positivists.Sociologistscancomparedatabetweensocialgroupsandidentifydifferencesbetween
them,suchaseducationalachievement.
Sociologistsmaycomparedatasuchasthedifferentfemaleliteracyratesaroundtheworld(Fig.
1.1).Femaleliteracyratesrefertothepercentageofwomenover15yearsofagethatcanread
andwriteinacountry.AnotherexampleofacomparativestudyistheUKcensus.Everytenyears
intheUKallhouseholdshavetocompleteadetailedsurvey.Manyofthequestionsarestandardised
andremainthesameovertime.LikemanysourcesofofficialstatisticstheUKcensusgathersa
largeamountofquantitativedatatakingamacroapproach.
International Female Literacy Rates
100
90
80
70
60
Percentage 50
40
30
20
10
0
Afghanistan
Chile
Ghana
Nicaragua
Nigeria
Country
Fig. 1.1
1
(a) From Source A, identify the two countries with the lowest female literacy rates.
[2]
(b) Identify two methods that could be used by positivists.
[2]
(c) Using information from Source A, describe two reasons why researchers use official
statistics.
[4]
(d) Describe two limitations of using case studies in sociological research.
[4]
(e) Describe two strengths and two limitations of using unstructured interviews in
sociological research.
[8]
(f)
Explain why objectivity is difficult to maintain when carrying out sociological research.
[10]
(g) To what extent are macro structuralist approaches the most useful for understanding
society?
[15]
PAGE 38
PAGE 39
6/*5
$6-563& *%&/5*5:"/%
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PAGE 40
PAGE 41
Unit-2
Culture, identity and socialization
Topics
-
Relationship between individual and the society.
Diversity and variation in human behavior.
PAGE 42
Unit-2: Culture, Identity and Socialization
Relationship between individual and the society
Culture, norms, values and beliefs
Culture (the way of life) – includes:
- Way you eat, drink.
- How you dress.
- Language, spoken & unspoken.
- Spending of leisure time.
- Home and family.
- Religious and spiritual beliefs.
- Celebrations and festivals.
Elements of culture:
- Symbols – anything that carries a meaning by the same culture – a cross.
- Language.
- Values – Standard of what is good and bad.
- Beliefs: what people hold true – more specific than values.
- Norms – the kind of behavior expected by people.
- Folkways are norms for routine – social interaction.
- Mores are more widely observed for what is right or wrong.
- Customs are norms widely accepted and carried out for a long period of time.
- Some norms make laws that are enforced by a formal body.
Culture, norms, values and beliefs
- Difficult to draw a distinction between values, beliefs and norms.
- Values include things such as personal space etc. – industrialized society it is
considered wrong to move in personal space.
- Values and norms are social construction.
- Status: a position that someone has in the society.
- Norms and values change over time – people now are shocked by violent behavior and
in the past it was considered normal.
- Societies disapprove of those who don’t follow norms.
- Elements of culture, status, role and identity:
o Most norms are associated with status (position that someone has in the
society).
o Family status as a daughter.
o With each status a set of norms go – role (patterns of behavior expected of
someone because of their status).
o Role of a student to attend classes.
o In modern societies people can achieve status.
o Society and culture different-Society is the institutions formal and informal.
Culture is how these work and how norms are set.
- Micro level identities and individuals. Macro level is about Culture and societies.
PAGE 43
-
Social identities – people give to us. Male or female is gender identity that has been
given to us.
We can choose to respond to how others see us.
There is confusion about identities in today’s world.
Stereotype: The attributes that people think that is generally wrong.
Conformity and non-conformity
The agencies and processes of social control.
There is value consensus (all people agree on the shared values). Criminals also sometimes
disapprove of other criminals. But societies need to have ways of social conformity.
Positive and negative sanctions are required for conformity.
Peer groups may do informal social control. Ostracism and exclusion from group is an option.
Agencies of social control are agencies of socialization – they pass on norms and values plus
also make people conform:
- Families – primary socialization.
- Schools and hidden curriculum.
- Religion.
- The Media.
- Workplaces rules.
- Peer groups and peer pressure.
- But if these agencies fail there are formal agencies and sanction system by the police
and law enforcing agencies. They use coercion.
Functionalists and Marxists
Functionalists say social conformity is a good thing and best to not use force.
Marxist disagree and say that rich make rules and poor stuck in roles assigned to them.
Examples of sanctions in different societies and
organizations.
PAGE 44
Schools:
Notice board rules.
Have seen positive sanctions such as good job, praise posiotive
letters to parents work better than negative sanctions or
punishments for negative behavior.
Workplace:
Rules about start and finish times.
Ultimate sanctin is being fired.
Reward in workplace is bonus, commissions, promotions etc.
Sanctions include pay loss, closely monitored at work, being given
less pleasant work.
Traditional societies:
Offender to death.
Punishments are physical punishments - no resources for prison
etc.
In medival Europe criminals were put anywhere and people threw
things at them.
there are no written laws and this is a way to remind societies that
laws exist.
Collective sanction (whole class in the classroom for break) or
whole army unit.
Positive sanctions include getting a position in society or being
appreciated .
Head shaved, societies expelling you, taking your possession,
death are all negative santctions.
Modern industrial societie4s:
Social order depends on formal sanctions and requires a police
force for imprisonment.
Punishmengts include (discharge, fine, community service, prison
sentence).
In the past punishments such as execution, transportation were
given.
PAGE 45
Sub-cultures-youth:
- Popular sub ion 1950 UK – beatniks, rockers, hippies, punks, Goths.
- Clothing, music and appearance can distinguish them.
- Main culture doesn’t accept them – such as being kicked out of class for informal
dressing. They are deviant.
- Functionalists see them as good and a part of growing up from childhood to adulthood.
This is when the main society doesn’t accept them or they don’t get a job. The sub
groups are formed and give a sense of belonging. Later in life they leave the sub-culture
and join the mainstream culture again.
- Marxist see them not as from childhood to adulthood but; due to the economic
conditions that capitalism has left them with. They are revolutionists.
- Sub-cultures are generally a minority – later in life most of them conform to main culture
norms.
- Marketing and media – early punks made own clothing and were rebellious of
mainstream fashion – now you can get punk clothing at fashion stores.
- Girls did not form sub cultures or were just there because of their partners – because
parents tended to keep more control over girls. Plus media thought of girls being less
deviant.
- Girls did not form sub cultures or were just there because of their partners – because
parents tended to keep more control over girls. Plus media thought of girls being less
deviant.
- Girls – bedroom sub-culture where they listened to music. Later more girls seen as
Goths as gender roles changed.
- Religious sects.
- Ethnic minority groups – immigrant or indigenous groups may form a sub culture.
- Class sub culture – Working class may have different norms than the majority.
- Sub-cultures on interest – for example body builders.
Diversity and variation in human behavior
Cultural relativism and multiculturalism – globalization and global culture
- Different societies have different cultures – some marry outside their culture but others
such as Australian Aborigines avoid this practice.
- Cultural interactions have increased over the last 200 years – means now more
people aware of other cultures.
- Areas of cultural variation are language, norms and dress appearance, food and drink,
traditions such as rituals and festivals, ideas about morality.
- Cultural variation in food example: some cultures eat dogs and monkeys. Horsemeat in
common in Europe but not in UK. Muslims don’t eat pork or have alcohol. Raw fish is
eaten in Japan. In some cultures men and women eat separately.
- The world is a global village and now we can enjoy other cultures.
- The main flow of culture from the west especially USA.
Cultural relativism and multi-culturalism
Cultural relativism: all cultures on own terms rather than western cultures.
Sociologists should not be ethnocentric (judging cultures in comparison with ones own)
rather than they should study culture based on the culture’s viewpoint.
PAGE 46
Not judging the culture as an outsider but on its merits.
Multiculturalism and other responses to diversity.
- Multiple cultures in one area without loosing their identity – UK has Scottish, Welsh,
Irish and English. Plus others such as African, Asian
- Integration takes place when the dominant cultures prevails and people from other
cultures loose their identity. In the 18th and 19th centuries which was the melting point.
- India – many cultures and sub cultures exist alongside each other-religious diversity
includes Muslims, Hindus, Christians, Buddhism etc. There are regional differences in
India. Hindi, Christians and 30 native languages exist in India. There is no sign that India
will split or that one dominant culture will take over.
- Mauritius very ethnically diverse population – Indian, African Chinese and European
decent.
x
Criticism against multiculturalism:
- Too many rights to minorities (children educated in their home language very
expensive).
- Minority communities need to stay away from the main cultures.
- It is too idealistic.
- The host culture generally provides values that hold society together.
- It may lead to conflict.
x
Other ways in which culture have moved away from multiculturalism.
- UK bomb by Muslim due to multiculturalism.
- Citizenship test – such as by Brittan for British history.
- Involve people in community programs – community integration.
- Acting against some aspect of culture such as by France.
- Nationalism – Quebec wanted to break away from Canada as it was French – Ethnic
cleansing.
Globalization and Global culture
The world is getting smaller and interconnected.
It is involved by changes in politics, Economics and Culture. Globalization of culture has been
made possible by Economic and political culture.
Examples of Cultural Globalization include:
-
Internet.
Global mass media films, music.
Global patterns of consumerism.
Global sports such as Olympics.
Clothing and appearance – T-shirts.
Brands Coca Cola, Disney are global brands.
Food.
Many people see the world as a small place and the media encourages this viewpoint.
PAGE 47
-
-
Science fiction films where the world meets the enemy. They take the people of the
earth as collective defenders.
In the developed world people see globalization of culture but in developing world it is
seen as economic. People get frustrated when they travel and see how people live in
developed countries.
Globalization is considered westernization and Cultural imperialism.
But it is good as ideas of free speech; rights and women rights have travelled the entire
globe, even if they were provided by the west.
Technology may be used very differently. Phone in Africa by farmers and in west phones
are a lifestyle because of consumerism.
Some countries reject western ideas: China bans certain things on the internet, Bhutan
banned television till 1999, and Jihadists reject western culture.
Some sociologists believe that it’s not just the western culture but different cultures
combining to make a new culture. For instance meditation that used to be done in India
and Thailand is now seen in the west as well.
Social Construction
Age like race and ethnicity are socially constructed. Childhood, adulthood, retirement ages are
all socially constructed. Some cultures childhood is long (western) other cultures children work
with the adults.
Social construction of childhood
-
Children 500 years before today were treated as adults. Same ideas of death and
violence that were provided to adults were provided to children as well.
They used to work alongside adults.
Lately the birth of childhood took place. Schools teachers, child psychologists etc.
Television and computer have changed childhood again. No longer are children
considered innocent.
It's a child centered society and parents and the society invests heavily in children.
Age as social construction
How do we learn to be Human: Primary and secondary socialization
-
-
Socialization happens throughout life.
Primary is important- the first socialization that is given to a person. Families are the
main agency of primary socialization. They teach you how to smile, eat etc. Primary
socialization is from birth to infancy children lean to interact with others.
Secondary socialization: Happens after the primary socialization- Religion, schools,
workplace, media are all agencies of secondary socialization.
Re socialization - prison or when the person joins the army.
Even children reject some ideas. So people are not blank slates.
PAGE 48
Processes through which children learn social expectations
x Learn by their parents and by imitation when they copy behavior of others. This is generally
when the person they copy gets good sanction by the behavior. Role models are made and
are copied.
x Learn about their gender/This is not just limited to gender.
- Manipulation (encourage and discourage behavior): boy encouraged in dangerous
physical activity and girls discouraged.
- Canalization (channeling children towards certain activities: Boys encouraged towards
football and girls towards dance.
- Verbal appellations: ‘Naughty’ associated more with boys. Pretty more with girls and
handsome with boys.
- By Activities: girls help mothers to cook while boys help fathers with ‘do it yourself tasks’.
- In the 20th century more parents choose things that were not based on gender. This
applied to females more. No gender specific clothes.
- But its difficult to achieve this because it may be biological, the family is not the only
agency and peer groups may behave differently. Marketing of goods may be strong for
girls and boys according to their gender so even if parents want to raise their children in
a gender neutral environment the society does not allow for this. Clear for men
shampoo.
Main agencies of socialization
x
x
x
x
x
Families: Childhood to beyond and the major socialization agency. Mother spends most
time with children. Plus also depends on family type, nuclear family, siblings, Ethnicity
family important as it may lead to different types of relationships. Language and behavior
learnt from family.
Education: Formal and informal curriculum such as the arrangement of classroom. Now
nursery and pre nursery exist so socialization via education starts early on.
Peer relationships: Traditional societies used to have ceremonies before adulthood.
Now children socialize in classrooms and even at a very early age.
The media: traditional societies it was story telling. Modern society mass media has
been introduced to the world now. Children may see violence and copy it. There is some
positive as well for instance court cases that show punishment and law. They learn how
to behave in the society.
Religion: Many children learn moral values from religion.
Inadequate socialization: feral and isolated children
x
Feral children are wild children. Inadequate socialization is when people are unfit into the
society. Legends and stories such as Mowgli. Some stories like this have been heard off.
They differ in terms of how much human contact they have received
- Most feral children:
o Have difficulty in language.
o Find it hard to adopt normal food.
o Don't like wearing conventional clothing.
o May not walk upright.
o May not socialize.
PAGE 49
o
Cannot use the toilet properly.
Nature vs. nurture
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
Nature is biological effects of genes on behavior but nurture is culture and the effects
that the society has on behavior. Sociologists may be bias towards nurture as it’s a part
of the subject.
Two extreme positions called determinists – biological determinists and opposite who
think society is important are social determinists.
Nature: Eye color, hair, intelligence is in our genes. In fact that criminal behavior may
also be biological.
Nurture side of the debate: you can control behavior, plus can have different behavior
even if you have the same genes.
Most sociologists reject both. For instance romantic drives may be natural but how we
react to it may be monogamy, polygamy, and celibacy.
Weaverbirds have the same nests all around the world, which can prove that nature
drives behavior.
Some argue that men always used to hunt and women cook, as they had biological
differences. Ann Oakley tells us that in some cultures women used to do land clearing
and both sexes cooked. So she argues that biological characteristics don't bar women
from any work.
Island of Alor where women leave their children and no harmful effects are seen. So
roles of women as mothers and wives are not biological just because they give birth.
Other side argues that women have a biological relationship with their child.
Sociobiology argues that men are more aggressive and promiscuous as in the animal
world. And women choose their partner carefully. Therefore men also go for war, as they
are aggressive. Feminists generally disagree with sociobiology.
Role, gender, age ethnic group as influences on social identity
Identity is how we perceive ourselves and how others perceive us. Roles are based on
relationships with others. For example father husband, teacher, customer, doctor. Role conflict
example: mother vs. work woman.
-
Age and identity:
- African societies as children warriors and elders. Boys roughly of the same age
were transferred to adulthood. African elders were seen as knowledgably people.
In modern societies age is important - childhood then adulthood. 18 years is a
legal age for adulthood. Members of the same age group are a generation. UK
age 10 criminal responsibility, age 13 can work for limited hours, 17 can drive, 18
can vote.
-
Generation gap leads to problems. Teenagers think adults are old fashioned.
Today children have grown up with technology. Birth Cohort is when children and
teenagers grow up at the same time in history. Baby boomers both after ww2
experienced many social changes in the 1960 (birth control, cold war,
technology).
PAGE 50
-
Adolescence: Modern societies believe that status is achieved not ascribed.
Period of anxiety.
-
Gender and identity:
- In traditional societies there was variation in gender roles. Arapesh people both
men and women didn’t go to war. Mundugamor people both were war like. In
Tchambuli people women left villages to work. In western societies men work and
women are more concerned with appearance. Sex is biological and gender is how
biological things affect our social life. Nurture becomes important in this particular
aspect.
- According to functionalists men took the instrumental role - economics and
women took the domestic role.
- Male Masculinity (strong, competitive and aggressive) and female's feminine
(weak, emotional, passive). This was in old societies and last 50 years have
changed this. Now women take up senior positions in politics, work. But the
society is far from equal due to patriarchy.
- Now some men also feminine: show emotions publically, take care of
appearance, talking about relationships, fathers have bonds with an infant that
was not a norm in the past.
- Fashion, which is against hegemonic masculinity, has a negative effect on men.
Feminism sometimes destroys need for men as well. Men find harder to find their
role in society now.
-
Ethnic group:
- Romans saw everyone outside barbaric. Chinese saw Europeans barbaric.
Edward Said's Orientalism where orient was the east.
- In old times appearance was important but now cultural aspects differentiate.
Such people of UK prefer free speech and minorities bring religion, which does
not allow for complete free speech. Ethnicity is a social construct. Now we have
multiple ethnicities such as a person born in UK with a Bangladeshi background.
- Globalization did not end ethnic nationality. Nationalism has emerged for unity
such as UK has unified Scotland, England etc.
- Creating national identity is important when there are many groups, sub- groups,
religions, cultures, and ethnicities in one area. And when national boundaries are
artificial then national identity becomes even more important.
- Some enforce national identity by symbols such as flags, postage stamps. By a
bead of a state, national festival, parades, national sports teams. Broadcasting
mass media such as British broadcasting cooperation.
- UK not easy for ethnic minorities to assert a British national identity. Non-white
not British, Scottish cultures are not show.
-
Social class and identity:
- Not as easy to distinguish as gender, ethnicity etc.
- Upper (exclusive club), middle (spend like the upper class in some ways, has
risen over the years) and working class. The recently upward movement from
working class to upper class makes people show off their class change by the
cars they keep, their house etc.
PAGE 51
Being working class was a strong identity for many up till the 20 th century. There were
communities and things such as marriage were done within the community. Now they have lost
their identity as may got layoffs and the media now shows them as lazy.
PAGE 52
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shown that since 1960 the cost of raising a child has increased dramatically.
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[4]
F Explain how socialisation is carried out within the family.
[6]
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[8]
H To what extent do the roles of children vary between cultures?
[15]
2251/13/M/J/17
2
In modern multicultural society the experience of socialisation can be diverse. Cultural diversity
may mean that socialisation in the family does not produce value consensus. Despite cultural
diversity, there are certain universal values that all members of society share.
D :KDWLVPHDQWE\WKHWHUP¶PXOWLFXOWXUDOVRFLHW\·"
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[4]
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[6]
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[8]
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[15]
PAGE 57
2251/12/O/N/17
2
Children are socialised through a variety of processes, this includes imitation. Children who have
inadequate socialisation may not share the same norms and values as their peers.
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[6]
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[8]
H To what extent is education the most important agency of secondary socialisation?
[15]
2251/13/O/N/17
2
Image of the Amish travelling in a courting buggy on a road in Pennsylvania
The Amish are a religious community in Pennsylvania, USA. Their strict religious beliefs mean
they reject some features of modern lifestyles, like the motor car. Individuals who do not conform
to the norms of the group can face ostracism by their community. The Amish have become a
tourist attraction because their way of life is so different. There can be conflict between them and
the tourists as their religion means they are not happy to be photographed.
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sub-culture.
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mainstream culture.
[8]
H To what extent is religion the most important agency of social control?
[15]
PAGE 58
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Unit-3
Social Stratification
Topics
-
What is social stratification?
What are the main features of social inequality and how are these created?
PAGE 65
Unit-3 Social Stratification
What is social stratification?
Culture, norms, values and beliefs
Culture (the way of life) – includes:
x
Some definitions:
- Social stratification: a hierarchy in which groups have different statuses and
privilege.
- Social class is a group of people having the same social and economic status.
- Age is a form of stratification.
- Status is a position someone has in the society.
- Power is the ability to influence others behavior.
- Industrial societies: Societies that use mass production.
- Minority group: a group of people lacking power and can be based on factors
such as religion, disability and age.
- Slavery: A. form of stratification in which one group is treated as the legal
property of another.
x
Social differentiation has happened now. In the past women used to bear children and
beyond that was socially constructed. In hunter based societies people performed
different roles such as gathering food, preparing it etc. Social differentiation means that
now people have different roles and does not mean that some are above others. It does
lay ground for social stratification. Some are seen to have higher power and this is when
it becomes stratification.
x
In today’s world sanctions are dynamic.
x
Class, age, gender and ethnicity are forms of stratification.
x
In early society slavery, caste and estate – for social class. These were forms of
stratification.
-
-
x
Slaves did not enjoy as many rights as normal citizens and were forced to work.
In the caste system, which was in India, people were born into a cast and could
not change it. Lower caste inferior. People only married in caste. Brahmins
(priests) – Kshatriyas (warriors) – Vaisyas (skilled traders) – Sudras: unskilled
workers – Pariahs (outcastes, Untouchables).
Estate system – feudal Europe in medieval period. Three estates Clergy, nobility
and commoners. There was some intermarriage here unlike the Caste system in
India.
These 3 systems were problematic because one could not change his/her class
basically. This led to a closed society. In today's world there is more social mobility
compared to the past.
PAGE 66
x
Although there is mobility but there is still stratification.
x
In all societies men and women have different standing. There are also ethnic and racial
divisions that exist.
Achieved and Ascribed statuses
x
Ascribed statuses are given by society and were common in traditional society
(agricultural societies). Examples: age, social class, ethnicities are given at birth- later
some of these can be changed.
x
Age is different as it changes over time. Ageism when discrimination against older
people- generally their status is lost as they retire from work. Some cultures still respect
old people as they are seen as experienced and closer to God.
x
Achieved status is when one acquires a status by choice and competition such as
mobility in social class or religious change. Occupational statuses as a teacher or an
engineer are also achieved statuses.
x
Master status is very important. Age and sex are master statuses.
Life chances
x
The opportunities for people to improve their lives. Life chances depend on stratification
based on class gender, ethnicity. Life chances are opportunities for employment
education, good health, housing, social mobility and life expectancy
x
Laws may limit human and civil rights which may prevent their life chances from
improving. South Africa apartheid movement was when segregation laws which limited
chances of black South Africans.
x
Working class may become subject to fatalism: Where people think they have little
control over what happens Marxists argue that fatalism comes from false consciousness,
where people believe that capitalism is fair and their low position is their fault. Fatalism
becomes a self-fulfilling prophecy.
x
Deferred gratification: long-term goals - schools now work later. Forgo current dollars.
x
Immediate gratification: choosing instant satisfaction. Working class people go for
immediate gratification because their standard of living is low.
Example of life chances – life expectancy
x
Gender: Women live 5 years more than men. Men in more high risk situations, consume
more alcohol etc. Men’s work exposes them to risk such as mining. Therefore men have
shorter lives.
PAGE 67
x
Social class: Workers vs. people of high class. In UK workers live 74 years vs. 80 years
(Elite class). This could be because working class occupations more dangerous.
x
Working class people live in unhealthy environments. Working class may not be able to
afford good health care.
x
Ethnicity: Minority socio-economic groups low down the social class and are affected by
the reasons mentioned above.
What are the main features of social inequality and how are these created?
Wealth and Income – Wealth
x
Wealth refers to ownership of money, savings and property that can be bought and sold
to generate income. (stocks, land, houses and other buildings, work of art etc.)
x
Some wealth creates more wealth such as shares create more dividends. In UK wealth
distributed unequally Top 10% have 40% of the wealth.
x
Despite the inequality many people have bank savings accounts etc. Others have TVs,
cars that are a form of wealth.
x
Other forms of wealth are:
-
Housing: difficult to turn into money if you live there.
-
Pensions: save now for later (pension funds after retirements).
-
Shares: many people own shares but largest are owned by wealthy people.
x
Some of earning from work or other earnings is income.
x
Social security, pensions, interest on buildings, dividends on shares etc.
x
The income after tax and pension contributions is known as disposable income.
x
It is important for life chances as more income means better living.
Inequalities in different countries
x
Welfare state: government provides for the less off to have equality.
x
USA top 20& 8 times more rich than the lowest 20%, Singapore 10 times, Sweden,
Norway, Japan 4 times.
PAGE 68
x
Societies should be decided on aggregate richness but should be decided on in-equality.
Poorly ranged countries have bad physical and mental health, education suffers,
increased violence, lack of opportunities for social mobility.
x
Actually the rich also face some consequences of unequal societies.
Welfare states and measures to reduce inequality
x
Today’s societies are meritocracies and it is accepted that people should be awarded
based on this.
x
All modern industrial states are welfare to an extent.
x
Tax system.
x
Two reasons to give welfare:
- Moral – it is not correct to let people live like this.
- Political – Welfare prevents working class unity and protest. Also used by political
parties to promote their party. Functionalists see welfare as necessary to keep the
society’s value system.
x
Scandinavian countries most welfare. Sweden, Norway- Redistribution of wealth
happens.
x
The US society is based on individualism and taking care of one's self.
x
Free national health care system, free secondary education.
x
In UK 20th century welfare state promoted culture of dependency (people relied too
much on the state) and expensive therefore in 2010 austerity measures were important.
x
Criticism of welfare states:
-
Dependency culture.
-
Generous people don't look for jobs.
-
Expensive as not based on need.
-
System opens to abuse.
-
The states interfere more than they should.
-
Marxist left wing critics – welfare states reduce the chance of revolution by giving
an impression of a fair system.
PAGE 69
x
x
Governments try to reduce In-equality by:
- Progressive taxation.
-
Subsidizing for poor free busses for pension taking UK citizens.
-
Providing state education.
-
Setting a minimum wage.
-
Equal opportunities legislation – reduce discrimination against minorities – age,
disability, religion etc.
Charities and NGO’s also help.
The problems defining wealth and poverty
x
People who live in poverty (lone parents and children, long term unemployed, chronically
ill or disable, low paid workers, people dependent on welfare benefits, refuges.
x
Relative poverty (being poor in relation to others) and absolute poverty (when people
are without food, water, sanitation, shelter, health, education, information).
x
1/7 billion people are in absolute poverty.
x
Poverty line: level of income below which people are poor.
x
In 20th century refrigerators and washing machine became essential and people not
having them were considered poor. Other things: whether children who are old have a
bedroom, how many hot meals per day. Researchers to measure poverty are using a
these methods above.
x
Unequal societies have high relative poverty.
The cause of poverty
x
Not having paid work, being in low paid work, receiving benefits that still leave people
below poverty line.
x
Cycle of poverty – 3 generations of poverty lead to the poverty cycle.
x
Poverty trap - not able to get out of poverty. Lack of capital bad schooling can be the
reasons.
x
It is expensive to be poor as well:
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x
-
The poor cannot afford to travel to cheap supermarkets.
-
They cannot afford to buy in bulk.
-
They cannot afford to insulate their home that is why they pay for fuel required for
heating and cooling.
-
They buy old and secondhand goods that break down.
-
They borrow from someone else compared to the bank. The bank has lower rates
of interest others have high interest.
They get into the culture of poverty:
-
Having lower levels of literacy.
-
Being unable to plan for the future.
-
Desire immediate gratification rather than delaying it.
-
Fatalism (not believing in change).
-
Feeling marginalized and dependent on others.
-
Not using facilities such as banks and hospital.
x
Some say that cultural poverty is not true and poor people want to educate children but
can’t – politicians use this for manipulation.
x
Most people are excluded from social goods – social explosion. Socially excluded miss
out on.
-
Housing.
-
Employment.
-
Transport (lack of transport prevent people from taking up jobs).
-
Health care.
x
Welfare states try to solve these issues by giving them money, by giving them goods
such as a bicycle to travel or work.
x
Welfare claimants are stereotyped.
PAGE 71
x
People work on low wages and some benefits - if their wages rise their welfare
decreases – so they don't strive to get better jobs.
x
Sociological theories and poverty.
x
Functionalists: See inequality as a good thing- People who work more earn more- low
paid jobs get done because people are poor. Poverty reminds people of hard work,
family values and therefore it plays a vital role according to functionalists.
x
Marxists see poverty as an obvious consequence of capitalism (private ownership).
Workers paid less by employers because they want to increase their profits. There is a
reserve army of labor because of poverty.
x
Right wing thinkers use the cultural poverty example and blame everything on the poor.
x
Feminists say more women are poor than men because women are paid less than men.
The consequence of being poor in a global context
x World Bank defines poverty less than 1.25 $ a day. 1.2 billion live below this amount.
x
In India's top richest person lives in Mumbai - where people live in slums as well.
x
In India and China, some people are getting out of poverty where as in Africa there is still
poverty.
x
People in poverty face many risks:
x
-
Slums no security, city authorities bulldoze their homes.
-
In rural areas there is limited access to healthcare etc.
-
Political insecurity affects the poor the most.
-
Areas where these people live are in the risk of flooding etc.
-
Climate change affects the poor the most for example farmers.
There is a new transnational class:
-
Owner of transnational cooperation.
-
Politicians working for UN.
-
Professionals.
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x
Consumerist elite (such as in media, actors musicians etc.)
This is a new class of bourgeoisie. The rich consumer more energy and resouces.
Ethnicity
x
Race is replaced by ethnicity - Race (humans can be divided on biology, whites, Negro,
Asian). Racism (Prejudice: unexamined opinion such as race is inferior) or discrimination
(putting the other race at a disadvantage against a group).
x
Institutional racism is when an organization works in a manner where racism happens,
x
In colonial Period racism was accepted.
x
In lands of white settlements such as USA and New Zealand; indigenous people got
discriminated.
x
Apartheid system in South Africa (Native, Colored, white and Asian)
x
Functionalism:
x
x
-
Differences in race and ethnicity are dysfunctional.
-
Only happened when new immigrants come and they can be assimilated later:
o
At first they have low pay then gradually move to upper scale.
o
First live in distinct areas and later spread out.
o
Language attainment.
o
Intermarriages.
Ideas of assimilation developed in USA, though there have still been barriers to
assimilation:
-
Discrimination blocks them from improving.
-
The community may try to assert their own values that they brought with them
which would lead to resentment from the dominant ethnicity.
-
The situation may be even worse and the community may face downward
mobility.
Marxism:
PAGE 73
x
-
Race is a part of capitalist ideology. The elite tell the current working class that
they loosing their jobs is the fault of the immigrants (scapegoating).
-
Working class becomes divided and thus there are less chances of revolution.
-
Racism is in the interest of the working class. Minority groups are a part of the
working class, who can be used and discarded as the elites please.
The right wing view: minority ethnic groups as an underclass:
-
Underclass separated from the working class – by a structural break.
o
o
o
o
x
Face multiple deprivations – low income, unemployment etc.
Social marginally – they are less likely to vote.
Fatalism and despair- alienated – police more suspicious of them and
therefore discriminate against them.
Dependency on welfare state.
-
Some right wing thinkers see black as underclass in USA – they are considered
less intelligent by the right wing thinkers single parents by births outside
marriages, associated with being criminal etc.
-
UK Muslim minorities are blamed for spoiling the dominant culture.
Ethnicity, housing and employment:
-
Three areas where ethnic minorities face discrimination although laws exist.
-
Teachers may see them as lazy - students internalize this view and don't succeed
(self-fulfilling prophecy).
-
In jobs, they may not be selected for the interview based on name and pictures –
even if selected they may not be welcomed at the job.
-
Many housing areas don't welcome minorities – local government housing
schemes don't select minorities.
Gender
x Gender is an ascribed status - traditionally Male or Female.
x
All Societies of the world to some extent patriarchal
x
Women life chances:
-
Triple burden of work: domestic work plus labor and emotional support.
PAGE 74
-
Women earn far less or less than men.
-
Women health-pregnancy and childbirth.
-
Experience domestic violence.
-
Some cultures want male children.
-
Less likely to go to school.
-
Girls are generally to marry young – have to leave education.
-
Women more likely in poverty.
-
Women live longer than men though.
x
Changing role of men and women: Now women more likely to work although they are
still mothers and housewives. They still face discrimination in employment. While
childbirth they take maternity leaves them without good promotions.
x
Feminism (promotes equality of genders) and discusses gender in-equality:
x
-
Liberal feminists suggest that women should get equal rights by legislation.
-
Radical feminists: see society as patriarchal and radical steps need to be taken.
For example women live separately from men.
-
Marxists and feminists: exploitation of women is a result of capitalism. Women
have an army of reserved labor, plus unpaid work as housewives plus male
workers exclude women from skilled work.
-
Black feminism: Fight for minority women to be distinct from majority feminists.
They say that minority women are discriminated more than women from ethnic
majority.
Gender discrimination in employment:
-
Pre-industrial revolution; family unit worked together
-
Later there were restrictions on children and women to work (industrial revolution
factory replaced women's work).
-
After World War 1 women began to return to work (but still their role as mothers
and housewives remained dominant.
-
Oakley sums up changes in women's role because of industrialization.
PAGE 75
-
o
Men separate from domestic work.
o
Women and children became dependent on men.
o
Housework and childcare separated from other work.
End of 20th century women working grew because:
o
Feminism created a dissatisfaction with house work.
o
Women who worked in World War 2 wanted to work again.
o
Socialization of girls changed.
o
Skills and jobs associated with women became common.
o
Laws came about that prevented sex discrimination.
o
Changes in attitudes of work place.
o
More female role models existed than before.
-
There is still horizontal (women have different jobs than men such as nursing) and
vertical (women are lower in hierarchy than men) integration. There is still gendered
division of labor.
-
Women with new born children work least and women with no child/single work the
most.
-
Biggest change now is that time spent away from work has fallen sharply.
-
Equal pay’s act and sex discrimination act in UK changed situations.
-
Maternity leave and paid maternity leave are seen today.
-
There is still a glass ceiling (women can’t go at the highest levels).
o
-
Women not seen as serious promotion candidates, women never took these
positions in the past so there is a risk to allocate them these positions now.
Appointments are made by men, men would not want to work with women,
women may be seen as a threat, family responsibilities (women might not be able
to work on weekends)
Women able to be hired at top still faced issues. They are hired by bad or failing
organizations.
PAGE 76
x
Some women at top are Hillary Clinton- US secretary of state, Margaret Thatcher-British
PM, Christine Lagarde-President IMF.
x
Consequences of Gender In-equality at Work:
x
x
-
Differences in earning - men advantage carried to old age.
-
Women more towards poverty.
-
Gap between winners and losers in women is more than men.
Explanations of gender in-equality at work:
-
Discontinued careers because of men.
-
Women are seen as secondary breadwinners thus are paid less.
-
Women are less geographically mobile.
-
Large supply of women labor, which means low wages for them.
-
There is a cultural idea that men should not have to work for a female boss.
-
Functionalists say women lack the commitment to work, leave work and don't put
themselves for training. One of the questions is why men and women equally
ambitious and educated have different success level.
-
The dual labor market theory states that there are limitations on women
opportunities generally.
-
Marxists and Marxists feminist women have been deskilled plus there is excess in
supply of women workforce. Male run trade unions also play a role
-
Radical feminist: Patriarchy, motherhood, marriages etc. are responsible.
Societies fail to offset women disadvantages- such as better child care facilities.
Men:
-
Men are gender neutral, unless specified “woman” people assume we are talking
about men.
-
Men roles have changed partly due to changes in women roles. In some cases
men began to reject masculine roles well before women began rejecting feminine
roles.
-
Traditional roles have become more difficult because:
PAGE 77
-
o
Fewer jobs requiring male works, decline in manufacturing industry.
Male un-employment more and female employment more.
o
Violence against women has become visible and condemned.
o
Single mothers raising children have confused men’s role.
o
Feminism has brought masculinity into question. Males now abusers of
power rather than nature conquers.
o
Heterosexual white males – challenged by blacks, feminists, gay radical
politics.
Reactions by men:
o
Retributive men – reasserting his masculinity.
o
New man – sharing emotions, domestic work etc.
Social Class – Ways of defining social class
x
People’s own perception of social class may be faulty. Objective class position is what
sociologists are interested in.
x
Functionalists explanation:
- Social class in inevitable in modern societies – value system – which allows
individuals to be ranked, which later leads to stratification. US system on
individual achievement and high rewards for this.
x
-
Class has a function: leaders should be paid more as they can make decisions.
They are better at jobs and should be rewarded and motivated.
-
Search for equality is misguided.
Marxist explanations of class:
- The bourgeoisie own means of production and proletariat are the working class –
the state ruled in favor of the bourgeoisie.
-
Soon this will be evident and revolt by working class. Many Governments tried to
prevent a revolution.
-
Lumpenproletariat (lower than the working class such as beggars) Plus Marx also
suggested that the middle class would disappear.
-
Proletarianisation: lower levels of middle class now working class.
PAGE 78
-
x
Three dimensions of control of economic resources (Eric oline): one thing may be
owned by classes apart from bourgeoisie:
o
Control of investment.
o
Control of physical means of production.
o
Control of labor power.
Weberian explanation of class:
- Similarities to Marx are:
o
Class is situated in economic structures of society.
o
Conflict is inevitable.
-
Unlike Marx, Weber believed that the middle class would grow. There are many
more classes a priest has low income but is high in status. For Weber status
power and class don't go together.
-
As predicted by Weber, the middle class did grow.
-
Workers of trade union demand pay in accordance with other trade unions rather
than to bring a social change, which proves that the groups are not demanding a
social change.
x
Feminism and social class:
-
Many class studies have been gender blind they used to think of male as the
breadwinner and women as insignificant.
-
Recent feminists say that today women's earning important even in cases the only
earning. Dual class system exists.
-
Radical feminists say that we should change our image of class - married women are in
dual class system - the husband exploits them but at another point they work with the
same interests and level as men.
Social class- measuring class
x
Marx two classes.
x
No specific way to measure class.
x
Factors important:
- Wealth.
PAGE 79
-
Income.
-
Housing.
-
Occupation.
-
Level of education.
-
Status.
-
Lifestyle.
x
The most important for status, income, living – occupation (occupation structure –
individuals).
- While collars jobs – non-manual mental work such as professions (require skilled
individuals).
- Blue collar are manual workers and working class; are also less skilled.
- UK occupation classification is based on 9 types managers, directors, senior
officials at the top and then come the elementary.
- In 1913: manager (accountant), intermediate (teacher), Non Manual skilled (police
officer)-manual skilled (bus driver), semi-skilled (farm worker, postal delivery)
unskilled (cleaner).
x
Problems with occupation scales:
-
They miss out on people who don’t work for long term and also people who don’t
need to work (very rich).
-
They don't take into account the wealth of people,
-
Many people have different 6ouroces of income not just one so one occupation
does not show a clear picture,
-
Most people live in families and therefore there are more wage earners.
-
How to allocate women In terms of occupation, as they are part timer. Should they
be allocated according to their husbands pay or should income be shared and
pooled.
Social class - the upper class
x
The highest class who are in a minority. They are important because of their immense
wealth.
x
Three groups:
PAGE 80
-
The landowning aristocracy: inherited wealth, which includes at the summit, the
royal family etc.
-
The jet set or pop aristocracy: sport media and entertainment. People with old
money look down on them.
-
Entrepreneurial rich: Business owners.
x
Top 1% owners of wealth are form the upper class and this gives them power and
leading positions.
x
It is not about the money but the occupation as well such as politicians, civil servants
might not have a lot of money but do still have power and authority.
Social class – middle class
x
Has expanded in the last few years as Weber predicted. The middle class is divided.
-
The petty bourgeoisie: Small business owners farmers, self-employed- Marx
assumed that small business would be kicked out by companies. Small
businesses may have shrunk but have survived.
-
Upper middle class: professionals and managers get their higher income from
their education and training.
-
Lower middle class: routine clerical, nurses. Their group has declined in status
and has become larger and feminized (pink collar worker).
x
Gidden states that only one middle class exists – that do not own means of production
but have training to work.
x
The proletarianisation debate: Marx idea – middle class is being proletarainised (group
include; clerical or administrative workers, shop and sales, sometimes higher group such
as teachers. The gap between the working class and these people has decreased
therefore they are becoming proletariats.
x
Proletarianisation involves:
-
Former middle class jobs have low status.
-
Middle class wages falling.
-
Employment conditions change.
-
Jobs having less autonomy.
PAGE 81
-
Work changing by mechanization.
-
x
x
Workers are considering themselves as working class-join trade unions
.
Some of clerical jobs still come with the chance of being promoted unlike manual worker.
Female clerks still can't move up the ladder as they have domestic commitments
(proletarianisation)
Social Class - The working class
x
Working class categories:
- Skilled, semi-skilled and unskilled.
x
Blue collar (mining, manufacturing) Education not required for this type of work.
x
Shift towards white-collar economy-automation has led to less jobs in the manual labor
area.
x
Growing affluence and lifestyles but not the class.
x
Embourgeoisement: higher levels of working class are becoming middle class. This is
concept is anti-Marx.
Social Class – The under class
x
Marginalized group – lowest.
x
Old workers who have lost jobs, farm workers trying to shift to industrial work.
x
In USA ethnic minorities may be underclass. But in Brittan it may refer to several groups.
x
People generally in the underclass are: long term unemployed, people dependent of
state pensions, people on benefits, disaffected teenagers without qualifications.
x
Marxists don’t use this term. They say that the underclass is working class suffering the
most.
x
The term is criticized:
- As it is vague.
-
The situation implies that the underclass is to blame for their misery.
-
It lumps together phenomena (prisoners and disaffected teenagers don’t have
that much in common).
PAGE 82
x
-
It draws attention away from the working class.
-
It implies that this class is stable which is not true as people move in and out.
Murray signs of an emerging underclass: birth to unmarried mothers, rising crime rate,
unwillingness to take jobs, consuming drugs etc. Basically this blames the underclass for
being underclass.
Social mobility
x Movement between classes:
-
Upward – working to middle, middle to elite.
-
Downward – middle class to working class, elite class to middle class.
-
Block mobility: whole group moves by proletarianisation (middle class
downwards) or embourgeoisement (skilled working class upward).
-
Individual movement – one or family movement.
-
Intergenerational mobility: between generations; a child gets educated and
more skilled compared to father.
Intra-generational: working class to manager, within one person's life.
x
Open system (more social mobility). Closed (no social mobility). In meritocracy people
have mobility based on achievement.
x
Factors leading to mobility:
-
Education.
-
Promotion and career advancement.
-
Marrying a person with a different class.
-
Changes in wealth lottery.
x
Marxist state that social mobility is a safety value and because of this people become
less angry at the system.
x
People have been able to move upward because of changes in jobs and automation. But
some argue that this is not mobility as no lifestyle change happened.
x
Right wing: only people from middle class will take middle class jobs who are more
talented and educated.
PAGE 83
x
At one point you could start as a clerk and work up as a solicitor – This means that
upward mobility happens in the start of people career compared to later.
Is class still important?
x
Media states social class is less important.
x
Sociologists question class important:
- The claim ‘we are all middle class now’; it assumes that living standards have
risen therefore working class has disappeared.
-
Today’s system is based on consumption rather than production – but for
consumption as well you need wealth.
-
Merit: people get what they deserve and later their children get what they deserve
which may be different. In the UK upper class advantages carry on and parent’s
advantages translate into advantages for the children.
The idea is that class has been taken over by inequalities such as gender bias etc.
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2251/12/M/J/16
3
The concept of the underclass is used in everyday speech to describe people living at the margins
of society who rely on state benefits to make ends meet. However, the concept has been rejected
by many sociologists such as Charles Murray. They have focused on the cultural deviancies of the
so-called underclass, blaming them for their situation.
(a) What is meant by the term ‘underclass’?
[2]
(b) Describe two forms of social stratification, apart from social class.
[4]
(c) Explain how social class might affect a person’s life chances.
[6]
(d) Explain why it is believed the underclass are to blame for their own situation.
[8]
(e) To what extent is wealth the main cause of inequality?
[15]
2251/13/M/J/16
3
(a) What is meant by the term ‘caste’?
[2]
(b) Describe two forms of social stratification, apart from the Caste System.
[4]
(c) Explain how an individual can have high status but have little wealth.
[6]
(d) Explain why people at the bottom of the social class system experience poor life chances. [8]
(e) To what extent is social mobility possible in an open society?
[15]
PAGE 88
2251/12/O/N/16
3
‘It is estimated that 27 million people alive today are living in slavery. This is more than at any
other point in history. This number is greater than the total population stolen from Africa during the
transatlantic slave trade. (Bale 2009)’
Adapted from Macionis and Plummer, Sociology – A Global Introduction.
(a) What is meant by the term ‘slavery’?
[2]
(b) Describe two examples of social inequality, apart from slavery.
[4]
(c) Explain how minority ethnic groups can experience inequality.
[6]
(d) Explain why poverty still exists today.
[8]
(e) To what extent does social mobility exist in all societies?
[15]
2251/13/O/N/16
3
This is an image of a man standing underneath a sign which segregates people on the grounds of
race. This type of segregation is based on ascribed status.
(a) What is meant by the term ‘ascribed status’?
[2]
(b) Describe two ways in which status can be achieved.
[4]
(c) Explain how a person’s ascribed status may change.
[6]
(d) Explain why forms of horizontal segregation still exist in modern industrial societies.
[8]
(e) To what extent do minority ethnic groups suffer inequality despite laws to make discrimination
illegal?
[15]
PAGE 89
2251/12/M/J/17
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In many countries top jobs in government and the legal system are dominated by an elite. This
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2251/13/M/J/17
3
The poverty line is the dividing point between those who are poor and those who are not. The
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experience poor life chances.
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[6]
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[8]
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[15]
2251/12/O/N/17
3
Women are still disadvantaged in modern industrial societies. They often have to take paid
employment and look after a family. Women are less likely, because of the gendered division of
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[8]
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societies?
[15]
PAGE 90
2251/13/O/N/17
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Aspects of stratification such as gender, ethnicity and social class can have a significant impact
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[4]
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[8]
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PAGE 100
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CHILD SOLDIERS
Child soldier. Some words don’t belong together.
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THERE ARE
ESTIMATED TO
BE 250,000 CHILD
SOLDIERS IN
THE WORLD.
40% OF CHILD
SOLDIERS ARE
GIRLS
Key facts and statistics about child soldiers
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PAGE 101
2251/12/O/N/17
1
Source A
In general, family rules about media use in the home are typically less important to children than
they are to their parents. For example, one middle-class British father claimed that he censored
television for his children and would not allow them to watch television after 9pm. However, in
another room, talking to another interviewer his sons (aged 13 and 10) said something very
different.
Quotes from the interview
Interviewer: Do your parents have lots of rules that you follow about television?
Son 1:
No, not really rules.
Interviewer: Rules about what time you have got to go to bed?
Son 2:
Yes.
Son 1:
They tell us to go up to our bedrooms at about 9.30pm and then we just watch
television in our bedrooms until they come up and tell us to switch it off.
Son 2:
They shout at you and tell you to turn it off.
Interviewer: When do they tell you to do that?
Son 1:
At about 11pm.
$GDSWHGIURP0RLUD%RYLOODQG6RQLD/LYLQJVWRQH¶&KLOGUHQDQGWKHLU&KDQJLQJ0HGLD(QYLURQPHQW·
D Using Source A, identify two findings from the interview.
[2]
E Identify two types of interview that might be used to research home life.
[2]
F Using information from Source A, describe two ways researchers attempt to ensure the
validity of their research.
[4]
G Describe two ways the interviewer may cause bias when carrying out sociological research.
[4]
H Describe two strengths and two limitations of the micro approach to sociological research.
[8]
I Explain why it would be difficult to make generalisations from a single interview.
[10]
J To what extent do Marxists and feminists have different views about society?
[15]
PAGE 102
2251/13/O/N/17
1
Source A
Disability Data
25
Key
% population
with disability
20 20 19.3 18
15
10
5
7 6.4 6.3
5.6
2.5 2.1
Sr U
iL K
a
Vi nka
et
na
m
Ba C
h
ng in
la a
d
Pa esh
ki
st
an
In
di
a
Au
st
ra
lia
U
SA
0
7KHGDWDDERYHLVWDNHQIURPWKH¶&HQVXVRI,QGLD:HEVLWH·
The Government believed the statistics were not accurate and the number of disabled people in
India had been seriously underestimated. This may have been because of errors with deciding
who is disabled or people not wishing to admit they were disabled. The Government therefore
trained new official researchers to collect the data accurately for the 2011 census.
D From the evidence in Source A, which two countries have the highest percentage of disabled
people in their population?
[2]
E Identify two methods that could be used to collect data from a large sample.
F Using Source A, describe two reasons why the data collected for India may not be accurate.
[4]
G Describe two strengths of using official statistics in sociological research.
[4]
H Describe two strengths and two limitations of using sampling in sociological research.
[8]
I Explain why large scale research can be difficult.
[10]
J To what extent can objectivity be maintained in sociological research?
[15]
[2]
PAGE 103
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PAGE 110
2251/12/M/J/16
3
The concept of the underclass is used in everyday speech to describe people living at the margins
of society who rely on state benefits to make ends meet. However, the concept has been rejected
by many sociologists such as Charles Murray. They have focused on the cultural deviancies of the
so-called underclass, blaming them for their situation.
(a) What is meant by the term ‘underclass’?
[2]
(b) Describe two forms of social stratification, apart from social class.
[4]
(c) Explain how social class might affect a person’s life chances.
[6]
(d) Explain why it is believed the underclass are to blame for their own situation.
[8]
(e) To what extent is wealth the main cause of inequality?
[15]
2251/13/M/J/16
3
(a) What is meant by the term ‘caste’?
[2]
(b) Describe two forms of social stratification, apart from the Caste System.
[4]
(c) Explain how an individual can have high status but have little wealth.
[6]
(d) Explain why people at the bottom of the social class system experience poor life chances. [8]
(e) To what extent is social mobility possible in an open society?
[15]
PAGE 111
2251/12/O/N/16
3
‘It is estimated that 27 million people alive today are living in slavery. This is more than at any
other point in history. This number is greater than the total population stolen from Africa during the
transatlantic slave trade. (Bale 2009)’
Adapted from Macionis and Plummer, Sociology – A Global Introduction.
(a) What is meant by the term ‘slavery’?
[2]
(b) Describe two examples of social inequality, apart from slavery.
[4]
(c) Explain how minority ethnic groups can experience inequality.
[6]
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[8]
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[15]
2251/13/O/N/16
3
This is an image of a man standing underneath a sign which segregates people on the grounds of
race. This type of segregation is based on ascribed status.
(a) What is meant by the term ‘ascribed status’?
[2]
(b) Describe two ways in which status can be achieved.
[4]
(c) Explain how a person’s ascribed status may change.
[6]
(d) Explain why forms of horizontal segregation still exist in modern industrial societies.
[8]
(e) To what extent do minority ethnic groups suffer inequality despite laws to make discrimination
illegal?
[15]
PAGE 112
2251/12/M/J/17
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2251/13/M/J/17
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[8]
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[15]
2251/12/O/N/17
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employment and look after a family. Women are less likely, because of the gendered division of
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[15]
PAGE 113
2251/12/O/N/17
3
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employment and look after a family. Women are less likely, because of the gendered division of
labour, to have the best life chances.
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PAGE 117
PAGE 118
6/*5
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PAGE 119
PAGE 120
Unit-4
Family
Topics
-
What are the different types of family
How are family roles changing
What are the changes affecting the family
PAGE 121
Unit-4: Family
The nuclear and extended
family - thypes
What are the different types of family
Household unit:
Group of people living together in the same residence.
Nuclear Family:
Adult man, woman and dependent children.
UK and US this was the normal kind of family till the 1970's
Extended Families:
Vertically extended - more than two generations.
Horizontally extended - aunts, uncles are a part of one family.
They may live together or live close.
Provide mutual support.
Single parent family:
Used to be because of death but since the mid 20th century;
divorce (legal ending of marriage) has become common.
Plus now women have greater financial dependence. Some
women choose to raise children without fathers and therefore
they are much more willing to divorce.
Reconstituted or step family:
One or both partners may have been married before.
One or both may have children.
These children may live in new or their previous family (step
parent, step child and step step sibling and step
grandparents).
PAGE 122
The effects of social stratification and ethnicity on family diversity
x
Family diversity: more different types of families.
x
Stratification and diversity:
x
-
Before late 20th century extended family was common in the working class. Living in
small communities and marrying in these communities.
-
Now as industries closed down they had to move and therefore the family type had to
be changed.
Ethnicity and family diversity:
-
UK two groups
o
o
-
African Caribbean:
-
Matrifocal family: In which mothers head the household and
family.
-
Not matriarchy: In which women above men.
-
Because most of the males were slaves and women used to
head the family, absent fathers.
South Asian minorities:
-
Strong extended family ties: men settled, family had to move
with them.
-
Large families.
-
Traditional gender roles: Women stay home and may be
work from home in South Asian minority families.
-
Arranged marriages (older family members arranged for the
wedding) not forced marriages. Forced marriages against the
laws of the UN.
Other European minorities are also present – Poland has a higher birth rate.
The functions of family and the loss of functions debate
x
Functions of family:
- Functionalists say certain functions have to be performed by the family:
PAGE 123
-
-
o
Re-production.
o
Socialization – primary socialization, cultural transfer.
o
Social control: punishment for being naughty.
o
Care of child: the child needs to be fed, clothed and sheltered.
o
Status: the family provides Relationships and social networks.
o
Regulation of sexual behavior - children should not be born outside
relationships.
o
The gender division suits the nature of men, women and nuclear
families are the best for this purpose. Opposition to this says: childcare
facility, schools can take care of children rather than the family.
o
Cereal pack image of family has not been achieved and families can be
dysfunctional. Demands of nuclear family too great and therefore
conflict within family. For leach extended family better as better knitted
with the community.
Marxist view: The family carries out functions that allow for the continuation of
the economic system.
o
Family is where people accept capitalism as a fair system.
o
Brings up next generation of workers who make profits for owners.
o
Workers can't go on strike, as they have to feed their family.
o
Women keep old healthy capitalist system avoids health care.
o
Family is the main unit of consumption.
Feminist views: The family is mainly patriarchal, as the wife expected to take
care of needs of the husband and children. Wealth inherited by the male person.
Also gender Roles are given to the children.
o
There are 3 stances in feminism
-
Liberal feminists progress without fundamental changes such
man helping in the home is recommended.
-
For Marxist and radical feminist: radical changes are required
Such as women should live separately from men.
PAGE 124
x
The ‘new right’ and family functions:
- They suggest that we need to return to nuclear families to work with the
contemporary society. The family has undergone many chances.
o
The growth one parent family is common because:
-
Ease of divorce..
-
Cohabitation (living together before marriage) is common
which seen as a sign of instability.
-
Not letting the child being born.
-
Rise of feminism: women not happy with role of being a wife
in a patriarchal family.
-
Same gender (strictly against the moral code).
-
Women work and therefore child neglect is present.
-
This is why children fail in schools and people have to rely on welfare benefits.
-
This approach has been strongly attacked by the feminists and same gender
movement.
Alternatives to family
x
x
One person households, singlehood:
-
Older people, widowed, when children have moved away.
-
Middle age women who choose to live alone.
-
Men who are separated or divorced. (The wife stays in the home).
Communes:
-
x
Group of people living together and sharing some property. This can be based on
religious or political belief for example Hippies, who reject the mainstream lifestyle
Friends as family and shared households:
-
Married life is not a constant and an absolute. Cohabitation, serial monogamy
choice to remain unmarried. Where group of people live together.
-
Friends are important when young people move away from parents and need a
support group while in university or when they are starting their career. They play
PAGE 125
greater roles in social and emotional support. People who are divorced require
friends and therefore shared households become important.
x
-
Joint mortgage between friends and joint rent.
-
Family is not based on equality but friendship generally based on equality.
-
Friends not involved in care of older people and inheritance of property.
Other alternatives:
-
Nayar people of southern Indian.
-
Large number of women and children live together, older man is the head of the
family
-
Children taken care of the women’s brother.
-
Husband’s are away at war, meanwhile women can have the partners of their
choice as husbands.
Cross cultural comparisons and variations in marriage
x
x
Monogamy (single marriage at a time):
-
UK and other countries this is the legal form. Because of divorce serial
monogamy has become common.
-
Rise of divorce rates.
Polygamy and polyandry:
-
Polygamy: Is a marriage that involves at least 3 people. Polygyny involves man
has several wives and polyandry which is very rare and was practiced in Tibet.
This is generally done to save land woman has multiple husbands.
-
Polygyny is allowed in many cultures such as Africa, Middle East and parts of
southern Asia. Islam allows 4 marriages but generally monogamy is practiced
because of financial constraints.
-
Group marriages may also be common.
Alternatives to marriage
x
Cohabitation:
-
Before 1970's not acceptable but now it is acceptable.
PAGE 126
x
o
Permanent relationship just without the ceremony of marriage.
o
Short term relationships without commitments.
o
Trail marriages-living together before the actual marriage.
More than half the couples now live together before marriage.
Civil partnerships:
- For the same gender practiced in the western culture and is not acceptable in our
culture.
-
Same union as marriage with same legal rights. (Tax pension and inheritance).
Trends in marriage and divorce
x
x
Marriages trends:
-
Marriages have declined; UK first marriages fell by 50% from 1970-2000.
-
People marry late or end their marriage in divorce or never marry at all.
-
Feminists argue that more feminists are aware of the disadvantage of marriage
and therefore marriages have declined.
Remarriage:
-
x
x
Divorce and death of a spouse this leads to step families.
Marital breakdown:
-
Divorce is easier and cheap and there have been divorce laws changes.
-
Divorce not the best measure of marriage break down, separations, desertion
(one leaves the family) are also marital breakdown.
-
Empty shell marriages also exist in which the couple continues to live together but
there is no substantial relationship.
Divorce trends:
- 3 times more divorces compared to 1969.
-
Women divorcing are on the rise.
-
Other features:
PAGE 127
o
Marry young then the couple gets divorced.
o
Middle class people are less likely to divorce; in the past it was the
other way round as divorce was expensive.
o
People with strong religious beliefs tend to get divorced less.
o
Reasons for a rise in divorce rates (increase in adultery, sodomy,
desertion and cruelty - generally accordingly to the 'new right' view:
o
x
-
Decline in moral standards.
-
Secularization.
-
Lack of communities as in the past communities used to
prevent divorce.
Divorce can be positive:
-
Working class can divorce.
-
People live longer and therefore divorce is on the rise.
-
Feminism: women made aware now and they get divorced
more now.
Lone parent families (single parent families):
-
Children have two homes, or just contact both parents. Contact is every day to
never.
-
Often a temporary thing as many women lone parents marry again same goes for
men.
-
Functionalists: need two adults therefore this family is broken. There is bad
performance at schools for children and chances of criminal behavior also
increases later on. Also children cannot maintain healthy relationships.
-
New Right – lone parents part of the development of the underclass, which is
criminal and unemployed. Underclass has single girls who have children and can
live off welfare. Girls are raised and are not a problem. When boys are raised
abandoned their families as did their fathers and don’t become breadwinners.
-
Other writers challenges their views
o
Lone parent can take help from other family members, neighbors etc. In
some cases lone parent families are better than an empty shell
PAGE 128
marriage.
o
Problem is with poverty not single parents. Many children face the
same problems when their parents are married if they are in poverty.
o
Feminists see this trend of single mothers as positive as women are
more aware about their rights.
How are family roles changing
Roles in family
x
x
Conjugal roles:
-
Functionalists: Natural role of man being instrumental and women expressive.
Woman allows for a comfortable home for man. Feminists argue that this is
patriarchal and benefits the man.
-
Segregated roles: where nuclear family roles are divided and joint conjugal roles
are where both share instrumental and expressive roles.
-
Symmetrical family: where roles have become equal.
-
Today family there are dual workers where both members have paid work
-
Female roles limits: the family moves for mans job but not females.
-
Female domestic role:
o
Its unpaid
o
No start or finish times.
o
No benefits such as holidays, contract etc.
o
It is not seen as real work and has low status.
o
Less sense of achievement.
Maternal role:
-
Mothers expected to devote themselves to children as many say that women
have a mothering instinct.
-
In some cultures, their grandparents or close kin raise their children. Modem
society's children spend time at a nursery or similar.
PAGE 129
-
x
x
Three variations in today's world from traditional motherhood.
o
Working mothers and children spending time in nursery and some
suggest that leaving children decreases their performance at school
and others say that there is no evidence of this.
o
Some suggest that teenage mothers who generally unmarried cannot
raise children.
o
Lone parents.
Parental roles:
-
Traditionally mothers feed their children and fathers just disciplined children and
also earned money for their family.
-
Today they have a dual role where they build emotional relationship with children
yet also are the breadwinners of the family.
Roles of children:
-
-
What is meant by childhood:
o
UK childhood is people under 16 years. Driving after childhood and
some rights acquired as they climb the ladder. 13 years part time
working age.
o
Traditional societies had a ceremony for childhood to adulthood for
boys and girls were considered adult after menstruation. In Yanomani
people of Amazon girls marry at first sign of adulthood.
o
In the past children seen as adults just the work they did was different
for them due to their size. Not protected from death and adult activities.
o
Childhood is also socially constructed.
Children rights and responsibilities:
o
Subject to authority of adults such as parents teachers.
o
Childtime controlled by parents (school work, play).
o
Difference from adulthood is social and not natural.
o
Laws for children changed to give them more freedom such as; no
corporal punishment.
PAGE 130
x
x
o
UN rights for children.
o
Companies now make products for children (toys).
o
Children seen as innocent and today's society is child centered (child's
wishes are important).
o
Child labor laws exist now which ban/limit child labor.
Adult children:
-
Some children move out for university or after 18 to live by themselves.
-
Empty nest families (where parents live alone after the child has left.
-
Boomerang: child leaves and then returns. For examples Parents still financially
support children.
-
In China and Pakistan the child is expected to a parents after they retire.
Grandparents:
-
Now people live more so having tour generations in industrial societies is
common. People can become grandparents m their thirties to old age.
-
This development in families has affected their role:
o
Many grandparents have children (divorce, remarry, become lone
parents).
o
Divorce can affect relationship of grandparent and grandchild.
o
Step grandparents.
o
Grandparents in 'same gender’ families.
o
Grandparents from more than one ethnic group.
o
Grandparents also likely to get divorced or remarry.
-
Grandchildren live full lives and it may be difficult to spend time with
grandparents. Although some grandparents take care of child when the mother is
out for work.
-
Support between grandparents and their children
PAGE 131
o
Economic: giving and lending money and gifts.
o
Accommodation: live with children and grandchildren.
o
Personal care: especially by daughters.
o
Practical support: mother works and grandparent takes care of the
child.
o
Emotional and moral support.
-
Pivot generations: people giving support to their children and parents.
-
Maternal grandparents play a greater role in the upbringing of the child.
-
Grandmother gives more support than grandfather.
Changes in family relationships and conjugal roles
x
Changing conjugal roles and the symmetrical family:
-
Functionalists – men breadwinner and women take care of the household. As
roles change the family becomes dysfunctional now.
-
In the past, men did some housework such as gardening, but now they are more
involved. Women also worked but their paying job was less significant and this
has changed now.
-
Segregated roles (clearly different roles), Symmetrical (joint roles, equal but still
some difference as well).
-
Reasons for more symmetrical families:
-
o
Nuclear families more privatized, couples organize their family around
home rather than work.
o
Decline of extended family.
o
Women have higher status in society and they have independence
because they work.
o
It becomes easier for couples to discuss their roles.
o
Labor saving devices in home exist and therefore both don't have to do
that much housework.
Has the change to symmetrical families been exaggerated?
PAGE 132
o
Change is slow, feminist say that patriarchal system does not allow for
equality in domestic division of labor (cooking cleaning).
o
Men may help but primary responsibility is the Woman's. Even men and
women that work the same number of hours the woman does more
housework compared to the man.
o
Men choose to take special tasks rather than day-to-day boring jobs
(such as they prepare meals for guests). Men still make important
decisions such as moving the home.
o
Dual Burden (jobs, and domestic work) for women. Emotional work is
also added which means triple burden for women.
o
Research is still limited on this topic.
Variation in family relationships
x
x
Social stratification and family relationships:
-
Symmetrical families more common in working class families as men's own
income is less and women have to contribute.
-
Managing directors spent less time with families and more at work, so he does not
do a lot of housework.
-
Changes in family life started at high classes and worked down and this process
is known as stratified diffusion.
-
As work gets more interesting with technology, the middle class asymmetry
should have spread but this did not happen as middle class can afford help and
the working class generally can't which means middle class men don’t do work.
Ethnicity and family:
-
Some have adapted to the dominant way of living.
-
UK's African Caribbean minority has high rates of single parenthood.
-
South Asian families strong extended families.
-
Divorce rates lower in south Asian minorities.
-
Arranged marriages common in South Asian minorities.
PAGE 133
The negative aspect of family
x
Dark side of family is negative aspect of the family (abuse, neglect, arguments,
Alcoholism).
x
Functionalists say dysfunctional families are an exception. Radical feminists see
families as patriarchal.
x
Domestic violence is a part of the dark side of family:
x
-
Past: Many thought family matters were private and also that husbands had right
to hit their wives. It was widespread; women were pushed, slapped, beaten raped
etc.
-
This happened when the man's authority was challenged such as by asking
questions like "why was he late".
-
Feminists say marriage is a problem and within marriage it is acceptable to be
rude to wives, plus many men do it to keep patriarchal structures working.
-
Men domestic violence is least reported even less than domestic violence against
women as it hurts the pride of the man.
-
Domestic violence is not reported by women because:
o
Police will be unable to do anything.
o
Fear of violence becoming worse.
o
Losing contact with their children.
o
They assume abuse is normal or that they deserve it.
o
They assume that they will themselves change the behavior of the
abuser.
Child abuse and neglect: modern societies increase in known cases of child abuse or
neglect much of which are done by step parents (often by males):
-
Now parents are more watchful.
-
Four forms of child abuse:
o
-
Sexual, physical, emotional, and neglect.
Growing up with mental patients, not going to school because of property all count
as child abuse. In Uganda there are child soldiers.
PAGE 134
What are the changes affecting the family
Industrialization, urbanization and family change
x
Functionalists – nuclear family best suits the industrial society. In old times extended
families were required to take care of the sick, lend money etc. Now institutions take
care of this. Plus many jobs require you to travel and keeping the extended family with
you is not possible.
x
Parsons:
-
Primary socialization of children.
-
Provide stabilization of adult personalities - in a world of impersonal bureaucratic
institutions.
x
1564-1821 Urbanization happened: movement from rural to urban areas. Extended
family decreased because of this. High mortality rates meant that generations, were not
that common, plus people married late. Brothers did not live together as the eldest
inherited everything. This was different for nobility as there were larger houses and
servants. Records may not always be accurate. This is just the UK and family types may
be different for different countries.
x
Industrialization may have been encouraged by nuclear families rather than the other
way around.
x
But according to Anderson; extended families were more common in 1851 because
urbanization required newly arrived people to stay with their families, taking care of the
poor and the sick. This happens in today's immigrant countries.
x
According to Willmott and young: In 1950 still strong extended families were present in
the working class. Strong relationships between mothers and their daughters as they
lived on the same street as husbands worked in the same place sometimes.
x
Later as the working class areas redeveloped the extended family ties were broken and
new ties were developed.
Demographic trends
x
Family size and birth rates:
-
Past children seen as earners at the age of 6 to 7 years therefore there were
more births. Now birth rates (No of live births/1000 in a year) and fertility rates (no
of births/1000 age bearing mothers) have fallen
-
Reasons for the fall:
PAGE 135
x
x
o
Children became an economic cost rather than a benefit.
o
Fewer children die.
o
Old Parents don't need to be looked after by children old age homes
exist now.
o
Contraception techniques available.
o
Moving is easier for families with less children
o
Women have more work opportunities and therefore they have fewer
children.
-
Beanpole families are common (more life expectancy thus tall trees but as fewer
children the tree will not be wide). This is a new type of family.
-
Birth rates may increase as Young European influx and divorced mothers will
have more children with new partners.
New development in births. Single mother births:
-
Are 4/10.
-
Cohabitation – births.
Mortality rates:
-
Death rate and infant mortality rates and child mortality (1-5 years) rates have
fallen.
-
Reasons.
-
o
Better water sanitation, improved water supply.
o
Advances in preventing and treating diseases.
o
Higher living standards and better diets.
o
Fewer death rates related to work.
o
Better education and health care.
Developing countries still have higher death rates, birth rates and fertility rates
because of lack of education and healthcare. After industrialization death rates fall
and then birth rates also fall.
PAGE 136
The consequences for the family of an ageing population
x
More people in the UK generally will be old as more life expectancy.
x
Retirement makes one loose status.
x
Many old parents rely on their children; especially daughters apart from pensions to take
care of their children.
x
Pivot generation spend their time for this purpose.
x
Consequences:
-
More older people living alone.
-
Greater role of grandparents.
-
Greater burden for adult children.
-
Greater isolation and loneliness among older people.
-
More generations in families.
PAGE 137
PAGE 138
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2251/22/O/N/17
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2251/23/O/N/17
1
Family life today is characterised by diversity. Many different types of family now exist, including
the cereal packet family. Sociologists do not always agree on how positive family life actually is for
all of its members.
D
:KDWLVPHDQWE\WKHWHUP¶FHUHDOSDFNHWIDPLO\·"
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Describe two types of marriage.
[4]
F
Explain how secularisation has affected family life.
[6]
G
Explain why family life is not always good for its members.
[8]
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06_2251_22_2020_1.4
1
Whether gender equality in the family exists is a matter of debate. Many factors affect this, for
example social characteristics such as ethnicity and social class. Also important are the type and
size of the family as well as the roles family members play.
(a) What is meant by the term ‘gender equality’?
[2]
(b) Describe two trends in divorce in modern industrial societies.
[4]
(c) Explain how ethnicity can affect family life.
[6]
(d) Explain why the average family size has decreased in modern industrial societies.
[8]
(e) To what extent are family roles changing in modern industrial societies?
[15]
PAGE 145
PAGE 146
6/*5
&%6$"5*0/
PAGE 147
PAGE 148
Unit-5
Education
Topics
-
The Function of Education
PAGE 149
Unit-5: Education
The Function of Education
Informal and formal education
x
Formal: Education that takes place in classrooms, where there is a syllabus and set
content to be taught and learnt.
x
Informal: Education that takes place outside of schools and classrooms at home or
work or through daily interactions, such as Native American trained to be warriors by
their elders or living in the woods.
x
Hidden curriculum: Attitudes and behavior that are taught through the way the school
is run and how teachers act, rather than through the taught content of the lesson.
x
The United Nations has set primary education for all children as a goal to be achieved by
2015 but not all countries will succeed in reaching this and universal secondary
education is a long way off.
x
Mali, one of the poorest countries in the world has major school attendance differences
between students living in Urban and Rural areas, people in urban areas are more likely
to go to schools and opt for higher education. But this was not the case for Indonesia
who had almost the same percentages of children attending primary and secondary
education but more percentage of people opted for higher education in urban areas.
Education and agency of socialization
x
Education is an agency of secondary socialization. This is because children learn not
only what is taught in lessons, but also social expectations and, for example, how to get
on with other children who often have different backgrounds and abilities.
x
Social control: Any way in which people are persuaded or forced to behave in particular
ways.
x
Sanctions: Any way in which children are reprimanded or receive something negative
for something they have done such as detentions or scolding.
x
Rewards: Any way in which children are praised or receive something positive for
something they have done such as certificates and medals.
x
Marxists are interested in how the ruling class maintains its power by persuading the
working class to accept ideas and values that are against their interest. To Marxist
education portrays a capitalist ideology that helps keep the bourgeoisie power.
PAGE 150
x
Feminists argue that education can lead both boys and girls to have stereotypical views
and mistaken views of what the two sexes are like and achieve. To Feminists the school
portrays a patriarchal ideology.
x
Functionalists sociologists focus on the ways in which education contributes to the
continued well-being of society and they believe that education has several function
such as:
-
Schools pass on the norms and values of a society from one generation to the
next since they continue the process of socialization that begins in the family.
-
Since children are socialized into a shared set of values, education can help them
believe that they belong to a shared value system and can particularly be
important for societies that are ethnically diverse.
-
Some examples of ways in which individual may learn in school to identify
themselves with their society include:
o
Same experiences, assemblies.
o
Singing national anthem.
o
National flag and symbols.
o
Learning patriotic slogans.
o
Being taught in lessons about their society (history).
-
One of the main values that children learn is the importance of individual
achievement. At home each child has an ascribed status (for example gender) but
at school they are judged mainly by what they achieve, measured by universal
standards such as exams.
-
A second function of the education system is to produce people with the skills and
abilities needed for the economy of the society. This is called sifting and sorting or
the allocation of roles for future life after school. By assessing the children's
abilities and how they do in tests and exams the school allows them to follow
different paths. The system seems to be fair as everyone seems to have an equal
opportunity of succeeding.
-
Criticism of the functionalist view include:
o
There is no set of shared values to be passed on. For Marxist the
values passed on are those of the dominant ideology, for feminists they
are patriarchal values.
PAGE 151
x
x
o
There is no strong connection between schools and work. Pupils will
not need most of what they learn in school when they are working as
adults.
o
People are selected for jobs not by their ability but more by their social
class, ethnicity and gender.
Marx View:
-
For Marxists, working-class people are not educated so much as indoctrinated.
Working-class children are taught a set of values that will make them good
workers for the capitalist system.
-
Much of this indoctrination is done through the hidden curriculum, for example
children learn in schools to be punctual and to do as they are told by those in
authority (teachers).
-
Bourgeoisie go to fee paying public schools or private schools where they are
taught that they are special and they gain access to places at top universities and
to well-paid positions.
-
Public schools now often take children from less privileged backgrounds on
scholarships but Marxists say that they do this to recruit the brightest working
class children to the ruling class.
Feminist:
-
Feminists see a division between the two sexes. Feminists argue that schools like
other secondary agencies of socialization, send the message to both boys and
girls that boys are superior, and girls may learn to lower their expectations and be
more likely to accept traditional gender roles. Division between boys and girls
(gender discrimination). This may happen for the following reasons:
o
Girls are taught different knowledge, for example, subject seen as more
appropriate for traditional female roles such as sewing and needle
work. They maybe also be discouraged from taking 'harder subjects
such as the sciences.
o
Teachers have higher expectations of boys and encourage them to aim
for a career, while assuming that the future for most girls is marriage
and motherhood.
o
In schools the senior staff and head teachers are often males which
give the impression that men are better suited for leadership roles.
PAGE 152
The relationship between social mobility and education
x
Functionalists believe the education system permits social mobility. If there is equality
of opportunity people are able to reach the level they deserve based on their natural
ability and the effort they make to succeed.
x
Meritocracy is a system in which individuals reach the social positions they deserve,
based on their educational achievement, talent and skills. In a meritocracy social
background should be irrelevant as a child from a working class background who works
hard should be able to move upwards in the class ladder and since a shared value
system is taught in schools people accept that education is fair.
x
People from working class and underprivileged groups (ethnic minorities) can move
upwards if they merit success and work hard while the opposite could also be true for
privileged children who do not merit success.
x
Marxists disagree, according to them middle class and upper class can provide
opportunities for their children such as private tuition access to books and provide other
resources which gives them an edge over children with a poor class background.
x
Only if there are extra professional jobs then working class members get in otherwise
they can't and are stagnant since they are unable to find well-paid employment.
Different types of schools
Age:
x
-
Pre-School: Before 5 or 6 years of age, designed to help children get used to
learning and a school-type environment.
-
Primary education: 5/6 to 11, here children are taught basic language, math,
cognitive skills and emotional skills and all these subjects may be taught by one
class teacher.
-
Secondary education 11 to 18, includes high school and is mostly compulsory in
some countries, here pupils study a range of subjects with different teachers for
different subjects.
-
Tertiary education above 18 (adult), also called higher education, it is not
compulsory (post compulsory), universities offer undergraduate and post graduate
degrees, including doctorates.
Who runs:
-
Private schools are not run or controlled by the government. Private schools are
funded mainly from tuition fees. Success generally guaranteed for children
attending private schools and they are usually free from the restrictions placed on
state schools and may not teach certain subjects. An example is Eton British
public school which is not public at all.
PAGE 153
-
State schools are run directly or indirectly by national or local government. State
schools are funded from taxation.
x
Faith schools: Sometimes called parochial schools are schools controlled by religious
organization Students are members of the schools faith. They have their own distinctive
ethos based on their faith for example Krishna Avanti School in London involves a lacto
vegetarian diet.
x
Primary schools take children in local areas where as in selective education a school
chooses their pupils usually by ability and may reject some student applications.
x
Comprehensive system: Are non-selective secondary schools which accepted all the
children in the area for providing primary education.
x
In England and Wales comprehensive schools were introduced from the1960s onwards.
They replaced three types of secondary schools known as the ‘Triparlite’ system:
-
Grammar schools: For academic' children, selected at the age of 11 years or
afterwards. Grammar schools taught the classics, mathematics, sciences and
other demanding subjects for GCSE.
-
Technical schools: Specialized in technical ion helping pupils prepare tor
manual occupations.
-
Secondary modern schools: For most children, offering basic education with
often few opportunities to take exams.
x
Grammar schools were able to attract the best teachers and recruited the best pupils
mainly from the middle class). These schools had greater social networking and better
life chances.
x
There has been a move away from comprehensive schools and there are now other
types of schools including:
-
Specialist schools: Secondary schools that specialize in one or more subjects
such as sports, arts, business and science.
-
Academies: The government allows businesses and other sponsors to start
schools, usually to replace schools with law GCSE results. The sponsors decide
how the school is run. Academies are not under the control of the local authority
as they are funded directly by government and can set their own curriculum,
salary levels and ethos.
-
Free schools: Charities, parents and teachers funded by the government to set
up schools.
PAGE 154
x
The range of different schools now existing means that schools are increasingly
competing against each other for pupils are resources. Previously people used to go to
specific schools but now they have more choices. Nowadays parents can access more
information about schools to help them choose. Schools try to get the best pupils so
because they will do well and raise the schools name which is also why students with
learning difficulties were not selected.
x
Parents with better economic and cultural capital send their children to better schools.
Working class parents are disadvantaged. Schools that cannot attract good pupils simply
fade away.
What factors help to explain differences in educational achievements?
x
Patterns in educational achievement and experience.
x
Gender, ethnicity and social class.
x
Different groups have different treatment and educations.
x
Gender:
-
In the past most schooling was reserved for boys and most girls received very
little education, this is still true for some developing countries his is often because
the future of boys is seen in terms of successful career which is why education is
necessary for them while girls are expected only to marry. For a family with limited
resources paying for a daughter may seem an unnecessary expense.
-
The United Nations and its member governments are strongly committed to
education for girls. To fulfil its second millennium development goal of universal
primary education, more girls need to be educated in schools. Educating girls also
means that they will have less children.
-
In developed countries girls and boys follow the same subjects. In the past,
however, some subjects were reserved for girls such as domestic science and
textiles while other subjects like woodwork was thought to be only for boys. These
differences come from earlier socialization into gender roles, where for example,
girls and boys play with different toys.
-
There is also more mention of boys in science textbooks and laboratories are
dominated by boys. Science subjects are also often taught by males, giving girls
the message that the subject is not for them. Boys are also put off from dance
subjects and home science, also sociology.
PAGE 155
Patterns in educational achievement and experience
o
-
o
Gender:
-
In UK before 1990 girls were better in primary years of education and not better
than boys for getting the required grades to go to university. But today girls
perform much better than boys in all educational levels. Girls better than boys at
GCSE level and a study in 2012 found out that 64% of girls got at least 5 passes
compared to 54% boys.
-
Why do girls do better than boys at GCSE level:
o
Attitude and motivation of girls has increased since there are more
successful women as role models.
o
Schools make an effort to ensure that girls get the same opportunities
as boys.
o
Science subjects positive discrimination for girls for example by
ensuring that girls have priority over boys in accessing the laboratory.
o
Girls spend more time in studying and are better organized. Girls also
seem benefit more from continuous assessments than boys.
o
Girls mature earlier than boys thus understand the importance of
studying early on before they take their main exams.
Why do boys underachieve compared to girls:
Ethnicity:
o
Teachers consider boys to generally behave badly and boys are sent
out of class rooms more often than girls.
o
Boys tend to be overconfident. They overestimate their ability and
believe they can do well without working hard.
o
Laddish behavior: Boys may belong to be affected by an anti-learning
subculture. They may think they may think they will lose status in the
eyes of their peers if they work too hard or do well.
o
In many modern industrials societies there are fewer traditional male
jobs such has mining. Boys may feel there is little point in working hard
when there are few job opportunities for them.
o
Boys and girls different way of spending leisure time. Girls talk which
develop their language and reasoning skills while boys are more likely
to play sports or games.
o
Most school work is based on reading and writing, boys would do better
it more school work was active and practical.
PAGE 156
o
-
Many individual pupils from all ethnic backgrounds do well but in many countries
there is concern about how some ethnic minority groups do in the school system.
-
For example, in the USA there has been concern about African-American pupils,
whereas in the UK children from Pakistani and Bangladeshi backgrounds achieve
less on average.
-
Why do ethnic groups do less well than others?
o
Ethnicity cannot be separated from class and gender, African
Americans from the working class backgrounds explain why they do
less well in schools. Pakistanis were from rural backgrounds that
immigrated also girls from India and Pakistan (Asian) are socialized into
strong traditional female roles and have limited aspirations.
o
Wider social factors: If there is discrimination against a minority group
in wider social spheres, their children are more likely to rebel and
achieve less than average.
o
Schools may themselves be racist:
-
Allocating pupils into streams and sets (lower streams
allocated based on the generalization of ethnicity rather than
individual ability).
-
Ethnic minorities are labeled as trouble makers and teachers
presume they will do badly.
-
Lessons taught may be ethnocentric which is when culture is
viewed from the lens of your own. Such as during History
lessons in which minorities don't learn about their own culture
and lose interest.
-
The authorities may not deal with racism by other pupils
against the minority.
o
Cultural differences. If the values at the home clash with school values,
it may hold up a child's progress.
o
Genetic differences. Different ethnic groups may have different levels of
intelligence and ability.
Social class:
-
Social stratification is the different levels into which societies are divided, such as
upper class, middle class and working class, based on differences in wealth,
PAGE 157
power and status.
-
Schools in the past were largely for the rich, until the 20th century even in modern
industrial societies privileged education was reserved for the rich and powerful.
-
Even in the UK there were private schools for the wealthy, grammar schools for
the middle and secondary modern/technical schools for the poor.
-
Comprehensive schools tried to remove this class divide but the existence of
private schools made it difficult.
-
According to fact social class affects education more than ethnicity and gender.
-
Governments used compensatory education to fulfill a perceived gap and to
attract foreign investors. Compensatory schools are given extra support to
overcome the disadvantages faced by working class pupils.
-
Working class students may under achieve because:
o
Labeling, streaming and setting may lead to underachievement.
o
Inherited intelligence. Middle class parents have been successful in
their educational life and transfer their intelligence to their offspring.
o
Material deprivation: which are the problems in the standard of living
in the home background of some children that prevent them from
achieving in education.
o
Children from working class background have low self-esteem and low
expectations of themselves which is why they end up doing badly by
virtue of a self-fulfilling prophecy.
o
Language differences make it difficult for working class pupils to
understand lessons and comprehend questions in exams a
o
Cultural deprivation: which are aspects of the value and attitudes
from the home and family background of some children that prevent
them from achieving in education.
o
Class position: Middle class children aspire to go to a prestigious
university but lower class children might view clerical job is an
achievement.
o
Higher class has access to more facilities such as better schools,
private tutors and the cultural capital of their family.
PAGE 158
Material, Cultural and linguistic influences on educational achievement
o
Material influences:
-
-
-
Social class:
o
Standards of living of children (material deprivation) are a cause for
underachievement in schools.
o
Middle class children still better off since their parents spend more on
their education.
o
Disadvantages of working class or poor background include:
-
Small home crowded and no place of quiet to study.
-
Inadequate diet.
-
Being unable to afford extras such as sporting kits and
school uniforms.
-
Didn't attend preschools.
-
Have few resources at home like educational b0oks, access
of computer.
-
Having part time jobs which restrict their time to study.
-
Attending disadvantaged schools with poorer average
results.
-
Parents can't afford university education means that children
have lower ambitions to begin with.
Ethnicity:
o
Some ethnic minorities have a high proportion of their members in the
working class so they suffer from material disadvantages. This has
often been the case for immigrants who accept low-paid jobs.
o
Some immigrants are from relatively poor backgrounds and this
disadvantage can continue in the new country
Gender:
o
Material deprivation is related more too social class and ethnicity than
gender.
PAGE 159
o
o
Cultural influences
-
-
However where a family has limited resources to spend on education,
girl's education may be seen as less important than a boy which is why
families with limited budget educate sons rather than daughters.
Social class:
Gender:
o
Working class has a culture or sub culture that is different from the rest
society. Cultural deprivation comes from values and attitudes rather
than a lack of money and resources.
o
Factors than stand in the way of success in education include:
-
Fatalistic attitudes; that is, not believing that you are in
control or your own destiny.
-
The need for immediate rather than deferred gratification,
which is why working class children work for an immediate
wage rather than going to school which helps them in the
future but not in the present.
-
Boys liking thrills and excitement which may get them into
trouble.
-
Parent's not valuing education results in negative experience
at school.
-
Loyalty to your group it may be seen as wrong to move away
from your origins by going up the class ladder.
-
Absence of successful role models in the family who
benefitted from education which makes children see
education an unimportant.
o
However the above theory is questionable as working class parents do
want to educate their children. But some parents just have a lack of
contact with schools and children may see this as less interest in
education.
o
Working class parents me also lack cultural capital that middle and
upper class parents have. For example parents from middle and upper
class are more likely to promote educational success than the working
class.
PAGE 160
-
x
o
Girls may be influenced to see their future in terms of marriage and motherhood
rather than a profession and career.
o
Girls may feel that qualifications are unnecessary for then and not work hard; on
the other hand, a good education can sometimes help the girl find a high-status
husband.
o
In modern industrial societies there has been a shift away from traditional gender
roles and girls are now much more likely to have career aims and to be motivated
to work hard in school to reach them.
Ethnicity:
o
Ethnic background may place or not place a high value on learning and academic
success.
o
Working hard at school was an essential part of the Chinese ethnic identity.
Children were socialized into seeing educational success as very important.
o
Chinese children were told to be the best while White British children were told do
their best.
Linguistic influences:
-
Social class:
o
The restricted code is used for informal everyday spoken
communication with family and friends while the elaborate code is used
in formal occasions and makes meanings explicit to express complex
and abstract ideas.
o
Teachers expect students to understand elaborated codes and be
proficient in its use but working class children generally aren't because
they haven't been socialized into a household that is good at using this
code.
o
Children are labeled due to their lack of skill with the elaborate code
and teachers think that these pupils are slow and don't work on them.
This becomes a self-fulfilling prophecy and hinders a child's educational
success.
o
Sometimes a is as self-negating prophecy may also occur where
children who are told they cannot do well react by doing well.
o
Streaming is when pupils are in one class for all lessons with other of
similar ability to there is a top stream for those seen as high achiever
and a bottom stream for those seen as low achievers. Those who are
PAGE 161
put in the top streams will become confident and do well while the
opposite is true for children in low streams. In most cases the higher
the social class the higher the stream.
o
-
-
Setting, which is a mixture between stream and mixed ability, is when
pupils are placed in a class based on their ability in one subject only.
So a pupil might be in a top set for math's but a bottom set for English.
Setting is also known as Banding.
Ethnicity:
o
Teachers may make assumptions about pupils from different groups by
labeling them and by creating self-fulfilling prophecies. Pupils from
minority ethnic groups are more likely to be put in low streams and sets,
perhaps because of language differences and teacher stereotypes.
o
In the UK higher percentages of African-Caribbean are excluded from
schools. While there may initially have been bad behavior in some boys
in this group, this can create expectation in teacher of poor behavior
from all such boys and lead to a self-fulfilling prophecy. Intrepretivists
call these labels a master status which is why when labeled as a
trouble maker it may, cape suspicion even when you are innocent.
o
Chinese pupils also faced difficulties as teachers assumed that had the
best educational performance which is why they received little praise
for their efforts and teachers helped them less thinking they can do it on
their own.
Gender:
o
Schools often treat boys and girls differently and some schools are
even single sex schools (schools for males or females only).
o
Seating plans, registers, sports and subjects may be different and
based on gender. Individuality or creativity is praised in boys while girls
are praised on their appearance and good behavior.
o
Exclusion policies are mainly based on boys as girls are less likely to
act out their problems and cause trouble.
o
Lower level teaching dominated by females and higher level by males
which is why boys have less role models in primary schools teachers
but more role models within the senior staff.
o
Female teachers are missing from science subjects. The outcome of
this may be that girls do not believe that science and technology are
PAGE 162
subjects for them and choose other subjects.
o
The use of resources such as science equipment can also be
dominated by boys.
o
Teachers don't always challenge the physical domination of spaces by
assertive boys.
o
Some schools have changed and adopted polices to overcome these
issues but still have a problem since these concepts are still present in
the wider society.
Influence of peer group and pupil sub culture on educational achievement
x
x
Social class:
-
Schools place a high value on behavior and grades. One of the effects of labeling
is to divide students into those who highly achieve and those who underachieve
which is why those who are labeled as failures are deprived of status.
-
In response pupils rebel against the school and develop an anti- school
subculture developed in an attempt to gain respect in the eyes, of their peers (this
phenomenon occurs in majority of the cases with boys.
-
Culture of masculinity also develops in which the accepted ways of behavior for
males are taken too far.
-
These sub cultures are: hating schools truanting, avoiding work and cheating
when doing work, aggressive towards teacher despising pupils who work hard,
opening racist and sexist, involved with serious crime outside.
-
Working class pupils are the ones mostly involved in subculture formation since
middle class pupils believe in conformity.
Ethnicity:
-
Sometimes it is pupils from minority ethnic groups who are labeled as failures and
put into low streams.
-
The same processes as for working class pupils can also apply to minority ethnic
groups, such as failing to meet the ideal pupil stereotype, being labeled and then
conforming to a self-fulfilling prophecy of failure.
-
Chinese pupils are less in numbers in a school and are unable to form a peer
group. They would then be labeled geeks and hence would be more likely to stop
working hard.
PAGE 163
x
-
African Caribbean boys in British secondary schools formed their own anti-school
subcultures and smoked in schools etc. but were also aggressively masculine.
-
‘Black sisters' was an ethnic minority who was successful in education but at the
same time did not support the educational system. They knew the importance of
education.
Gender:
-
Girls develop their language skills more than boys because of talking and also
help each other out in studies since they take them more seriously.
-
Girls peer groups were studied by Valerie Hey, and found that cliques (tight,
closed friendship groups) tended to form among girls from the same class
background based on a core of best friends. Girls from the working class used
makeup and acted overly feminine to get their way in school. They misbehaved as
much as boys but were subtle about it.
-
According to Carolyn Jackson, girls now are swearing, being aggressive, and
working hard by some girls is now seen as un-cool'. If pupils did not do well, they
could always claim that they could have done well had they tried?
Measuring intelligence
x
It can be argued that some people are more intelligent than others. This would have to
mean that middle class children were always more intelligent than work class children
since their school achievements are higher. Sociologists say it is the material and
cultural factors that make this happen.
x
It is likely that intelligence is partly inborn but that how it develop environment such as a
healthy diet for young children.
x
There are also probably different kinds of intelligence. Someone might not be good at
math’s not be good at English. These intelligence are tested in verbal good and logical
reasoning.
x
Other types of intelligence include emotional intelligence which involves how well one
can co-operate and emphasize with others.
x
Intelligence is most commonly measured by IQ tests. A higher score is deemed to be
intelligent more intelligent. Working class on average less score and sometimes
ethnicities as African Americans scoreless too.
x
Problems with IQ tests claims should be questioned:
PAGE 164
-
Intelligence depends on environment, higher scores would mean a very good
environment and vice versa for lower scores.
-
IQ tests are based on a very narrow range of skills and exclude other types of
intelligence.
-
IQ tests are made by a particular culture and those from the same culture do well
as they would find it easier.
-
Intelligence develops and IQ tests only tell the intelligence of a person at that
particular moment.
-
Performance in an IQ test can be effected by factors such as being ill etc.
-
Performance in IQ tests improves with practice, so do they really measure
intelligence or just the skill of doing well in tests like these.
-
Low scorers on IQ tests sometimes do well while high scorers sometimes do
badly.
The role of official and hidden curriculum
x
x
Official curriculum:
-
Consists of subjects taught and their content. In primary schools a focus is given
to reading and writing. Followed by specialized teachers for a subjects in
secondary schools, and usually only one subjects in university.
-
Many countries have a national curriculum in which the subjects studied and their
content is decided by the government. National tests allow for comparisons
between school results and this has been helpful to parents in the UK who can
the school with better results for their children.
-
Academies and private schools don’t have to keep a national curriculum as more
schools become academies the national curriculum will be compulsory for lesser
people.
-
National curriculum helps the government develop skills of the future workforce
but division of knowledge into subjects prevents students to understand the link
between subjects.
Hidden curriculum:
-
Pupils lean norms, values, and attitudes from their school experiences and this is
called the hidden curriculum.
PAGE 165
x
-
Schools are physically separate from the home and from places of work. The
classrooms are also set out so that the teacher is at the front and seem in control.
-
Schools are also a hierarchy and pupils learn their place in this hierarchy and the
norms that go with the pupil role.
-
Other features of the hidden curriculum include:
o
Competitive sports and testing individuals that doing better is more
important than co-operation.
o
Importance of punctuality by being on time for a lesson.
o
Doing what you have been told by those in authority.
-
Functionalists say that the hidden curriculum is important for the smooth running
of society as it integrates essential skills in the pupils.
-
Marxists talk about social control when it comes to the hidden curriculum.
Working class learn not to have high expectations. Pupils become passive. They
are also made to believe that when they fail it is their own fault (manipulated).
Most of the important knowledge is reserved for pupils who pursue education after
16 years of age and this usually does not include the working class.
-
Feminist argue that the hidden curriculum conveys gendered messages. For
example boys and girls have different uniforms. This encourages both boys and
girls to conform to gender stereotypes.
Vocationalism:
-
It is education in which you are prepared for a particular trade, craft or profession.
-
Vocational education is received for work while secondary education makes
courses available that lead to careers in, for example health care.
-
In UK students who take A levels and university education are considered to be
better than those who just learn a particular skill.
-
Governments have tried to make vocational education better by introducing new
qualifications and assessments.
-
Critics of vocational training have argued that:
o
They keep young people occupied and avoiding counting them as
unemployed.
PAGE 166
o
They have been used by some employers as a source of cheap labor.
o
The purpose of education not just to prepare workers but to increase
the potential of individuals which is why well rounded education is
required.
PAGE 167
PAGE 168
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PAGE 169
PAGE 170
2251/22/M/J/16
2
Education and schools are thought to be important agencies of socialisation. Not everybody
agrees, however, that education is a good thing and some social groups seem to do much better
than others. Some sociologists believe that schools have a big influence on the educational
performance of students.
(a) What is meant by the term ‘socialisation’?
[2]
(b) Describe two aspects of the hidden curriculum, apart from socialisation.
[4]
(c) Explain how sanctions can be used by schools to make students conform.
[6]
(d) Explain why school factors may be the biggest influence on a child’s educational performance.
[8]
(e) To what extent are the functions of education positive?
[15]
2251/23/M/J/16
2
Some social groups do better than others in education. Some sociologists believe one reason
for this is the ethnocentric nature of schools. Home factors are also thought to be influential in
determining how successful an individual may be.
(a) What is meant by the term ‘ethnocentric’?
[2]
(b) Describe two patterns in educational achievement.
[4]
(c) Explain how positive discrimination can be used in the education system.
[6]
(d) Explain why some minority ethnic groups do less well in education than others.
[8]
(e) To what extent does material deprivation determine the educational achievement of students
from different social classes?
[15]
PAGE 171
2251/22/O/N/16
2
Educational achievement is argued to be linked to many things, one of which is IQ Tests. Different
types of education exist to suit the needs of all students, a recent example of which is vocationalism.
Some sociologists still believe, however, that male and female students do not receive the same
opportunities and experiences within education and that this affects their levels of achievement.
(a) What is meant by the term ‘IQ Tests’?
[2]
(b) Describe two ways that the peer group a child belongs to can affect his or her educational
achievement.
[4]
(c) Explain how vocationalism is different from other types of education.
[6]
(d) Explain why tests used to measure intelligence may not be accurate.
[8]
(e) To what extent is there equality of opportunity for male and female students in education?
[15]
2251/23/O/N/16
2
In modern industrial societies there are many different schools that students can attend, one of
which is a comprehensive school. Many sociologists believe that having so much choice is a good
thing and improves the quality of education for students. Some social groups, however, still achieve
better than others within the education system.
(a) What is meant by the term ‘the comprehensive system’?
[2]
(b) Describe two types of schools, apart from comprehensives.
[4]
(c) Explain how the existence of a range of different types of schools in modern industrial
societies may be good for students.
[6]
(d) Explain why social class may be the most important factor in determining how well a student
achieves in education.
[8]
(e) To what extent do setting and streaming affect a child’s educational achievement?
[15]
PAGE 172
06_2251_22_2017_1.2
2
Studentstodayaretaughtinadiverserangeofschoolsandmaystudytraditionalacademicsubjects
aswellasvocationalism.Somesociologistsbelievethisallowsschoolstomeettheneedsofall
theirstudents,whereasothersociologistsbelievethisisawayofpromotingdivisionsandinequalities
insociety.
(a) What is meant by the term ‘vocationalism’?
[2]
(b) Describe two ways that teacher labelling can affect a student's educational achievement.
[4]
(c) Explain how the differences in language at home and at school can affect educational
achievement.
[6]
(d) Explain why schools are an important part of secondary socialisation.
[8]
(e) To what extent is social mobility affected by the type of school an individual attends?
[15]
06_2251_23_2017_1.2
2
Anumberoffactorsseemtoberelevantinexplainingwhysomestudentsdobetterineducation
thanothers.Somesociologistsfocusontheimportanceofdeferredgratificationandculturalcapital
whereasothersbelievethatteachershavethemostinfluenceoverhowwellastudentperforms.
(a) What is meant by the term ‘deferred gratification’?
[2]
(b) Describe two features of an anti-school sub-culture.
[4]
(c) Explain how cultural capital may cause upper and middle class students to do better in education
than working class students.
[6]
(d) Explain why the type of school a student attends is thought to have a big influence on life
chances.
[8]
(e) To what extent are teachers responsible for an individual’s educational achievement?
[15]
PAGE 173
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2
Formal education in the world today takes many forms. For some sociologists it allows people
to better their life chances whereas for others it simply reinforces social divisions and maintains
social inequalities.
D
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E
Describe two examples of the culture of masculinity that may explain the educational
underachievement of boys.
[4]
F
Explain how schools can be ethnocentric.
[6]
G
Explain why some students join anti-school sub-cultures.
[8]
H
To what extent does the education system help the ruling class maintain their power in
VRFLHW\"
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2
There are several reasons why different social groups do better than others in education. Some
believe this is due to the peer group, whereas others refer to school factors such as the selffulfilling prophecy and the hidden curriculum. Whether the education system today offers students
equality of opportunity remains a matter of debate.
D
:KDWLVPHDQWE\WKHWHUP¶VHOIIXOILOOLQJSURSKHF\·"
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E
Describe two criticisms of IQ tests.
[4]
F
Explain how the hidden curriculum controls pupils.
[6]
G
Explain why some sociologists believe that selective education is unfair.
[8]
H
To what extent is the peer group the most influential factor in determining educational
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PAGE 174
06_2251_22_2018_1.1
2
Educationaffectsanindividual'slifechances.Manyviewshavebeenputforwardtoexplainwhy
differentsocialgroupsexperiencedifferentlevelsofsuccessineducationalachievement.Examples
oftheseviewsincludematerialdeprivationandethnocentrism.
(a) What is meant by the term ‘material deprivation’?
[2]
(b) Describe two examples of ethnocentrism in education.
[4]
(c) Explain how education is an agency of socialisation.
[6]
(d) Explain why education can improve life chances.
[8]
(e) To what extent are material factors the most important influence on educational achievement?
[15]
06_2251_23_2018_1.1
2
Manysociologistsbelieveitisschoolfactorsratherthanhomefactorsthatdeterminehowwellan
individualdoesineducation.Socialcontrolisoftennecessaryasnotallstudentsconformtothe
expectationsofaschool.Forexample,notallstudentscanuseanelaboratedcode.
(a) What is meant by the term ‘elaborated code’?
[2]
(b) Describe two ways that schools can affect educational achievement.
[4]
(c) Explain how members of anti-school sub-cultures are different to other students in schools.
[6]
(d) Explain why home factors can affect educational achievement.
[8]
(e) To what extent is education a successful agency of social control?
[15]
PAGE 175
11_2251_22_2018_1.1
2
Differentsocialgroupsvaryintheireducationalachievement.Whilsttherearepoliciesandinitiatives
topromoteequalityandsocialmobility,theydonothelpeverybody.Forsome,educationdoesnot
improveaperson'slifechances.
(a) What is meant by the term ‘social mobility’?
[2]
(b) Describe two ways that schools socially control pupils.
[4]
(c) Explain how positive discrimination can improve the educational achievement of some social
groups.
[6]
(d) Explain why education is necessary in modern industrial societies.
[8]
(e) To what extent do social factors, such as gender, determine an individual’s educational
achievement?
[15]
11_2251_23_2018_1.1
2
Inmodernindustrialsocietiesmanydifferenttypesofschoolsexist,forexampleprivateschools.
Alltypesofschoolsfunctiontohelpstudentspassexamsaswellaspreparethemfortheworldof
work.Forthisreason,schoolsareanimportantagencyofsocialisation.
(a) What is meant by the term ‘private school’.
[2]
(b) Describe two types of schools, apart from private schools.
[4]
(c) Explain how a school’s use of IQ tests could affect a child’s experience of education.
[6]
(d) Explain why some students may reject the norms and values of a school.
[8]
(e) To what extent is the functionalist view of education correct?
[15]
PAGE 176
06_2251_22_2019_1.1
2
Sociologistsdebatethereasonswhysomeindividualsdobetterineducationthanothers.Anti-school
sub-culturesandfamilybackgroundaretwoexplanationsthatareoftenconsidered.Schoolshave
introducedprogrammessuchaspositivediscriminationtotryandmakeschoolabetterexperience
forall.
(a) What is meant by the term 'positive discrimination'?
[2]
(b) Describe two sociological reasons why children go to school.
[4]
(c) Explain how anti-school sub-cultures can affect educational achievement.
[6]
(d) Explain why schools are not functional for all students.
[8]
(e) To what extent does family background influence educational achievement?
[15]
06_2251_23_2019_1.1
2
Somesociologistsvieweducationandtheofficialcurriculumasessentialtoimprovinganindividual’s
lifechances.Othersociologistsbelieveeducationmaintainssocialinequalities.Whilsteveryschool
isdifferenttheyalloperateasystemofrulesandrewardsforstudents.
(a) What is meant by the term ‘official curriculum’?
[2]
(b) Describe two features of the hidden curriculum.
[4]
(c) Explain how schools have tried to improve the educational achievement of ethnic minority
students.
[6]
(d) Explain why sanctions are used in schools.
[8]
(e) To what extent is education a major factor in improving an individual's life chances?
[15]
PAGE 177
11_2251_22_2019_1.1
2
Sociologistsvieweducationindifferentways.Somesociologistsbelievethateducationisimportant
forsocietytofunctionwell.Othersclaimeducationisasourceofinequality.Forexample,theculture
ofmasculinityfoundinsomeschoolsisblamedbymanysociologistsforgenderinequality.
(a) What is meant by the term ‘culture of masculinity’?
[2]
(b) Describe the two different types of gratification experienced by students.
[4]
(c) Explain how education helps society to function well.
[6]
(d) Explain why vocationalism is a feature of the education system today.
[8]
(e) To what extent does the education system help males to maintain their powerful position in
society?
[15]
06_2251_22_2020_1.4
2
Many sociologists believe that how well an individual does in education is not down to their efforts
or IQ but more to do with social characteristics such as ethnicity, gender and social class. This can
be explained by looking at both school and home factors. Other sociologists believe that academic
and vocational education are meritocratic and open to everyone.
(a) What is meant by the term ‘home factors’?
[2]
(b) Describe two examples of vocational education.
[4]
(c) Explain how private schools may reproduce social inequalities.
[6]
(d) Explain why some ethnic groups do less well than others in education.
[8]
(e) To what extent is the feminist view of education accurate?
[15]
PAGE 178
PAGE 179
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PAGE 180
PAGE 181
Unit-6
Crime, Deviance and Social Control
Topics
-
What are crime deviance and social control
What are explanations of crime
PAGE 182
Unit-6: Crime, Deviance and Social Control
What are crime deviance and social control
The difference between crime deviance and social control
x
Deviance means not following the value consensus of the society and at times also
involves breaking the laws.
x
Crime simply involves breaking the laws.
x
All crime is deviance but not all deviance is crime.
x
Deviance can be heroic as well; Sociologists talk about behavior that is negatively
sanctioned. Deviance also involves suicide and mental illnesses.
x
No acts are deviant by nature - The dominant values of the society define what is seen
as deviant and not. e.g.: when soldiers kill during a war, it is not seen as a crime
however a murder is seen as a criminal activity.
x
Cannibalism and incest have been allowed by some societies.
x
Sociologists studied deviance and tried to build empathy for it.
Formal and informal social control
x
Agencies of social control involve media, religion, police and penal system.
x
Informal social control involves informal agencies such as: Family, Media, Schools,
Peer Group, Workplace etc.
x
Informal agencies use tools such as Glares, detentions, ostracism, ridicule etc. to
regulate the social behavior of individuals.
x
Formal agencies include agencies such as Police Authorities, Courts etc.
x
They use formal tools such as fines and other legal reprimands to make individuals
conform.
x
Agencies of socialization also act as agencies of social control.
x
The media reports criminal behavior and shows the punishments for criminal activities.
This inculcates deterrence among the people which socially control their behavior. The
media shows the consequences of certain actions that either deter or encourage
individuals to commit those actions.
x
Often religious commandments become the law such as The Ten Commandments.
PAGE 183
x
Law courts hear charges against individuals.
x
Penal system handles the punishments.
x
Several ways of how social control has changed.
-
The state has become increasingly involved in social control. Many people now
have private security and guards for their protection.
-
Detailed classification systems for different crimes have been develop according
to which criminals are punished.
-
Criminals are increasingly segregated from the society in prisons unlike the past
they were physically punished and then allowed to remain in the society.
-
Rehabilitative punishments have become more common instead of physical
punishments.
-
Family and schools play a greater role in social conformity.
-
Formal and informal social control work together to regulate individual
behavior.
-
Surveillance has become increasingly common. Stanley Cohen argued that there
has been an increase in private places instead of public areas to regulate
surveillance.
What are patterns of crime?
x
Official statistics:
-
They are taken at face value and are socially constructed hence caution is
required. Intrepretivists argue that they reveal information about who constructed
them rather than about the actual crime.
-
The main sets of official statistics on crime are usually:
-
o
Police counts on total numbers of offenders.
o
Court records of total number of convictions divided by their age, ethnic
group etc.
o
.Home office statistics.
Dark figures of crime are unreported crimes.
PAGE 184
x
Sociologists see police stats as social constructs: two techniques are used to get the full
picture:
-
-
Self report studies:
o
Questionnaires, interviews that question people if they have committed
crime.
o
Official statistics reveal: most crimes are committed by men who are in
the working class but this study reveals women and middle class
commit crime as well.
o
Problems such as with:
-
Validity: exaggerated or untrue responses to impress peers
or researcher.
-
Relevance: Some women might agree that they have
committed non-serious and minor offences such as travelling
in a bus without a ticket. However, this is more an act of
dishonesty rather than a criminality. This implies that the men
still commit the most dangerous crimes as claimed by official
statistics.
-
Representativeness: Self report studies mostly interview
adolescents only which means it does not uncover white
collar crimes.
Victimization studies:
o
Respondents more willing to report crimes rather than confessing them.
This may uncover un-reported crimes such as domestic violence.
Victimization studies actually reveal that young working class men are
actually the victims rather than the oppressors, unlike the claim of
official statistics.
o
Problems:
-
They don't cover victimless crimes such as usage of drugs,
white-collar crimes etc. or even child abuse since children
are unaware that they are the victims.
-
Crimes such as domestic violence and assault on women still
unreported.
PAGE 185
-
x
Respondents' memory may be faulty which might
compromise their ability to give an apt description of the
crime.
Police statistics under record crime but it varies for different criminals and offences:
-
Few crimes un covered by police: police discovers both by the victim or witness;
lower crime reporting may be for the following reasons:
o
-
Crimes which are considered to be trivial are not reported, crimes
where police can't do much such as they might be private family
matters are not reported, victims report crimes when they get a benefit
such as when insurance companies require people to report crimes,
some crimes seen are seen as a private or a personal matter hence
individuals don't want to involve the police, victims may not want to see
the criminal being punished, Witnesses may not want to get involved,
some communities don't trust the police hence they do not report the
crimes:
Invisible crime:
o
White collar crimes: police doesn't get involved or these people are not
caught, Credit card frauds dealt by the credit card company rather than
the police, stock theft is common and the police is not involved.
Police play a crucial role in deciding what is legal or illegal. Some police are stricter on drugs
compared to others. Cuffing is done to improve target rate rather than solving the actual crime.
Police may be forced to overlook some crime and asked to clear out crimes that may lead to
moral panics.
Patterns of crime by age class and gender
x
Age:
-
Most crimes are committed by young people.
-
Juvenile delinquency is a term used to explain: under 18 crimes that would have
been dealt with differently if the individual were above 18. Juvenile detention
centers and courts deal with this. This is to keep the young criminals away from
serious criminals to prevent them from adopting a criminal career. In most
countries, even crimes committed by children that are serious, are dealt by the
adult courts.
-
Some crimes are status crimes that come in the definition of crime simply
because of age of the criminal such as underage smoking or drinking.
PAGE 186
x
x
-
Most crimes by young people are nonviolent and non-repetitive.
-
Some sociologists explain crime through adolescence. Since adolescents are
discovering their new identity at this age, they might commit crime to test and
experience the limits or boundaries of this new identity.
-
Factors with higher rates of crime:
o
Boys commit more crimes than girls which can be explained through a
culture of masculinity. Young girls committing crime is increasing and
peak age of delinquency is lower for girls.
o
Boys of minority ethnic groups more likely to commit crime.
o
Very lenient or very strict style of parenting leads to more delinquent
behavior.
o
Criminal parents or older siblings influence delinquency. Young child in
single parent family is likely to commit crime.
Age (older people):
-
Older people commit very few crimes. They might have committed crimes at a
younger age such as war crimes which are dealt by the ICC or IC.
-
Older people have started committing more crimes in Japan. There are special
prisons for older people.
Social class:
-
Working class:
o
Blue collar crimes are the crimes dominated by the working class.
o
Working class is socialized into different set of values such as they
settle for immediate gratification rather than deferred gratification. They
also have a fatalistic set of attitudes and they believe they have no
control their life. Such values encourage crime among the working
class.
o
Relative deprivation: is a phenomenon used to explain crime in which
criminal commits the crime out of jealousy because he has lesser than
the middle or the upper class. Hence, he is relatively deprived in
comparison to the rich in the society, which is why he might resort to
crime to become equal to them.
PAGE 187
o
-
-
Marxists argue that crime is a social construct defined by the elite in
the society. Any action of the working class that threatens the capitalist
system is criminalized. Marxists argue that laws are not enforced, and
those which are also benefit the capitalist system. Health Laws are
enforced so that the workers can work in healthy environments and be
economically productive to benefit the production process. In essence
this law also benefits the capitalist system.
Middle class crime:
o
The middle class generally commits fewer crimes and their crimes are
also not recorded.
o
Middle class crimes are non-violent and usually occupational crimes
known as 'White Collar Crimes'.
o
White collar crimes are dealt differently by the law. Tax evasion is dealt
differently than shoplifting.
o
White collar crimes are usually not included in the official statistics
simply because they don't fit the typical stereotypical image of crime
created by the upper class.
o
Furthermore, the middle class is more aware of their rights and have
the capability to negotiate justice and even do out of court settlements
in order to avoid punishments.
Ruling class crime:
o
Since the ruling class define crimes, their actions are never listed as
crimes.
o
Some ruling class crimes involve- torture, war crimes genocide etc.
o
Corporate crimes involve bribery, breaking health and safety laws,
violating environmental laws, false advertising false accounting such as
concealing profits to avoid tax etc.
o
Elites don't have to break the law since they can change them.
Tobacco companies and Multinationals transfer money within their
organization.
o
In order to avoid a criminal case one employee takes the blame for the
crime rather than the entire company. Then the employee is held
accountable for the crime not the corporation.
PAGE 188
x
Gender:
-
Males are responsible for far more crimes than females.
-
Female crimes:
o
Small crime such as shoplifting is not reported official statistics are not
accurate.
o
Female conviction rates are less. Women are dealt with differently by
the police. This can be explained by the chivalry factor that is in the
area of crime and detention, women profit from their "Femaleness" due
to the chivalry factor that makes authorities reluctant to arrest,
prosecute and convict women despite their guilt. This theory applies to
traditional attitudes towards women.
o
On the contrary, some sociologists argue that courts deal harshly with
women since they are committing an action that does not suit their
"Female" role.
o
Delinquent girls acting against their roles.
o
Last few decades female crime increased because
o
-
Changing position of women in society. Women are
socialized into a different set of values and the traditional
socialization of women has changed. More females have
started to work outside the home which increases their
opportunities to commit crime.
-
Changes in roles and attitudes of women. A display of rowdy
behavior in public places by women is becoming widely
accepted.
-
Women are rejecting male dominance in work: they may
reject rules made by males.
Why female commit low crimes:
-
Girls are socialized into a different set of values. They are
taught to be non-aggressive and peaceful.
-
Talcott Parsons argued that after adolescence the life of
women remains "Home-oriented" which means that she has
fewer opportunities to commit crime.
-
Females face more social control in public life.
PAGE 189
x
Gender:
-
x
Male crimes:
o
Males commit crimes because of masculinity.
o
Crime is often a way to compensate the inability to support their family
o
Examples:
-
Adventurous and risky behavior.
-
Masculinity and domestic violence.
Ethnicity:
-
Minority ethnic groups commit more crimes than majority according to official
statistics.
-
Victim related data: victim has never seen the offender but still blame.
-
Arrest rate represents racism. If someone is arrested that does not mean they
have committed a crime.
-
Problems with saying that statistic show the correct case:
-
o
Most crime by young individuals- ethnic minority have young people.
o
The victims are biased when reporting crimes. They are more likely to
report crimes or exaggerate them if the criminals are black.
o
Police target some ethnic groups compared to others.
o
Police racism.
Explanations for higher crime rate:
o
Marginalization and social deprivations.
o
Racism and racial discrimination.
o
Historical perspective, colonies and resentment.
o
Not all ethnic minorities commit crimes religion and family ties deter
them.
PAGE 190
Victims of crime by age, class, gender and ethnicity
-
Propagators of crime and victims generally belong to the same social group.
Working class men attacked by working class men.
-
Women as victims:
o
Women think they will be attacked because of media reporting of crime.
This is not true but later becomes a self-fulfilling prophecy. Women
victims of unreported crimes such as domestic violence.
o
Assault is committed by someone you know rather than a random
person and it usually takes place in the victims' house rather than a
dark alley and victims don’t report crime. It’s ok for men to do it due to
the patriarchal society – feminist say that this is a way men show
dominance.
o
Domestic violence: Women think they are to blame or think police won't
do much. Family home is a private sphere.
Police and law enforcement
-
Police protect private property: size and functions of police vary between
societies.
-
For Marxist they represent the repressive state apparatus – to protect themselves
(elite capitalist). When the ideological apparatus fails the elites police as the first
line of control. Riot control – weapons may be used.
-
Police Targeting: the police target specific social groups on the assumption that
they are likely to commit crime. They might target working class men, ethnic
minorities etc.
-
Surveillance has increased due to technology - Particular groups and generally
as well. Types include:
o
Computer surveillance.
o
Telephone surveillance.
o
Arial Surveillance (helicopters).
o
ID card systems.
o
Tracking use of credit cards.
o
Biometric surveillance emotional state.
PAGE 191
o
Use of social networking.
o
Electronic tagging of people.
o
Police surveillance - becoming a member of a group.
o
Police and law enforcement.
-
Right wing theory argues that crime in the society is inevitable and some criminals
will always exist, hence it is impossible to completely uproot crime. Hence, the
environment should be designed in a way that offers protection from crime.
Victims should protect themselves from crime.
-
The design of environment can reduce crime, Designers and architects can
design buildings, entrance doors are visible - thorny bushes outside windowsmeasures to protect is known as target hardening.
-
Situational crime prevention:
o
.Try to make it difficult for people to commit crime:
-
Closed circuit television cameras.
-
Cameras used for traffic control-traffic light.
-
Control credit card frauds calculations.
-
Rich segregate themselves from the urban poor- gated communities.
-
Broken window theory- more deviance from a broken window.
-
Zero tolerance policy: minor crimes are also punished.
o
Sill controversial because.
-
Homeless people were removed but they were still
homeless.
-
Crime rates fell in other cities where this was not used –
young population generally may have decreased in New
York.
Crime related to new technologies such as the internet
x
Computer crime or cybercrime. Spam Emails, infecting PC with virus. - Computer crimes
can be committed by individuals, state or organizations.
PAGE 192
x
Crimes that use the internet are internet crime and cybercrime is a vast term – involve all
forms of technology including mobile phones, emails, forums, chartrooms.
x
Examples:
-
x
Spreading computer virus and malware, fraud or identity theft, internet scams,
websites with offensive content, harassment by cyber stalking, trade of illegal
drugs, Cyber terrorism: Estonia example.
Controlling cybercrime is difficult as it transgresses national boundaries. Requires a
global response- but not all countries have the same laws. Controlling expression vs.
free speech. Anonymous; which is seen as cyber terrorism and heroic as well as it
catches internet illegal websites as well.
Dealing with crime
x
Dealing with deterrent, rehabilitation, community sentencing, punishment, and prison.
x
Past physical punishments included exile and ostracism. Today the judicial system deals
with crime.
x
Reasons for punishments:
x
-
Incapacitation: isolation from the society to prevent future crime.
-
Deterrence: to create a fear of punishment.
-
Rehabilitation; changing their attitude - changing offenders, not stopping them
from committing a crime. Apologies to the family etc.
-
Retribution.
Common punishments today:
-
Imprisonment: deprived of the freedoms, Try for rehabilitation by educating them
and integrating them, Second time offence is common after prison.
-
Conditional sentencing: Wear a tag, leave for a certain time period.
-
Fines: for less serious offences, Pakistan Blood money.
-
Community: Vandalism-repair property.
PAGE 193
What are explanations of crime
Sociological explanations
x
x
x
Functionalism:
-
Crime is necessary in a limited sense.
-
Durkheim – societies of saints' even small deviant behavior will be punished.
-
Major crime can bring social collapse.
-
Society collectively decides what's deviant. Criminals by committing crime, point
out how values of society may be different from laws – hence a change in the law
is required to avoid dysfunctional society.
-
In change times people may not be able to connect to share values and therefore
become deviant.
-
Anomie (Durkheim) – When the value consensus between the individual and
society breaks down.
Merton's theory of deviant behavior:
-
Uses the concept of anomie: disjunction between goal and means. American
dream was the goal but not everyone was equally able to achieve it. The goal
promoted deviant behavior.
-
Conformists continued to work hard.
-
Innovators found new ways- considered deviant.
-
Ritualists continued working hard but knew that they would never achieve.
-
Retreatists rejected both goal and means and were resigned failure.
-
Rebels adopted new goals and means.
-
Different social groups show different types of deviant behavior. Merton explained
this by the Strain Theory that is a difference between the outcome and what
people wish to achieve.
-
Criticism – only for wealth and power like theft, assumes society shares the same
values.
-
Albert Cohen Status frustration- lack of status in the society leads to individuals
committing crime since they face inequalities in the society -group vs. individuals
like Merton focused.
Merton's theory of deviant behavior.
PAGE 194
x
Sociological explanations.
x
Socialization: Families and crime:
-
Longitudinal studies – link between poor parenting and offending – single
parent families.
-
Older types of families provided moral values.
-
Several changes indicate that the moral fabric is weakening.
o
x
x
Undermining the idea of marriage cohabitation, Increase in divorce
socialization of children suffer because of independent children, more
families without fathers so no bread winner role model.
-
Root cause poverty vs. family:
-
Underclass- fathers leave children and function on welfare. Law abiding working
class driven out- create instability in the area. Charles Muray- New Rights.
-
Accounts for families and communities Golden age of families meant that women
rights were not provided.
Marxist theories of crime:
-
Laws criminalize the actions of the working class- rich protect themselves through
the state.
-
Working class forced to accept this false consciousness. Property related crime
severely punished.
-
Law creation should be as important as law enforcement.
-
One criticism – some laws benefit everyone, not just the rich. Some laws limits the
industries etc. – Marxist argue that they still benefit the elite.
-
Some laws prevent greater dissent. Labor rights laws etc.
-
Recent Marxist combine structuralist perspective with the labeling theory.
Individual perceptions and societal relations to perceived deviants.
Relative deprivation:
-
Material deprivation is being short of material goods needed in the society, does
not turn someone into a criminal.
PAGE 195
-
It is not being deprived that leads to crime but when individuals see themselves
deprived in relation to others.
-
Marginalization: when individuals don't see a legal route to solve their problems
hence they resort to violence to outlet their emotions of anger. Trade unions.
-
Lea and young: Deprived young men from inner cities victims also from that area.
Criticized Marxist for completely ignoring the working class crime since that was
the major crime in the society.
-
Sociological explanations.
Interactionsist explanations: labeling theory
-
Everyone commits crime which could get them labeled but not all get labeled.
Interactionists are not concerned with the act but try explain how certain acts
come to be defined as deviant.
-
Working class more likely to be labeled deviant compared to middle class.
Howard Becker argued that a deviant act that which has been labeled deviant and
a deviant person is he who has been labeled deviant.
-
Labeling: the ways in which acts most people are defined as deviant by the social
reaction to their behavior. This can give someone a master. Status- a status
which overrides all other statuses. Self-concept is changed by labeling and then
self-fulfilling prophecy becomes true – loss of family, friends and rejection from
the society leads to an increase in deviance. This leads to deviant career where
the person joins a deviant group. This phenomenon is Deviancy Amplification.
-
Primary deviance (before labeling) and secondary deviance (after labeling) does
exist.
-
Marijuana example: became illegal by changes in American values. Moral war by
the narcotics department launched. And Marijuana became illegal as no one
challenged it.
-
Labeling is done by those who have power over the labeled person - it works
most when the labeled person does not have any other sources of information.
Cicourel argued that it is usually the working class that is labeled.
-
Limitations:
o
Some acts such as murder always deviant.
o
People know that they are breaking the laws, even if Lemert says that
primary deviance common.
PAGE 196
x
o
Individuals can choose to be deviant regardless of whether they have
been labeled.
o
Labeling does not explain why some people are labeled and others are
not.
o
Taking the side of the deviant rather than condemning them.
Masculinity:
-
Official statistics males commit more crime and more serious crime compared to
females. Masculinity means being a male. Modern industrial societies is
hegemonic masculinity. Involves.
o
Controlling emotions.
o
Being physically strong.
o
Being willing to use violence.
o
Being competitive.
-
Boys are socialized into different values which teach them be aggressive, show
dominance and even use violence.
-
Some boys cannot show hegemonic masculinity: there are labeled effeminate
-
Deviance happens because boys are encourage to hegemonic masculine
behavior.
-
Girls less likely due to socialization.
-
Explanation related to crime based on masculinity criticized for:
o
Firstly, not all men are socialized into the same masculine values.
o
Masculine behavior has some positives such as protecting the weak
etc.
o
Many males reject masculine behavior as well.
Defining crime and Deviance
x
Stereotyping labeling by law enforcement agencies.
x
The media and the law enforcement agencies.
PAGE 197
x
-
Most individuals don't have a direct link with the legal system so they obtain
information regarding crime through media reporting.
-
Crime was actually falling in the UK but the media reported it in such a way that it
seemed crime was actually on the rise - because of this government does not cut
spending for controlling crime.
-
Many crimes that attract attention are unusual. Results of this are.
Putting pressure on governments to reduce crimes even though there
might be no benefits.
o
To inculcate a fear among the people such as they might stop going to
a particular place etc.
o
Growing demand for goods that protect people such as CCTV cameras
etc.
The media and the law enforcement agencies:
-
x
o
Moral panics are created and the media can label a group for initial small crimes
and then stereotyping happens. Media reporting in moral panics involve:
o
Exaggeration: worse than reality.
o
Prediction: assumption that the group will commit crime again if not
stopped immediately.
o
Symbolization: attaching certain characteristics with folk devils to create
a public awareness or a public fear.
-
The media creates a moral panic for a minor deviance and stereotypes the folk
devils this leads to a self-fulfilling prophecy and an increase deviance – this
pressurizes the police to take strict action and after a while-the media leaves the
story.
-
Sometimes media just puts the label: such as Hippie was the label for people who
took drugs, Police wanted to capture them and this lead to more deviance and the
group tried to further differentiate themselves based on distinct dressing etc. This
led to the police arresting more people – media then reported the actions of the
police which led to a panic being created and police taking further actions.
-
Stanley Cohen was the first to use the world “Moral Panic" when the media
exaggerated the minor deviance of the group "Mods and Rockers" which
pressurized the police to take strict legal action against them.
The link between sub culture, crime and deviance:
PAGE 198
-
Youth culture and sub culture (Goths).
-
Although the values of the sub-culture clash with the main stream culture, they do
share some values of their own.
-
Anti school sub-cultures served two purposes:
It created alternative values and students could gain respect in the eyes
of their peers.
o
Way of hitting back at society.
-
Merton's theory gap filled- collective deviance.
-
Cloward and Ohlin : non legitimate opportunity structure in society:
-
x
o
o
Criminal sub-culture: Career for criminals - individuals imitate role
models and become criminals.
o
A conflict sub culture: No route nor legal or illegal was present so young
people turned to violence.
o
A retreatist subculture: Drugs as an escape.
The above theory assumes everyone shares the same goal of financial success.
Working class had distinct sub-culture values promoted deviance. The values in
teenage gangs were:
o
Accepting fate: you have little control over life hence you should make
most of any chances.
o
Seeking autonomy: Resisting authority to have freedom.
o
Views on trouble: Violence and conflict normal.
o
Thrills for excitement: Fun.
o
Virtues of smartness: looking attractive.
o
Virtue of toughness: Aggressive behavior.
The link between sub culture, crime and deviance:
-
Everyone has the same set of values. David Matza argued that individuals have
two sets of values. Dominant Values that guide our daily and Subterranean
Values that we indulge in some times such as a party aggression. Delinquents
use subterranean values in the wrong place and time. Youth is in and out of
PAGE 199
delinquent behavior as they are confused and try to take control of their life by
different measures. They acknowledge when they are wrong.
-
Youth says that they should not be condemned?
o
They were not in their senses such as they might be drunk.
o
Denying that there was a victim and even if there was the person
deserved it.
o
Denying that harm was done and even there was any harm
replacement can be made.
o
Condemning the condemners – everyone does it.
o
They might have greater loyalties such as protecting friends etc.
-
Today it is difficult to define sub cultures and therefore not possible to allocate
crime to this.
-
Juvenile gang’s knife crimes commit Gang members to get a social identity.
PAGE 200
PAGE 201
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PAGE 202
PAGE 203
2251/22/M/J/16
3
How we define crime and deviance varies across time, society and culture. It is often associated
with youth sub-cultures. What is agreed, however, is the existence of agencies of social control,
both formal and informal.
(a) What is meant by the term ‘agencies of social control’?
[2]
(b) Describe two examples of crimes that vary across time.
[4]
(c) Explain how informal social control is different to formal social control.
[6]
(d) Explain why criminal youth sub-cultures exist in modern industrial societies.
[8]
(e) To what extent do the media influence ideas about crime?
[15]
0-
3
Crime rates indicate that crime is a real problem in modern industrial societies. New technologies
have led to new types of crime, making it increasingly difficult for sociologists and the Government
to accurately measure crime.
(a) What is meant by the term ‘crime rates’?
[2]
(b) Describe two ways of measuring crime.
[4]
(c) Explain how modern industrial societies deter people from committing crime.
[6]
(d) Explain why crimes related to new technologies are hard to detect and prevent.
[8]
(e) To what extent do self-report studies produce an accurate picture of crime?
[15]
PAGE 204
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PAGE 205
06_2251_22_2017_1.2
3
Explanationsforcrimedependonthetypeofcrimebeingdiscussed.Forexample,thereasons
peoplecommiturbancrimearedifferenttothereasonspeoplecommitdomesticviolence.Some
sociologistsbelievecrimeismainlycommittedduetomaterialdeprivationwhilstothersdisagree.
(a) What is meant by the term ‘urban crime’?
[2]
(b) Describe two sociological explanations for crime, apart from material deprivation.
[4]
(c) Explain how moral panics in the media can affect the public’s view of crime and criminals.
[6]
(d) Explain why the police appear to target some social groups more than others.
[8]
(e) To what extent does poverty and unemployment explain criminal behaviour?
[15]
06_2251_23_2017_1.2
3
Mostsociologistsbelievethatcrimehasanegativeeffectonsocietyandthereforeusemethods
suchasvictimsurveystoestablishaclearpictureofthecrimescommittedandbywhom.Others
believethatcrimeandpunishmentcanactuallyhaveanimportantandpositivefunctioninsociety.
(a) What is meant by the term ‘victim survey’?
[2]
(b) Describe two examples of cybercrimes.
[4]
(c) Explain how crime and punishment can have a positive function in society.
[6]
(d) Explain why prison may deter people from committing crime.
[8]
(e) To what extent can labelling theory explain why people commit crime?
[15]
PAGE 206
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Official crime statistics are one way of measuring crime rates. This helps the Government to
decide on effective punishments to control crime levels in society. However, they do not account
for the dark figure of crime and so their accuracy can be questioned.
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Describe two formal agencies of social control.
[4]
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[6]
G
Explain why some people adopt a deviant career.
[8]
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PAGE 207
06_2251_22_2018_1.1
3
Actsofcrimeanddevianceareoftenassociatedwithyouthsub-cultures.Controllingcrimeinsociety
isdifficulttodo.Somesociologistsbelievethatinformalagenciesofsocialcontrolarethebestway
toensureconformity.Othersbelievethatformalagenciessuchasprisonsarethebestdeterrent.
(a) What is meant by the term ‘deviance’?
[2]
(b) Describe two problems with official crime statistics.
[4]
(c) Explain how informal agencies of social control prevent crime.
[6]
(d) Explain why youth sub-cultures are often linked to crime.
[8]
(e) To what extent do prisons fail to deter people from committing crime?
[15]
06_2251_23_2018_1.1
3
Therearemanyexplanationsofferedbysociologistsastowhysomeindividualsadoptadeviant
career.Mostmembersofsocietywanttheformalagenciesofsocialcontroltodealwiththisproblem
buttherearesomesociologistswhobelievethatcrimecanbepositiveforsociety.
(a) What is meant by the term ‘deviant career’?
[2]
(b) Describe two informal agencies of social control.
[4]
(c) Explain how crime is relative.
[6]
(d) Explain why functionalists believe we have crime and deviance in society.
[8]
(e) To what extent is the crime rate affected by police stereotypes?
[15]
PAGE 208
11_2251_22_2018_1.1
There are different ways that sociologists can measure crime, for example self-report studies.
Howeverusingthesemeasurementstoexplainwhypeoplecommitcrimecausesmuchdebate.
Somesociologistsarguethatcrimeiscommittedbecausepeopleexperiencealackofstatusin
society,othersociologistsblamethepoliceandthewaytheybehave.
3
(a) What is meant by the term ‘self-report studies’?
[2]
(b) Describe two examples of how crime and deviance are relative.
[4]
(c) Explain how the police enforce the law.
[6]
(d) Explain why informal methods of social control may deter people from committing crime. [8]
(e) To what extent can crime be explained by an individual’s lack of status in society?
[15]
11_2251_23_2018_1.1
3
Researchingwhycrimeiscommittedisacomplexissueduetothemanypossibleexplanations.
Oneexplanationisstatusfrustration.Thisisfurthercomplicatedbecausetherearesomanyways
tomeasurecrime.Somesociologistsbelieveusingvictimsurveysisthemostaccuratemeasure.
(a) What is meant by the term ‘status frustration’?
[2]
(b) Describe two reasons why the police might not record a crime that has been reported to
them.
[4]
(c) Explain how the media can create deviancy amplification.
[6]
(d) Explain why males commit more crime than females.
[8]
(e) To what extent do victim surveys provide an accurate measure of crime?
[15]
PAGE 209
06_2251_22_2019_1.1
3
Crimeremainsabigprobleminsocietywithmanypeoplebelievingthatcrimeratesarerising.
Formalandinformalagenciesofsocialcontrolareusedtotryandstopdeviantbehaviourandmake
individualsconform.Prisons,finesandcommunitysentencingareallusedtotryandsolvethe
crimeproblem.Thisisnotalwayssuccessfulandforsomeindividualsthelabel‘criminal’affects
theirmasterstatus.
(a) What is meant by the term 'community sentencing'?
[2]
(b) Describe two crimes related to new technologies.
[4]
(c) Explain how crime rates are measured.
[6]
(d) Explain why labelling an individual as ‘criminal’ can affect their master status.
[8]
(e) To what extent can agencies of social control prevent crime?
[15]
06_2251_23_2019_1.1
3
Accordingtoofficialcrimestatisticsanindividual’ssocialcharacteristicscanaffectwhetherthey
becomeacriminal.Somesociologistsbelievethatethnicminoritygroupsandthelowerclasses
havehigherconvictionratesduetoagenciessuchasthepoliceandthemedia.Trendsincrime
alsovarydependingonthecrimecommitted,forexamplewhetheritisinternetcrime,greencrime
orwhite-collarcrime.
(a) What is meant by the term ‘internet crime’?
[2]
(b) Describe two criminal sub-cultures.
[4]
(c) Explain how the police can cause deviancy amplification.
[6]
(d) Explain why effective socialisation can reduce crime.
[8]
(e) To what extent is ethnicity the most important factor in determining whether an individual
commits crime?
[15]
PAGE 210
11_2251_22_2019_1.1
3
Doesdeprivationcausecrime?Thisquestionisdebatedbysociologistsandpoliticianswhowant
topreventanomieinsociety.However,duetothedarkfigureofcrimeitisdifficulttoclaimthatonly
onesocialfactorcausescrime.
(a) What is meant by the term ‘anomie’?
[2]
(b) Describe two reasons for the dark figure of crime.
[4]
(c) Explain how crime can be committed using the internet.
[6]
(d) Explain why societies need prisons.
[8]
(e) To what extent is crime caused by deprivation?
[15]
06_2251_22_2020_1.4
3
There are official and non-official statistics that measure the crime rate in a society. However, not
all crimes are accurately represented in the statistics suggesting that some groups are less likely
than others to be prosecuted for their crimes. Some believe there is a need for more formal social
control and harsher punishments to deal with the high levels of offending.
(a) What is meant by the term ‘formal social control’?
[2]
(b) Describe two punishments for crime.
[4]
(c) Explain how poverty can be linked to crime.
[6]
(d) Explain why white-collar crime is under-reported and under-recorded in the official crime
statistics.
[8]
(e) To what extent are self-report studies the most accurate measurement of crime?
[15]
PAGE 211
PAGE 212
6/*5
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PAGE 213
PAGE 214
Unit-7
The Media
Topics
-
Who control the media?
What is the influence of the media?
PAGE 215
Unit-7: The Media
Who controls the Media?
The forms of media and media control
x
Media content: one of the media such as television. The media are channels of
communication, the way in which people send and receive information. Wider range of
media is used; not just face to face media.
-
Newspapers, magazines, television, radio, films, books, advertising, internet
telephones, social media, recorded music are all forms of media content.
x
Mass communication is different from one on one communication. It is one to many.
Now new media overlaps one on one, one to many and many to many. Examples of this
are chat rooms where communication is one to many and many to many.
x
Old media was one-way communication to a mass audience. e.g. books, newspaper
and television. New media is two way or more communication. New media includes
-
x
Websites, forums, chat rooms, e-mail, instant messages, Facebook social
networking sites, Video sharing Youtube and blogs
Old or traditional media includes
-
Newspapers: All newspapers have websites now. Politics, word games and much
more is included in newspapers. The Sun as a newspaper writes about gossip.
Newspapers run on advertisements.
-
TV: Broadcasts a wide range of programs, for a national audience. It has current
affairs, movies and dramas. There has been an Increase in the number of
channels because of new technology. Narrowcasting has happened to target
niche audiences. National audiences have decreased due to more channels.
Digital broadcasting increases access are new on television.
-
Books: Face a lot of challenges in new age media. Books can be read on
computers now. Even if they don't survive in physical form they definitely survive
in written and digital forms.\
Role of advertising
x
Advertising is the source of money for the TV channels. Advertisers, advertise because
they want to attract audiences. Therefore the media is now attracting higher income
groups as well or mass audience so that the advertising cost can be justified.
x
Needs of audience with less spending power is not covered in TV programming.
PAGE 216
x
Advertisements trick the audiences. Positive emotions plus a positive lifestyle. This is
advertiser's propaganda.
x
Difference between advertising and media content is less clear. Product placement.
When in movie products are displayed.
x
Websites also have advertisements.
x
Audiences can choose freely and don't have to be under the influence of the media but
advertisers are still criticized for:
-
Advertisers always create a scenario that you are dissatisfied and need and want
more. The focus is on materialism, consumerism.
-
Threat to traditional culture as western culture is promoted.
-
Planned obsolesce is done where the old products are taken away from the
market and new are brought forward.
-
Men and women shown in a particular image people try to copy it. Anorexia is a
result of women copying models in advertisements.
-
Advertisement for children also poses an ethical dilemma.
Ownership and Control of media
x
Small number of conglomerates owns the media. Mergers and acquisitions have
decreased their number. Most are in USA.
x
Big six conglomerates are AOL, Time, Warner, Disney, Bertelsmann.
x
These corporations own most well-known brands. They also own other businesses apart
from the media related businesses. Disney is the largest in terms of revenue and owns
diversified companies. These include: Films including Pixar, network TV and Cable
channels such as ABC, ESPN and Disney channel, toys clothing and other
merchandise, theme parks resorts and sports teams.
x
State ownership of media:
-
Some countries state owned media is the only form of media and in some
countries it has to compete with privately funded media. Only state owned media
is generally present in countries with low development and in countries with less
economic development and with less democracy.
-
Public service broadcasting and state paid via taxation, which is collected by
individuals in start of nearly all countries media.
PAGE 217
x
-
BBC was the first, funded by the state but independent media. It purpose was to
educate.
-
Benefits: They are free from commercial interests, play a role for national unity,
address minority groups who lack the spending power and focus on quality of
programming rather than the need to make a profit.
Private ownership:
-
Owned by shareholders and individuals for private motives of profit rather than
providing a service.
-
Large conglomerate Is the Rupert Murdoch news corporation. UK 96% news
produced by only 5 companies.
-
Ownership vs. control:
o
Owners are not necessarily controllers. Controllers are sometimes
owners or editors.
o
The importance of owners vary:
-
o
Owners sometimes directly control the content or appoint
editors/staff to control what is being produced.
The importance of controller varies:
-
Owners have too many media organizations therefore they
have to delegate controllers to make day to day decisions.
-
Controllers are allowed to make decisions when it is
profitable.
Freedom and censorship in the media
x
Media can be used for social control (control of individual or group behavior) or for
propaganda (one sided view).
x
State control of media portrays government positively, presents opposition parties
unfavorably, do not report issues, which show the government in an unfavorable
manner.
x
Example – Nazi Germany Hitler used the media to create propaganda.
x
BBC is large and can portray any opinion but is expected to report truthfully.
x
Censorship forms:
PAGE 218
-
Prevent state secrets.
-
Laws on obscenity.
-
Libel and slander laws plus allegations.
-
Preventing the unfair treatment of ethnic minorities.
-
Movies with violence after are shown 9 p.m.
Pluralist, Marxist and post-modernist perspectives
x
Pluralism:
-
Positive view of the media.
-
Media is there for secondary socialization and to establish norms of the society.
-
The audiences shape the media rather than the other way around.
-
Diversity of media exists: few individuals control Large organizations, but many
more small media organizations are present so there is competition. A company
that fails to address their target market will fail.
-
The development of new media supports this idea and also supports that people
can produce the content of the media such as when they upload video on
Facebook or write blogs etc.
-
Opponents state:
-
o
Dumbed down content exists as this is what people want.
o
More competition means some firms will compete hard and kill
competition rather than provide the best possible news.
o
There is still bias in the media such as they don't support left center
views.
Reasons why media corporations are not all powerful:
o
Media corporations have to satisfy their audiences.
o
Shareholders exists so individual owners don't have the all the power.
o
Governments prevent monopolies from forming.
PAGE 219
x
o
Quality of programming in countries: some news has to be reported.
o
Libel laws: means that you cannot tell lies.
Marxism:
-
Conservative indoctrination takes place.
-
Capitalist elite control the narrative in the society, prevent social change.
-
2003 Invasion of Iraq is an example of when the media controlled the people's
emotions.
-
Media creates false needs and encourages consumerism.
-
Only entertainment Gossip is mostly present on the media. The ways in which
issues are reported it seems nothing can be done to change the system, which
makes the people powerless.
-
The media does not provide reports that help us understand the world better.
-
Alternative views are labeled extremist, or don't get that much attention.
-
The theory of Marxism has been criticized for:
o
Conspiracy of a small group trying to control.
o
Neo Marxists still understand the media better. Hegemonic perspective:
organized in a way in which these dominant ideologies prevail rather
than a group of people manipulating the audiences. Distortion of the
truth happens. Approval of businesses, inequality seen normal,
suspicion of ethnic minorities. People can see all of this as untrue but
the media is the only source of information.
-
Hegemonic Marxist view only the dominant ideologies get priority and all
journalists and editors are involve in this process. Like Marxists we should not
blame this on owners. Decision makers are not trying to manipulate intentionally
but actually believe in this view. This cause they tend to be white, male, middle
class and middle aged. Hegemonic Marxists see that there may be differences in
opinion in terms of which political party you support but common element still
persists and the differences are minor.
-
Media is an ideological state apparatus.
-
Repressive state apparatus (police etc.)
PAGE 220
x
-
There is always room for descent so the Marxist theory does not apply. The false
consciousness that Marxists describe does not exist.
-
For Marxist the ruling class uses media at two levels:
o
Concealing the truth from the working class.
o
Distracting people from important issues.
Post-modernist:
-
More interactive: where users produce most of the content rather than the other
way around.
-
Content moves between points of a network rather than top down.
-
Media cannot be controlled like traditional media.
Patterns of media use
x
x
Gender:
-
Males play more video games than females. Fighting and violence is associated
more with male character.
-
Women tend to prefer soap operas; males prefer sports and action adventure and
documentaries.
-
David Morley's Family television:
o
Men have control over program choice.
o
Men want to watch un interruptedly, women see media as social activity
and allow for interruptions.
o
Men carefully plan-viewing women don't plan viewing.
o
Video recording is given to men and children.\
Age:
-
Amount of TV goes up when they are 50. Visual and hearing difficulties television
is better. This is basically compensating for being less involved in society.
-
Some old age people still find internet a problem.
PAGE 221
x
x
-
Children visit the cinema more compared to old people.
-
Moving videos: children watch this more than adults. Example is Youtube.
Social Class:
-
The Sun read by the working class and daily times by the middle or upper class.
-
Pop culture media for the mass audiences not the elite. Cable TV focuses on
sports (Marx perspective) Football and hides important political issues from the
masses.
-
Digital media divide still exists in some countries because not everyone can afford
the internet.
Ethnicity:
-
Minorities can watch channels from their own background more in today's world
and can preserve their own culture.
-
Ethnic minorities can have their own media but it depends if they have a large
audience or not.
-
They still watch mainstream media but generally see programs that they can
relate with.
Media Representations
x
The ways in which ethnic minority, gender, class, age and disability groups are displayed
in the media.
x
An area can be portrayed as dangerous or with opportunity.
x
Key concepts in discussing representations:
-
Invisibility: Some groups are absent from the media.
-
Underrepresentation: Disability groups not represented as much.
-
Tokenism: when someone from underrepresented group appears and that is
considered that the media is creating an illusion that it helps disabled people.
-
Stereotyping: Traditional stereotypes such as women working in the household.
Negative image of some for example Muslims image has be distorted by the
international media.
PAGE 222
x
x
-
The Gaza: Media is produced through the male gaze.
-
Binary oppositions: Only two representations given such as Good vs. Evil and
Male vs. female presented in the media even though not much differences
between genders they are shown as binary opposites.
Representations of ethnicity:
-
USA and UK majority of the people are White. White minorities such as African
Americans, African Caribbean, Asian (Pakistan, India) also are living with the
majority. Binary options are used here as well such as White vs. others. All of this
is done because of the media and the minorities being viewed from the 'White
Gaze'.
-
Stereotypes mentioned below:
o
The dangerous Savage: Uncivilized people who want to attack, how
Indiana Jones deals with Indians who were savage.
o
The noble Savage: Positive stereotypes, how other cultures accept
white values and therefore are shown western sympathy. An example
of this is 'dance with the wolves'.
o
The childlike primitive: Assumed to be stupid, starving defenseless
and need help of white individuals.
o
The entertainer: African American people are considered funny, can
sing and dance and are therefore entertainment rather than serious
matters.
o
The exotic and alluring women: non-white women are daring, such
as Cleopatra.
o
The rich evil tyrant: Corrupt ruling class who violate rights. This
stereotype has been used to justify colonies.
o
The clever: One who has acquired western education but is using it for
only his/her purpose.
Ethnicity:
-
Immigrants are shown as troublemakers.
-
Ethnic minorities never in the get main roles.
-
TV: Mind your language made fun of ethnic minorities.
PAGE 223
-
African Caribbean's are shown as thieves. Asian People are shown as having unusual accents.
-
If there is a white policeman and a black policeman the black policeman is usually
killed and the white policeman avenges him.
-
Bollywood industry exists as a match to holly-wood so there is another viewpoint
present.
-
Developing countries shown, as they need help, white doctor saving multiple
people in countries such as Africa. Order
x
Situation is changing in favor of gender equality but:
x
Representation of females:
x
-
Are shown as soft, warm, weak and emotional.
-
Underrepresented in most roles especially as the main character, narrow range
of roles are given to them such as: at home domestic mother and the girlfriend of
the main character, shown in ways that emphasize physical appearance which
leaves other women in inferiority complex.
-
Usually the male hero rescues the women.
-
Either shown as good or evil (binary options) good women are the ones who work
at work home and bad women who are liberal and free.
-
Women are shown in very limited occupations such as nurse receptionist.
-
Now the situation has improved a bit and we see women in traditional male roles
such as detectives as well.
Representations of males:
-
Are shown as tough, hard, sweaty, strong, physical and who love sports.
-
Strength and power, independence is emphasized.
-
Hegemonic masculinity Rambo, 300 the movie where men are shown in roles of
hegemonic masculinity. Other normal men can also have inferiority complex while
they see these men buffed up on television.
-
Men shown in traditional roles.
-
Some magazines still focus on metro sexual men who focus on fashion.
PAGE 224
x
Representation of age groups:
-
Media is bias in favor of young.
-
Children:
-
x
o
Shown as innocent, venerable and who need protection, round eyes
and chubby cheeks to make them cute.
o
Some movies children solve the problems and save the day.
o
Some children are shown evil as well which is a binary of innocent. So
roles of children are also shown as binary.
Teenagers:
o
Stereotypes are negative. They do petty crime and are gang members.
o
Media has created folk devils and moral panics regarding teenagers.
Shown to form devious sub cultures.
o
Some teenagers good such as Harry potter.
-
Middle aged: are shown as most responsible and law abiding. 31
-
Older people:
o
Under represented: image is mostly negative weak and who need help.
o
Simpsons: grandpa is shown as boring who tells long stories which
make no sense.
o
Recently old people have got a positive image as media wants a target
audience of older individuals because they are a large market as baby
boomer generations are growing. 8 pending power of older people is
more now compared to the past.
o
Recently shown as wise – such Dumbledore, The Wizard from Lord of
the rings.
o
Older men still shown positively compared to older women. Women in
all aged groups accessed by their beauty which is sometimes lost in old
age which means they can't star in a film like Harrison Ford still can.
o
Older men still newscasters but none of them are older women.
Representation of Social class:
PAGE 225
x
-
Shows what ideas of social class do people have.
-
Can do two things.
o
Suggest that the society is fair and if you are poor its your fault as the
society is meritocratic.
o
Suggest that we live in a closed society and poor are poor because of
the odds against them.
-
Merit based society image is more common. This means that most information is
misleading on the media when the media tries to portray that the society is fair
and based on merit.
-
USA society is portrayed as based on merit and that poor people deserve poverty
if they don't work hard.
-
Working class are never the main characters. Example: Pride and Prejudice.
-
There are some UK shows where the working class still has a main role.
Example: Coronation Street.
-
US Soap operas assume everyone is middle class.
-
Homer Simpson from Working class is shown as irresponsible so generally
working class image is shown as irresponsible.
-
Working class is shown as ripping benefits off the state. Bankers and business
owners who are not doing fair play are represented positively.
Representations of people with disability:
-
Underrepresented, stereotypical and this image is given by able-bodied
individuals
-
Representations:
o
Monstrous freak, Example: James bond films the villain is disabled.
o
Object of pity: Disability with suffering.
o
Object of violence.
o
Super human abilities: disabled people need super human abilities
otherwise they don't have an image if they don’t have super powers.
PAGE 226
-
x
o
Object of ridicule.
o
A burden on society.
o
Cannot participate in community life.
Organizations concerned have brought some improvements
o
Charities used to show disabled in a way to attract sympathy. Now this
has changed.
o
Words such as handicapped, cripple no longer used by the media.
o
Media organizations have guides for their staff.
o
Small number of disabled people have been successful such as
Stephen Hawkings.
o
Paralympics: for disabled people.
Reasons for changes in representations:
-
Campaigns have been launched.
-
Social positions have changed for women. They are no longer considered
housewives but decisions makers. The media now represents this.
-
More women, ethnic minorities are employed in the media.
-
Baby boomers still an important class. Now they are old therefore media also
targets old people.
-
Older people and ethnic minorities are seen as important groups to be targeted.
-
The media itself is diverse, more media types and more people have access.
Therefore they can create their own news if they don't like the mainstream news.
-
There are strict Laws against discrimination.
-
Still groups with less power and money are not represented.
PAGE 227
What is the influence of the media?
The role of media
x
Violence and the media:
-
-
-
x
x
Negative Effect (politicians and others are concerned that violence in media may
lead to more violence in the society):
o
Hypodermic Syringe (immediate effect and imitator).
o
Leads to desensitization to violence.
Positive effects as well:
o
Catharsis: anger taken out in a video game
o
Sensitization: People are shocked from violence take real world action.
Dunblane shooting got media coverage which led to strong backlash
against guns.
Questions for violence in media:
o
How realistic is the violence because realistic can have an influence.
o
Is the propagator of violence shown in a positive light? If the answer is
yes then this leads to more violence
o
Who is the audience? If children then leads to more violence.
o
Can violence of media be separated from other influences?
-
More likely that people become accustomed to violence.
-
Another argument against this theory is that people have been violent long before
the media so the impact of the media is limited.
Political Beliefs and voting:
-
Private media takes on strong political positions. UK newspapers take a
conservative position.
-
Public service broadcasting means that the TV channels and Radio may be more
neutral though in the US; Fox news is openly supporting right wing.
-
Political parties use the media for their own publicity.
-
The Sun (very influential newspaper). Even if the media is influential still it is
difficult to decide what really affects the people's vote,
-
Opinion polls (based on small samples), trying to predict who will win.
Patterns of consumption:
PAGE 228
x
-
Supports consumerism, western way of life, globalization.
-
Advertising.
-
Show a good lifestyle and manipulates people in to buying products to get to that
life style.
-
When people can't achieve the given image then there is status frustration, which
leads to crime.
-
Marxists say that media creates false needs.
Gender and traditional stereotyping:
-
-
x
Younger children may assume because of the media that
o
Boys can do more than girls (adventurous).
o
Girls associated with the home and boys
o
Boys are superior.
o
Girls should spend time making themselves attractive.
Feminists have tried to advocate more positive images of women such as making
sure that women take main characters.
The influence of internet on areas such as social networking:
-
Old media: was one way communication but the internet comes under new media.
-
Internet is cheap and easily accessible.
-
New media: people interact more social media.
-
Internet used for social networking, video sharing, E-mail and instant messaging.
-
Older groups excluded because of the digital divide.
-
Internet more difficult to censor. Governments still try to prevent people from
accessing certain websites.
PAGE 229
Selecting and presenting the news
x
Gate keeping: what content gets approved? Usually done by editors.
x
News is a social construction which has two stages:
-
Selecting stories means some stories are important and some don't get
importance. What makes a news story worthy is based on News values.
-
Angle is put around the news. Where the news appears is also important.
x
Gatekeepers do agenda setting. What stories get approved and what don't.
x
There are practical concerns such as time, space. Also legal constraints such as libel
laws. Cultural constraints are also present (such as conservative cultures).
x
Many of the practical constraints are not present on new media such as the Internet.
This has lead to increase in citizen journalism (ways in which public can gather and
distribute information).
x
Newsworthiness (the extent to which a news story conforms to news values).
x
Some news values:
x
-
Frequency: long term trends don't get importance.
-
Negativity: bad news over good news.
-
Unexpectedness of the news makes it worthy
-
Personalization: interview to feel empathy.
-
Reference to elite nations and individuals: importance to big countries such as the
USA and Celebrities.
-
Conflict: dramatic.
-
Logistics: can they get a reported in the area.
-
Meaningfulness: what meaning does it have for the audience?
-
Lack of ambiguity.
-
Continuity.
News media has been criticized for by Marxist:
-
Present stories that benefit the powerful elite.
-
Neglecting interest of a particular group in the society.
PAGE 230
x
Neglecting wrong doings of powerful elite.
Other sources of media are available but lack readership. Also new media exists so
Marxists ideas of a small group controlling media do not stand.
Explanations of the influence of the media
x
x
Hypodermic Syringe:
-
Direct and immediate effects and assumes that the audience is passive.
-
Companies believed that advertisements would be successful based on
hypodermic syringe.
-
Nazi Germany: people did not have access to any other source of information and
therefore the Nazi media had a direct effect.
-
Two step flow model: opinion leaders get influence others.
Audience selection:
-
All audience is not passive. Media individuals encode a message and audiences
decode it differently.
-
Selective attention and selective detention are proof that all media messages
don't effect audiences.
-
David Morley in his research found that different audiences interpreted the same
message differently:
o
Dominant hegemonic reading: People accept and understand the
meaning, values of the program if they share the program code.
o
Share the program code partially known as negotiated reading where
some of the message is accepted.
o
Oppositional (or counter hegemonic reading) "readers don’t share the
program code and reject the preferred reading. Readers use an
alternative frame of interpretation because the program did not show
life as it really was.
-
Monogenic programs: programs and images to be read in particular way.
-
Polysomic programs can be open to interpretation.
PAGE 231
x
-
Morley specified that differences in meaning could be class based, age based and
ethnicity based.
-
Media tries to push preferred readings but audiences produce alternative
readings.
Cultural effects:
-
Cumulative effects that are long term.
-
Women identity shaped over a long period of time: because they are shown in a
particular way again and again.
-
Sexist stereotypes given to young boys and girls receive, particularly when boys
are in hostels and media is their only source of information.
-
Factors that influence audience in believing and rejecting the option:
x
o
Do people have a direct experience? If not then they get affected. For
examples people who had gone through mental distress do not buy the
idea that mentally distressed people are dangerous.
o
Miners were violent or not? The people use logic.
o
Affiliations and sympathies: People are influenced by their own political
and other beliefs.
o
Source of information.
People can differentiate between fact and fiction.
Uses Gratification:
-
Audiences are in control.
-
Approach related to the pluralist approach. New media strengthens this approach.
-
How audiences use the media is important.
-
Grouped under four headings:
o
For entertainment media.
o
Personal relationships: Friends group watches a program together.
PAGE 232
-
o
Personal identity: Relate to character and makes decisions about
themselves with relation to a character.
o
Information: Find out about things beyond our personal eenienoá
Three problems with this approach:
o
It does not look at media messages: Assume that messages are
unambiguous.
o
The media creates the needs in the first place then they satisfy them
(The Marxist approach).
o
Different groups of audiences may have different agency.
Bias and Distortion
-
Pluralist argue that there are a range of bias and Marxist argue that there are little
or no differences.
-
Glasgow media group: Trade union protests shown in a guided manner: where
managers were given more time and were interviewed in a claim manner and the
workers action were shown more than their opinion and they were shown on the
streets as aggressive making noise.
PAGE 233
-
The above example shows us that the media can guide opinion.
1: minor
deviance
6: After some
time media
leaves the
story
2: Media
identifies the
group and
folk devils.
Exxagerated
reporting
5: Folk Devils
feel isolated
and live up
their image Deviance
amplified
3: Moral
Panic Anxiety
amongst
public.
4:
Authorities
crack them
down
x
Moral and Panics:
-
When an event is exaggerated and public concern is created. Spiraling situation.
-
Response to initial situation leads to more trouble: self fulfilling prophecy.
-
Young people are scapegoated. Situation created in which Rockers and other
similar groups are blamed for deviance and this leads to society blaming them
and then the Police becomes involved and the issues become bigger.
-
Exaggeration (Mods and Rockers shown as creating more problem than they
actually did) and Sensationalism (designed to catch audience emotions).
PAGE 234
Developments in media
x
x
x
Changes in ownership and control:
-
Horizontal integration: Content in one medium such as when News Corporation
can show its films on twentieth century fox and Shy/Star TV channels.
-
Vertical integration (different stages of production in one industry): Hollywood
studios have their own cinemas. TV channels have their own Satellite services.
-
Synergy exists: easily move media between different companies in the same
conglomerate. They are able to subsidize loss making activities.
-
Pluralist says that many conglomerates are not always successful. New media
such as Google challenges old media.
-
Marxists see an illusion of choice. Newspapers always have differences but
Marxist say that they are actually not different. Very powerful conglomerates that
can do vertical and horizontal integration and put a blind eye towards the
problems of capitalism.
Globalization (integration and interdependence of countries):
-
Instant around the globe. Spaceship earth and global village. Print media made a
nation and then new media extend it to the globe and globalization.
-
Some aspects of globalization and the media are:
o
The global media dominated by a small number of huge
conglomerates.
o
Western society and mainly western culture is spread.
o
Media products are more global.
o
Local cultures swamped: people will use their language less often
o
Nonwestern media may also be able to reach the world such as
Bollywood.
Interactivity:
-
Old media interactivity less than new media such as writing letters to a newspaper,
telephone phone call.
-
New media:
PAGE 235
x
x
o
Personalized news: emailed specific news.
o
Create own media.
o
Contribute to online discussion manner.
o
Playing online games.
o
Anonymous identities.
The digital divide:
-
Computers / Internet may be expensive for the working class. Poor people in less
developed countries don’t have access to good internet. Those people who have
access can have better social capital.
-
Modern industrial societies are improving their situation by providing free laptops,
cheap access to laptops and internet and libraries that provide access to both.
-
Old people still in digital divide.
-
All developments point towards media culture and augment it.
Diversification and convergence:
-
Diversification: Many media companies are becoming more diversified. Rupert
Murdoch who owned newspapers has expanded to more media avenues. Virgin
group major media company but now has other non media interests.
-
Convergence: Television programs can be watched on computers. Newspapers
can be read on websites. New media can be used to access old media.
Influences of media representations on audiences
x
Stereotypes.
x
Can enforce prejudice beliefs.
x
For instance women are not capable of certain types of work is a belief that is given by
the media.
x
Media is one source of information and peoples personal experiences may contradict
with information provided by the media.
x
TV may have more influence due to visual effects.
PAGE 236
PAGE 237
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PAGE 238
PAGE 239
2251/22/M/J/16
4
The contemporary media is all around us, leading to increased opportunities for imitation by the
audience. Media representations, however, are still thought by many to be very stereotypical. This
is one of the reasons why many sociologists are critical of media content.
(a) What is meant by the term ‘imitation’?
[2]
(b) Describe two examples of how older people are represented in the media.
[4]
(c) Explain how folk devils are created in the media.
[6]
(d) Explain why Marxist sociologists believe that the media play a negative role in society.
[8]
(e) To what extent does violence on television lead to increased levels of violence in society?
[15]
2251/23/M/J/16
4
Representations of women in the media are a widely debated topic. Some sociologists believe
them to be stereotyped and others see them as positive role models. However, this is not the only
way that the media is thought to be influential. It is also thought to be a big influence on political
attitudes and voting.
(a) What is meant by the term ‘role model’?
[2]
(b) Describe two traditional stereotypes of women found in the media.
[4]
(c) Explain how people from different social classes use the media in different ways.
[6]
(d) Explain why the media can influence the political attitudes of the audience.
[8]
(e) To what extent do stereotypical media representations negatively affect the audience?
[15]
PAGE 240
2251/22/O/N/16
4
We have now entered a new era in the media world where citizen journalism has become the
norm. However, many sociologists believe owners still decide what the audience receives in both
the new and traditional media.
(a) What is meant by the term ‘citizen journalism’?
[2]
(b) Describe two examples of the digital divide.
[4]
(c) Explain how new media are different from traditional media.
[6]
(d) Explain why advertising has an important role to play in the media industry.
[8]
(e) To what extent do media owners determine the content of the media?
[15]
2251/23/O/N/16
4
The media today are changing. This is true for the various forms of media available and how the
media are used. However, much of the content is still sensationalised to help attract an audience
and not everybody believes the media always tell the truth.
(a) What is meant by the term ‘sensationalised’?
[2]
(b) Describe two ways that the media today are global.
[4]
(c) Explain how governments can censor media content.
[6]
(d) Explain why the Internet has changed the way audiences use the media today.
[8]
(e) To what extent is the news biased?
[15]
PAGE 241
06_2251_22_2017_1.2
4
Severaldifferenttheoriesexisttoexplaintheeffectsthemediacanhaveonaudiences.Two
examplesaretheculturaleffectsapproachandtheusesandgratificationsmodel.However,for
Postmodernists,developmentsinnewmediameanthattheindustrycannolongerbecontrolled.
Thiscanbeseentohavepositiveandnegativeconsequencesforbothaudiencesandthemedia
industry.
(a) What is meant by the term ‘cultural effects approach’?
[2]
(b) Describe two ways, according to the uses and gratifications model, that audience needs are
met by the media.
[4]
(c) Explain how advertising is seen by many sociologists as a negative part of the media.
[6]
(d) Explain why the media is biased and can distort reality.
[8]
(e) To what extent are Postmodernists correct in their belief that new media cannot be controlled?
[15]
06_2251_23_2017_1.2
4
Themediaareconstantlychangingandnewtechnologiesallowtheaudiencegreatercontrolover
content.However,thisdoesnotmeanthatthemediaarenolongerpowerful.Themediaarestill
abletocensorcontentandhavebeenaccusedofbothindoctrinationandagendasetting.
(a) What is meant by the term ‘indoctrination’?
[2]
(b) Describe two examples of censorship in the media.
[4]
(c) Explain how the media can set the agenda for what is seen to be important in society.
[6]
(d) Explain why feminists criticise the representation of women in the media.
[8]
(e) To what extent can the audience influence the content of the media?
[15]
PAGE 242
2251/22/O/N/17
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often stereotypical and propaganda is still seen on a global scale. This may lead to a greater
possibility of the media affecting how the audience think and behave.
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Describe two stereotypes of ethnic minorities seen in the media.
[4]
F
Explain how globalisation is changing media content.
[6]
G
Explain why governments try to control the content of the media.
[8]
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attitudes and behaviour. The traditional media have been accused of creating and reinforcing
stereotypical representations, but many believe that these are now beginning to change.
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Describe two media gatekeepers.
[4]
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Explain how different social groups use the media differently.
[6]
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Explain why developments in new media are changing how social groups are represented.
[8]
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PAGE 243
06_2251_22_2018_1.1
4
PluralistsandMarxistshaveverydifferentviewsabouttheroleandinfluenceofmediainsociety.
Somesociologistsbelievethemediadirectlyaffectshowtheaudiencethinksandbehaves.Others
believeitdependsonwhoisusingthemediaandhowitisbeingused.However,themediacan
stillbeveryinfluentialinspreadingpropaganda.
(a) What is meant by the term ‘pluralist’?
[2]
(b) Describe two examples of how the media can use propaganda to influence the audience. [4]
(c) Explain how sociologists criticise the stereotypical representations of some social groups in
the media.
[6]
(d) Explain why the hypodermic syringe model can be criticised.
[8]
(e) To what extent are patterns of media use determined by the social class of the audience?
[15]
06_2251_23_2018_1.1
4
Changes in the media are a good example of globalisation, allowing the audience choice over
contentandpatternsofconsumption.Manysociologistsarguethatthemediaisalsoanimportant
agencyofsocialisation,affectingvotingpatternsandsettingtheagendaforwhatisimportantin
society.
(a) What is meant by the term ‘globalisation’?
[2]
(b) Describe two ways that the media can be biased.
[4]
(c) Explain how voting choices are influenced by the media.
[6]
(d) Explain why the media offer the audience more choice and control than ever before.
[8]
(e) To what extent do the media set the agenda for how people think and behave in society?
[15]
PAGE 244
11_2251_22_2018_1.1
Themediaisasecondaryagentofsocialisationandanagentofsocialcontrol.Gate-keepingand
therolesofowners,editorsandjournalistsareallissuesthatsociologistssuchasMarxistsconsider.
Sociologistsarealsointerestedinthedifferencebetweentraditionalandnewmedia.
4
(a) What is meant by the term ‘gate-keeping’?
[2]
(b) Describe two differences between traditional and new media.
[4]
(c) Explain how the media shape values, attitudes and behaviour.
[6]
(d) Explain why Marxists criticise media content.
[8]
(e) To what extent are media representations of minority ethnic groups stereotypical?
[15]
11_2251_23_2018_1.1
4
Sociologistsdebatehowtheaudienceisaffectedbythecontentofthemedia.Somebelievethe
usesandgratificationsmodelisthemostaccurate.Whilstrepresentationsinthemediaarechanging,
manysociologistsarguethatitisstillimportanttoconsiderifmediacontentisstereotypical.
(a) What is meant by the term ‘uses and gratifications model’?
[2]
(b) Describe two recent developments in the media.
[4]
(c) Explain how the media acts as an agency of secondary socialisation.
[6]
(d) Explain why sociologists cannot agree on the ways the media affects its audience.
[8]
(e) To what extent is the content of the media stereotypical?
[15]
PAGE 245
06_2251_22_2019_1.1
4
Youngpeoplearenotalwayspresentedfairlyinthemedia.Manysociologistsbelievethattheyare
representedstereotypicallyandcansometimesbeshownasscapegoats.Theaudiencenowhave
morepowertoinfluencemediacontentandthereforemanysociologistsbelievethatrepresentations
ofagewillstarttochange.
(a) What is meant by the term 'scapegoats'?
[2]
(b) Describe two ways the audience can influence media content.
[4]
(c) Explain how the media create folk devils.
[6]
(d) Explain why media content needs to be controlled.
[8]
(e) To what extent are representations of age in the media stereotypical?
[15]
06_2251_23_2019_1.1
4
Inthepastmediaownersandprofessionalswerecriticisedforcreatingfolkdevils.Todaynew
mediahavegivenmorepowerandcontroltotheaudienceandmediaisstartingtochange.This
mayaffecthowtheaudienceuseandinterpretmediacontent.
(a) What is meant by the term ‘folk devils’?
[2]
(b) Describe two types of new media.
[4]
(c) Explain how diversification occurs in today’s media industry.
[6]
(d) Explain why the uses and gratifications model of media effects can be criticised.
[8]
(e) To what extent do media professionals such as editors and journalists control media content?
[15]
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Socialgroupsvaryintheiruseofmedia.Theextenttowhichmediaaffectsindividualsisamatter
ofdebateforsociologists.Therearedifferentviewssuchasthehypodermic-syringemodeland
theaudienceselectionapproach.Howevertheeffectsofnewmediaontheaudiencearelikelyto
bedifferenttotheeffectsoftraditionalmedia.
(a) What is meant by the term ‘hypodermic-syringe model’?
[2]
(b) Describe two examples of audience selection in the media.
[4]
(c) Explain how men and women use media differently.
[6]
(d) Explain why new media gives the audience more control over media content.
[8]
(e) To what extent is violence in society caused by violence in the media?
[15]
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The media is often accused of exaggerated and sensationalist content, particularly in the news.
This can be due to the pressures of advertising, issues of agenda setting and news values. This
has led to the argument that the media and the news are biased. However, bias in the media may
be reducing due to increased levels of audience interactivity and social media.
(a) What is meant by the term ‘bias’?
[2]
(b) Describe two ways media content can be censored.
[4]
(c) Explain how people interact using social media.
[6]
(d) Explain why the media is an important agency of social control.
[8]
(e) To what extent does the news reflect reality?
[15]