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SECTION A: WORLD HISTORY FROM 1870 TO 1945
Fig: Europe before 1914
THE UNIFICATION OF GERMANY-1871
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Before 1871 there was no nation called Germany but small independent states at the
mercy of Austria-Hungary and frequently harassed by France. The dominant one of these
small states was Prussia which was ruled by Kaiser William I and Otto Von Bismarck as
the chancellor.
The unification of Germany was brought about by Bismarck. Bismarck was born in
1815. He served as the Prussian representative at the diet (parliament).
When Bismarck became the chancellor, Helmuth Von Moltke was made the chief
general of staff of the German army. Moltke improved the army and made it one of the
best and modernized in Europe. Bismarck as the chancellor of Prussia was to unify
German states into one Germany state which could be dominated by Prussia. However,
Bismarck knew that the unification of Germany was impossible because;
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a. Austria-Hungary was the leader of the Germany confederation and could not allow
Prussia to take over.
b. France wanted to have a collection of weak German states around her body and could not
allow the formation of a strong and united Germany.
In other words wars with France and Austria-Hungary seemed to be possible if Bismarck was to
unify Germany. To achieve his aim, he had to get rid of Austria-Hungary and France which
stood as obstacles to German unity. This is what he did in three successive wars of unification.
WARS OF UNIFICATION
WAR WITH DENMARK-1864
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This war concerned the control of two provinces of Schleswig and Holstein. The two
provinces had been attached to Denmark. Most of the people in these two provinces were
German speaking. The German speaking were annoyed at the way they were treated by
the Danish king.
Bismarck saw this as an opportunity to raise Prussian prestige by declaring war against
Denmark. He first formed an alliance with Austria-Hungary. Denmark was defeated and
Prussia took Schleswig while Austria took Holstein.
WAR WITH AUSTRIA-HUNGARY-1866
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After the defeat of Denmark, Bismarck wanted to pick a quarrel with Austria-Hungary so
that he could take Holstein as well. Therefore, Bismarck started inciting the Germans of
Holstein to start demanding to be part of Prussia.
War then broke out between Prussia and Austria-Hungary in 1866. The war ended within
seven weeks and Austria was defeated at the Battle of Sadowa. By the peace treaty of
Prague, Austria lost Holstein to Prussia and she also agreed to withdraw from the
confederation. This was the war that enabled Bismarck to achieve one of his aims, “the
removal of Austria from the confederation”.
THE FRANCO PRUSSIAN WAR 1870-71
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After the war with Austria, Bismarck started preparing for war against France. What
started the war was the distorted telegram sent by the French to Prussia.
Bismarck changed the telegram in such a way that it gave different meanings to the two
parties, France and Prussia. To France, it appeared as though the Prussian king had
insulted the French ambassador and the French people and to Prussia as though the
ambassador had insulted the Prussian king and the Prussian people.
The result of this misunderstanding was an outbreak of war in 1870. France was defeated
in 1871and was forced to sign the Frankfurt Treaty
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THE FRANKFURT TREATY-1871
The treaty of Frankfurt was signed in May 1871. Its terms were;
a. France was forced to give up the two rich mineral provinces of Alsace and Lorraine,
which were also highly industrialized to Prussia.
b. France was required to pay Prussia 200 million franks as an indemnity.
In 1871, the King of Prussia, Kaiser William I was proclaimed as the emperor of Germany and
Otto Von Bismarck as the chancellor. In this way, Bismarck managed to unify Germany by using
diplomacy.
Fig: Otto Von Bismarck
BISMARCKS HOME/DOMESTIC POLICY
Aims of Bismarck’s home policy
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He wanted to consolidate the power to himself.
He wanted to eliminate all the opposition.
He wanted to maintain unity of the German Empire.
To improve the standard of living of the German people by industrialization and
economic development.
To assimilate the racial minorities e.g. Poles, Danes and French.
PROBLEMS FACED BY BISMARCK AT HOME
Bismarck ruled Germany from 1871 to 1890. During this period, he faced a number of political
problems especially from the Catholics and Socialists.
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Resistance from the Catholics
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The German Catholics did not want Protestants to dominate the German politics. This
movement was supported by Catholic Church at Vatican in Rome, Italy. This further
made the pope refuse to recognize power of the state.
In 1870 the Vatican had announced the principle of the Dogma of Papal Infallibility.
This principle required all loyal Catholics around the world to follow special papal
instructions without asking any questions.
In 1871 the Catholic Centre Party which threatened Bismarck’s career was formed in
Germany. Bismarck reacted by crashing this party and introduced domestic policies
which were directed against the Catholics. Furthermore, in 1871 he cut off the diplomatic
relations with the Vatican.
In 1872, Bismarck introduced the repressive laws against the Catholics and later during the same
year, he introduced the May Laws. Under the May Laws;
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Jesuits (society of Christ) were expelled from Germany.
Priests who preached politics were arrested and charged.
Many pro-pope priests were imprisoned.
All churches, schools and colleges were brought under government control.
Schools and colleges were forced to write government examinations.
The government supervised the training of catholic priests.
Priests were not allowed to inspect schools
Priests who opposed the May Laws were either imprisoned or exiled.
This campaign against the Catholics was called Kulturkampf (struggle for civilization).
Resistance from the Socialists
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The socialist problem was a product of the Industrial Revolution which began in
Germany after her unification. The rapid industrial development led to poor conditions of
work such as unhealthy factories, poor accommodation and long working hours but low
pay. The socialists started denouncing the industrial owners known as Bourgeoisies.
The socialists had formed their own political party in 1869 known as the Social
Democratic Party (SDP) which was led by August Bebel.
The socialist party also alarmed Bismarck because they demanded the nationalization of
banks, railways and industries for the benefit of all citizens instead of being left in hands
of private owners.
Bismarck saw these policies as a threat to his own as he supported capitalism. In 1876 there
were two assassination attempts on Kaiser William I. Bismarck blamed the socialists and
introduced Exceptional Laws against the socialists in 1878. Under the Exceptional Laws;
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All socialist meetings and publications that supported socialists were banned.
The Social Democratic Party was also banned.
Leaders of the Social Democratic Party were arrested.
Their property was confiscated.
Social reforms
In order to appease the socialists, Bismarck introduced social reforms to benefit the workers so
as to prevent them from joining the socialists. He introduced health insurance, accident
insurance, old age pension and disability insurance.
Presence of Racial Minorities
Bismarck thought that racial minorities were an obstacle to complete Germany unity. There were
a few million non-German speaking people e.g. Poles, Danes and French within the Germany
Empire. Bismarck tried to solve this problem by introducing the policy of
Prussianisation/Germanisation. Some of the features of Prussianisation were;
 Introduction of the Prussian Law of conduct.
 The introduction of the Deutschmark as the only currency.
 German was introduced as the only official language in order to assimilate the racial
minorities.
BISMARCKS FOREIGN POLICY
Aims of Bismarck’s Foreign policy
 To isolate France. This was to prevent France from combining forces with other nations
to defeat Germany over Alsace and Lorraine.
 To keep peace in Europe by making Germany strong.
 To suppress socialism and republicanism.
 To avoid war from two frontiers.
In order to achieve these aims, Bismarck started signing alliances with other European countries.
ALLIANCES SIGNED BY BISMARCK
The Drekaiserbund Alliance-1872
It was also known as Three Emperors League. In 1872 Bismarck made it possible for Alexander
II of Russia, Franz Joseph of Austria-Hungary and Kaiser William I of Germany to come
together and sign the Drekaiserbund Alliance. The terms of this alliance were;
 To maintain the balance of power in Europe.
 To isolate France.
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 To create friendship among monarchs.
 To crush socialism and republicanism in the three empires.
 To consult each other on the status of the Balkan States.
The Dual Alliance-1879
The members of the alliance were Germany and Austria-Hungary. This alliance was signed
after Russia and Austria-Hungary had quarreled over the Balkan States. Bismarck held a meeting
in Berlin in1878 to discuss the matter. At this meeting, Bismarck sided with Austria which
offended Russia. Russia then pulled out of the Drekaiserbund Alliance and the two (Germany
and Austria-Hungary) signed the Dual Alliance. The terms of this alliance were;
 If Germany was attacked by either France or Russia, Austria-Hungary would remain
neutral.
 If France or Russia attacked Austria-Hungary, Germany would support Austria-Hungary.
 If France and Russia combined forces and attacked Germany, then Austria-Hungary
would support Germany.
The Triple Alliance-1882
This alliance was signed by Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy. In 1881 France occupied
Tunisia with full encouragement of Germany. The aim behind Germany’s support was to embroil
France and Italy. The French move in Tunisia annoyed Italy who felt threatened and isolated.
Bismarck then invited Italy to sign an alliance with Austria-Hungary. Italy agreed because she
was looking for an alliance against France. The terms were;
 To isolate France.
 To assist each other if attacked by the fourth power.
 Italy also agreed not to be involved in any war with Britain.
The Revived Drekaiserbund Alliance-1884
This was the renewal of the Drekaiserbund Alliance of 1872. It was renewed under the same
membership and terms of the 1872 Drekaiserbund Alliance. This alliance was valid for three
years; renewed in1887 and expired in 1890.
The Secret Re-insurance Alliance-1887
The Russo-Germany Agreement was a secret alliance between Russia and Germany. Bismarck
went into this treaty because he wanted to keep Russia in check. The terms were;
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To isolate France.
Germany was to recognize Russian influence in the Balkans.
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Russia would remain neutral if France attacked Germany and Germany would remain
neutral if Russia was attacked by Austria-Hungary.
The two would help each other if attacked by two or more powers.
In this way, Bismarck managed to keep control of the European diplomacy until his resignation
in 1890.
THE FALL OF BISMARCK
Kaiser William I who had supported Bismarck’s policies died in 1888. He was succeeded by
Fredrick. This one hated Bismarck because he wanted a more liberal and democratic
government. Fredrick died from cancer three months after ascending to the throne. A 28 year old
Kaiser William II succeeded him. By 1890 Kaiser William II differed with Bismarck over the
following;
 Colonies: Kaiser William II wanted a policy of colonial expansion even outside Europe
for Germany while Bismarck wanted to confine German expansion to Europe.
 Navy: William II wanted to construct a greater Germany navy to challenge that of
Britain. On the other hand, Bismarck was careful not to provoke other countries
especially Britain.
 Foreign Policy: Bismarck signed a secret alliance with Austria-Hungary.
 Socialists: Kaiser William II wanted to do away with Bismarck’s anti-socialist laws. He
wanted to come to terms with the Social Democratic Party while Bismarck wanted to
crash them.
As a result of these differences, Bismarck was forced to resign by Kaiser William II in 1890 and
he was replaced by Count Von Caprivi. This marked the fall of Bismarck until his death in 1898.
REACTION OF OTHER POWERS TO BISMARCK᾿S SYSTEM OF ALLIANCES
The other European powers were suspicious of Bismarck’s system of alliances. In reaction, they
also started signing their own alliances.
Dual Entente 1893
This alliance was signed between France and Russia. By this alliance, the two agreed to support
one another against Germany.
Anglo-Japanese Alliance-1902
This alliance was signed by Britain and Japan. The two were suspicious of Russia’s ambitions in
the Far East. The two therefore agreed to support one another against Russia.
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Entente Cordiale-1904
This alliance was also called the Anglo-French Alliance and it was signed by Britain and France.
The two agreed to support each other against Germany, their common enemy. They also agreed
to resolve their conflicts in Africa. France was to recognize British interests in Egypt and Sudan
while Britain was to recognize French interests in Morocco.
N.B: Entente Cordiale means friendly understanding
Anglo-Russo Alliance-1907
This alliance was signed by Britain and Russia. The two resolved their differences in Asia.
Russia was to recognize British interests in India and Afghanistan. The two also agreed to
support each other in case of an attack.
Triple Entente-1907
This alliance was signed by Britain, France and Russia. The alliance was engineered by France
who needed to get out of isolation by Germany. Europe was now divided into two rival camps
i.e. the Triple Alliance (comprising Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy) and the Triple Entente
(comprising Britain, France and Russia).
IMPERIALISM
Imperialism was the extension of European economic, social and political influence in
underdeveloped areas of Africa and Asia to benefit European countries. European imperialism
began as far back as the 10th century when countries like Spain, Portugal and Britain started
establishing trading stations in Africa, Asia and the Far East. Imperialism began with the
Scramble and Partition of Africa.
THE PARTITION OF AFRICA
This was the dividing and sharing of African territories by European powers amongst
themselves. This took place in the last 20 years of the 19th century.
THE BERLIN CONFERENCE 1884-85
In order to avoid war among European powers during the Partition of Africa, Bismarck
organized and chaired the Berlin Conference of 1884-85 in Berlin. The conference was held in
order to divide the African continent among European powers peacefully. The results of the
Berlin Conference were;
 Africa was partitioned among European countries.
 European countries agreed to settle all the border disputes between countries involved
peacefully.
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 All European countries accepted the freedom of trade on all the major rivers and
waterways.
 The Congo Free State was to be given to King Leopold II of Belgium.
 Areas already proclaimed as protectorates before 1884 were accepted and recognized.
 The European countries were to sign treaties with African chiefs.
Fig: Africa after partition
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REASONS FOR THE PARTITION OF AFRICA
ECONOMIC REASONS
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The spread of the Industrial Revolution from Britain to the rest of Europe led to the
following;
 A great need of raw materials: The use of machines in factories required more
raw materials such as gold, copper, cotton, tea etc. These raw materials were
readily available in Africa.
 A great need of markets: European powers wanted to establish markets in Africa
where they could sell their finished products.
 The fast production of materials led to the accumulation of surplus capital in
Europe. European countries became so rich that they wanted to invest their
surplus money in overseas territories for more profit. Therefore, they took part in
the Partition of Africa.
The European powers needed to protect their trading companies against competition from
other companies. This also made most of them take part in the Partition of Africa e.g.
Britain’s need to protect her Imperial British India Company made her colonise Kenya
and Rwanda.
The discovery of minerals in South Africa also contributed to the Partition of Africa. This
is because European countries thought the whole African continent is covered with
minerals.
Some came to Africa to get cheap labour.
POLITICAL REASONS
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For prestige: Some European powers took part in the Partition of Africa because it had
become the symbol of wealth and greatness. Countries like Germany and Italy took part
in order to show other European countries that they were super powers too. France also
took part because she wanted to show maintain her prestige as a world power even if she
was defeated during the Franco- Prussian war of 1870-71.
Balance of power: The existence of balance of power in Europe towards the end of the
19th century meant that European countries could not expand their boundaries within
Europe. Therefore, the rushed for colonies in Africa.
For strategic reasons: Some European powers took part in the Partition of Africa for
strategic reasons. For example, Britain occupied Cairo in Egypt in the Suez Canal which
provided her with the shortest routes to India and Australia. In addition she occupied
Egypt and Sudan to protect the Nile River.
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SOCIAL REASONS
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The need to end slave trade: In the pretext of ending slave trade, the European powers
penetrated Africa. For instance, Britain captured Lagos in Nigeria in 1801 because she
wanted to end slave trade. Colonial acquisition was seen as a tool to abolish slave trade.
Colonies were also acquired to test their newly discovered medicines and inventions
before using them in Europe to determine their effects.
Individuals’ desires to become rich: Others were imperialists such as Cecil Rhodes of
South Africa. His aim was to build a railway line from Cape Town to Cairo. This meant
he was to colonise the areas around. Similarly, King Leopold II of Belgium got Congo
region as a farm and hunting territory but it was later surrendered to the Belgian
government as Congo Free State.
Europeans wanted to spread Christianity to oppose the spread of Islam which had already
covered North Africa.
The Industrial Revolution improved the standard of living in Europe. This meant the
death rate was reduced; hence population increased such that they rushed for colonies for
settlement. Zimbabwe and Kenya were some of the countries that were colonized because
of settlement.
REASONS FOR THE LOW DEMAND FOR AFRICAN COLONIES BEFORE 1870
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Most European countries saw the acquisition of colonies as an expensive venture. This
was because they knew little about the existence of abundant wealth resources in Africa.
Europeans had no knowledge about the African continent. They considered it a ‛dark
continent᾿.
Lack of a reliable means of transport also acted as an obstacle to Europeans to come to
Africa.
Thick forests and bad climatic conditions led to low demand for African colonies. Some
African areas such as Niger, Congo and Zambezi were hot with jungles and thick forests.
Tropical diseases such as malaria, bilharzias and sleeping sickness prevented colonialists
from coming to Africa before medicines were discovered.
Fear of hostile tribes. Some tribes could not welcome white missionaries while others had
the reputation of being cannibals.
Some colonialists were afraid of the existence of wild beasts such as snakes, lions and
biting insects such as mosquitoes.
FACTORS THAT FACILITATED THE PARTITION OF AFRICA
i.
The development of transport such as the steamship contributed to the Partition of Africa.
This made it easier to penetrate the interior of Africa.
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ii.
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Through the works of explorers such as David Livingstone who explored most of Central
Africa and De-Brazza who explored the Congo Basin, Europe became knowledgeable
about the African continent.
The discovery of medicines such as quinine to cure tropical diseases also made it easier
for Europeans to colonise Africa.
The discovery of modern weapons such as guns made it easier to colonise Africa because
resistant African chiefs could easily be defeated.
INCIDENTS OF IMPERIALISM NORTH OF THE EQUATOR
THE FASHODA INCIDENT -1898
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The Partition of Africa made several European countries to clash over colonies. This was
as a result of common interests. Similarly, the interests of Britain and France clashed over
Sudan.
Initially, the French had occupied Senegal while Britain colonized Egypt. In 1895 the
British government stated that it was not going to tolerate French advance or expansion
towards the Nile River. The British feared that the French would interfere with the
irrigation scheme of Egypt.
Contrary to this, the French under captain Marchand set out and reached Fashoda, a town
in Sudan in1898.
The French hoisted the flag and claimed the territory. Two weeks later the British under
Lord Kitchener arrived at the same place with 5 gun boats and 2000 troops.
Before Marchand and Kitchener could clash, the consulted their home governments on
the way forward. Fortunately, war was avoided as the French government realized that
there was little to quarrel about.
Therefore, the French withdrew and an agreement, the Anglo-French Agreement or the
Entente Cordiale was signed in 1904 where France recognized British interests in Egypt
and Sudan while she (France) was compensated with a territory in Morocco.
THE MOROCCAN CRISIS 1905-06 AND 1911
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This was a clash over Morocco which existed between Germany and France. Germany’s
Kaiser William II wanted to prevent French expansion in Morocco after the British
recognized the French in the area.
William then paid a surprise visit to the Moroccan port of Tangier in 1905 and
announced to the sultan (ruler) of Morocco that Germany was ready to support Morocco
against external influence (France).
When France protested against the act, William demanded for convening of the
international conference to discuss the future of Morocco. In respect to his demands, the
Algeciras conference was held in Spain in1906.
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The resolution of the conference was very disappointing to Germany as she did not
receive much support apart from Austria-Hungary. Britain, Russia and Italy strongly
backed France.
Nevertheless William II protested in 1911 when France sent troops to occupy Fez, the
capital of Morocco. William then sent a warship, the panther to the Moroccan port of
Agadir. This was seen as the violation of the 1906 agreement by which only France alone
had the rights to maintain law and order in Morocco.
Britain quickly intervened in this dispute as she did not like the show of force by
Germany. She wanted Germany to quickly retreat from Morocco failure to which war
was to be declared on her.
In 1911 a meeting was held in Berlin where Germany was made to accept and recognize
French rule in Morocco while she was compensated with a territory in the French Congo.
REASONS WHY AFRICANS HATED/RESENTED COLONIALISM
 Politically, chiefs lost their powers. Instead most chiefs became tax collectors and acted
as mouth pieces of white administrators. They had to report any rumour of rebellion to
the whites.
 The introduction of taxation such as customs tax, income tax, native or African tax, poll
tax etc made Africans hate white rule as most of them could not afford to pay.
 The whites captured land from the Africans in areas which were found to be suitable for
farming and settlement. This left most of the Africans landless and thousands were
eventually forced to become labour migrants.
 Africans were exploited in most industries and farms set up by the Europeans. They were
made to work for long hours but at the end they were paid meager wages.
 There was also racial discrimination where the whites considered themselves to be more
superior to the Africans.
CONSEQUENCES/RESULTS /EFFECTS OF IMPERIALISM
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Traditional culture was suppressed.
Politically, traditional authorities such as chiefs lost their powers.
Barter system was replaced by money system.
It led to the creation of artificial boundaries.
There was introduction of literacy and civilization.
It led to the spread foreign diseases.
Population increased in Africa.
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BRITISH POLICY OF SPLENDID ISOLATION
Definition
Splendid Isolation refers to a period of time since the Congress of Berlin in 1878 when Britain
kept herself out of the politics of the mainland of Europe. She wanted to remain aloof (alone),
isolated or free from European quarrels and entanglements. Her concentration was focused on
her vast empire and building her own prosperity.
Reasons why Britain adopted the Policy of Splendid Isolation
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Geographical position: Britain being an island was separated from the mainland of
Europe by the North Sea. Therefore, she felt very safe from any attacks and that is why
she did not bother about what was happening on the mainland of Europe.
Economic strength: Britain was economically powerful because she was the first
country to undergo the Industrial Revolution. Therefore, she was able to support herself
economically and she did not need support of other countries.
Military strength: Britain had the strongest navy which could not be challenged even by
the combination of the normal naval strength of two countries. Bismarck was one of the
statesmen who revered (respected) British naval supremacy.
Britain had her major interests outside Europe, for example in Africa, India, Australia and
the Far East. This meant Britain was more concerned with commercial interests in these
areas than in the politics of Europe.
Britain was not part of Bismarck’s system of alliances because no British statesmen dared
to commit Britain to continental entanglements. Bismarck had wished for a secret
alliance with Britain to ensure that there was no Anglo-French Alliance, but this was not
fulfilled because of the negative attitude of most British statesmen.
Britain had bitter memories of the Crimean War (1854-55) in which Britain, Germany
and France fought against Russia. In this war Britain lost a lot f people. Therefore, no
British statesmen wanted to commit Britain to another war.
Britain was further isolated by the alliance in Europe especially after 1890.How? In 1893
Russia and France signed the Dual Entente Alliance which was directed at Germany. In
Britain it was felt that the alliance was signed against her because she was at loggerheads
(quarrels) with France over colonies in Egypt and Sudan and she was also at loggerheads
with Russia in India and Afghanistan.
Reasons why Britain abandoned the Policy of Splendid Isolation
The incidents that started taking place especially after 1890 indicated that the policy of Splendid
Isolation was no longer good but dangerous. The following were the reasons which made Britain
realize so;
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i.
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The Armenian massacre-1895: In this year the Turkish government killed a lot of
Armenians who were mostly Christians. Britain appealed to the other European countries
to condemn the massacre, but the attitude from other countries was negative.
By the end of the 19th century Britain had lost her supreme position as a world power.
Other countries like the USA and Germany were becoming serious competitors or rivals
in many aspects especially over colonies and trade in Africa and the Far East. Britain felt
insecure.
The Jameson Raid-1895: This was an attempt by the British government to overthrow
the government of Paul Kruger in Transvaal, but it was a failure. Kaiser William II of
Germany then sent a telegram known as Kruger Telegram congratulating the Boers for
having defeated the British. William II had also indicated that Germany was ready to help
the Boers should need arise.
From 1899-1902 Britain was physically involved in a war with the Boers in South Africa
in what came to be known as the Anglo-Boer War. Although Britain was victorious in
military sense, general world opinion was anti British as she was heavily condemned.
This showed how she stood alone.
In 1898 Britain and France quarreled over Sudan at Fashoda. This created a crisis as there
was talk of war. Although France withdrew from Fashoda, she was not happy.
Germany was becoming a big threat to Britain. More threatening was a programme of
building a strong navy by Germany to surpass that of Britain. In 1900 Germany passed a
Navy Law which was aimed at bridging the gap between German and British naval
power. This was an obvious threat to Britain.
The construction of the Berlin-Baghdad railway line threatened British interests in the
Middle East.
British leaders who came after Lord Salisbury were not interested in keeping the policy.
Therefore those who came after him decided to abandon the policy.
How Britain abandoned the Policy of Splendid Isolation
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Since Britain had no friends in Europe; the first effort made by British statesmen was to
sign an alliance with Japan in 1902 known as the Anglo-Japanese Alliance. The two
agreed to help one another in case of war with another country attempting to expand in
the Far East. Russia was meant.
In1904 Britain and France signed the Anglo-French Alliance, also known as the Entente
Cordiale. By this agreement, Britain and France resolved their conflicts in Africa. France
agreed to recognize British interests in Egypt and Sudan while Britain agreed to support
French interests in Morocco.
In 1907 Britain and Russia decided to resolve their colonial conflicts in India and
Afghanistan. This resulted in the signing of the Anglo-Russo Alliance.
In 1907 Britain, France and Russia came together and signed the Triple Entente. Thus
Europe was divided into two rival camps namely; the Triple Alliance (Central Powers)
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comprising Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy and the Triple Entente (Allied Powers)
comprising Britain, France and Russia. The two camps later clashed in the First World
War of 1914-18.
THE FIRST WORLD WAR 1914-18
The causes of the First World War can be divided into two categories. These were, the long term
causes and short term causes.
LONG TERM CAUSES OF THE WAR
1. Nationalism: Due to nationalism, new nations emerged in Europe leading to balance of
power. Before this, it was only Britain which boasted as a super power in Europe. The
emergence of other strong nations like Germany and Italy threatened peace in Europe due
to supremacy competition.
2. System of Alliances: After 1871 there emerged two rival camps in Europe. These were
the Triple Alliance (Central Powers) headed by Germany while Italy and AustriaHungary were members and the Triple Entente (Allied Powers) headed by Britain with
France and Russia as members. In each of the camps members had to support each other
in case of war or attack. The rival camps were also suspicious of each other thus
threatened world peace as they were bound to clash one day.
3. Imperialism: Scramble for Africa created rivalry among European powers. For instance,
when Germany entered the scramble, she created a lot of problems with other European
nations. She clashed with France over Morocco and had problems with Britain in South
Africa. Such tensions increased chances of war.
4. Arms Race/Military Rivalry: Each European power increased its military hardware as a
way of getting ready for war. Each power also increased its number of soldiers and
extended the period of military service. Britain was the first nation to make the
Dreadnought Powerful Battleships. Having learnt this, Germany initiated by building
similar battleships called U-Boats. This meant British supremacy on the sea was being
challenged.
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Fig: A Dreadnought Battleship
5. Kaiser William II’s provocative policy: Some historians have argued that the attitude of
Kaiser William II of Germany was militaristic in the sense that in his speeches he was
always talking about war which annoyed other European leaders. This added some flame
to the desire for the impeding war.
6. The Press: The press increased hostility between Britain and Germany. Since the AngloBoer war in South Africa there had been an anti-Germany feeling in Britain and vice
versa. This was because Germany supported the Boers. The press dashed all hopes of
Anglo-Germany reconciliation.
SHORT TERM CAUSES OF THE FIRST WORLD WAR
1. Bosnian Crisis - 1908
The territory of Bosnia-Herzegovina which had belonged to Turkey was occupied by
Austria in 1908.Russia then protested against the act by Austria but Kaiser William II
threatened armed support for Austria if Russia attacked her (Austria).Russia withdrew
because her military had not recovered from the Russo-Japanese war of 1904-05.This
ended the crisis.
2. The First Balkan War - 1912
This war began when Greece, Serbia and Bulgaria (calling themselves the Balkan
League) attacked Turkey, their former master. They captured most of Turkeys remaining
territories in Europe. A conference was called by Britain and the result was that the
former Turkish lands were divided amongst the Balkan States. However, Serbia was not
happy with her share. She wanted Albania which would give her an outlet to the sea, but
Germany, Austria and Britain insisted that Albania should become independent.
3. The Second Balkan War - 1913
The Second Balkan War began because Bulgaria was not happy with the peace settlement
of the First Balkan War. She wanted Macedonia but most of it was given to Serbia.
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Bulgaria therefore, attacked Serbia. However, Serbia was helped by Greece, Romania
and Turkey and Bulgaria was defeated. By the treaty of Bucharest, Bulgaria forfeited
(lost) most of her gains from the first war.
4. Murder at Sarajevo - 1914
 In this incident the Austrian prince, Archduke Franz Ferdinand who was the heir
to the Austrian throne was murdered. His murder was the immediate cause of the
First World War. This incident happened in Bosnia in the town of Sarajevo.
 On June 28th 1914 Ferdinand and his wife, Sophia were murdered in Bosnia,
Sarajevo by a young Serbian student called Gavrilo Princip. Gavrilo Princip was
sent by the Black Hand Terrorist Group. This move angered Austria who gave
Serbia an ultimatum of 48 hours.
 When Serbia failed to meet conditions of the ultimatum, Austria declared war on
her on 26th July 1914.
 Russia responded quickly and started mobilizing to help Serbia. Germany asked
Russia to stop mobilizing, but Russia refused and therefore, Germany declared
war on Russia on 1st August 1914.
 Germany saw the possibility of France joining war on the side of Serbia and
demanded that France should remain neutral, but France refused and Germany
declared war on France on 2nd August 1914.
 When Germany troops passed through neutral Belgium, Britain was angered and
declared war on Germany on 4th August 1914. Italy and the USA later joined the
war on the side of Serbia. This is how a fatal shot led to the nations of the world
to start fighting.
Fig: Franz Ferdinand and his wife, Sophia visiting Bosnia
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



THE SCHLIEFFEN PLAN
The Schlieffen Plan was a war plan drawn by Field Marshall Alfred Von
Schlieffen in 1905 on how Germany was going to attack France. He was a
general of the German army between 1891 and 1906.
The plan was drawn in case of war where Germany was to fight a two front war.
It was planned that Germany was to attack France through Belgium using five
columns of her troops.
Belgium was a neutral country and she was not expected to fight back. These five
columns of German troops were to sweep through Belgium and move to south or
west of Paris.
The war with France was expected to take only six weeks. According to the plan,
it was hoped that Germany would easily defeat France before Britain could join.
Unfortunately, the plan failed to work out.
Reasons why the Schlieffen Plan failed
 The secrets of the Schlieffen Plan were understood by the enemies of Germany as
early as 1908.France even started fortifying her borders.
 The Schlieffen Plan underestimated French and Belgian resistance.
 The plan failed to understand that violation of neutrality of Belgium would bring
in Britain.
 The plan ignored the possibility of Russia launching an attack on the eastern side
which they did in August 1914.
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 General Moltke, the commander of the German forces did not follow the plan
properly. Instead of launching a strong attack on France through Belgium, he
reduced the number of troops attacking France.
 According to the Schlieffen Plan, it was hoped that Austria would easily defeat
Serbia and join Germany on the war front. Instead, Austria had to face difficulties
in defeating Serbia. She found herself asking for military support from Germany.
Instead of the war taking six weeks, it took four years.
 According to the plan, Germany was first to declare war on France, but as events
turned, Germany first declared war on Russia and later France.
 The entry of the USA in the war in April 1917 totally destroyed the Schlieffen
Plan because no provision was made in the plan for the possible entry of the USA
in the war. The entry of the USA played a major role in the defeat of the Central
Powers.
Why the USA joined the war on the side of the Allied Powers
The USA joined the war in 1917.She did so because;


Germany’s U-Boats were sinking American merchant ships.In1917 Germany sunk
American ships where 198 Americans died.
Arthur Zimmerman, a Germany foreign affairs official sent a telegram called
Zimmerman Telegram urging Mexico to declare war on the USA. This telegram was
intercepted and interpreted to mean German hostility towards the USA.
Reasons for Germany’s quick victories in the early stages of the war
 Germany was well prepared for the war e.g. the Schlieffen Plan.
 Germany had experienced and competent army officers who had fought during the wars
of unification e.g. General Helmuth Von Moltke.
 The geographical position of Germany put her on an advantage as she was centrally
located. This made her to easily and quickly transport troops to her enemies.
 The communication system in terms of roads and railway lines had been fully developed
to meet demands of the war. Troops and other war supplies were transported to war fronts
at a much faster rate than it was the case with the Allied Powers.
 Germany had the best trained army in the European continent. Her troops used advanced
weapons such as artillery launchers and machine guns. She used advanced military tactics
that her enemies found difficult to counteract in the early stages of the war.
 The armies of the Central Powers fell under one German command. This was an
advantage over the Allied Powers who entered the war as individual countries.
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REASONS FOR GERMANY’S FINAL DEFEAT
 Disturbances in the Schlieffen Plan. The plan was first disturbed by the unexpected
resistance from Belgium. This gave the Allied Powers enough time to send British forces
to the aid of France.
 Germany had weak allies such as Austria-Hungary, Turkey and Romania. On the
contrary, the Allied powers had strong powers such as Britain, USA, Japan, Russia, Italy
and France.
 Britain’s Royal Air Force engaged in air attacks over German cities leading to the
destruction of the infrastructure such as industries, roads, bridges and railway lines.
Germany could no longer produce goods to meet the needs of troops.
 The control of seas by British navy blocked German ports and supply lines. Therefore,
Germany and her allies started experiencing starvation in both food and war materials.
 The loss of morale among the German public also contributed to the defeat of Germany.
The German population was no longer in support of the war because the war brought
misery and the population experienced starvation, diseases, destruction of cities loss of
lives and crime rate became high. This put Germany in a difficult situation to continue
fighting.
 The entry of the USA in the war was the final reason for the defeat of Germany and her
allies. The USA entered the war with two million fresh soldiers and advanced weapons.
As a result, Germany who was already exhausted was finally defeated. The final blow
came on 11th November 1918 when Kaiser William II abdicated the throne and Germany
surrendered to the Allied Powers.
N.B: Kaiser William II born on 27 January 1859 and died on 4 th June 1941
THE VERSAILLES PEACE TREATY – 1919
The Versailles Treaty was a peace treaty which was signed after the end of the First World War
in 1919. The peace settlement was signed in France at the Versailles palace in the Hall of
Mirrors near Paris and the conference which led to the signing of the Versailles Treaty was
called Paris Peace Conference. The defeated powers i.e. Germany and her allies were not
invited. Germany was only called to sign what had been agreed upon. The Allied powers wanted
to punish Germany and her allies for the damages caused during the war.
Therefore, the ‟Big Four” i.e. Woodrow Wilson of the USA, Sir Lloyd George of Britain,
Georges Clemenceau of France and Vittorio Orlando of Italy met in France.
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VIEWS OF THE BIG FOUR
Georges Clemenceau-Prime Minister of France
He wanted to see Germany punished severely so that she does not rise up again to attack France.
He also wanted to get back the lost provinces of Alsace and Lorraine. He was nicknamed ῾Tiger᾿
by the public in France.
Sir Lloyd George-British Prime Minister
He was a more moderate man with realistic ideas, but the British public was very hostile to
Germany. They demanded for Kaiser William II to be hanged and to squeeze Germany until she
was completely destroyed. For Lloyd George personally, he wanted a peace settlement that
would satisfy as many people as possible. He also wanted to see Germany punished but not as
severely as the French wanted. He wanted Germany to be spared economically.
Woodrow Wilson-President of the USA
He wanted a fair and just settlement for all. His views were based on his famous 14 points. The
14 points provided the agenda or became the basis for the discussions at the peace settlement.
Woodrow Wilson’s 14 points
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
All negotiations between states were to be done in open i.e. no secrete alliance.
There was to be freedom in the usage of seas both in peace and war times.
There was to be free international trade i.e. no trade barriers between nations.
There was to be general disarmament
The wishes of the people in colonies should be taken into account when settling colonial
boundaries.
6. There was to be the evacuation of German forces from all Russian territories.
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7. Belgium was completely to be liberated and to become independent.
8. Alsace and Lorraine to be given back to France
9. Italy’s frontiers to be adjusted so as to avoid quarrels with Austria-Hungary.
10. Self governments for the people of Austria and Hungary which were to be separate
independent states.
11. Serbia to be given access to the sea.
12. Turkey to be an independent state.
13. Poland to be established as an independent state.
14. Creation of an international organization to ensure world peace and security and prevent
an outbreak of another world war.
Vittorio Orlando-Prime Minister of Italy
He wanted a peace settlement that favoured punishment for Germany and her allies. He also
wanted the territories that Italy had been promised during the London Treaty of 1915. This
demand was not granted. As such, Orlando walked out of the conference and did not contribute
much to the final result. It is for this reason that the leaders of the conference are referred to as
the‟ Big Three”.
TERMS OF THE VERSAILLES TREATY
Territorial losses
 Alsace and Lorraine went back to France
 The Saar Coal Fields which were part of Germany were to be governed by the League of
Nations for 15 years. During this period, France was to mine the coal fields as
compensation for the destruction caused by the German soldiers during the war. After the
period of 15 years, its inhabitants would vote whether they wanted it to be part of
Germany or France.
 Port Danzig was declared as an international free city to be administered by the League
of Nations. The Poles were to use the city facilities.
 Port Memel was to be given to Lithuania.
 North Schleswig and Holstein went back to Denmark.
 Posen and Upper Silesia went to Poland.
 Eupen, Morosnet and Malmedy went to Belgium.
 The Rhineland (most industrialized part of Germany) was to be demilitarized and was to
be occupied by the Allied Powers.
 Eupen and Malmedy were given to Belgium
 German territories in Africa were to be shared by Britain, France and South Africa.
Germany East Africa (Tanzania) went to Britain while South West Africa (Namibia) was
administered by South Africa. Togo and Cameroon were shared by between Britain and
France.
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 The Far East territories were shared by Japan, Australia and New Zealand.
 Middle East territories were shred between Britain and France.
Military Terms




The Germany army was to be reduced from 700,000 to 100,000 soldiers.
Germany was forbidden from compulsory military service (recruitment).
All war time guns and other weapons were to be melted into scrap metal.
The Germany navy was to be cut down to 6 light battleships and Germany was not
allowed to have any submarine.
 Germany was not allowed to have an air force
 Germany was not allowed to make any alliances with Austria.
Economic Terms
 There was to be no trade links or contacts with the outside world.
 A fixed number of cattle were to be paid to Belgium as compensation for violating her
neutrality.
 A fixed quantity of coal from the Saar Region of Germany was to be handed over to
France.
 War Guilt Clause was applied on Germany. By this clause, Germany was to pay 6,600
million pounds as reparation by 1921.By this clause, Germany’s economy was paralysed
Political Terms
 Germany was not allowed to be a member of the League of Nations at the beginning.
 Politically, Germany was to become a small and weak republic by making it a democratic
nation.
Reaction of Germans to the Versailles Treaty.
The German people were angered by the Versailles Treaty because;




It was a diktat so she had no say about it.
She was divided into two by the Polish Corridor.
She was forced to accept responsibility for the war
She was made to pay reparations and was excluded from the League of Nations.
Moreover, reparations weakened her economy and helped to cause a big inflation of
1923.
 She lost colonies both in Europe and abroad.
 The treaty reduced Germany’s armed forces.
 Germany was forced to form the Weimer Republic.
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All these points made Germans feel that the treaty was unfair, humiliating and was used as
punishment. The resentment of the treaty helped Hitler to come to power in 1933.
OTHER TREATIES THAT WERE SIGNED
THE TREATY OF BREST-LITOVSK-1918
This was a treaty that was signed between Germany and Russia to end the war in the eastern
front in March 1918. In 1917 there was the Bolshevik revolution in Russia that led to the end of
monarch and the ushering in of the communist regime under Vladimir Lenin. The new
government decided to withdraw from the First World War on the side of the Allied Powers.
This was because the war brought a lot of misery and suffering to the Russian people; hence
German and Russian representatives met in a Polish town of Brest-Litovsk. The terms were;
 Russia lost most of the territories she had acquired since the 17th century e.g. Lithuania,
Estonia and the eastern part of Prussia.
 She also lost her rich province of Ukraine.
THE TREATY OF ST GERMAIN-1919
This treaty was signed between Austria and the Allied Powers. The terms were;
 Austria recognized the complete independence of Hungary, Czechoslovakia, Poland and
Yugoslavia.
 Austria was also deprived of her sea ports.
 Her army was reduced to 30,000 men
 Austria was also forbidden from uniting with Germany.
As a result of this treaty, Austria was reduced to a small republic.
THE TREATY OF NEUILLEY-1919
This treaty was signed on the 27th November between Bulgaria and the Allied Powers. The terms
were;





The western part of Bulgaria was given to Yugoslavia.
Western Thrace and the Aegean coasts were given to Greece.
The Bulgarian army was reduced to 33,000 men.
The navy was abolished
Bulgaria was to pay reparations of $ 9 million.
By this treaty, Bulgaria became the weakest of the Balkan States.
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THE TREATY OF TRIANON-1920
The treaty of Trianon was signed on 20th June. This was between Hungary and the Allied
Powers. The terms were;





The Hungarian army was reduced to 35,000 soldiers.
Hungary was to pay a fixed amount of reparations to the Allied Powers.
Fiume was given to Italy.
Croatia was given to Yugoslavia.
Transylvania was given to Romania.
THE TREATY OF SEVRES-1920
The treaty of Sevres was signed between turkey and the Allied Powers. The terms were;





Armenia was created as an independent Christian state.
Mesopotamia, Trans-Jordan, Syria and palatine were taken away from turkey
Greece was given Dodecanese Islands.
The Turkish army was reduced to 50,000 soldiers.
The navy and air force were disbanded.
THE LEAGUE OF NATIONS
The League of Nations was formed in 1920 as a result of Woodrow Wilsons 14 points. Its main
task was to maintain world peace. It had its headquarters in Geneva, Switzerland.
Aims of the League of Nations
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
To maintain world peace and security
To promote international friendship and co-operation
To teach people to respect international law and human rights
To disarm nations so as to ensure peace and national security
STRUCTURE/ORGANISATION OF THE LEAGUE OF NATIONS
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1. The General Assembly: This was like the world parliament. The members met once a
year. The functions of the Assembly were;
 To make laws
 It made and approved the budget of the League of Nations
 It debated on issues affecting member countries
 It was responsible for the appointment of the Secretary General
2. The Security Council: This was the League executive body. The Council had four
permanent members. These were Britain, France, Italy and Japan. The functions of the
Council were;
 It was responsible for general disarmament
 It was also responsible for the maintenance of world peace and security
 It recommended for the appointment of the Secretary General and the admission
of new members
 It was responsible for the imposition of sanctions on disobedient member
countries.
3. The Secretariat: This was an international civil service of the League. Its headquarters
were based in Geneva, Switzerland. The secretariat was headed by the Secretary General.
Names of Secretary Generals of the League were Sir Eric Drummond from the United
Kingdom (1920-1933), Joseph Avenol from France (1933-1940 and Sean Lester from
Ireland (1940….) Its functions were;
 It implemented the League decisions
 It carried out research and provided factual information on issues needed by the
Assembly and other organs
 It also kept records for the League
 It supervised the work of the commissions
4. The International Court of Justice: This one acted like the international judiciary. The
headquarters of the court were based in Hague, Netherlands. It consisted of 15 judges
who were drawn from member countries and elected by the Assembly. The functions of
the court were;
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 To settle disputes among member countries
 It also gave legal advice to other organs
5. The International Labour Organisation: This was made up of representatives from
governments of member countries. Its headquarters were based in Geneva, Switzerland.
The functions were;
 To work for the improvement of workers conditions of service
 To encourage workers to have trade unions.
COMMISSIONS OF THE LEAGUE OF NATIONS
The Permanent Mandate Commission: This ensured good governance of the mandate
territories i.e. former colonies of the defeated powers in the First World War. These were being
controlled by some member countries such as Britain and France.
The World Health Organisation: This commission was there to ensure that people in member
countries enjoyed good health. It carried out research to find vaccines and cure contagious
diseases such as smallpox and measles.
The Food and Agriculture Organisation: This commission ensured that there was food
security in the world. It carried out research on how to improve food production and made the
findings available to member countries. It also gave loans for the improvement of food
productions to member countries. In times of famine and drought, it provided relief food to the
affected countries.
The Drug Commission: This commission looked at the dangers of certain drugs and introduced
measures of controlling drug trafficking.
The Disarmament Commission: This commission dealt with the reduction of arms in all
member countries to the lowest level.
The Economic and Social Commission: This commission dealt with social and economic
problems in member countries. It carried out research on these problems in member countries
and made recommendations on how to solve these problems.
The Refugee Commission: This commission dealt with the repatriation and resettlements of
refugees from the First World War since many people had lost their homes during the war.
SUCCESSES OF THE LEAGUE OF NATIONS
The League of Nations was successful in solving problems which affected small and weak states;
 The League solved the border problems between Germany and Poland over Silesia.
 A quarrel between Turkey and Iraq over Mosul was solved in favour of Iraq.
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 A dispute between Lithuania and Poland over Vilna was settled in1920 in favour of
Poland
 A dispute between Sweden and Finland over the Aaland Island was settled by the League
in favour of Finland.
 Quarrels between Bolivia and Paraguay over Chaco were solved. They both lost Chaco to
the League of Nations.
 The League succeeded in combating epidemics such as typhoid in Poland and Russia
where there was an outbreak.
 Different commissions dealing with drug abuse, prostitution and International Labour
Organisation dealing with working conditions achieved a lot of success.
PROBLEMS/WEAKNESSES OF THE LEAGUE OF NATIONS
 Although it was America that suggested the formation of the League of Nations, the USA
did not join the League because the American senate refused to ratify (agree) Wilsons 14
points. This deprived the League of a powerful member.
 Russia did not join the League until 1934.
 Germany was not a member of the League until 1926 and even then she withdrew in
1933 at the Geneva Conference.
 The League of Nations had no strong army to enforce military sanctions. As such, the
League was perceived to have been a ‟toothless” organization. This weakness made
aggressive countries to take advantage and carry out more acts of aggression.
 The economic depression that affected the whole world after 1929 made members of the
League not to render (give) financial support to the League of Nations.
 The League of Nations failed to be financially independent from its member countries.
This influenced the decision making of the League.
FAILURES OF THE LEAGUE OF NATIONS
 The League of Nations failed to stop Japanese invasion of Manchuria in 1931.After
condemnation, Japan withdrew membership from the League.
 In 1935 Italy attacked Abyssinia (Ethiopia).The League of Nations only applied partial
economic sanctions but failed to stop Italy’s attack on Ethiopia. Italy thereafter withdrew
from the League in 1936.
 The League also failed to carry out complete disarmament. It only emphasized on
disarmament of the defeated powers especially Germany, while the other powers kept
their arms.
 The League of Nations failed to stop the aggressive nature of Nazism and Fascism.
 The League of Nations failed to stop the following;
 Hitler’s occupation of the Rhineland in 1935
 Hitler’s occupation of Czechoslovakia in 1938
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 Hitler’s attack on Poland on 1st September 1939 which finally led to the Second
World War and finally the collapse of the League of Nations. The League of
Nations had failed to maintain world peace.
THE WEIMER REPUBLIC 1919-1933


After the First World War, Germany had changed its name to Weimar Republic. This
happened in a small rural town in Germany known as Weimar.
Many political parties were formed after the end of the First World War and elections
were held in 1919. The majority Social Democratic Party (SDP) emerged victorious and
the leader of the SDP, Fredrick Ebert became the president of the Weimar republic and
Philip Scheideman as the chancellor. In Weimar, they formulated the constitution to
bring about democracy in Germany.
Terms of the constitution of the Weimar Republic
The terms of the constitution provided for the following
i. An elected president for the period of seven years.
ii. The president could be forced to resign before the end of his term by a referendum.
iii. Real political power lay with the chancellor and his cabinet.
iv. The chancellor and the cabinet were answerable to the Reichstag (parliament).
v. Reichstag was to be elected by all adult Germans.
vi. The president was responsible for the appointment of the chancellor and ministers.
vii. The president was the commander in chief of the armed forces.
viii.Proportional representation in the Reichstag of all political parties, whether big or small.
ix. Formulation of political parties to campaign in the general elections. The campaign
period was one year, but there was no limit to the number of political parties to be
formed.
x. In case of national emergency, the president could suspend the constitution and rule by
decree.
xi. The central government was to have full control of taxation and there was responsible for
education, health and defence.
xii. There was also a provision for a referendum on any issues which allowed the people to
take a direct role in policy making.
xiii. Its Bill of Rights guaranteed freedom of speech, legal equality and religious freedom.
N.B
 Fredrick Ebert was elected leader of the SDP in 1913 after
the death of August Babel.
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 Fredrick Ebert died in 1925 and was succeeded by Paul Von
Hindenburg (1925-34) while Franz Von Papen was the
chancellor.
 In Dec 1932 Hindenburg chose Kurt Von Schleicher, one of
his advisers and a bitter rival of Von Papen as the
chancellor and Von Papen remained as an advisor to
Hindenburg. Within a month however, Von Schleicher was
forced to resign and was replaced by Adolf Hitler and Von
Papen as the vice chancellor.
Political parties in Germany
 Social Democratic Party
 Germany Nationalist Peoples Party
 Catholic Centre Party
 NAZI Party
 Communist Party
Problems and weaknesses of the Weimar Republic
There were many problems in Germany at that time. The new government had the task of
bringing law and order in the country. However, the Weimar Republic came to an end in 1933
with the rise of Adolf Hitler and the NAZI Party. The new government was unpopular among the
German people and it was not strong enough to cope with serious economic and political
problems. As a result, people lost confidence in the new government. The Weimar Republic had
a lot of weaknesses and problems that led to its downfall in 1933. These were;
i. Some people were not in support of the new government as they associated it with
inferiority while regarding themselves with superiority. Even the choice of a town was a
wrong one because Weimar was a rural and unimportant town, hence did not please most
powerful groups such as army officers, state officials, land owners and industrialists.
ii. The Weimar Republic lacked outstanding leadership in that the leaders of the republic
were theorists who could not inspire or organize the people. This made the government
very weak.
iii. Weimar constitution encouraged small parties to be formed as a result, small parties
increased in Germany and became disobedient to the government leaders thereby,
causing confusion.
iv. Each political party was allowed to have its own army which formed the basis of civil
war as each army competed against each other for power.
v. Government was too tolerant to groups which were anti-democracy like NAZI Party and
Communist Party. These parties were hostile to democracy but government never took
steps to end their activities.
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vi. Weimar constitution gave absolute power to the leader of Germany i.e. dissolve
parliament (Reichstag), call for new elections, appoint and remove officers and could
remove civil freedom. As a result, Germany became a dictatorship.
vii. Strikes became the order of the day in Germany. Workers went on strike demanding for
their salaries as well as salary increment since prices had gone up due to the economic
weakness.
viii.Devaluation of the German currency (Deutch Mark) led to unemployment, inflation and
starvation. To this was the burden of paying reparations to the Allied Powers. This was
worsened by the loss of the Saar Coal Fields, Alsace and Lorraine to France and the
French occupation of the Ruhr Coal fields and industries of Germany after Germany had
failed to pay reparations because of her weak economy.
ix. The government was also faced with the problem of an incompetent and corrupt civil
service that could not properly implement government policies.
However, between 1923 and 1929, Germany’s economy improved because of the efforts of
Gustav Stresemann. In 1923, Stresemann became the chancellor and Foreign Affairs Minister of
Germany. Stresemann introduced the new currency in 1924 called Rentenmark that led to
financial stabilization.
The collapse of the Weimar Republic
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The death of Gustav Stresemann in 1929 coincided with the Great Economic Depression.
This spelt the disaster for the German economy. The Economic Depression started in the
USA as a collapse of the stock exchange market.
By 1931, the effects of the depression were being felt in Europe. Germany especially,
was negatively affected because she depended on American loans for economic recovery.
Because of the economic depression, the loans from the USA were discontinued. This led
to the collapse of the German industries. Many industries were closed down. The rate of
unemployment increased rapidly.
Germany faced food shortages which resulted into food riots. The Weimar Republic
could not deal with these economic problems and the German public became discontent
with the government.
It was during this chaotic situation that Hitler and his NAZI Party rose to power. Hitler
took advantage of the situation to campaign against the Weimar government. He
promised the German people that he would improve the situation once he came into
power.
Hitler came to power in 1933. Therefore, the Great Depression and its effects is what led
to the final collapse of the Weimar Republic.
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POST-WAR GERMANY
GERMANY AND THE RISE OF ADOLF HITLER
Hitler’s background
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Adolf Hitler was born on 10th April 1889 in a small Austrian town called Branau. His
performance at school was very poor so at the age of 18 he went to Vienna to study art.
After failing twice to gain entrance to the Vienna Academy of Fine Arts he gave up. He
earned his living by becoming a house decorator.
During his leisure time, he began thinking about the problems facing Austria and
Germany. He developed hatred towards the Jews for they controlled national economy.
He went to Munich (Germany) in 1912 and when the war broke out in 1914, he joined the
army. He was wounded in the war and for his bravery, he was given an iron cross.
In 1919 he joined a political party called Germany Socialist Movement. He renamed it as
the National Socialist Workers Party or Nazi Party with a symbol called swastika ( ).
In November 1923 during the French occupation of the Ruhr Hitler attempted to seize
power in Munich during the so called Beer Hall Putsch but it failed. Hitler was arrested
and imprisoned for five years of which he only saved nine months and he was released.
During his imprisonment he wrote a book called Mein Kampf which means my struggles.
In this book were to be found many of his ideas for the future of Germany.
After his release, Hitler formed the storm-troopers who disturbed meetings of other
political parties. Stormtroopers were also known as Brown shirts or SA
(Sturmabteilung). This was the Nazi private army. About 55% of the SA came from the
ranks of the unemployed and many were ex-servicemen from the war.
Hitler also set up a new group called SS (Shutzstaffel) who were similar to the SA but
were loyal to Hitler personally. The SS was formed in 1925 and these were Hitler’s
personal bodyguards. Heinrich Himmler was in charge of the SS.
In 1932 elections the Nazi Party won 230 seats. It became the single largest party in the
Reichstag (parliament). In his campaigns he promised food, employment to millions of
unemployed, to fight inflation and lebensraum (territorial expansion).
On 30th January, 1933 President Paul Von Hindenburg invited Hitler to become the
chancellor of Germany.
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Fig: Adolf Hitler
REASONS FOR HITLER’S RISE TO POWER.
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Hitler’s personality contributed to his rise to power. He had a very strong personality and
was a resourceful leader. Above all, he used his gift as an Orator to win support from the
Germany people.
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Division between the Communists and the Social democratic Parties weakened resistance
against the strong NAZI Party. Hitler and the NAZI Party took advantage of the absence
of a strong opposition to assume power in Germany.

The Weakness of democracy also contributed to Hitler’s rise to power. Democracy had
no deep roots in Germany. The German people were used to being ruled by strong
monarchs. Democracy in Germany led to the establishment of many political parties,
which during the period of the Great Economic Depression became involved in political
rivalries instead of finding solutions. In addition, the Germany people hated Democracy.
Therefore, Hitler promised the Germans that he would create a stronger government that
would solve their problems.
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The Nationalist aspect of Nazism also contributed to Hitler’s rise to power. The NAZI
Party promised to restore Germany to its former glory through rearmament and territorial
expansion. Therefore, the NAZI Party was supported by the middle class people and the
ex-service men who wanted the return of the German Empire. The NAZI also promised
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to fight communism which was responsible for the defeat of Germany in the 1st World
War.
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The Socialist Aspect of Nazism also contributed to the rise of Hitler and the NAZI Party.
The NAZI Party combined Nationalism with a vague form of Socialism. The Party
promised to improve the people’s economic and social conditions through the creation of
employment, giving workers better wages and improving social services. This enabled
the Party to win support from many Germans especially the industrial workers and the
Unemployed.
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The Versailles Peace Settlement and its humiliating terms for Germany also contributed
to the rise of Hitler and the NAZI Party to power. This is because Hitler promised that he
would get rid of the treaty and disregard its humiliating terms once he came to power.
This gained Hitler a lot of support since the Versailles Treaty was hated by the Germans.

Militarism also contributed to the rise of Hitler and the NAZI Party. The NAZI Party
spoke and acted violently. The Storm Troopers provided an outlet for German Militarism.
The Ex-servicemen, the youth and the unemployed supported the NAZI Party because it
promised to return and restore Germany to its former position as one of the world’s
leading military powers through conscription and rearmaments.
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Propaganda was also another reason that led to the rise of Hitler and the NAZI Party.
Hitler used propaganda to win support from the Public. This was the distortion of the
truthor the telling of outright lies in order to discredit the Weimar Republic. Joseph
Goebbels was put in charge of the NAZI propaganda machine.
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The Final reason for Hitler’s rise to power was the Great Economic Depression of 1929
and its effects. In 1929, the USA was hit by an economic depression. The depression
spread to Europe and the most affected was Germany. America’s loans and investments
to Germany were withdrawn. Suddenly many Germany companies were closed down
leading to food Shortages, inflation and unemployment which rose rapidly from
1.5million in 1929 to 6 million by 1932. As the economic crisis deepened, support for
anti-democratic parties such as the NAZI party and the communist Party increased. Hitler
took advantage of the situation to rise to power.
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HITLER'S DOMESTIC/HOME POLICY
Aims of Hitler’s Home Policy
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
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He wanted to consolidate power to himself
He wanted to eliminate all opposition
He wanted to bring law and order in Germany
He wanted to achieve economic recovery and development in Germany
Hitler exercised his powers to crush all opposition political parties.
He banned all the other political parties and declared the Nazi Party as the only legal
party and all the newspapers that criticized the Nazi Party and Hitler were shut down.
This was after he passed the Enabling Laws on 23rd March 1933 which gave him
dictatorial powers for four years.
In 1933 Hitler signed the Concordat Treaty with the Pope in which he promised not to
interfere with German Catholics in any way. In return, the Catholic Church agreed to
dissolve the Catholic Centre Party and take no further part in politics.
Night of long knives, 30th June, 1934
When Hitler became the chancellor of Germany, the chief of the storm-troopers was Earnest
Rhoem, a close friend of Hitler. Hitler wanted to make the storm-troopers a new peoples army.
Hitler did not want this. He was busy finding ways of how he could succeed Hindenburg as the
president. He also did not make Rhoem as Minister of Defence. This made Rhoem feel unhappy.
A meeting was arranged on 30th June, 1934 for the two to discuss a few issues. They were to
meet at Wiessee in Bavaria. Rhoem brought some of his top ranking men in the storm-troopers.
The meeting did not take place because Hitler did not show up. Instead he sent his secret
servicemen who on the night of the meeting invaded the hotel and murdered all of Rhoem’s men.
Rhoem was arrested and later killed.
The killing of the storm-troopers’ officials spread to many parts of the country on the same night.
As many as 400 people were killed during the Night of Long Knives including Von Schleicher.
This was one way of crushing opposition to Hitler’s government.
In August 1934 president Paul Hindenburg died and Hitler in addition to being the chancellor, he
became both president and commander in chief of the armed forces. He became known as the
Fuhrer, which means ‘leader’.
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Nazi control of all aspects of life was obtained in a variety of ways. Trade unions were
abolished and leaders arrested. However, all workers were forced to join the German
Labour Front. Strikes were made illegal and salaries were fixed by the government. Civil
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servants and the judiciary were brought under Nazi control so that there was no
protection for anybody that the Nazis wanted to terrorise.
Freedom of speech, press, worship and association were made illegal. Education was
controlled by the government and textbooks were re-written to include the Nazi
propaganda. Propaganda was controlled by Joseph Goebbels and the Gestapo or secret
police was formed which was under Reinhard Heydrich. Its aim was to arrest, murder
and imprison people who were against Hitler and the Nazi Party.
Hitler also formed barracks surrounded by electric fences and watch towers. In them,
millions of Jews and later Germans suffered barbaric punishment and death.
Concentration camps were set up divided into various rooms e.g. torture chambers,
starvation rooms, gas chambers, whipping chambers and electrifying chambers. About
15 000 homosexuals were also taken to concentration camps
In 1935 the Nuremburg laws on race were passed. These laws deprived Jews to hold any
position of importance in Germany. The laws also deprived Jews rights of citizenship and
forbade any marriage between Jews and non-Jews (Germans). Jews were not allowed to
enter any profession. Instead they were only allowed to do small businesses in Germany.
They were made to use special buses and shops specifically made for the Jews. Jews
numbering to only 1% of 60 million Germans were beaten up, driven out of their offices,
stoned, robbed, murdered, tortured and their businesses taken over by the Germans. Many
of them were forced to escape for fear of their lives. Those who remained behind were
taken tom the concentration camps. The hatred for the Jews was called Anti-Semitism.
One reason for the persecution of the Jews was religious; in that Jews were blamed for
the death of Jesus Christ and that they tended to be well educated and therefore, held well
paid professional jobs or ran successful stores and businesses. Jews were oftenly treated
unjustly in courts or forced to live in Ghettos. The killing of the Jews by Hitler was called
Holocaust .This treatment of the Jews by Hitler later became known as Hitler’s crimes.
Hitler also worked very hard to fight unemployment. This was caused by the natural
recovery of the economy as the economic depression had ended and by the actions of the
government. Public works in form of housing programmes, road constructions and
rearmament programmes employed a growing number of people. Thus the German
people supported him and his government which had ended disorder, removed
unemployment and through its foreign policy, brought back national prestige.
HITLER'S FOREIGN POLICY
Aims of Hitler’s Foreign Policy
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
To abolish the Versailles Treaty
To restore Germanys armed strength
To acquire extra living space for the Germans (lebensraum)
To annex all areas where the majority spoke German language
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v.
He wanted a union with Austria (Anshluss)
To achieve these aims, Hitler committed many acts of aggression that led to the Second World
War.
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In 1933 Germany withdrew from the Geneva Disarmament Conference and the League of
Nations. This was because Germany was denied equality of arms with other European
countries. Hitler immediately embarked on an ambitious programme of rearmament. The
programme included the building of an air force and the construction of submarines. It
also included recruitment to expand the Germany army. This was against the Versailles
Treaty.
Hitler then began to encourage the growth of the Nazi Party in the countries he wanted to
annex such as Austria and Czechoslovakia. In 1934 the Nazis attempted a coup in Austria
but it failed since Mussolini assisted the Austrians to repel the Nazis.
In 1935 Hitler won victory over the Saar Coal Field. According to the Versailles Treaty,
France was to remain in control of the field for 15 years after which people had to vote
whether they wanted it to be part of France or Germany and they voted in favour of
Germany. In the same year, Hitler marched his troops into the Rhineland which was
under French control.
In 1938 Hitler brought about the union of Austria and Germany by force. Germany
wanted a union with Austria because Austria comprised of about 80% German people
and a union between the two was to ensure a more powerful Germany. This was against
the Versailles Treaty.
In 1938 Hitler annexed (occupied) Sudetenland, a province of Czechoslovakia. This was
because Sudetenland had a lot of Germans. In addition, the province was rich in resources
and highly industrialized. This move was supported by Britain and France during the
Munich Conference of 1938. They however, warned Germany against any further
annexation of territories.
In 1939 Hitler ignored the French and British warning and took the rest of
Czechoslovakia. Britain and France then started preparing for war.
Hitler’s next attention was Poland where he wanted to regain the city of Danzig and the
Polish Corridor. Before the invasion of Poland, Germany signed the Pact of Steel with
Italy. The two countries agreed to help each other in case of an attack. To be on the safe
side from Russia, Hitler and Stalin signed the Nazi-Soviet Pact. This pact was a non
aggression pact in which the two agreed not to attack each other for ten years. Germany
and Russia agreed to share Poland. Encouraged by this pact, Germany attacked Poland on
1st September 1939.When Germany refused to withdraw, France and Britain declared war
on Germany. The Second World War had begun.
Hitler with his wife, Eva Braun committed suicide in Berlin on 30th April 1945.
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N.B: Hitler called socialist leaders who signed the Versailles
Treaty as November Criminals.
POST-WAR ITALY
Problems faced by Italy after the end of the First World War or conditions which
contributed to the rise of Mussolini in Italy
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After the end of the First World War, Italy faced many problems. These were economic,
social and political problems.
There was rampant unemployment in Italy after the war. This was caused by the collapse
of the industry during the comeback of the ex-soldiers from the war.
Cost of living became high. Many people were not affording to buy food for themselves.
This was due to inflation which was made worse by the food shortages. Prices rose up to
500 percent.
The socio-economic infrastructure was destroyed by the war. Factories, schools and
hospitals needed to be repaired. This work required money which the government did not
have.
Trade became difficult due to tariffs on imports and exports. European powers developed
a policy of each country protecting local market. This led to a slump in international
trade.
Italy was in debt with the USA. Through the DAWES Plan, the USA lent money to
European powers. These loans were to be paid back with interest. This made the
government more bankrupt.
The peasants had the problem of land all along but they became vocal after the war. Most
of the land was in the hands of land lords. This worsened the problem of land shortage
and it led to a rebellious situation.
There was an economic development difference between the industrial north and
agricultural south. There was more development in the north than the south. This created
political disunity.
Workers went on strike demanding for more pay. In 1919 striking workers seized
factories. They were only suppressed by the army.
Ex-soldiers turned to armed robberies. They formed gangs like the Mafia of Sicily who
terrorized the rural areas especially in the south. It was lawlessness in the country.
Other problems were political. The Italians were disappointed with the Allied Powers at
the Versailles Treaty in 1919.Italy had hoped to gain Dalmatia, Albania and some other
colonies of Germany, but she only got Tyrol, Trieste, Ist and Trentino. This made the
people to lose interest in the state.
The new government was a democracy. The multiparty system and lack of experience in
democracy led to the rise of numerous political parties. This led to more violence.
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There was a dispute between the state and the Catholic Church over church property
which was seized by the state in 1870.This made the church not to support the
government.
The government was weak. It was too weak even to attend to any of the problems facing
the people of Italy.
How Mussolini rose to power
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Benito Mussolini was born on 29th July 1883 in Dovia, Italy. He trained as a qualified
teacher but later left to become a journalist in Switzerland.In1904 he went back to Italy
and became an editor of the Italian newspaper called Avanti (meaning forward).
Benito Mussolini joined the Italian army during the First World War. After the war, he
formed his political party called Fascio di Combattimento (fighting group) which he later
shortened as the Fascist Party. The symbol for the fascist party was Fasces which was in
form of rods with a protruding axe which used to symbolize the authority and power of
the ancient Roman Empire.
Mussolini was a good public speaker. He capitalized on the problems facing Italy to win
support. He promised to create jobs, crush communism, give back to the church its
property, give land to the peasants and create a strong government. He also promised that
he would acquire extra territories to expand Italy.
Therefore, Mussolini was able to win support of the church, business community and
king Victor Emmanuel III who feared a communist revolution in Italy.
In 1922 the socialist party declared a general strike. The government had no capacity to
do anything about it. Mussolini announced that he would crush down the strike.
30, 000 Black Shirts marched from Milan, home town of Mussolini to Rome to crush the
socialist strike.
Fearing a possible civil war between the Fascists and socialists, King Victor Emmanuel
III who had always supported Mussolini because of his desire to end socialism invited
Mussolini to become the Prime Minister in October, 1922. Mussolini did not see himself
as the prime minister, instead he took the title of Duce (meaning leader).
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Fig: Fasces symbol
Benito Mussolini
Mussolini’s domestic policy or how Mussolini tried to solve the problems of Italy
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Immediately he became the Prime Minister, Mussolini formed a coalition government
with the Liberals. He did this to strengthen his political power.
Mussolini was a dictator. He kept the important positions of Prime Minister, Minister of
Foreign Affairs and Minister of Home Affairs for himself. He did this to make sure that
most of the powers remained in his hands
In 1924, Mussolini had the leader of the socialist, Giacomo Matteoti murdered by his
agents. The socialist members of parliament protested against the act but Mussolini
dismissed all of them from parliament. He wanted to get rid of all elements of socialism
in Italy.
Mussolini made a law in 1926 which gave him and the Grand Fascist Council to
nominate Members of Parliament. This meant that elections were abolished.
To improve the economy, he introduced an agricultural project called Battle for Wheat.
This was war against hunger. By this programme, people were encouraged to produce
more food. Seeds and implements were given to the farmers and the food situation
improved.
The Battle for Land was a programme introduced by Mussolini to create more arable
land. This was done through reclaiming of the unused land. Mountain sides were
ploughed, Pontine Marshes were drained and grain production increased.
The Battle for Birth was a campaign aimed at increasing the population and raise a great
army for colonial conquests. The target was to raise the population of about 60 million by
1950. This was to be achieved by taxing unmarried men heavily, giving tax relief and
promotions at work to men with large families and paying generous family allowances.
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Big families were given subsidies (government help). There were severe penalties for
abortions. He specified 12 children as the ideal number for a family.
The Battle for Lira was meant to improve the value of Italian currency. The Lira had lost
value especially during the great depression of 1929-33.Salaries of workers were
lowered; trade unions and strikes were not allowed instead workers were organized into
co-operatives.
Mussolini created jobs through public works. The draining of marshes, building of
railway lines, bridges and canals provided employment.
Mussolini signed the Lateran Treaty and the Concordat of 1929.This ended the problem
between government and the Catholic Church. The Pope recognized Mussolini’s
government and in return the Pope was given the Vatican City. The Roman Catholic faith
became state religion and the government paid compensation to the church for the
property seized (taken) by the government. When the relationship between the
government and the church improved, priests and Bishops were given salaries by the
government.
Mussolini also formed a secret police called Ovra.
MUSSOLINI’S FOREIGN POLICY
Aims
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To make Italy a great nation through the gain of territories.
He also wanted to control the Mediterranean Sea.
To regain the lost glory of the Roman Empire.
He aimed at having the Versailles Treaty revised so that Italy could get territories.
He wanted to avenge the defeat of Italy by Abyssinia at the Battle of Adowa in 1896.
Relationship with other countries
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Mussolini followed an aggressive and dangerous foreign policy. His aggressive policy led
to international tension which contributed to the outbreak of the Second World War.
At first Mussolini desired closer links with Britain and France and was therefore careful
not to offend them. Italy’s signing of the Kellogg and Locarno Pacts showed Mussolini’s
willingness to co-operate with Britain and France despite being unhappy with the
Versailles peace settlement.
The Kellogg Pact was an international agreement in which signatories promised not to
use war to resolve disputes.
At first he regarded Hitler with suspicion and feared a strong Germany especially if Hitler
seized Austria.
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
In 1934 Mussolini blocked Hitler’s invasion of Austria and joined Britain and France to
form an anti-Germany peace treaty. However Hitler and Mussolini became friends after
1936 when they withdrew from the League of Nations.
The Corfu Crisis of 1923
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Mussolini had aggressive intentions against neighbouring Greece. In 1923 an Italian
General, Enrico Tellin and five members of the Italian Commission were murdered by
the Greeks while trying to settle a border dispute.
Mussolini accused Greece of the murder and demanded compensation and an apology.
Greece wanted the League of Nations to settle the matter but Mussolini refused the
League to intervene.
Before any solution could be found on the matter, Mussolini invaded and occupied the
Greek island of Corfu. This incident showed the aggressive nature of Mussolini and made
relations with Britain and France to be unstable.
The Italian invasion of Abyssinia/Ethiopia
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Mussolini’s invasion of Abyssinia in 1935 was a typical example of his foreign policy.
Mussolini had promised the Italians a colonial empire in Africa. After the Italians
occupied Somaliland and Eritrea, they wanted to expand into the ancient kingdom of
Abyssinia.
Besides, the Italians never forgot the defeat they suffered at the hands of Ethiopians
in1896 at the Battle of Adowa and wanted to avenge for the defeat.
Taking advantage on the incidents on Abyssinia and Somaliland, Mussolini invaded and
occupied Ethiopia. The Ethiopians appealed to the League of Nations for Italy to be
punished but Italy was only condemned and only partial economic sanctions were applied
on her.
Mussolini and the Italians were angered by the criticism over this action especially by
Britain and France, the main powers of the League of Nations. Italy then withdrew from
the League in 1936 and continued with the occupation of Ethiopia until 1943.
These events drove Mussolini and Hitler into being good friends. Hitler supported the
Italian invasion of Ethiopia.
The Italian involvement in the Spanish Civil War of 1936
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Mussolini’s interference in the Spanish Civil War 1936-39 also led to tensions in the
world. The Spanish Civil War was purely an internal matter between the democratically
elected government and its opponents led by General Francisco Franco. General Franco
wanted to set up a Fascist type of dictatorship in Spain after overthrowing the
government.
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
Mussolini sent about 7000 troops and weapons to Spain in collaboration with Hitler. This
created tension with Britain and France and divided the world into two camps i.e.
dictatorships and democracies.
Alliances
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In 1937 Italy joined the Anti-Commutern Pact between Germany and Japan which was
formed in1936 to fight against the spread of Russian communism. The new alliance
became known as the Rome-Berlin-Tokyo Axis. This was a military alliance and it lasted
until the Second World War.
In May 1939 Italy and Germany signed the Pact of Steel. This was a purely military
alliance between the two. By this alliance Germany and Italy promised to support each
other in an event of war. By signing this alliance, Mussolini sealed the fate of Italy and
his own as the Second World War brought about his downfall in 1943.
Mussolini and his mistress, Clara Petacci were murdered on 28th April, 1945. He was
succeeded by Marshal Badoglio.
Fig: Mussolini and his mistress after their assassination
RUSSIAN HISTORY
ACCOUNT FOR THE REVOLUTIONS THAT TOOK PLACE IN RUSSIA IN 1905 AND
1917
1905 RUSSIAN REVOLUTION
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Nicholas II was the Tsar from 1894 to 1917. After the war with Japan (1904-05) there
was a general strike in Russia and an attempted revolution which forced Nicholas to
make concessions in what came to be called October Manifesto. Among the promises in
the November Manifesto included; allowing an elected parliament (Duma), granting civil
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
liberties to the population, freedom of speech, assembly and association, universal
suffrage in elections for the Duma; no law could operate without approval of the Duma.
Although it was unsuccessful to overthrow the government, the January, 1905 workers
revolution in Petersburg (Petrograd) was a very important revolution.
Causes of the revolution
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The Emperor of Russia, Nicholas II, like other emperors before him, was a very
autocratic ruler. He ruled the country alone and he had no parliament (Duma) to check his
unlimited powers. The peasants, the main producers of food in the country had no right of
their own and had no rights to the land on which they grew crops. They also had no
political powers. They remained very poor at the mercy of the rich landlords, who used
them as tools of production.
Factory and town workers had very poor housing accommodation with poor facilities for
water and sanitation. Their working places, the factories were in sub-human conditions
and workers worked for long periods, over 12 hours per day for extremely low wages.
Workers and peasants were also being exposed to Karl Marx revolutionary literature and
ideas. Such material greatly influenced them to take up arms and revolt against the
autocratic government.
The 1904-05 Russian defeat by the Japanese forces at Port Arthur showed the Russian
people how weak militarily their government was.
The revolution
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On 3rd January, 1905 over 100,000 workers at Putilov Works and other enterprises in
Petersburg went on strike. The strike started at Putilov Works where workers went on
strike because four of their fellow workers were dismissed by management. From here, it
spread to many other factories in the city. It paralised industrial, business and public life
in the city and began spreading to other cities. The strikers were joined and supported by
thousands of unemployed people in towns.
The real revolution in 1905 was sparked off a week later on Sunday, 9th January by the
killing of workers in a procession to the Emperor’s Winter Palace at the Palace Square,
to hand him a petition carrying demands on social, economic and political changes.
The worker’s petition was drawn by Father Gregory Gapon who was also their leader.
The petition was never handed to the emperor. The workers were shot at by the palace
guards and over a thousand of them died and many others wounded. The killing of
protesters came to be known as Bloody Sunday.
On 10th January, 1905 there were strikes and violent demonstrations all over the country
symbolizing open revolts against the Emperor’s government. Workers seized a printing
company and printed thousands of revolutionary material asking workers to take up arms
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and overthrow the Emperor’s government and establish their own government. However,
after few days, the revolution was put down by the Emperor’s government.
GREGORY RASPUTIN
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Rasputin was a bogus (fake) ‘holy man’ who associated himself with the royal family of
Emperor, Tsar Nicholas II.
He made himself indispensable to the Empress, Alexandra to help the ailing son and heir
to the throne, Alexei. This child had inherited hemophilia from his mother’s family and
Rasputin was able, on occasion, through hypnosis and prayer, to stop the bleeding when
Alexei suffered a hemorrhage.
Eventually, Rasputin became a real power behind the throne, but attracted public
criticism by his drunkenness and his numerous love affairs with court ladies.
Alexandra preferred to ignore these scandals and the Duma (parliament) requested that
Rasputin be sent away from the court (palace)
In 1916 a group of patriotic noblemen murdered Rasputin because of his evil influence on
the Tsar and his family.
Fig: Gregory Rasputin
THE 1917 RUSSIAN REVOLUTIONS
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As 1912 progressed, the fortunes of the various revolutionary parties, especially the
Bolsheviks and Mensheviks revived. Both groups had developed from an earlier
movement, the Social Democratic Labour Party which was Marxist in outlook.
Karl Marx (1818-83) was a German Jew whose political ideas were set out in the
communist manifesto. He believed that workers (proletariat) were everywhere exploited
by capitalists (middle-class bourgeoisies).
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This means that when a society became fully industrialized, the workers would rise up
against their exploiters and take control themselves running the country in their own
interests. Karl Marx called this, ‘the dictatorship of the proletariat’.
One of the Social Democratic leaders was Vladimir Ilyich Lenin, a communist who
helped to edit the revolutionary newspaper, Iskra (The Spark).
It was over an election to the editorial board of the Iskra in 1903 that the party had to split
into Lenin’s supporters, the Bolsheviks (the Russian word for the majority) and the rest,
the Mensheviks (minority).
The Bolsheviks
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Lenin wanted a small, disciplined party of professional revolutionaries who could work
full time to bring about revolution; because the industrial workers were in a minority,
Lenin believed that they must work with the peasants as well and get them involved in
revolutionary activity.
The Mensheviks
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The Mensheviks believed that a revolution could not take place in Russia until the
country was fully industrialized and the workers were in a big majority over the peasants.
They were the strict Marxists.
The royal family discredited
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The royal family was discredited by a number of scandals. It was widely suspected that
Nicholas II himself was a party to the murder of Stolypin, who was shot by a member of
the secret police in the Tsar’s presence during a gala performance.
Pyotr Stolypin was a conservative politician and prime minister of Russia (1906-11).
THE FEBRUARY REVOLUTION
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The first revolution in Russia began on 23rd February when bread riots broke out in
Petrograd (formerly St Petersburg, now Leningrad).
This shortage of bread was caused by peasants refusing to sell grain in exchange for
almost worthless paper money.
At first, nobody took this demonstration very seriously. When demonstrations started,
Bolshevik leaders like Vladimir Ilyich Lenin and Gregory Zinoviev who had criticized
the government had been driven abroad in Switzerland.
The rioters were quickly joined by thousands of striking workers from a nearby
armament factory.
The Tsar sent orders for the troops to use force to end the demonstrations, and about 40
people were killed.
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Soon however, the troops began to refuse to fire at unarmed crowds.
Mobs seized public buildings, released prisoners from jails and took over police stations
and arsenals (weapons).
Some of the senior generals told Nicholas that the only way to save the monarch was for
him to abdicate the throne.
In March, 1917, Nicholas abdicated the throne in favour of his brother, Grand Duke
Michael, but he refused.
Since Alexander Kerensky held important positions in the Provisional Government, he
became the leader of the Provisional Government in July 1917.
There was still uncertainty about the future of Russia after overthrowing the emperor’s
government.
Under Alexander Kerensky, the Provisional Government advocated for political
democracy, gradual change to socialism and to continue fighting in the First World War
on the side of the Allied Powers.
The last two demands of the Provisional Government made it very unpopular and hence
its easy overthrow in October, 1917.
This made Lenin realize that the 1917 February Revolution was not complete.
According to Lenin, it was a revolution for the minority (Mensheviks). The Bolsheviks,
the majority were left out of this revolution. For this reason, Lenin decided to lead the
Bolsheviks in the October Revolution, consisting of the proletariat and peasant, to
overthrow the Provisional Government.
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THE OCTOBER REVOLUTION
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Although it happened in November, this second communist revolution of 1917 is called
the October Revolution. This is because until it occurred, Russia had used the Julian
calendar which was thirteen days behind the Gregorian one followed by the rest of the
Christian world.
From Switzerland, Lenin joined Joseph Stalin (the man of steel) in Petrograd, who had
come from Siberia serving sentences for political crimes. The two were later joined by
Leon Trotsky.
These three put their energies together and overthrew the Provisional Government in
October, 1917.
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Fig: Lenin
Reasons why the Bolsheviks won power
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The Mensheviks were losing support from the peasants and soldiers. This was so
because;
a. Leaders of the Provisional Government went on supporting the First World war on
the side of the Allied Powers.
b. The Russian soldiers were fed up of the war. In fact they were facing many problems
as they were poorly equipped and could not get war supplies quickly due to poor
transport to the war front.
c. There was food shortage in the country as most peasants were recruited to fight in the
war instead of continuing to grow crops in their fields. As a result, many peasant
soldiers were deserting from the war front. There was an increased hatred for the
Provisional Government.
Lenin saw this as the ripe opportunity to overthrow the Kerensky government and replace
it with his own.
On 25th October, 1917, headed by Lenin, the Bolsheviks successfully organised and
carried out the Great October socialist revolution in Petrograd, Russia. This meant the
Provisional Government was abolished.
Immediately on the overthrow of the Provisional Government, Lenin with his Bolsheviks
promised the people of Russia, ‘peace, land and bread’. These were the three very
important items people wanted in Russia at that time.
Lenin and the Bolsheviks consolidate power
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Lenin brought peace in the country by signing the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk in Poland in
March, 1918 with Germany. This led to the Russian withdraw from the First World War.
The Russian people, especially the peasants, town workers and soldiers saw the withdraw
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as a great achievement by the new government which they liked very much, as it had
pulled them out of the problems brought about by Russia’s participation in the war.
On land, Lenin introduced economic reforms in order to get land from the rich landlords
and distribute it to the peasants to produce more food (bread) for the country. To do this,
he abolished all private property. He confiscated land from the rich people and gave itt to
the peasants.
Factories and workshops were seized by the state without compensation.
Labour was made compulsory so that people could produce more food on government
land and in government factories.
The economic reforms introduced by the Bolsheviks’’ government were greatly opposed
by landlords, the clergy and big businessmen (capitalists). Most of these people belonged
to the Mensheviks and had much to lose in the economic reforms.
To crash the mounting opposition, the Bolsheviks organised terrorism using the secret
police system known as the Cheka. Through this system, many people who opposed the
economic reforms were executed (killed).
The European powers, mainly France, Britain and Japan feared that communist ideas
from Russia under Lenin would spread to their countries. They did not want what was
happening in Russia to take place in their countries. Worst still, they supported the
enemies of Lenin’s government inside Russia. They did this by supporting counter
revolutions to the Lenin government. All these oppositions to Lenin’s government and
counter revolutions to the Bolsheviks finally led to the outbreak of a civil war in Russia
from 1918 t0 1920.
The bitter civil war was between the anti-communists (those against Lenin’s government)
referred to as the Whites and the communists (those supporting Lenin’s government)
commonly referred to as the Reds.
After a hard fight, the Reds under Leon Trotsky were successful, despite the great
material support for the Whites from members of the Allied Powers.
After defeating the Whites, Lenin’s government faced new problems created by both the
civil war and his economic and social reforms of 1917.
Because of the civil war, the Red Army got peasants’ crops to feed the soldiers, factory
and town workers. Many peasants were also taken to work on war projects to help the
Reds. This meant that very few peasants concentrated on farming to feed the country.
There was also a crop failure in 1921 due to bad weather. All these put together, created a
terrible famine that killed thousands of people in the country.
Lenin’s state ownership and nationalization policy also created many problems.
Many peasants refused to give up part of their surplus crops to the government. When
they were forced to do so, they resorted to reducing production. This reduced food
supplies in the country and famine greatly contributed to the widespread diseases. As a
result, many people were beginning to hate Lenin’s government.
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Lenin realized that for his communist government to succeed, he had to make a few
changes to his earlier economic reforms. Thus, in the same year, 1921, he introduced the
New Economic Policy (NEP).
Features of the New Economic Policy (NEP)
a. Peasants were allowed to sell their surplus crops on the open market.
b. Peasants had to pay a fixed tax (in form of crops) to the government.
c. Private business on a small scale was allowed.
d. Nationalization was applied to big industries only but concessions were also made with
foreign capitalists whose large industries were nationalized in Russia.
e. International trade which was disturbed by the civil war was resumed and the Russian
currency, Ruble appreciated (gained value).
 These changes brought by the New Economic Policy saved the Bolshevik government,
which was firmly established thereafter.
 In 1922 the Russian Republic was combined with other provinces of the old government
of the Emperor to form the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR).
The death of Lenin
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In May, 1922, Lenin suffered a stroke, followed by another in December caused by a
bullet from an assassin’s gun. In March, 1923, he suffered a third stroke and in January,
1924 he died at the age of 53, leaving Joseph Stalin in control of the party.
RUSSIA UNDER JOSEPH STALIN
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After Lenin’s death in 1924, two of his close associates, namely Leone Trotsky and
Joseph Stalin contested to succeed him.
Trotsky held the position of the Commissioner of the Red Army and Foreign Minister in
Lenin’s government while Stalin was from 1922 the first General Secretary of the
Communist Party.
The power struggle went on from 1924 to 1927 and Stalin was successful in taking over
the leadership of the Communist Party in 1928.
He achieved this by his careful plans to ruthlessly and completely remove his rival,
Trotsky from power.
In 1925, Trotsky was removed from his position as a Commissioner of the Red Army.
The following year, Trotsky was removed from parliament and in 1928, he was pushed
out of the Communist Party. In 1929 he was banished (chased) from Russia and settled in
Mexico. While there, Stalin’s agents murdered him in 1940.
Stalin ruled the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) from 1929 to 1953 when he
died of heart attack.
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Fig: Joseph Stalin
Leone Trotsky
FEATURES OF STALIN’S DOMESTIC POLICY
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Stalin’s domestic policy centered on three important things, namely, his Five Year Plans,
his Collectivism in Agriculture and his Federal System of Government.
Stalin replaced Lenin’s New Economic Policy with his Five Year Plans in order to
establish complete state control of industry, agriculture and cultural life of the people.
The first Five Year Plan
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The first Five Year began in 1928 and ended in 1932 and it emphasized on the
development of heavy industry and fuel supplies which were essential if Russia had to
develop industrially.
During this plan, there was an increase in the production of coal, iron ore, petroleum and
electric power.
Huge factories were set up and they were given targets to accomplish production.
Voluntary labour was also encouraged by the government and people were willing to
accept poverty and misery during this period for a better nation ahead.
Private ownership of property was abolished. All industries were state industries and
people worked hard for their own government and not for an individual owner of the
industries.
To succeed in industrial development, Stalin needed money, workers and raw materials.
He got money by taxing peasants who constituted a large proportion of the Russian
population.
He also used peasants as workers in industries which were established. Many peasants
were moved from rural areas to urban areas as workers in industries.
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Collectivization of agriculture
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In the system of collective farming, peasants, weather the rich (Kulaks) or poor had to
give up their private farms and join collective farms of over 10,000 acres (4,047 hectares)
each.
The state sold them fertilizers, seeds and machinery at low prices. They in return paid
taxes to the government in form of produce from the farms and whatever produce that
remained after paying to the government was sold.
The income from the sale of the remainder was for the members of the collective farm.
The government allowed credit facilities for the farmers in collective farms. They also
made use of their livestock on the farms to increase production.
All the unwanted peasants (those who did not belong to any collective farm) were sent to
towns to work in the industries.
However, in the initial stages, the idea of collective farms was not accepted by all. The
Kulaks and many rich landlords rejected it violently. They organised peasants and burnt
villages of those in collective farms. They also burnt crops and killed livestock in
collective farms, and murdered many peasants and farm managers in these communal
farms.
The government was forced to take severe steps against the opponents of Stalin’s
economic policy.
The Red Army rounded up many kulaks, rich landlords and other people who were
involved in criminal activities against the people in collective farms. Many of them were
shot dead but some were sent to labour camps where they worked in the mines and in
some construction works. Their villages were burnt and this action ended all resistance to
the smooth development of the collective farms. By 1939 the system was working very
well and it removed the capitalist class of private farmers.
Stalin chose his own people to fill all important positions. In 1930s he started a
campaign, purging (killing) all his opponents. Some of them were spared by sending
them to prison in Siberia where he was once, serving a jail sentence before 1917.
In 1936 he introduced a more democratic constitution by creating a Federal System of
government. Each separate republic was represented in the Council of Nationalities by
four members.
His party controlled every aspect of the people’s lives by controlling education,
newspapers, broadcasting, industry and agriculture. He was a powerful dictator.
FEATURES OF STALIN’S FOREIGN POLICY
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On foreign policy, Stalin concentrated on developing good relationship with European
nations and maintaining excellent security for his country that was by now tired of war
and revolutions. To effect this, in 1932, before the rise of Adolf Hitler, Stalin signed a
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treaty of friendship with Germany. Good relations developed and trade between the two
nations flourished
However, when Hitler came to power in 1933, he broke this friendship with Stalin and
threatened the U.S.S.R militarily. As a protective measure, Stalin reported the matter to
the League of Nations which his country joined in 1934 on France’s advice. In 1936,
France, Italy and Stalin’s government signed a treaty to protect each other if attacked by
Germany. However, Stalin was not sure if this treaty would work. For this reason, he
signed a non-aggression treaty with Hitler in 1939. Somehow this reduced his suspicion
of Hitler’s plans to attack his country. The treaty created friendship between the two
countries and they also agreed to share Poland.
Stalin increased security of his country by creating ‘buffer states’ between western
Europe, especially Germany and his country. He was still suspicious of Germany. The
‘buffer states’ included Poland, Bessarabia (Romania), Latvia, Lithuania and Estonia.
Stalin’s suspicion of Germany was proved correct in 1941 when Hitler’s soldiers invaded
the U.S.S.R (Operation Barbarossa) without any warning. The invasion led to the
U.S.S.R joining the second European war on the side of the allied powers
SECTION B: WORLD HISTORY FROM 1945 TO PRESENT
What do you understand by De-Stalinisation? What changes were made by Khrushchev
and Brezhnev to both Soviet foreign and domestic policies?
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In March 1953, Stalin died of heart attack. The usual power struggle followed and Nikita
Khrushchev emerged as a successor to Stalin.
From September, 1953, when Khrushchev was appointed as the First Secretary of the
Communist Party, he began anti-Stalin campaign also known as de-Stalinisation
campaign
In his de-Stalinisation campaign, Khrushchev told the people of the Soviet Union that,
Stalin was a tyrant (dictator) who relied on terror to rule and keep himself in power. He
also said that Stalin’s rule was one man rule and he was always glorifying himself.
Khrushchev assured the people that there would be no such method of rule under his
government. He disgraced Stalin further by removing his body from place of honour
near Lenin and reburied it in an unmarked gave inside the walls of the Kremlin (The
Soviet Parliament building)
Khrushchev followed a different domestic policy. Unlike Stalin who emphasized on
industrialization, Khrushchev advocated the production of consumer goods and food in
order to raise the standard of living of the citizens.
He put more emphasis on agriculture. More country’s resources were channeled into
agriculture. Virgin lands in parts of the country were opened up and cultivated to increase
agricultural production.
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However, his domestic policy was not very successful. Most of the money that was meant
for his agricultural expansion and increasing consumer goods was diverted and spent on
armament production and space research programme.
On foreign policy, Khrushchev followed a clear policy of Peaceful Co-existence with the
West European nations. This policy emphasized on communists in the U.S.S.R to win
converts in the capitalist countries through leading by example rather than winning
converts by force. This was quite different from Stalin’s foreign policy of strengthening
the country militarily, getting ready to defend it in the event of an attack by the Western
European countries.
In October, 1964, Khrushchev was, in a surprise move, replaced by Leonard Brezhnev
while he was on vacation in Crimea, Ukraine.
Brezhnev, like Khrushchev, followed a foreign policy of peaceful co-existence with the
West European nations. He also advocated the policy of more consumer goods to be
produced to raise the standard of living of the Soviet people. He brought no major
changes.
THE SECOND WORLD WAR 1939-1945
The Second World War took place between 1939 and 1945. This war was more destructive than
the First World War because it was fought on many fronts. The Second World War was also
referred to as the Second European war. The causes of the Second World War were similar to
those of the first. However, historians have agreed that the Second World War was a war of
revenge initiated by Germany under Hitler.
LONG TERM CAUSES OF THE SECOND WORLD WAR
1. The Versailles Treaty: The terms of the treaty were very unfair to countries such as
Germany, Italy and Austria-Hungary. Germany especially, was badly treated. For
example, she was forced to sign the ‘War Guilty’, suffered territorial losses, forced to pay
reparations and her army was dismantled. These unfair terms forced Hitler to seek
revenge when he came to power in 1933. Hitler followed an aggressive foreign policy
that led to the Second World War.
2. Establishment of dictatorships in Europe: This also acted as a cause of the Second
World War. In 1922, Mussolini established a dictatorship in Italy, in 1933 Hitler in
Germany and General Franco established one in Spain with the help of Hitler and
Mussolini in 1936. This divided Europe into two camps of Dictators and Democrats i.e.
Italy, Germany and Spain on one hand and Britain and France on the other. This led to
aggressive acts by Germany, Italy, Japan and Spain.
3. System of alliances: The dictators also formed alliances against other countries. As a
result of their common interests, Mussolini and Hitler signed the Rome-Berlin Axis in
1936. In the same year, Germany signed the Anti-Commutern Alliance with Japan. In
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4.
5.
6.
7.
1937 the three dictators signed the Rome-Berlin –Tokyo Axis. In May 1939, Hitler and
Mussolini signed the Pact of Steel. These military alliances that were signed led to the
division of the world into two rival camps just like before the First World War. These
camps were the Allied Powers and the Aggressive Powers. They then started preparing
for war.
Failure of the League of Nations: The failure of collective security under the League of
Nations also contributed to the outbreak of the Second World War. The main purpose of
the League of Nations had been to eliminate any possibility of an outbreak of another
European war. However, the outbreak of the second world war was due to the fact that
the League of Nations had failed to carry out effective disarmaments and stop the
aggressive acts of some of its member countries e.g. Japan’s invasion of Manchuria in
1931, Italy’s invasion of Ethiopia in 1936 and many aggressive acts committed by
Germany. When the League of Nations condemned such actions, the aggressors left the
League to commit more acts of aggression.
The policy of appeasement: This was a policy followed by Britain and France which
also contributed to the outbreak of the Second World War. The Western Democrats
allowed Hitler and Mussolini to carry out acts of aggression in the name of stopping the
spread of communism. The communist Soviet Union was seen as a worst enemy as
compared to Fascist and Nazi aggression. This policy of appeasement was clearly seen at
the Munich Conference of 1938 and the consequent occupation of Czechoslovakia by
Germany. The other reason for following this policy was that Britain and France were not
yet ready for another war and did not want to provoke Hitler. Another reason was that
Britain and France felt guilty for the way they had treated Italy and Germany at the
Versailles Peace Settlement. This policy of appeasement allowed Hitler and Mussolini to
carry out aggressive acts against weaker democrats. In allowing this, Britain and France
underestimated Hitler’s abilities and ambitions.
Imperialist policies of Japan, Italy and Germany: As a result of the loss of colonies
during the Versailles Treaty, the colonial world was divided between Britain and France.
Hence Germany and Italy wanted to recapture what was lost in Europe and Africa. Japan
on the other hand increased her imperial ambitions after the First World War and these
mostly targeted china.
Armsrace: After Hitler pulled out of the Geneva Disarmament Conference and started
rapid re-armament, the other countries were threatened and also started preparing for war.
This created an atmosphere for war just like before the First World War.
SHORT TERM CAUSE OF THE SECOND WORLD WAR
8. German invasion of Poland: The immediate cause of the Second World War was the
German invasion of Poland on 1st September, 1939. When Hitler invaded Poland, Britain
and France gave an ultimatum to Germany to withdraw her troops by 3rd September,
1939. When this ultimatum expired, Britain and France declared war on Germany.
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COURSE/STAGES OF THE SECOND WORLD WAR
The Western Front
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In 1939 Germany attacked and defeated Poland within six weeks. At first, there was no
actual fighting between Britain, France and Germany. This was because Britain and
France were not yet ready for war. From September, 1939 to April, 1940, the two sides
were sill organizing themselves. This period was referred to as the period of the Phoney
War. However, after April 1940, Germany used ‘Blitzkrieg’ which means war of
lightening. This was a plan that Hitler formulated to quickly defeat and occupy Denmark,
Norway, Belgium and France. The invasion of these countries was code named,
Operation Yellow.
On 10th May, 1940, Germany attacked and defeated France on 25th June 1945 (46 days).
After the defeat, most parts of France were occupied by German troops.
After the defeat of the above mentioned countries, in September 1940 Germany launched
Operation Sea Lion. Operation Sea Lion was a code name for the German invasion of
Britain. Hitler used the German air force called Luftwaffe to bombard Britain in order to
weaken her. However, Germany failed to defeat Britain because by this time, Britain had
adequately prepared for the war.
The Mediterranean, Middle East and North Africa
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In 1940 Italy was certain that Germany would win the war. She therefore joined the war
on 10th June, 1940 on the side of Germany. Italy invaded Greece, Yugoslavia, Crete,
Malta, Egypt and Libya. Italy won these battles because of help she was given by
Germany. By 1943, Germany was unable to provide help for Italy. This resulted into
Italy’s defeat.
The Eastern Front
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The main war on the Eastern front was between Germany and Russia. The code name for
the German invasion of Russia was Operation Barbarossa. Germany invaded Russia on
22nd June, 1941. By 1942, Germany troops advanced in Russia as far as Stalingrad and
were almost certain of victory over Russia. In 1943 Russia entered into Lend//Lease
scheme with the USA. The Lease/Lend scheme enabled Russia to hire tanks and other
war materials from the USA. This scheme greatly enhanced Russia’s progress in the war.
By 1945, the Russians managed to drive the Germans out of Russia and captured eastern
part of Germany. The success of Russian troops in 1945 was partly due to the fact that
German troops were not adequately prepared for the severe Russian winters.
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War in the Pacific Asia
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War in the pacific and Asia was perpetuated by Japan. Japan wanted to expand her
empire and win major areas of oil, rice and other resources for her allies. Before the
outbreak of the Second World War, Japan had occupied Manchuria (1931) and North
china (1937). In 1941 Japan captured Indo-China and on 7th December the same year, she
attacked the USA base in the pacific called Pearl Harbour in Hawaii. On the same date
(7th December 1941), the USA officially declared war on Japan, Germany and Italy.
Britain also declared war on Japan. In 1942, Japan captured Burma, Malaysia, the Dutch
East Indies and Singapore also surrendered to Japan.
ALLIED POWERS VICTORIES IN THE SECOND WORLD WAR
Allied victory in Europe
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In 1943 the tide of war changed in favour of the Allied Powers with the entry of the USA.
The USA entered the war with fresh soldiers and advanced weapons. The USA also took
over the leadership of the Allied Powers. In 1943, the Allied Powers conquered and
liberated North Africa from Italian occupation. In autumn 1943 Italy was defeated. Just
before the Italian defeat, there was a revolution in Italy against the Fascists. Mussolini
was arrested but managed to escape. In September, 1943, Italy surrendered
unconditionally. Mussolini was again captured in 1945 and was shot dead by the Italians
themselves.
Between August and September, 1944, France was liberated from German occupation.
The liberation of France was launched on 6th June 1944 at Normandy, a small French
coastal town. This day was referred to as the D-Day.
In 1945 the Russians managed to drive the German troops out of Russia and occupied the
eastern part of Germany.
In May, 1945 some of Germany’s smaller allies such as Bulgaria, Romania and Finland
were also defeated.
In May 1945, the Allied Powers launched a final attack on Germany which was code
named Operation Jubilee. On 8th May, 1945, Germany surrendered to the Allied Powers,
about a week after Hitler and his wife, Eva Braun had committed suicide and Berlin was
occupied by the Allied Powers.
Allied Powers victory in the Pacific and Asia
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Between 1942 and 1945, Japan lost most of her territorial gains in the Pacific and Asia to
the USA. In 1942, the USA sank Japanese aircraft carriers and ships in the Coral and
Midway Islands. Between 1943 and 1945 American troops captured the islands of Iwo,
Jima and Okinawa while Britain captured Burma.
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After the fall of Italy and Germany, the Allied Powers turned their full force on Japan. By
February, 1945, it was clear that Japan was losing the war as she had been surrounded by
the Allied Powers. The Allied Powers demanded that Japan should surrender
unconditionally, but she rejected the demand.
On 6th August, 1946, a US plane dropped the first atomic bomb on the Japanese city of
Hiroshima and it killed more than 70, 000 people in a flash.
Three days later, on 9th August, 1945, the USA dropped a second atomic bomb on the
Japanese city of Nagasaki and more than 40, 00 people died.
On 14th August, Japan surrendered and the Second World War ended though she
formally signed the treaty on 2nd September, 1945.
REASONS FOR INITIAL VICTORIES FOR GERMANY AND THE AXIS POWERS
During the initial stages of the war, Germany and her allies achieved initial victories due to the
following;
 Germany troops were skilled in war and the troops were brave and efficient.
 Hitler had carefully planned and prepared for the war.
 The swiftness with which the generals carried out the war enabled them to achieve early
victories (war of lightening-Blitzkrieg).
 The Allied Powers were no ready for the war. As a result, they were involved in the
Phoney War. This gave Germany an advantage.
 Germany and the Axis Powers maintained the element of surprise in all their attacks. This
ensured victory in all the wars they fought.
Reasons for the final defeat of Germany and the Axis Powers
 Germany victory in the Second World War was dependent on the success of Blitzkrieg.
The survival of Britain in 1940 kept the western front alive until the USA entered the
war.
 After 1943, the Allied Powers knew how to check the Blitzkrieg using air support and
aircraft carriers. They also built up air and naval supremacy which enabled them to win
battles in the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. They also used this advantage to slowly starve
the Axis Powers of all essential supplies.
 The Axis Powers fought the war against too many countries at the same time e.g. Hitler’s
war against Britain involved not only Britain but her entire colonial empire and at the
same time, Hitler was fighting Russia on the eastern front.
 The entry of the USA also contributed to the final defeat of the Axis Powers. The USA
brought with it financial relief and fresh soldiers when Britain was almost exhausted
while Germany and the Axis Powers did not have such help.
 Germany had weaker allies such as Bulgaria, Romania and Finland and these could not
help much towards the end of the war.
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 The Axis Powers were not as advanced technologically and scientifically as the Allied
Powers e.g. the Allied forces invention of atomic bombs.
Results/effects of the Second World War
 Loss of human life: During the Second World War, it is estimated that about 40 million
people died; well over half of them were Russians, 6 million were Poles, 4 million
Germans, 2 million Chinese and 2 million Japanese.
 Destruction of property: The worst property damage was recorded in Russia and was
worth 30 million pounds. Most of the European cities were also destroyed especially in
Britain. These only recovered due to financial assistance from the USA in the Marshall
Plan after the war.
 The Second World War also led to the emergence of two super powers, the USA and the
USSR.
 Emergence of the Cold War: The war also led to an outbreak of the Cold War which was
characterized by tensions and conflicts between the capitalist USA and the communist
USSR and their respective supporters.
 Environmental impact: the Second World War also had serious environmental impact as
a result of the nuclear weapons and especially the dropping of the atomic bombs on
Japan.
 The Second World War also led to the division of Germany into East and West Germany.
 The war led to the formation of the United Nations Organisation (UNO).
THE COLD WAR
Background
When the Second World War ended in 1945, Europe was in ruins. The United States of America
and what was then the Soviet Union (USSR) had emerged as the world’s two most powerful
countries. By 1949 two new power blocs of countries had been formed. The Eastern Bloc led by
the Soviet Union, was a Communist and the Western Bloc led by the USA was a capitalist. The
Cold War was about the USA versus the Soviet Union.
Meaning
The Cold War was a war of words between the capitalist and the communist countries. It was a
non-physical confrontation war between the Eastern and Western countries. It was also
psychological in nature.
Causes
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Russia’s desire to spread communism. Soviet leaders felt uncomfortable to be surrounded
by western capitalist countries, hence the need to spread communism.
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Americas desire to limit the spread of communism. Western leaders perceived the Soviet
Union as the centre of communism, hence the need to block it from spreading to the other
parts of the world.
Suspicion of each other’s military strength was another reason for the escalation of the
cold war. Each side (USA and Soviet Union) thought the other side was stronger than its
own side militarily. This had created competition between the two sides and it led to
armsrace.
The formation of the two military alliances in Europe was another cause of the cold war.
The North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO) formed in 1949 by Western allies
headed by the USA and the Warsaw Pact formed in 1955 by the USSR and Eastern
European communist countries increased military rivalry between capitalist and
communist countries. They also strengthened the cold war especially when each side
began stockpiling more military hardware, spying on military secrets of the other and
producing propaganda by radio and newspaper on each other.
Countries involved
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The major countries involved in the Cold War were Russia (Soviet Union) and the USA.
Russia used communist countries to assimilate other countries to its side and support
while the USA used its capitalist countries in order to win support.
All the members of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) supported the USA
and all the members of the Warsaw Pact supported Russia.
Among the members of the capitalist countries were Britain, France, Belgium, Norway,
USA, Denmark, Holland, Luxembourg, Italy, Iceland, Portugal, Spain etc.
Communist countries included Poland, Hungary, Bulgaria, Russia, Romania,
Czechoslovakia etc.
ASPECTS OF THE COLD WAR
The Yalta Conference -1945
In Feb 1945 Franklin D. Roosevelt of USA, Joseph Stalin of Russia (the Soviet Union) and
Winston Churchill of Britain met at Yalta Conference in the Soviet Union. The Second World
War in Europe was drawing to a conclusion and decisions about how Europe was to be organized
were to be made during the conference. It was decided that;
a. Germany should be divided into four zones of occupation i.e. one to be controlled by the
USA, one by Russia, one by Britain and one by France. Since the Germany capital,
Berlin would be in the Soviet zone, it would also be divided into similar zones.
b. A United Nations Organisation (UNO) would be set up to keep peace after the war
c. As East European countries were liberated from Nazi occupation, they would hold free
elections to set up democratic governments.
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Fig: The Big Three; Winston Churchill, Franklin D. Roosevelt and Joseph Stalin
The Potsdam Conference –July 1945
The conference was held in Germany. The Potsdam Conference had some resolutions. These
were;
a. Germany was divided into four sectors. Each zone would be occupied by one of the
four allies i.e. Britain, France, USA and Russia.
b. The Nazi Party would be dissolved and war criminals were to be tried and punished
c. There would be free elections in Germany, freedom of speech and a free press.
d. Germany would pay reparations for the damage caused by the war. Most of this
would go to the Soviet Union.
Truman Doctrine
In March 1947 Harry Truman (US president) published the Truman Doctrine. He offered to
help any government that was being threatened either from within or from outside Europe.
Truman wanted to help countries in Europe recover from the effects of the Second World War.
He had seen the devastation and he wanted the USA to play a part in the recovery. Truman was
also trying to stop any other countries in Europe becoming communists. He hoped that he might
be able to persuade some of the communist countries to break away from communism and join
capitalism.
Marshall Plan
The Marshall Plan was an attempt to rebuild Europe after the Second World War, named after
the US Secretary of State, George C. Marshall. It put the ideas of Truman into effect. In June
1947 President Truman offered grants of American money to all European countries. Truman
intended that the Marshall aid would be made available to all countries in Europe, but eventually
only capitalist countries in the west accepted it.
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Iron Curtain
The Allied nations were suspicious of Russia’s behavior in Eastern Europe e.g. Russia set up
communist governments in all territories that she liberated from German occupation e.g. Poland,
Romania, Albania and Bulgaria. As a result in a speech at Fulton, USA in March, 1946, Winston
Churchill described the communist countries that were established in Eastern Europe by Russia
as an ‘Iron Curtain’. Russia continued to tighten her influence in Eastern Europe and had
communist governments except Yugoslavia.
The Cominform
The Cominform organisation was set up by Joseph Stalin in 1947. All communist countries were
supposed to be members. The aim of this organisation was to draw all communist countries
together. It was also an economic organisation to encourage industrial development and trade
among the communist countries. All contacts with non-communist or capitalist countries were
discouraged. Stalin’s aim was to tighten his grip on the communist countries.
REGIONAL DEFENCE ORGANISATIONS
The North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO)
The NATO was formed in 1949. It was a defensive alliance of Western countries namely USA,
Britain, France, Belgium, Luxembourg, Canada, Italy, Portugal, Spain, Norway, Denmark,
Holland, Turkey and Iceland. It was a defensive alliance against Russia after the Second World
War. In 1945 Russia had emerged as one of the strongest countries on earth besides USA. Russia
had made a lot of successes in spreading its communist ideologies in countries like
Czechoslovakia, Poland, Hungary, Bulgaria, Romania and China. Secondly, Russia had exploded
her first atomic bomb in 1949 and this became an act of suspicion by the Western world. In the
treaty of NATO the members agreed to form a combined army ready to resist any attacks from
Russia. The members agreed that an attack against one member nation was an attack against
them all. The headquarters of NATO were based in Brussels, Belgium.
Warsaw Pact
Warsaw pact was formed by the communist countries in 1955 under the leadership of Nikita
Khrushchev, the leader of Russia. It was a military alliance for communist countries. The
members of Warsaw pact were Russia, Poland, East Germany, Czechoslovakia, Hungary,
Romania and Bulgaria. The members agreed to help each other in case of an attack from the
western democrats.
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INCIDENTS OF THE COLD WAR
The Berlin Blockade 1948-49
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The Berlin Blockade happened because there was disagreement on the future of Germany
among the victors.
After the Second World War Germany was divided into four parts which were controlled
by France, Britain, USA and USSR.
This was to prevent Germany from ever rising again. Berlin, the capital of Germany was
in the USSR zone and was also divided into four parts by the four powers.
The Russian zone was run along the communist lines while the rest of Germany was run
along capitalist lines.
In 1948 France, Britain and the USA allowed free elections in their zones and also
changed the Germany currency which was useless. Russia was very angry with these
actions and refused the proposal on the common currency.
Allowing elections was seen by Russia as a means of bringing the NAZIS to power. In
July 1948 the Russians closed all lines of communication to West Berlin to frustrate
France, Britain and the USA.
They closed all roads, rail bridges and canal links between Berlin and the borders in the
west. The closure was known as the Berlin Blockade.
Britain, France and USA responded by air lifting their essentials. The blockade lasted for
ten months and in May 1949 the Russians gave up the blockade and all lines of
communication were opened again.
In May 1949 France, Britain and USA joined their zones together and formed the Federal
Republic of Germany (West Germany) and in October, 1949 the Russians formed East
Germany
Since 1948, many East Germans (East Berliners) were escaping into West Germany by
crossing from East Berlin to West Berlin. To prevent this, the Soviet Union built a wall
along the boundary between East Berlin and West Berlin in August 1961. This wall was
called the Berlin Wall. The Berlin wall was 166 km long and 4 metres in height. The
Berlin Wall was demolished in 1989.
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The Cuban Missile Crisis 1962
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Another Cold War incident happened in Cuba. Sugar was the main export of Cuba and
the USA the main buyer. The USA gave financial and military aid to Cuba and supported
any Cuban government as long as it supported American interests.
From 1952 to 1959 when Fulgencio Batista was in power, was supported by the USA.
Batista organized the reign of terror in Cuba. He executed (killed) his enemies, misused
dollar aid from America and stole government funds.
Under Batista the government went bankrupt and Cubans started fighting the government
through guerrilla war. In 1959 Batista was overthrown by Fidel Castrol.
Fidel Castrol’s concern was to revive the economy but both the USA and IMF refused to
offer him help.
He then asked communist governments to help him and they did and soon Fidel’s
government was run along communist lines.
Castrol nationalized the USA industries which angered them. The USA put pressure on
Cuba by refusing to buy Cuba’s sugar. In 1961 president John F. Kennedy (USA
president) ordered an attack on Cuba.
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In August, 1962, thirty USSR ships arrived in Cuba carrying Intermediate Range Ballistic
Missiles (I.R.B.M) with a range of 4000 kilometres. This meant all American cities were
within range of these missiles.
The Americans were not sure if the missiles had nuclear warheads and the USSR was
sending more ships carrying more missiles to Cuba. The missiles were shown by USA
surveillance planes.
President Kennedy threatened a nuclear war against USSR if the ships carrying missiles
did not go back.
On 27th October 1962, Nikita Khrushchev (Russia’s president) agreed to remove the
missiles from Cuba because he was not prepared for a nuclear war and ordered the ships
back
to
Russia.
Fig: the Cuban Missile Crisis
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Fig: Intermediate Range Ballistic Missile
Fig: Nikita Khrushchev
John F. Kennedy
The Korean War 1950-53
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The other Cold War incident happened in Korea. Korea had been a Japanese colony from
1910 until 1945 when it was invaded by Russia who forced the Japanese to surrender.
Korea was then divided into two zones.
The 38th parallel (line of latitude) was the boundary between the two Koreas.
North Korea was occupied by Russia, had about one-third of the country’s population
and had most of the industries.
South Korea was occupied by USA, had most of the country’s farmlands and had about
two-thirds of the country’s population.
The supervising powers, Russia and USA, failed to agree on the type of government to be
established in both parts of Korea.
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Russia wanted a communist government while USA wanted a capitalist government.
In 1947 the UNO sent its representatives there to try to solve the problem of the type of
government to be established in Korea.
In 1948, the UNO supervised elections in South Korea. Syngman Rhee became the
president of South Korea. The same year, North Korea elected for Kim IL-Sung as
president.
When this happened, UNO ordered Russia’s and American soldiers out of North and
South Korea respectively.
In June 1950, North Korean forces invaded South Korea. The UN Security Council
ordered North Korea to withdraw from South Korea, but the North Koreans ignored this.
The UNO in September, 1950, decided to help the South Korean government to drive the
North Korean soldiers out of the territory.
The communist forces were driven out of South Korea. By mid November, 1950, the UN
forces together with South Korean forces reached river Yalu in the north. However, at
this point, the war took a new turn. The Chinese army joined the North Korean forces
against the South Korean and UN forces at Yalu River. They drove them back south of
the 38th parallel.
War ended in June 1953. However, the 38th parallel remained the boundary between the
two Koreas. Although the war ended, Korea remained and is still a divided nation. North
Korea is still a communist state while South Korea is a capitalist state.
Fig: The Korean War 1950-53
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Vietnam War 1959-75
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After winning independence from France, communist North Vietnam backed by Russia
supported a communist guerilla movement, the Viet Cong (rebels) against the noncommunist government of South Vietnam an ally of America.
America decided to send American military advisers to assist South Vietnam and
followed by a large US military deployment.
The Vietnam War brought about significant casualties to both sides and gave rise to
serious economic problems and to an anti-war movement in the United States.
Unable to stop the Viet Cong and their North Vietnamese allies, the United States ended
its involvement in Vietnam in 1973 and Viet Cong and North Vietnamese troops took
over South Vietnam in 1975.
How the Cold War came to an end
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Mikhail Gorbachev (Russia’s president) started holding a series of meetings with the US
president, Ronald Reagan beginning in 1985 and in 1987 in order to end the Cold War.
The two leaders agreed to eliminate their nuclear missiles.
In 1989 the Berlin Wall was demolished.
West and East Germany were combined in1990 hence Germany became once a united
country.
In 1991 the USSR was dissolved and Russia and other Soviet Republics emerged as
independent states. This marked the end of the Cold War period.
REGIONAL AND INTERNATIONAL ORGANISATIONS
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
PTA - Preferential Trade area now called COMESA
CIPEC- Intergovernmental Council of Copper Producing and Exporting countries.
COMESA- Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa.
ECOWAS- Economic Organisation of West African States.
EEC- European Economic Community (Common Market) now called European Union
(EU)
6. ACP- African Pacific and Caribbean countries
7. SADC- Southern Africa Development Community.
8. OPEC- Organisation of Petroleum Producing and Exporting Countries.
9. EU- European Union formerly EEC.
10. SADCC- Southern Africa Development Coordinating Conference now replaced by
SADC.
11. ECA- Economic Commission for Africa.
12. GATT- General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade now called the World Trade
Organisation (WTO).
13. OAU- Organisation of African Unity now called African Union (AU).
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14. NATO- North Atlantic Treaty Organisation.
15. UNO- United Nations Organisation.
16. NAM - Non-Aligned Movement. It is an organisation of third world countries.
17. Warsaw Pact- It was a military alliance of communist countries in Eastern Europe
whose aim was to, before the collapse of the Soviet Union to defend its members against
attack by Western Europe and USA.
18. Common Wealth of Nations- It is a family of countries that were under the colonial rule
of Britain.
A regional or international organisation is an organisation of countries which surrender some
control of their economies to a central body like SADC, EU, ECOWAS etc. the aim of
regional economic groupings is to promote and coordinate cooperation in economic areas of
trade, commerce, energy, industry, agriculture, marketing, production, development, research
to strengthen , diversify and expand their economies.
Advantages of belonging to regional economic organisations
 These economic organisations promote cooperation, understanding and friendship among
member states to encourage peaceful co-existence among nations.
 They create a large market for regional products. A regional economic organisation can
compete with powerful industrialized nations like USA, Japan and European nations in
trade and commerce.
 There is a strong possibility of creating political unity and military alliance among
member countries.
 It is one way of promoting regional industry and commercial specialization within
member states.
 They enhance and increase job opportunities to citizens living in the regional community.
 There is possibility of free and preferential trade among member states.
 Member countries share research work and form a big capital to finance big projects like
railway construction and harbours.
Disadvantages of belonging to regional economic organisations
 They encourage brain-drain because of free movement of labour among member states.
 They may lead to inequality of economic development as different countries have
different natural resources and social infrastructure like location of headquarters of
COMESA favours Zambia’s economic development for employment.
 Disbanding of regional economic organisations may have diverse effects on economies
too dependent on the regional economy common market and mutual financing.
 There is a possibility of disputes among member states.
THE UNITED NATIONS ORGANISATION –UNO
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Background
The United Nations Organisation came into existence during the Second World War as a result
of the failure of the League of Nations. The League of Nations had failed to maintain world
peace and security. As a result, there was need to establish another world organization to
maintain peace after the defeat of the Axis Powers during the Second World War. President
Franklin Roosevelt of the USA initiated the idea of a world organization to maintain world
peace and security. The UN came into existence on 26th June, 1945 when 50 countries signed the
United Nations Charter at San Francisco Conference in the USA. However, the UN started its
operations on 24th October, 1945 with its headquarters in New York.
Aims of the UNO
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To maintain world peace and security.
To achieve international co-operation in solving economic, social and political problems.
To promote respect for fundamental human rights and freedoms.
To promote friendship among member countries.
To preserve the independence of member countries.
Organisation/structure of the UNO
The General Assembly
The General Assembly is the world parliament of the UNO. It has representatives from all
member countries. Some of the functions of the General Assembly are;
 To make laws.
 To appoint the Secretary General based on the recommendations from the Security
Council.
 To admit new members based on recommendations from the Security Council.
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The Secretariat
The Secretariat is the civil service of the UN. It carries out all the paper work of the UN. It
comprises the Secretary General who is the chief administrative officer of the UN. Since 1945
there has been nine Secretary Generals. These have been;
1. Trygve Lie from Norway (1945-53)
2. Dag Hammarskjold from Sweden (1953-61)
3. U Thant from Burma (1961-71)
4. Kurt Waldheim from Austria (1972-81)
5. Javier Perez de Cuellar from Peru (1982-92)
6. Boutros Boutros Ghali from Egypt (1992-96)
7. Kofi Annan of Ghana (1997-2006),
8. Ban Ki Moon from South Korea ( 2007 -2016)
9. Antonio Guterres from Portugal (2017 to…).
Other works of the Secretariat include translating documents into the main world languages.
The Security Council
The Security Council is the most important organ of the UN whose aim is to keep peace and
security in the world. The Security Council comprises five permanent members and ten nonpermanent members who are chosen for a two year rotational term. The five permanent members
are Britain, France, China, USA and Russia.
Functions
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It recommends the appointment of the Secretary General to the Assembly.
It is responsible for disarmament.
It also recommends political and economic sanctions on offending member states.
It is responsible for sending peace keeping forces to war torn areas.
The International Court of Justice
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This is the international judiciary. The headquarters of the International Court of Justice are
based in Hague in Netherlands. The court comprises 15 judges who are elected by the General
Assembly from member countries.
Functions
 To settle disputes through legal means instead of resorting to war.
 To give legal advice to other organs of the UN.
The Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC)
It comprises 18 member countries who are elected for a three year term of office by the General
Assembly.
Functions
 To initiate studies and produce reports on international social, economic, cultural and
political issues in member countries.
 To ensure protection of human rights and freedoms in member countries.
 To offer recommendations and financial assistance for the improvement of socioeconomic situations in member countries.
The Trusteeship Council
It was created to look after the interests of the people of the former mandated colonies of the
League of Nations.
Functions
 To ensure that the administering powers of the mandated colonies did not exploit them.
 To ensure that all the mandated colonies became independent.
Specialised agencies of the UNO
The United Nations High Commission for Refugees (UNHCR)
The main function of this agency is to give assistance to refugees by providing them with shelter,
medical help, education, clothing clean water and ensuring that refugees’ human rights are
protected. The UNHCR also ensures that the refugees are repatriated to their countries of origin.
The Food and Agricultural Organisation (FAO)
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The aim of FAO is to ensure food security by increasing food production throughout the world.
This is achieved through educating farmers about more agriculture methods.FAO also gives
loans to poor countries to improve their food production and sometimes donates food.
The United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO)
This agency provides scientific research and produces information on educational methods.
UNESCO also aims at promoting freedom of the press and the training of teachers.
World Health Organisation (WHO)
The main aim of this agency is to improve health standards in all member countries. It also aims
at promoting good health for all as a basic human right. WHO also carries out research work to
eradicate contagious diseases like TB, measles, cholera etc.
The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD/World Bank)
The World Bank gives loans for developmental projects to member countries such as
rehabilitation of schools, hospitals, roads etc.
International Labour Organisation (ILO)
ILO aims at improving the working conditions of all the workers in member countries. It is also
instrumental in the formulation of labour laws throughout the world.
Achievements of the UNO
1. The UN has been successful in its major task of peace keeping in some cases since its
formation in 1945.This has been done through;
 Persuading countries to negotiate e.g. in 1946 Iran attacked the USSR. The Security
Council asked the two countries to settle their differences by direct negotiations.
 Sending observer / fact finding missions to conflicting nations.
 Sending peace keeping forces to conflicting nations from member countries.
 The UN has also been successful in resolving conflicts between member countries.
Some examples of these are;
a. The Congo Crisis in 1960 .When there was a conflict in the Congo after independence;
the UN Secretary General organized an operation in the Congo. The UN intervention in
the Congo helped in uniting the country.
b. The UN also helped in restoring peace in a country torn apart by rebellious civil war
(more recently, Charles Taylor and the rebels in Liberia).
c. The Korean War of 1950-53.The UN was also able to solve the Korean War. After the
Second World War, Korea was divided between communist USSR and the capitalist
USA. This led to the creation of North and South Korea. Under pressure from the UN,
the two powers were forced to withdraw from Korea. In 1950 communist North Korea
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invaded capitalist South Korea. The UN intervened by sending UN troops to evacuate
North Korean troops from South Korea in 1953.
2. The UN has also been successful in its efforts at achieving disarmament. It has succeeded
in discouraging armaments since its formation. The main focus of the UN has been to
discourage the use and production of nuclear weapons. This has been achieved through the
creation of a Disarmament Commission and the UN Nuclear Weapons Inspectorate.
3. The UN has been extremely successful through the work of its specialized agencies. It has
been able to improve the social, political and economic conditions of its member countries.
This has been done through technical and financial assistance to member countries.
Failures of the UNO
 The UN has failed in tackling the issues of collective security in some cases i.e. conflicts
still prevail between and among member countries in Africa and the Middle East e.g. in
Israel and Palestine.
 The UN has also failed to control acts of terrorism in the world especially from the
Islamic groups e.g. the September 11 attacks on the USA and suicide bombing in Iraq
and the Middle East.
 The UN has also failed to be completely independent from the USA and other big
powers. This has been due to the fact that the big powers are the financiers of the
operations of the UN. This has led to the big powers to disregard recommendations of the
UN General Assembly and Security Council e.g. the US invasion of Iraq in 2003.
 The UN has failed to completely eradicate some socio-economic problems threatening
humanity today e.g. the issue of HIV/AIDS and the complete eradication of poverty from
poor countries.
 The UN has also failed to completely disarm and impose effective sanctions on some
offending member countries especially the super powers.
 The UN has failed to deal with Boko Haram Rebels in Nigeria and other parts of West
Africa who have continued terrorizing innocent people.
Problems facing the UNO
 Lack of a permanent army. The UN relies on member countries to provide troops to
enable it enforce decisions. This has made the UN weak.
 The UN has been short of funds. The UN has too much work to do and it needs huge
sums of money. Each member state pays a regular annual contribution based on its
general wealth and ability to pay. However, many member states have refused to pay
from time to time either because of financial difficulties or as a result of disapproval of
UN policies.
 The UN has been accused of indecision and lack of firmness. As a result, some countries
have more faith in regional organizations such as NATO to solve their problems.
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ORGANISATION OF AFRICAN UNITY (OAU)
Establishment
Though Africa has several regions, there was a need to bring together these regions into a large
organisation. The first organisation to bring together all African nations was called the
Organisation of African Unity (OAU). Kwame Nkrumah of Ghana wanted the formation of the
United States of Africa. He attempted the federation of Ghana, guinea and Mali. He hoped that
this would gradually lead to the formation of the United States of Africa.
On 25th May 1963, the OAU was formed. The conference that formed the OAU was held in
Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. It was attended by several African heads of states including some few
individual nationalists who were still struggling for their own countries’ independence. Among
the notable leaders who attended the conference were Abdel Nasser (Egypt), Kamuzu Banda
(Malawi), Emperor Haille Selassie (Ethiopia), King Hassan (Morocco), Kenneth Kaunda
(Zambia), Kwame Nkrumah (Ghana) Julius Nyerere ( Tanzania), Dr. Milton Obote (Uganda) and
Sekou Toure (Guinea) among others.
The name OAU was suggested by President Hebert Maga of Benin (Dahomey) by then.
Objectives/aims of the OAU
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To eliminate colonialism and racism in Africa
To promote solidarity and unity among African states
To defend the sovereignty and independence of African countries
To promote international cooperation between African countries and the rest of the world
To foster and uphold human rights.
In order to achieve these objectives, several specialized commissions were formed. They
included the Defence Commission, Scientific, Cultural, Education and Health Commission and
an Economic and Social Commission. These commissions were under three top organs of the
OAU.
Organs of the OAU
The Assembly of Heads of States of Governments
They used to meet once a year and the Assembly would be held in different countries on a
rotational basis. The hosting president would be the chairman for a period of one year. During
the meeting, the heads of state would elect among themselves a chairman of the OAU to serve
for one year.
The Secretariat
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It was the organ responsible for administrative running of day to day affairs of the OAU. It was
headed by the Secretary General. He was responsible for organizing meetings for both the Heads
of State and Council of Ministers and preparing the budget for the organisation.
The Council of Ministers
All the ministers of Foreign Affairs in the member countries of the OAU form the Council of
Ministers. It was also responsible for preparing the agenda for the Heads of State Assembly.
Specialized commissions and committees of the OAU
a. The Economic and Social Commission: It was responsible for economic and social
development of Africa. It coordinated developmental projects in member countries.
b. Educational, Cultural, Scientific and Health Commission: This commission was
responsible for the promotion and administration of culture, education, sanitation, health
and nutrition in Africa.
c. Defence Commission: The main job of this commission is to defend Africa, train
military personnel and coordinate all military matters in Africa. Unfortunately, the OAU
does not have a standing army of its own.
Achievements of the OAU
 The OAU was able to support several liberation movements thus ending colonialism.
 The OAU took a strong stance against apartheid in South Africa and Namibia. It
protested to the South African government against the policy of apartheid. It also
appealed to other international organisations to do something about the problem of
racism.
 The OAU was able to settle some conflicts among the member states e.g. the OAU
mediated a border dispute between Algeria and morocco in 1964 and 1965. It also
mediated the border conflicts between Somalia and Ethiopia from 1868 to 1970.
 The OAU was able to fund some developmental projects through the African
Development Bank (ADB).
 The OAU helped to impose economic sanctions against the former Rhodesian
government of Ian Smith
 OAU member states cooperated at the UNO General Assembly by helping to elect
Boutros Boutros Ghali and Kofi Annan as Secretary Generals of the UNO.
Problems faced by the OAU
 It failed to establish a permanent solution to regular wars in Africa.
 The OAU faced the problem of increasing debt that African member countries owned to
international bodies like the World Bank and the European Union.
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 The OAU had no standing army that can quickly move into action if there was an attack
by outside countries. It did nothing when USA attacked Libya in the late 1980s.
 There were also border disputes between some member states which the OAU failed to
solve. These civil wars included those in Somalia, Rwanda, Angola, Burundi and Congo
DR.
Later, on 9th July 2002, the OAU was transformed into the African Union (AU)
THE AFRICAN UNION (AU)
The idea of transforming the OAU into an African Union was first suggested by Muammar
Gaddafi by then. He again brought up the idea of a United States of Africa, originally suggested
by Kwame Nkrumah. The idea was that this union would have one government, one parliament,
one army and one currency. Most of the leaders liked this idea, but did not want a union that had
more political power than independent African countries.
Fig: The African Union emblem
Objectives of the AU
Almost all objectives of the OAU were adopted by the AU. The AU also encourages African
countries to solve their own problems instead of looking towards developed countries for help.
ORGANS OF THE AU
The Assembly of the Union
The Assembly of the Union consists of heads of state of AU member states. The Assembly meets
once a year in a given country. The chairperson of the Assembly is elected every year. The first
General Assembly took place in Dubai, South Africa in 2002. It was attended by 43 heads of
state and was chaired by Thabo Mbeki; the then president of South Africa.
The Executive Council of the Union
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It is made up of all ministers of Foreign Affairs of the AU member states. It is accountable to the
Assembly of the Union and coordinates and makes decisions on policies of common interests.
The Pan African parliament
It is made up of four members from each national parliament. This parliament is a forum for the
people of Africa to express their ideas and interests.
The African Union Commission
This commission is responsible for the day to day running of the AU.
SOUTHERN AFRICAN DEVELOPMENT COMMUNITY (SADC)
SADC was transformed from the Southern African Development Coordination Conference
(SADCC). SADCC was set up in 1980 by nine regional members namely; Zambia, Malawi,
Mozambique, Angola, Botswana, Lesotho, Tanzania, Zimbabwe and Swaziland. The main
objectives of SADCC were;


To reduce member states dependence mainly on South Africa which was by then
practicing racism (apartheid)?
To set up programmes and projects that would benefit all the member states.
SADCC was transformed into Southern African Development Community (SADC) on 17 th
August 1992 in Windhoek, Namibia. The headquarters of SADC are based in Gaborone,
Botswana.
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Fig: SADC emblem
SADC member countries
Member countries of SADC
SADC has sixteen (16) member countries. These are Angola, Botswana, Comoros Is, Congo DR,
Eswatini (Swaziland), Lesotho, Madagascar, Malawi, Mauritius, Mozambique, Namibia
Seychelles, South Africa, Tanzania, Zambia and Zimbabwe.
Aims/objectives of SADC

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To develop a common market with regional parliament.
To remove colonialism and racism in Africa.
To promote regional unity and cooperation.
To raise the standard of living of the people in the region through economic growth.
To promote and defend peace and security.
To create a free trade area and allow free movement of labour in the region.
To reduce imports from Europe, America and Asia.
Organisation and functions of SADC
Council of
Ministers
Specialised Commissions
Summit meetings of Heads
of States
Standing Committee of Officers
Secretariat
Summit of Heads of State
All heads of states of member countries attend these meetings and they meet every year. This is
the supreme policy making body of SADC. It approves admission of new members and it is
responsible for supervising the entire administration of SADC. It also approves the appointment
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of the Secretary General and fixes the amount of financial contributions to be paid by each
member state every year.
Council of ministers
It consists of ministers of trade, commerce and industry and Foreign Affairs. It is held before the
summit of heads of states meeting. The main function of the council is to prepare ground work
for the heads of state.
The secretariat
This is the civil service of SADC and it is headed by the Secretary General. The work of the
secretariat includes;

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
Keeping records.
Preparing the agenda for the summit meetings.
Carrying out research in all areas of regional interest such as fishing, soil conservation,
exploitation (use) of natural resources like mining and forests.
SADC Organ for Politics, Defence and Security
It was launched in June 1996 as a formal institution of SADC with the mandate to support the
achievement and maintenance of peace and security in the SADC region.
Specialized commissions
These are sub-committees with specialization in structures and they have been divided to suit
each member states’ particular important industry e.g.
 Zambia has been allocated mining planning and development because of her
specialization in the mining industry.
 Angola has been allocated railway, inland waterways, airways, road and
telecommunication matters-transport and communications.
 Tanzania is concerned with industrial planning and development.
 Swaziland for manpower planning and training.
 Lesotho takes care of tourism and industry.
 Zimbabwe handles food storage, soil conservation and land utilization.
 Malawi handles fisheries and wildlife.
 Botswana runs animal breeding and disease control.
Standing Committee of Officials
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It helps SADC in consultation on the advice of the secretariat in selecting personnel and in
implementing the policies of the organisation.
COMMON MARKET FOR EASTERN AND SOUTHERN AFRICA (COMESA)
COMESA was formerly known as Preferential Trade Area (PTA) which was formed in 1981.
However, the name was changed to COMESA in 1994. The headquarters of COMESA are in
Lusaka.
Fig: COMESA emblem
Membership
COMESA has nineteen (19) member countries. These are, Burundi, Comoros Is, Congo DR,
Djibouti, Egypt, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Kenya, Libya, Madagascar, Malawi, Mauritius, Rwanda,
Seychelles, Sudan, Swaziland (Eswatini), Uganda, Zambia and Zimbabwe.
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Aims of COMESA
 To develop free trade and commerce among member states e.g. removal of tariffs
(customs duty).
 To encourage and strengthen economic growth by industrialization and investment.
 To encourage import substitution.
 To create a common market for regional products and services.
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Structure/organisation of COMESA
Council of Ministers
COMESA Court
of Justice
HEADS OF STATE
AUTHORITY
Intergovernmental
Specialised Commissions
and Committees
Secretariat
The Heads of State Authority



It comprises all heads of states of member countries.
It makes policies of the organisation and admits new member states.
It supervises the secretariat through the appointment of the Secretary General and actual
monitoring of the chairman. The chairmanship rotates among member heads of states
after three (3) years.
The Council of Ministers
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The Ministers of Foreign Affairs from each member states attend meetings of Council of
Ministers.
This body prepares matters to be discussed by Heads of States.
The Council of Ministers also advises the Heads of States on matters affecting the region
and the world.
The Secretariat


It is headed by the Secretary General who is the chief administrator and the executive
officer. The current Secretary General of COMESA is Ms. Mulenga Kapwepwe
(Zambia) who took over office from Sindiso Ngwenya (Zimbabwe) in 2018.
The Secretariat prepares the agenda, and keeps records and finances.
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The Specialised Intergovernmental Commissions and Technical Committee of Exports
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This organ is made up of experts with specialized knowledge. Matters dealt with by these
commissions and committees are industrial cooperation and development.
The COMESA bank is located in Zimbabwe.
Problems of COMESA and SADC
 Both are too dependent on donor countries for economic and financial aid.
 Border disputes and border closures e.g. between Zambia and Congo DR can harm trade.
 Entry formalities are still there and there is lack of free labour movement between
member states.
 Trade barriers still exist in form of high customs duties charged among member states.
 Poor transportation and communication infrastructure like roads, bridges, railway lines
etc.
THE COMMONWEALTH OF NATIONS
Commonwealth of Nations was formed in December 1931. It has its headquarters in London.
The symbol of this association is Queen Elizabeth II who is the head of Commonwealth.
Fig: Commonwealth flag
Queen Elizabeth
Membership
There are currently 53 member states of Commonwealth of Nations. The common characteristics
of Commonwealth of Nations are;
 All countries are former colonies of Britain except some adopted countries like
Mozambique and Rwanda.
 They all speak English and use it as the official language.
 They all trade with Britain.
 They all have High Commissioners in London and each others countries.
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 They have English legal system and institutions e.g. courts, laws.
 Similar educational system.
Aims of Commonwealth of Nations
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To promote and help democratic governments.
To promote and encourage free trade among member states.
To promote international friendship, understanding, peace and security.
To oppose colonialism, racism, Zionism and fascism.
To promote respect and human rights and freedoms.
To promote diplomatic and political relations between member states.
Structure/ organisation of Commonwealth of Nations
Finance Ministers
Conference
High Commissioners
Commonwealth Heads of
State/Government
meetings
Commonwealth
Development Cooperation
Secretariat
Commonwealth Heads of Government Meetings (Chogms)
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It is composed of all Heads of States from member countries. As such it is the supreme
policy making body of Commonwealth.
Their meetings are held every after two years in different capitals throughout the
Commonwealth to give equality to each member state.
The host Head of State in the country where the meeting is held becomes the Chairman.
The Chogms elects the Secretary General for a term of five (5) years.
It supervises the work of all organs and agencies of the Commonwealth.
It also admits and expels members.
Finance Ministers Conference
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It is composed of ministers of finance from member states.
This body takes care of money matters.
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The Secretariat

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It was established in 1964 and it is headed by the Secretary General who is the chief
executive and administrative officer. The current Secretary General of Commonwealth of
Nations is Patricia Scotland.
The Secretariat prepares agenda for meetings of Commonwealth and keeps records
It also prepares the budget and keeps in touch with the United Nations agencies.
High Commissioners
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All member states have High Commissioners in London as chief diplomats.
They hold regular meetings to discuss cooperation at political and diplomatic levels for
member states.
They also discuss matters of economic, social, cultural, educational, scientific and
technical interests between member states.
Each member of the Commonwealth has a High Commissioner in other member states.
Cooperation in the Commonwealth of Nations
Political cooperation
 Member states support each other at United Nations and exchange ideas on political
matters such as one on civil wars in Rwanda and Somalia.
 There is an exchange of state visits between member states. The organisation also has a
Commonwealth Parliament Association for exchanging information and visits.
Economic cooperation
 The Commonwealth of Nations cooperates with the European Union (EU) for trade and
commerce. Member states who are poor receive technical, financial and economic aid
from the organisation to help them in their programmes.
Educational, Scientific, Social, Cultural and Medical Cooperation
 This agency is responsible for promoting sports such as Commonwealth Olympic Games,
offering scholarships, exchange of youth visits and information.
 It promotes culture and cultural exchange within Commonwealth of Nations.
 It encourages and promotes science and technology through research, publication of
results and furnishing member states with the information.
 It handles public health, sanitation and controls diseases as well as training and sending
doctors to member countries. For example, the Zambia Flying Doctor Services is helped
by the Commonwealth with finance, medicine, equipment and medical personnel. The
Commonwealth Youth Programmme is designed to facilitate exchange of information,
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visits and culture among youths between members of the Commonwealth. It has a centre
in Lusaka, Zambia.
However, the Commonwealth has its own problems in that former colonies of Britain are still
economically dependent on British aid. They sell raw materials at low prices but buy
manufactured goods from Britain at high prices.
THE EUROPEAN UNION (EU)
Background
The European Union was originally known as European Economic Commission (EEC). The
European Economic Community formed in 1957 during the treaty of Rome was created out of
the urgent need to reconstruct the economy of European states which had been destroyed during
the Second World War. EEC had its headquarters in Brussels, Belgium.
However, on 1st November 1993, the name was changed from EEC to European Union with the
headquarters maintained in Brussels, Belgium.
Fig: European Union emblem
Membership
The European Union has 28 member states. These are; Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, Croatia,
Cyprus, Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary,
Ireland, Italy, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Malta, Netherlands, Poland, Portugal, Romania,
Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden and the United Kingdom.
Member states of the EU have a common currency called Euro (€)
Aims of the European Union
 To create, strengthen and maintain a common market in Europe
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 To promote free movement of capital, technology, labour and people within the European
community
 To have a common agricultural policy
 To coordinate policies in commerce, trade, transport, industry, communication,
agriculture and research in science and technology.
Organisation/structure of the European Union
The Council of Ministers
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
This body is composed of one representative from each member state. These are usually
Foreign Affairs ministers.
The council is responsible for making major policies of the EU and supervises the
subordinate organs.
The Commission



Each member state has two representatives on the commission.
It is in fact the civil service of the EU which is responsible for all administration like the
Secretariat of the UNO, AU, SADC etc.
The commission prepares the agenda for meetings of the Council of Ministers, recruits
staff, keeps records and finances and is responsible for day to day correspondence and
publicity.
The Court of Justice

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
It is a body consisting of judges appointed by mutual agreements among governments of
member states.
It is responsible for legal representation, advice, justice and interpretation of the EU
Treaty.
It settles disputes among member states.
The European Assembly



It is like a real National Assembly and parliament.
It is composed of actual elected members of parliament (MPs) from each member state.
The duty of the Assembly is to debate, amend and repeal EU policy and laws and to
control the budget.
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THE MIDDLE EAST CRISIS
THE CREATION OF THE STATE OF ISRAEL-1948
Background
The history of the Jews is a biblical one as they are the chosen people of God around which the
Bible is manifested. They were put in the promised land (Palestine) after they were freed from
slavery in Egypt. Once in the promised land, the Jews forgot all about God and started behaving
badly. All efforts to get them back to God failed as each prophet sent was ignored. When Jesus,
as the son of God came, they plotted to have him killed and was crucified in A.D 33. Because of
these acts by the Jews, God decided to punish them by putting them in the hands of the enemies
who successfully defeated them such as the Romans, Phoenicians and Arabs scattering the Jews
all over the world especially in the Middle East and Europe from about A.D 70 letting their land
to be occupied by the Arabs. Whenever the Jews went, they were persecuted, not allowed to
marry non-Jews or hold professional jobs. They were made to live in special suburbs called
Ghettos. But God promised that they would return to their promised land so that on the last
judgement day, they would be judged there. He promised them that he would help them fight and
regain their promised land.
Reasons why the Jews were eager to go back to Palestine
1. Firstly, was due to the work and influence of the World Zionist Organisation founded in
1897 at Basle, Switzerland. This organization encouraged Jews to go back to Palestine
and have a nation in their homeland. Zionists were people who believed that Jews ought
to go back to Palestine. Zionism was the movement of the Jews back into Palestine and it
was led by Theodore Herzl.
2. In 1917 due to the poor performance of the Allied Powers in the First World War, Arthur
Balfour (British Foreign Minister) sent a letter to the Zionist leaders assuring them that
Britain would work for the establishment of a Jewish territory in Palestine on condition
that the Jews helped the Allies to win the war. This was called Balfour Declaration of
1917. The Jews accepted and helped the Allies to win the war and they waited for their
reward. After 1919, when Palestine became a British Mandate, large numbers of Jews
began to arrive in Palestine and Arabs protested bitterly to the British. However, in 1922
Britain announced that there was no intention of Jews to occupy the whole Palestine..
3. Thirdly, was the Nazis persecution of Jews in Germany after 1933 which caused a flood
of refugees and by 1940 about half of the Population of Palestine was Jewish. From 1936
there were violent protests by the Arabs which made the British to suppress them with
brutality, killing over 3000 Arabs. In 1937 British Peel Commission proposed dividing
of Palestine into two separate states but the Arabs rejected. Britain then proposed to limit
Jewish immigration to 10, 000 a year but the Jews rejected the proposal.
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4. The Second World War made the situation worse because Jews from Hitler’s Europe
were looking for a place where to go. Not only in Germany were the Jews persecuted, but
also in Russia, Italy and France. In 1945 USA pressed Britain to allow 100, 000 Jews
into Palestine but since Britain did not want to offend the Arabs, she refused.
5. The other reason was the massacre of over six million Jews by Hitler during the Second
World War worsened the situation and made hundreds of thousands of Jewish refugees
desperate to return to Palestine.
6. The determination of the Jews to fight for their national home, made them to begin a
terrorist campaign against both Arabs and the British. Such Jewish terrorist campaign led
to the blowing up of King David Hotel in Jerusalem, which the British were using as its
headquarters, ninety one (91) people were killed and many injured. Britain reacted by
arresting Jewish leaders and turned back ships with Jews intending to enter Palestine.
In 1945 Britain withdrew from Palestine and asked the UNO through Ernest Bevin, the Labour
Foreign Secretary to deal with the problem.
Consequently, in November 1947, the UNO voted to divide Palestine.
On 14th May 1948, David Ben Gurion (Israeli prime minister) declared the independence of the
new state of Israel.
Why Arabs opposed creation of the state of Israel
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
The Arabs (93% of the population in 1918) feared that Jewish immigrants would become
51% of the population. Jewish settlers belonged to an alien (European) culture and Arabs
feared that they would be squeezed out of their own homeland.
The Palestine Arabs rejected the United Nations plan of forming the state of Israel and
neighbouring Arab States assisted them in the 1948-1949 war, resulting in an Israel
victory which left Arabs with much less land than the United Nations plan had assigned
them.
Arabs (Moslems) and Jews (Christians) had different religions and could not live
together. Arabs claimed Palestine to be a land of their ancestors, among them Abraham
and Ishmael.
Arabs had lived in Palestine for close to 2000 years while Jews had been away from
Palestine for the same number of years. As a result, Arabs believed they had more right to
Palestine than the Jews. Jews gained possession over most land in Palestine through
purchase of land from Arabs.
Furthermore, Arabs maintained that they did not deserve to suffer for Hitler’s persecution
of the Jews and that the creation of Israel would lead to the problem of Arab refugees.
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Why the Israelites claim ownership of Palestine?
The Israelites claimed:

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God gave this land to Abraham (the ancestor of the Israelites) and his offspring (Genesis
15:18)
Palestine was promised to the Jews as a national home by Britain according to the
Balfour Declaration of 1917.
Hitler’s persecution of the Jews (necessitated) made it possible to have a Jewish
homeland.
Palestinian refugees can be absorbed in Arab states.
Jews found Palestine a barren desert but made it a prosperous place.
How Arab countries opposed the establishment of the state of Israel
Before establishment of Israel, Arabs raided Jewish settlements leading to conflicts between the
two groups.
In 1948 Arab states i.e. Jordan, Syria, Egypt and Saudi Arabia attacked the newly found state of
Israel.
In 1956 Egyptian terrorists’ raids on Israel forced Israel to join a joint attack on Egypt by France
and Britain.
In 1967 Arab leaders threatened to invade Israel forcing her to attack neighbouring Arab States.
In 1973 on the day of Yom Kippur, Syria attacked Israel’s Golan Heights assisted by Jordan, Iraq
and Saudi Arabia. Egypt also attacked Israel across the Suez Canal.
In 1973 Arab countries pushed the price of oil up, to punish countries that had supported Israeli
during the War.
The First Arab – Israel war 1948
When the Jews announced the creation of the State of Israel in May 1948, the Arabs were totally
against this and they attacked it. Many Arab states, Jordan, Egypt, Syria and Saudi Arabia,
surrounded and outnumbered the Israelis. President Weizmann and Prime Minister David Ben
Gurion cried for help to the rest of the world was met with silence.
The Arabs failed to defeat the Jews because their leaders were at odds with one another, each
seeking to gain an advantage from the war. The Arab armies had no coordinated plans; the Jews
could concentrate on defeating first one and then another – Also their armies were badly led,
officers and men fleeing in times of difficulty. On the other hand the Jews had the technical skills
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of British – trained officers; the determination of a people which had no option other than to
fight to the bitter end.
On 7th February 1949 the war ended. Israel gained more territory than had been allocated to it by
the UN proposal of 1948. Over one million Arabs fled from Palestine to live in refugee camps in
Syria, Jordan and Egypt.
The Second Arab-Israel War 1956
This began in 1956 after the Suez crisis. This crisis was caused by the nationalization of Suez
Canal by Egypt. The Israelis were angered by Egypt – supported terrorist attacks from the Gaza
strip.In order to stop these attacks, Britain and France agreed with Israel for a joint attack on
Egypt. The Israelis attacked Egypt in the Gaza strip in October 1956 and they occupied most of
the Sinai Peninsula.
In November, there was a British and French demand on Egypt to withdraw all forces from the
Canal Zone, Nasser refused. The British and French forces attacked Egypt. The Egyptian Air
Force was destroyed on the ground, troops landed at Alexandria to occupy the Canal Zone.
The United States and the Russian united to condemn the Anglo-French action and they had to
withdrew but it was only after Arab countries had threatened to cut off oil supplies and also after
Nasser had blown up ships to block the canal.
The British and French were made to appear as aggressors and as failures and many third world
countries turned to Russia for leadership.
The Third Arab – Israel War-1967 (5th to 10th June)
This occurred in 1967. It is referred to as the Six-day war. Arab leaders openly threatened an
invasion of Israel due to Russian Support. Moshe Dayan had just been appointed as the Minister
of Defense in Israel. He argued that attack was the best defense.
On 5th June 1967 Israel launched attacks on all Arab airfields. Israeli troops drove Egyptian
forces across the Sinai, advanced to the Jordan River against the Jordanians and routed the
Syrians on the Golan Heights. On 8th June Jordan surrendered whilst on 10th June Syria and
Egypt surrendered. The Israelis occupied some ports of Eastern Egypt as far as the east bank of
the Suez Canal; Syria was partly occupied, including the Golan Heights. The West Bank of the
Jordan remained in Israelis hands. Sporadic frontier fighting continued until the UN arranged a
cease fire in 1970. Results of the six day war were that;
 Gaza Strip and Sinai Peninsula were taken away from Egypt by Israel.
 Jordan lost the West Bank (including East Jerusalem) to Israel.
 Syria lost the Golan Heights to Israel.
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The Fourth Arab-Israel War 1973
Egypt wanted to drive out Israelis from the Sinai. Syria wanted to regain the Golan Heights.
On 6th October 1973 during the Jewish Holy Day called Yom Kippur, hoping to catch the Israeli
off guard, Syria attacked the Israel through the Golan Heights and received help from Jordan,
Iran and Saudi Arabia; Egypt attacked across the canal and broke through the Israeli’s defensive
Bar-Lev line.
The surprising attack was, at first, successful due to Russian Supplied aid and technical aid to the
Arabs. The USA was, at first, reluctant to aid Israel but they later aided her and when the aid
arrived in form of planes and artillery and Israel drove the Arabs back. The Syrians were pushed
back towards Damascus.
The Israeli army drove through Sinai and captured the West bank of the Suez Canal, defeating
the Egyptian army surrounding east of the Canal and in Port Said. UN mediators and USA
Secretary of State Henry Kissinger arranged a cease fire. UN forces were sent to separate the
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Israeli and Egyptian forces although Israel held on to her gains in the Sinai and on the Golan
Heights.
The outcome of the war
The end of the war brought hope for permanent peace. Egyptian and Israeli leaders came
together (though not in the same room) in Geneva. The Israelis agreed to move their troops from
the Suez Canal which had been closed since the 1967 war.
An important development during the war was that the Arab oil-producing states tried to bring
pressure to bear on the USA and on the western European states which were friendly to Israel, by
reducing oil supplies. This caused serious oil shortages, especially in Europe. The Organisation
of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) also began to raise oil prices which contributed to
inflation and caused an energy crisis in the world’s industrial nations.
Why did the two sides begin to talk to each other?
1. President Anwar al-Sadat of Egypt had been convinced that Israel could not be destroyed
by force and that it was foolish to keep on wasting Egypt’s resources in fruitless wars.
2. The Israelis were suffering economic problems, partly because of their enormous defence
expenditure and partly because of a world recession.
3. President Jimmy Carter of the USA played a vital role in setting up formal negotiations
between the two sides, which began in September 1978 at Camp David (near
Washington). With Carter acting as intermediary, the talks led to the signing of the peace
treaty called Camp David Agreement in Washington in March 1979. The terms were;
 The state of war that had existed between Egypt and Israel since 1948 was now ended.
 Israel promised to withdraw its troops from Sinai.
 Egypt promised not to attack Israel again and guaranteed to supply her with oil from the
recently opened oil wells in southern Sinai.
 Israeli ships could use the Suez Canal
Despite the above agreements, Arab terrorists and suicide bombers have continued to cause
havoc in Israel.
HINTS ON HOW TO CONSTRUCT A GOOD ESSAY IN HISTORY
1. Plan your work first by making a mind map or notes in pencil or pen.
2. Plan your ideas in paragraphs. Decide on one main idea for each paragraph.
3. List down the points by code names on a rough piece of paper e.g. if you are answering a
question on reasons for the partition of Africa, you can write code names like raw
materials, markets, Christianity, investment, labour, prestige etc.
4. Always check the number of marks in brackets; meaning the number of marks indicates
the number of points you are required to raise for a particular question.
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5. Marks are not transferable from one part of the question to the other.
6. Always start with the question you think is the easiest for you.
7. Make sure that you attempt all questions in the paper. In this way, you will score more
marks unlike if you leave other questions unattended to.
A well written essay should have three parts namely; the introduction, the main body and the
conclusion.
INTRODUCTION
The introduction gives the reader/marker an idea of what the essay is about. It also indicates to
the reader how the question is going to be answered. The introduction can also contain
definitions and an outline of the points to be discussed. However, the introduction should be very
brief as it does not carry any marks.
MAIN BODY
This is where you now raise and expand points as demanded by the question.
 You write your points in paragraph form.
 Each point should form its own paragraph.
 Never write an essay in point form by using pointers e.g. -, *, numbering or writing subheadings. If you do so, you will be penalized by dividing whatever you get out of 20 by 2
 Observe rules of academic writing. Use capital letters where they are supposed to be e.g.
name of a person, country and when starting a sentence.
 Use appropriate punctuation marks e.g. comas, full stops etc
 Never use abbreviations in essays such as govt for government.
 Ensure you use the correct English and spellings.
CONCLUSION
This is the summary of the main body and it should be brief as it does not carry any marks.
Compiled by Mpolwa B (B.A.ED) © 2022
Page 97
Compiled by Mpolwa B (B.A.ED) © 2022
Page 98