APPLIED LINGUISTICS
Translation, interpreting & foreign language teaching
SUMMARY
I. Different views on translation: a linguistic theory of translation (1965)
1. Translation definition
- J.C.Catford(1965): translation is an operation performed on languages: a process of
substituting a text in one language for a text in another.
- Roger T.Bell(1991): translation is the expression another language (or target language)
of what has been expressed in another, source language, preserving semantic and stylistic
equivalences .
- General Linguistics is, primarily, a theory about how languages work. It provides
categories, drawn from generalizations based on observation of languages and languageevents.
- In order to account for language-events we make abstractions from these events:
abstractions of various types, or at a series of levels.
- The fundamental categories of linguistic theory applicable at least to the levels of
grammar, phonology and probably graphology are unit, structure, class and system.
- These three terms refer to three scales which are part of the general theory of language,
and of language-description.
- Lexis is that part of language which is not describable in terms of closed systems.
- General Linguistics is the general theory of how language works. It provides categories
which are applicable in all branches of linguistic science.
- General Phonetics is the theory of phonic substance: it provides categories which can be
used in the description of the distinctive phonic features of the phonological units of
particular languages.
- Descriptive Linguistics is the application and extension of general linguistic categories
in the description of particular languages.
- Comparative Linguistics is an extension of descriptive linguistics which establishes
relations between two or more languages. When the languages are separated in space, but
not time, it is Synchronic Comparative Linguistics. When they are separated in time, it is
Diachronic Comparative Linguistics.
- Applied Linguistics is a term used to cover all those applications of the theory and
categories of general linguistics which go beyond the elucidation of how languages work
and the description of a particular language or languages
2. General types
2.1 The theory of translation is a type of relation between languages and is consequently
a branch of Comparative Linguistics.
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Translation, as a process, is always uni-directional: it is always performed in a
given direction, 'from' a Source Language 'into' a Target Language.
SL = Source Language
TL = Target Language.
2.2 Translation may be defined as follows:

The replacement of textual material in one language (SL) by equivalent textual
material in another language (TL).
2.3 Full vs. Partial translation: this distinction relates to the extent (in a syntagmatic
sense) of SL text which is submitted to the translation process.
2.4 Total vs. Restricted translation - distinction relates to the levels of language involved
in translation.
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In “total” translation SL grammar and lexis are replaced by equivalent TL
grammar and lexis.
Restricted translation is translation performed only at the phonological or at the
graphological level, or at only one of the two levels of grammar and lexis.
In graphological translation SL graphology is replaced by equivalent TL
graphology, with no other replacements, except, again, accidental changes.
Phonological translation is practised deliberately by actors and mimics who
assume foreign or regional 'accents‘ though seldom in a self-conscious or fully
consistent way.
Both phonological and graphological translation must be included in a general
theory of translation because they help to dirow light on the conditions of
translation equivalence, and hence on the more complex process of total
translation.
2.5 Rank of Translation:
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A third type of differentiation in translation relates to the rank in a grammatical (or
phonological) hierarchy at which translation equivalence is established.
In rank-bound translation, an attempt is made always to select TL equivalents at
the same rank, e.g. word.
II. Issues of literary translation: A textbook of translation by Peter Newmark

Modern literary translators, reacting against a stiff and literary style, a periphrastic
study in a worn-out poetical fashion, neglected the intolerable wrestle with words
and meanings should continually pursue what is to them more natural, more
colloquial, more easy, more relaxed, than the original, which was not particularly
relaxed anyway.

They are often bilingual, perhaps anxious to transfer their own colloquial, easy,
non-academic, non-bogus French to their English translation. One reason, then, is
their relish for racy, earthy, idiomatic English, which is in flagrant contrast with a
neutral original.
III. Issues of scientific and technical translation
1. Technical style
 Technical translation is one part of specialised translation; institutional translation,
the area of politics, commerce, finance, government etc, is the other.
 Technical translation is primarily distinguished from other forms of translation by
terminology, although terminology usually only makes up about 5-10% of a text.
2. Technical and descriptive terms
 A further problem is the distinction between technical and descriptive terms. The
original SL writer may use a descriptive term for a technical object.
 Technical and descriptive terms should be translated by their counterparts and
resist the temptation of translating a descriptive by a technical term for the purpose
of showing off your knowledge
3. Translation method
 Both text and translation are “thing bound.” According to Barbara Folkart (1984)
'the latitude which the translator enjoys is subject only to the constraints of
register, and possibly, textual cohesion.
IV. Issues of interpreting:
1. Conception:
- As cited in Pochhacker (2004), Kade’s opinion is that in contrast to common usage as
reflected in most dictionaries, interpreting need not necessarily be equated with ‘oral
translation’.
-> Pochhacker (2004): interpreting can be distinguished from other types of translational
activity most precisely by its immediacy. Interpreting is performed ‘here and now’ for the
benefit of people who want to engage in communication across barriers of language and
culture
- Janzen (2005): interpreting involves understanding the ideas of one person inferred
from one linguistic structure and re-constructing them into another linguistic structure,
-> Viaggio (2006): The interpreter’s competence is his/her ability in good reproduction,
correct expressing, and in good use of appropriate registers
- 2 types: simultaneous and consecutive interpreting
2. Brief history of Interpreting:
- Gross (as cited in Soleymani 2011): Interpreting is an ancient human practice. Hermes
(The god of science and eloquence in Greek myths) was the god of interpreting, of quickwittedness, of wily improvisation, while translation, like writing itself, was a later
development
- Soleymani (2011), the ancient Greek word for interpreter is “Hermeneus” which means
mediator, go-between or deal-agent
- The English word ‘interpreter’ is derived from Latin ‘interpres’ means a person
explaining what is obscure (Pochhacker, 2004).
3. Interpreting vs Translating
According to Mahmoodzadeh (as cited in Amini, 2011), Riccardi (2002), Kopezynski
(as cited in Miremadi, 2001), Pochhacker (1995), Ronald (as cited in Neshati, 2007),
Seleskovitch (1978) and Asgari (2015):
ASPECT
SIMILARITIES Purpose
Role
DIFFERENCES The source
text
TRANSLATION
INTERPRETING
Seek to achieve a communicative purpose
Cultural mediators who may influence the way in which
a source text is perceived in the target language
- Refer to the
written transference of
meaning between two
languages
- Refer to the
oral transference of
meaning between two
languages
- translators had to focus on
the wording of a text
- Interpreter had to focus
on the sense of a text, not
by the words
-X
- Interpreters benefit from
the nonverbal language of
the speaker (the only
advantage over
translation)
Dr. Mehrabian: >50% of
any message is conveyed
through nonverbal
elements (facial
expressions, gestures,
posture, etc)
The target
text
- Can be easily modified
- Is more smooth, coherent,
comprehensible and
accurate
- Is structurally, lexically
target language oriented
- Is sometimes longer
than the original
- Can only be modified
quickly to a limited extent
- Is less smooth, coherent,
comprehensible and
accurate
- Is structurally, lexically
source language oriented.
- Is mostly shorter than
the original
The
subjects
X
occurs in the presence of
the authors and receptors
-> interaction
The
knowledge
Translators can gain
knowledge while translating
their text.
Before starting their
works, interpreters need
to acquire specific
knowledge
The
resources
Translator have access to
sources and references
(dictionaries, glossaries,
etc.) to produce an accurate
document
X
The time
translation is not necessarily
quick. So translators can
have plenty of time to
analyze the source text
the interpreter cannot be
slow because of the time
pressure
-> must rely on predicting
ability to save time
4. Some Important Issues on Interpreting
4.1: Powerful listening:
- (Resmiyanti, 2008 ): a good listening ability will help interpreters to avoid
misunderstanding of the source’s difficult pronounced words, spontaneous gestures or
anecdotes during the speech
- Based on Afsari’s (2012) opinion, listening can help interpreters to adapt themselves to
the speaker’s delivery to overcome both external and internal distractions, to get the gist
of the message, and to formulate their translations.
4.2: Discourse and meaning:
- Mollanazar (1997) emphasizes that: “discourse encompasses all the elements relevant in
communication: text and context. A text is explicit realization of the discourse. But the
hearer needs to use certain contextual assumptions (situational elements or shared
background knowledge) to interpret the whole message.”
- Seleskovitch (1978): The meaning of a message can only be apprehended when the
hearer considers possible intended meaning by comparing what is being said to what is
not being said
4.3: Memory:
- As cited in Mobaraki (2011), Janzen argues that both long term memory and short term
memory (or working memory) is critical in the field of interpreting, both simultaneous
and consecutive ones
- Short-term memory is critical for recalling immediate aspects of the source message,
and long-term memory gives the interpreter access to the source and target language
lexicon, grammar and discourse structure information.
- Information in working memory has a short duration of around 10-15 seconds
(Goldstein) -> need note-taking
4.4: Note-taking:
- The main use of notes is to relieve memory because although an interpreter may have
understood the main ideas of a speech, it is almost impossible for him/her to recall all the
elements of a long speech (esp. numbers, names)
- According to Amini (2011), for quick note-taking, an interpreter has to be
selective by jotting down only prominent words, which play key roles in sentence
semantics and use abbreviated forms of words
- Seleskovitch (1978) & Asli (2006): interpreter must discard the original lengthy
wording and retain only the concise ideas underlying the speaker’s text
4.5: Speed of interpreting:
- According to Amini (2011), speed of interpreting is related to some different factors
including speed of input, source-text complexity, strategies used by the interpreter,
interpreter’s knowledge regarding source or target language, and also the topic under
discussion, intonation patterns, and some other factors
4.6: Pronunciation:
- Mahmoodzadeh (2006) highlights that: “A significant features attributed to professional
interpreters is ability to understand all the variations of their working languages.
At the same time, they need to have a ‘standard’ pronunciation with any of the
internationally recognized accents so that they can easily be understood by both native
and non-native speakers.
V. The relationships between translation and interpreting and foreign language teaching
1. Overview:
For a very long time and across various educational contexts and
countries, translation was one of the most important tools for teaching and
assessing language competence. Ever since the emergence of the the direct, natural
communicative approach to language teaching, translation has gradually lost importance
both as a teaching and as an assessment tool because of its close association with
The old grammar translation teaching method. However, the situation seems to start
being reversed lately. Developments within Translation Studies have motivated Language
Teaching and Assessment to rediscover translation as a useful tool.
2. Scholars and teachers’ beliefs:
2.1: Opposition to the application of Translation in Foreign language teaching:
(1) Translation is an artificial exercise in which the main emphasis is on reading and
writing and students do not practice oral skills (Zabalbeascoa, 1990, p. 76).
(2) Translation tasks are useless and do not resemble real world practice, since translators
normally operate into and not out of their mother tongue (Carreres, 2006).
(3) Translation provides a simplistic and false belief that there is a perfect one-to-one
relationship between the native language and the foreign language (Malmkjaer, 2010, p.
186).
(4) Translation involves the use of two languages and, thus, deprives students of
opportunities to receive sufficient FL input (Pan and Pan, 2012, p. 4), since “in deciding
how far we are justified in using the learner’s mother tongue, we must remember that the
time spent using it is time not spent using the foreign language” (Wilkins, 1974, p. 83).
(5) Translation is a boring and non-stimulating task (Duff, 1989) and can be particularly
frustrating and de-motivating for students (Carreres, 2006).
2.2: Proposition to the application of Translation in Foreign language teaching:
a. In teaching , learning
- criticisms against it are not valid
(1’) We should bear in mind that, on the one hand, translation includes listening and
speaking due to teacher and students’ interaction discussing problems related to the
translation task (Leonardi, 2010, p. 24) and translation tasks, besides, could also include
sight translation and interpreting practice. Not only that, if properly designed, TILT can
be used to enhance the four skills of reading, writing, listening and speaking and develop
accuracy, clarity and flexibility (Duff, 1989, p. 7). As a matter of fact, translation is
sometimes considered the fifth skill, alongside the four other skills and, therefore, it can
be a valuable tool to develop and improve communicative competence (Ross, 2000).
Besides, as Cook (2010, p. 20) puts it, “being able to translate is a major component of
bilingual communicative competence”.
(2’) Translation is indeed an act of communication across languages and cultures, as it is
a naturally occurring activity that takes place in the real world. As Duff states “translation
happens everywhere, all the time, so why not in the classroom?” (Duff, 1989, p. 6). In
addition, as a communicative act, TILT can expose FL students to various text types,
registers, styles, contexts, etc. that resemble the way languages are used in real-life for
communicative purposes.
(3’) Translation practice can raise students’ awareness on the fact that, as a rule, there is
not a perfect one-to-one correspondence between the languages involved. They can
understand the problematic nature of translation and focus on linguistic, extralinguistic
and cultural gaps between the two languages (Fernández Guerra, 2012, p. 42).
(4’) The assumption that the only language that can be used during a FL class should be
the FL being taught, and that students should be discouraged from using their native
language is now being increasingly challenged, due to the “reassessment of the merits of
relating the language being taught to students’ own languages” (Hall and Cook, 2012, p.
272). According to Butzkamm and Caldwell (2009, p. 13) using the native language in
the classroom is “the greatest pedagogical resource” and can enhance learners’
confidence and focus on meaning.
(5’) Translation tasks do not necessarily have to be boring or de-motivating for students.
Many researchers support the idea that translation is a motivating activity (Mogahed,
2011) and, at all events, the success of TILT lies in its correct use as a working and
learning tool, with appropriate activities that help students to contrast their native and
foreign languages, to improve their language skills, and to see the usefulness of the task.
Likewise, as Carreres indicates (2006, p. 7), it can be a quite stimulating task, since
“translation, by its very nature, is an activity that invites discussion and, in my
experience, students are only too happy to contribute to it, often defending their version
with remarkable passion and persuasiveness”.
- (O’Malley and Chamot, 1990)Translation has mostly been recognized and used as a
cognitive strategy in reading , and considered a convenient method to verify
comprehension of the source text (Vinay and Darbelnet, 1995)
- (Tsagari and Floros, 2013) It was found that translation did help students in reading
comprehension, based on their performance on answering reading comprehension
questions. Translation is useful in monitoring student reading comprehension capability.
To be more specific, the translation tasks urge students to read closely the paragraphs to
understand every term and sentence instead of quickly browsing the text (common in
reading comprehension) -> gave students the opportunity to further understand the
original text
b: In assessment:
+ Buck (1992) examined the reliability and validity of a translation-reading test in two
studies. The satisfactory reports of both studies showed that translation
tests had acceptable construct validity without nearly any method effect
+ Chang (2006) applied both the immediate written recall task and a translation task to
explore the effect of memory on reader recall, and found that the translation task
provided considerably
more comprehension evidence than did the immediate written recall task.
+ (Tsagari and Floros, 2013)
- good translation grades indicate high comprehension of the original text -> translation
can be a good reading comprehension assessment tool
- Translation should not be used as the reading comprehension assessment tool for nonEnglish majors because: they tend to interpret the paragraph in their own manner and
answer the question based on their own understanding, not that of the author -> cannot
answer correctly on a generalized idea of a paragraph
- The translation assessment method indicates student understanding of the original in
accuracy, and language competence in using their mother tongue to represent the original
meaning
- L2 instructors can take advantage of translation to design their curriculum for
students with lower reading comprehension competence. By analyzing the Translation
products of students, teachers can detect and foresee which questions their students tend
to make mistakes to design their own comprehension questions. ( exp: most non English
majors encounter difficulties in understanding the main idea of passages. Hence, L2
instructors could omit questions concerning reading details and supplement them with
more questions regarding
general ideas for more practice)
3. Students’ attitude:
- (Guerra, 2014): students’ attitudes were surprisingly positive for several reasons:
translation is one of their preferred language learning tasks, it is motivating, it facilitates a
deeper understanding of the form and content of the source language text, it increases
learners’ awareness of the differences between both linguistic systems, it allows them to
re-express their thoughts faster and easier, and it helps them acquire linguistic and
cultural knowledge. (exp: translating idioms - as strong as a horse)
- Carreres’s (2006) most of participants (third year students of
modern languages at the University of Cambridge) believed that translation into
the FL was a very useful language learning device, especially when learning vocabulary.
Half of the students also considered that translation was among the most effective
methods to learn a language, though not all of them found translation activities enjoyable
or gratifying
- Liao’s study (2006) Taiwanese EFL learners showed a medium to high level use of
translation as a learning strategy. They also reported that translation played a positive role
in their English learning experiences, but more proficient learners tended to report
negative beliefs about translation and less use of Translation
- Kavaliauskienë and Kaminskienë (2007) (survey of students’ perceptions of the amount
of mother tongue they needed and mental translation they used in Learning ESP). All
learners rely on their mother tongue in learning ESP, and that the amount of native
language needed is determined by their proficiency level and linguistic situations
- Rolin-Ianziti and Varshney (2008) (beginner learners of
French): translation was preferred to perform classroom management and had a positive
affective role, since it may alleviate classroom anxiety, though translation was considered
de-motivating
- Finally, Ashouri and Fotovatnia (2010): (Iranian EFL learners) whether risk taking and
tolerance of ambiguity had any effect on learners’ beliefs about translation in language
teaching. They concluded that only risk-taking affected learners’ beliefs and
that learners taking risks had negative belief about translation.
- (Guerra, 2014): translation helps to contrast the students’ native language with the FL,
so one could affirm, in line with Widdowson (2003, p. 23), that “the activity of
comparing and contrasting the L1 with the target language is a manner of promoting
language awareness”.
- reasons for usefulness in the application of translation in language learning: the
discussion translation problems (to improve speaking ability and to better explain how
the FL functions, and to improve text comprehension), raising students’ awareness of the
need to express themselves in their native language with correctness and appropriateness
and become critical users of their own native tongue), critically analyse and succinctly
express the nature of specific translation problems”
4. Problems students encounter in the application of translation in foreign language
learning:
(1) Problems due to differences between both linguistic systems.
(2) Text type problems: specific function of the text, subject-matter, etc.
(3) Register problems: formal language, colloquial language, dialects, sociolects, and any
other deviation from standard language.
(4) Cultural problems: culture-specific terms, differences between cultures, etc.
(5) Stylistic problems: translating poetry, puns, humour, metaphors, etc.
(6) Historical-temporal problems: historical issues, texts that are temporally distant, etc.
(7) Lack of resources: dictionaries, encyclopaedias, style books, etc.
(8) Time available: not enough time to carry out the task
The main translation problems for English majored students were stylistic issue, then
linguistic problems and, in third place, cultural differences; whereas for non English
majors, the primary concern had to do with linguistic differences, followed by lack of
resources and lack of time in order to successfully complete the task
5. Suggestions for application of translating in FL teaching:
- Alrefaai (2013)
+ Use authentic material
+ Don’t translate in a communicative vacuum
+ Translate for an audience
+ Use a variety of materials
+ Deal with linguistic difficulties immediately
- Some suggested activities (Kaye, 2009 on British Council website)
+ classroom activities
Learner groups work on translating different sections of a text, and then regroup to
connect together their parts into a full text, with suitable connecting language.
Learners bring in examples of L1 language (in their own country) or L2 (in another
country) for discussion and translation. Signs can be particularly interesting. This can
also be done by sharing material via group e-mails.
Learners bring in short texts/proverbs/poems and present them to the class, explaining
why they like them. These are then used for translation.
+ Comparisons
Learners work in groups on short texts then regroup and compare their versions, before
producing a final text. This can then be compared with an ‘official' published version.
Learners translate and then other learners back translate, then compare versions and
discuss why there are differences.
Learners look at ‘bad' translations and discuss the causes of errors. Translation software
programmes and web pages are good sources of these (see below).
Ask learners to find different kinds of texts for comparison and translation, for example
recipes, e-mails, graffiti, technical texts, post-its, etc.
+ Project work
Learners translate the script of a scene from a film, then dub over the scene itself with
their new version in the L2.
Learners develop a webpage or blog with their own translated work.
Learners participate in live online forums such as Word Reference (see below).
Learners research and then present their findings on the translations of a particular group
of words, such as those of their own professional field.
Learners evaluate translation software/web pages and then report back to the group.
There are also several recent studies explicitly proposing different types of Translation in
Language Teaching such as research by Cook (2010, p. 125-153), who makes specific
suggestions for teachers who do not share students’ native languages; Carreres and
Noriega Sánchez (2011), who propose some sample translation-based tasks; or Leonardi
(2010, p. 85-118), who provides pedagogical activities using authentic materials.