COMMUNICATION
STUDIES
FOR CAPE® EXAMINATIONS
VERONICA SIMON
SANDRA OSBORNE
CAPE® is a registered trade mark of the Caribbean
Examinations Council (CXC). COMMUNICATION
STUDIES for CAPE® EXAMINATIONS 2nd Edition is an
independent publication and has not been authorised,
sponsored, or otherwise approved by CXC.
Macmillan Education
4 Crinan Street
London N1 9XW
A division of Macmillan Publishers Limited
Companies and representatives throughout the world
www.macmillan-caribbean.com
ISBN 978-0-230-48699-7 AER
Text © Veronica Simon and Sandra Osborne 2009, 2014
Design and illustration © Macmillan Publishers Limited 2009, 2014
First published 2009
Second edition published 2014
All rights reserved; no part of this publication may be reproduced, stored
in a retrieval system, transmitted in any form, or by any means, electronic,
mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior
written permission of the publishers.
Designed by J&D Glover Ltd.
Typeset by J&D Glover Ltd.
Illustrated by Jen Glover p4; Val Saunders pp6, 40, 41, 42, 61, 71, 162, 163,
216, 247; Tony Wilkins pp50, 63, 101, 134, 135; Gary Wing pp5, 7, 11, 12,
13, 14, 16, 17, 23, 24, 27, 28, 31, 46, 55, 68, 70, 80, 87, 89, 101, 115, 118,
126, 142, 146, 169, 177, 189, 196, 215, 235, 242, 245
Cover design by Clare Webber
Picture research by Alison Prior
The author and publishers would like to thank the following for permission
to reproduce their photographs:
Alamy/Asia Images Group Ltd p2 (tl), Alamy/Steve Bly p21(l), Alamy/
Jeff Greenberg p160(cl), Alamy/ Barbara Ludman/Witness Photos p19(l),
Alamy/Michael Ventura p99; www.Cartoonstock.com pp15(r), 82, 121,
150, 164, 165, 171,184, 187, 222, 224, 228, 232, 247, 250; Corbis/Daniel
Aguilar/Reuters p110, Corbis/Ocean p21(r); Fotolibra/Jeff Greenberg
p96(bl); Getty Images pp94, 104, Getty Images/Michael Melford/Image
Bank p122, Getty Images/Juan Silva p36, 38(br); King Features p88;
Macmillan Publishers Ltd pp96(t), 160(b); Rex Features/Dinodia/
Stock Connection p38(bl), Devon Shaw p2(br); Superstock p22;
Thinkstock pp2(cl), 102, 160(tl).
Additional photography by Sandra Osborne and Veronica Simon
pp2(tr,bl), 15(l), 18, 19(r), 38(tr, tl, cr), 96(br), 139,160(tr), 171(b), 180.
Cover photo courtesy of Getty Images/John Lund
The author(s) and publishers are grateful for permission to reprint the
following copyright material:
Alisa Shubb for the diagram “Communication model” from www.geocities.
com/Athens/Forum/7908/modelof.htm copyright © Alisa Shubb 1999;
Macmillan Education for: an illustration taken from Academic Writing
from paragraph to essay (formerly entitled College Writing), copyright ©
Dorothy E Zemach & Lisa A Rumisek 2003; material taken from Noises in
the Blood copyright © Carolyn Cooper 1993; ‘You Can Lead A Horse To
Water’ published in More Champions of the Gayelle copyright © Winston
V Saunders 2005; and ‘Duelling Voices’ published in Champions of the
Gayelle copyright © Zeno Obi Constance 2002, used with permission of
Macmillan Education
Pearson Education Ltd for an extract from The Victims by Isidore
Okpewho, Longman, 1987. Reproduced with permission from Pearson
Education Ltd;
Penguin Books Ltd for an extract from The Mother Tongue: The English
Language by Bill Bryson, published by Hamish Hamilton, 1990, copyright
© 1990 Bill Bryson. Reprinted by permission of Penguin Books Ltd;
Penguin Books (UK) Ltd for The Diary of a Young Girl: The Definitive
Edition by Anne Frank, edited by Otto H Frank and Mirjam Pressler,
translated by Susan Massotty,Viking, 1997 copyright © The Anne FrankFonds, Basle, Switzerland, 1991. English translation copyright © 1995 by
Doubleday, a division of Random House LLC. Used by permission of
Doubleday, an imprint of Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group, a division of
Random House LLC. All rights reserved;
The Liat Islander, FT Caribbean for details about Rain Forest Aerial Trams
from LIAT Islander Issue 74, Nov 2006.p. 64. Reproduced with the kind
permission of Edna Fortescue;
Christopher and Joy St John for part of poem ‘Bajan Language’ by Bruce St
John, 1982. Reproduced with permission;
Sangster’s Book Stores Limited for the poems “Noh Likkle Twang” and
“Dry Foot Bwoy” from Jamaica Labrish by Louise Bennet. Copyright ©
1966 by Sangster’s Book Stores Limited. Used by Permission of Sangster’s
Book Stores Limited. All rights reserved.
UWI Press for extracts from Dread Talk - the Language of Youth by Velma
Pollard copyright © 1994; and ‘Students and their attitudes to language’
from chapter ‘Language in the classroom’ in Evans, H. (2001). Inside
Jamaican Schools. Jamaica University of the West Indies Press, granted with
permission of UWI Press;
United Bible Societies for an extract from Jan 3:16 du Testeman NefLa Epi An Posyon An Liv Samz-la. copyright © Bible Society in the East
Caribbean (1999);
Dr David A Victor and Cengage Learning, Inc for an extract from
‘Barriers Affecting Cross-cultural Business Communication’ by Dr David
A Victor http://www.referenceforbusiness.com/encyclopedia/Cos-Des/
Cross-Cultural-International-Communication.html originally published
in Encyclopedia of Management 5/ed copyright © 2006, Gale, a part of
Cengage Learning, Inc. www.cengage.com/permissions. Reproduced by
permission of David Victor and Cengage Learning, Inc;
Learning Point Associates for an extract from “Interactive Communication”
from enGauge 21st Century Skills - Literacy in the Digital Age, copyright
© 2003 by the North Central Regional Educational Laboratory and the
Metiri Group. All rights reserved.
American Psychological Association and Dr Rosen for the article “Social
Networking’s Good and Bad Impacts on Kids” by Dr Larry D. Rosen, 6
August 2011 http://www.apa.org/news/press/releases/2011/08/socialkids.aspx. copyright © 2011 by the American Psychological Association.
Reproduced with permission of American Psychological Association and
Dr Rosen;
Calaloux Publications for an extract from The Knots in English: a manual
for Caribbean users by Merle Hodge, 1997 granted with kind permission
from Calaloux Publications;
Shirley Hall for an extract and the recipe ‘Plenty of Plantains’ by Shirley
Hall published in Caribbean Compass Oct 2006 no. 133 copyright ©
Shirley Hall;
The Random House Group Ltd for an extract from ‘A note on cricket’
from Beyond a Boundary by C. L. R. James, published by Vintage. Reprinted
with permission of The Random House Group Limited;
Barbara Tyne for an extract from ‘Ivan the Terrible Invades Grenada’ & ‘The
Terrible Toll’ by Tom Tyne published in A Whole New Altitude, Issue 15 by
West Indies Publishing Ltd. Granted with kind permission;
Barrons Educational Series, Inc. for 8 points from 10 Steps in Writing the
Research Paper. Barrons 6th Edition by Markham Roberta, Markham Peter
& Waddel Marie 2001;
American Psychological Association for an extract from Publication Manual
of the American Psychological Association, www.apastyle.org/pubmanual.
html, p.200, copyright © by the American Psychological Association;
Hansib Publications for an extract from ‘A giant step for all of us’ by Errol
Barrow. From Yussuff, Haniff (ed.) 1987, Speeches by Errol Barrow, Hansib
Publishing Ltd, London.
Every effort has been made to trace the copyright holders, but if any have
been inadvertently overlooked the publishers will be pleased to make the
necessary arrangements at the first opportunity.
iii
CONTENTS
Unit / Chapter
Preface
Unit 1
Page
Specific objectives
The skills you learn in this
chapter pertain to Module 3:
Speaking and Writing
2 Describe process of
communication
11 Describe uses of communication
technologies in the learning
process
The skills you learn in this
chapter pertain to Module 3:
Speaking and Writing
3 Apply communication concepts
4 Apply specific features of verbal
and non-verbal communications
and contexts of use
The skills you learn in this
chapter pertain to Module 3:
Speaking and Writing
3 Apply communication concepts
4 Apply specific features of verbal
and non-verbal communications
and contexts of use
vii
Describing Communication
Chapter 1 The Communication Process
3
Introduction
1.1 What is communication?
1.2 Elements of the communication process
1.3 How the process works
• Encoding
• Selecting medium/channel
• Decoding and interpretation
• Feedback
• Communication barriers and facilitators
Conclusion
Evaluation and extension
3
3
4
5
5
6
6
7
9
9
10
Chapter 2 Forms of Communication
11
Introduction
2.1 Verbal communication
2.2 Non-verbal communication
• Body language
• Proxemics
• Kinesics
• Chronemics
• Dress
• Graphics and symbols
• Paralanguage
Conclusion
Evaluation and extension
11
11
13
15
16
17
18
18
21
22
23
24
Chapter 3 Contexts of Communication
25
Introduction
3.1 Intrapersonal context
3.2 Interpersonal context
3.3 Small group context
• The discussion board
3.4 Organisational context
3.5 Academic context
3.6 Intercultural context
Conclusion
Evaluation and extension
End of unit test 1
25
25
26
29
29
30
32
32
33
34
35
Unit 2
CAPE syllabus section
Understanding Communication in Society
Chapter 4 Defining Language
39
Introduction
4.1 Characteristics of language
4.2 Purposes of language
• Expressive purposes
• Informative purposes
• Cognitive purposes
• Poetic purposes
• Phatic purposes
• Metalinguistic purposes
39
40
44
44
45
45
46
46
47
The skills you learn in this
chapter pertain to Module 2:
Language and Community
2 Discuss concept of language
3 Identify features of a Creole
vernacular
4 Explain challenges faced by Creole
speaker in learning Caribbean
Standard English
8 Assess use of registers, dialects,
formality in interactive settings
iv
CONTENTS
Unit / Chapter
Page
4.3
Language variation
• Syntax
• Vocabulary
4.4 Creole
• Some characteristics of Caribbean Creole
Conclusion
Evaluation and extension
48
50
50
51
52
55
56
Chapter 5 Language in Society
57
Introduction
5.1 The modern language situation
5.2 Factors influencing language
• Historical factors
• Social factors
• Cultural factors
• Political factors
5.3 Language situation in the Caribbean
5.4 Attitudes to language
5.5 Choice of language
Conclusion
Evaluation and extension
57
58
59
59
60
60
61
61
64
70
72
73
Chapter 6 Technology, Culture and
76
CAPE syllabus section
Specific objectives
The skills you learn in this
chapter pertain to Module 2:
Language and Community
5 Evaluate role of language in
Caribbean identity
6 Analyse roles of language in
human societies
7 Describe a territory in terms of
range of languages, historical
factors and attitudes to language
8 Assess use of registers, dialects,
formality in interactive settings
10 Examine how communication is
affected and effected by the use of
technology
The skills you learn in this
chapter pertain to Module 2:
Language and Community
5 Evaluate role of language in
Caribbean identity
7 Describe a territory in terms of
range of languages, historical
factors and attitudes to language
8 Assess use of registers, dialects,
formality in interactive settings
9 Identify technologies that have
impacted on communications
10 Examine how communication is
affected and effected by the use of
technology
The skills you learn in this
chapter pertain to Module
1: Gathering and Processing
Information
1 Speak and write using grammar,
vocabulary, mechanics and
conventions of Caribbean Standard
English
2 Identify formats, features and
expressions of different genres and
types of writing and speech
4 Apply comprehension to spoken
and written material
Communication
Introduction
6.1 Culture and communication
6.2 Technology and communication
6.3 Technology and culture
Conclusion
Evaluation and extension
End of unit test 2
Unit 3
76
77
81
83
90
91
92
Interpreting Communication
Chapter 7 Comprehending Information
97
Introduction
7.1 Process of comprehension
• Pre-reading/listening
• During reading/listening
• Post-reading/listening
7.2 Levels of comprehension
• Literal level
• Interpretive level
• Applied level
7.3 Listening
• The listening process
• Purposes of listening
7.4 Reading
7.5 Applying the levels of comprehension
• Responding to argumentative writing
• Responding to persuasive writing
7.6 Understanding word meaning
Conclusion
Evaluation and extension
97
97
98
98
98
99
100
100
100
101
101
101
102
103
115
118
120
123
124
v
Unit / Chapter
Page
Chapter 8 Summarising Information
126
Introduction
8.1 Distinguishing main and subsidiary ideas
8.2 Note-making
• Linear outlines
• Graphic organisers
Conclusion
Evaluation and extension
126
127
130
132
133
135
136
Chapter 9 Researching Information
139
Introduction
9.1 Types of research
• Types of primary research
9.2 Data/information
9.3 Instruments
9.4 Population
9.5 Reliability and validity
• Reliability
• Validity
9.6 Evaluating sources
9.7 Acknowledging sources
• Direct quotation
• Paraphrasing
• Précis
• Summary
• Plagiarism
9.8 References and bibliographies
• Citing sources from the Internet
Conclusion
Evaluation and extension
End of unit test 3
139
140
140
141
142
142
144
144
145
145
149
149
149
149
149
150
150
153
153
154
155
Unit 4
CAPE syllabus section
Specific objectives
The skills you learn in this
chapter pertain to Module
1: Gathering and Processing
Information
1 Speak and write using grammar,
vocabulary, mechanics and
conventions of Caribbean Standard
English
2 Identify formats, features and
expressions of different genres and
types of writing and speech
5 Write continuous prose and noteform summaries
The skills you learn in this
chapter pertain to Module
1: Gathering and Processing
Information
3 Assess appropriateness of data
collection methods, including use
of the Internet
6 Evaluate primary and secondary
sources
7 Gather information about current
issues
8 Evaluate information about
current issues
9 Present evaluation of 8 in oral or
written form
The skills you learn in this
chapter pertain to Module 3:
Speaking and Writing
1 Speak and write using grammar,
vocabulary, mechanics and
conventions of Caribbean Standard
English
4 Apply specific features of verbal
and non-verbal communications
and contexts of use
5 Describe mental and social
processes of speech and writing
6 Use appropriately non-verbal
elements and modes of speech and
writing
8 Speak in Caribbean Standard
English
9 Use appropriate organising and
formatting strategies
10 Evaluate own communication
Structuring Communication
Chapter 10 Speaking
161
Introduction
10.1 Basic speech skills
• Articulation
• Enunciation
• Voice control
• Usage
• Word choice
• Audience–speaker rapport
• Dress
10.2 Preparing speeches
10.3 Components of the speech
• Introduction
• The body
• Conclusion
10.4 Types of speech
• Informative
• Persuasive
• Debates
10.5 Delivering your speech
Conclusion
Evaluation and extension
161
162
162
162
163
163
164
164
164
164
165
165
166
167
167
167
167
170
171
175
176
vi
CONTENTS
Unit / Chapter
Page
Chapter 11 Writing
177
Introduction
11.1 The writing process
• Pre-writing
• Drafting
• Revising
• Editing and proofreading
11.2 Types of writing
• Literary writing
• Reflective writing
• Expository writing
• Persuasive/argumentative writing
11.3 Writing with style
• Style problems
11.4 Examination tips
Conclusion
Evaluation and extension
177
178
179
184
185
188
189
189
190
191
199
200
201
205
205
206
Chapter 12 Organising Skills
209
Introduction
12.1 Components of academic writing
• The introduction
• The body
• The conclusion
• Linkages
• Internal cohesion
12.2 Formatting business communication
• Memos
• The letter
• The résumé
• The curriculum vitae
• Writing reports
Conclusion
Evaluation and extension
209
210
210
211
212
213
214
215
215
217
221
222
224
226
227
Chapter 13 Applying the Rules
228
Introduction
13.1 Sentence structure
13.2 Fragments
13.3 Run-on sentences
13.4 Dangling or misplaced modifiers
13.5 Verbs
• Subject/verb agreement
• Tense
• Active and passive voice
13.6 Pronouns
• Pronoun shifts
13.7 Possessives
13.8 Commonly misused words
13.9 Spelling
13.10 Punctuation
Conclusion
Evaluation and extension
End of unit test 4
228
229
230
231
231
233
233
235
239
241
242
243
244
246
247
250
251
252
Practice examination papers
Index
254
262
CAPE syllabus section
The skills you learn in this
chapter pertain to Module 3:
Speaking and Writing
Specific objectives
3 Apply communication concepts
4 Apply specific features of verbal
and non-verbal communications
and contexts of use
5 Describe mental and social
processes of speech and writing
10 Evaluate own communication
The skills you learn in this
chapter pertain to Module 3:
Speaking and Writing
9 Use appropriate organising and
The skills you learn in this
chapter pertain to Modules 1, 2
and 3
1 Speak and write using grammar,
vocabulary, mechanics and
conventions of Caribbean Standard
English
formatting strategies
vii
Preface
Communication Studies aims at creating an awareness
of the complexity of the process of human
communication. It is written for the post secondary
and tertiary student who must develop a thorough
understanding of how language, the central aspect
of communication, can be managed and manipulated
for personal and national development.
Content
Unit 1 – Describing Communication: explains the communication process and the number of impediments
to the process that can result in ineffective communication. The use of various forms of communication,
verbal and non-verbal, is explored. Students are also able to understand how the different contexts within
which communication takes place affect and determine the nature of communication.
Unit 2 – Understanding Communication in Society: explores the nature of language and how it functions in
various contexts. The factors influencing language in Caribbean society are also examined. Students are able
to appreciate the relationship of language to cultural identity and to understand the impact of technology on
aspects of communication.
Unit 3 – Interpreting Communication: focuses on gathering and processing information and the development
of receptive skills. Students learn how to apply the process of comprehension to listening and reading and
how to organise information coherently for ease of review and study. The key concepts of research are
introduced so that students are able to carry out simple research and present reports.
Unit 4 – Structuring Communication: emphasises the importance of effective speaking and writing.
Awareness of audience and context underlies the processes of speech and writing. Students understand
how to structure communication logically by applying a variety of organising skills. The unit also focuses on
applying the rules of English by creating an awareness of the typical errors made by students at that level.
Approaches
The text employs a learner-centred communicative style that encourages students to stop and think as they read.
Students are encouraged to examine their own practices, thoughts and attitudes as well as those of the society in
which they live. The following features facilitate accessibility:
viii
Preface
Activities
l. Exploration and consolidation activities appear throughout the text after concepts have been introduced. Many of
them are designed to help students arrive at their own understanding of a concept. Activities require a student to
carry out the range of communicative behaviours, like group work, research, talking to people in the community,
observing and creating graphic material.
2. Evaluation and extension activities occur at the end of each chapter so that students may review the main aspects
of the chapter and also use their acquired knowledge in applied tasks. The extension activities ensure that the
students are actively engaged in communication.
3. End of unit tests provide the opportunity for evaluation and offer opportunities for practising CAPE examinationtype questions. A complete CAPE examination-type practice paper is also provided for time practice.
4. Resources and additional readings are indicated at the end of each unit. In addition, there is a website that
provides both student and teacher resources including passages for language analysis, sample questions and
model answers for all sections of CAPE Communication Studies examinations and links to other useful websites:
www.macmillan-caribbean.com.
Text boxes
These generally contain examples of what is being taught or passages from a variety of sources that exemplify the
array of purposes of language. Extracts are expected to stimulate discussion and the desire for further reading.
Did you know?
These are useful bits of trivia related to language and communication used through the text to stimulate thought,
interest and discussion. They can also be used to further general research activities.
Layout
The use of strategically placed graphics and the use of colour exemplify the importance of non-verbal aspects of
communication. They also encourage ease of interaction with the text.
New terms are introduced in bold and the definition given at the same time. Key definitions are featured in the
left-hand margin.
Note to the student
Effective communication depends not only on understanding the skills you need but also on practising them regularly
so that you are eventually able to use them automatically or proficiently. Therefore, you should try to complete all the
activities and exercises in this text. They are designed to help you to develop the type of thinking and approaches that
characterise an effective communicator. Readers learn to read by reading and writers learn to write by writing. These
skills cannot be learnt in theory; therefore it is important to read and write often on your own without depending only
on assignments from your teacher. No matter what you read or write, practise applying the strategies that you learn in
this text. Eventually, you will do this automatically, without needing to refer to the text.
A major focus of this book is developing your awareness of language around you. Use the listening skills that you learn
in every listening situation. Pay close attention to how people use words to influence opinions and evoke a desired
response. You also need to pay attention to your own oral communication skills and practise speaking clearly and
confidently.
No single textbook has all the information that you need to know. Additional reading and reference material is provided at
the end of each unit so that you can increase your knowledge on the topics taught and deepen your understanding of issues.
ix
Note to the teacher
Communication is a wide area of interrelated topics. Therefore this text is not designed to be used in a strictly
chronological fashion. The division into units is simply to ensure that all communication skills are addressed; however,
you may find it useful to direct students to make correlations between the expressive and receptive skills. For example,
when they critically evaluate through reading what and how writers write in Unit Three, they must be able to transfer this
skill to the writing that they produce in Unit Four. The relationship between writer and reader and speaker and listener
should be emphasised by making references back and forth between sections of the text.
In addition, students should recognise that the processes of speaking and writing are linked as are those of listening and
reading. They should be encouraged to compare these processes as part of developing awareness and critical thinking.
You will notice that communication is not treated as a subject, but as an ongoing activity. Students are expected to
engage in reflecting, interpreting, questioning, talking, observing, creating and presenting in each chapter. This is
communication at work. There are a number of group activities that enable students to make use of the unarticulated
communication skills such as collaborating and negotiating. You should use as many opportunities as possible to allow
students to discuss and present in groups while ensuring that students assume various roles in their groups. At this level,
students are expected to be very independent learners and they should be allocated specific responsibilities in finding
out information and disseminating to their peers. The book addresses the student directly, in keeping with the studentcentred approach to learning, where the teacher operates as facilitator and guide.
For those of you teaching CAPE Communication Studies you will note that at the beginning of each chapter, the relevant
specific syllabus objectives are identified. This allows greater ease of linkage to the syllabus document.
1
Describing
Communication
Humans cannot help but communicate. According to
some experts, communication begins from the womb
as the baby responds to different stimuli. After birth,
human beings learn that crying gains the attention of
the nurturer and laughter encourages a shared happiness.
As we continue to grow we acquire language skills or
signing skills that allow us to communicate in more
complex ways. This unit explores the different ways and
means that human beings use to communicate. It also
looks at how communication is affected and shaped
by the tools employed to facilitate it as well as by the
contexts in which it occurs.
Expected Learning Outcomes
On completing this unit, you should be able to:
1 distinguish among the major forms of communication and assess the
appropriateness of their use in specific communication situations
2 select different forms, media, channels and technologies of
communication to effect communication in specific contexts
3 evaluate examples of written and spoken communication, taking into
consideration the form and content of the communication and the
context in which it is presented or constructed.
2
UNIT 1: DESCRIBING COMMUNICATION
CHAPTER 1: THE COMMUNICATION PROCESS
1
The Communication
Process
In any discussion of communication we must first have a clear understanding
of what communication is. Second, we must recognise that the act of
communication is actually an entire process. There is also a need to clarify
the difference between the elements or components of the communication
process and the process itself.
In this chapter we will explore the communication process by examining the
elements of the process and how the process works.
The skills you learn in this chapter pertain to Module 3 and Specific Objectives 2 and 11.
Expected Learning Outcomes
On completing this chapter, you should be able to:
1 discuss the concept of communication
2 identify the elements of the communication process
3 describe the process of communication
4 explain the barriers to the communication process
5 explain how technology is used with the communication process.
Introduction
Definition
According to the
Oxford Dictionary,
communication is
the act of imparting,
especially news. The
Collins Dictionary defines
it as the transfer of
information as facts,
wishes or emotions, from
a source to a receiver.
Think of your daily life and make a mental list of all the things you do. How often do you
ask for information, give information, change your facial expressions, read the expressions
of others, telephone your cousin, lean forward to listen, shake your head in disbelief or
wave to a friend? Have you ever given these daily activities a second thought? Now
imagine that you were not able to do any of those things; what would your life be like?
A large percentage of our lives is spent communicating formally or informally; but we
are not normally aware of it. However, in order to communicate effectively, we must be
aware of how we communicate and the specific skills that we use to do so.
1.1 What is communication?
Both these definitions capture the essence of what communication is. Communication
involves the transfer of information, whether it be facts, wishes, emotions or news, from a
source to a receiver.
Most animals communicate in some way, either through noises or movement. Have
you noticed that dogs have different sounding barks depending on whether they are
welcoming, alerting you to the presence of a visitor, threatening to attack or wanting to
play? Similarly, they wag their tails rapidly when happy or excited but either keep them
still or wave them very slowly when angry. Anger is also accompanied by rising hackles.
3
4
UNIT 1: DESCRIBING COMMUNICATION
The fact that we are able to assign meaning to these movements means that some form of
communication is taking place. If the threatening message is directed at another animal,
it may respond by running away, while a welcoming bark on the arrival of an owner may
result in a pat on the head. As you read on, you will realise that, while some of the basic
aspects of communication can be ascribed to animal behaviour, the linguistic or language
aspect is peculiar to humans.
Linguistic researchers agree that we spend approximately 70 per cent of our time awake
engaged in some form of communication and, of that time, roughly 40 per cent is spent
listening, 30 per cent speaking, 15 per cent reading and 10 per cent writing. No matter
what type of communication we are engaged in, human communication occurs through a
process and it is important to understand how the elements of the process work together.
1.2 Elements of the communication process
Sender
(encoding)
CHANNEL
Message
Receiver
(decoding)
Feedback
Fig. 1.1 Model of communication
Alisa Shubb
The diagram above illustrates the five basic elements in the communication process.
The first of these is the sender or source. This is the person or entity from which the
message or information flows. Of course the message conveyed is the second element
in the process. The sender must establish or use
some means of communicating the message
ACTIVITY 1.1
and this is the channel or medium. There must
1 Observe the animals around
be a target for that message and that person or
you. Note the ways in which they
entity is considered a receiver who, as the name
communicate with each other and
suggests, receives the message. Finally, feedback
with humans.
or response is given. Let us use an example to
2 Discuss how babies and young
illustrate the elements of the communication
children communicate.
process.You are away at university and your
3 How do you think children learn
language? Discuss this with your
parent wants to inform you that you have
classmates.
received a scholarship for which you had applied.
4 How do you think that someone
The sender is your parent; the message is ‘You’ve
who grows up without human
got the scholarship!!!!’; the channel is the
contact would communicate?
means your parent uses (for example telephone,
CHAPTER 1: THE COMMUNICATION PROCESS
Internet); you are the receiver and your response is the feedback (for
example ‘Awesome!!!!’).
Note that the communication process is cyclical and it is quite
possible for communication on any topic to continue indefinitely as
sender and receiver reverse roles.
1.3
How the process works
Encoding
The process of communication
begins with an idea that someone
wants to convey.
This is the conceptualisation phase.
However, it would be difficult to
From 200 to 100 BC,
human messengers on
convey an idea without putting it
foot or horseback were
into a form that can be understood
a common means of
by someone else. Therefore, the idea
communication in Egypt
must be encoded or given a format in
and China. Messenger
words, pictures or actions. Encoding
relay stations were used
simply means representing the idea in
to switch messengers and
a way that enables it to be conveyed.
horses as they became
It is important that ideas or
tired.
information be appropriately encoded
in order to be conveyed effectively.
Therefore, the purpose of your
communication would largely determine how you encode it. For
example, if you wanted to describe the colour of your new shirt
to your friend, you would probably not think of doing so through
actions. However, either a colour picture or a description in words
would be effective.
Obviously, the tools selected to encode the message are key to
its success. If you were to use a picture or drawing of your shirt to
illustrate its colourful characteristics, there would be no point in using
a black and white picture. In the same way, if you were to describe it
orally, you would most likely use specific words that denote colour.
The way in which you encode your message also depends on the
audience (receiver) for whom it is intended. For instance, if your
friend is visually impaired, you would use an oral description or
a Braille message rather than a picture. If you are communicating
with your friend by email, you may want to send a digital colour
photograph. In this case, the circumstances or the context within
which the communication takes place would influence how you
decide to encode your message and the medium or means of
encoding that you use. When you describe the shirt orally, you are
using speech as a medium but if you send a photo, you are using film
or digital technology as a medium.
Did you
know?
Fig. 1.2 Feedback takes many forms
Fig. 1.3 Ideas must be encoded
5
6
UNIT 1: DESCRIBING COMMUNICATION
Selecting medium/channel
Once you have encoded your message you should ensure that the medium or channel
chosen enhances the opportunity for the receiver to receive accurately what you actually
sent. The decision as to the medium used depends on many things, including the nature of
the message, that is, whether it is private or public, whether the audience or receiver is an
individual or large group and whether or not the feedback is required instantly. Once the
context of the situation has been established then a decision must be made on the type of
medium selected to send the message. In the scenario described above where the intention
is to send a description of a shirt, the sender would most probably see this as private and
the message might be sent to one or two friends. Because of this, the sender may choose
to select the telephone or the Internet as a medium through which to communicate the
information about the shirt. The selection of medium/channel is thus dependent on:
The type of message
The number of receivers
■ The immediacy of the anticipated response.
■
■
In every communication process, decisions must be made on the best medium to
ensure effective communication. More often than not this entails using technology.
Technology plays a big part in modern communication. In the past, the choice of channels
and media was quite limited but now every day new technology provides us with greater
options. Technology in communication is discussed further in Chapter 6.
Decoding and interpretation
Huh?
In the communication process, the
But nothing here
decoding of the message is as important
to swipe it with?
as conceptualising. Decoding requires the
receiver to ask him- or herself, ‘What does
the message mean? How am I expected to
respond?’ The receiver is the decoder and
the receiver will use past experience, the
language, perceptions, opinions and any
other clues to decipher the message sent and
interpret the meaning. At some point in your
childhood you may have played the game
‘Pass the message’. In this game a message is
given to the person next to you and so on
until the message comes back to the initiator.
More often than not the message that comes
Fig. 1.4 Decoding the message
back varies tremendously from the original.
When we are at the decoding stage of the communication process, we must interpret
the meaning we receive. Thus we hope that the message was clear and that the channel
was well chosen, allowing us to receive clearly. One truth that must be acknowledged
is that what can be misinterpreted will be misinterpreted. If we as receivers recognise
this phenomenon, then we are more likely to seek clarification by giving feedback. If a
message is sent in person there are several layers to the message sent. The verbal message
may be accompanied by non-verbal clues (see Chapter 2) that may or may not conflict
with the spoken word.
CHAPTER 1: THE COMMUNICATION PROCESS
Feedback
Communication is not linear by nature. From the diagram of the communication process
(on page 4) we can observe the way that feedback fits into and drives the process. When
the receiver processes the information or decodes, he/she gives some feedback or response
to the sender. ‘What if I choose not to reply?’ is a question you might ask. Well the lack of
response, in itself, is feedback.Your lack of response may signify lack of interest in the
message, that you never received the message, that you do not like the message/messenger
and several other options. What you convey in feedback is just as important as the original
message, for that feedback determines if there will be further communication.
Imagine this situation.You have some interest in someone in your study group and you
slip a note into his/her textbook during a study group meeting. The receiver does not
respond. What is your interpretation of the receiver’s response?
Lack of interest
Embarrassment
■ The note somehow got lost
■ Indecision about how to act.
■
■
These are all valid interpretations of the lack of feedback. Now the ball is in your court.
Do you try to approach the other party using another medium, or do you give up? Any
action on your part continues the communication cycle and so we begin again with the
conceptualising and encoding and so on.
Note that feedback is not always
spoken or written. Sometimes,
physical reactions and responses are
the only feedback necessary. For
example, if you are speaking to a
group and notice that several people
are yawning or appear restless, you
have received feedback that your
listeners are bored or uninterested.
This in turn should provoke a change
in how you present your message or
in what you say so as to retain the
interest of the audience and stimulate
more positive responses.
Fig. 1.5 Unspoken feedback
ACTIVITY 1.2
1 Make a list of all modern communication technologies that
you know.
2 Say how you would use two of these to communicate your
absence from work to your employer.
3 Draw a communication diagram that represents some message
of your own choosing being processed.
Did you know?
Samuel Morse invented Morse code
as a form of communication in 1835
and the first long-distance electric
telegraph line in 1843.
7
8
UNIT 1: DESCRIBING COMMUNICATION
ACTIVITY 1.3
Read the following passage and discuss what barriers to communication are evident here.
Dawn. Man is getting dressed. Woman enters with food.
Woman: Good morning.
Man:
Good morning, Yokiko.
Woman: You weren’t planning to leave?
Man:
I have quite a distance to travel today.
Woman: No; they’ve all been brought in. They were
brought in by visitors. Such as yourself. They were left
here. In my custody.
Man:
But – they look so fresh, so alive.
Woman: Please. (She offers him food.)
Woman: I take care of them. They remind me of the
people and places outside this house.
Man:
Man:
Thank you.
May I touch them?
Woman: May I ask where you’re travelling to?
Woman: Certainly.
Man:
Man:
It’s far.
Woman: I know this region well.
Man:
Oh? Do you leave the house often?
Woman: I used to. I used to travel a great deal.
I know the region from those days.
Man:
You probably wouldn’t know the place
I’m headed.
Woman: Why not?
Man:
It’s new. A new village. It didn’t exist in
‘those days’. (Pause)
Woman: I thought you said you wouldn’t deceive me.
Man:
I didn’t. You don’t believe me, do you?
Woman: No.
Man:
Then I didn’t deceive you. I’m travelling. That
much is true.
These have just blossomed.
Woman: No; they were in bloom yesterday. If you’d
noticed them before, you would know that.
Man:
You must have received these very recently. I
would guess – within five days.
Woman: I don’t know. But I wouldn’t trust your
estimate. It’s all in the amount of care you show to
them. I create a world which is outside the realm of
what you know.
Man:
What do you do?
Woman: I can’t explain. Words are too inefficient.
It takes hundreds of acts, words become irrelevant.
(Pause.) But perhaps you can stay.
Man:
How long?
Woman: As long as you’d like.
Man:
Why?
Woman: Are you in such a hurry?
Woman: To see how I care for them.
Man:
Travelling is a matter of timing. Catching the
light. (Woman exits; Man finishes eating, puts down
his bowl. Woman re-enters with the vase of flowers.)
Where did you find those? They don’t grow native
around these parts, do they?
Man:
I am tired.
Woman: Rest
Man:
The light?
Woman: It will return.
X.J. Kennedy and Dana Gioa
CHAPTER 1: THE COMMUNICATION PROCESS
Communication barriers and facilitators
Whatever affects the understanding of the message is known as a barrier to
communication. Barriers to decoding are otherwise known as noise. Noise is anything
that detracts from the message sent and prevents effective communication. In terms of
the sender, noise may refer to the sender’s attitudes, prejudices, frame of reference and
language used. The receiver’s attitudes, background and the experiences that affect the
decoding process are also examples of noise. In terms of the channel, the noise may be
literal as in traffic noise or static but it may also be a person’s speech impediment or lack
of clarity in writing or speaking. Barriers can also be created by the type of language used,
the medium used to convey the information or ambiguities in the message.
In the same way that there are barriers to communication there are also facilitators
of communication. These aid the passing of information and therefore facilitate a mutual
understanding. For example, if you are writing an examination, clear, legible handwriting
would be a facilitator. Using the appropriate language, using an effective medium,
selecting an appropriate channel and using additional prompts such as visuals are all
facilitators of effective communication.
The receivers ultimately perceive something from the message, but their concept
of the message or their reality may not be what the sender intended. In successful
communication the perceived communication will approximate to the intended message,
but this situation cannot be taken for granted. Therefore one can say that there is:
■
■
Effective communication
Ineffective communication.
In effective communication the sender and receiver both understand the message in
the same way. In ineffective communication the sender’s intention may not be what the
receiver understands. This is due to misunderstanding caused by emotional and social
sources of noise. These include: preoccupation, not listening because of desire to speak,
anticipating the sender’s message. Thus, in order to get the communication process to be
successful, you must pay attention to what you communicate, how you communicate and
the feedback you receive.
Conclusion
It would be difficult to exist in a community without the ability
to communicate. Most of us spend the greater part of our lives
involved in communication of some kind. The ability to send and
receive messages efficiently and accurately is an essential life
skill and understanding the process by which it happens is a key to
mastering this skill. There are a number of ways in which we express
ideas and thoughts to others and these are explored in Chapter 2.
9
10
UNIT 1: DESCRIBING COMMUNICATION
Evaluation
and extension
1 Explain the difference between the elements
of the communication process and the
communication process.
2 What are three concerns we must bear in mind
when encoding a message?
3 State three methods you would use to inform the
public of an end-of-school party.
4 State three barriers and three facilitators to
communication.
5 Name three modern technological devices that
aid effective communication.
6 How is the passage on the right an example of
ineffective communication?
Lewis Carroll
‘I don’t know what you mean by ”glory”,’ Alice
said. Humpty Dumpty smiled contemptuously.
‘Of course you don’t – till I tell you. I meant
”there’s a nice knock-down argument for you!”’
‘But ”glory” doesn’t mean ”a nice knock-down
argument”,’Alice objected.
‘When I use a word,’ Humpty Dumpty said in
rather a scornful tone, ‘it means just what I
choose it to mean – neither more nor less.’
‘The question is,’ said Alice, ‘whether you CAN
make words mean so many different things.’
‘The question is,’ said Humpty Dumpty, ‘which
is to be master – that’s all.’
Alice was too much puzzled to say anything, so
after a minute Humpty Dumpty began again.
‘They’ve a temper, some of them – particularly
verbs, they’re the proudest – adjectives you can
do anything with, but not verbs – however, I can
manage the whole of them! Impenetrability!
That’s what I say!’
‘Would you tell me, please,’ said Alice ‘what that
means?’
‘Now you talk like a reasonable child,’ said
Humpty Dumpty, looking very much pleased.
‘I meant by ”impenetrability” that we’ve had
enough of that subject, and it would be just
as well if you’d mention what you mean to do
next, as I suppose you don’t mean to stop here
all the rest of your life.’
Lewis Carroll
References
Carroll, L. (1993).Through the Looking Glass and What Alice Found There. The
Complete Stories of Lewis Carroll. London: Magpie Books, pp. 126–128, 174.
Collins. (2003). English Dictionary, 6th edn. revised.
Kennedy, X.J. and Gioa, Dana (2010). The Sound of a Voice. Literature: An
Introduction to Fiction, Poetry, Drama, and Writing, 11th edn. Longman. pp.
1754–1755.
Shubb, A. (1999). Model of Communication. The Communication Pages,
accessed at http://amshubb.tripod.com/modelof.htm. Accessed 15 May 2013.
Soanes, C. & Stevenson, A. (2005). Oxford Dictionary of English, revised edn.
Oxford: OUP.
CHAPTER 2: FORMS OF COMMUNICATION
2
Forms of
Communication
In Chapter 1 we looked at the meaning of communication, the elements of the
communication process and how that process works. We looked at channels
of communication (the way we send messages and feedback) and how people
respond to the message. In this chapter we focus on forms of communication
from which the channel can be selected and the forms that people may use to
illustrate their responses. This chapter discusses verbal / non-verbal, and other
special forms of communication. There are definitions and examples given as
well as various interactive exercises.
The skills you learn in this chapter pertain to Module 3 and Specific Objectives 3 and 4.
Expected Learning Outcomes
On completing this chapter, you should be able to:
1 distinguish between verbal and non-verbal communication
2 give examples of both verbal and non-verbal communication
3 explain what is paralanguage and give examples
4 define the following terms: body language; proxemics; kinesics;
chronemics; dress; graphics
5 discuss the importance of the above in communication.
Introduction
In our day-to-day lives we use different forms of communication to pass on or communicate
our ideas and/or feelings. Some information is passed on consciously and some unconsciously.
Some information is written, spoken, acted out or transferred in symbolic format. These
various ways of expressing ourselves constitute the forms of communication. In brief,
there are two distinct forms of communication: verbal and non-verbal.
2.1 Verbal communication
cation
What do we mean by the
term verbal communication?
What do you think?
Who is right?
Both Keneisha and Jamal
are correct.
Fig. 2.1 Communicating verbally
I think it has to
do with words.
I think it means
talking.
11
12
UNIT 1: DESCRIBING COMMUNICATION
Verbal communication is that type of communication that is spoken (speech) and /
or written. When we speak to each other face to face, on the telephone, via Magic Jack,
Face Time or Skype we are engaged in spoken communication. The pastor, priest or
other religious leader who shares the message with those assembled is also using speech
to communicate. We use spoken communication in every aspect of our lives. Most people
do not recognise singing as verbally communicating but if we look at the definition we
note that the singer is using words and sound to communicate ideas. Therefore spoken
communication includes singing.
Written communication is the other form of verbal communication. The average
student uses several forms of written communication in one day of his/her life. Students
write notes, essays and research papers. Of course they also have access to other written
communication media: emails, texts, Facebook, BBM, Twitter and WhatsApp are just a few
of the current means by which written communication takes place.
Here are some examples:
Fig. 2.2 Verbal communication
ACTIVITY 2.1
Find as many examples as you can of verbal communication. Discuss your findings with a classmate.
Identify what type of verbal communication is taking place in the situations below:
Fig. 2.3 Types of verbal communication
CHAPTER 2: FORMS OF COMMUNICATION
2.2 Non-verbal communication
What then is non-verbal communication?
Hmm...
But how can
we communicate
without words?
Fig. 2.4 Non-verbal communication
Non-verbal communication refers to information sent not using words. Physical
gestures, art forms and symbols fall into this category.
Here are some examples:
Fig. 2.5 Examples of non-verbal communication
13
14
UNIT 1: DESCRIBING COMMUNICATION
Figure 2.5 illustrates several examples of non-verbal communication. The child’s smile
is communicating happiness or pleasure and the Police Officer’s hand is raised in a
universal sign to indicate go. The costumed dancer demonstrates two means of nonverbal communication as her costume colour may communicate a theme, for example
fertility or nature or sugar cane. The dance itself then communicates the culture of a
country. The final picture illustrates mourning through the use of the flag at half-mast.
ACTIVITY 2.2
1 Find as many examples as you can of non-verbal communication.
Share your findings with your classmates.
2 Discuss what is being communicated by the types of non-verbal
communication in Figure 2.6?
Non-verbal communication can be further subdivided into:
(i) Body language
(ii) Proxemics
(iii) Kinesics
(iv) Chronemics
(v) Dress
(vi) Graphics and symbols
(vii) Paralanguage
Fig. 2.6 Communicating non-verbally
CHAPTER 2: FORMS OF COMMUNICATION
Body language
Human beings communicate a great deal by mere use of our bodies. The way we look
at someone or something, the way we stand or sit all communicate something of what
we are feeling.
ACTIVITY 2.3
1 What do you think the individuals in the following scenarios want to communicate?
(a) David’s mother is about to leave home and reminds him to take out the garbage.
He throws his hands into the air and wears a frown. What is he communicating?
(b) Maya and Zoe are sitting on a bench talking about their coming weekend
activities. Kemi sits next to Zoe and says hi to both girls. Zoe and Maya slide further
along the bench away from Kemi. What are they communicating?
(c) Vishnu sits slumped in his chair at his desk in the classroom during
Communication Studies class. What might the teacher infer that Vishnu is
communicating?
2 The photograph below illustrates a form of communication. What do you think the
individual is communicating? Compare your answer with those of your classmates.
Fig. 2.7 Non-verbal
communication
We often communicate our inner responses to situations through body
language; therefore it is important not only to listen to what is being said by a
person but also to note the body language that goes along with what is said.
We often say yes verbally but our body language suggests a lack of interest or
the complete opposite of what we say.
Have you ever got into trouble
for rolling your eyes, sucking
your teeth (steupsing) or even
throwing your hands on your hips
or flouncing off (walking away
flinging your hands)? Each of
these examples of body language
demonstrates a level of disgust.
Certainly, when directed at adults,
young people often find themselves
having to apologise or listening to
a comment on how rude they are.
Body language is not only used by young
people but it is also evident in the workplace.
For example, at a staff meeting the different
levels of interest are often communicated
Fig. 2.8 Body language speaks louder
by body language. The employee who sits
than words
upright with eyes focused on the person
chairing the meeting is probably more interested than the individual whose eyes are halfclosed and whose body is turned away from the speaker. However, body language can also
be misread. The boy slumped in the chair in Communication Studies class may be the
most interested student and the employee sitting upright with eyes focused on the speaker
may well be planning Saturday night’s dominoes party.
15
16
UNIT 1: DESCRIBING COMMUNICATION
We must be aware of the importance of how
we use our bodies to communicate. We may not
always send the right signals and we should be
wary of having our signals misunderstood.
Did you know?
In Ghana young children are taught
not to look adults in the eye as this
is considered disrespectful.
In Argentina standing with the
hands on the hips suggests anger or
a challenge.
Slouching in some cultures is
considered disrespectful.
Proxemics
Have you ever come across this word before?
There has been much research done on this aspect
of non-verbal communication, especially within
the workplace. But what does proxemics mean?
The word ’proxemics’ was first associated with
researcher E.T. Hall in 1963. He was particularly
interested in how human beings use personal space. His research points to the fact that
differences in use of space can lead to anxiety or relaxation. Although we often disregard
proxemics as a form of communication, it plays an important role in business and personal
interaction.
People who are skilled in communication know how to use space to their advantage
and they influence the behaviour of others as well as effectively reading the messages sent
through proxemics.
Interpersonal space can be divided
into several categories:
■ Intimate distance: 15–45 cm,
for embracing, touching and
whispering
■ Personal distance: 45–120 cm, for
interactions among good friends
■ Social distance: 1.2–3.5 m, for
interactions among acquaintances
■ Public distance: over 3.5 m, for
public speaking.
A. Esposito et al.
Of course, the distances described
above are culturally based. Those
distances described above refer to
the American culture but it has been
found that in Latin cultures the
distances are smaller, while in Nordic
countries the opposite obtains.
Fig. 2.9 The use of space can lead to anxiety
Knowing about these differences in
what is socially acceptable distance allows for better cross-cultural communication. This is
of vital importance to those Caribbean countries highly dependent on tourism.
Have you a special desk that you sit at in your classroom? Do you feel annoyed or even
angry when someone sits in that space? Then you are seeing proxemics at work in the
school environment. Imagine that you work in a company where seats are assigned and
CHAPTER 2: FORMS OF COMMUNICATION
you see someone at your desk.Your reaction may be one of fear that you have lost your
space, perhaps even your job, or maybe anger that your space has been invaded. Proxemics
plays an important part in schools, the world of work and even in our social gatherings.
When someone leans close to you in a social gathering you may feel several different
emotions depending on how you perceive this change in social distance.You may be
happy if you are interested in deepening the social relationship or you may pull away,
signalling displeasure at the person’s proximity. Therefore moving closer or away from a
person is a way of giving feedback on our interest or lack of interest in someone.
ACTIVITY 2.4
1 Observe students as they interact in the cafeteria/canteen or around the school during
lunch break. Note body language and use of space and discuss with your classmates
what you observed.
2 Measure the distance at which your classmates feel comfortable when conversing
with different people. What do those varying distances tell us?
3 Decide with your group or class on a movie that you will all watch on television or
at the cinema. Make individual notes on how people use proxemics and how it varies
depending on the situation or the relationship between people. In class, compare notes
and discuss your observations.
Definition
According to the
Merriam Webster online
dictionary, kinesics
refers to the relationship
between non-linguistic
body motions and
communication.
Kinesics
The term ‘kinesics’ was coined in 1952 by Ray Birdwhistell, a ballet dancer who later
became an anthropologist.
Fig. 2.10 The movement of the body conveys specific meanings
17
18
UNIT 1: DESCRIBING COMMUNICATION
ACTIVITY 2.5
1 Observe your teachers for one day. Note the
differences in the body movements of each teacher.
What do you learn from observing? Can you match
body language with personality?
2 Compare the body language of people at a
religious ceremony, at the market, at a sports
event, in a doctor’s office and waiting for the bus.
How does it differ from one situation to the next?
Definition
Chronemics refers to
the use of time, waiting
or pausing.
Birdwhistell studied how people communicate
through posture, gesture, stance and movement. He
concluded that only 30 to 35 per cent of the social
meaning of conversation or an interaction is carried
by words! This means that non-verbal communication
carries 65 to 70 per cent of the meaning of
communication.
Like proxemics, kinesics is generally believed to be
culture bound. The movement of the body, or separate
parts, conveys many specific meanings and they carry
a risk of being misinterpreted.
Chronemics
When you listen to politicians
speak, there are often instances
where they pause for greater
effect. This is of course a way of
getting the attention of the listener
and is often used to signal some
important piece of information
that the politician wants us to have.
In our day-to-day lives we often
use timing in telling jokes or juicy
pieces of gossip. We are in fact using
chronemics to create effect and
communicate our amusement or
suggest the importance of a specific
piece of information.
Dress
How many of us realise that dress is
a way of communicating? In all
cultures we are concerned with
how we look and we make
judgements based on looks and
dress. Dress can communicate social
standing, especially in those cultures
where specific clothes are worn
only by specific individuals. An
example of this is in Ghana where
kente cloth is worn only by certain
members of society, signalling their
social position and wealth.
Fig. 2.11 Women in positions of power
often wear red.
ACTIVITY 2.6
1 In what other instances would you find
chronemics at work?
2 Who do you think would use it the most?
3 Compare your teachers’ use of chronemics.
CHAPTER 2: FORMS OF COMMUNICATION
However, in western society, how and what does
dress communicate? Colour of clothing is used
symbolically to suggest several things. Have you ever
noticed that women in positions of power often wear
red? Red is thought to be symbolic of power and
therefore signals to the world that this is a woman who
is going places. Black and other dark colours are
traditionally associated with mourning and so, when
we see individuals wearing black, we often associate
this with communicating their grief; but black is also
associated with ‘Goths’ and so when young people
wear all black along with black make-up, and skulls
and crossbones decorate their dress, they have
communicated that they belong to a particular group.
Fig. 2.12 Dress can communicate culture or religion
There are other ways in which
dress communicates a person’s
group or job. For example, the
robes of a Catholic or Anglican
priest all have symbolic value.
They may suggest their position,
for example cardinal, bishop, or
link to the particular season, such
as Christmas or Easter. Hair may
also communicate belonging to
a particular group; for instance
Fig. 2.13 Dress communicates a person’s group
the wearing of locs is associated
with Rastafarianism whereas a
cleanly shaved head may be associated with ‘skinheads’, a European racist group. Can you
think of any other group that can be recognised by the way its members wear their hair
or garments?
School uniforms are also a form of communication as they point to belonging to a
particular group. Of course the way a uniform is worn by a student also communicates
something about that student’s attitude towards the school as well as his/her attitude to
cleanliness and neatness.
19
20
UNIT 1: DESCRIBING COMMUNICATION
ACTIVITY 2.7
Read the following article and answer the questions that follow.
Clothes Wars
My son Karl is 14 and a very bright boy – he’s currently
studying hard for his GCSE exams. We are very proud of his
academic success. He has a close group of friends, his grades
are very good and he’s an active member of the school’s
basketball and football teams. Still, school days are a daily sore
point for us parents, because of what he wears.
His attire can be described as ‘loose-fitting grunge’. All he
ever chooses to wear is the same pair of baggy, ripped, lowslung jeans (slung so low that everyone can see his branded
underwear). He’s never out of a hoodie (again, branded) and one
of an absurdly large collection of lurid flat caps is permanently
attached to his head – you’ve guessed it, branded again. He
always looks scruffy and unclean, and refuses new clothing.
His mother has told me that it is surely just a phase that we
have to go through with him, reminding me that our parents
didn’t necessarily approve of what we wore in the seventies.
It’s getting worse though – Karl has started to wear what
look like bike chains attached to his jeans, and the other day
declared over dinner he was going to get his eyebrow pierced.
Even my ultra-tolerant wife was at the end of her tether and a
shouting match ensued well into the night.
Worse still, Karl’s clothing is causing a few issues outside the
home. Despite the school’s broad-minded approach, a few
teachers have requested he remove his flat cap during class
as they find it harder to engage with him and dislike the lack
of eye contact caused by the wide brim. Karl’s sports science
teacher has complained about his footwear during practical
classes, but he refuses to let us buy him a decent pair of
trainers, preferring instead to wear his dirty ‘high tops’.
Karl is adamant that he will not change his clothing, despite
my pleas. Whenever I see him looking clean and sharp in a
suit (for example, at his sister’s wedding) it amazes me that he
wants to walk around looking like a young thug. Karl and his
(similarly dressed) friends appear, to the unknowing eye, like a
gang of hooligans. The wide-brimmed caps covering their eyes
give them a shifty look, the low jeans and high tops facilitate
a slow, blasé walk which, frankly, looks threatening. My son is
kind and intelligent: but you wouldn’t think so to look at him.
This clothing choice favoured by Karl and some of his
generation worries me. Although he is currently experiencing a
fairly normal childhood, I worry that this influence may lead him
into more dangerous territories. Certainly the desire to get parts
of his body pierced concerns me for this reason, as well as for
his health, and even for his future employment prospects.
I have spoken to my son many times about this matter, trying
to understand why he wants to walk around looking like he
does. He sighs and shrugs and tells me that I ‘just don’t get
it’. He repudiates all my opinions on his ‘look’: he doesn’t see
it as threatening or violent or unintelligent. Instead he says
that he feels confident in his clothes and happy to be part of
a group that includes and respects him. He says his clothes
are comfortable and represent who he is. He claims to feel
‘himself’ when he’s with his other flat-cap-wearing fellows
and feels very uncomfortable in suits or normal trousers and
shirts. He points out that he gets good grades and has an
active sports life, and suggests that we shouldn’t focus on
his clothes. I just say that this is easier said than done when
you are worried that his fashion may portray a sinister and
threatening young man to other people. Our friends are
starting to comment: ‘Where has that nice Karl gone to?’ they
ask us. He’s still there, but you wouldn’t know at a glance.
We were accepting of this trend when it consisted of a hoodie
here, a cap there, but now it is a constant annoyance and
we are worried it is encroaching on his academic life and
his future employment prospects. After Karl has finished
his GCSEs he will go on to Sixth Form to study for A levels.
Karl wants to keep up sports science, but also take English
literature, maths and economics, with a view to applying for
PPE at a good university. Although it is his choice, we are
keeping our fingers tightly crossed that he chooses to go to
a sixth form that advocates business wear. Hopefully this will
make him feel more comfortable in cleaner-cut clothes. After
all, a career in politics, philosophy or economics will probably
require a suit and not a flat cap!
1 What aspects of the boy’s clothes does the father dislike?
2 Discuss what the father thinks the son might be communicating through his clothes.
3 What do you consider the boy to be communicating?
4 What aspects of your clothing does your parent/guardian object to? What do you think
you are communicating by wearing the clothing to which they object?
5 Is your Sixth Form expected to wear a uniform? What do uniforms communicate?
List the pros and cons of school uniforms.
CHAPTER 2: FORMS OF COMMUNICATION
In most countries in the Caribbean
there is a form of carnival or street parade
with the attendant costumes. Costumes are
created to communicate a concept or idea
coming out of a theme. They are expected
to depict some aspect of nature or some
historical or social event although some
people perceive them as a means of putting
bodies on display. Colour is of vital
importance as well as the standards and
headpieces worn. These all aid in
communicating the value or importance of
some aspect of the society.Your CAPE
Caribbean Studies textbook gives you
further information on carnival and its role
in our society.
ACTIVITY 2.8
There are differing cultural standards
associated with dress. Think of the
different cultural groups in your territory
and discuss their standards.
Graphics and symbols
Most of us would have studied chemistry,
geography and mathematics at some point
in our school career. Each of these subjects
has its own symbolic forms. In chemistry,
there is the periodic table that symbolically
represents the various elements. In
mathematics, data is presented graphically
for ease of interpretation, for example in
Fig. 2.14 Carnival dress
the form of bar charts and pie charts. This
is also done in many of the social sciences like sociology, psychology and statistics.
Braille is another symbolic way of communicating ideas graphically, as the dots and
position of dots represent words. Braille is
a special form of communication developed
for the blind by Louis Braille. It comprises
raised script in the form of dots that enable
a blind person to feel the arrangement of
the dots and understand their meaning. There
is also a special form of communication for
the deaf that involves manipulation of the
hand and fingers, commonly known as sign
language. In your territory is the news
done in sign language to accommodate
Fig. 2.15 Braille
deaf people?
21
22
UNIT 1: DESCRIBING COMMUNICATION
Flags are also a symbolic means of
communication used. Semaphore is a way of
passing information through the use of flags. This
means of communication has been around for
centuries and has been primarily used by naval
personnel or in situations where verbal
communication is not possible. The positioning
of the flags symbolised letters of the alphabet or,
more recently, entire words or phrases. It is
sometimes referred to as optical telegraphy.
ACTIVITY 2.9
What do the following symbols mean?
Fig. 2.16 Semaphore
Definition
The Oxford Dictionary
defines paralanguage
as ‘the non-lexical
component of
communication by
speech, for example
intonation, pitch and
speed of speaking,
hesitation noises,
gesture, and facial
expression’.
Paralanguage
The elements of paralanguage may be consciously or unconsciously expressed. Whenever
we speak we reveal our emotions and attitudes. Stress, intonation and the speed of our
voice all reveal certain feelings. For example, you are more likely to speak loudly and
quickly when you are angry.
Paralanguage is also revealed in text communication via the Internet. The emoticons
allow the writer to express emotions in an exciting way. Additionally, the colour that we
choose as our background or for the actual text, the use of lower case or capitals and the use
of characters all aid in expressing our ideas. An example is the use of ‘LOL’ as opposed to
‘lol’. Both refer to ‘laugh out loud’ but the capitals suggest a louder, more full-bodied laugh.
However, paralanguage is far more evident in face to face dialogue. Shouting or
speaking softly each changes the way that a message might be interpreted.
Another aspect of paralanguage is associated with sounds other than words. Our
laughs and cries and moans all have meaning and communicate some feeling or emotion.
These are called vocal characterisers and often have different meanings across cultures.
Vocal qualifiers like volume, pitch, rhythm and tempo are also means of communicating
something about ourselves and our culture. In some societies speaking softly is a sign of
strength while in others it is a sign of impoliteness. Vocal segregates like ‘ooh’, ‘eh’,
‘mmmh’ and ‘hummm’ may appear incomprehensible but each has some special meaning
whether it is acceptance, agreement or uncertainty. Paralanguage is as important as words
spoken and it is important to be aware of these forms of communication.
By now you should see a pattern in identifying verbal and non-verbal communication.
Verbal communication relies on speech or writing to communicate information while
non-verbal uses elements other than speech and writing. Both types of communication
are equally important and this can be seen when we record a day in our lives.
CHAPTER 2: FORMS OF COMMUNICATION
Example
Keneisha leaves home with her mom. They are going in two different
directions so they embrace (non-verbal) and Mrs Bispham tells her
daughter ‘Be safe today’(verbal). Keneisha wants to take the No. 20
bus so she raises her hand as it approaches (non-verbal). As she enters
the bus she sees Jamal and shouts ‘Yo Jamal, how yu goin?’ (verbal).
They converse (verbal) until the bus comes to a halt by the school.
As they leave the bus, the school bell rings (non-verbal) signalling
the beginning of school.
They scamper into the classroom and Mr Carter frowns at them
(non-verbal).
ACTIVITY
2.10
Create a similar
record of a
part of your
day and note
the types of
communication
that are being
used at each
stage.
Fig. 2.17 Using verbal and non-verbal communication
The short scenario above highlights the way that verbal and non-verbal
communication play an integral role in our day-to-day lives. Although we may not be
conscious of it, we continually use both forms of communication in everyday interaction.
Conclusion
This chapter showed how human beings use a variety of ways
in which to convey information. Most times these forms of
communication are used simultaneously and it is the specific
mixture that conveys the true meaning of the communication.
Sometimes the forms used together convey conflicting messages. It
is important to ensure that the form of communication you choose
is suitable or appropriate to the message you would like to convey
as well as to the environment or context in which it is conveyed.
Chapter 3 looks at the various contexts of communication and how
they impact on the ways we choose to communicate.
23
24
UNIT 1: DESCRIBING COMMUNICATION
Evaluation
and extension
2 Divide the following into examples of verbal and
non-verbal communication.
–
An emancipation statue
–
A sermon
–
Dance
–
Nods
–
A letter of apology
–
A graduation address
–
A raised fist
–
Swaying of hips
–
A sign marked ’Enter’
3 What are some aspects of non-verbal
behaviour of which we ought to be aware when
communicating with people from other cultures?
4 What different meanings might the following
non-verbal behaviours communicate?
–
Lack of eye contact
–
Swinging of legs
–
Slouching
–
Winking of eye
5 When you listen to someone speaking, what
are some of the ways in which the speaker’s
emotions may be betrayed?
Fig. 2.18 First impressions
6 How is paralanguage displayed in text-only
communication?
1 Which individual do you think would make the
better impression? Why?
References
The Body Language of Proxemics. http://www.haverford.edu/fren/dkight/
Fr105Spr08/weekFour/proxemics.pdf. Accessed 15 May 2013.
Darn, S. (2005). Aspects of Nonverbal Communication in the Internet TESL
Journal, Vol. XI, No.2, February 2005. Retrieved 28 December 2006 from
iteslj.org/Articles/Darn-Nonverbal.
Esposito, A., Bratani, M., Keller E. and Marinaro M. (2007). Fundamentals of
Verbal and Nonverbal Communication and the Biometric Issue – Volume 18
NATO Security through Science Series: Human and Societal. Series E: Human
and Societal Dynamics. 15 May, p. 87.
Updike, D. (1999). I Don’t Like What You’re Wearing. Newsweek, 24 May
sourced from Lannon, J. (2007). The Writing Process, 9th edn. Pearson
Longman, pp. 256–257.
CHAPTER 3: CONTEXTS OF COMMUNICATION
3
Contexts of
Communication
In the previous chapter we looked at the forms of communication, both verbal
and non-verbal. You would have recognised the importance of both these
forms in communicating our ideas and feelings both intra-culturally and extraculturally. However, much of communication is shaped by the circumstances
and the environment in which it occurs. This chapter looks at the contexts of
communication and relates the forms and process to the actual contexts in
which the communication takes place.
The skills you learn in this chapter pertain to Module 3 and Specific Objectives 3 and 4.
Expected Learning Outcomes
Definition
According to the Encarta
Dictionary intrapersonal
refers to what happens
in the mind and
relates to the internal
aspects of a person,
especially emotions.
Therefore intrapersonal
communication involves
the inner thoughts of
an individual and can
be defined as the use
of language or thought
within a single person.
On completing this chapter, you should be able to:
1 differentiate between intrapersonal and interpersonal
communication and give examples of each
2 discuss and give examples of contexts of communication
including organisational, academic and intercultural
3 recognise the relationship between forms and contexts of
communication.
Introduction
Whether we are aware of it or not, we are constantly communicating, with ourselves and
with others. There is no set time or place at which communication occurs and, as we
learnt in the last chapter, we are sometimes communicating even when we do not intend
to. We refer to the circumstances within which communication takes place as the context
of communication. Context affects the nature and style of communication.
3.1 Intrapersonal context
Intrapersonal communication is the active internal involvement of the individual in
symbolic processing of messages. The individual becomes his/her own sender and receiver,
providing feedback to him- or herself in an ongoing internal process.
According to Harriet B. Braiker (1989) ‘talking to yourself in public isn’t a sign of
questionable mental health, but holding an internal dialogue is quite normal and very
useful’. Perhaps this is so because intrapersonal communication is the processing of stimuli
that may come from internal or external forces. We react to these stimuli and often the
initial reaction takes place in our minds. We must remember, retrieve information from
memory, and create messages. Sometimes we find it easier to do this when we think
aloud or talk to ourselves.
25
26
UNIT 1: DESCRIBING COMMUNICATION
There are several forms of intrapersonal communication:
Internal discourse, for example thinking, analysis, daydreaming, nocturnal dreaming,
contemplation, meditation
■ Solo vocalising, for example speaking aloud to oneself
■ Solo writing, for example unpublished writing like diary entries or notes to self.
■
3.2 Interpersonal context
Definition
Interpersonal
communication refers
to communication that
takes place between
two or more persons
and usually face to face
or in close proximity.
There are four principles of interpersonal communication. It is inescapable, it is
irreversible, it is complicated and it is contextual.
Interpersonal communication is considered inescapable because we as human beings
must communicate. Even when we ignore someone we are communicating something.
At some point in your life you must have heard the expression ‘you can’t call back
those words’. That is precisely what is meant by the fact that interpersonal communication
is irreversible: one cannot rewind and delete the words spoken or the gestures made.
According to a Russian proverb: ‘Once a word goes out of your mouth, you can never
swallow it again’.
Interpersonal communication is complicated. It is inevitable that, if there are two or
more personalities involved, there will be misunderstanding and misinterpretation. If
we really think about it, we know that we are not always clear in what we say, therefore
the other party’s understanding is based on what he/she has heard and internalised.
Osmo Wiio suggests some maxims about communication that help us to understand the
complexity of interpersonal communication. Do you agree with him?
If communication can fail, it will.
If a message can be understood in different ways, it will be understood in just
that way which does the most harm.
■ There is always somebody who knows better than you what you meant by
your message.
■ The more communication there is, the more difficult it is for communication
to succeed.
■
■
Osmo Wiio
While much of our interpersonal communication is done
through speech and writing, a large amount of information is
ACTIVITY 3.1
transferred consciously and unconsciously among humans by
List as many situations
way of body language, attitudes and behaviour.
as you can think
Having good interpersonal communication skills is
of where good
important in both one’s private life and career. Each day we
interpersonal skills
engage in a number of interpersonal interactions both at
would be important.
school/work and socially. Good interpersonal communication
skills help in many personal areas like parenting and intimate
relationships as well as in professional and public life.
Interpersonal communication can be affected by many things such as shyness, mental
incapacity, sensory deprivation, arrogance or even a communication disorder such as
stuttering. However, it is most often our style of communicating that determines how
successful our interaction happens to be. Interpersonal communication can be broken
CHAPTER 3: CONTEXTS OF COMMUNICATION
down into various styles. According to Bateman and Zeithaml (1990) there are six styles
of interpersonal communication in the workplace. These include:
Controlling
Egalitarian
■ Structuring
■ Dynamic
■ Relinquishing
■ Withdrawal
■
■
The controlling style is a one-way type
of communication where directives are
given, If you think of a work environment,
this style of communicating is one where
you do not want feedback but you want the
compliance of the receiver. This style is often
seen in parent/child relationships as well. The
controlling style is of benefit in certain
situations like times of crisis and also useful
in schools or other institutions where a
leader must control large groups. Used in the
wrong circumstances, this style may lead to
poor interpersonal relations.
The foreman looked menacingly at
him. ‘I know you,’ he said. ‘I know
this is the kind of thing you are
capable of, you clever rat. I am going
to cancel all that you have done and
you are going to start all over again
– all three of you. And as for you in
particular – you potheaded ant – if
I catch you doing this kind of thing
again I will throw you out of this
work and you won’t receive a single
penny. Do you hear that? Now take
back those pebbles and start fetching
all over again.’
Isidore Okpewho
Fig. 3.1 The egalitarian style
The egalitarian style is quite the opposite of the controlling style as it encourages
receivers to feed back their ideas thereby coming to some mutual understanding. This
style is seen as more effective, especially in the work environment, where cooperation is
imperative. Generally, people who use this style do so to encourage cooperation and to
give others the feeling that their ideas are valued.
27
28
UNIT 1: DESCRIBING COMMUNICATION
The structuring style of interpersonal communication is also one associated with
business and perhaps school situations. This style is characterised by references to rules and
regulations and is used to establish or impose schedules. Decisions and instructions are
usually based on set guidelines and there is little room for deviation from norms.
The dynamic style is associated with energy and enthusiasm. In this case the sender
uses pleas to motivate the receiver. The use of persuasive techniques is characteristic of this
type of communicator. This style can be counterproductive if the receivers do not have
enough knowledge to take the action needed. In addition, receivers may feel overwhelmed
and confused.
The relinquishing style as the name suggests gives over to the other party.
This style allows the receiver to take control of the decision-making process.
ACTIVITY 3.2
In the workplace the manager may well allow his/her staff to come up with a
Discuss the
solution to a problem rather than impose a directive on them. In the classroom,
interpersonal
the teacher may lay out the objectives of the lesson and let the students determine
communication style
used by:
the activities they would like to pursue in order to achieve the lesson goals. This
• Your parent
style assumes a certain level of competence in the receivers.
The withdrawing style is one where there is little effort made by the
• A teacher
participants.
In the workplace the manager may avoid making decisions and give
• The president of a
group to which you
the impression of a lack of interest in the organisation and the decisions that must
belong
be made. Organisations where this is the preferred managerial style are often
• A friend.
referred to as being on ’autopilot’. There is usually a sense of absence of leadership.
Whatever.
Anything you
say.
Huh?
Should we
advertise the play?
Me nah
know nuh.
Fig. 3.2 The withdrawing style
The style of communication used can lead to either a poor or enriching
personal relationship.
In Chapter 1 we looked at the process of communication, which includes a sender and
a receiver. In interpersonal communication the receiver must be a good listener as this
helps in the interpretation of the message. According to the Encyclopaedia of Small Business,
there are several techniques that encourage good listening.
CHAPTER 3: CONTEXTS OF COMMUNICATION
These are:
Reflection or attempting to repeat and clarify the other person’s message
■ Keeping an open mind
■ Seeing relevance to your life
■ Resisting distractions
■ Being prepared for the encounter
■ Taking notes.
■
It is important to have strong interpersonal communication skills in order to succeed
in life, since most of our daily activities involve some type of interaction with other
communicators.
3.3 Small group context
Definition
Small group
communication
refers to the type of
communication that
occurs in groups of
between two and
twelve individuals.
Definition
Chat rooms are defined
by the American Heritage
Dictionary of the English
Language as sites on a
computer network where
online conversations are
held in real time by a
number of users.
Small group communication takes place almost every day in our lives in many different
contexts, for example:
Group discussion in the classroom
A particular group of students sitting together at lunch break
■ A chat room, blog or Facebook page online
■ Audio or video conferencing
■ Discussion boards and list servers.
■
■
Small group communication often takes places in situations other than face to face –
whenever you sit at your computer and use instant messenger you are communicating
with someone but you also have the option of adding a third party in the conversation.
This is one context of small group communication. Also when you enter a chat room you
are involved in small group communication.
Video conferencing is another means of small group communication. In this situation
a closed circuit television may be used so that you can see the participants in the group
with whom you are conferencing.You may also use applications like Skype, Facetime or
ooVoo for this purpose. Audio conferencing, as the name suggests, depends on listening
and talking – there is no visual contact with the speaker. Another context of small group
discussion is the list server. This is a mailing list that automatically sends mail to everyone
on a specific list. The message is available only to those persons on the list and the group
can discuss the issue via email.
The discussion board
In recent years the meaning of small group communication has changed to accommodate
the use of technology. The effectiveness of small group communication could previously
be analysed by looking at the cultural make-up of the group. It was generally believed
that similar cultural identity led to less conflict in the small group’s ability to function but
now the small group can comprise individuals from anywhere in the world. Geographical
boundaries no longer exist where communication is concerned and thus it is critical that
communicators be aware of the differences in values, beliefs and ways of viewing the
world. For instance, all cultures do not share the same attitudes to leadership styles, rules
governing conversation or ways of reasoning. There must be some recognition of these
things in order for effective communication to take place.
29
30
UNIT 1: DESCRIBING COMMUNICATION
ACTIVITY 3.3
1 Have you experienced difficulty communicating in a group? What were some of the difficulties encountered?
2 Read the extract below and answer the question that follows:
Unfortunately, while cultural diversity within small groups allows members to pool information and ideas from
a wide range of sources, fundamental differences can also lead to destructive conflict. Different communication
styles, beliefs, and values can cause conflict in small groups. For example, group members from more individualist
cultures tend to have a direct verbal interaction style that is ’l’ or ’me’ oriented. Such communicators are talkative
and freely promote their needs, ideas, and accomplishments. Group members from more collectivist cultures
use an indirect interaction style that is more ’we’ and ’us’ oriented. Such communicators are less talkative, feel
comfortable with silence, attend to status differences in the group, and downplay their own contributions and
accomplishments. Failing to recognise or acknowledge these differences in communication styles can result in
misunderstandings and miscommunication.
www.mhhe.com/socscience/comm/group/students/diversity.htm
Would you describe your culture as individualist or collectivist? Why?
3.4 Organisational context
Organisational communication is that which takes place within an organisational
context. When we think of organisational communication we are reminded of various
work environments. The school or college you
attend is an example of an organisation but
we also can refer to banks, the post office, the
supermarket, the electric company, the water
There is etiquette for
company and so on as organisations.
communicating on the Internet.
Organisational communication is
lt is called netiquette and it offers
a relatively new area of study but is of
guidelines on how to conduct
paramount importance as it contributes to the
oneself online. Some netiquette sites
effectiveness of an organisation. Organisational
offer lists of chat abbreviations.
communication is said to be:
Did you know?
Central: that is, of great importance to the
running of the company
■ Pervasive: meaning there is a significant amount of communication taking place
■ Complex: there are several patterns of communication all taking place at the same time.
■
It also has specific patterns:
Downward
■ Upward
■ Horizontal
■ Grapevine.
■
CHAPTER 3: CONTEXTS OF COMMUNICATION
Downward communication, as the name implies, refers to directives or other
information coming from management to employees. Upward would describe
information that is passed up the management chain. Horizontal communication is the
sharing of information across the levels of the organisation/institution and the ‘grapevine’
is the informal passage of information in the office or organisation. The grapevine is
sometimes deliberately used in order to pass new information.
Of course there are formal and informal means of communicating in the organisation.
Both these types of communication are appropriate in certain circumstances. Every
communication in the workplace does not have to be documented and sometimes oral
means are used to share information.
However, in some cases staff need to be formally given notice of information. A change
in company policy or action to be taken in light of an impending hurricane are situations
where staff may need to revert to the written document. For these purposes more formal
means of communication may be used. Some companies make use of the worldwide web
to pass on messages using the employee’s choice of email address, but other companies
create an intranet that services their company. The employees automatically have an
email address with their name and the company’s name making up their email address.
An address may appear as JaneDoe@biscuits.com. (Jane Doe works at a company called
Biscuits.) This allows messages to be passed within the organisation.
Some formal means of communicating in organisational contexts include:
Email (Internet and intranet)
Memos
■ Newsletters
■ Policy documents
■ Job descriptions.
■
■
ACTIVITY 3.4
1 List other ways by which
information can be communicated
in the workplace.
2 You are the manager of a
small company and some of your
employees are always late. What
means would you use to inform
them that this tardiness must stop
as it is affecting the efficiency of
the company?
3 What do you think is the
difference between Internet and
intranet?
Fig. 3.3 Informal communication
Some informal methods would include:
Face to face
Grapevine
■ Telephone.
■
■
31
32
UNIT 1: DESCRIBING COMMUNICATION
Notice that written correspondence is more often considered formal communication
while spoken is often considered informal.
Communication may be directed at an individual, a small group or all employees.
Therefore the appropriate channels must be used. Information can be
communicated through:
Briefings
■ Staff meetings
■ Project meetings.
■
3.5 Academic context
Academic communication comes in various forms with which you should be quite
familiar at this level. Aural, oral and written communication are all part of the genre of
academic communication. Student academic communication includes:
Attentive listening
■ Effectual group work
■ Comprehensive oral/written reporting (for example labs or projects)
■ Effective note-taking
■ Persuasive proposal writing/presentations
■ Constructive questioning
■ Succinct writing (for example essays, examination question responses)
■ Coherent summarising
■
When one goes to college or university one becomes very aware of the type of
writing and research skills that must be evidenced in the papers submitted. Academic
communication is typically not emotive but expository in nature and this is a distinction
often ignored by students. (Chapter 12 gives you more information on the characteristics
of academic writing.)
Academic communication is used not only by students but by lecturers as well.
Lecturer academic communication includes:
Lecturer notes
■ Lectures (with or without the use of media such as PowerPoint™)
■ Course outlines
■ Academic research papers
■ Books
■ Professional/scholarly journals.
■
Within the world of academia, communication is vitally important as it is the means by
which we pass on and receive knowledge.
3.6 Intercultural context
In order to communicate with others of a different cultural background, it is important to
be aware of and analyse the differing cultural patterns of the world. One must be capable
of accepting that there are different ways of communicating both verbally and nonverbally and different things are communicated by certain behaviours.
CHAPTER 3: CONTEXTS OF COMMUNICATION
Definition
The World Bank
defines intercultural
communication (also
known as cross-cultural
communication), as
interaction between
persons of different
cultural communities.
Acknowledging and remembering these differences is not always easy as by nature
human beings tend to be culturally biased, refusing to be anything but ethnocentric.
Within communities that are ethnically and culturally diverse, the recognition of
differences and sameness is more acute than in a mono-cultural situation.
In this highly technological world, which is often described as a ‘global village’,
effective communication requires greater acknowledgement of cultural diversity and
greater attention paid to the social skills that could reduce cultural misunderstandings.
Note that cities, universities and other communities worldwide are becoming increasingly
multicultural. Knowing symbols and their cross-cultural
meanings can protect the communicator from committing a
cross-cultural faux pas. In Chapter 2 you learnt of some
ACTIVITY 3.5
different non-verbal clues that are exhibited by other
Think of different
cultures, and their meanings. Think of the importance of
situations, other
knowing issues such as eye contact, dress, voice levels and
than business, where
handshaking versus embracing as you go into business
it would be useful
partnership with someone from Ghana or Singapore or Italy
to have good crosscultural skills.
or Japan! Being able to communicate without being
offensive is extremely important to a productive relationship.
Conclusion
You have seen how communication takes place in various contexts
and how the context determines the type of communication
engaged in as well as the form that the communication takes.
The nature of the context, the culture of the society in which
the communication takes place and the social orientation of the
individuals all play a part in determining how people relate to
each other. It is also clear that the majority of our communication
takes place through language. Chapter 4 looks at what we mean by
language and how it can be defined.
33
34
UNIT 1: DESCRIBING COMMUNICATION
Evaluation
and extension
1 Discuss the difference between interpersonal
and intrapersonal communication.
2 What types of academic communication have
you been exposed to so far?
3 A school/college is an organisation. What formal
methods of communication are used in your
institution to pass information?
4 You are in a face to face meeting with
individuals from the United States and China.
All participants speak English. What are some of
the issues you would need to be aware of before
joining the meeting that would aid in effective
small group communication?
5 You have been awarded an undergraduate
scholarship to Taiwan. You will be there for four
years living in a Taiwanese household. What
aspects of the culture do you think you should
investigate so as to avoid offending your hosts?
References
Bateman, T. and Zeithaml, C. (1990). Management: Function and Strategy.
Irwin. Accessed 31 January 2007 at www.answers.com/topic/interpersonalcommunication.
Braiker, H. B. (1989).The Power of Self Talk. Psychology Today, 23 (12), p. 23.
A Communication Model. Retrieved 6 March 2007 from www.jerf.org/
writings/communicationEthics.
The Encyclopedia of Small Business Interpersonal Communication. Retrieved 31
January 2007 from www.answers.com/topic/interpersonal-communication.
Interpersonal Communication, from The Encyclopedia of Small Business
website: www.referenceforbusiness.com/small/Inc-Mail/InterpersonalCommunication. Accessed 10 December 2007.
Communication for Governance and Accountability Programme, Intercultural
Communication. http://siteresources.worldbank.org/EXTGOVACC/Resources/
InterculturalCommweb.pdf. Accessed 04 November 2012.
King, D. (2000). Four Principles of Interpersonal Communication. Retrieved 31
January 2007 from www.pstcc.edu/facstaff/dking/interpr.htm.
McGraw Hill References: Small Group Communications, Culture and Small
Groups. Retrieved 19 February 2007 from www.mhhe.com/socscience/comm/
group/students/diversity.htm.
Okpewho I. (1970). The Victims. Longman.
Pickett, J. et al. (eds) (2000). American Heritage Dictionary of the English
Language, 4th edn. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company.
Victor, D. The Factors Affecting Cross-Cultural Business Communication.
Accessed on 15 May 2013 at http://www.enotes.com/cross-culturalinternational-communication-reference/cross-cultural-internationalcommunication
Wiio, O. (1978). Wiio’s Laws and Some Others. (Espoo, Finland: Welin-Goos),
quoted in Four Principles of Interpersonal Communication (2000). Donnell King.
Website: www.pstcc.edu/facstaff/dking/interpr.htm. Accessed 15 May 2013.
35
End of Unit
Test 1
1 Read the advertisement below and then answer the
questions that follow:
(b) You have been asked to do a presentation on the
topic ‘Making the right choices – Family Planning’.
Explain what form your presentation would take,
the language style and register you would use and
any technological aids you would use. (12 marks)
(c) What TWO non-verbal clues might you receive
during your presentation that would tell you that
you have captured your audience’s attention?
(2 marks)
(d) The members of the club want to reach all
members of the community – including people
with visual and hearing impairment. How might
(4 marks)
they achieve this?
3 (a) Find examples to illustrate the following types
of communication:
• Academic
• Cross-cultural
• Intrapersonal
• Interpersonal.
Fig. 3.4Advertisement
(a) What form of communication is being
used here?
(1 mark)
(b) What is the message being communicated?
(1 mark)
(c) Who is the (a) sender and (b) receiver in
this communication process?
(2 marks)
(d) What THREE communication techniques does
the advertisement utilise to gain the reader’s
attention? Explain how each technique works
(6 marks)
as an attention getter.
(e) In what TWO communication settings would it
be appropriate to use this advertisement? (2 marks)
(f) Do you consider this to be an effective
advertisement? Explain.
(2 marks)
(g) Describe how you could retain this concept but use
the television as the medium to send the message.
(6 marks)
2 The youth group to which you belong is hosting a
(4 marks)
(b) Divide the examples listed below into verbal and
nonverbal forms of communication: semaphore,
music symbols, yawning, singing, preaching,
tapping one’s foot, flouncing, reciting, poetry,
slouching, sucking of teeth, winking the eye.
(12 marks)
(c) State FOUR ways using the computer in which you
(4 marks)
could communicate with a friend.
References: Unit 1 Additional reading
Agar, M. (1994). Language Shock: Understanding the Culture of
Conversation. New York: William Morrow and Company.
Argle, M. (1990). Bodily Communication, 2nd edn. New York: International
Universities Press.
Dodd, C. (1998). Dynamics of Intercultural Communication, 5th edn. New
York: McGraw-Hill.
Lewis, R. (2000). When Cultures Collide. Naperville, Illinois: Nicholas Brealey.
Lull, J. (1995). Media, Communication, Culture: A global approach. New
York: Columbia University Press.
Scott, C.R. (1999). Communication Technology and Group Communication.
In Frey, L., Gouran, D. & Poole, M. (eds), The Handbook of Group
Communication and Research. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, pp. 432–472.
A communication model: http://www.worldtrans.org/TP/TP1/TP1-17.HTML.
Accessed 15 May 2013.
week of activities under the heading: ‘Making the Right
Intercultural Communication Institute: www.intercultural.org offers
instruction and resources related to intercultural communication issues.
Choices’.
(a) What TWO methods might your members use
to communicate the information about the
activities to the rest of the community? (2 marks)
Theories of small group communication: mhhe.com/socscience/comm/group/
students/theory.htm. Accessed 19 February 2007.
9780230431584_text.indd 35
24/02/2014 09:30
2
Understanding
Communication
in Society
Although we sometimes communicate with ourselves,
much of everyday communication takes place in a social
context. Language is the main tool used by humans
to maintain relationships and sustain human progress.
It is important to understand the role of language in
society and how it can be manipulated for effective
communication. Success or failure and even life or death
are often determined by our understanding of language
and its social uses. The modern world is difficult to
navigate without a sense of how technology impacts
on communication or without the ability to harness
technology to enhance or maximise the effectiveness
with which we interact in communicative situations.
Expected Learning Outcomes
On completing this unit, you should be able to:
1 appreciate the nature, characteristics and roles of language in society
and, in particular, Caribbean society
2 evaluate examples of written or spoken communication, taking into
consideration their form, content and the contexts of presentation
3 develop an awareness of the main features of the interactive relationship
among communication technologies, language and society
4 appreciate the significance of communication technologies in cultural
interaction.
38
UNIT 2: UNDERSTANDING COMMUNICATION IN SOCIETY
CHAPTER 4: DEFINING LANGUAGE
4
Defining Language
Before we can examine how language works as the major communication
tool of our society, we must determine what we mean by language, how
we characterise it and what are its purposes. It is also important to define
language in terms of its cultural significance. Therefore, the terms used to
describe types and aspects of language as used in the Caribbean must be
clearly understood. This chapter explains the basic concepts of language.
The skills you learn in this chapter pertain to Module 2 and Specific Objectives 2, 3, 4
and 8.
Expected Learning Outcomes
On completing this chapter, you should be able to
1 discuss the concept of language
2 identify some features of English Creole that make it different
from standard English
3 explain some of the challenges faced by the Creole speaker in
learning English
4 define some key terms that relate to language variation.
Definition
The following are
dictionary definitions
of language:
(a) system of
communication between
humans, through written
and vocal symbols
(b) speech peculiar to
an ethnic, national, or
cultural group
(c) words, especially
employed in any art,
branch of knowledge,
or profession
(d) a person’s
characteristic mode
of speech
(e) by extension, the
articulate or inarticulate
expression of thought
and feeling by living
creatures.
Introduction
Except for definition (e), the definitions of language given here are universally accepted.
The general view of language is that it is what separates the human species from others.
In Unit 1, you explored what it means to communicate.You also discussed various
forms of communication.You would have recognised that it is possible to communicate
without the use of words, and that many living creatures
other than humans have some system of communicating
with each other.You would also have concluded that
the ability to communicate verbally, or to use language,
allows for unlimited depth and complication in the
messages that we convey. Language combines a wide
All children learn
variety of features and is the most precise and complex
language in exactly the
means of communication that exists. This is what
same way, no matter
separates language from other forms of communication
what culture they belong
and labels it as characteristically human. Therefore, the
to or what language is
spoken in their society.
extended definition (e) is widely regarded as a far stretch
of the concept of language and is sometimes a source of
controversy among linguists.
Did you
know?
39
40
UNIT 2: UNDERSTANDING COMMUNICATION IN SOCIETY
4.1 Characteristics of language
I’m flying off to Guyana
to check out the latest
range of nest twigs
ACTIVITY 4.1
The words in the box below all belong to modern
languages. Say them aloud. Which ones do you
recognise?
slegt dziekuje
csaj nzuri
pocatkujacych
briskve
dysguryn
podrecznik
giovedi
bellisima
Huh?
gracias
froid
cinquo
gauche
merci
bello
Fig. 4.1 Language is uniquely human
We have already established that one of the main characteristics of language is that it
is uniquely human. While parrots and parakeets can be taught to reproduce sound
sequences, they cannot be taught to formulate sentences on their own or to respond
sensibly to a verbal message. In the same way, a bird might indicate through a series of
movements that it is ready to mate, but would be unable to convey how it feels about the
shortage of nesting materials or how it plans to procure what it needs to build the nest.
The possession of language as a communication tool has been the main catalyst in our
development as the most creative species on Earth.
Another important characteristic of language is that it is systematic. Unlike other
forms of communication, language makes use of a number of different systems. One such
system is sound. Each language has its accepted sound patterns that are easily recognisable
to its speakers.
You can see that there are certain combinations of letter sounds that appear in other
languages that are not acceptable in English even though these languages all use the
same orthography or writing system. Have you noticed that many who learn English as
a second language often have difficulty pronouncing words with the ‘th’ sound? That is
because this particular combination letter sound does not occur in their own languages.
Sounds take on meaning in a language only when they are combined in certain ways that
are recognisable to its speakers. Try doing Activity 4.1 and note which letter combinations
you found difficult to pronounce.
In sign language, the patterns of sound are replaced by patterns of finger, hand and arm
movements. These patterns are systematic and consistent.
Another important system of language is grammar. The grammar of a language is a set
of rules that govern how the words of the language are put together to make meaning.
Obviously, the words:
Often to goes he the market
would not qualify as an English sentence until they are placed in the accepted order:
He often goes to the market.
41
CHAPTER 4: DEFINING LANGUAGE
Word order is critical to meaning. Consider the way in
which a simple sentence can acquire different meanings
depending on the word order:
You are there.
There you are!
Are you there?
Apart from the rules related to the standard order of the
words, there are rules relating to which type of word can
be used in a given sentence to convey meaning.
In Activity 4.2 it is obvious that the sentence would
require the same type of word, in this case a verb.
However, grammatical rules are even more specific than
this and the space could not be filled by just any verb.
Fig. 4.2 Word order is critical to meaning
ACTIVITY 4.2
Which of the words below could logically be used in place of the word ’goes’ in the
sentence above them?
He often goes to the market.
car
of
runs
circular
bright
pencils
there
but
rides
ACTIVITY 4.3
Which of the following verbs would fit the sentence?
He often ___________ to the market.
shuffles
kisses
jumps
swaggers
flies
hears
dances
sits
cries
eats
sleeps
sings
Notice that in Activity 4.3 some of the verbs that cannot logically fit in the sentence
would fit perfectly if you changed the preposition ‘to’ to ‘at’. Activities 4.2 and 4.3 illustrate
how language is tightly structured and governed by rules in a systematic manner. Each
language has its own set of rules, which must be employed for the effective transfer of meaning.
Another characteristic of language is that it is symbolic. This means that it uses words
as representations or symbols of ideas. Each word represents some idea or thing that has
a meaning. Words need definitions because they are symbols of something else. In order
for a language to make sense, or be mutually intelligible among its speakers, there must be
commonly understood or accepted meanings attributed to its symbols.
Consider the following words. What do they symbolise? Do you think all English
speakers mean the same thing when they use those words?
sorrow
anger
disgust
strength
fortitude
pride
excitement
embarrassment
love
42
UNIT 2: UNDERSTANDING COMMUNICATION IN SOCIETY
Although the above words on page 41 refer to intangible
ideas, you immediately understand what they mean even
though they may be difficult to explain in other words.
Symbolism in language ensures that ideas are easily shared
among speakers of the same language.
The average university
Dictionaries are actually records of the symbolic
graduate is believed to
meaning of the words in a language. They ensure that the
know 20,000 to 30,000
words, which is still less
symbolism remains consistent despite the advent of new
than 2 per cent of all
generations and new speakers.
English words.
However, despite the fact that the major core of words
generally remains constant in meaning, there is
development and change in aspects of all languages.
Another feature of language as a whole is that it is evolutionary, or changes over time.
One manifestation of language change is the invention of new words. As humans invent
or discover new things and new ideas enter the world, new symbols have to be created to
represent them. There will be many new words in the next century that do not exist now.
Did you
know?
ACTIVITY 4.4
Try to find out when the
following words became
part of the English
language:
computer
nuclear
aeroplane
television
atom
genetics
Fig. 4.3 The sign language alphabet
Generally, words are created to suit the particular needs of the culture of a specific group
of people. Bryson (1990) gives examples of this in the following excerpt on page 43.
CHAPTER 4: DEFINING LANGUAGE
ACTIVITY 4.5
Of course, every language has areas in which it needs, for practical
purposes, to be more expressive than others. The Eskimos, as is well
known, have 50 words for types of snow – though curiously no word
for just plain snow. To them there is crunchy snow, soft snow, fresh
snow, and old snow, but no word that just means snow. The Italians, as
we might expect, have over 500 names for different types of macaroni.
Some of these, when translated, begin to sound distinctly unappetising,
like strozzapreti, which means ’strangled priests’. Vermicelli means ’little
worms’ and even spaghetti means ’little strings’. When you learn that
muscatel in Italian means ’wine with flies in it’, you may conclude that the
Italians are gastronomically out to lunch, so to speak, but really their names
for foodstuffs are no more disgusting than our hot dogs or those old
English favourites, toad-in-the-hole, spotted dick, and faggots in gravy.
The residents of the Trobriand Islands of Papua New Guinea have a
hundred words for yams, while the Maoris of New Zealand have 35
words for dung (don’t ask me why). Meanwhile, the Arabs are said (a
little unbelievably, perhaps) to have 6,000 words for camels and camel
equipment. The aborigines of Tasmania have a word for every type of tree,
but no word that just means ’tree’, while the Araucanian Indians of Chile
rather more poignantly have a variety of words to distinguish between
different degrees of hunger.
Even among speakers of the same language, regional and national
differences abound. A Londoner has a less comprehensive view of extremes
of weather than someone from the Middle West of America. What a Briton
calls a blizzard would, in Illinois or Nebraska, be a flurry, and a British heat
wave is often a thing of merriment to much of the rest of the world. (I still
treasure a London newspaper with the banner headline: BRITAIN SIZZLES IN
THE SEVENTIES!)
Bill Bryson
Table 4.1 Changes
in meaning
Discuss with your classmates
some words that you
think are in the process
of evolution or which
have recently acquired
new meanings. What may
account for these changes?
Changes in meaning are
another way in which language
evolves. Generally, these changes
occur when a significant
group of persons persistently
uses a word (symbol) to mean
something other than its
traditionally accepted definition
(more will be said on this later
on in the chapter, when we
look at language and culture).
A very obvious example is the
word ‘gay’, which, until the midtwentieth century, did not mean
‘homosexual’.
Look at the following
chart (Table 4.1). Notice how
drastically some words have
changed meanings.
Word
Older meaning
Modern meaning
gay
carefree, happy
homosexual
nice
stupid, foolish
pleasant, agreeable
girl
any young person
female young person
manufacture
make by hand
produce artificially by hand or machinery
tell
count
say, inform
meat
any food
food from animal flesh
43
44
UNIT 2: UNDERSTANDING COMMUNICATION IN SOCIETY
4.2 Purposes of language
Chapter 2 made it clear that very basic levels of communication can be carried out without
the use of language. However, this type of communication is very limited and often
cumbersome. Language affords human beings the ability to communicate anything they
can imagine. As a tool, language is infinitely flexible and can be put to multiple purposes.
Expressive purposes
Language can be used simply to express one’s feelings, ideas or attitudes, without
necessarily taking a reader or listener into consideration. When language is used in this
way, the speaker/writer is not trying to effect change in an audience or elicit response.
He/she is merely giving vent to emotions or needs. Diaries and journals are obvious
examples of language used for expressive purposes.
Example
I’m afraid that people who know me as I usually am will discover I have
another side a better and finer side. I’m afraid they’ll mock me, think I’m
ridiculous and sentimental and not take me seriously. I’m used to not
being taken seriously, but only the ‘lighthearted’ Anne is used to it and can
put up with it; the ‘deeper’ Anne is too weak. If I force the good Anne into
the spotlight for even fifteen minutes, she shuts up like a clam the moment
she’s called upon to speak, and lets Anne number one do the talking.
Before I realise it, she’s disappeared.
So the nice Anne is never seen in company. She’s never made a
single appearance, though she almost always takes the stage when I’m
alone. I know exactly how I’d like to be, how I am ... on the inside. But
unfortunately I’m only like that with myself. And perhaps that’s why – no,
I’m sure that’s the reason why – I think of myself as happy on the inside
and other people think I’m happy on the outside. I’m guided by the pure
Anne within, but on the outside I’m nothing but a frolicsome little goat
tugging at its tether.
As I’ve told you, what I say is not what I feel, which is why I have a
reputation for being a boy-chaser, a flirt, a smart aleck and a reader of
romances. The happy-go-lucky Anne laughs, gives a flippant reply, shrugs
her shoulders and pretends she couldn’t care less. The quiet Anne reacts in
just the opposite way. If I’m being completely honest, I’ll have to admit
that it does matter to me, that I’m trying very hard to change myself, but
that I’m always up against a more powerful enemy.
Anne Frank
CHAPTER 4: DEFINING LANGUAGE
Informative purposes
In this case, language is employed with the intention of conveying information to others.
Therefore, a news broadcast, a bulletin board at your school, this textbook or a television
guide are all examples of language being used for this purpose.
Example
This dependency of Grenada has a very strong culture. It also has one of
the highest per capita incomes in the Eastern Caribbean.
About 900 people live on the island, which covers 486 acres (194
hectares) and is 3 miles (5 km) east of the northern half of Carriacou. The
island can be reached only by boat. The island is really one large hill. The
eastern shore is rocky but there are some fine beaches on the western,
leeward side.
Like Carriacou, Petite Martinique was first settled by the French and
many islanders have names of French origin.
Fishing and boatbuilding are still the main occupations. Some corn and
peas are grown and sheep and goats graze freely over the hills. Everything
else has to be imported.
Although the island has electricity and telephones, the lack of rivers
has made water a valuable resource, and all homes have a storage tank to
collect rainwater running off the roof.
There is a small medical centre, visited by a government doctor from
Carriacou once a week, post office, school and a Catholic Church. Other
denominations hold outdoor services. The island has its own Carnival,
which is held the two days before Lent, and at Whitsuntide a two-day
regatta is hosted.
Grenada Board of Tourism
Cognitive purposes
When language is used cognitively, it is with the intention of affecting the audience in
some way in order to evoke some type of response. Therefore, when one uses language to
persuade, entertain, stir to anger or arouse sympathy, one is using language for cognitive
purposes. Jokes, political speeches and horror stories are different examples of ways in
which language can be used cognitively.
Example
A descendant of Eric the Red, named Rudolph the Red, was arguing with
his wife about the weather. His wife thought it was going to be a nice day,
and he thought it was going to rain. Finally she asked him how he was so
sure. He smiled at her, and calmly said, ‘Because Rudolph the Red knows
rain, dear’.
45
46
UNIT 2: UNDERSTANDING COMMUNICATION IN SOCIETY
Poetic purposes
Language used in literary, stylistic or imaginative ways is poetic. The user focuses on the
structure and pattern of the language and places emphasis on the manner in which the
language is manipulated. Language used for poetic purposes is not necessarily done in verse.
It is the way in which the language is used, and not its form, that indicates its poetic purpose.
Example
From the tram, visitors have an amazing bird’s eye view of a truly mature
Caribbean oceanic rainforest. Nurtured by warm, gentle rains and rich
volcanic soils, the forests have achieved a state of ancient majesty. Gondolas
safely glide through and over the tree tops, where knotted and twisting
woody vines wind to the tops of old growth rainforest trees. Dense
thickets of surreal vegetation merge with cascades of flowers. Lavender
stars, orange bursts, yellow berries and white lace thrive on the branches of
fragrant flowering trees. Giant Chatannier trees tower over the landscape
and provide food and shelter for the island’s endemic and endangered
parrots. Here, the flowers bloom with shameless abundance.
LIAT Islander
Phatic purposes
Sometimes language is used simply to establish or maintain contact among people. This
use of language is most obvious in spoken communication. Language used for phatic
purposes does not necessarily seek to generate a meaningful response. For example,
when we greet each other by saying ‘hello’ or ‘good morning’ we are using language to
maintain social customs. We say ‘good morning’ automatically as a greeting even though
a thunderstorm is raging or we are on the way to chemotherapy. In the same way, you
would not expect your cheerful ‘how you doing?’ to be responded to with a litany of all
the things that are going wrong in your friend’s life.
Example
What’s up,
Marlon?
I’m cool man,
what about you?
Fig. 4.4 Language used for phatic purposes does not seek a meaningful response
CHAPTER 4: DEFINING LANGUAGE
Although the phatic purpose of language does not often apply to written
communication, in the case of letter writing, the greeting and closure are phatic. Informal
or friendly letters and email may also use expressions like ‘How are you’ or ‘Hi there’
merely for phatic purposes.
Metalinguistic purposes
Simply put, this is the use of the language to comment on, refer to or discuss language
itself. A critique of your friend’s essay or speech is metalinguistic, so is the blurb on the back
of a novel. When you use language to consider language your purpose is metalinguistic.
Example
In a tersely sardonic meta-dub poem, ‘Dubbed Out’, Jean Binta Breeze
distinguishes her work from the rub-a-dub-a-dub monotony of facile
performance poetry in which meaning is rubbed out in the dub:
I
Search for words
Moving
In their music
Not
Broken
By
The
Beat
The spacing of the lines jerking to a halt enacts the beating-down of sense
and lyricism; the double-entendre, ‘moving’, extends the conventional
conceit of poetry as music – emotive sound – to include the fluidity of
the word released from the mechanical rigidity of the beat, and from the
fix of the page. Poetry becomes verbal dance, transmitted word-of-muscle.
This reading of ‘Dubbed Out’ not only evokes the embodied word in
performance, but also requires a distinction between the poet as a maker
and as a performer. For not only are the words in motion, unbroken by the
beat, but the poet/performer, uncontained by the boundaries of the book,
speaks face to face with an immediate audience. In an act of performative
transference the speaker gets across the closure of the printed page.
Carolyn Cooper
The multiple purposes to which language can be put make it the most valuable tool
of communication at our disposal. In order to master the art of communication it is
important to master the use of language for all its purposes.
47
48
UNIT 2: UNDERSTANDING COMMUNICATION IN SOCIETY
4.3 Language variation
It is obvious that there are many varieties or types of language. If you look up a list of
the major languages in the world, you will realise that different languages are spoken in
different geographical locations. Sometimes the same language is spoken in countries that
are far away from each other. For example, people in Spain, Cuba,Venezuela, and Mexico
all speak Spanish. However, although speakers from these countries can communicate with
each other, the Spanish spoken in each country is somewhat different from that spoken in
each of the others. Therefore, we can distinguish between varieties of the same language.
This is known as internal variation. No language is spoken in exactly the same way
wherever it is used. For example, while people in England, America, Grenada and Australia
all speak English, you can tell that a person is from one of those countries by the variety
of English that he/she speaks. It can be said that these persons are speaking a particular
dialect of English. The term dialect refers to any variety of a language spoken by a
group of people.
Sometimes, as a language evolves, one particular dialect becomes dominant. This is
usually due to the fact that it is the dialect spoken by the people with the economic
power or greatest social influence in that society. In this case, their dialect becomes
accepted as the standard variety of that language. Therefore, the standard variety
becomes the one used for writing and other formal purposes and is often given prestige
over the other varieties. Since that language variety is associated with influence and
‘correctness’, it becomes the one that is aspired to, often to the exclusion of other varieties.
You may be surprised to know that, on a global scale, there is no one specific standard
variety of a language. Rather there is a range of varieties that are considered to be
standard. The standard French used in Paris, France, is not identical to the standard French
used in Quebec, Canada.You are probably also aware of the differences between British
Standard English (BSE) and American Standard English (ASE). In the English-speaking
Caribbean, Standard English is also used, but linguists refer to this variety as Caribbean
Standard English (CSE). Note that these standard forms all share the same structures
and are considered to be internationally acceptable; that is, they are understood by other
speakers of English around the world. Their differences lie primarily in the areas of
vocabulary, pronunciation and spelling (in the case of ASE) as seen in the following table.
Table 4.2 BSE and
ASE variations
BSE
ASE
flat
apartment
tyre
tire
centre
center
autumn
fall
holidays
vacation
labour
labor
biscuit
cookie
number plate
license
full stop
period
ACTIVITY 4.6
Try to find other
examples of variations
between American
and British Standard
English. Make a chart
for your classroom.
Which versions do you
use?
CHAPTER 4: DEFINING LANGUAGE
Definition
A useful definition of
the term dialect is: a
particular variety of a
language spoken by one
group of persons, that
differs noticeably from
the variety or varieties
of the same language
spoken by another
group or other groups
of people.
Table 4.3
Vocabulary
variations in the
English-speaking
Caribbean
community
It is important to understand that no one
Just put your
variety of a language is superior to another
suitcase in
and that every language is really a collection
the boot.
of dialects. A group of people who speak the
same dialect is known as a speech community.
Sometimes, although two persons are
speaking the same dialect, their accents may
make it difficult for them to understand each
other. Be careful not to confuse a dialect with
an accent. An accent is simply a variation
in pronunciation. There is no such thing
as a person who speaks without an accent.
However, because your accent is so much a
part of who you are, it is often difficult for
you to identify your own. For example, a St
Fig. 4.5 Language variety
Lucian may identify persons from Jamaica,
Trinidad, or Belize as having an accent but would not normally refer to him- or herself
as having one. That same St Lucian may also identify the accent of someone from another
geographical area within his/her country as being different. In the same way, people from
the northern United States sound different from those in the southern states. So a person’s
accent is the way he/she sounds.
Apart from variation in the same language from country to country, there are
noticeable differences among speech communities within a country or region. Differences
in dialects are most apparent in terms of vocabulary and idiomatic expressions. The chart
below indicates examples of the way in which there is vocabulary variation within the
English-speaking Caribbean community.
Barbados
Guyana
Trinidad and
Tobago
St Lucia
Jamaica
Standard
ackee
ginep
chenet
ackee
ginep
quenepa (Spanish)
gossip
talkname
commes
ro-ro
cass-cass
gossip (English)
likrish
likrish
likrish
vowas (Fr. Creole)
craven
greedy (English)
firefly
candlefly
candlefly
firefly
peenie-walli
firefly (English)
ACTIVITY 4.7
Work in groups to add
more examples to the
chart in Table 4.3. You
may need to consult
with friends or relatives
from other countries or
talk to older persons in
your community.
No matter what dialect is spoken by a speech community, each user is capable
of manipulating that dialect in relation to the context of communication.
Depending on whom you are speaking or writing to, you instinctively vary the
way in which you express yourself. This type of language variation is called code
switching. Think about how you would describe a fight in the schoolyard to (a)
your Principal, (b) your friend and (c) your parent. Although you may be using
the same variety of language, you would most likely use different vocabulary,
language structures and even tones of voice in each case; therefore, your audience
determines your code. However, you may also choose to use an entirely different
variety or dialect of a language from one situation to the next. The variety of
language that you use at any given time is your register. Choice of register also
generally reflects the speaker’s/writer’s relationship with his/her audience. If you
49
50
UNIT 2: UNDERSTANDING COMMUNICATION IN SOCIETY
observe people around you, you will notice that,
on formal occasions, the language variety
considered by the society to be the more formal is
the one used. The ability to change your register in
this way is an important life skill, as few people
speak or write their dialect in the same way no
matter what the context. (See Chapter 5.) As the
context of the communication changes, this
variation in code or speech style involves changes
in syntax and vocabulary.
ACTIVITY 4.8
Consider the following versions of
the same communication. Discuss
the different contexts within which
each may have been used:
All rise for the final hymn.
Please stand for the final hymn.
Stand for the last hymn.
Get up! It’s the last hymn.
Syntax
In casual or informal speech, we use many contractions and drop word endings.You are
likely to say to your partner, ‘Don’t you love me?’ or ‘You don’t love me?’ instead of ‘Do
you not love me?’ From Activity 4.8, you would have concluded that the level of formality
of the occasion and the speaker’s relationship with his/her audience varied significantly.
Vocabulary
Your choice of vocabulary is a major determinant of your register. There are words (for
example, the obscene words of your language) that are not acceptable in most contexts.
Then there are words that we use if we are trying to impress. Think about the difference
in impact of ‘There has been much investment in this venture’ as opposed to, ‘There has
been substantial investment in this venture.’ In most cases the less commonly used word
tends to make a greater impression.Vocabulary can also be specific to a particular group.
Therefore a lawyer would use a certain register when discussing points of law with peers,
but would hardly be understood by others unless he adjusted his style of speech. The
register used by a group of persons in the same technical or professional field is known
as jargon. Sometimes, people use a particular register or style of speech to fit in with a
group. For example, what is known in the Caribbean as Rastafarian speech was associated
with the Rastafarians in Jamaica and, as that movement spread, many people who
embraced that religion and way of life adopted that style of language.
In most societies, groups of young people often use vocabulary in a way that is
unique to them and sometime baffling to the mainstream adult population. This type of
vocabulary usage is referred to as slang. Most slang terms have a short life span. However,
sometimes slang terms remain around long enough to become accepted as part of the
standard use of the language and are used by the general population. For example, the
word ‘cram’, as a slang term, is used to mean last-minute, intensive study, which is different
from its standard meaning as forcing physical items into a space.
Notice that, while some slang terms do remain in general usage, they are
ACTIVITY 4.9
normally
restricted to informal language and not used in formal expression. They
Make a list of some of
can be used in what is referred to as colloquial language. The word colloquial
the slang terms you
means ‘relating to conversation’. Therefore, colloquial terms are used in general
and your peers use.
Make another list of
informal conversation but are not acceptable formally. If they are used in formal
slang terms that your
writing, they are normally placed in inverted commas to indicate that they are
parents or teachers
colloquial.
may have used. Are any
Are these familiar?
of them the same?
rip-off
hassle
scam
homeboy
CHAPTER 4: DEFINING LANGUAGE
ACTIVITY 4.10
Identify the groups that would most likely be associated with the following examples of jargon:
Example 1
It is down to the final over. Eight runs needed and the field is spread. There are two
slips, point, a sweeper on the boundary and mid-off. On the leg side is a mid-on,
midwicket, square leg and long leg, so Rashim has to keep the ball straight and on the
stumps. He comes in to Maxwell who lofts it over mid-on for four. Rashim comes in to
Maxwell again and this time Maxwell seals it with a pull behind square for four more.
Example 2
A 30-year-old male presents with a two-day history of central chest pain. There
were no associated symptoms and he had no significant past medical history
(PMH). Examination was unremarkable with vesicular breath sounds and resonant
percussion throughout both lung fields and heart sounds 1+2+0. Chest X-ray and
electrocardiogram (ECG) were NAD (nothing abnormal detected). Initially thought to
be musculoskeletal chest pain. However, unexpectedly the troponin I was greater than
30000ng/l (normal range <40ng/l).
Example 3
To ask, demand, recover and receive of and from all and every person or persons whom
the name doth shall or may concern all and every such sum or sums of money, debts,
rents, goods and chattels, dues, duties, claims and demands whatsoever as now are or
hereafter shall become due, owing, belonging or payable to me and the said person or
persons to call to account and bring to a reckoning and adjust all accounts with them
and leave the same to arbitration or compound the same, or accept a part of the whole
upon such terms as to THE ADMINISTRATOR may appear just and upon payment
or delivery of the said sum of money, debts, rents, goods, and chattels to make and give
proper receipts, acquittances and discharges for the same respectively.
4.4 Creole
The term Creole, which comes from the Portuguese word ’creoulo’, originally meant a
person of European parents who had been born and raised in a colonial territory. Later, it
was used to refer to anyone native to these countries and then it became the name of the
language spoken by these people.
A Creole is a language that comes into being through contact between two or more
languages. When people who speak different languages find themselves in a situation
where they have to communicate with each other for purposes of trade, business or to
survive, these people usually devise a form of language communication, called a pidgin.
Pidgins are not ordinary languages since they are normally used only for communication
between persons from different speech communities. However, in some cases, a pidgin
begins to be used as the first language of people in the same community (usually the
children). This pidgin may then become a native language; it acquires the more complex
grammar of a full language and is referred to as a Creole. Therefore, all Creole languages
start as pidgins. Sometimes Creole languages are referred to as patois or patwa. However,
51
52
UNIT 2: UNDERSTANDING COMMUNICATION IN SOCIETY
the word patois can be used as a synonym for any non-standard variety or local dialect,
including pidgins.
Although a Creole has influences from several languages in its sounds, structure and
vocabulary, it is usually classified according to what is perceived as the dominant language
ancestor. Therefore, in the Caribbean, Creoles are referred to as English-based, Frenchbased, Dutch-based, or Portuguese-based. Generally, Creoles from a European and
African language mix (such as those spoken in the Caribbean) have obvious similarities
in grammatical structure.
Some characteristics of Caribbean Creole
Like all other languages, Creoles can be described
according to the typical features of sound units, vocabulary,
grammar and semantics (word meaning). Caribbean
Creole languages, regardless of their lexical (vocabulary)
base, exhibit consistent features that are easily recognisable.
These are the characteristics that make them clearly
different from Standard English, Standard French and so
on. It is important to be able to recognise and understand
those differences in order to use both standard and nonstandard codes effectively. An understanding of the
distinctions between the language varieties will help you
to be consistent in your use of either and to make fewer of
the errors that result from a mixing of Creole and Standard.
Did you
know?
Haiti is the only
Caribbean country that
has given its Creole
language official status
within its constitution.
Sound units
In the case of English-based Creole, generally, the most distinctive differences in sound
combinations are observed in sounds that occur in Standard English but not in the Creole.
A very obvious one is the ’th’ sound, which is produced in English by placing the tip of the
tongue between the front teeth. This sound does not exist in Creole or Creole-influenced
vernacular and is replaced by either the ‘d’, ‘t’ or ‘f ’ sound, depending on its position in the
word and the presence or absence of other non-English influences on the Creole.
Example
brother
brodder/bredda
this
dis
there
dere/deh
thing
ting/fing
thief
tief
mouth
mout
Creole also dispenses with the final consonant in the words that end in ‘ing’ or with a ‘d’.
CHAPTER 4: DEFINING LANGUAGE
Example
dancing
dancin
going
goin/gwine
send
sen
sending
sennin
find
fine
In some cases, an English sound combination is not dropped but reversed, for example
ask→ aks and film→ flim.
Vocabulary
The vocabulary (lexicon) of Caribbean Creole English is derived primarily from Standard
English. However, a number of words used in Creole speech are related to cultural influences
from other European, Amerindian, African, East Indian and Chinese languages. The scope of
usage depends on the composition of the population of the specific territory and its history
of cultural influences. Which of the words in the following lists are familiar to you?
Table 4.4 Sources
of some Caribbean
Creole vocabulary
East Indian
Amerindian
Chinese
African
Dhal
Sari
Orni
Maticore
Baratan
Bhariat
Saro-bhai
Paisa
Barbecue(Babrikot)
Manatee
Cassava
Iguana
Arepa
Maraca
Chow mein
Chop suey
Chow chow
Wonton
Bok choy
Soy
Wok
Senseh
Dutty
Bakra
Nyam
Foo Foo
Yam
Makak
Shango
J. Rickford
Like any other language, the vocabulary of Creole is dynamic and reflects changes
that arise out of social movements such as Rastafarianism (for example, ital, irie) or the
incorporation of prevalent slang (for example, bling, swag).
Grammar
There are several points of grammar that can be used to compare Creole to Standard
English. Much of the syntax and grammar of Caribbean Creoles actually comes from West
African languages. So while the Creoles draw their lexical (word) base from the European
languages, the structures of the Creoles are often those of African languages.
One important Creole grammatical rule is that nouns, verbs and pronouns are not
altered in form to indicate plurals, tense, person or case. Instead, Creole uses other
indicators of these aspects.
Example
Table 4.5 Plurals in
Standard English
and Creole
Singular
Plural
Standard English
Girl
Girls
Creole
gal / gyal
dem gyal / de gyal dem
53
54
UNIT 2: UNDERSTANDING COMMUNICATION IN SOCIETY
Notice that, in the case of Standard English, the plural marker is the addition of the
’s’ to the noun while the Creole uses the plural marker ’dem’ without changing the noun
in any way.
Example
Table 4.6 Verbs in
Standard English
and Creole
Standard English
Creole
1st person singular
I am eating
I eatin
2nd person singular
You are eating
You eatin
3rd person singular
He/She/It is eating
He/She/It eatin
1st person plural
We are eating
We eatin
2nd person plural
You are eating
You all/All you eatin
3rd person plural
They are eating
Dey/Dem eatin
Notice that Creole does not utilise an auxiliary verb to indicate change in person,
while Standard English uses a changing auxiliary as a marker in this case.
However, the Creole differentiates between the second person singular and plural
by inserting ’all’ in the latter case. Standard English does not normally make this
differentiation.
Another characteristic of Creole grammar is its use of predicate adjectives. These are
words that function as both adjective and verb in the sentence.
Example
Table 4.7 Predicate
adjectives in
Standard English
and Creole
Standard English
English Creole
French Creole
I am tired
I/me tired
Mwen las
He is sick
He/Him sick
E malad
You are thirsty
You tirsty
Ou swef
The use of double negatives is another characteristic that Creole shares with
Standard French (and Spanish) but not with Standard English.
Example
Table 4.8 Double
negatives
Standard English
Creole
Standard French
I’m not doing anything
I not doin nothing
Je ne fais rien
Creole does not reverse word order to indicate the interrogative form of a sentence.
Example
Table 4.9
Interrogative word
order
Standard English
Creole
You have eaten
You eat already
Have you eaten?
You eat already?
Notice that, while the word order remains the same, the interrogative is merely
indicated by intonation, that is, raising the voice at the end of the declaration to
turn it into a question.
CHAPTER 4: DEFINING LANGUAGE
Some Creole structures are used
to create particular emphasis. For
example, front focusing brings
the word to be emphasised to the
beginning of the sentence as in: Tired
I tired (I am very tired).
In Figure 4.6 front focusing of
the verb emphasises the degree of
tiredness. The word, ’very’ is not used
as a qualifier in Creole. Adjectives
are also emphasised through backfocusing or repetition, for example
’De place, mash up, mash up’ or ’Dat
gyal pretty, pretty’.
Hey man, how
you look so?
Is tired I
tired, boy.
Fig. 4.6 Front focusing in Creole
Semantics
All Creoles share a large part of their vocabulary with the language that forms their lexical
base. However, in many instances the same words have very different meanings in the
Creole. For example, ‘dis chile so miserable!’ does not mean that the
child is sad or listless but quite the opposite, that he/she is
troublesome and overactive. Also, in Creole, an ‘ignorant’ individual is
ACTIVITY 4.11
not necessarily lacking in knowledge, but is quick to anger and acts
How are the following words/
without thinking.
phrases used in your Creole? Do
Another interesting semantic feature is the use of calques, which
their Creole meanings differ from
are compound words borrowed from another language as literal
the standard?
translations. Look at the following examples. How would you translate
them into Standard English? Can you think of any others used in
hot
feisty
wine
soaps
your country?
malicious
‘you lie!’
fast
nose-hole
house-bottom
eye-water
cut-eye
Conclusion
All living languages perform the same major function, which
is to convey thought. They operate within specific structures,
are guided by set rules, yet retain vibrancy by borrowing from
each other, accommodating new words and using old ones in
new ways. Language is the main tool of civilised society and the
most significant means of preserving and sharing culture. It is
within this context that we must examine how language enables
us to define who we are. Chapter 5 looks at the role of language
in human communities and how it can vary depending on the
peculiarities of the particular society.
door-mouth
force-ripe
55
56
UNIT 2: UNDERSTANDING COMMUNICATION IN SOCIETY
Evaluation
and extension
2 Select one of the purposes of language identified
in this chapter. Write a piece to exemplify
this purpose. Share it with your class and get
feedback on whether or not it achieves the
intended purpose.
1 Read the following poem and answer the
questions that follow:
Bruce St John
Language
She sah wha?
We language limit?
Who language en limit?
Evah language
Like a big pot o’ Bajan soup;
Pice o’ yam, piece o’potato
T’ree dumplin’, two eddoe,
One beet, two carrot,
Piece o’ pig-tail, piece o’ beef
Pinch o’ salt, dus’o’pepper,
An ‘doan’ fuget okra fuh add to de flavo’
An ’ whuh?
An ’ yuh still wan’ rice
Boil up, cook up, eat up
…Bajan language is a damn funny language
Piece o’ English, piece o’ African tongue,
Mix Carib an’ Arawak to save damage
An’ de cook-up is a beautiful soun’…
Extracted from Bruce St John
(a) How does the poet’s description of his
language relate to what you know about
how language evolves?
(b) Identify some specific features of Creole
language in this poem.
(c) In groups, write a Standard English
translation of the poem. Read it aloud.
Then read the original poem aloud.
Which do you prefer? Why?
References
Bryson, B. (1990). The Mother Tongue: English and how it got that way. New
York: Avon Books, pp. 14–15.
Christie, P. (ed.) (2001). Due Respect: Essay on English and English related
Creoles in the Caribbean in Honour of Professor Robert Le Page. Jamaica: The
University of the West Indies Press.
Cooper, C. (1993). Noises in the Blood: Orality, gender and the ‘vulgar’ body of
Jamaican popular culture. Oxford: Macmillan, p. 68.
Frank, A. (1954). The Diary of Anne Frank. London: Penguin Books Ltd. p. 221.
Grenada Board of Tourism. (2006). Information brochure. St George’s,
Grenada: p.7.
LIAT. (2006). Rain Forest Aerial Trams Caribbean. Islander, 74, p. 64.
Rickford, J. (ed.) (1978). A Festival of Guyanese Words. Georgetown, Guyana:
University of Guyana.
St John, B. (1982). Bajan Languag’. Bumbatuk I. Bridgetown: The Cedar Press,
p. 53.
CHAPTER 5: LANGUAGE IN SOCIETY
5
Language in Society
Language is the main tool used to establish societies and keep them together.
It is through language that a society is able to create agreed rules and
regulations, convey and receive information critical to its survival and pass
on its culture through oral and written forms. Language has facilitated the
development of science and technology and resulted in the creation of formal
learning institutions and educational structures. Societies also depend heavily
on the use of language for recreational purposes. However, although language
is common to all societies in terms of general function and purpose, it is
also one of the main characteristics by which a community is recognised as
separate and apart from others.
The skills you learn in this chapter pertain to Module 2 and Specific Objectives
5, 6, 7, 8 and 10.
Expected Learning Outcomes
On completing this chapter, you should be able to:
1 describe the influence of various factors (cultural, political,
historical, social) on language
2 analyse the various roles of language in human society
3 evaluate the role of language in Caribbean identity
4 describe the Caribbean in relation to a range of languages
5 discuss the various attitudes to language in the Caribbean
6 assess the use of dialects, registers and ranges of formality in
various types of interactive settings
7 identify the technological advances that have impacted on
communication
8 examine how communication, technology and culture are
interrelated.
Introduction
In the previous chapter, we established that language is a
distinguishing feature of all human societies. It is not solely
a means of communication, but influences our culture and
our thought processes. Societies tend to be characterised
by their most dominant languages and language is often a
primary vehicle of culture. Language situations vary from
region to region, country to country and community to
community. There are multiple and sometimes complicated
reasons for such variation.
Did you
know?
Approximately 90 per
cent of all Internet traffic,
75 per cent of the world’s
mail and 60 per cent of its
radio programmes are in
English.
57
58
UNIT 2: UNDERSTANDING COMMUNICATION IN SOCIETY
5.1 The modern language
situation
The whole world lives in London. Walk
down Oxford Street and you will see
Indians and Colombians, Bangladeshis
and Ethiopians, Pakistanis and Russians,
Melanesians and Malaysians. Fifty
nationalities with communities of more
than 5,000 make their home in the city,
and on any given day 300 languages
are spoken. It is estimated that by 2010
the population will be almost 30 per
cent ethnic minorities, the majority born
in the U.K. Most of these Londoners
are the children and in some cases the
grandchildren of the many thousands who
came here from the Caribbean and the
Indian subcontinent during the fifties and
sixties, after the British Empire imploded.
Each society is distinct in terms of the
language or languages used. A society
where only one language is used is said
to be monolingual; however, there are
very few societies in the world today that
use only one language. Most societies
use more than one language and may be
bilingual (using two languages) or even
multilingual (using multiple languages).
While many countries have a monolingual
bias and officially recognise one language,
the reality is that, even in these countries,
there are bilingual or multilingual
communities particularly where there are
large numbers of immigrants. In addition,
S. Worrall
within a monolingual community, there
may be individuals who are competent
in more than one language; for example,
children of parents who speak different
languages. Although England is traditionally regarded as a monolingual society, Baker and
Eversley (2002) estimate that approximately 300 languages are spoken in London today.
This is largely a result of the arrival of migrants and refugees, especially in the second half
of the twentieth century.
The table below gives global examples of the multilingual reality of the modern world.
Table 5.1
Multilingual
countries
Country
Main languages used
Belize
English, Garifuna, Mopan, English Creole, Spanish, Ketchi,
Mayan,Yucatecan, Mandarin, Cantonese
China
Mandarin, Wu, Cantonese, Min, Hakka, Xiang, Gan
India
Hindi, English, Urdu, Bhojpuri, Punjabi, Telugu, Nepali, Tamil, Bengali, Oriya
Iran
Farsi, Kurdish, Baluchi, Turki, Arabic
Nigeria
Hausa, Igbo, Yoruba, English, Kanuri, Ibibio, Efik, Tiv, Ijo, Edo, Fulfulde,
Urhobo, Nupe, Igala
Singapore
Mandarin, Malay, Tamil, English
South Africa
Sesotho, Leboa, Setswana, Swati, Tshivenda, Xitsonga, Afrikaans, English,
Ndebele, Xhosa, Zulu
ACTIVITY 5.1
Select some countries not listed
in the table above and do some
research to find out which
languages are used in each one.
When you carry out Activity 5.1, you will
notice that most countries have an official
language. This is the language that is given
unique legal status as the language used in the
country’s legislative bodies. Some countries have
languages that are used for official purposes, but
CHAPTER 5: LANGUAGE IN SOCIETY
have no declared official language. The United States of America and Eritrea are two of
those. However, although these countries do not declare an official language, they do have
a main or de facto language.
You will notice that, in some cases, there are also
national languages. A national language is believed to
represent the national identity of a country. It can be
approved by government for use in legal or political
settings and in most cases is also recognised as an official
The language with
language. For example, in Malta, Maltese is the national
the largest number of
language and both Maltese and English are official
speakers is Mandarin
languages. In Singapore, the Malay language is the national
Chinese. This is followed
language and it shares official language status with English,
by Hindi. English has the
Mandarin, Chinese and Tamil.
third largest number of
In addition to national and official languages, some
speakers.
countries have multiple languages in use. Some are both
spoken and written, while some are spoken only and
do not have an orthography or written code. Sometimes a language can be officially
recognised without being classified as a national or an official language. Official
recognition means that the language can be used as a working language but it would not
be declared an official language in the national constitution or other official sources.
Did you
know?
5.2 Factors influencing language
The linguistic characteristics of a society come about as a result of several factors.
Historical, social, political and cultural factors all influence the language(s) used in any
given society. It is important to understand those factors in order to understand why the
languages we use exist in our society and why we use them as we do.
Historical factors
Countries where English is the main language
Fig. 5.1 Countries where English is the main language
The language situation in any
country can normally be linked
directly to historical factors. These
are often related to colonisation
or migration. For example, French
and English are spoken in Canada
today because it was the scene of
several conflicts between France
and England in the seventeenth
and eighteenth centuries.
Colonisation is, in fact, the greatest
factor responsible for the spread
of certain languages from more
homogeneous populations to
distant and diverse geographical
locations.
59
60
UNIT 2: UNDERSTANDING COMMUNICATION IN SOCIETY
Social factors
You have already noted, in the previous chapter, how the social dominance of a group
ensures that its dialect becomes the one that assumes the place of importance in the
society and is considered to be the standard language of that society.You have also noted
that language is dynamic and never static unless there are no more speakers of that
language. Much of the dynamism of a language is a result of constant social change and
the emergence of new cultural phenomena as a result. However, the elements of social and
economic class always affect attitudes to and choice of language. For example, individuals
seeking to be recognised as part of a certain social group may deliberately cultivate the
language or dialect of that group although they do not normally speak that dialect.
Sometimes a person may switch from one variety of language to another throughout the
day as he/she interacts in different social settings. Social factors also determine which
types of language are considered desirable and which ones are improper. Several words
that are considered lewd or vulgar today were used quite normally in earlier times:
for example, many works by Geoffrey Chaucer contain words in regular usage in the
fourteenth century that are considered obscenities today.
Cultural factors
Global movement of people has been a major influence on language. Many migrants and
refugees are eager to assimilate quickly as much of the new culture as they can, to facilitate
their ability to fit in with their society. As generations are born into the new culture, much
of their original language is lost. For example, in the case of Hispanic populations in the
US, a form of language has evolved that features aspects of both Spanish and English. The
name ‘Spanglish’ has been coined for this phenomenon, but linguists would refer to it as
‘code mixing’.
Example
Table 5.2 Influence
of acculturation on
language
Spanish
English
‘Spanglish’
ir de compras
to shop
chopin
camioneta
truck
troca
reunion
meeting
mitin
fin de semana
weekend
wiken
While acculturation, or assimilating, of the new culture affects the language of
immigrants, sometimes the language of the host country also undergoes change as a result
of the new cultural influences. For example several Spanish words have become part of
everyday English language (taco, flan, pinata, machismo).
Inevitably, the coexistence of different languages from different cultures in a society
results in linguistic changes in all the languages. However, the nature of the cultural
changes determines which language is more widely influential and what types of change
take place. In the case of the USA, the fact that some states may well have more Spanish
than English native speakers will be largely instrumental in how language develops there.
CHAPTER 5: LANGUAGE IN SOCIETY
ACTIVITY 5.2
Find out the cultural origin of the following words, which have become part of the
English language:
bongo
apartheid
kindergarten
hamburger
Anglophone
camouflage
pizza
obeah
mannequin
opera
rendezvous
banana
marimba
knapsack
angst
hors d’oeuvres
’cello
cookie
waltz
yam
boss
dachshund
chalet
ballerina
ghetto
Political factors
As indicated earlier, the official language of a country is normally indicated in the national
constitution or other official sources. Recognition given to other languages is also a
political or government decision. Most countries maintain the assigned status of their
languages regardless of political change. However, in some countries, language is significantly
influenced by political events. Language policies typically define a government’s plan
regarding the approach to the treatment of language in the
specific country. For example, the language policy usually
determines which languages will be taught in schools, or
used for particular official purposes. The policy may either
promote or discourage the use of a particular language or
languages and in some cases it is designed to protect an
ethnic language that may be in danger of disappearing.
Political influences on language can determine the
extent to which minority languages or dialects are accepted,
recognised or utilised in a society. For example, in Quebec,
Canada, the provincial government stipulated that only
Fig. 5.2 Political influences on language
French should be used on street signs and, in places where
bilingual signage was allowed, the English lettering had to
be significantly smaller and within stipulated dimensions. Political decisions on language
are sometimes taken to promote national identity as in the cases of Denmark and Norway.
While Danish and Norwegian are linguistically dialects of the same language, they have
been promoted as separate languages in the interest of nationalism.
Turmoil and friction and sometimes violence and war can arise out of political disputes
over language. Countries such as Chechnya, Sri Lanka, Uzbekistan and Turkey are examples
of places where language is a serious political issue.
5.3 Language situation in the Caribbean
The Caribbean is often described as a complex linguistic region, largely because its
complicated history has resulted in an array of languages, dialects and vernacular forms
that provide rich material for study by linguists from far and wide. The original inhabitants
of the region had their own wide range of languages, some of which are still spoken by
61
62
UNIT 2: UNDERSTANDING COMMUNICATION IN SOCIETY
small groups in places such as Guyana and Surinam. Many Caribbean people are not aware
that there are significant Amerindian influences on their way of life and language today.
The arrival of the European colonists in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries meant
that non-indigenous languages began to take root in the society. It is important to note
that many of these Europeans were themselves speakers of non-standard dialects and no
one variety of English, French, Portuguese, Dutch or Spanish was spoken.
When the need arose for cheap labour to work on the plantations, Africans were
captured, enslaved and imported primarily from countries along the west coast of Africa.
Many of them were also speakers of various non-standard dialects of their own languages.
However, in order to minimise communication among the enslaved Africans as a security
measure, plantation owners made sure that they purchased from a variety of ethnic groups
so that few Africans speaking the same language could be found on any one plantation.
After the emancipation of the enslaved Africans in 1838, estate owners began recruiting
indentured labourers from India, China and some Portuguese territories. These people
introduced an even greater potpourri of dialects. The last major group of non-indigenous
people came to the Caribbean in the twentieth century from Syria and Lebanon. They
came primarily to Trinidad and, to a lesser extent, Jamaica and the southern island chain.
Country
Official languages
Other languages
Anguilla
English
English Creole
Antigua and Barbuda
English
English Creole (Growing number of
Spanish migrants from Dominican
Republic have introduced some
Spanish and associated dialects)
Aruba
Dutch
Papiamento, English, Spanish
Bahamas
English
English Creole
Barbados
English
English Creole
Belize
English
English Creole, Spanish, Garifuna,
Ketchi, Mayan, Yucatecan, Mandarin,
Mopan, Cantonese
Bermuda
English
Bonaire
Dutch
British Virgin Islands
English
Cuba
Spanish
(Migrants from Haiti and Jamaica have
introduced some pockets of French
and English Creole)
Curaçao
Dutch
Papiamento, Spanish, English
Dominica
English
English Creole, French Creole
Dominican Republic
Spanish
(Migrants from Haiti have introduced
some French Creole)
Grenada
English
English Creole
Guadeloupe
French
French Creole
Guyana
English
English Creole, Bhoj Puri, some
Amerindian languages, some Dutch
and French along the borders
Papiamento, English
CHAPTER 5: LANGUAGE IN SOCIETY
Table 5.3 Language
situation in the
Caribbean
Haiti
French, French Creole
Jamaica
English
English Creole/Jamaican Patois
Martinique
French
French Creole
Montserrat
English
English Creole
St Kitts and Nevis
English
English Creole
St Lucia
English
English Creole, French Creole
St Martin / St Maarten
French, Dutch
French Creole, Papiamento, English
St Vincent and Grenadines
English
English Creole
Surinam
Dutch
Sranan Tongo, Saramaccan, Javanese,
some Amerindian languages,
Hindustani, Aukan (Ndyuka)
Trinidad and Tobago
English
English Creole, Hindustani
Venezuela
Spanish
Other Amerindian languages
It is easy to see how these major movements would spawn a number of pidgins and
subsequently Creoles (as described in Chapter 4) in the region. Remember that a lot of
internal movement was also taking place among the countries, and cultural practices were
continuously being exchanged. Despite the fact that the European languages were the socially
dominant and official ones, the Creoles were, and still are today, the most widely used.
Notice that Dominica and St Lucia, which were colonised for long periods by both
the French and the British, have both French and English
Creoles in addition to their official English language.
Whenever either power ruled, the official language was
changed and matters of state were carried out in the
language of the ruling power. In the case of St Lucia,
there were 13 changes of ownership of the island,
which moved back and forth from English to French
(each country owned the island seven times); hence the
development of both types of Creole. Other islands that
came under brief French rule, like Trinidad and Tobago
and Grenada, also had pockets of French Creole speakers,
but that language did not take hold among the masses
as it did in the case of Dominica and St Lucia. In the
latter case, French Creole flourished especially because
of their proximity to the French-owned Martinique
Fig. 5.3 Distribution of Caribbean countries according
and Guadeloupe and the frequent movement of people
to official language
among these four islands. Note also that recent migration
in countries such as Antigua, Dominican Republic and
Cuba is beginning to have some impact on the language demographics there. Therefore,
geographical factors also play a part in determining the language situation.
The dialects spoken in the Caribbean today have been greatly influenced by social
and cultural factors. One of the most powerful influences on the language of Caribbean
people, especially the youth, is the Rastafarian movement. For example, in many
Caribbean countries, words like ‘irie’, ‘ital’ and ‘I-man’ are commonly used and understood
by young people outside of the Rastafarian culture.
63
64
UNIT 2: UNDERSTANDING COMMUNICATION IN SOCIETY
As various cultural groups settled in the region, they assimilated much of what they
found already there. At the same time, they preserved what they could of their own cultures
while they managed to influence and change the way of life of those who were there before.
The East Indians and Chinese who came to the region greatly influenced the type of food
eaten and the methods of preparation. Therefore, a number of food-related vocabulary
items were introduced to the local dialects. Chow mein, wontons and wok, roti and dhal
found their way into everyday speech alongside the Creole oil-down, cook-up and pelau.
Words related to dress, music and relationships were most common. Countries receiving
the largest percentage of Asian labourers, like Trinidad and Guyana, have a higher
proportion of Chinese and East Indian lexical items in their dialects. For example, the
several types of roti described below are not all familiar to countries where East Indian
culture has not made a big impact, but are easily recognisable in Guyana and Trinidad.
Essential
ingredients
Paratha
Dosti
Cassava
roti
Daalpuri
Aloo
Chotha
Puri
Sada
Flour
Baking
powder
Flour
Baking
powder
Flour
Baking
powder
Cassava
Flour
Baking
powder
Filling of
dahl
Flour
Baking
powder
Filling of
aloo
Flour
Baking
powder
Sugar
Flour
Ghee
Flour
Baking
powder
Consistency
of dough
Fairly soft
Times
baylay(-ed)
Twice
Once
Inside
Oil
Oil
Running
consistency
Fairly stiff
Not at all
Once
Outside
Number
cooked
together
If preferred
One
Two or
three
cooked
as one
Method of
cooking
One
‘Baked’ on tawa
Clapped or
not
Clapped
If preferred,
clapped
Table 5.4 Types of roti
As much
as ghee
could take
comfortably
One
Fried in
deep ghee
Partly cooked
on tawa then
saykay(-ed)
Not clapped
J. Rickford
5.4 Attitudes to language
Language clearly plays a major role in all aspects of society. The most obvious is its
social role of allowing people to relate to each other in all facets of their lives: to share
information, emotions and ways of life. We use language as a means of navigating our
daily lives and it plays an integral role in most of our interactions. However, apart from
this obvious social role, language plays other subtler roles in society. For instance, your
speech immediately conveys specific impressions to an audience. People form impressions
of your personality, emotional state, geographic origin, age or socio-economic status from
CHAPTER 5: LANGUAGE IN SOCIETY
Louise Bennett
Noh lickle twang!
Me glad fe ses you come back bwoy,
But lawd yuh let me dung,
Me shame o’ yuh so till all o’
Me proudness drop a grung.
Yuh mean yuh goh dah ‘Merica
An spen six whole mont’ deh,
An come back not a piece betta
Dan how yuh did goh wey?
Bwoy yuh noh shame? Is soh you come?
Afta yuh tan soh lang!
Not even lickle language bwoy?
Not even little twang?
An yuh sista wat work ongle
One week wid ‘Merican
She talk so nice now dat we have
De jooce fe understan?
Bwoy yuh couldn’ improve yuhself!
An yuh get so much pay?
Yuh spen six mont’ a foreign, an
Come back ugly same way?
Not even a drapes trouziz? Or
A pass de rydim coat?
Bwoy not even a gole teet or
A gole chain roun yuh t’roat.
Dem hooda laugh afta me, bwoy
Me could’n tell dem soh!
Dem hooda sey me lie, yuh was
A-spen time back a Mocho.
Noh back-ansa me bwoy, yuh talk
Too bad; shet up yuh mout,
Ah doan know how yuh an yuh puppa
Gwine to meck it out.
Ef yuh want please him meck him tink
Yuh bring back something new.
Yuh always call him ‘Pa’ dis evenin’ Wen him
come sey ‘Poo’.
Louise Bennett
the language you use and the way you use
it. Some impressions may be formed largely
because of societal and personal attitudes to
certain types of language. Therefore, people
often adopt certain linguistic behaviours that
they believe would create more favourable
impressions of themselves, or enable them
to fit in with the crowd. For example,
someone from the southern United States
who moves to New York City in the north
may try to tone down his/her southern
accent and vocabulary because New Yorkers
are perceived to be condescending towards
southerners.
In Caribbean society there are varying
attitudes to language. Because of our history,
people of the region tend to place a high
premium on the standard languages or, as we
have noted before, the languages of power
and economic might. Many people believe
that upward mobility is largely dependent on
one’s ability to fit in with the predominant
socio-economic class, and language is the
main signifier of this fit. Many Caribbean
writers have described scenarios of people
who went overseas, were generally expected
to return with a new command of the target
language and often demonstrated their new
found ‘status’ by emphasising their new
foreign accent or ‘twang’. Noh lickle twang!,
for example, indicates the shame a mother
feels when her son returns from America
without the appropriate ‘twang’.
Nonetheless, while some may be impressed
by the ‘twang’, others view such pretensions
with derision and Dry foot bwoy, by the
same author, gives the other side of the coin
where someone is made fun of because he
has returned with British intonation.
ACTIVITY 5.3
In your groups, dramatise the two poems.
Discuss your personal responses to them.
Which point of view do you support?
Do you think that either of these two
attitudes exists today?
65
66
UNIT 2: UNDERSTANDING COMMUNICATION IN SOCIETY
These two poems demonstrate the
varying attitudes towards adopting language
characteristics that are considered to be
‘foreign’. On one side are those who believe
that this is desirable and on the other are
those who believe that it is ludicrous and
ought not to be encouraged.
Attitudes to language may vary from one
sector of the society to another and some
people demonstrate self-conscious behaviour
when speaking the standard language. This is
largely a result of the fact that in most
societies one is often judged on the basis of
the variety of language that one speaks. This
is even more prevalent in societies with a
colonial legacy, like the Caribbean, where
certain dialects are associated with the
institution of slavery or conquest. The
following extract is a report by Evans (2001)
on research done into attitudes to language
among secondary school students in Jamaica.
Louise Bennet
Dry foot bwoy
Wha wrong wide Mary dry-foot bwoy?
Dem gal got him fe mock,
An wen me meet him tarra night
De bwoy gi me a shock!
Me tell him sey him auntie an
Him cousin dem sen howdy,
An ask him how him getting’ awn,
Him sey, ‘Oh, jolley, jolley!’
Me start fe feel so sorry fe
De po bad-lucky soul,
Me tink him come a foreign-Ian
Come ketch bad foreign cole!
Me tink him have a bad sore-throat,
But as him chat-chat gwan,
Me fine out sey is foreign twang
De bwoy was a-put awn!
For me notice dat him answer
To nearly all me sey
Was ‘Actually, what oh deah!’
An all dem sinting deh.
Me gi a joke, de gal dem laugh
But hear de bwoy, ‘Haw-haw!
I’m sure you got that ballydash
Out of the cinema!’
ACTIVITY 5.4
1 Do you think that Evans’ findings
would be replicated should the survey
be conducted in (i) other Caribbean
countries, (ii) primary schools, (iii) tertiary
institutions?
2 Discuss how you feel about speaking
the various dialects in your country?
Same time me las’ me tempa, an
Me halla, ‘Bwoy kir out!
No chat to me wid no hot pittata
Eena yuh mout!’
Him tan up like him stunted, den
Hear him noh, ‘How silley!
I don’t think that I really
Understand you actually.’
Me sey, ‘Yuh undastan me aw,
Noh yuh name Cudjoe Scoop?
Always visit Nana kitchen an
Gi laugh fe gungoo soup!
‘An now all yuh can sey is “Actually”
Bwoy, but tap!
Wha happen to dem sweet Jamaica
Joke yuh use fe pop?’
Him get bex an walk t’rough de door,
Him head eena de air,
De gal dem bawl out affa him,
‘Not going? What! Oh deah!’
An from dat night till teday, mah
Dem all got him fe mock,
Miss Mary dry-foot bwoy!
Kean get over de shock!
Louise Bennett
CHAPTER 5: LANGUAGE IN SOCIETY
Students and their attitude to language
Jamaican Creole was the language of the
overwhelming majority of the students, their
home and community. It was their normal
medium of expression, and the language
in which they expressed themselves most
comfortably. Grade 7 students, however, have
spent at least six years in a primary or allage school where they have studied English
grammar, read books written in English
and heard adults speak Standard Jamaican
English. They live in a society where both
Standard Jamaican English and Jamaican
Creole are used in written and verbal
communication. During English lessons they
normally communicated with one another
in Jamaican Creole, though they changed
register somewhat when they addressed the
teacher. They therefore understand and have
developed certain attitudes toward Standard
Jamaican English and Jamaican Creole.
All students who were interviewed agreed
that it is necessary for one to know how to
speak Standard Jamaican English. The reasons
given were primarily utilitarian. Proficiency
in spoken English would gain the respect of
others and would facilitate the obtaining of
a job. It is needed for career advancement.
Furthermore, this proficiency makes one feel
proud, ’big’, mature, impressive. Proficiency
in Standard Jamaican English is necessary if
one wants to travel or widen one’s horizons.
However, the majority of students interviewed
did not think that Standard Jamaican English
had to be spoken at all times. The Creole
was reserved and seemed appropriate for
conversations among friends and family.
Despite this acknowledgement, some
students – nearly all of them boys – come
to high school thinking it is ’funny’, almost
embarrassing to speak Standard Jamaican
English in public. This attitude existed
in varying degrees in all classes but was
particularly evident in one of the six classes.
This attitude to Standard Jamaican English
initially hampered efforts to get students to
express themselves and to develop confidence
in speaking Standard Jamaican English.
However, as will be shown later, there was
during the year a major change in students’
willingness to speak Standard Jamaican English
and to accept corrections in their speech.
Although students admitted that it was
important to speak Standard Jamaican
English, they felt inhibited when it came to
speaking the language. Students reported
in their diaries that they felt self-conscious,
worried that they would make mistakes,
and acutely aware of their unfamiliarity with
Standard Jamaican English. These perceptions
had different effects on different students
during the first term. Some were halting and
hesitant in speech; some, according to the
teachers, used ’big words’ to compensate for
their perceived inadequacy. Others refused to
participate, at least initially. At the same time,
students reported that they felt important and
proud when they believed that they spoke
Standard Jamaican English correctly.
H. Evans
Language is an important means of creating and recognising identity. Our sense of
self and our sense of community are tightly tied in with the language we speak.You may
have noticed that, very often when individuals are in foreign countries, the moment they
encounter someone from ‘home’ they immediately revert to their original dialect or way
of speech. Language, in this case, creates a sense of ethnic community, or of belonging to a
group, and immediately assuages the feeling of being an outsider in a foreign land.
67
68
UNIT 2: UNDERSTANDING COMMUNICATION IN SOCIETY
Wha gwan gyal?
Bway dis wedder
jus bussin me tail.
Fig. 5.4 Language creates a sense of ethnic community
Increasingly, educators are becoming aware that a person’s native language is an integral
part of who that person is and marginalising that language can have severe damaging
effects on that person’s psyche. Many linguists consistently make a case for teaching native
languages alongside the target language so that children can clearly differentiate among
the codes and hence be less likely to mix the two. This approach has been adopted in
Haiti, where schools teach both Standard French and French Creole (Haitian) and
children are expected to be fluent in both. Additional prominence has
been given to Caribbean Creoles with the publication of Creole
ACTIVITY 5.5
dictionaries and with the translation of the New Testament from the
Read the passage on page 69 and
Christian Bible into French Creole in St Lucia. A similar project has
answer these questions:
since been undertaken in Jamaica using Jamaican Creole or ‘patois’.
1 In what way does the creation
of the Creole New Testament
challenge traditional views of the
use of Creole?
2 From your reading of the
passage, suggest THREE reasons
why the translation of the Bible is a
positive step for St Lucians.
3 What may be the drawbacks of
such a move?
4 Explain why you think a similar
translation would/would not be
accepted in your territory.
Bondyé té tèlman enmen sé jan
latè-a, I bay sel Gason’ y- lan pou
yo. Tout moun ki kwè an li pa
kay pèd lavi yo, mé yo kay ni lavi
etonnèl.
For God so loved the world that He
gave His only begotten son; that
whosoever believeth in him shall
not perish but shall have eternal life
John 3: 16
Jan 3: 16
Creole Bible and translation
CHAPTER 5: LANGUAGE IN SOCIETY
Press Release
First Creole New Testament in the Caribbean
A partnership between the Bible
Society in the Caribbean (BSEC) and
the Summer Institute of Linguistics
(SIL), resulted in the publication of
the first ever translation of the New
Testament in Creole. The project which
lasted fifteen years was undertaken by
a joint team comprising Drs David and
Lyn Frank, Paul and Cynthia Crosbie,
Emmanuel Leon and Peter Samuel.
The Creole New Testament was
launched in St Lucia on October 10,
1999, with selected Psalms, coinciding
with the annual Kweyol celebrations
held in that month. While the official
language of St Lucia is English, the
majority of St Lucians speak French
Creole (known as Kweyol) in everyday
communication. The language is also
used in electronic media programmes,
in the political arena and in churches.
Speaking at the launch ceremony,
Executive Director of the Folk Research
Centre, June King-Fredrick said, ‘This
New Testament makes me feel very
proud because it says to the Creole
people that you are equal to anybody
else’. The Governor General of St Lucia,
Dame Pearlette Louisy also gave her
endorsement to the project, noting,
‘we have come a long way from
Hebrew to Creole, but the language,
Creole, is ours’.
Monsignor Theophilus Joseph,
representing the Catholic Church,
praised the initiative for using the
language of the people as a vehicle
to get them to devote their lives to
God. He also encouraged everyone to
purchase the Creole New Testament,
and to learn to read it in what is,
essentially, their mother tongue.
After hearing the first passage read
from the book, artist Llewellyn Xavier
commented with great emotion, ‘It was
the most profound experience of my
life to hear the word of God being read
in my own language’.
Meanwhile the BSEC and the SIL
continue to run literacy programmes
which utilise the Creole New Testament
as a critical teaching resource and
expect to continue their alliance with
a view to continuing the translation
project.
69
70
UNIT 2: UNDERSTANDING COMMUNICATION IN SOCIETY
5.5 Choice of language
While attitudes to local dialects have been slowly changing, many people still associate the
use of Creole with negative images and believe that its use should be relegated to specific
circumstances and occasions. However, the fact that non-standard language varieties are
the most widely spoken in the Caribbean makes them the choice of persons trying to get
information to large sections of the society. For example, many advertisers use the Creole
language to ensure that their message appeals to most people. At the same time, because of
the prestige attached to the standard language, it tends to be the language of choice on
formal occasions, like church services.
I would like to purchase
some Ananas comosus and
some Musa acuminata
if you please.
Fig. 5.5 Match language choice to occasion
ACTIVITY 5.6
From your experience, what have you noticed about the usual choice of language in the
scenarios below?
1 The Master of Ceremonies at a calypso show or popular music concert
2 A politician speaking in the House of Parliament
3 People buying and selling at the local market
4 A politician at a political meeting or rally
5 The valedictorian’s address at a school graduation
6 Students conversing at lunch time
7 A calypsonian or reggae artist performing
8 Someone narrating a folk story
A language variety is usually chosen because of its perceived social function.You may
have noticed that, the more formal the occasion, the more likely the use of the standard
language, while for everyday interaction, popular music or emotional appeals, people tend
CHAPTER 5: LANGUAGE IN SOCIETY
Fig. 5.6 Cat no deh, rat tek ovah.
to gravitate towards the non-standard
varieties.You would also have noticed
that, even in a formal situation, nonstandard dialect might be used for
anecdotes, to inject some humour or
in a quotation. In the Caribbean,
people switch from one code of
language to another, often without
thinking. However, there are times
when the use of standard language
would seem totally out of place and
would even interfere with semantics.
For example, folk stories, folk songs
and proverbs seem to lose a certain
essence when translated into standard.
ACTIVITY 5.7
1 Find the meanings of the following West Indian proverbs.
2 How many are used in your territory?
3 In the case of those not used in your country, are there similar ones?
4 Try to find an English equivalent of each proverb.
5 Make a list of as many other Creole proverbs as you can and discuss their meanings
with your classmates.
(a) De sea en’ got no back door
(b) If yuh eye nah see, yuh mout nah must talk
(c) If greedy wait, hot will cool
(d) Bucket wid hole a battam have no business a riverside
(e) Monkey know what tree to climb
(f) Dog doh mek cyat
(g) Yuh cyan suck cane and blow whistle
(h) When trouble ketch yuh, pickney shirt fit yuh
(i) Chicken deh merry, hawk deh near
(j) If yu no check di wata, no tek off yuh shoe
(k) Big tree fall down, goat bite de leaf
(I) Hard ears mus’ feel
(m) Wha doh kill, fatten
(n) Monkey see, monkey do
(o) Too much a wan ting good fi nuttin’
The role of language as a vehicle for sharing culture is indisputable. Caribbean writers,
singers and oral poets have played a major part in fostering acceptance of the Creole
languages of the region, by incorporating them into their work and exposing them to
the world. Nonetheless, negative attitudes to these languages persist in the minds of many.
The following extract from a speech elaborates on the relationship between language and
society. Do you agree with the speaker’s perspective?
71
72
UNIT 2: UNDERSTANDING COMMUNICATION IN SOCIETY
Yet there exists among Caribbean peoples a dysfunctional relationship
between culture and language. We are proud of our culture, and our
culture products, but we have a hard time eroding the negative attitudes
towards our indigenous languages which, if we are to believe Franz
Fanon, support our Caribbean culture identity. We have used language
to access and appreciate the culture of the peoples with whom we came
into contact – the English, the French, the Spanish, the Dutch. We need
to do the same with our own languages as powerful symbols of identity,
and embrace them. Which Jamaican would not recognise a Louise
Bennett, a Barbadian – Alfred Pragnell or Austin Clarke, a St Lucian – a
Sesenne, a Trinidadian – a Paul Keenes Douglas? The languages in which
these have communicated their thoughts, their fears, their joys, their
hopes and aspirations, in verse, prose, or song have been the homegrown languages of the people of the Caribbean – all powerful symbols
of identity, both at home and abroad.
Our indigenous languages and the cultural products they support
need not be seen only as entertainment, but as elements which can
be translated into economic wealth. The economic and competitive
potential of Caribbean culture has been firmly established. In fact,
over the last three years, the scale of influences from the Caribbean,
particularly in music, literature and the expressive arts has been no less
than phenomenal. A testimony that these cultural products – reggae,
zouk, kadans, calypso, soca – with a distinctiveness of their own, can
when properly managed, find a niche in the global market. In fact, it is
widely acknowledged that it is in the area of culture and in the exercise
of the creative imagination of its people that the Caribbean has made its
greatest contribution to the world civilisation. The role of our indigenous
languages in this should not be minimised.
Her Excellency, Dame Pearlette Louisy
Conclusion
Human societies can be primarily characterised by their languages.
However, the increasing movement of people from various parts of
the world to other countries has resulted in rapid changes in the
linguistic composition of many societies. Linguists have to study
continually the changes that new demographics are bringing about
in language use everywhere. As we indicated in Chapter 4, human
language is dynamic. This chapter illustrated just how dynamic
language is by observing how it operates within cultures. Chapter
6 looks at this dynamism from another angle by examining the
interrelatedness of communication, culture and technology.
CHAPTER 5: LANGUAGE IN SOCIETY
Evaluation and extension
1 Discuss the following excerpt. Do you agree with
the sentiments expressed? How far does it reflect
the reality of your own community?
Education impacts on the various socio-economic
groups differently. Theorists say that schools have a
middle-class bias and are set up to reward children
who have the necessary cultural capital to succeed
in the academic world. For example, middle-class
children are able to ’switch’ competently between
forms of the local language and the standard, such
as between the patois or dialect and Standard
English. This ease of switching is attributed to their
many and varied experiences, including travel,
educational toys, home computers and involvement
in varied extra-curricular activities, where they
interact with different groups and in different
contexts. They thus bring considerable linguistic
2 Write a letter to your Prime Minister making a
competence to their schooling (their cultural capital).
Lower-income students tend to be more competent
in non-standard forms of the language and have
fewer opportunities to use formal language. Thus,
written language expressed in the standard for
school and examination success is more likely to
elude them. The school does not deal specifically
with how the first language of students interferes
with their capability in the standard form. The social
institution of education therefore confers more
challenges on children of lower socio-economic
groups than on those of the middle classes.
J. Mohammed
(b)
case for the translation of the constitution of
your country into your local Creole.
3 (a)
Explain the similarity of the language
situation in Dominica and St Lucia.
(b) Why do you think a visitor from Guadeloupe
would experience little difficulty with
communicating in Dominica? Where else
would this visitor feel equally comfortable?
4 Keep a record of your verbal interactions over
a two-day period. Which speech register do you
use most often? At which points do you change
register and why? Present your findings to
your class and compare them to those of your
classmates.
5 Read the passage on page 74 and answer the
questions that follow.
(a) Compare the language used by boss and
mother in the passage. What does their
language tell us about their social position?
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)
(i) Is there any difference between the
language of mother and the neighbour?
Explain why.
(ii) What attitudes to the boss’s wife can
be inferred from the way the two
women speak about her?
What is the significance of the writer’s use
of the ellipsis dots after: Mother: But you
know …
What do you think Mother’s response,
’Understand? Do you understand?’ means?
How could the actress aid our understanding
of her response?
Imagine that you had to direct this play.
Discuss how you would stage this extract,
including positioning and body language.
What can you infer from the extract about
the social reality of the community in which
this play is set?
In your groups, dramatise the extract,
experimenting with positioning and
intonation.
73
74
UNIT 2: UNDERSTANDING COMMUNICATION IN SOCIETY
Witness: He gat to speak to heself! And I guess
to answer your first question, she wasn’t a godly
mother. Exposin’ dose poor children to all dat kind
o’ poor example.
Mother: But you know…
(Lights out on Witness Stand. During the Jury Chorus
WITNESS moves back into Jury. BOSS moves to
Witness Stand.)
Mother: Ain’t going bother with dat, lemme tell
you. I ain’t want stop havin’ no children yet. Deyis a
blessing send from God above and I think it unnatural
to stop yourself. You stop dat, your whole nature may
go funny on you. Who know? Dese people ’round
here ain’t got no God in dem. He’ll take care o’ us.
Tying tubes, having aboritions and all dem kind o’
things, I think it’s flyin’ in da face o’ da Almighty and
it ain’t right. If he didn’t want me to have dem, he
wouldn’t o’ let me. He ain’t going make a mouth he
won’t provide for. He’ll take care o’ us.
Jury: (Jury Chorus 12): Drinking, fighting, swearing,
drinking, killing, hurting.
(Lights up on Witness Stand.)
Lawyer: But all the time she worked for you, did
you know any of these things?
Boss: Naturally, as her boss I never saw that side of
her. She was always at work, except when she was
having a baby. Sometimes she was a little puffy,
like when people drink, but I wouldn’t call her an
alcoholic. I don’t think she used to drink on the
job. I didn’t know she was such a character. All of
this is news to me. I knew she loved that son of
hers excessively and I just thought she was careless,
having children for different men, et cetera. My
wife tried to get her to stop but no matter what my
wife said to her, she still held firm to those primitive
views of hers, it seemed.
(Lights cross to DSC. We are in the Yard of Mother’s
House. Lights also up on House. NEIGHBOUR ONE is in
the House looking into the Yard and listening.)
Mother: And den you have one, and da man he
promise to help. And den you have two and da
men dey promise to help. And den you have three
and you go to the Magistrate’s Court for the li’l
maintenance dey could give you. And dey still don’t
pay, except when dey want come back and hot up
your house. And when dey come back, everything
so sweet, den you have four. Den you working all
day, you go home you tired, dis one want dis, da
nex’ one want dat; what a woman supposed to do?
Boss’s Wife: Well, certainly you don’t go bringing
misery on your head.
Boss’s Wife: You don’t have to have them, you
know. I had two and stopped; there are many ways.
Boss’s Wife: Do you understand? I’m only trying
to help.
Mother: Understand? Do you understand?
(Lights out DSC. Boss’s Wife leaves and goes to
Witness Stand.)
Neighbour: Well, how dat come before your boss
lady? Da’s a nerve, eh? And talkin ‘bout it so open,
like you all is some company.
Mother: (Entering the House.) Well, I guess da lady
was just tryin’ to help.
Neighbour: You look like you need any kind o’
help? Let her mind her own business. Dem people
t’ink dey is da only one who know what right for
everybody and does want you to follow dem. Poor
people could be right ’bout some things too, you
know! What good for da goose ain’t get to be good
for da gander.
(Lights cross to the Witness Stand.)
Boss’s Wife: Simpleton, I thought. Until one day,
one day, finally, the penny dropped. She said she
wanted to try the pill. So we tried the pill. And I
used to check with her to see if she was taking it.
Yes she was, we thought.
W. Saunders et al.
CHAPTER 5: LANGUAGE IN SOCIETY
References
Baker, P. & Eversley, J. (2002). Multilingual Capital: The language of London’s
schoolchildren and their relevance to economic, social and educational policies.
London: Battlebridge.
Bennett, L. (1966, 3rd impression 1975). Dry Foot Boy and Noh Lickle Twang.
Jamaica Labrish. Jamaica: Sangster’s Book Stores, pp. 205–207, 209–210.
Bible Society in the East Caribbean (1999). Testeman Nef-La Epi An Posyon An
Liv Samz-la. Barbados, p. 142.
Evans, H. (2001). Inside Jamaican Schools. Jamaica: University of the West
Indies Press, pp. 113–114.
Louisy, P. (2004). Nation Languages, Culture & Education. Speech delivered at
Cavehill Campus, University of the West Indies, Barbados.
Mohammed, J. (2007). CAPE Caribbean Studies: An interdisciplinary approach.
Oxford: Macmillan, p. 182.
Rickford, J. (ed.) (1978). A Festival of Guyanese Words. Georgetown, Guyana:
University of Guyana.
Roberts, P. (1997). From Oral to Literate Culture: Colonial experience in the
English West Indies. Jamaica: University of the West Indies Press.
Saunders, W., Scott, D. & Sealy, G. (2005). You Can Lead a Horse to Water and
Other Plays. Oxford: Macmillan, pp. 20–22.
Worrall, S. (2000). London Bridges the Racial Divide. National Geographic,
June, p. 10. http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/ngm/0006/fngm/.
75
76
UNIT 2: UNDERSTANDING COMMUNICATION IN SOCIETY
6
Technology, Culture
and Communication
It is hard to imagine that, less than 20 years ago, the concept of literacy was
restricted to the acquisition of basic reading, writing and numerical skills.
Today, this has been broadened to multiple literacies. The language and
communication skills we use today are set in an increasingly technological
environment. We are also expected to interact with communities on a global
scale with increasing frequency. The new literacies are essential components
of basic life skills today, at work or in the home. This chapter looks at how
the cultural, technological and communicative aspects of our lives are
interdependent.
The skills you learn in this chapter pertain to Module 2 and Specific Objectives 5, 7,
8, 9 and 10.
Expected Learning Outcomes
On completing this chapter, you should be able to:
1 understand the interactive relationship among communication
technologies, language and society
2 appreciate the significance of communication technologies in
cultural interaction
3 identify the technological advances that have impacted on
communication
4 discuss how communication is: (i) affected and (ii) effected, by the
use of technology in different cultural and interactive settings
5 discuss the influence of culture on language
6 discuss how the differences in culture impact on the potential for
integration, marginalisation and alienation.
Introduction
Communication, technology and culture are inextricably connected. Culture influences
the ways in which people communicate and the technology they select as part of that
communication; the ways in which we communicate evolve out of the nature of our
culture and the type of communication technology available to us; technology alters and
shapes our culture while it influences the decisions and choices people make regarding
communication. It is impossible to deal with these three elements in isolation.
CHAPTER 6: TECHNOLOGY, CULTURE AND COMMUNICATION
6.1 Culture and communication
Definition
Culture refers to
common practices
and beliefs held by
a specific group.
Culture is one of those indefinable terms that lead to long lists of possibilities of capturing
what they really mean. For the purpose of this text we will use the following definition:
Culture refers to common practices and beliefs held by a specific group. Culture is
expressed through our language; proverbs and folk tales; legends and myths; art and music,
food, drink and the unique ways in which we interact with each other.
Culture unifies one group but separates it from other groups with dissimilar practices
and beliefs. The fact that the Caribbean is descriptive of a particular geographical area does
not mean that there is one definitive culture. In each of the Caribbean countries there is a
general feeling that one island or territory is different from the others. This difference may
be observed through the variations in Creoles. For example, you learnt in Chapter 5 that
Barbados has an English-based Creole while in St Lucia there is a French-based Creole.
However, the English Creoles in the region differ from one territory to the next largely
because their vocabularies, intonation patterns and points of reference are reflective of the
particular culture of that territory. The same applies to the French Creoles. While there
is a broadly identifiable Caribbean culture, it is also possible to differentiate among the
individual cultures of each territory.
Differences in culture are also visible when one looks at the folk tales and proverbs of the
different countries. In Jamaica there are folk stories about the rolling calf while in Trinidad
you may come across a story about the Dwen. Travel to St Lucia and you may learn of the
Bolom, while in Barbados you are likely to become acquainted with the Steel Donkey. Then
take a trip to Belize and learn about Tata Duhende. There are similarities in the presence of
these supernatural beings but they point to a slightly different cultural experience.
The names for carnival in the various islands also illustrate these differences and
similarities in culture. In the Bahamas there is a cultural celebration called Junkanoo
but the costuming and other aspects of the celebration are very similar to Carnival in St
Vincent, Mardi Gras in Dominica and Crop Over in Barbados.
The history of the Caribbean is one that clearly illustrates the relationship between
language and culture. There are French, Dutch and English Creoles throughout the
Caribbean. Additionally, the Caribbean countries illustrate the effect of culture on language
in the place names in the various islands.Vieux Fort, King William Henry Street, Fort de
France, Port Antonio and Middlesex all reflect a cultural bias based on historical colonisation.
The names of our food have also been influenced by culture. In Guyana and Trinidad
a significant Indian presence is reflected in the foods eaten there. Roti, doubles, pelau
and channa began in the Indian community and spread to islands with very little Indian
presence. Cou-cou and fou-fou derive from the African heritage as well as cassava bakes
or cakes.
Each successive culture that comes into contact with another group will over time
affect the language, foods, place names and other cultural symbols.
Currently within the various countries of the Caribbean there has been significant
movement of people. One interesting move is the influx of people from Santo Domingo
(Dominican Republic) into Antigua. This influx has changed the language patterns of
Antigua, which was simply known as an English-speaking territory with an English-based
Creole, to a country with pockets of Spanish speakers. There have been similar movements
of Haitians to Bahamas and to Jamaica. This has led to changes in the language patterns in
those countries.
77
78
UNIT 2: UNDERSTANDING COMMUNICATION IN SOCIETY
What else has changed the language patterns of the Caribbean? Within the various
countries television has played its role in redefining cultural norms and language. The
longer and wider the influence of North American television, the greater the change. The
use of certain American terminologies has certainly crept into the language of our
societies. The benign ‘neighbourhood’ or ‘community’ has now become the ‘hood’ with all
its negative connotations. As in many American films, the use of foul and vulgar language
has become acceptable in any circumstance and the culturally based expletives previously
used in the Caribbean have been replaced by a single four-letter word that is used as a
verb, adjective and exclamation.
Cultural penetration is also effected through the increased travel of the younger
population. There are many cases in which school-age children spend summer vacations
in North America. Consider how many of your acquaintances spend their summer
holidays with relatives in a North American city. Consequently, the influences of language,
dress and values of the host country will impact on those returning home and a shift in
norms can eventuate. Apart from changes in clothing styles, language is probably the first
evidence of this. These changes often signal changes in the norms and values of the society.
ACTIVITY 6.1
1 Write a list of words and phrases that you and your friends have
adopted from the North American culture. Say whether they enhance
or degrade the speaker and the person to whom the word or phrase
may be directed.
2 List five dishes eaten in your territory and trace their cultural source.
3 Make a list of all the folklore characters that you know. Try to find
out how they compare to those from other Caribbean countries.
Another influence of culture on language is seen in the spelling of words. The
textbooks used in schools are now often published in North America and therefore
the spelling of words like centre/center; organise/organize; cheque/check become
interchangeable in the written work of students. While the understanding is that neither
choice is an example of misspelling, the writer should be consistent in the use of
American Standard or British Standard.
In the world of business, language and culture can play a very important part in
shaping the effectiveness of communication. Language can be a barrier to communication
especially when the individuals on two different sides of the bargaining table speak a
different language, but speaking two different languages is not the only situation that has
potential for poor business interaction.
ACTIVITY 6.2
David Victor in the passage on page 79 suggests other cultural
factors that can lead to misunderstandings in the world of business.
What are these?
CHAPTER 6: TECHNOLOGY, CULTURE AND COMMUNICATION
Among the most often cited barriers to conflict-free
cross-cultural business communication is the use of
different languages. It is difficult to underestimate
[sic] the importance that an understanding of
linguistic differences plays in international business
communication. Difficulties with language fall
basically into three categories: gross translation
problems, the problems in conveying subtle
distinctions from language to language, and
culturally-based variations among speakers of the
same language.
Gross translation errors, though frequent, may be less
likely to cause conflict between parties than other
language difficulties for two reasons. First, they are
generally the easiest language difficulty to detect.
Many gross translation errors are either ludicrous
or make no sense at all. Only those errors that
continue to be logical in both the original meaning
and in the mistranslated version pose a serious
concern. Nonetheless, even when easily detected,
gross translation errors waste time and wear on the
patience of the parties involved. Additionally, for
some, such errors imply a form of disrespect for the
party into whose language the message is translated.
The subtle shadings that are often crucial to business
negotiations are also weakened when the parties do
not share a similar control of the same language. In
English, for example, the mild distinctions between
the words ‘misinterpret’ and ’misunderstand’ can
prove significant in a sensitive situation. To a touchy
negotiator, to say that he/she ’misunderstands’ may
imply that he/she is dim-witted. To say that same
negotiator ’misinterprets’ a concept, by contrast,
allows the negotiator a way to save face since all
interpretations are arguable. He/she has reached an
understandable though inaccurate interpretation
of the matter. In such a situation, the term applies
more objectively to the matter at hand than to the
specific negotiator. To a non-native speaker with
inadequate control of the language, however, such
subtle distinctions might be lost. When other parties
with full control over the language with whom the
non-native speaker communicates assume that
knowledge of this distinction exists, conflict deriving
from misunderstanding is likely.
Nor do such mistranslations need to actually cross
languages in cross-cultural business situations.
Dialectical differences within the same language
often create gross errors. One frequently cited
example of how variations within a single language
can affect business occurred when a U.S. deodorant
manufacturer sent a Spanish translation of its slogan
to their Mexican operations. The slogan read ’if you
use our deodorant, you won’t be embarrassed. ‘The
translation, however, which the Mexican-based Englishspeaking employees saw no reason to avoid, used
the term ’embarazada’ to mean ’embarrassed.’ This
provided much amusement to the Mexican market, as
’embarazada’ means ’pregnant’ in Mexican Spanish.
Attitudes toward accents and dialects also create
barriers in international business communication.
The view that a particular accent suggests loyalty or
familiarity to a nation or region is widespread in many
languages. The use of Parisian French in Quebec, of
Mexican Spanish in Spain, or sub continental Indian
English in the United States are all noticeable and may
suggest a lack of familiarity even if the user is fluent.
More importantly, regional ties or tensions in such
nations as Italy, France, or Germany among others can
be suggested by the dialect a native speaker uses.
Finally, national prejudices and class distinctions are
often reinforced through sociolinguistics – the social
patterning of language. For example, due to regional
prejudice and racism certain accents in the United States
associated with urban areas (e.g., a Bronx accent), with
rural regions (e.g., an Appalachian accent), or race (e.g.,
black English) may reinforce negative stereotypes (usually
erroneously) regarding business ability, education level,
or acumen among certain U.S. subgroups. Similarly,
some cultures use sociolinguistics to differentiate one
economic class from another. Thus, in England, distinct
accents are associated with the aristocracy and the
middle and lower classes. These distinctions are often
unknown by foreigners.
David Victor
79
80
UNIT 2: UNDERSTANDING COMMUNICATION IN SOCIETY
Music within the region has also made some impact on the communication style of
the youth. Clothes are a communication tool and the clothes associated with specific
genres, for example dancehall, communicate their own story. Music also influences the
body language we use. For example, in the 1960s many songs were sung about bringing
about peace. Slogans like ‘Make love not war’ were very popular; therefore, the peace
sign, the raised separated index and third finger, was used to communicate goodwill and
friendship. That was the sign used along with hello or goodbye and it was shared with
friends and strangers alike. People were referred to as ‘sister’ and ‘brother’ and there was a
popular movement towards world peace. This particular communicative symbol spanned
cultures although it originated in North America.
Fig. 6.1 The peace sign communicated goodwill
In the Caribbean, the dancehall phenomenon, which has close links to North
American hip hop, has led to the introduction of signs as well. However, these signs, like
some of the music, tend to relate to aggressive behaviour. The raised index and third finger
are now closed in a symbolic gesture of the gun and often accompanied by the gun sound.
The audience should not only be aware of the power of the song and spoken word but
the power of the body language that goes along with those words.
ACTIVITY 6.3
1 Cut out pictures from magazines or the newspaper illustrating
dance hall or hip hop wear for males and females. Comment on the
message that this clothing sends.
2 Are there any other genres of music that can be easily
identified by specific clothing? What messages are predominantly
communicated by these genres?
CHAPTER 6: TECHNOLOGY, CULTURE AND COMMUNICATION
6.2 Technology and communication
Definition
Technology can be
defined as the technical
means (material
objects, systems or
techniques) that people
use to improve their
surroundings.
The earliest technology began with humans converting natural resources into simple
tools to make their lives and work easier. Implements like the stone axe or the pounding
stone were examples of early technology, as was the ability to create fire by rubbing
certain objects together. Technology can be utilised for destructive purposes, as in
the development of weapons, or as a means of advancing civilised society’s ability to
communicate with and understand each other. The first major technological phenomenon
associated with communication was the invention of the printing press in the fifteenth
century. This was the first mass communication vehicle and has been credited with
ushering in the Age of Enlightenment. The printing press facilitated the spread of
information in all areas of human life: religion, politics, science, economics, art and
literature. Naturally, it was also able to influence human thought and eventually the
development of even greater communication technology through the centuries. For a
long time, the only mass communication medium was print, until the invention of the
electromagnet in 1825 heralded the advent of electronic communications: telegraph,
telephone, radio and eventually the ‘miracle’ of television. However, it is hard to imagine
that there can be anything to revolutionise communication to the extent that the Internet
and other modern electronic media have done.
Bill Gates (1999) referred to modern business transactions as ‘business at the speed of
thought’. Much of modern communication is certainly conducted at lightning speed.
Communication technology has evolved from the telephone to fax machines to the
mobile phone and instant messaging and their most revolutionary aspect is speed. Less
than 20 years ago, these were only possible in science fiction; now it is almost impossible
to imagine giving up the ease of communication that more and more sophisticated
technology affords us. Technology has enhanced our lives by offering multiple options for
our modes of communication and by affording us the opportunity to exist in a virtual
world in which we can potentially communicate with everyone else. The virtual classroom
enables us to gain certification without stepping through a school door; we can play
board games without sitting across the table from our partners, or participate in adventure
fantasy games with thousands of other players whom we have never seen.
The many new avenues for communication have changed how, when and with whom
we communicate. Telephones allow you to speak to one person or hold a conference call
with several and your Smartphone puts you in touch with the world.You may choose
person-to-person email correspondence, or liaise with limitless groups through chat rooms
or threaded discussions.You can send information to hundreds via electronic mailing lists
or multiple text messages to millions via television and satellite technology.You can also:
Chat with your friends and family in real-time using an Instant Messaging program
such as Y! Messenger, MSN Messenger, Blackberry Messenger, AppMe, Skype or OoVoo.
■ Create and update your online profile on sites such as Facebook, and interact with
others online by sharing photos, videos, links. Other social network sites can be geared
towards business purposes, for example Linked In.
■ Express your thoughts and emotions by keeping an online journal or ‘blog’. Although
Livejournal was the original large and ‘underground’ blogging community, many others
exist, for example Wordpress. Bloggers include famous athletes, musicians and political
figures, as well as millions of ordinary people blogging about all sorts of subjects.
■
81
82
UNIT 2: UNDERSTANDING COMMUNICATION IN SOCIETY
In the same way, you may be on the receiving end of mass emails (spam) on a daily
basis or have the gory details of a faraway war shown in real time in your living room.
Apart from the array of available modes of communication, we are also faced with large
volumes of information that needs to be sorted, processed, filed, responded to or utilised.
Therefore, comprehension skills must be deployed in several areas at once.You need to be
discerning with regard to what is important and what should be discarded with little
thought. This is why most email programs now have automatic filters to save you from
wading through hundreds of junk mail messages. It is also important to develop expertise
in the use of all communication tools at your disposal so as to select the appropriate mode
and to observe the required etiquette for modern communication. The North Central
Regional Educational Laboratory (NCREL) refers to these skills as interactive
communication, which it defines as ‘the generation of meaning through exchanges
using a range of contemporary tools, transmissions and processes’ and has listed the
following required competencies:
Students who are interactive communicators:
When selecting modes of interaction:
• Consider features, conventions, and etiquette of interactive
electronic environments
• Choose media and processes appropriate to purpose and audience
• Seek out and interact with virtual communities of interest (formal
and informal learning).
During interaction:
• Use a range of expression (such as voice, video, text and image) to
maximise the impact of medium or online environment
• In synchronous modes, are comfortable with immediacy of
interaction, engaging in appropriate give and take, and effectively
interpreting and providing emotional cues to enhance electronic
communications
Fig. 6.2 ‘New’ technology
• Manage high volume electronic communication efficiently and
effectively
• Listen well, seek mutual understanding, welcome full sharing of
information, and consider others’ views before commenting
ACTIVITY 6.4
1 Which of the above competencies
do you possess?
2 Trace the development of electronic
technology from the invention of the
electromagnet.
• Exhibit personally responsible behaviour, especially in situations of
anonymity.
NCREL
CHAPTER 6: TECHNOLOGY, CULTURE AND COMMUNICATION
6.3 Technology and culture
Apart from its influence on our methods of
communication, technology continuously
reshapes language itself and, therefore, culture.
Even though [India] has only 3.7
One of the greatest impacts of technology on
million personal computers, it has
culture has been on language. The dominance
the largest number of software
of English as the major language of the Internet
professionals outside of California
has resulted in the adoption of English language
in the world and exported software
characteristics by speakers of other languages.
worth about $8 billion in 2003–4,
much of it to the U.S.
In some cases, vocabulary such as ‘iPad’, ‘blog’,
‘email’, ‘Blu-Ray’, ‘flash’ have been directly
A. Marcus
absorbed into the language of non-English
speakers online. In addition, many email
correspondents do not take the time to put in
the accents that belong to Spanish, Swedish or
ACTIVITY 6.5
French words, for example, which of course,
1 In your groups, make a chart
changes the language.
depicting
all the words and
We have already established that language
expressions relating to Internet and
is a major aspect of culture. If the Internet
digital technology that you use or
reflects the language of the dominant economic
encounter often.
power, then speakers of other languages are
2 If you do not already know, find
forced to adapt or remain at a disadvantage. The
out what an iPod and MP3 player do.
majority of online journals, abstracts and other
3 Make a list of the abbreviations
reference material is in English and translations
you know that are used in modern
technology. Find out what they
are not always feasible or available. The cost of
stand for.
developing software to facilitate multilingual web
searches is a deterrent factor. However, while
English continues to dominate the Internet,
Internet translation services like Google Translate
instantly translate text and web pages with a fairly high level of reliability.
Technology is also responsible for the influx of a large number of words into the
English language. We have already noted some of them in Chapter 4. Some of the words
used to describe the components of new technology have had to be invented, for example
‘Blogger’, ‘Google’, ‘Qwerty’, ‘Wiki’. However, the majority of technology-associated
words are adaptations of vocabulary already in use. New compound words have been
formed, for example ‘Netbook’, ‘homepage’, ‘software, ‘Facebook’ and ‘YouTube’. In
addition, new meanings were ascribed to several already existing words, for example ‘surf ’,
‘mouse’, ‘windows’, ‘tweet’ and ‘drive’. Many abbreviations have also become accepted as
words and no one wonders what they stand for since they have already been incorporated
into vocabulary as having a word meaning, for example ‘USB’, ‘HTML’, ‘MP3’, ‘HDTV’.
Abbreviations have also become the norm for communicating in Internet chat rooms or
via instant messaging services and mobile phone texts. In this case the sender and receiver
are both familiar with the meanings of the abbreviations. An entire new ‘language’, known
as Netlingo, has evolved to facilitate the speed with which conversations now take place.
Often one person may be carrying out several different conversations at once and has to
shift from one to the other rapidly.
Did you know?
83
84
UNIT 2: UNDERSTANDING COMMUNICATION IN SOCIETY
Inevitably, the development of technology has
an impact on the culture of a society by
Read this instant message conversation. Can you
influencing or changing the way in which things
rewrite it so that someone unfamiliar with Netlingo
are done. As a society becomes more technology
can understand?
driven, there is a need to communicate faster and
to transfer larger amounts of information.
Therefore, traditional means of communication
are either abandoned or adapted to suit the new
glitterwings360 says:
technology. We can trace the history of
hey ‘sup? LTNS
communication and relate it to the development
je11yb3an says:
of technology, from traditional handwritten letter
Ikr! u’ve been AWOL recently.
writing and postage, to the advent of the
typewritten document, onwards to transmission
glitterwings360 says:
of information via telegram/telegraph, and then
LOL b/c tons of hw 2 do.
via the personal computer, which replaced the
je11yb3an says:
typewriter. The advent of the fax machine
Yh me 2.
signalled the death of the telegram, and
glitterwings360 says:
electronic mail (email) has largely replaced both
Lab 2 finish. BTW did urs?
fax transmission and traditional ‘snail mail’ (the
colloquial name given to mail sent through the
je11yb3an says:
Post Office).The change in technology has also
Nah. My bff and I went salsa dancing.
resulted in changes in our language style. For
I have 2 left feet!
#YOLO
example, with the advent of the Internet, letters
are increasingly sent via electronic mail and tend
glitterwings360 says:
to be less formal. Emails are generally formatted
ROTFL. FYI its due mon!
in memorandum style with pre-set fields such as:
je11yb3an says:
‘To:’ and ‘subject:’. Dates and return address are
OMG! 4got!… N E way, will do B4 mon.
automatically inserted when the message is
transferred to the receiver. Therefore, the norm
glitterwings360 says:
GL! But GTG. C ya tmr.
is to exchange quick notes with little or no
attention to paragraphing or closure. Greetings,
je11yb3an says:
when used, are informal: ‘Hi’ or ‘Hello’. On page
KK. TTYL
85 is a sample of a traditional friendly letter
followed by an email version. Which one do you
use more often?
The volume of traditionally mailed letters
is constantly decreasing as even the most bulky
documents can be transmitted via email as electronic attachments. No longer is there a
need to mail various forms back and forth; for example, application forms can easily be
filled in, submitted and processed online in an entirely paperless way.
For many people, even email has become too slow and this has been replaced by SMS
(Simultaneous Messaging Service) text, which can be done via cellular phones or IM
(instant messaging) on the Internet. No longer do we need to wait a week or two for a
response to a question from a colleague two continents away. In addition to IM, which is
even more accessible through our smartphones,VOIP (Voice Over Internet Provider)
offers a viable alternative to face to face communication. Skype and ooVoo are popular
examples and software such as Blackboard Collaborate allows students in distance
ACTIVITY 6.6
CHAPTER 6: TECHNOLOGY, CULTURE AND COMMUNICATION
Example 1
University of Guyana
Turkeyen Campus, P.O. Box 10-1110
Greater Georgetown, Guyana
5th March 1981
Dear Susan,
How are you? I thought that I would let you know that I have
settled into university and though it is confusing it is also
quite exciting.
I bumped into Adrian from our class yesterday and we
are taking some of the same courses so there is at least one
friendly face among all these strangers. I also saw Shanni
but as usual I ignored her.
So how is the job going? Made any new friends at work?
Is the job exciting or dead boring? When I come home in the
summer I will need a job too so please check on that for me.
I’ve absolutely got to get some sleep so I look forward to
getting a letter from you soon.
Love Cathy
Example 2
New Message
From: catgirl@hotmail.com
To: sassysue@yahoo.com
Subject: I reach
Date: Mon, 09 Apr 2013
09:15:44 -0400
Hi Susan
Settled in. Kinda confusin but exciting. Saw Adrian. Got sum
classes wid him.
Saw Shanni. Dissed her. How de job? Goin good? Check out
one for me for summer. Need sleep. Hear ya.
Cathy
education programmes to participate in a simulated classroom environment.VOIP
technology allows communicators to chat in real time and hear each other without the
bother of expensive telephone bills, by simply investing in a microphone and headphones
or using a laptop or tablet’s built-in camera/microphone. The following excerpt on page
86 addresses the issue of modern day communication through social networks.
85
86
UNIT 2: UNDERSTANDING COMMUNICATION IN SOCIETY
Social Networking’s Good and Bad Impacts on Kids
Psychologists explore myths, realities and
offer guidance for parents
Rosen said new research has also found positive
influences linked to social networking, including:
WASHINGTON – Social media present risks
and benefits to children but parents who try to
secretly monitor their kids’ activities online are
wasting their time, according to a presentation
at the 119th Annual Convention of the American
Psychological Association.
• Young adults who spend more time on
Facebook are better at showing ‘virtual
empathy’ to their online friends.
‘While nobody can deny that Facebook has altered
the landscape of social interaction, particularly
among young people, we are just now starting
to see solid psychological research demonstrating
both the positives and the negatives,’ said Larry D.
Rosen, PhD, professor of psychology at California
State University, Dominguez Hills.
In a plenary talk entitled, ‘Poke Me: How Social
Networks Can Both Help and Harm Our Kids,’
Rosen discussed potential adverse effects, including:
• Teens who use Facebook more often show
more narcissistic tendencies while young adults
who have a strong Facebook presence show
more signs of other psychological disorders,
including antisocial behaviours, mania and
aggressive tendencies.
• Daily overuse of media and technology has a
negative effect on the health of all children,
preteens and teenagers by making them
more prone to anxiety, depression, and other
psychological disorders, as well as by making
them more susceptible to future health problems.
• Facebook can be distracting and can negatively
impact learning. Studies found that middle
school, high school and college students who
checked Facebook at least once during a
15-minute study period achieved lower grades.
• Online social networking can help introverted
adolescents learn how to socialise behind the
safety of various screens, ranging from a twoinch smartphone to a 17-inch laptop.
• Social networking can provide tools for teaching
in compelling ways that engage young students.
For parents, Rosen offered guidance. ‘If you feel
that you have to use some sort of computer
program to surreptitiously monitor your child’s
social networking, you are wasting your time.
Your child will find a workaround in a matter
of minutes,’ he said. ‘You have to start talking
about appropriate technology use early and often
and build trust, so that when there is a problem,
whether it is being bullied or seeing a disturbing
image, your child will talk to you about it.’
He encouraged parents to assess their child’s
activities on social networking sites, and discuss
removing inappropriate content or connections to
people who appear problematic. Parents also need
to pay attention to the online trends and the latest
technologies, websites and applications children
are using, he said.
‘Communication is the crux of parenting. You
need to talk to your kids, or rather, listen to them,’
Rosen said. ‘The ratio of parent listen to parent talk
should be at least five-to-one. Talk one minute and
listen for five.’
Larry D. Rosen
CHAPTER 6: TECHNOLOGY, CULTURE AND COMMUNICATION
In the same way that technology affects writing and speaking communication,
it also influences reading behaviours. One may browse at an online bookstore and
1 Discuss some of the
order a physical book or opt to buy an electronic version or e-book, which can
ways in which social
be downloaded and read on screen or printed by those who still are more
networking might be
comfortable with the feel of paper. Many people now own electronic readers,
used as an innovative
(some of which simulate the matte look of paper) on which they can also
teaching tool.
download books and other documents like university prospectuses and academic
2 Do you agree with
papers. This means that certain cultural practices such as going to the library or
Dr Rosen that parents
exchanging books with friends may no longer have their traditional place in our
should monitor their
lives. Similarly, books, which were once popular gifts, are given less often and one
children’s activities on
social networking sites?
is more and more likely to get some type of electronic device.
Why or why not?
Listening behaviours have also been influenced by changing technology. Over
3 How do you
the years, music has become more portable as the vinyl record was replaced by
imagine people will be
the audio cassette, which
communicating in the
gave way to compact discs
next ten years?
and eventually digital music
downloaded from the Internet
onto portable media players
such as the iPod or other digital audio
players. As with the online bookshops,
online music stores allow the listener to
browse, listen to excerpts and purchase
either hard copies or downloadable
music files. There is no longer the need
to rush home to watch your favourite
Once upon a time…
television show, since you can easily
watch it at your leisure on the Internet
at a later time or even while you are
on the bus or the beach, by way of
Fig. 6.3 Listening to an electronic reader
your smartphone. Streaming media
allow you to watch live events on your
computer so that there is no need even to download.
Increasingly, technology impacts on the way we learn and impart knowledge. Some
of you may own miniature recording devices that allow you to supplement your notetaking in class by seeking your teacher’s permission to record lectures (remember that this
should never be done without permission). Technology also allows you to enhance your
class presentations through the use of overhead, digital or multimedia projectors; or you
may choose to record supporting material on DVDs or USB drives to accompany your
presentation. Paper charts, chalk and chalkboards are already not necessary parts of the
modern classroom. Meanwhile, the modern classroom is often not a physical space at all.
Many of you will pursue online courses at some point in your lives, earning diplomas and
degrees without leaving home to attend a physical college or university. Therefore, your
traditional methods of study and interacting with teachers and peers, which are part of
your culture, will undergo change.
Social interaction has also been influenced by technology. The television has been
blamed for a number of cultural changes such as increased antisocial behaviour and less
community interaction since people tend to spend more time indoors being entertained.
ACTIVITY 6.7
87
88
UNIT 2: UNDERSTANDING COMMUNICATION IN SOCIETY
Newer technology has contributed even further to the variety of home entertainment and
non-physical interaction options. For example, it is possible to engage in a game of
scrabble or participate in role playing games with other players from around the world.
The Internet has spawned large communicative networks in the form of chat rooms, web
logs (blogs), e-groups and virtual friendship networks, which have limitless possibilities in
terms of the number of communicators participating in a single communication act.
Images can be shared just as easily as words since texts and pictures of family picnics,
accidents or popular idols can be transmitted from digital cameras through the Internet or
even instantly from one cellular phone to another. They are often posted online on
Facebook or any number of private or public Internet forums. Therefore the nature of
communicative content has also changed, as the new media allow the sharing of one’s
most intimate information with absolute strangers, something which was taboo in most
cultures.YouTube has provided an avenue for many amateur film makers and singers to
broadcast themselves to the world. Even the most horrific acts of violence have been
filmed and broadcast and it is quite easy for a video to ‘go viral’ or spread rapidly through
social networking. Some have expressed concern that the content of the Internet tends to
portray primarily the culture of economically/socially dominant societies, which subtly
impacts on cultures that are less dominant on the world stage. Some people have begun to
define themselves and their self-worth according to the technology that they own or
control and this is sometimes at the expense of traditional culture and societal norms.
Business culture has also been modified by technology.You are more likely to hear
of a sale or marketing promotion via electronic media than through print. Daily offers
Fig. 6.4 People define themselves according to the technology they own
of discounts and specials fill your email inbox and you are not restricted by lack of
transportation to the sale site. Companies advertise on search engines, social networking
sites or anywhere else that people go online. The number of online shoppers continues to
grow rapidly and while post offices have seen a decline in the number of letters, they are
recording massive increases in the number of mailed packages.You can purchase absolutely
anything online, from homes and cars to jewellery and clothing. People who would never
have attended an auction in their lives are now competing for items on sites like e-Bay
and those who have no retail experience are selling items with ease and confidence. In
many countries, it is now possible never to leave your house since ordering groceries is at
your fingertips and you can conduct your banking, pay your bills, participate in a religious
service or keep up with your friends and family from your favourite armchair.
CHAPTER 6: TECHNOLOGY, CULTURE AND COMMUNICATION
It is difficult to think of an aspect of our way of life and cultural practices that has not
been influenced in some way by modern communication technology.
It is impossible to turn back the tide of rapid expansion of communication technology.
At the same time, critics lament the fact that these new methods of communication also
negatively affect interpersonal communication skills. Many people use the Internet to
communicate with others within their own neighbourhoods, rather than interact at actual
social gatherings. In fact, some modern families who operate on different time schedules
may actually communicate most often via telephone, email and instant messaging.
Sure, Jason. I
just lit the grill.
Sharma, I’m
bringing out the
chicken now.
Fig. 6.5 Some families communicate most often by telephone
Although the advent of web cameras allows people to see each other while
communicating through the Internet, such interaction is often self-conscious and
contrived. Therefore it is difficult for some individuals to develop good interpersonal
relations in real life. Some psychologists believe that the web camera encourages ‘showoff ’ behaviour and may incite violent activities as has happened with young people who
display weapons and boast about their intentions and then either commit violent acts or
dare others to do so. Cyber bullying has become a serious concern and has led to some
tragic incidents.Virtual communication also encourages the blurring of moral standards
and the elimination of protocol. For example many people post provocative photographs
or lewd videos of themselves online, with no thought to propriety. Modern technology
enables inappropriate messages or images to be transmitted without restriction and a
constant battle must be fought against the invasion of privacy through spam, junk mail or
unwanted virtual visitors sifting through the contents of your computer or other devices.
The anonymity afforded by the World Wide Web also has an impact on the nature of
89
90
UNIT 2: UNDERSTANDING COMMUNICATION IN SOCIETY
ACTIVITY 6.8
1 How does technology affect your
life differently today from the way
it did ten years ago?
2 Discuss the technological trends
that may impact even more on
your culture in the future.
interpersonal communication. Anybody can
register an email address, and whole false
identities can be created via social networking
sites. Therefore, it is possible to develop virtual
relationships with people who are not the least
like the image that they portray through the
Internet.
Conclusion
The way we communicate is not static. Every day there are
new ways of interacting available to us. The key to effective
communication is knowing what is available, choosing the
preferred method and making oneself aware of the protocol when
using this methodology. Our culture impacts on and is impacted
by communication and this is something we must take into
consideration as we communicate.
However, we must also prepare ourselves to function in the new
technological age. In our schools and communities there are
courses offered that introduce these technologies, and libraries
often offer use of the computer for research and preparation
of documents. Every opportunity should be grasped to become
proficient in what is steadily becoming a paperless world.
The availability of practically anything one can imagine, instantly
at one’s fingertips, has been described as information overload,
which often makes it difficult to exercise the level of concentration
required for effective listening. Reading and listening skills, which
are described in the next unit, are key to determining which
information is necessary to the task at hand and which can
be discarded. Unit 3 teaches you how to apply the appropriate
comprehension and research skills to the infinite amounts of
information at your disposal.
CHAPTER 6: TECHNOLOGY, CULTURE AND COMMUNICATION
Evaluation
and extension
1 Explain three ways in which culture impacts on
language.
2 Discuss three ways in which language has been
affected by the emergence of the computer age.
3 In what two ways has music aided in crossing
cultural barriers thus leading to wider
communication?
4 You are about to set up your own business. State
three technological devices you would not want
to be without.
Explain how you would use two of these devices.
5 ‘The new language of technology has alienated
or excluded large groups of society. Internet
culture is representative only of the young and
middle class.’ Discuss this view.
References
Constance, Z. (2002). Duelling Voices in Bully, A., Constance, Z. & Cumper, P.
Champions of the Gayelle. Oxford: Macmillan, pp. 42–43.
Gates, B. (1999). Business at the Speed of Thought: Using a digital nervous
system. GrandCentral Publishing, p. 37.
Hodge, M. (1997). The Knots in English: A manual for Caribbean users.
Wellesley, Massachusetts: Calaloux Publications.
Interactive Communication. Accessed 15 May 2013 from http://pict.sdsu.edu/
engauge21st.pdf p. 56
Marcus, A. (2004). Insights on Outsourcing. Interaction, July/August, p. 13.
Rosen, L. (Plenary Session: 3378, 4 p.m.–4:50 p.m., Saturday, Aug. 6,
2011 Walter E. Washington Convention Center, Street Level, Room 147 B.
Presentation: ‘Poke Me: How Social Networks Can Both Help and Harm Our
Kids’. Larry D. Rosen, PhD, California State University, Dominguez Hills)
http://www.apa.org/news/press/releases/2011/08/social-kids.aspx. Retrieved,
11 November, 2012.
91
92
End of Unit
Test 2
2 What TWO technological devices could a politician
use to gain support for his/her candidacy? Explain
The majority of us are not, of course, English
speaking. We are a Creole-speaking people. We
have a language of our own, and English is another
language that we have to learn.
The trouble is that we are not always able to
distinguish Creole from English. This is because we
use the same words in Creole as in English: both
have more or less the same vocabulary. Often people
assume that they are speaking or writing English
because they are using English words.
However, our first language (or ’mother tongue’) has
a different grammar from English, a different sound
system and a certain percentage of its vocabulary that
is not English …
We are liable to make mistakes because English is
not our mother tongue, and like the Venezuelan or
Guadeloupan using English, we may take something
of our mother tongue with us when we cross over in
to another language.
We are less likely to make those mistakes if we are
aware of the differences between English and Creole.
Merle Hodge
(4 marks)
how he/she could use these.
3 You have travelled back in time to 1970. Describe
the communication methods available to you.
Comment on both the positives and negatives of these
communication methodologies.
(25 marks)
4 Read the extract on page 93 and answer the question
that follows:
In essay format discuss the following:
• the range of language and register used in this
passage.
• how the stage directions help in understanding
the body language of the speakers.
• how a filmed version of this dialogue would help
the audience to better appreciate the tone and
intent of the speakers.
(25 marks)
References: Unit 2 Additional reading
Allsopp, R. (2003). Dictionary of Caribbean English Usage. Kingston:
University of the West Indies Press.
Christie, P. (ed.) (1996). Caribbean Language Issues, Old and New. Jamaica:
The University of the West Indies Press.
Hudson, R. (2005) Sociolinguistics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Roberts, P. (1988). West Indians and Their Language. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
1 Answer the questions on the extract above:
(a) Give four examples of mistakes Caribbean
students make in Standard English that may be
attributed to transference of Creole grammar.
(4 marks)
(b) Identify two sounds in Standard English that are
not used in Creole.
(2 marks)
(c) ‘We have a language of our own.’ Discuss the
historical, social and political influences that
shaped Caribbean language.
(15 marks)
Society for Caribbean Linguistics. Creole Language maps at http://www.sclonline.net/FAQS/caribbean.htm. Accessed 15 May 2013.
Zeuschner, R. (1997). Communicating Today. Allyn & Bacon.
93
MARGE: Miss. Me eh blame the teachers nah, some o’
them girls does look for they own trouble.
MISS: I know, but these gentlemen, I have to call
them that for want of a better term, use this to take
advantage of the girls. I mean, some of them are
married, some are twice as old as the children, and yet!
MARGE: But Miss, if the girls like the teacher?
MISS: Majorie, that is no reason for you to have a
sexual relationship with him.
MARGE: Miss, you doh know nah, but when you hear
you like a teacher so, you does end up doing all kinda
thing.
MISS: The way you speaking like you interested in one.
MARGE: (Caught off-guard.) Me, Miss you mad! But
it have girls in the class who I know have.
MISS: (teasing her.) You sure is not you?
MARGE: Yes, Miss.
MISS: ’Yes’ meaning you have?
MARGE: I mean ’No’, Miss.
MISS: Oh huh!
MARGE: (Relieved.) Oh gosh, Miss.
MISS: Don’t worry. Just a joke I’m making. I hear how
some of the girls in your class like Mr Johnstone. Is a
good thing he’s not one of the sex-hungry men we
have on the staff.
MARGE: Is true, Miss.
MISS: I still find that it’s the men’s fault. If you know
a child has a crush on you, you should be responsible
enough to handle the situation …
MARGE: But some o’ them girls does be pushing up
theyself.
MISS: Yes, because they have no shame, no ambition
and no training. But if you are a grown up, mature,
responsible male, you are going to risk your career, your
marriage, your whatever else for a bit of enjoyment
with some little girl who could be your daughter?
MARGE: But Miss, them girls does say them is big
women, and you should hear them. ’What I want
with a schoolboy, them could give me anything?’
And, ‘Schoolboy could mine me if I get pregnant?’,
and besides they does say they looking for a man
with experience.
MISS: I know, but when you get older you’ll see how
stupid that is. It is the responsibility of the man who is
much more experienced to avoid these relationships.
You know how many young, teenage girls find
themselves making babies for men who are so much
older than they are, that they could be the fathers of
the girls and grandfathers of the babies? You know
how many wives have to leave their husbands because
he is involved with a teenage girl outside the home?
How you will feel if you were the cause of, say, Mr
Johnstone leaving his wife?
MARGE: (Genuinely startled.) Me, Miss? That could
never happen to me. I ’fraid Mr Johnstone, and beside
he too old.
MISS: You are right. People have to understand that
the relationship between teachers and students is a
very serious thing. It is almost a blessed, sacrosanct
thing … a holy affair. It is like walking on a sacred
ground. It is more important and critical than the
relationship, say, between a doctor and his patient;
more trusting than the relationship between a politician
and his constituent; more sensitive and binding than
that between a priest and his confessioneer; more
confidential than that between a lawyer and his client.
Because you are dealing with young minds, and if
the early years are tainted and spoilt, then the child
could be hurt forever. If hopes cannot be cherished
and futures cannot be realised; when respect becomes
disrespect and love turns to lust; when trust is replaced
by fear and familiarity gives way to contempt; when
levels are confused and positions exchanged, then the
child is a victim of her own immorality and the teacher
is a prisoner of his own conscience. And education …
education becomes a travesty, a mockery of our reality.
MARGE: (stunned for a while) But Miss, ent it
possible for two people to really love each other?
Z. Constance
3
Interpreting
Communication
We live in an information-rich society and new
information is created daily. We are bombarded daily
through all types of media, with news, views, statistics,
argument, instructions, persuasions, reports, reviews and,
of course, conversations. Some information is critical,
some is useful, some is entertaining, much is useless.
On a daily basis, we need to sift, sort, compile, retain,
discard and respond to the information we receive.
The sheer volume of information would overwhelm
us if we did not develop strategies for dealing with it.
We must learn how to find the information we need,
how to sort the essential from the extraneous, and how
to recognise when we are being manipulated by the
messages we receive.
Expected Learning Outcomes
On completing this unit you should be able to:
1 evaluate examples of written and spoken communication based
on their form, content and context
2 apply comprehension skills of analysis and critical evaluation
to a range of material.
96
UNIT 3: INTERPRETING COMMUNICATION
CHAPTER 7: COMPREHENDING INFORMATION
7
Comprehending
Information
The modern world contains more information than any other period in history.
Naturally, with each succeeding day, week, month and year more and more
information is added to the already existing body of knowledge. Sometimes we
feel overwhelmed by all the knowledge that actually exists in the world and
become daunted by the fact that it is impossible to get to know everything.
While it is indeed impossible to know everything, it is possible to know and
understand more than enough to enable us to live productive and satisfying
lives. We feel overwhelmed when we do not have the skills to manipulate
the mass of information with which we come into contact daily. The ability
to manage information effectively makes it much easier to improve our
communication skills and understand the world in which we live.
The skills you learn in this chapter pertain to Module 1 and Specific Objectives 1, 2 and 4.
Expected Learning Outcomes
On completing this chapter you should be able to:
1 describe the comprehension process
2 identify the levels of comprehension
3 identify characteristic formats, organisational features and modes
of expression of different types of speech and writing
4 apply the levels of comprehension to examples of written or
spoken material.
Definition
According to
Webster’s dictionary,
comprehension
is ’the capacity for
understanding fully;
the act or action of
grasping with the
intellect’.
7.1
Introduction
What does it mean to ‘understand fully’? Obviously, simply understanding what each
word means does not result in comprehension. To comprehend means to understand the
thoughts and ideas of a writer or speaker and to be able to apply these ideas in various
contexts. Understanding a concept is far more than merely understanding the words with
which it is explained. The act of comprehension is more complicated than you might think.
Process of comprehension
It is important to understand that comprehension is a process that can be controlled.
Awareness and control of this process is called metacognition, which means ’knowing about
knowing’. Many people find the comprehension of reading material very difficult, mostly
because they are not cognisant of the strategies that they should apply to comprehension.
Comprehension is a process that should be triggered automatically when you listen to
97
98
UNIT 3: INTERPRETING COMMUNICATION
or read information. Developing good comprehension skills begins with understanding
the process and consciously going through the steps until it becomes instinctive. The main
stages of the process are (i) pre-reading/listening, (ii) during reading/listening and (iii)
post-reading/listening. Each stage requires you to apply specific thinking strategies that
enable you to maximise comprehension.
Pre-reading / listening
This stage involves predicting: making educated guesses about thoughts, events,
outcomes or conclusions. Predictions may be based on elements such as the cover of a
book, the topic of a speech, what you know about the author or speaker, the type of book,
the context of a speech. Note that, as you read or listen, your predictions are confirmed
or invalidated and you are constantly making new predictions.You can also prepare your
mind for receiving information more efficiently by determining what you would like to
find out from what you are about to read or listen to.
During reading / listening
In this stage you are monitoring your comprehension, or engaging in metacognition. As
you read or listen, you should:
a) Picture or form images. As you listen to or read words and ideas, they create mental
images that are directly or indirectly related to the material. These images facilitate
greater understanding of the text.
b) Relate to your experiences. By relating your experiences and existing knowledge to
the new material that you encounter, you are able to make it part of your repertoire of
ideas and are better able to digest the new material.
c) Monitor: while listening or reading, you constantly check your understanding of the
material. Should you find information confusing, you try to resolve this by rereading or
looking at a previous page for clarification or, in a listening situation, asking questions
of the speaker.You are continuously questioning yourself and reflecting on the material
that you are encountering.
Post-reading / listening
This is the stage in which you consolidate what you have heard or read by thinking
about it, discussing it with others and applying it in new ways and contexts. This stage is
important because this is when you are sure that you have mastered the information and
made it part of your knowledge framework.
The following table sums up the activities involved in the reading/listening process:
Table 7.1 Activities
in the reading /
listening process
Pre-reading/listening
During reading/listening
Post-reading/listening
Skim (reading)
Monitor
Think
Predict/imagine
Question
Discuss
Think
Reflect
Apply
CHAPTER 7: COMPREHENDING INFORMATION
7.2 Levels of comprehension
The process of comprehension operates at three levels: literal, interpretive and applied. If
you are comprehending (understanding fully), it means that you are capable of operating
at all three levels. We will use the passage below to illustrate the levels of comprehension.
Plenty of plantains
bananas. They are a staple crop in much of
South and Central America, Africa and the
Caribbean. They are belly fillers, not for the
dieters, as they are mostly carbohydrate,
approximately 40 grams per half plantain,
with 180 calories. They are very high in
potassium: approximately 500 milligrams
per serving.
Plantains can be cooked at varying stages
of ripeness. Green plantain is starchy, like a
potato, and can be fried or boiled.
Fried green plantains (Tostones)
• 4 green plantains, peeled and cut into
1-inch pieces
• 4 cloves of garlic
• 1 tablespoon salt
• 1 quart water oil for frying
Fig. 7.1 Fried plantains
At most fruit stands in the Caribbean, you’ve
seen the very large ’bananas’ in varying
stages of ripeness. They might be bright
green, yellow or black. I’m certain you
wondered who would buy such under-ripe
or over-ripe fruit from the vendor. I would –
because the fruit isn’t bananas, but instead
plantains. The plantain is a banana which
is eaten cooked rather than raw. The fruit
banana is eaten raw when it turns yellow.
The plantains, also called air potatoes or
cooking bananas, are drier with lower water
content, making then starchier than fruit
For a traditional appetiser, smash garlic with
salt to a paste, and mix into water. Soak
plantain pieces in garlic water for an hour.
Drain and fry pieces in vegetable oil until
golden brown. Be careful of the oil splatter.
Flatten fried plantain pieces by pressing them
with a large spoon on wax paper, re-wet
slightly mashed plantain in original garlic
water, shake off excess water and return to
hot oil for two minutes. Great served warm
with hot sauce and cold beers.
For simpler, non-traditional tostones, do
without soaking.
S. Hall
99
100
UNIT 3: INTERPRETING COMMUNICATION
Literal level
This refers to understanding what was actually
stated and requires surface understanding of
facts and details. If you are engaging in rote
learning and memorisation, you are operating
at the literal level. Questions that often elicit
this level of thinking are who, what, when and
where questions.
Notice that the answers to these questions are
right there in the text and are stated explicitly.
Therefore you need only to apply the literal level
of comprehension in this case.
Interpretive level
This level of comprehension is the understanding
of what is implied or meant, rather than what is
actually stated. Therefore, you would need to be
able to make inferences and logical deductions.
At this level, reading ‘between the lines’ is
necessary to arrive at meaning. Often, you need
to draw upon your own prior knowledge and
experience in order to understand.You also
need to see how the new information you
are acquiring fits in with the information you
already have. Generally, open-ended questions
like why, how, what and if are required at this
level of comprehension.
Notice that you had to pause and think about
your answers to Activity 7.2, using information
in the text to make deductions as well as
referring to your wider experience and logic to
make suppositions.
Applied level
At this level, all the information you have
gathered at the first two levels is used to extend
the concepts or ideas beyond the immediate
situation in the text.You are analysing and
synthesising information and applying it to other
information or contexts.
Notice that these questions required you to
apply the information you have gathered to justify
your opinion and to create something new.
ACTIVITY 7.1
Refer to ‘Plenty of plantains’ and
answer the following questions:
1 Who is the author of the recipe?
2 What is the main ingredient of
this recipe?
3 When is the fruit banana eaten?
4 Where are plantains grown?
ACTIVITY 7.2
Refer again to ‘Plenty of plantains’
and answer the following questions:
1 Why are the plantain pieces
soaked in garlic water?
2 How would you drain the
plantain pieces before frying?
3 What might you do differently if
ripe plantains were used instead of
green ones?
ACTIVITY 7.3
Refer once again to ‘Plenty
of plantains’ and answer the
following questions:
1 Do you think this piece appeared
in (a) an official cookbook or (b)
a newspaper or magazine? What
makes you think so?
2 Suggest some other food that
may be prepared in this way.
3 Write a similar piece, focusing
on the preparation of another
local food.
CHAPTER 7: COMPREHENDING INFORMATION
7.3 Listening
Definition
Most dictionaries define
listening as paying
thoughtful attention
whereas hearing is merely
the perception of sound
and is quite effortless.
Much of the information we
receive every day comes through
listening and viewing. In Chapter
1, you learnt that the largest
portion of communicative time
is spent listening. Therefore, if we
are to be effective receivers of
communication, our listening
skills must be well developed.
Unfortunately, most people
are not aware that listening is
an active process and believe
that once they are hearing, they
are listening. On the contrary,
hearing is only the first step
Fig. 7.2 Listening means paying thoughtful attention
of the listening process and,
unless we actively engage in
the entire process, it is possible to receive information passively (hear it) without actually
comprehending. As you read this you are probably hearing lots of sounds around you, but
you are not actively trying to identify, interpret or attach meaning to them nor are you
responding to them. Listening is a communicative act because the listener is involved in a
process that requires concentration and effort.
The listening process
Whether you are listening to a joke or lecture, viewing a news broadcast or a play,
effective comprehension can only be achieved if you are actively engaged in the process.
Most of the process actually takes place in the brain.
Purposes of listening
We listen for a number of purposes, including:
a)
b)
c)
d)
Fig. 7.3 The process of listening
appreciative: for enjoyment or aesthetic pleasure
informative: for learning, getting directions, generally gathering
knowledge for later recall or use
therapeutic: to create social bonding; to empathise; typical of
interpersonal rather than public communication
critical: to interpret, weigh and judge information
or evaluate what is listened to.
Regardless of the purpose for
listening, a good communicator
ensures that he/she is prepared
to get maximum benefit from
the listening exercise by employing
as many of the following techniques
as possible:
ACTIVITY 7.4
In your groups, discuss examples
of situations where you would
employ listening for each of the
purposes listed above.
101
102
UNIT 3: INTERPRETING COMMUNICATION
Prepare to listen – clear your mind and focus on your purpose for listening.
Pay attention – give the speaker/performer your undivided attention. Concentrate.
■ Listen for key words – for example, those repeated for emphasis, to introduce new
points or indicate conclusions.
■ Defer your opinion – avoid forming an opinion too quickly. Allow the speaker to make
the point.
■ Make notes – jot down important facts or points. Listen for main ideas, supporting
evidence and techniques.
■ Establish eye contact whenever possible.
■
■
Did you know?
The following are all barriers to
effective listening:
■ Daydreaming
■ Poor posture
■ Mentally arguing with the
speaker
■ Negative attitude to speaker or
message
■ Preset ideas about the topic
■ Physical discomfort
■ Speaker’s voice, gestures or
appearance.
The most important thing about
listening is being aware that you are
actively doing something. However,
you should also be aware of the
possible barriers or impediments
to doing it effectively. This allows
Fig. 7.4 Listening
you to refocus when you observe
yourself mentally drifting off, or
allowing negative thoughts about the speaker/message to enter your mind. The ability to
concentrate is not automatic and must be practised. Training yourself to listen well will
pay valuable dividends throughout life.
7.4
Reading
In the same way that listening is much more than recognising sound, reading is much
more than recognising words. Reading is making meaning of the words we recognise as
well as those we do not and understanding the main idea and intent of the author. If you
are confused about what you are reading or find yourself leaving out a quantity of text
because it is ‘difficult’, you are not comprehending. A good reader:
CHAPTER 7: COMPREHENDING INFORMATION
Definition
■
Webster’s dictionary
indicates that reading
is ‘to receive or take
in the sense of … to
understand the meaning
of written or printed
matter’.
■
sets purposes for reading
identifies the main ideas of the text
■ makes inferences and draws conclusions about what he/she reads
■ recognises patterns of organisation in a text
■ perceives relationships between concepts
■ applies his/her knowledge and understanding of the material.
An important characteristic of good readers is flexibility. Because we read for different
purposes, we must adjust our technique and rate of reading to fit the type of material.
For example, you may read quickly through the latest best-selling novel, but more slowly
through this textbook; you are likely to read the novel once but you may need to read
a poem several times to get the meaning. This is because writers also set purposes for
writing and vary their writing to suit its particular purpose. Readers respond to the density
of language, level of vocabulary and structural patterns by adjusting their ways of reading.
Generally, styles of reading fall under five categories.
Table 7.2 Styles of
reading
1
Skimming
Done very quickly. Fastest rate of reading. Used for locating a particular bit
of information or specific reference, for example a dictionary definition or a
number in the telephone directory.
2
Scanning
Used to preview material or obtain a general overview, for example how you
would look through a newspaper at the headlines or check the contents of
a book.
3
Rapid
Generally used for light reading for pleasure or simply to understand the
basic plot of a story. Also used when reviewing known or familiar material.
4
Normal
Generally applied to material of average difficulty. Used when reading
to make connections between ideas, for purposes of retelling, or for
answering questions.
5
Careful
Used when memorising or evaluating content: applied to material for
note-taking, summarising or analysis. Slow and thorough, often involving
rereading.
Notice that the type of material, as well as your purpose for reading, determines the
style that you use. Note also that skimming and scanning are also used as pre-reading
strategies for material that requires careful reading. Selection of style is the basic step
towards interacting with your text. Once you begin to read, you will need to select
appropriate strategies for understanding the specific type of information.
7.5 Applying the levels of comprehension
As a student, you interact most frequently with expository writing for the purpose
of gathering information. Expository materials include textbooks, articles in journals,
magazines or newspapers, reference manuals or any other writing that is done to
ACTIVITY 7.5
inform and explain. They normally depend on specific patterns of organisation
to present their information. (An exploration of those patterns from a writer’s
Scan the pages of this
point of view is done in Chapter 11.) This type of writing is often presented with
book and identify the
types of organisers and
typographical organisers such as headings, subheadings, and varying fonts as well
aids used to assist the
as graphic aids such as illustrations, charts and pictures. These are all designed to
reader.
assist you in making meaning and should be an integral part of your reading.
103
104
UNIT 3: INTERPRETING COMMUNICATION
Did you
know?
Reading is a gradually
acquired skill. This
means that in order to
get better at it you must
do it. The more you
read, the better you get.
Very often, paying attention to these organisers allows you to get the gist of a
piece of writing even before you actually begin to read.
One of the most effective ways to approach an expository piece is by using the
KWL strategy: What I KNOW, what I WANT to know and what I have
LEARNT. Approaching text purposefully enables you to focus more easily and
maximise your use of the time spent reading.
KWL chart
K
(what I know about the
topic)
W
(what I want to find out
about the topic)
Table 7.3 KWL Chart
ACTIVITY 7.6
The piece on page
105 is entitled ’A note
on cricket’. Fill in the
first two columns of
the KWL chart before
reading the extract.
Then fill in the last
column. While reading,
put a tick next to
parts that answer the
questions in your ’W’
column and a question
mark next to new ideas
that you would like to
explore further. Once
you have completed
the ’L’ column compare
it to the ’W’ column.
Any questions left
unanswered by the
passage will need
additional research.
This piece is just part
of the introduction to
‘Beyond a Boundary’.
You should try to read
the entire book by
CLR James.
Fig. 7.5 West Indian cricketer Brian Lara in action
L
(what I have learnt about
the topic)
CHAPTER 7: COMPREHENDING INFORMATION
A note on cricket
Two teams of eleven players each contend on a huge
grassy oval, often as large as a football field, in the
centre of which lies the cricket pitch – a closely cropped
area (occasionally covered by a mat) 22 feet by 5 feet,
at either end of which stands a wicket – three vertical
stumps connected at the top by two horizontal pieces
called bails. The batsman and bowler face each other
from opposite ends of the pitch, standing in front of
the wickets in areas demarcated by lines called creases
(popping creases, bowling creases, and return creases).
The distance between them is about the same as that
between a baseball pitcher and batter. Rules specify
where each must stand while throwing or batting,
and which parts of the body may extend beyond the
creases. The boundary is the line that encircles the
perimeter of the entire playing field, and across the field
are strewn – in designated positions – members of the
fielding (bowling) team.
Point, cover point, silly point, extra cover, mid-off, silly
mid-off, short leg, and long leg all refer to specific
fielding positions (there are over thirty, including the
bowler and the wicketkeeper, who functions much like
a baseball catcher, with an equally critical and subtle,
yet oft unheralded, role).
The bowler hurls the ball alternately from each wicket
in sets called overs – six to eight balls per over (varying
from country to country). When the requisite number
of balls has been bowled, a new over is begun by a
different bowler. The captain of the fielding team may
allow any of his players to bowl, so long as no one
bowls two successive overs. When James recounts,
at an early moment in the book, that he has bowled
three maiden overs, he’s completed three overs in
which no runs have been scored from the bat (that is,
runs involving balls actually struck) – a feat of no small
dexterity that can be duly appreciated by any pitcher
who’s attempted to carve out a no-hitter.
The bat is wooden, slightly over three feet long, and flat
like a paddle with a slight wedge in it. The ball is made
of red leather and weighs slightly more than a baseball;
it is about nine inches in circumference. Players bat in
pairs – one member of the batting team standing at
each wicket. Their task is to keep the thrown ball from
hitting the wicket by batting it away (here they function
much like hockey goalies, but with the added benefit
of being able to score points depending on how and
where they hit the ball); in addition they attempt to
score points by running across the pitch to the opposite
wicket, in effect exchanging places with each other.
The field team is constantly shifting positions, trying
to get the batsman to make a mistake. Because of
the many psychological calculations being made by
batsmen, bowlers, and fieldsmen throughout the game,
each trying to wear the other down, matches may seem
to take a relatively long time to complete.
A batsman can be dismissed, or eliminated, in a
number of ways: if the bowler can dislodge a bail in
the wicket with the hurled ball or the batsman does the
same accidentally with his bat or body; if a fieldsman
catches the batted ball before it touches the ground or
dislodges a bail while the batsmen are running; if the
batsman is lbw (leg before wicket) – a kind of illegal
interference, where he keeps the bail from hitting the
wicket by stopping it with something other than his
bat, batting hand, or glove; if he illegally moves beyond
the crease while receiving the ball (steps out of the
batter’s box, so to speak), handles the ball illegally, or
deliberately obstructs the field.
Each team bats in turn, completing an innings when
ten of its eleven members have been dismissed.
One-day matches usually consist of one innings per
side, won by the team accumulating the most runs in
their single innings. Test or international matches can
go for thirty playing hours – lasting up to six days –
with the winner determined by the aggregate score
of two or more innings.
C.L.R. James
105
106
UNIT 3: INTERPRETING COMMUNICATION
The KWL approach works well for organising and getting a command of your
information, especially at the literal level of comprehension. ‘A note on cricket’ is an
example of simple exposition, which is essentially a descriptive explanation using the
definition and illustration method. Comprehension, however, often requires you to delve
further into the text.You need to ask clarifying questions such as ‘How is this done?’
or ‘Why does this happen?’ Authors anticipate these reader questions by using specific
methods of exposition to address them.
Sometimes the writer needs to guide you through a process to illustrate how
something is done.You will need to look out for key words that indicate the sequence
of the steps. Read the following student writing sample of the process method. The key
words are highlighted.
ACTIVITY 7.7
Using the key words
as a guide, list in point
form the sequence
of steps in preparing
for a birthday party.
Notice how easy it is to
locate the information
because of the key
words used by the
writer.
A birthday party can be a very fun affair, free from the last minute
harassment if it is properly organised. The first thing one needs
to know is the age of the celebrant. This will determine the kind
of party that will take place. Secondly, the number of people
to be invited must be decided upon. After this is done a theme
or a colour scheme must be chosen; this makes shopping for
decorations easier. When this is settled, the appropriate venue
and time must be selected to complement the theme as well
as the guests. Then invitations are prepared ensuring that they
fall in with theme or colour scheme and sent out to prospective
guests. Be sure to include a telephone number so guests can
confirm their attendance or inform of their absence. It might also
be necessary to include a map giving directions to guests who
are unfamiliar with the venue. The next step is to decide on a
menu and contact caterers or friends to decide on a costing for
the food. It is very important to prepare a budget and ensure that
there is no over spending. Subsequently, you must choose the
activities for the party (games, etc.). Remember that the guests
must never be bored and at the same time should not be tired out.
After this comes the most tiring part, the shopping. Prepare a list
for food, drinks, snacks, decorations, party favours and all other
things you may need like napkins, cups, plates, candles. Make sure
this is done at least two weeks before the party so plans can be
changed if necessary. Then you go out and buy the items except
for perishable goods.
Finally, on the day of the party make sure that everything is in
order, food and drinks prepared and laid out, decorations up,
activities ready hours before your guests are due to arrive. Sit back
and relax and enjoy the remarks of your guests.
CHAPTER 7: COMPREHENDING INFORMATION
Another method writers use to organise information is cause and effect. This
illustrates why things happen and how one thing either leads to or is caused by another.
Specific key words also indicate that a correlation is being made. The following passage
exemplifies this.
Example
Downtown death
In the past decade, many of our cities have lost the active and vibrant pulse
of night life. No longer are city streets filled with the sights and sounds of
window shoppers strolling along eating roasted nuts or people spilling out
of cinemas in animated discussion of the latest film. The reasons for our
dark and empty streets are economic, cultural and social.
The abundance of cheaper land and larger spaces in suburban areas has
attracted entertainment business owners who needed to expand but could
not do so in the confines of the city. Therefore, as business enterprises
grew, their owners relocated to areas that allowed greater parking facilities
and of course larger premises. Cinemas, nightclubs and restaurants moved
en masse out of the city. In addition, the advent of North American styled
shopping centres and malls created a new cultural phenomenon. As a
result, customers increasingly gravitated towards these large, attractive
areas which facilitated one stop shopping and entertainment day and
night. There was no need to window shop along city sidewalks when
one could sit on a comfortable bench surrounded by dazzling displays of
merchandise. The fear of crime on city streets also drove many former city
residents to the relative safety and security of suburban areas and cities
were depleted of a residential component. Consequently, cities became
predominantly corporate centres which operate from 8:00 a.m. to 5:00
p.m. Nowadays, after six o’clock each evening, our cities are routinely
transformed into virtual ghost towns.
Writers sometimes explain or describe something by comparing it to or contrasting it
with something else. This is the comparison/contrast method. A writer may compare
only, which means that he/she looks at similarities between things, contrast (look at
differences only), or do both in the same piece of writing. As a reader, you will find it
helpful to look for key words that indicate a comparison is being made. This helps you
to weigh the ideas being presented in your mind as you read. See how the writer of the
following passage on page 108 uses this technique.
107
108
UNIT 3: INTERPRETING COMMUNICATION
Example
Lawn and table tennis
Tennis is a popular game dating as far back as the thirteenth century. There
are two versions of the game, namely, lawn tennis and table tennis (or
ping pong). While there are some similarities between the two versions,
most aspects vary greatly.
Both table and lawn tennis are played by two players or two team players
(doubles), who alternate hitting a ball over a net. In the case of lawn
tennis, the net is set up on an outdoor court while the table tennis net is
smaller and placed on a table. Table tennis is played with a paddle and a
light vellum ball, whereas lawn tennis is played with a stringed racket and
a rubber ball. In both cases, the objective is to hit the ball across the net
within set boundaries, in such a way so as to prevent the opponent from
returning it to your side. In lawn tennis, games consist of four points. On
the other hand, a table tennis player must reach a score of 21 points to
win and a winning margin of two points in required. A similar two-point
margin applies to the lawn version. Lawn tennis, the older game, is by far
the more popular of the two.
When an author analyses a topic by breaking it down into categories representing
particular sets of characteristics, he/she is using division or classification. This means
that similar aspects of the topic are grouped together and dealt with separately from
the other aspects. Again, key words relative to this method assist you in identifying the
classes or groups and their characteristics. The following passage on page 109 uses the
technique of classification.
ACTIVITY 7.8
Can you find writing that uses these tones?
reflective
condescending
whimsical
amused
disdainful
reverent
urgent
persuasive
ominous
sarcastic
CHAPTER 7: COMPREHENDING INFORMATION
Example
Shakespeare’s plays
Shakespeare’s plays seem to reflect three distinct periods in his life and can
be grouped accordingly. Each set of plays has common characteristics like
theme and style.
The first major group is the histories and early comedies written in the
1590s. Many of these were adaptations of other playwrights’ works. The
Comedy of Errors, the Taming of the Shrew, Henry VI and Richard III were
some from this earliest period. These plays were primarily lighthearted and
comic in nature, a fact ascribed to the public’s desire for comedy after the
ravages of the plague.
The second group of plays was begun at the end of the century in 1599
when Shakespeare wrote Julius Caesar. This period lasted till about 1606
and was characterised by what are known as his darkest plays, for example
Macbeth, Hamlet and King Lear. The overriding themes were lust, betrayal,
power and egoism. Although Shakespeare did write a few comedies like
Twelfth Night and Measure for Measure during this period, the majority of
his work at this time was dark and tragic.
The final group of plays is often referred to as the ’late romances’. These
include Pericles, Cymbeline and The Tempest, written between 1606 and
1613. These plays bear some similarity to the romance literature from the
medieval period and feature magic events and happy endings. The main
theme of this set of plays is the prevailing of justice in spite of tragedy.
Often, an author’s purpose goes beyond simply conveying information. A piece
of writing may be designed to convince or persuade. A good reader must be able to
differentiate between claims or points that are based on clear, logical premises and those that
are opinionated and spurious. Critical thinking skills must be employed to determine the
intent of the author, the devices he/she uses to achieve that intent and the overall value of
the piece of writing. The author’s intent is the effect he/she would like to have on the reader
or the response that he/she wants to provoke. Comprehending at the interpretive level
requires you to figure out the author’s intent, which can be conveyed through the tone of
the writing and the mood created by the author. Both tone and mood are achieved by the
choice of words and the type of literary devices that the writer employs.
Tone refers to the manner in which writers reflect their attitude towards their material
or readers; for example, tone can be formal, intimate, ironic, outraged, serene. A writer may
shift tone from paragraph to paragraph or even from one line to another. While it is easy
to detect a speaker’s tone since his/her intonation makes it evident, understanding written
tone requires the reader to appreciate word choice, images and other details in the text.
109
110
UNIT 3: INTERPRETING COMMUNICATION
ACTIVITY 7.9
Read these two passages below and answer the questions that follow.
Passage A:
‘Ivan the Terrible’
invades Grenada
He moved in slowly from the East
in early September, disguised
as ’Tropical Depression Number
Nine.’ Growing in magnitude, and
renamed ’Tropical Storm Ivan,’ this
menacing weather system perplexed
storm watchers by following an
atypical track far south of the usual
’Hurricane Belt’ latitudes seen
with past Atlantic Basin storms.
Apparently, a sizeable prevailing
’Bermuda High’ contributed to the
hurricane’s southerly track.
A day later, Ivan was a Category
2 Hurricane (on the SaffirSimpson scale, this is a powerful
storm leading to flooding, and
considerable damage), travelling
towards the southern Windward
Islands with sustained winds of
120 mph (104 knots). There was
no doubt, in all of the National
Hurricane Centre’s prediction
models, that ’Ivan the Terrible’ was
going to cause havoc as it rolled
into one or more of southern
Caribbean islands. It wasn’t a case
of if – but where and when.
Ivan gathered momentum as it
careened into the southern half of
Grenada, classified as a Category
3 storm (flash flooding, a threat
to beach residences and extensive
damage to roofs and buildings’
sidewalls) and leaving a wake of
devastating consequences.
Fig. 7.6 Grenada after Hurricane Ivan
The following few days made it
very clear what a powerful weather
system this storm was, as Ivan killed
dozens of residents and damaged
or destroyed many of Grenada’s
buildings. Countless houses
suffered damage, and most lost
at least part of their roofs. A good
number just blew away.
Ivan’s eye passed over Grenada’s
southern parishes, but its fury
extended as far north as Carriacou,
Petite Martinique, the Grenadines,
St Vincent and up into St Lucia. This
was a momentous storm – and had
plenty of intensity in it as it crossed
the Caribbean and headed for more
windfalls downwind.
After brushing Barbados, grinding
into Grenada, jumping over
Jamaica, colliding with the Cayman
Islands, and crashing into the
western end of Cuba
before galloping into the U.S. Gulf
Coast, Ivan still was not done. The
storm then meandered through
Mississippi, slid across the Southern
and Mid-Atlantic states and ambled
back into the Atlantic.
After a brief rest, and fuelled by the
warm waters of the Gulf Stream, it
formed again off the Florida coast.
Ivan gave the ’Sunshine State’
another scare before grinding into
the Gulf of Mexico for a second
time. Three weeks after Tropical
Depression 9 first appeared on the
weather maps, Ivan started to blow
itself out and toppled the last of its
rain on the Texas coast.
Ivan ended up whipping its way
across 11 countries, killing at least
39 people in Grenada, 15 in Jamaica,
five in Venezuela, four in the
Dominican Republic, three in Haiti,
one in Tobago and one in Barbados.
Tom Tyne
CHAPTER 7: COMPREHENDING INFORMATION
Passage B: The terrible toll
Grenada’s Prime Minister Keith Mitchell estimated that
90 per cent of the island’s structures were damaged,
including many churches and warehouses in the historic
capital St George’s – including the new national sports
stadium, the emergency agency’s office, the fire station,
police stations, schools, shops, prison, and homes –
including the Prime Minister’s own residence.
U.S. officials surveying the damage soon after the
storm confirmed that almost all of the homes were
affected in some way by the winds and rain, and 40 per
cent need major structural repairs. Many in Grenada are
living in shelters or makeshift homes made of tarpaulins
and sheets of galvanised zinc. The St George’s Medical
School and Veterinary Schools were seriously damaged.
In an effort not to interrupt the future doctors’
professional training, students were temporarily
relocated to schools in the United States. A few of the
veterinary faculty and students remained in Grenada to
set up an animal relief program. They are working with
Habitat for Humanity to help the people of Grenada
re-establish their lives.
Relief experts report that the tourism and agricultural
sectors were devastated by the hurricane, which
account for a majority of the nation’s GNP.
There are plans to start rebuilding the island’s hotels
to an even higher standard, but recovery for the
agricultural sector will take much longer. Sixty per cent
of the nutmeg trees were destroyed, and it will take
five to seven years for the damaged trees to grow
back – and longer still for the young trees to produce
fruit. This is quite critical to the world’s commodity
markets, as Grenada – the ’Spice Isle’– is the world’s
second largest supplier of nutmeg after Indonesia. This
devastation has left 8,000 families without a source
of income. Fortunately, officials report that there is
enough nutmeg left in ’drying rooms’ to satisfy world
markets for at least three years.
Total damage to Grenada was estimated at U.S. $900
million.
Tom Tyne
1 Which of the passages had an excited and active tone? Identify the most exciting part of that passage.
2 What is the main difference in the way the passages are written? Do you think this contributes
to the tone?
3 Both passages are part of the same article by the same writer. Why do you think the writer
decided to shift tone?
4 Would the writer have achieved the same effect had the second passage been the first part
of the article? Why or why not?
Misinterpretation of tone results in misinterpretation of meaning; therefore it is
important to decipher the writer’s tone correctly. As much as possible, read passages
aloud since punctuation, which reflects intonation in speech, will help you to ‘hear’
the writer’s tone as well.
111
112
UNIT 3: INTERPRETING COMMUNICATION
ACTIVITY 7.10
Read the following passage. Note your responses as you read. How would you describe the tone of this
passage? What is the author’s intention?
How to cure the drug problem
Recently I had a simple, foolproof idea for eliminating
the drug problem in this country. It came to me while I
was making spaghetti sauce.
I use an ancient Italian spaghetti-sauce recipe that
has been handed down through many generations of
ancient Italians, as follows:
1. Buy some spaghetti sauce.
2. Heat it up.
Sometimes I add some seasoning to the sauce, to give
it a dash of what the Italians call ’joie de vivre’ (literally,
’ingredients’). I had purchased, from the supermarket
spice section, a small plastic container labelled ’Italian
Seasoning’. My plan was to open this container and
sprinkle some seasoning into the sauce.
Already I can hear you veteran consumers out there
chortling in good-natured amusement.
’You complete moron,’ you are chortling. ’You actually
thought you could gain access to a product protected
by MODERN PACKAGING??’
Yes, I did, and I certainly learned MY lesson. Because it
turns out that Italian Seasoning has joined the growing
number of products that, For Your Protection, are
packaged in containers that you cannot open unless
you own a home laser cannon.
This trend started with aspirin. Years ago – ask your
grandparents – aspirin was sold in bottles that had
removable caps. That system was changed when
consumer-safety authorities discovered that certain
consumers were taking advantage of this loophole by
opening up the bottles and – it only takes a few ’bad
apples’ to spoil things for everybody – ingesting aspirin
tablets.
So now aspirin bottles behave very much like stinging
insects in nature movies, defending themselves against
consumer access via a multilevel security system:
1. There is a plastic wrapper to keep you from getting
at the cap.
2. The cap, which is patented by the Rubik’s Cube
company, cannot be removed unless you line an
invisible arrow up with an invisible dot while rotating
the cap counter clockwise and simultaneously
pushing down and pulling up.
3. In the unlikely event that you get the cap off,
the top of the bottle is blocked by a taut piece
of extremely feisty foil made from the same
impenetrable material used to protect the Space
Shuttle during atmospheric re-entry.
4. Underneath the foil is a virtually unremovable wad
of cotton the size of a small sheep.
5. As a final precaution, there is no actual aspirin
underneath the cotton. There is only a piece of
paper listing dangerous side effects, underneath
which is …
6. … A second piece of paper warning you that the
first piece of paper could give you a paper cut.
Even this may not be enough security for the aspirin of
tomorrow. At this very moment, packaging scientists
are working on an even more secure system, in
which the entire aspirin container would be located
inside a live sea urchin. With aspirin leading the way,
more and more products are coming out in fiercely
protective packaging designed to prevent consumers
from consuming them. My Italian Seasoning container
featured a foil seal AND a fiendish plastic thing that I
could not remove with my bare hands, which meant of
course that I had to use my teeth. These days you have
to open almost every consumer item by gnawing on
the packaging. Go to any typical consumer household
and you’ll note most of the products – food, medicine,
compact discs, appliances, furniture – are covered with
bite marks, as though the house is infested with crazed
beavers. The floor will be gritty with little chips of
consumer teeth. Many consumers are also getting good
results by stabbing their products with knives. I would
CHAPTER 7: COMPREHENDING INFORMATION
estimate that 58 per cent of all serious household
accidents result from consumers assaulting packaging
designed to improve consumer safety.
Anyway, I finally gnawed my seasoning container open,
no doubt activating a tiny transmitter that triggered an
alarm in some Spice Security Command Post (WHEEP!
WHEEP! WHEEP! INTRUDER GAINING ACCESS TO
ITALIAN SEASONING IN SECTOR 19!) While I was
stirring my spaghetti sauce, it occurred to me that if we
want to eliminate the drug problem in this country, all
we have to do is:
1. Make all drugs completely legal and allow them to
be sold in supermarkets (’Crack? Aisle 6, next to the
Sweet’n Low’).
2. Require that the drugs be sold in standard consumer
packaging.
My reasoning is that if physically fit, clear-headed
consumers can’t get into these packages, there’s no
way that strung-out junkies can. Eventually they’ll
give up trying to get at their drugs and become useful
members of society, or at least attorneys.
I realise that some of you may have questions about
this plan. Your most likely concern is: ’If dangerous
and highly addictive narcotics are sold freely in
supermarkets, will the packages be required to have
Nutritional Facts labels, like the ones that now helpfully
inform consumers of the protein, carbohydrate, vitamin
A, vitamin C, calcium, and iron content of products
such as Cool Whip Lite?’
Of course they will. Even though, if my plan works
as expected, an addict would be unable to consume
his heroin purchase, he still has a vital right to know,
as an American consumer, that if he DID consume it,
he’d be getting only a small percentage of his Daily
Requirement of dietary fibre. This is just one of the
many benefits we enjoy as residents of this Consumer
Paradise. My head aches with pride.
D. Barry
The mood of a piece of writing can be described as the prevailing atmosphere or
context created by the writer.You would have noticed how movies create moods by
using special lighting, sound effects, selected music as well as the tone of the dialogue
of the actors. Much of the horror in a horror movie would be lost if the soundtrack was
of light upbeat music. A writer depends entirely on language to create mood. Therefore
words and other devices have to be very carefully selected in order to create the mood
that supports the author’s intent.
113
114
UNIT 3: INTERPRETING COMMUNICATION
ACTIVITY 7.11
Read the following sample of writing and discuss the feelings it evokes.
What is the prevailing mood of the piece? Looking carefully at the language used, identify the ways in which
the writer creates the specific effect.
Edward Brathwaite
The cabin
Under the burnt out green
Of this small yard’s tufts of grass
where water was once used
to wash pots, pans, poes,
ochre appears. A rusted
bucket, hole kicked into its
bottom, lies on its side.
Fence, low wall of careful
stones marking the square
yard, is broken now, breached
by pigs, by rats, by mongoose
and by neighbours. Eucalyptus
bushes push their way amidst
the marl. All looks so left
so unlived in: yard, fence and cabin.
Here old Tom lived: his whole
tight house no bigger than your
sitting room. Here was his world
banged like a fist on broken
chairs, bare table and the sideboard board
dresser where he kept his cups.
One wooden only door still latched,
Hasp broken; one window, wooden,
broken; four slats still intact.
Darkness pours from these wrecked boards
and from the crab torn spaces underneath the door.
These are the deepest reaches of time’s long
attack. The roof, dark shingles,
silvered in some places by the wind, the fingertips of weather, shines still secure, still
perfect, although the plaster peels from walls,
at sides, at back, from high up near the roof: in places
where it was not painted. But from the front,
the face from which it looked out on the world,
the house retains its lemon wash as smooth and
bland as pearl.
But the tide creeps in: today’s
insistence laps the loneliness of this
resisting cabin: the village grows and bulges:
shops, supermarket, Postal Agency
whose steel spectacled mistress
rules the town. But no one knows
where Tom’s cracked limestone oblong lies.
The house, the Postal agent says,
is soon to be demolished:
a Housing Estate’s being spawned
to feed the greedy town.
No one knows Tom now, no one cares.
Slave’s days are past, forgotten. The faith, the dream denied,
the things he dared
not do, all lost, if unforgiven. This house is all
that’s left of hopes, of hurt, of history.
Edward Brathwaite
CHAPTER 7: COMPREHENDING INFORMATION
ACTIVITY 7.12
Using the chart below,
identify the figurative
language used in the
preceding piece.
Table 7.4 Some
figurative language
quick references
Writers also use other techniques to convey their intent. Figurative language is
a very common one. Figurative language refers to the use of comparisons
between things belonging to different classes. They are not necessarily literal or
logical and writers have the freedom to make any types of association that suit the
purpose of their writing. Writers use this device to create a desired image in the
reader’s mind and it is a major component of descriptive writing.
Term
Definition
Example
Simile
Comparison indicating that one thing
is similar to another using the words
like or as.
Lin felt as scared as a cockroach in
front of a chicken.
Metaphor
Comparison that suggests that one
thing is another.
The parade was a rainbow of colour.
Personification
Non-human objects and animals
given human qualities.
The stars winked at me through my
window.
Alliteration
Repetition of the initial sound in
neighbouring words.
Day broke, a dull and dismal dawn of
despair.
Onomatopoeia
Words that imitate the sound they
describe.
I listened to the water gushing
down the drains and the cracking of
branches outside.
Hyperbole
An exaggeration used for emphasis.
By the time we got to the summit,
my backpack weighed a ton.
Allusion
A reference to something from
another context that requires the
reader/listener to make an association
based on his/her general knowledge.
He employed Gangster-type
techniques of persuasion.
Responding to argumentative
writing
The first thing you ask yourself
when reading an argumentative
piece is ‘What is the writer doing
to convince me?’ Writers try to
present a convincing argument
by using devices that emphasise
logic and clear reasoning. The most
convincing aspect of an argument
is the presentation of factual data
and information. Therefore, writers
often try to support their points by
referring to verifiable evidence and
facts. These devices lend undeniable
strength to an argument because
they cannot be refuted. Another
useful device is authoritative
opinion. Here the writer cites
the informed views of experts in
Islands are surrounded
by water… therefore he
is an island.
Fig. 7.7 Example of a false premise
115
116
UNIT 3: INTERPRETING COMMUNICATION
the particular field, who the reader expects would provide objective viewpoints based
on professional experience. A weak argument is based on illogical or false premises.
A premise is a proposition (assumption) upon which an argument is based or from
which a conclusion is drawn. Therefore, a false premise is an incorrect proposition and
the conclusion drawn may also be in error. A statement or argument based on incorrect
reasoning is called a fallacy. It is important to be able to recognise fallacies so that you do
not find yourself agreeing with or referring to an idea or point that has no valid base.
Arguments generally use two types of reasoning: (a) deductive and (b) inductive.
a) Deductive reasoning is the process by which one arrives at a conclusion from a
previously known fact or universal premise.
Example
Major premise – Ice melts when heated.
Minor premise – This is ice.
Conclusion – Therefore this melts when heated.
However, you should look out for arguments that appear to use deduction but are
really non sequitur, meaning the conclusion does not follow from the premises.
Example
Major premise – Ice melts when heated.
Minor premise – This melts when heated.
Conclusion – Therefore this is ice.
This is obviously flawed reasoning since many other elements also melt when heated.
b) Inductive reasoning generally works conversely to deduction; it is the process of
arriving at a conclusion based on a set of specific observations.
Example
Premise – The canteen manager reports that most of the students at this
school buy hamburgers for lunch every day.
Conclusion – Therefore hamburgers are the most popular lunch item
among students at this school.
Since the observation was made at that particular school, then the conclusion is correct;
however, it is very easy for writers to make hasty generalisations from observations and
the discerning reader should be wary of this.
Example
Premise – The canteen manager reports that most of the students at this
school buy hamburgers for lunch every day.
Conclusion – Therefore hamburgers are the most popular lunch item
among students.
Obviously, unless the same observation was recorded at every single school, the latter
conclusion could not be correctly applied to students in general.
CHAPTER 7: COMPREHENDING INFORMATION
ACTIVITY 7.13
Read the following letter. Identify the devices used by the writer to support the argument. Are there any
flaws in reasoning?
Elite College
Friendly Alley
St John’s
15th December, 2013
The Permanent Secretary
Ministry of Education
St John’s
Dear Madam
On behalf of the members of the Proactive Students’ League (PSL), I would like to support
the proposal put forward by the Education Advancement Team (EAT) for the extension of
the school day.
The current length of the academic year is not adequate in light of the substantial volume of
the syllabus. Over the years, it has been proven that no teacher has managed to complete the
syllabus in time for final examinations. This means that students face crucial examinations
without sufficient preparation. If the school day is lengthened by two hours, we would gain ten
hours a week, which would certainly be more than enough time to cover the topics that are
never completed.
Additional hours in the school day would also allow students to pursue more general
education and enrichment courses, which are now difficult to fit into their schedules. Surely
our country can only benefit from a population of well-rounded individuals who are not just
academically oriented. Should we not be encouraging our young people to take courses in
music, theatre arts or physical education? It is often said that the wealth of a nation is in the
health of its people. What better way to develop mentally and physically healthy people than
through a wide-ranging curriculum? A longer school day would certainly facilitate this.
We should also take into consideration the fact that we live in a hurricane belt. This means
that in any given year we face the possibility of losing several school days due to bad weather or
the destruction of school buildings. The additional time which will be available to us year round
when we extend the school day will afford a measure of insurance against such eventualities.
Therefore students would not be disadvantaged by having to repeat a school year as happened
in some cases when our sister island of Grenada was hit by Hurricane Ivan.
In light of the above, I trust that your Ministry will make the right decision to the benefit of
thousands of students.
Sincerely
Susan Chow
Secretary, Proactive Students’ League
117
118
UNIT 3: INTERPRETING COMMUNICATION
Responding to persuasive writing
We have seen how argumentative writing depends on logic and coherence to convince
the reader that the writer’s points are supported and his/her point of view is credible.
Persuasive writing is specifically designed to influence or change the reader’s thoughts
and actions and can employ different devices from those used in logical argument. We
are subjected to various forms of persuasion every day, particularly in advertisements.
Persuasive techniques are also critical to occupations such as law, journalism, teaching,
politics and religion.You will rely on persuasive techniques many times in your life, but
you must also learn how to defend yourself from the strategies that may be used not
merely to persuade but also to take advantage of you.
One of the most frequently used devices in persuasion is emotional appeal, where the
writer attempts to arouse fear, hate, greed, love, sexual desire and so on. For example, the
typical deodorant advertisement plays on our natural fear of being socially outcast or rejected.
Example
Fig. 7.8 Emotional appeal
CHAPTER 7: COMPREHENDING INFORMATION
Another primary persuasive device is repetition. Sometimes particular words or
phrases are repeated throughout the writing to emphasise the point being made. At other
times the writer repeats a particular structure in order to create a hypnotic rhythm that
draws the reader into acceptance of the message without thinking.
The third major persuasive device is the use of rhetorical questions. This is often
used for dramatic effect and to grab the attention of the audience. Sometimes a set of
rhetorical questions is used in succession to build up outrage or a sense of injustice.
Note that while some writers may employ persuasive devices purely for the purpose of
influence or control, others may use them in conjunction with the devices of logical
argument to assist in convincing the reader.Very often, a good argumentative piece uses
both.Your task, as reader, is to weigh each point carefully, identify the devices used and
evaluate their effect on the validity or the success of the argument.
ACTIVITY 7.14
Read the following opposing points of view on the same topic and answer the questions at the end.
(i)
Should vagrants be removed from the streets?
No, everyone should have the right to choose where
and how they live.
There can be no doubt that forcibly removing vagrants
from the city streets is a violation of their fundamental
human rights and ought to be condemned by all rightthinking citizens.
Firstly, Article 13 of the Universal Declaration of Human
Rights states clearly: ‘Everyone has the right to freedom
of movement and residence within the borders of
each state’. Nowhere in the Declaration (which was
adopted and proclaimed by the General Assembly of
the United Nations in 1948) are the words ‘movement’
and ‘residence’ defined or circumscribed in any way.
Therefore, one must assume that a person should be
as free to move around a fixed domicile as to wander
the streets, if this is where he chooses to move about.
Restricting this freedom is like confining your children
to the house since their presence on the lawn interferes
with its aesthetics.
Secondly, to arbitrarily descend upon these people and
force them to bathe and cut their hair is tantamount
to declaring them less than human, which is another
violation of their rights as defined by the Declaration
in Article 1: ‘All human beings are born free and
equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with
reason and conscience and should act towards one
another in a spirit of brotherhood’. The attitude of
those who applauded while their brothers and sisters
were dragged off unceremoniously certainly belied this
assumption, as they personified George Orwell’s ironic
line in his book Animal Farm:
‘all animals are equal but some are more equal than
others’. It appears that some of us would like to rewrite
Article 1 of the Declaration along these lines. We would
probably also prefer Article 13 to read: ‘Everyone has
the right to freedom of movement and residence out of
sight of the rest of us’.
We must free ourselves of the bigotry that causes us
to consider a certain set of behaviours the norm and a
particular group of people the arbiters of what is normal
or acceptable. We should also remember that we are not
the ones who determine what it is to be human.
Finally, surely the fact that this country, like most of the
world, was a signatory to the Declaration binds us to
operate within its edicts. To do less would be to begin
the descent into barbarianism.
119
120
UNIT 3: INTERPRETING COMMUNICATION
(ii) Should vagrants be removed from the streets?
Absolutely; this City Council action will have benefits
for all.
The removal of vagrants from the streets by the City
Council was a long-overdue and perfectly justifiable
move. There can be little objection to an attempt by the
authorities to render the city a pleasant environment,
conducive to the orderly conduct of business and the
engagement in leisurely pursuits by the majority of
normal, decent and law-abiding citizens.
The city has long been littered with dozens of unkempt
individuals who insist on turning public streets and
sidewalks into their personal bedrooms and lavatories,
totally oblivious to those of us who are forced to
walk around their makeshift homes to go about
our legitimate business. They are totally uncaring of
the stench emanating from their unwashed bodies,
threatening the stability of our stomachs. Are they
cognizant of the fact that few tourists brave this citycentre spectacle, thus depriving merchants and vendors
of much needed revenue? Did they understand that
their way of life infringes on the rights of others to go
about their lives unassailed by the constant presence of
human derelicts?
Thankfully, the City Council officials were able to weigh
the rights of the many against the idiosyncrasies of the
few and the correct conclusion was arrived at: human
rights are not the preserve of the aberrant, but should
apply equally to the peaceful majority that simply wants
to live under normal circumstances.
The outcry of the self-styled human rights activists
is baffling. Obviously, these vagrants were not in
possession of their full mental faculties and therefore
unable to make rational decisions. There can be no
doubt that the action of the authorities was merciful
and humane. The vagrants were picked up and
provided with clean clothing, meals and personal
hygiene facilities. They were also exposed to the
possibility of an alternative lifestyle which could be
theirs should they opt to give up their street life. This is
what it means to exemplify the biblical precept that we
should be our brother’s keeper.
The City Council should be commended for its decision
to finally take the bull by the horns and restore the city
to its former pristine state. If this means putting a stop
to the wanton abuse of public edifices by persons who
turned them into private property, then kudos to them.
1 Which piece offers the more convincing argument? Why?
2 Identify the persuasive or argumentative devices used by the writers.
3 Comment on the structure of each piece. Which is more logically structured? What makes it seem so?
7.6
Understanding word meaning
One impediment to comprehension is a limited vocabulary. If you have difficulty reading
material that is aimed at your level (educated adult), then you need to improve your
vocabulary and utilise specific strategies to decipher word meaning. One strategy you can
use is locating context clues in the text that you are reading. Context clues are hints that
authors build into their writing to clarify their meaning. If you come across words that are
unfamiliar to you, using context clues will save you the task of constantly referring to the
dictionary. Five types of context clues are illustrated on pages 121 and 122.
CHAPTER 7: COMPREHENDING INFORMATION
Fig. 7.9 Limited vocabulary impedes comprehension
1 Definition: The author includes an explanation of the word within the sentence
or paragraph.
Example
There are several context clues or hints built into their writing that
authors use to clarify the meaning.
Notice that the word ’or’ is the indicator that ’hints built into their
writing’ is another way of saying ’context clues’.
2 Description:The author uses other descriptors to amplify the meaning of a word.
Example
Janelle was very industrious and her employers rewarded her hard work
and diligence with a promotion.
Notice that the descriptors, ‘hard work and diligence’ expand the
meaning of ‘industrious’ and provide a definition.
3 Synonym: The author provides a synonym (a word that has the same or nearly the
same meaning as another word) in the same sentence or close to the word he/she
wants to clarify.
Example
Exorbitant expenditure by the government has depleted the country’s
foreign reserves. This excessive spending has also resulted in serious
debt.
In this example, it is easy to draw the conclusion that ‘exorbitant
expenditure’ is the same as ‘excessive spending’.
121
122
UNIT 3: INTERPRETING COMMUNICATION
4 Visual clues: The author may include a graph, picture or other illustration that depicts
the meaning of the word. The visual clue may also have a caption.
Example
Fig. 7.10 The rotors are normally located at the top of the helicopter
In this example, it is obvious that ‘rotors’ are the propeller blades visible
at the top of the machine in the picture.
5 The author uses examples to define the term. These can be signalled by colours,
dashes or key words (like, such as, including, consists of).
Example
Astrologers refer to celestial bodies, such as the sun, moon and stars, to
create their horoscope charts.
ACTIVITY 7.15
Select the correct meaning of the underlined word, from the box to the right.
1 Sanjaya is so hyperactive, he just cannot remain still.
(a) opposed
2 Della is averse to my point of view. She does not
support me at all.
(b) loud
3 If he were less vociferous we would be able to hear
what the others are saying.
(c) overactive
4 Kelcie is a novice at music. She is only at the Grade 1
(d) remain alive
level.
5 You cannot subsist on this diet. If you persist, you
will die!
(e) beginner
CHAPTER 7: COMPREHENDING INFORMATION
ACTIVITY 7.16
(a) Define the underlined word in each sentence below based on the context clue.
(b) Identify the type of context clue used.
1 My father was so parsimonious that he used to give us half a pencil at a time. He
also hated parting with his money.
2 I do not believe in clandestine meetings. I think things should be done openly.
3 His behaviour was churlish. He was rude, sullen and ill-mannered.
4 Pedagogical institutions such as kindergartens, schools and colleges must all take
blame for the type of society in which we live.
5 I was not well remunerated for this job. Imagine I was only paid $50.00 for all that work!
6 I would never spend so much money on valuable jewellery. I usually just buy baubles.
7 Devaughn is so eloquent. Only yesterday the principal commented on how well
spoken he is.
8 You can trace your genealogy, or ancestry, on this website.
9 Our class was inundated with assignments. When the teachers realised how
overwhelmed we were, they extended our submission deadlines.
Conclusion
You have learnt how the process of comprehension works both
in listening and reading, and how to apply various levels of
comprehension to different types of written information. It is
important to monitor your comprehension as you read and listen,
to continually question whether or not you are receiving the
right message and the entire message. Effective communication
requires both expressing and receiving ideas correctly. Sometimes,
in order to process and manipulate information, you need to
summarise and structure it in ways that aid your understanding.
These methods are discussed in Chapter 8.
123
124
UNIT 3: INTERPRETING COMMUNICATION
Evaluation
and extension
1 What are the three stages in the process of
comprehension?
2 List the levels of comprehension and explain
what each level entails.
4 How would you define the tone of a piece of
writing?
5 Select a piece of writing (poem, prose, song) that
evokes a particular mood that you like. Share it
with your class and talk about how it makes you
feel and why.
6 Read the following passage and answer the
questions below:
3 What do you think are your main barriers to
effective listening?
The art of negotiation
Humans have found a way to resolve their
differences without fighting. We do this
constantly at work and at home. But how do
we go about negotiating effectively? Here we
examine the fundamentals, and offer some triedand-true advice...
Everybody negotiates – or at least everybody who is not
a babe in arms. As soon as they can talk, toddlers try to
get their way by making bargains. They will ask: ’Can
I stay up after bedtime if I’m good?’ Their parents may
want a more specific concession: ’Okay, if you put your
toys away.’ Thus a classic negotiation is concluded –
classic in that it meets the wishes of all concerned.
From that age on, people proceed to negotiate their
way through life – with their parents, friends, mates,
employers or employees, business contacts and
colleagues. Some become professionals at it: not only
diplomats and business agents, but many lawyers
and executives, and a multitude of people in sales.
Most of us remain amateur negotiators, but there are
times when we are all called upon to assume that role
when buying or selling things, dealing with marital
or family problems, asserting our rights, or seeking
compensation. At such times it helps to consider what
negotiation is all about.
Fundamentally, it is a way of settling differences with
a minimum of strife. It is an exclusively human activity.
When the other creatures of the Earth come into
conflict, they must either fight or run away. Our ability
to communicate ideas has given us another choice. We
can use our jaws for purposes other than to maim or
threaten our adversaries. This means that the physically
weaker members of our species have a chance to assert
their interests on an even level with the strong.
However, our perception of the negotiation process is
clouded by a cultural preoccupation with winning and
losing. We live in a society of gains and losses at work
and at play. We see our favourite sports teams attain
victory or go down to defeat. In business, we try to
’beat’ the competition. It is therefore difficult for us
to conceptualise a form of competition in which it is
possible for everyone to win.
People must give in order to receive. This does not mean
that one must give away the whole store in a negotiation.
But shrewd bargainers always ask themselves what
short-term advantages they can concede to meet their
long-term objectives. The very first objective must be to
arrive at a settlement that can be relied upon – one that
is satisfactory enough to the other party that he/she can
be expected to live with its terms.
Co-negotiators should examine their mutual problems
together on the theory that demands are merely
symptoms of problems. The least such an examination
can accomplish is to establish the feeling of being in the
same boat.
Successful negotiators generally do more listening than
talking. The only time when they may say more than
their opposer is when they periodically summarise what
CHAPTER 7: COMPREHENDING INFORMATION
has occurred to keep track of the concessions made
and to confirm that it has all been mutually understood.
One of the most serious faults a negotiator can have is
talking too much.
The most critical time to keep quiet is when there is
nothing more to be said. How many times have you
been in an argument which seemed to be settled, but
which flared up again because someone insisted on
getting a final crushing word in?
Often the hardest part of a bargaining session comes
in closing it. One simple proven method is to say:
’I think we know everything we need to know to agree,
don’t you?’
frequently, putting aside the desire to be agreeable so
as to be liked. You should always reply in the negative
when you have the slightest hesitation about what is
being proposed. It is always easier to change a ’no’ to a
’yes’ than the other way around.
Although charity seemingly has no place in bargaining,
a little of it is sometimes necessary to allow others to
preserve their dignity. It is not the only old-fashioned
virtue involved in negotiating effectively. Tolerance and
understanding both have a part to play in this important
arena of human relations. These are civilised qualities,
and they are all directed toward the same eminently
civilised end – to resolve the differences that are bound
to arise among human beings in an atmosphere of peace.
For many of us, the most difficult word in the language
is ’no’. A skilful negotiator must be prepared to say it
(a) Summarise the author’s definition of
negotiation.
(b) What rationale does he/she give for learning
the art of negotiation?
(c) Give synonyms for the following words as
used in the passage: adversaries, shrewd,
conceptualise, reinstatement.
(d) State the main point of the article in about
30 words.
(e) What is the writer’s purpose in writing this
article?
(f) What techniques has the writer used in
assisting with the purpose?
(g) Evaluate the appropriateness of the tone
used in this passage.
Royal Bank of Canada
References
The Art of Negotiation. (1986). Royal Bank of Canada Letter Collection, 67 (4)
Jul/Aug, available at www.rbc.com/responsibility/letter.
Barry, D. (1997). Dave Barry is from Mars and Venus. New York: Crown
Publishers Inc. pp. 41–5.
Brathwaite, E. (1973). The Cabin. The Arrivants: A New World trilogy. Oxford:
Oxford University Press, pp. 70–71.
Hall, S. (2006). Plenty of Plantains. Caribbean Compass, 133, p. 45.
James, C.L.R. (1993). Beyond a Boundary. North Carolina: Duke University Press.
Tyne, T. (n.d.). Ivan the Terrible Invades Grenada. A Whole New Altitude,
Caribbean Star Airlines Magazine Issue 15.West Indies Publishing Ltd, pp. 36 –37.
125
126
UNIT 3: INTERPRETING COMMUNICATION
8
Summarising
Information
A summary is an overview of the most important information from something
you have read or listened to. We summarise information every day, whether we
are regaling a friend with the highlights of the wedding, giving the gist of the
latest best-selling novel or reporting in class on a researched topic. We often
complain of information overload in modern society and most people simply
do not have the time to read or listen to detailed information. For example, a
business person may need only the elements that will help him/her make a
decision; a lawyer must sum up the key points of the case for the jury; a news
reporter must condense the day’s happenings into a brief news report. This
chapter introduces different ways of summarising information to assist you in
increasing your comprehension of what you read or listen to.
The skills you learn in this chapter pertain to Module 1 and Specific Objectives 1, 2 and 5.
Expected Learning Outcomes
On completing this chapter you should be able to:
1 write continuous prose summaries
2 distinguish between main and subsidiary ideas
3 make clear notes on written and spoken material
4 create outlines and graphic organisers for structuring material.
Introduction
Summarising skills enable you to
reprocess the information you have
gathered and express it concisely
in your own way. The process of
digesting and reorganising information
leads to mastery of that material.
This skill is particularly important
in an academic environment, where
you are faced with large amounts of
information from reading material
and lectures. Good summarising skills
enable you to sift quickly through
information, identify the key ideas
and reorganise them in a manner that
Fig. 8.1 In summary, I failed the driving test
makes them easy to understand and
remember. Summarising must not be confused with paraphrasing, which means to restate
CHAPTER 8: SUMMARISING INFORMATION
information in your own words. A paraphrase does not reduce the length of a piece nor
does it eliminate any details. A summary condenses and reduces a piece of material to its
essence. It is always much shorter than the original.
There are various ways of summarising information and it is wise to master all of them.
However, before you attempt to summarise, you must be able to differentiate between main
and subsidiary ideas. Then you will be able to reduce your key information to notes, outlines
or prose summaries. Note that under no circumstances, must you present the words of the
text as your own. This is known as plagiarism and is dealt with further in Chapter 9.
8.1 Distinguishing main and subsidiary ideas
The main idea in a passage is the central message or thought that the writer wants to
get across. It should not be confused with the topic, which is the subject of the piece. If
you were telling your classmates about the poorly organised party you attended, while
the topic would be the party, the main idea would be that it was disorganised. However,
the main idea can be conveyed in what is known as the topic sentence, which is a
statement that expresses the main idea in the author’s words. Authors sometimes do this in
expository writing, but in many cases you need to come up with the main idea based on
other clues in the passage. Sometimes the author repeats the main idea in different ways
throughout the passage or places the topic sentence at the end of a paragraph. However,
a good rule of thumb is to look out for the main idea in the first third of the piece.
Remember that the main idea is the answer to the question, ’what general point does the
author want to make?’
Example
Nitrous oxide (N2O), commonly known as ‘laughing gas’, has been widely
used as an analgesic and anaesthetic agent for decades. Also known as
‘laughing gas’, this gas is capable of reducing pain normally experienced
during childbirth or in medical procedures such as dental surgery. It provides
almost immediate relief to the patient but its effects dissipate rapidly. The use
of N2O is not very widespread in North America, but it is very common in
European countries, where it is used in 50 per cent to 70 per cent of births.
It is also used widely in Australia and New Zealand.
Select the main idea of the passage:
a) Nitrous oxide is an important element of pain relief.
b) Doctors most often choose nitrous oxide as a form of anaesthetic.
c) Nitrous oxide has been a traditional choice of pain relief in several countries.
d) Nitrous oxide is most popularly known as ‘laughing gas’.
The correct answer is (c), which conveys the main point the author wants to make.
While the other statements are also ideas conveyed in the passage, they are there to help
the writer make the point. Only (c) sums up the complete gist (main idea) of the passage.
Remember the main idea is a general summary of the author’s main points or argument.
127
128
UNIT 3: INTERPRETING COMMUNICATION
ACTIVITY 8.1
Read the following passages and identify the main idea from the choices given below.
Before World War II, pork had been the most popular meat in the Unites States. Rising incomes,
falling cattle prices, the growth of the fast food industry, and the mass appeal of the hamburger
later pushed American consumption of beef higher than that of pork. By the early 1990s, beef
production was responsible for almost half of the employment in American agriculture, and the
annual revenues generated by beef were higher than those of any other agricultural commodity in
the United States. The average American ate three hamburgers a week. More than two-thirds of
those hamburgers were bought at fast food restaurants. And children between the ages of seven
and thirteen ate more hamburgers than anyone else.
E. Schlosser
(a) Hamburgers are the favourite fast food in the United States.
(b) Beef has replaced pork as the most popular meat in the United States.
(c) Beef production has generated higher revenues than any other agricultural industry in the United States.
(d) World War II was responsible for the popularity of beef in the United States.
Genes are the raw resource of the new economic epoch and are already being used in a variety
of business fields – including agriculture, animal husbandry, energy, bioremediation, building
and packaging materials, pharmaceuticals, and food and drink to fashion a bio-industrial world.
Nowhere is the new genetic commerce likely to have a bigger impact, however, than in human
medicine. For the first time in history, scientific tools are becoming available to manipulate the
genetic instructions in human cells. Human gene screening and therapy raise the very real possibility
that we might be able to engineer the genetic blueprints of our own species and begin to redirect
the future course of our biological evolution on Earth. The new gene splicing technique will make it
potentially possible to transform individuals and future generations into ‘works of art’, continually
updating and editing their DNA codes to enhance physical and mental health. Breakthroughs in
genetic technology are bringing us to the edge of a new eugenics era with untold consequences for
present and future generations and for civilisation itself.
J. Rifkin
(a) Advances in genetic engineering hold major implications for human development.
(b) Human beings will soon become artificially transformed by genetic engineering.
(c) Genetic commerce is the new bio-industry.
(d) Humans now have the scientific tools to conduct genetic engineering.
The first step in summarising is, of course, reading or listening to all the material at
least once.You may need to read a second time if you think you have not understood
the gist of it. As you read, try to determine what is the main point the writer is trying to
CHAPTER 8: SUMMARISING INFORMATION
bring across.You will either find it in the topic sentences of each paragraph or you may
have to determine what is implied by the paragraph. It is useful to underline what seem to
be essential points, as you read.
Example
The Internet’s effect on jobs
The presence of the Internet has had numerous effects on the job market.
As the technology changed rapidly, so did jobs. Workers needed to be
retrained to perform the new jobs, spawning an entire training industry.
For example, many workers needed to attend computer classes to learn
how to operate the newly available software and how to get around the
Internet. Administrative assistants and office personnel needed different (or
additional) skills than those for which they had been originally trained. For
example, although keyboarding remained a critical skill, knowing how to
actually operate a typewriter was no longer necessary.
Middle managers were also affected by the introduction of the Internet
into the workplace. They were required to learn new skills and use
computers for a greater percentage of their workday. In some cases, jobs
were combined or eliminated because the computer enabled workers to
operate more efficiently.
But not all of the changes were negative. The Internet, although it displaced
some workers, has simultaneously opened doors of opportunity for them.
The Internet facilitates outsourcing and working from home. Additionally,
many workers can work remotely as consultants or freelancers, using the
Internet to stay connected with others. Entire new industries and jobs (such
as Web designers) have been born. Finally, a host of job search sites, such as
Career Builder (www.careerbuilder.com) and Monster.com (www.monster.
com), aid people in their search for new careers.
L. Bird
Notice that the first line of the extract sums up what it is about. This is the main idea
of the piece summarised in one sentence. The types of effect on jobs are then illustrated to
support and clarify the main idea. These are subsidiary ideas, but they contain important
information that you would use in a summary. The writer also uses examples to further
illustrate her points as in the last lines of the first and third paragraphs. These are not
crucial to the gist of the passage and would therefore not be included in a summary.
Therefore a prose summary of this passage might read as follows:
Example
The Internet has affected the job market in several ways. First, as jobs
changed in response to technology, all classes of workers had to be
retrained. Second, the efficiency of computers resulted in the elimination
of some jobs. Third, new jobs and opportunities for workers and flexibility
of work schedules have impacted positively on the workforce.
L. Bird
129
130
UNIT 3: INTERPRETING COMMUNICATION
In a prose summary (as above), not only should you capture the essence of the original
piece, but you must do it logically and fluently. Unless the original is poorly written, you
should generally retain its organisational pattern. Use the following checklist to evaluate
your summaries:
1 Have I included all the main points?
2 Have I used my own words as far as possible?
3 Have I omitted all minor details and examples?
4 Does my summary reflect the order of the points in the original?
5 Are the points logically linked in my summary?
6 Have I acknowledged the source of the summarised information?
ACTIVITY 8.2
Read the passage below and complete the exercise that follows:
Global warming is probably the greatest challenge currently facing all species on Earth.
Many scientists have described the gradual and continuous warming of Earth’s climate as
potentially catastrophic and few can combat such a claim. This trend poses the greatest
risks to our environment and, co-relationally, to our economies. The most devastating
effects would be on poorer countries and small island states, which would be hardest
hit by rises in sea levels and degradation of forests and agricultural lands. Countries with
limited financial resources would be helpless in the face of major damage which could
arise even from incremental changes in global temperatures.
Confronting the challenges posed by global warming will require consistent collaborative
efforts by international governments, to create policies which are reflective of the scientific
evidence before them and to promote creative solutions. This means that legislation
governing industrial operations should be firm and enforceable. It would also be prudent
to design social policy which would engage the public in making the type of personal
decisions that are guided by an awareness of their effect on climate and environment.
1 Underline the key points in the passage.
2 Write a 50-word summary of the passage.
8.2 Note-making
You do not always need to write a continuous prose summary in order to condense and
simplify your material. Note-making is also an effective means of summing up information.
Most people develop a personalised method of making notes.Your aim is to put your
notes in a format, using a system that will allow you to review and retain information
easily. Whatever system you use, there are some basic rules that you should follow:
1 Select an outline form or a numbering system that allows you to distinguish major
from minor points.
2 Put notes in your own words except for specific facts, formulae or definitions.
CHAPTER 8: SUMMARISING INFORMATION
re
about, regarding
&, +
and, in addition
vs
against, opposite
etc.
and so on
@
at
defn
definition
dx
does not
eg
example
st
1
first
incl
including
viz
namely
neg
negative
poss
possible/possibly
pp
pages
ref
reference
w/o
without
Table 8.1 Some note-making
abbreviations
3 Be brief. Do not write in sentences.
4 Use a consistent set of abbreviations and symbols.
5 Leave spaces on your page so that you can add further notations
when you review.
6 Write down only the important points.
7 Review notes as soon as possible and review often.
Note-taking from lectures must be done quickly but notes must be
clear enough for you to understand some hours later when you are
reviewing or rewriting. Students often scribble notes horizontally, simply
ensuring that important points are recorded without paying attention to
format. If you had been listening to the passage on page 129, your rough
notes may have looked like this:
Internet – effects on jobs – jobs lost – wrong skills –
must retrain – BUT – new opps – flexitime – easier job search
Fig
Fig. 8
8.2
2 Student notes from a lecture
However, it is quite possible to take notes quickly while maintaining
a basic structure that will enable you to be much clearer about the
points you have recorded. In addition, the more graphic your notes
are in terms of organisation, the easier they are to retain and recall.
Notice how much more reader friendly the notes in Figure 8.3 appear
to be even though they are recording basically the same information
as the previous example.
ACTIVITY 8.3
Add other abbreviations to the
list in Table 8.1. You can make up
your own personal symbols and
abbreviations for taking notes;
however, it is important to be
consistent so that your notes are
always clear to you.
Effects of Internet
net
e on jjobs
obs
st
1 Neg.
g.
obb losses
looss
sses
– jjob
– IIrrelevant
rre
relevan
annt skills
– fforced
orceed training
ngg
2nd PPos.
os.
+ ne
new
ew jjobb op
oopps.
ppps.
+ fle
flexitime
exi
xititme
+ easy searches
searrch
ches
e
Fig.
i 8.3 Structured
S
d lecture
l
notes
131
132
UNIT 3: INTERPRETING COMMUNICATION
Linear outlines
Notes are commonly put in outline or linear format, which must be structured so that the
most important points can be clearly identified. It is advisable to transform your rough
notes from lectures into more formal notes as soon as possible after the lecture. Rewriting
your notes helps you to retain information and to clarify things that may be blurred in your
memory over time. Formal outline notes on the passage on page
pag 129 may look like this:
Effects of Internet on jobs
1. Negative
a) loss of jobs
b) workers’ skills no longer applicable
c) all classes of workers forced into retraining
2. Positive
a) new job opportunities for workers
b) flexible work schedules
c) easier job searches
Did you
know?
Studies show that people
may forget 50 per cent of
a lecture within 24 hours,
80 per cent in two weeks,
and 95 per cent within
one month if they do not
take notes.
Fig 8
4 Linear notes
Fig.
8.4
You may also want to organise your notes into categorising subheadings that help you
to clarify specific aspects suggested by the material. The example below organises the
information from the passage on page 130 in this way.
Problem: Global warming
Effects:
a) General risk to
i. economy
ii. environment
b) Specific risks to
i. low lying countries
ii. poor countries
Solutions:
a) government – creation of collaborative policies
promote creative solutions
commitment to enforcing rules
b) public – lifestyle changes
Fig. 8.5 Notes with subheadings
CHAPTER 8: SUMMARISING INFORMATION
Notice that two main categories have been created: Effects and Solutions. Then you
have created sub-categories, for example General and Specific risks. Creating your own
categories for notes means that you are analysing the information and manipulating it in
such a way that it makes sense to you. This is the most effective way to remember what
you read or listen to.
ACTIVITY 8.4
Read the following passage and make notes using one of the formal outline examples.
The wireless wounded
We used to push paper; now we push buttons – and
the result is getting ever more painful. From BlackBerries
and Treos to cell phones and iPods, our miniaturised,
high-tech gizmos are leaving us with a whole new set
of repetitive stress injuries that go beyond carpal tunnel
syndrome (which caused those afflicted to typically miss
27 days from work in 2005, according to the U.S. Bureau
of Labor Statistics). Here’s what you should know about
the next generation of gadgetry woes.
BlackBerry thumb. This condition can develop from
constant emailing, text messaging, or Internet surfing
on hand held devices. ‘Thumbs are not very dexterous,
and subjecting them to continual pressure can lead
to irritation,’ says Michele Kehrer, a physical therapist
and owner of the LifeStyle Physical Therapy & Balance
Center in Chicago. Symptoms are pain or numbness in
the thumbs and thumb side of the wrist. One solution
is to use a stylus or pen to punch the keys on your PDA.
Stretch out thumbs periodically. Ice them if they are sore.
Cell phone elbow. Cubital tunnel syndrome can
result from constantly holding a cell phone to the
ear. In severe cases, it can cause permanent nerve
damage, and surgery may be the only option, says
Kehrer. Symptoms include elbow pain, numbness, pain
or tingling in the little fingers. Invest in a headset or
switching the cell phone from your right to left hand
periodically, can be useful.
PDA hunch. Looking straight down at your mini
monitor flexes the neck in an unnatural position, says
Manhattan chiropractor Marc Bochner. This can cause
neck pain. It is advisable to set an alarm and take
breaks approximately five minutes every half hour. Get
up, stretch, and walk around.
Mouse arm. ‘Most people using a mouse keep
their hand and forearm tense even when they’re not
clicking,’ says physical therapist Rik Misiura, owner
of Central Park Physical Therapy in New York City.
‘So in addition to straining the finger, over time you
can also develop tendinitis in the elbow, where the
muscle operating the finger originates.’ Persons with
this condition usually experience pain on the outside
of the elbow, usually when grasping or lifting. You
should keep the mouse close to you so that you’re not
reaching for it. And for relief, Misiura suggests this
exercise: Imagine you have water on your hands, and
vigorously shake it off for seven seconds. Next bring
your hands behind your head and neck from above
and swing them down in front of you, forward, then
backward; repeat for seven repetitions.
‘O’ magazine
Graphic organisers
An effective method of organising your notes is putting them in a format that leaves a
picture in your head when you try to recall them. Graphic organisers are also referred
to as knowledge/concept/story maps, cognitive organisers, or concept diagrams. They
are visual, graphic ways of representing information in such a way that illustrates the
133
134
UNIT 3: INTERPRETING COMMUNICATION
links between/among concepts. They can be used across a range of subject areas and are
used widely as a major learning tool. Many people find it much easier to understand
and memorise information presented graphically. The type of graphic organiser you use
depends on the nature of the material you are organising. Thus, a cycle map would be
useful for illustrating a recurrent or interactive process, while a series chain or flowchart
would be used for a sequential or step by step process.
Example 1
Fig. 8.6 Cycle map
Example 2
Radioactive decay process of Thorium 232
Fig. 8.7 Flowchart
Graphic organisers can also be used to compare entities. The Venn diagram is most
often used for comparison purposes. Similarities are recorded in the overlapping areas and
differences in the outer areas. The following diagram on page 135 organises comparative
notes on poems by Olive Senior and William Wordsworth.
CHAPTER 8: SUMMARISING INFORMATION
135
Example
Fig. 8.8Circle or Venn diagram
There are numerous other graphic organisers that can be used for practically any
area of study. However, the most popular is the matrix or tabular format.You can adapt
this format to record any type of information, as you have seen done in this textbook.
Remember the more you practise the more proficient you will become at processing and
recording information. Graphic organisers are excellent tools to assist you in setting out
your information in logical ways that facilitate your comprehension.
Conclusion
The ability to summarise information accurately is proof of
comprehension. It is becoming more and more important to have
this skill, as we are bombarded with ever increasing amounts
of information every day. Once you have mastered the skill of
summary, you will find it useful in all aspects of your life, academic
and otherwise. Chapter 9 teaches you how to research information
for various purposes. You will find that, having understood in this
chapter how to structure information in logical ways, you will find
this skill very applicable to your research activities in the next.
9780230431584_text.indd 135
24/02/2014 09:31
136
UNIT 3: INTERPRETING COMMUNICATION
Evaluation
and extension
l Listen to a documentary or news programme and
make notes on the information you receive.
Compare your notes with those of your classmates.
Today we have a great opportunity to develop
a whole new range of environmentally friendly
technologies for use in our cities. Efficient energy
systems are now available for urban buildings,
including combined heat-and-power generators,
with fuel cells and photovoltaic modules waiting
in the wings. New concepts of architectural
design allow us to greatly improve the energy
performance and to reduce the environmental
impact of materials use in buildings. Also, wasterecycling technologies for small and large, rich and
poor cities, can facilitate greater efficiency in the
urban use of resources. Transport technologies,
too, are due for a major overhaul. Fuel-efficient
low-emission vehicles are at a very advanced stage
of development. In U.S. cities, rapid urban transit
systems are starting to reappear even where
people had come to depend almost exclusively on
private transport.
W. Fox
2 Cut out newspaper articles. Cut off the headlines
and have members of your group come up with
possible headlines after reading the article. Then
compare them with the originals.
3 Identify the main idea in the following
paragraphs:
With the exception of head and facial hair styles,
male body norms have varied less than female
norms over the last two centuries. Masculinity,
with rare exception, has been associated with
power, strength and domination and symbolised
by muscularity. Nevertheless, there has been
variation in the degree of muscularity deemed
ideal. Over the course of the nineteenth century,
industrialisation increased affluence and the
proportion of men who could avoid physically
taxing labor and malnutrition. Prosperity made
a middle-aged ’spread’ and softer bodies more
common, not only in the upper class, but also
in the growing middle class. The more fashion
conscious corseted their girth. Others adopted
new methods of body discipline promoted by the
physical culture movement.
D. Sullivan
4 Read the following passage on page 137 and
summarise, in one paragraph, the story that
the writer tells.
CHAPTER 8: SUMMARISING INFORMATION
When words return
You would think that well-loved books would be just what
the doctor ordered if you’re confined to a hospital bed
with nothing much to do following a major operation.
At least, that’s what I thought, and prepared for it
diligently heading into the big event.
The books had to have certain well-defined attributes: they
had to be small, easily capable of being held with one hand
so as not to encourage extra weight on a traumatised chest.
And they had to be familiar works I’ve enjoyed.
That’s how I came to pack Ex Libris: Confessions of a
Common Reader by Anne Fadiman and The Antilles, by
Derek Walcott. Sure fire reading fare I reckon them to be.
Ex Libris, besides, was a gift from a grandson, making it
more valuable. And Antilles, Derek’s Nobel Prize lecture,
is something I had read maybe eight or ten times, and
had given away copies to friends in the U.S. and Canada.
Daughter Mel had driven from San Diego to help us get
around the Phoenix suburb of Mesa and take us back to
Show Low and these three days in Mesa saw a clearing
of the mind fog.
Was it merely the two weeks away from the hospital sick
bed that had brought about the change? Was it possible
that the effect of various painkillers had leached away
from my system, bringing some clarity?
The fact that I wanted to spend time in the Borders
bookstore near the motel was not so much a surprise as
it was a massive lure! We ended up making two visits.
And words began to beckon once more.
Not only did I pick up some books but I commandeered
one of their armchairs, and with my oxygen cylinder
parked beside me, did something I daydream about: I sat
there reading!
Derek’s evocation of the Ramleela in Felicity in Central
Trinidad was one of the components that made me feel
wedded to this gem.
Barak Obama’s Dreams From My Father replaced an
edition I owned, and parted with, in T&T so it was like a
homecoming.
The picture he painted always takes me back to a Ramleela
festival in which I took part many years ago when, with a
group of childhood cricket friends, we walked for perhaps
an hour and a half from Eckles Village, along the road
to Princes Town, to an estate compound beside the road
where the festival was being enacted.
Frances Mayes’ A Year in the World puts together
‘journeys of a passionate traveller,’ touching the Greek
Isles, Morocco, the Turkish coast, Spain, Portugal,
Southern Italy and the British Isles.
And although the celebration incorporated aspects of the
village life around us, there was poetry, and a touch of
enchantment, about the whole afternoon.
I’ve never seen the Felicity version, so near to where we
lived in Port of Spain, but Derek’s depiction reprises for
me something of my own biography.
Ah, but the minutiae of post-operation life, the hesitant
hobble to the bathroom, the endless ministrations of a
solicitous bevy, were all signs that I was still in thrall to
the surgeon and, in the end, this took its toll and never
once did I even feel moved to open either of the books!
Not only that, the thought of doing so brought not the
expected pleasure, but produced, instead, as blank an
emotion as if I were contemplating tomes on calculus or
celestial mechanics.
Even away from the hospital the pall persisted and the
most I would connect with was a few CDs. Then two
weeks after the procedure I had to re-visit the surgeon
and cardiologist: just checking!
She also wrote Under the Tuscan Sun, turned into a
movie.
The Best American Essays of 2006 and Reading Like a
Writer rounded off the lot.
Francine Prose wrote Reading and you may have sampled
Gluttony, her contribution to that witty series on the
seven deadly sins. I had picked up this volume several
times before and declined, but in my new awakened
state, I took her on. Now it will join her Year of Reading
Proust, which is another story.
With perfect weather in these hills, I am able to go into
the sun on to the deck and, between watching the
contrails, allow Frances Mayes to take me on tour!
Walcott, somewhere in Antilles, said that for ‘every poet
it is always morning in the world.’
Poet or not, with the return of words I can actually feel
the shining hopes of morning.
R. Hernandez
137
138
UNIT 3: INTERPRETING COMMUNICATION
5 Use the spider map to makes notes on a topic
from one of your subject areas.
References
Bird, L. (2004). The Complete Guide to Using and Understanding the Internet.
New Jersey: Prentice Hall.
Fox, W. (ed.) (2000). Ethics and the Built Environment. London: Routledge. pp.
24 –25.
Hernandez, R. (2007). Trinidad Express. 7 April.
Rifkin, J. in Behrens et al. (eds). (2000).The Ultimate Therapy: Commercial
eugenics on the eve of the biotech century. Writing and Reading Across the
Curriculum. Toronto: Longman, pp. 546–7.
Schlosser, E. (2002). Fast Food Nation. New York: HarperCollins, p. 198.
Sullivan, D. (2000). Cosmetic Surgery: The cutting edge of commercial
medicine in America. New Jersey: Rutgers University Press, pp. 8–9.
The Wireless Wounded. O Magazine. February 2007.
Fig. 8.9 Spider map
CHAPTER 9: RESEARCHING INFORMATION
9
Researching Information
As you engage in learning at the tertiary level you will be asked to explore
some areas of the curriculum on your own or you may be asked to conduct
your own research on some topic of your choice. Research is an integral part
of the learning experience and it is therefore important to learn how best to
become a researcher and a writer of research findings. This chapter provides
guidelines for finding valid sources and writing the research paper, including how
to quote and how to cite those sources.
The skills you learn in this chapter pertain to Module 1 and Specific Objectives
3, 6, 7, 8 and 9.
Expected Learning Outcomes
On completing this chapter, you should be able to:
1 discuss different types of research
2 explain the difference between primary and secondary research
and give examples of each
3 explain key concepts in research, for example population, sample
4 discuss the importance of validity and reliability in research
5 evaluate the worth of sources whether in libraries or online
6 write a bibliographical source using the APA or MLA style.
Introduction
Research is defined as the disciplined process of investigating and
seeking facts that will lead one to discover the truth about something
(Markham et al. 2001). This research must be presented in such a
manner that the discovered facts are available to others. The research
paper, a formal presentation of these discovered facts, provides the
evidence one needs to defend the opinion expressed as the thesis (ibid).
When we speak of researching information we refer to various
ways of sourcing knowledge for varying purposes. For example, in
secondary school you may be required to find out all you know about
something or someone famous, or to write an essay on a particular
subject using two or three sources, or to investigate the reasons for
tardiness of students at your institution. Each of these assignments
merits some level of research. Some key terms that we will look at in
this chapter are: information/data; instruments; population; sample;
reliability; validity; plagiarism; sources and bibliographies. Each of
these terms plays an important role in the development of your
written assignment.
Fig. 9.1 Researching information
139
140
UNIT 3: INTERPRETING COMMUNICATION
9.1 Types of research
The first differentiation that can be made is between primary and secondary research.
Primary research is that which is original. It is research that the researcher designs and
carries out using surveys and/or focus groups. Secondary research is the type you are
probably more familiar with as this is the type often required in the school situation. This
type of research is one that depends on accessing information that has already been
researched and can be found in books, other publications and expert sources.
ACTIVITY 9.1
Read the following scenarios and identify which are examples of primary and which are
examples of secondary research.
1 The role of Marcus Garvey in the Harlem Renaissance.
2 The performance of students at Malacar High in Cape Communication Studies.
3 The impact of youth counselling on the incidence of teen pregnancy in Kairenda village.
ACTIVITY 9.2
1 Explain the difference between primary and secondary research.
2 In your groups, brainstorm and discuss possible research topics and the types of
research under which they would fit.
3 Discuss the research projects in which you may have been engaged over the past two years.
In the examples of research given in paragraph 2 of the introduction, which ones do
you see as primary research and which ones do you see as secondary?
If you need to find out all you can about a famous person or thing, you will be
engaging in secondary research. The second example of the essay using two or three
sources is also secondary research. The third example of the reasons for tardiness of
students is an example of primary research.
Types of primary research
There are also two types of primary research.
■
■
Qualitative
Quantitative
Qualitative research
This type of research is widely used. It is based on information findings taken from
observation, interviewing and from tracing patterns of behaviour. This type of research
helps us understand how people feel and why they feel as they do. Qualitative research
is also in depth in nature as one collects a significant amount of information or data. In
this type of research, samples tend to be smaller and the duration of the research is often
longer than in the case of quantitative research. Two examples of qualitative research are:
Historical research
■ Ethnographic research.
■
CHAPTER 9: RESEARCHING INFORMATION
Historical research, put simply, is the study of past events while ethnographic
research is the study of current events through the collection of extensive narrative
data over a period of time in a naturalistic setting. In ethnographic research, participant
observation and case studies are often used. An example of an historical research topic is,
‘The effect of music on clothing styles: the twenties to present time’, while ‘The effect of
dub on the behaviour of school children’ is an example of ethnographic research.
Quantitative research
This type of research is widespread and requires the use of surveys to feed the statistical
analysis. Quantitative research requires a large sample. Because the sample is quite large
the researcher is not likely to have contact with the participants in the research process.
Two examples of quantitative research are:
■
■
Descriptive research
Correlational research
Descriptive or survey research involves the collection of data in order to answer a
question about the current status of a subject or situation. This type of research is concerned
with ‘the preferences, attitudes, practices, concerns, or interests of some group of people’
(Gay & Airasian 2000). Consumer surveys are typical examples of descriptive research.
Correlational research is the type of research that seeks to establish a relationship (or
lack thereof) between two variables or to use relationships to make predictions (ibid). One
example of this type of research is ‘How does the performance at the Common Entrance
Examination correspond to the performance of students at CXC General Examinations?’
The variables are Common Entrance marks and CXC results at general level.
9.2 Data/information
Most research texts do not suggest a difference between data and information. Thus
information or data refers to the collected facts, observations, records or statistics that
allow the researcher to come to some conclusion. Personal details such as age and gender
help to determine who the respondent is. This information is useful in looking at trends
of behaviour for specific groups. For example, suppose you were researching student
choice of television programmes between 8 and 10 p.m. at weekends.You could ask for
certain demographics including the age of the student, sex/gender and address. These
three pieces of information allow the researcher to look at trends by age, gender and by
the areas in which the participants live.You will observe as you either develop research
instruments or take part in some research that there are often other pieces of information
sought about the respondent, for example approximate salary and profession.
Information or data can also be used to make inferences and come to conclusions
about a research question. Sources of information/data vary depending on the type of
research pursued. Sources may be government statistics from specific departments, student
records held in school offices and examination results recorded by an institution or
responses from a specific group. No matter what the source of your information, you must
view the information in a systematic way.
141
142
UNIT 3: INTERPRETING COMMUNICATION
9.3 Instruments
In research, we use the word instrument to refer to the methodology used to collect
data. There are various instruments that may be used in research. It is always important
to select the instrument that is best suited to the type of research you are doing. There
are numerous research instruments already in existence and it is up to the researcher to
find one that best matches the research question. Alternatively, the researchers can create
their own instruments; however, this is quite time-consuming and raises the question of
test validity and reliability (explained later in this chapter).The alternative is to collect
already existing data (secondary data) or use the observation method and record naturally
occurring events (Gay & Airasian 2000). Standardised tests are one type of research
instrument that a researcher may use to collect data. There are tests available to measure
interest, values and attitude. Imagine that you want to do some market research on a fairly
new product. There are already established interest and attitude tests that can measure this
interest and therefore your research instrument needs only to identify the specific product.
You do not have to reinvent the wheel.
However, there are times when, because of the nature of the research, the researcher
needs to be original in the creation of the instrument used. Thus questionnaires and
interview questions (known as interview schedules) often have to be created to suit the
situation. These methods may still draw on the expertise of previous researchers
by looking at the types and format of questions asked and the methods used to
score the responses.
9.4 Population
In research terminology, population refers to the group of individuals, items or events
that the researcher wants to study. For example, if you were going to study the incidence
of obesity in secondary school students, your population would be all secondary school
students but you would not be able to administer and collect data from every single
student in your country! The results from this approach may take years to analyse and by
that time be totally irrelevant. What then does the researcher do? The answer is to sample
the population.
According to Gay and Airasian (2000
p.121), sampling is the process of
selecting a number of individuals for a
study in such a way that they represent
the larger group from which they are
selected. The purpose of sampling is to
gain information about the population
by using the sample.
Let us consider the example given
of the research into the incidence of
obesity in secondary schools. Of course
you want your research to be relevant to
the whole population, to all secondary
schools. We have already established
that the population was all students in
Fig. 9.2 But how do I sample the population?
CHAPTER 9: RESEARCHING INFORMATION
secondary schools. Since the researcher cannot
possibly collect information from all students,
he/she must select a sample that is representative
of the population. What then constitutes a
sample that is well selected? First, one must have
a clear understanding of the composition of the
population. In this case the population may be
described as comprising:
Male and female
A range of age groups 11–19
■ Students of different ethnic groups
■ Students of different socio-economic groups
■ Students practising different religions.
■
Did you know?
If a sample is well selected,
research results based on it will
be generalisable to the population.
The degree to which the sample
represents the population is the
degree to which results for one are
applicable to the other.
■
L.R. Gay and P. Airasian
A well-selected sample should reflect these different groupings as well as represent the
ratios. If the school population is 75 per cent male then the sample should reflect a similar
ratio. Likewise, if the population is 50 per cent Hindu, 10 per cent Christian and 40 per
cent Rastafarian, then one should expect to find these three groups represented in the
sample, especially as there may be a close link between diet and religious denomination.
There are three basic steps to sampling:
1 Identify the population.
2 Determine the required sample size.
3 Select the sample using any of four sampling methods:
Simple random sampling – this method entails choosing a sample so that each unit
has an equal chance of being selected, for example in a raffle every individual has an
equal chance of being the winner.
■ Stratified sampling – this entails choosing a unit using the simple random method
from each group within a population, for example if you have the school as a
population then groups may refer to forms/classes; thus one would do simple
random sampling from each year group.
■ Cluster sampling – the sample is obtained by selecting clusters (groups) from the
population on the basis of simple random sampling, for example all high schools
in your territory are clusters; you want five schools, which you choose randomly
through simple random selection. All students in those schools must be interviewed.
■ Systematic sampling – in this type of sampling the initial choice is made randomly
and then, using evenly spaced intervals, the other choices are selected. For example,
in a list of 100 names the 100 may be divided into groups of 10 then a number
between 1 and 10 may be chosen, for example 6, and number 6 in each group
becomes part of your sample.
■
Of course you will need to consider which method of data collection best suits the
purpose and breadth of your research.Your research proposal should guide you and your
advisor as to which method/methods are best suited. The time you have allotted to
acquiring your data will also impact on your choice. When you attempt in-depth research
you may want to triangulate; that is use three different methods of data collection to
ensure validity.
143
144
UNIT 3: INTERPRETING COMMUNICATION
Here are the strengths and weaknesses of the methods of acquiring data:
Table 9.1
Comparison of data
collection methods
Method
Strength
Weakness
Questionnaires
Can reach large numbers
Sometimes respondents
reply without real thought
Face to face interviews
Interviewer can clarify responses.
Interviewees tend to be honest.
Time consuming
Phone interviews
Can clarify responses
Time consuming
Observation
Actually records actions of persons
Time consuming/tiring
9.5 Reliability and validity
In the same way that there is reliability and validity of measuring instruments, there is also
the question of reliability and validity of sources and data.
Reliability
What does reliability mean? When you engage in secondary research you must be careful
to read and therefore cite from research or articles that are authoritative and scholarly.
Especially when doing research online, you must be aware that not everything on the
Internet is worthwhile; therefore it is important to evaluate your sources. This means
that you must determine to what extent your sources can be trusted to provide true and
accurate information.
The author or speaker must be evaluated by you to determine whether that person
has expertise in the subject matter. For example, an article written about Leptospirosis (a
disease carried by rats) would be considered reliable written by the Chief Public Health
Officer since he/she is an expert in health. His/her authority in the subject area would
not be questioned. The article should rely on data collected in the field and statistics
collected over a period of time. An opinion expressed by a talk show host or caller would
not be considered as reliable as the expertise of such would be in question. A speech
made by the shadow Minister of Health decrying the upsurge of rats under the present
administration and lacking figures and statistics should raise some flags in the researcher’s
mind because the speaker’s role is to persuade the public
of the Government’s ineptitude. The speaker can therefore
ACTIVITY 9.3
be deemed as politically biased.
The researcher should also look closely at the context
You are doing some research on voter
of the research. An article on women’s role in twentieth
participation in the last election. Put a tick next
to the sources that would be considered reliable
century politics should only use data on seventeenth and
in this instance:
eighteenth century to show a contrast but not to illustrate
• The local newspaper
the twentieth century experience.
• The leader of the Opposition political party
Another aspect of reliability looks at the text of the
• The Prime Minister
speech or article. It is important to check for factual
accuracy. Is what is said true? Can it be checked?
• The Electoral Office
Information is given in magazines, newspapers and
• The poll clerk in your polling station
especially on the Internet that is inaccurate. Go on the
• The Statistics Department.
Internet and check for some of the writers from the
CHAPTER 9: RESEARCHING INFORMATION
Caribbean and you will see that their birthplaces are sometimes listed incorrectly. The text
should also be checked for its logical structure and cogency. Does the writer present a
logical argument or is it flawed? Furthermore is the point of the article made clear or does
one have to make inferences?
In carrying out primary research, the source of your information must also be reliable.
The individuals that you choose or the sources of data must also be seen as relevant to the
research and having the information that could assist in your being able to come to some
definitive response about the research question.
Validity
Validity refers to the soundness of the research that has been undertaken. In research
there is quite a bit of concern about validity. There is concern with validity of design and
validity of the methods of research. There is also concern about the findings and what
they represent.Validity can be divided into internal and external validity.
Internal validity relates to whether there are flaws in the design of the research or the
methods of data collection. Of course, any one of these factors may lead to the findings
not being valid. There is an old saying that goes ‘if you start wrong you can’t go right’ and
this truly applies to research. In Chapter 7, you learnt that argumentative reasoning must
be based on valid premises or an argument would have no basis. Similarly, research that is
not based on a valid or logical design would carry little weight.
External validity looks at whether your findings can apply or be generalised to a larger
group or other situations. If your research has external validity, the findings can be generalised
to a larger group or similar research at a later time, therefore it can be replicated. However, lack
of external validity allows the research findings to represent
only that specific group at that specific time.
ACTIVITY 9.4
Validity can also be looked at in the sense of
authority and weight of the research. For example, does
1 You have been asked to research drug use in
schools. You use your school only.
the research have enough scope and depth to allow
it to be considered meaningful to anyone apart from
(a) Can the conclusions of your research
answer the research question?
the researcher him- or herself? Who is the individual
(b) Is this external or internal validity being
conducting this research and under what conditions?
questioned here?
Answers to these questions may well suggest to the
2 You are researching the use of alternative
reader that the research conducted is not significant
medicine in your island or territory. You use a
enough to qualify as an appropriate secondary source
survey (questionnaire) administered through the
or, if the researcher is truly critical of the research, he/
Internet (email). You use one Internet provider’s
she may conclude that there are holes in the research
email list as your sample.
as it may not measure what it set out to measure or the
(a) Is this a valid methodology to gain your
conclusions may not be seen as really answering the
sample of the population?
research question. In this way the researcher must at all
(b) Is this external or internal validity being
times strive for validity in research so that his/her time is
questioned here?
not wasted.
9.6 Evaluating sources
In all types of research the researcher needs to read on the subject matter. These secondary
sources will aid in making points or justifying the need for the topic to be researched. In a
145
146
UNIT 3: INTERPRETING COMMUNICATION
simple research paper the emphasis is on
evidence to support the thesis or main idea of
the essay. In an in-depth thesis or dissertation
the researcher will need a literature review as
well as evidence that substantiates or challenges
the conclusions of the research. But how
exactly does one evaluate these sources?
Here are some questions you might ask
when evaluating sources:
Fig. 9.3 Evaluating sources
1. Does the author have a bibliography at the end of the book/chapter/article?
This indicates the writer’s awareness of other research in the field.
2. Does the date of the article suggest that it is current or is the research dated?
A maximum of 7 years should indicate some level of currency.
3. Are the writer’s credentials cited? You would be best served by experts in the
field of your research.
4. Have you seen references made to the author in other documents you have read?
This of course points to the writer’s reputation.
5. Where is the article printed? Although we enjoy popular magazines these are
more often not the sources for serious research.
6. Does the publication have some implicit bias? For instance, an article against
stem cell research printed in a religious magazine must be carefully analysed
and scepticism should underpin acceptance of this source.
7. Is the Internet site I am on a reputable one? You need to take note of the
creators of the site for as you well know anyone can set up a site. The best
sites are those set up by universities and those with names that have .edu
and .gov. These are more often than not reputable. Those that end with .com
are probably not as good sites. Pay attention to the authoritative links that
take you to another site. This suggests that this site has been evaluated and
accepted as reputable.
8. There is a way to access evaluated sites and this is by using:
• The Internet Public Library www.ipl.org
• The Librarian’s Index to the Internet lii.org
• The Argus Clearing House clearinghouse.net
These sites have links to sites evaluated.
R. Markham et al.
CHAPTER 9: RESEARCHING INFORMATION
ACTIVITY 9.5
Read the following article and, using the guidelines provided above, evaluate it as a source for research on
’The effects of the Internet on young people’.
Helping youths meet the challenge
The world, its lifestyles, and its fads have always
undergone change. Largely because of modern
technology, changes are even more pronounced today.
What was in yesterday is out today, and what is popular
today will be obsolete tomorrow. These rapid changes
have a marked impact on young people.
A social revolution
In recent years, technology has sparked a revolution
that has had a profound effect on youths. For example,
in many lands the cell phone and the computer have
become a lifeline of the adolescent social world. Social
networking sites have opened up a whole new world
of possibilities. ‘You can be relatively friendless in real
life and then suddenly have hundreds of friends online,’
says a 19-year-old girl in Australia.
Few would deny that the cell phone and the Internet
have numerous benefits. For many people, however,
these tools seem to have become addictive. University
Professor Donald Roberts notes that some students
‘can’t go the few minutes between their 10 o’clock
and 11 o’clock classes without talking on their cell
phones.’ He says: ‘it seems to me that there’s almost
a discomfort with not being stimulated – a kind of ”I
can’t stand the silence”.’
Some youths even admit that they feel hooked. ‘I’m
totally addicted to instant messaging and my cell
phone, because they’re how I keep up with my friends,’
says 16-year-old Stephanie. ‘When I get home, I go
online immediately and stay on… sometimes till 3
a.m.’ Stephanie’s monthly phone bill is anywhere from
$100 to $500. ‘By now,’ she says, ‘I owe my parents
more than $2,000 in excess charges. But I’m so used
to having my cell with me all the time that I can’t live
normally without it.’
The problems can be more than financial. While doing
a study on family life, anthropologist Elinor Ochs found
that when a working parent came home, the spouse
and kids were often so absorbed in what they were
doing that two out of three times they did not even
say a greeting! They just kept on monitoring their
electronic gadgets. ‘We also saw how difficult it was
for parents to penetrate the child’s universe,’ says Ochs.
She adds that during the study parents were observed
actually backing away, retreating from kids who were
absorbed in whatever they were doing.
Online social networks – Harmless?
Many parents and educators are concerned about the
amount of time youths spend visiting what are called
online social networks. One problem that arises is that
some individuals create a Web-site persona that reflects
who they want to be rather than who they are. ‘There’s
a kid in one of my classes who says he’s 21 and lives in
Las Vegas,’ states a 15-year-old boy. Both youths live
about 1,600 kilometres from that U.S. city.
Such deception is quite common. ‘You can do anything
on the Net,’ confides an 18-year-old Australian girl.
‘You can become a whole different person because
no one really knows you. You feel confident. You
can make up things so that you seem to be more
interesting.
As with any mode of communication, online social
networks can have legitimate uses as well as potential
abuses. As a parent, do you know what your children
are doing online? Are you making sure that your
children are using their time wisely? (Ephesians 5:15,
16.) Furthermore, misuse of the Internet can expose a
youth to a number of serious dangers. What are some
of these?
The darker side of cyberspace
The anonymity of the Internet makes it a hunting
ground for child predators. Youths can unwittingly
become ensnared if they give out personal information
online or agree to meet a person with whom they have
been corresponding. Some people argue that ‘children
147
148
UNIT 3: INTERPRETING COMMUNICATION
face more serious threats of violence or abuse in their
own homes or on the playground,’ says the book
Parenting 911, ‘yet there is something insidious for
most parents about sexual provocateurs being able to
reach into their homes through a screen and tamper
with the innocence of their children.’
There are other ways communication technology
has been exploited. Some youths have engaged in
‘cyberbullying’ – relentless online teasing, ostracising,
harassing, or threatening. Web sites have been set
up purely to humiliate someone, while email, chat
rooms, and the like have become conduits for slander.
The director of an online safety group believes that
up to 80 per cent of children between the ages of
10 and 14 have been directly or indirectly affected
by cyberbullying.
In some cases, cell phones with a built-in camera have
been used to take rude and potentially embarrassing
photographs and videos, perhaps in a school locker
room or shower. These images have then been placed on
the Internet and sent to any number of eager recipients.
Yet, some parents know surprisingly little about what
their children are doing online. One mother, who
closely monitors her 16-year-old daughter’s online
activities, stated: ‘Parents would be absolutely horrified
and embarrassed if they knew what their children were
posting and discussing.’ According to an Internet safety
expert, some young people are posting photos that are
sexually very suggestive.
Negative effects
Is all this alarm merely the paranoia of over concerned
adults who have forgotten what it is like to be a
teenager? The statistics suggest otherwise. Consider: In
some areas, nearly a third of boys and girls between 15
and 17 years of age have had sexual intercourse. More
than half of teens between 13 and 19 say that they
have had oral sex.
Has technology contributed to these sobering statistics?
Undoubtedly. ‘Cell phones and the Internet, which
offer teenagers an unparalleled level of privacy, make
hooking up that much easier,’ says a New York Times
Magazine report. In one survey, more than four out of
five girls admitted that they are not as careful as they
should be online.
Some who are looking online for a date or a hookup
get more than they bargained for. ‘We have seen an
increase in sexual assaults,’ states Jennifer Welch of the
Novato Police Department in California. She says that
many victims first contact their future assailant online
and then agree to meet in person.
Beware of the ’Wisdom of the world’!
Teen advice columns in newspapers and magazines
tend to take a soft stance when it comes to young
people and sex. Although they give a nod of approval
to abstinence or moral purity their main goal is to
encourage ’safe’ sex rather than no sex. ’We can’t stop
them,’ the reasoning seems to be, ’so at least we can
teach them to be responsible.’
In an article posted on one respected Website for teens,
the issue of whether to have sex or not boiled down to
three factors: (1) the risk of pregnancy, (2) the risk of
contracting a sexually transmitted disease, and (3) the
importance of deciding if both parties are emotionally
ready for the experience. ’In the end, it’s your decision
to make,’ the site says. Only a passing reference is
made to discussing the matter with a parent. And there
was not even a mention as to whether such sex is right
or wrong.
If you are a parent, surely you want something better
than the fickle and foolish ’wisdom of the world’ to
guide your children. (1 Corinthians 1:20) How can you
help them to navigate their way through adolescence
and avoid the dangers discussed in this article? The
answer may not be as simple as unplugging the
computer or taking away the phone. Surface solutions
rarely reach the heart. (Proverbs 4:23) Consider, too,
that your children may be using such devices as the
cell phone and the Internet to address certain needs
that you as a parent may be able to address far more
effectively. What are some of these needs?
Awake!
CHAPTER 9: RESEARCHING INFORMATION
9.7 Acknowledging sources
Once you have found some reliable sources for your research you will need to make some
note of what others have said about the subject for use in your research paper.
There are various ways of capturing those ideas:
Direct quotation
■ Paraphrasing
■ Précis
■ Summary.
■
SEMESTERISATION
Direct quotation
Direct quotation, as the name
‘An expectation that the introduction of a semester
suggests, points to the use of
system would facilitate curriculum development
the writer’s exact words. If
within each discipline and across faculties’
you intend to use this type
of referencing then you must
be sure to quote exactly as
the writer phrases his/her
idea. Even punctuation marks
should be copied in place.
Use double quotation marks
for this way of referencing.
Fig. 9.4 An index card
In addition, make note of the
author, title of work and page numbers and publisher’s name, address and the year the
work was published. The best way to capture this information is by developing an index
card file with quotations you might use.
Paraphrasing
Long passages by the original author may contain fine ideas that cannot be captured by
direct quotation. The researcher must then in his/her own words capture the ideas of
the writer. It is imperative in paraphrasing to watch out for the tendency to slip into the
writer’s words as this may cause you inadvertently to plagiarise (see page 150). If you
want to discuss the lines of a poem you may also paraphrase rather than quote the lines.
Remember that paraphrases also need to be acknowledged, as you are still using
someone else’s ideas.
Précis
Here again the researcher must use his/her own words to capture the ideas of the original
writer. The précis is a careful rewrite of the original that maintains the style, point of view
and tone of the original without using the actual words of the original author.
(Markham et al. 2000)
Summary
This is also written in the researcher’s own words and summarises the general ideas in
long extracts or even a book. The researcher must still credit the author.
149
150
UNIT 3: INTERPRETING COMMUNICATION
Plagiarism
The most important thing to remember is the need to acknowledge all material quoted,
all material paraphrased and all material summarised. If this is not done, any
material borrowed from
another source constitutes
I don’t think you can really claim that Martin
plagiarism. Often, we do
Amis plagiarised your work just because you both
not mean to plagiarise but
used the words ‘to’, ‘if’, and ‘but’ on page 46.
another writer may say
something so well that we
put it into our own writing
without making the
necessary acknowledgement.
Also, a popular excuse is
that when we are about to
complete the final draft, we
cannot find the source of
the information and
therefore do not include it.
Nonetheless plagiarism
is a serious offence and
there are several ways of
Fig. 9.5 Plagiarism
avoiding it:
Ensure that any quotation that you copy while researching is documented for future
reference. Note cards or a note book are useful for listing these sources and quotes.
■ Remember that paraphrasing an author does not exempt you from acknowledging
the source.
■ Become so familiar with the subject area that you can tell the difference between what
is generally known and what is a specific writer’s view of a subject. The specific view
must be acknowledged.
■ Desist from using a line of argument presented by someone else without
acknowledgement.
■ If there is doubt in your mind as to the question of plagiarism, ask a classmate what
they think or, better yet, your teacher.
■
Plagiarism is a serious offence and can cause students to fail courses. In some
institutions, incidents of plagiarism may lead to academic probation. In fact it is treated in
the same way as cheating, as it is considered academic dishonesty.
9.8 References and bibliographies
You have reached the point where you are writing your essay, so what do you do with
the card files containing the quotes, the summaries, précis and paraphrasing? How do they
fit in to your actual text? The answer lies in the use of a preferred style guide. There are
various style guides for different academic fields.
■ APA – American Psychological Association manual
■ MLA – Handbook for Writers of Research Papers, the Modern Language Association
of America
CHAPTER 9: RESEARCHING INFORMATION
These are the two most widely used style manuals for research papers. Following are
examples on how to use the two style manuals to fit quotations into your research paper.
Presentation
elements
MLA
APA
Materials
Use good quality 8½ inch by 11
inch white paper.
Use good quality 8½ inch by 11 inch
white paper.
Font
Use a standard typeface and
typesize, such as 12 point Times
New Roman.
Use a standard typeface and typesize,
such as 12 point Times New Roman.
Identification
and pagination
Use a page header that includes
your last name and the page
number on the top right corner of
every page e.g. Jones 11.
Numbering should begin on the title
page, flush with margin on the right
and continue on each subsequent
page. The running head should be
on each page on the top left corner.
(Note the words ‘Running Head’ only
appear on the title page.)
Title page
MLA does not require a title page.
However the first page of your
paper should include your name,
your instructor’s/teacher’s name,
the course title, and the date on
separate lines against the left
margin. Centre the title of your
essay.
At the top left type the words
‘Running Head’, followed by a
shortened title of the paper no more
than 50 characters and in all capitals.
About half way down the page, centre
the title. Use capital letters for words
of four letters or more. Under the title
type your name and then the name of
your school.
Margins and
spacing
Margins should be 1 inch on all
four sides of each page. Double
space throughout the paper. Indent
a new paragraph ½ inch from the
margin. No additional spacing is
required between paragraphs.
Margins should be 1 inch on all four
sides of each page. Double space
throughout the paper. Indent a new
paragraph ½ inch from the margin. No
additional spacing is required between
paragraphs.
Headings
Table 9.2 Style
Guide: Presentation
Headings help to organise the text for
the reader. The main headings should
be centred and bolded. Capitalise the
initial letter of all words except articles,
short prepositions, and coordinating
conjunctions.
151
152
UNIT 3: INTERPRETING COMMUNICATION
Citation
elements
MLA
APA
In-text citations
Should be used after quoting,
paraphrasing or summarising.
State the author’s last name and
the page number in parentheses
without a comma, e.g. (Ross
127).
The format is last name of author,
year of publication, page number
of quote. When paraphrasing or
summarising an idea, include the
page number, e.g. (Ross, 2007,
p.127).
Block
quotations
Indent quotations longer than four
typed lines of prose or three lines
of verse. Indent the entire quote 1
inch from the set margin. Double
space the quote. Do not use
quotation marks. Put the full stop
before the citation.
Quotations that are 40 words or
longer need to be set apart in a block.
Double space and indent ½ inch from
the left margin. Do not use quotation
marks and place the final punctuation
before the in-text citation.
Citing indirect
sources
To cite information that your
source has taken from a different
source, put the original author
of the information in the text
and write ‘qtd in’ in your in-text
citation followed by the author
and page number of the work you
found the material in, e.g. (qtd in
Applewhaite 341).
To cite information that your source
has taken from a different source,
name the original source in your
introductory phrase, e.g. Educator
Joseph Inniss suggested that
‘Students need to be nurtured
even as they reach post-secondary
institutions’ (as cited in Applewhaite,
2009, p. 341).
List the secondary source in your
list of references and include in your
citation.
Listing works
cited
The works or sources cited in
the essay must appear in your
page/s under the heading ‘works
cited’. This is a new page and the
actual words ‘Works Cited’ should
be centred but not underlined or
punctuated. Note that only the
work you used appears in this list,
not everything you read.
Use alphabetical order of the last
name of the authors or editors to
arrange the list of works cited. If
there is no author/editor use the
first word of the title other than a/
an or the to place the work.
The hanging indent should be used
if your entry requires more than
one line.
The heading ‘References’ should
appear on a new page. The word
should be centred 1 inch from the top
of the page. The list should be double
spaced. Type the first line flush left
and any additional lines should be
indented ½ inch.
Use alphabetical order of the last
name of the authors or editors to
arrange the list of works cited. If there
is no author/editor use the first word
of the title other than a/an or the to
place the work.
Use initials instead of first names,
e.g. Mahabir, T.D.
CHAPTER 9: RESEARCHING INFORMATION
Table 9.3 Style
Guide: Citations
Web addresses
MLA requires the following for a
website citation: last name, first
name of author; title of website;
sponsor of site; update; medium;
date of access, e.g. Richards,
Michael. Coral Reefs. Barbados
Library Association. 2010. Web.
24 January 2012.
APA requires the following for
a website citation: Publication
information as for a print periodical.
Use the DOI (Digital Object Identifier)
instead of a URL. Only use a retrieval
date if you believe the article will
change.
Titles
Use italics for the titles of books
and other long works and for
websites. Use quotation marks for
the titles of articles, short stories
and poems.
Italicise the titles and subtitles of
books. Do not use quotation marks
around the titles of articles. Capitalise
only the first word of the title and
subtitle (and all proper nouns) of books
and articles.
It is advisable to check the various
sites available on the internet to assist you
in presenting your work using the correct
format. The formatting requirements are
constantly changing and therefore what
is presented above is only a guideline for
use at the date of publishing.
The style guide also aids in the
format of your bibliography. A
bibliography lists the books, journals,
articles read and Internet sites visited.
You must be particularly careful to
include the works cited in your paper.
However, all works read should really
appear in the bibliography.
• Cite as you would a printed source,
followed by a retrieval statement that
includes the Internet address or URL of
the article. Start it with the word Retrieved
and end with the Internet address/URL, for
example Richards, H.B.R. (2000). Change
management in the business environment.
Journal of the Caribbean Human
Resources Society, 10, 106-129. Retrieved
from http://www.chr.org/cat/
• When you retrieve an article from online
and you need to include it in your
bibliography you may use the above
example or go online and check your
preferred style at www.ehoh.com or any
reputable source for citing.
APA manual 6th ed.
Citing sources from the Internet
The typical student tends to simply
write, for example, http://www.junk.
com as a source in the bibliography.
However, more than the above is
required. The APA manual (6th ed.) suggests that you should do as shown in the box above.
Conclusion
This chapter introduced some basic concepts in research. As
you advance academically you will learn more about research
techniques. However, in writing research papers for this level of
study you may refer to the guidelines offered here to ensure a welldocumented, valid piece of writing. This chapter also offered a
means of ensuring that your sources are indeed the types that offer
the best information available. As you continue on to Chapter 10 you
will explore the different types of writing in the world of academics.
153
154
UNIT 3: INTERPRETING COMMUNICATION
Evaluation
and extension
3 Select articles from journals, magazines and
1 Write the bibliographical reference for this
4 Select one of the following topics to research.
text. Choose one Internet source and write the
bibliographical reference for that source. Use APA
or MLA.
2 Choose a research topic and, using your school
or district library, find two valid and reliable
sources that could provide information for your
research. Discuss with your classmates the
worth of your sources.
newspapers. In your group, discuss their
reliability as sources of information or data.
How credible is the author? Has he/she provided
evidence to support claims or conclusions?
Make a presentation on the topic to your class:
(a) The impact of HIV/AIDS on your society
(b) Human migration patterns in your territory
(c) Fashion trends among youth in your age group
(d) Themes in popular music.
References
Adams, R. (2007). Viewpoints. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, p. 274.
Coleman, V. (1993). Private Consultation with Dr Vernon Coleman: Stress and
Relaxation. London: Hamlyn, pp. 9–11.
Gay, L.R. & Airasian, P. (2000). Educational Research. New Jersey: Prentice Hall.
Golafshani, N. (2003). Understanding Reliability and Validity in Qualitative
Research. The Qualitative Report, 8(4), 597–606. Retrieved 20 April 2007 from
www.nova.edu/ssss/QR/QR8-4/golafshani.pdf.
Markham, R., Markham, P. & Waddel, M. (2001). 10 Steps in Writing the
Research Paper, 6th edn. Hauppauge, New York: Barron’s.
Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association, 6thedn. (2009).
Washington
Restak, R. (1988). The Mind. New York: Bantam Books, p. 48.
Watchtower Bible and Tract Society of New York Inc. and Watch Tower Bible
and Tract Society of Great Britain (2007). Helping Youths Meet the Challenge.
Awake! March, pp. 4–7.
155
End of Unit
Test 3
Read the passage below and answer the questions that follow.
Whatever else you do with your life you will always be
a consumer. To the people who make items as varied
as motorcars, refrigerators, underwear, indigestion
remedies, biscuits, coat hangers and kitchen sinks you
are a consumer. To lawyers, accountants, surveyors,
house agents and even doctors you are a consumer.
Modern advertising is a scientifically based creative art
which is designed to raise the intensity of your desires
and build your dissatisfaction and your fears. The
advertising copywriter is hired to create unhappiness.
Advertising is, in short, an industry which only works
when it puts you under unnecessary stress.
In order to persuade you to become a customer, the
people who provide these products and services spend
considerable amounts of money trying to convince you
that their products or services are better than anyone
else’s and are essential for a happy life.
Modern advertising is designed to make you dissatisfied
with anything which isn’t profitable. Advertising
copywriters want to take away your appreciation of the
simple things in life because they know that there is more
profit in making things more complicated, more expensive
and more unreliable. They want you to be in so much of
a hurry that you eat instant foods rather than growing
and preparing your own vegetables. They want you to
ride in a car rather than walk or ride a bicycle. They want
to make you feel guilty if you don’t smell right or don’t
buy the right breakfast cereal for your children. They want
you to feel a failure if you don’t have the latest clothes on
your back and the latest gadgets in your home.
Modern advertising agencies know (because they have
done the necessary research) that it is impossible to
sell anything to a satisfied man. But, in order to keep
the money coming in, the advertising agencies must
constantly encourage us to buy and they constantly
need to find better ways to sell us goods and services
that we do not really need.
Any fool can sell a product or a service that people
need. If your shoes wear out then you will buy new
ones or have the old ones repaired. If you are hungry
and there is only one restaurant for miles then that
restaurant will get your service. If your car is about to
run out of petrol then a garage doesn’t need to offer
you free products to get your custom.
As far as the advertising agencies are concerned, the
trick is to get you to buy shoes when you don’t need
to and to buy shoes that are more expensive than they
need be: to buy food when you are not hungry and to
fill your car with petrol long before its tank is empty,
simply because you are attracted by the offer that
accompanies a particular brand of fuel.
As far as the advertising industry is concerned, the basic
trick is to turn your most ephemeral wants into basic
needs. In order to do this advertising agencies use all
their professional skills to make you dissatisfied with
what you already have. They need you to be constantly
dissatisfied and frustrated.
Advertising is most successful when it persuades you
to forget your real needs and to replace them with
wants; there is no doubt that the advertising industry is
responsible for much of the sickness and much of the
unhappiness in our society.
Even if you don’t have the money to spend on new cars,
kitchen furniture, clothes and other goods so cleverly
advertised, you will not escape. Advertising, designed to
inflame your desires, will show you services you cannot
buy and things you cannot have. It will create wants and
then turn those wants into needs. Advertising creates
frustration and disappointment, envy and dissatisfaction.
If you are too poor to buy the things which are
advertised, you will never discover that the products on
offer are unlikely to satisfy the promises made for them.
Advertising is, without a doubt, one of the greatest
causes of stress and is one of the greatest of modern
threats to physical and mental health. Advertising
agencies kill far more people than do industries which
pollute the atmosphere.
V. Coleman
156
1 In one sentence, state the main idea of this passage.
(2 marks)
2 What are the intentions of the writer?
(4 marks)
3 (a) Identify and give examples of TWO devices of
argument or persuasion used by the writer.
(4 marks)
(b) Discuss the similarities between these devices and
those used by the advertising industry.
(4 marks)
4 List the six main points used by the writer to develop
his essay.
(6 marks)
5 Analyse the passage in terms of its reliability as a
source of data.
(4 marks)
Read the scenario below and answer the questions
that follow.
Your Caribbean Studies class has been given a
research project that counts for a large percentage
of your end of term grade. Your group has chosen
to research the incidence of sexual activity amongst
teenagers at your school.
Read the following passages and answer the questions
below each one.
What do fathers do? Partly, of course it is simply
to bring a second adult in the home. Bringing
up children is demanding, stressful and often
exhausting. Two adults can support and spell each
other; they can also offset each other’s deficiencies
and build on each other’s strengths. Beyond that,
fathers bring an array of unique and irreplaceable
qualities that women do not ordinarily bring. Some
of these are familiar, if sometimes overlooked or
taken for granted. The father as protector, for
example, has by no means outlived his usefulness.
And he is important as a role model. Teenage
boys without fathers are notoriously prone to
trouble. The pathway to adulthood for daughters is
somewhat easier, but they still must learn from their
fathers, as they cannot from their mothers, how to
relate to men. They learn from their fathers about
heterosexual trust, intimacy and difference. They
learn to appreciate their own femininity from the
one male who is most special in their lives (assuming
that they love and respect their fathers). Most
important, through loving and being loved by their
fathers, they learn that they are worthy of love.
R. Adams
l List THREE methods you might use to collect data for
your research.
(3 marks)
2 State THREE relevant questions that you may ask to
gain information /data for your research.
(3 marks)
3 State THREE sources you may draw on for
information /data for the research.
(3 marks)
4 Some of your group members feel that the findings
of this research apply to all teens in your country.
Explain to your group why this is not so.
(2 marks)
5 Explain how the research methods would have to
change to allow this research to have countrywide
application.
(4 marks)
Select the main idea from the choices below.
(1 mark)
(a) Fathers are very useful parents.
(b) The father’s primary role is that of protector.
(c) Fathers are important to the development of both
boys and girls.
(d) Fathers are capable of doing things that women
are unable to.
157
Scientists have known for years that all is not
quiet or quiescent within the womb. Intrauterine
recordings reveal the sounds of the mother’s
heartbeat along with muffled speech and sounds
from the environment. But important questions
remained unanswered. After birth will the newborn
recognise the sounds heard in the womb, perhaps
even prefer them over other sounds? Although
this was an intriguing possibility, there was no way
of knowing the answer until scientists developed
a way of measuring newborn preferences. The
breakthrough came with the use of a non-nutritive
nipple, which monitors the rate and amplitude of an
infant’s sucking.
R. Restak
1 Give definitions for the following: intrauterine;
quiescent; intriguing; amplitude
(4 marks)
2 Describe briefly how you think a non-nutritive nipple
might have been used by the scientists.
(4 marks)
3 In the original text, what do you think the next
paragraph dealt with?
(2 marks)
References: Unit 3 Additional reading
Bell, J. (2001). Doing your Research Project. Buckingham:
Open University Press.
Grant, P. (1997). Reading and Study Skills. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall Inc.
McWhorter, K. (2002). Reading Across the Disciplines: College reading and
beyond. Longman.
Newby, M. (1989). Writing: A Guide for Students. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
Smith, B. (2004). Breaking Through: College Reading, 7th edn. Longman.
Sullivan, H. & Sernoff, L. (1998). Research Reports: A guide for middle and
high school students. Connecticut: Millbrook Press.
Turabian, K. (1996). A Manual for Writers of Term Papers, Theses and
Dissertations, 6th edn. University of Chicago Press.
Zeuschner, R. (1997).Communicating Today. Allyn & Bacon.
4
Structuring
Communication
So far you have learnt what communication is,
how it works in society and how to interpret the
communication you receive. Deciphering information
requires receptive skills and the other side of
communication, which is conveying information,
requires productive skills. Whenever we speak, write
or gesticulate we are producing communication or
trying to convey a message. In order for that message
to be received clearly and interpreted by the receiver
in the way that we intend, we must be sure that it has
been structured appropriately. This unit explores the
ways in which we produce communication and how
the different forms of communication can be structured
and prepared for presentation to our audience
(whether listeners, readers or viewers).
Expected Learning Outcomes
On completing this unit, you should be able to:
1 produce different types of communication relevant to your social,
academic, professional and vocational needs
2 apply basic communication skills and principles to your communication
choices and behaviours
3 appreciate the use of speech and writing as mental and social processes
4 express yourself in speech and writing with precision, accuracy,
clarity and fluency
5 demonstrate competence in organising oral and written communication
6 use English structures correctly and appropriately.
160
UNIT 4: STRUCTURING COMMUNICATION
CHAPTER 10: SPEAKING
10
Speaking
It is difficult for most people (unless they are speech impaired) to imagine days
going by without using speech (or signing) as a means of communication. As
long as we are in social or interactive situations, the need for speech arises;
however, the type of speech required varies with each communication context.
Very often, the effectiveness of our communication depends heavily on how
well we can convey thoughts and messages through speech. Therefore it is
important to understand how to ensure that, whatever the communicative
context or purpose, we are able to speak clearly, choose our words carefully
and use the appropriate intonation in order to be good communicators.
The skills you learn in this chapter pertain to Module 3 and Specific Objectives 1, 4, 5,
6, 8, 9 and 10.
Expected Learning Outcomes
On completing this chapter you should be able to:
1 describe the various types of speaking
2 describe the mental and social processes involved in speaking
3 manipulate non-verbal elements and modes of speech
appropriate to specific purposes and audiences
4 speak in English on prepared and impromptu topics, using
appropriate verbal and non-verbal cues
5 use appropriate strategies for speech preparation
6 evaluate your own oral communication and that of peers,
according to set criteria.
Introduction
Can you remember a really outstanding talk or presentation that you attended? Which
aspect of that presentation made the greatest impression – the speaker’s delivery or the
content? Although a large proportion of our life is spent communicating through speech,
too frequently such communication is not very effective, often resulting in wrong ideas
being conveyed, or poor impressions of the speaker being formed. One clear example
where this may happen is in a job interview. The impression the interviewer receives of
you is dictated by your ability to communicate effectively. However, before you even
attempt to enter the world of work, you will be required to demonstrate proficiency in
public speaking.You may be called upon to present a paper in class, to attend a scholarship
interview, talk to your church or social group or you may be valedictorian as you graduate
from school or college.
Since most of the communication you engage in throughout life will be through
speech, it is important to take an objective look at the skills that characterise a good
161
162
UNIT 4: STRUCTURING COMMUNICATION
speaker and the strategies and techniques that assist in the delivery of different types of
speech. A good speaker is able to use the language tool to achieve any of the purposes
of language.
10.1
Basic speech skills
There are six basic speech skills that are key to the effective delivery of spoken
communication. These skills can be mastered only through consistent practice and frequent
self-evaluation. It is useful
to have a voice recorder
and a mirror when
practising, or you can
practise your skills with
your friends and ask for
their honest feedback.You
should not be self-conscious
or embarrassed about
trying to improve your
speaking ability. The most
powerful and influential
people in the world are
usually among those who
have mastered the basic
skills of effective speaking.
Fig.10.1 Do not be embarrassed about trying to improve your speaking ability
Articulation
This is the careful pronunciation of words and syllables, with specific regard to consonant
sounds. The articulators are the tongue, lips, teeth and palate. These are the points of
contact that enable us to produce the particular consonant sounds. Make the sounds of ‘k’,
‘l’, ‘th’ and ‘m’. Notice which articulators are used for each one. Proper articulation occurs
when all consonant sounds are pronounced clearly in the right places. Obviously, words
like ‘knife’ and ‘sight’ do not require you to pronounce every consonant. It is important to
remember that consonant sounds vary from one language to another. When speaking
English, sounds such as the second ‘t’ in ‘tourist’ and the ‘d’ in ‘send’ must be sounded
although they are not pronounced in the Creole. Similarly the ‘th’ consonant blend is
difficult for many speakers (including native English speakers) and needs to be practised.
Enunciation
This is the careful pronunciation of the
vowel sounds in words and syllables. The
articulators do not have to touch each other
for us to produce these sounds. Try making
the sounds of ‘e’, ‘o’, ‘u’, ‘i’ and ‘a’. Notice
how you produce these sounds. Notice also
that each vowel has more than one possible
sound. Proper enunciation requires clear
ACTIVITY 10.1
Practise saying these:
ship
fit
gun
sheep
pan
gone
did
pun
feet
deed
CHAPTER 10: SPEAKING
differentiation between separate vowels as well as between the two sounds of each vowel.
Your listener should be clear as to whether you are saying, ‘paper’ or ‘pepper’, ‘pin’ or ‘pen’,
‘potent’ or ‘portent’. Activities such as saying tongue twisters, recitation or choral speaking
are very useful in practising both enunciation and articulation.
Voice control
This is the ability to regulate and modulate your voice so that your words are audible and
your tone conveys the intended message. It is important to regulate the tempo or speed of
your speech to aid the understanding of your listener. Speaking too quickly can interfere
with articulation and enunciation, while speaking too slowly may well bore your listeners.
The volume of your voice also needs to be adjusted to suit the specific occasion. It
would be ridiculous to conduct an intimate conversation with someone that is clearly
audible to other people several feet away. Conversely, nothing is more annoying to a
listener than having to strain to hear the person addressing him or her.Your setting or
environment normally dictates how loudly or softly you speak.
The pitch/tone of your voice is another aspect to be modulated or adjusted.Your
tone conveys emotional and social information to your listener. It can indicate whether
you are angry, sad or excited and your listener can also get the impression that you are
superior, submissive or unsure from your tone. A loud, strident tone is usually interpreted
as aggressive, whereas softer tones are considered non-threatening. Since the quality of
your voice influences the impressions that your listeners form of you, listening to yourself
is a good idea. Record your voice when you speak in class or other situations and listen to
it.You may be surprised at how others hear you.
Usage
This refers to employing the correct grammatical structures when speaking, as well as
using structures that are appropriate to your audience and the purpose of your speech.
(See Chapter 13 for a review of common grammatical errors.) Remember that language
can be correct but inappropriate. For instance, if you were giving a talk to a kindergarten
class on the importance of keeping their surroundings clean, you would need to use
simple rather than complex sentence structures.
Disposing of your rubbish in the receptacle
provided is of paramount importance, not only to you, but
also to your colleagues, since the environment is a collective one,
and you are likely to develop a myriad illnesses from
unhygienic surroundings.
Fig. 10.2 You may end up alienating your audience
163
164
UNIT 4: STRUCTURING COMMUNICATION
Word choice
The words you use when speaking should be appropriate to the audience as well as to
the occasion or you may end up alienating your audience. For example, unless you were
addressing a group of computer savvy people, you would not throw in words like core
processors, teraflop, macros or search engine optimisation if there was no way of clearly
explaining them.You should also ensure that you do not use words that are socially
inappropriate or vulgar.
Audience–speaker rapport
Effective communicators work on developing a relationship
with their audience. This does not mean that you have to
know your audience personally but that, whatever you do,
you need to have your audience in mind. Therefore, even
before you give a speech, during your preparation phase, you
must think of your audience. This starts with the selection of
material that is of interest to your audience. Capturing the
interest of your audience is the first step towards developing
a good rapport with them. Second, you need to monitor
your audience’s reactions throughout your speech and make
the necessary adjustments to your content, word choice
or voice modulation. Look out for signs of boredom or
distraction, like fidgeting or most people not looking at you.
Sometimes just making a dramatic pause or changing your
tone of voice can make a difference. It is also important
to look at your audience in order to engage them. Avoid
focusing on the wall at the back of the room or looking
The speech was almost interesting.
up at the ceiling. Make eye contact with individuals as
People began to sit up and fake interest.
you speak. Establishing a good rapport with your audience
generates positive feedback from them, which in turn
Fig. 10.3 Audience–speaker rapport
energises you as a speaker.
Dress
Have you ever attended a lecture and found yourself focused on what the speaker was
wearing rather than what they were saying? Whenever we are planning for an interview
or speaking engagement we should pay special attention to how we dress. Is our clothing
appropriate to the occasion? Do our clothes fit well? Not to tight? Not dropping below
our hips? Is the colour sending the right message? As you learnt in Unit 1, dress is a form
of non-verbal communication. We should always remember that when presenting a speech
the non-verbal cues are as important as the verbal.
10.2
Preparing speeches
There is no greater threat to an oral presentation than inadequate preparation.
Unfortunately this aspect is often underrated and done hurriedly. Preparation is key to
the eventual success of your presentation and should be approached in a logical, sequential
manner. The following eight-step approach on page 165 can be used:
CHAPTER 10: SPEAKING
Did you
know?
Fear of public
speaking is
one of the
most common
phobias and
ranks higher
than the fear
of death.
10.3
1 Determine your purpose – will your speech be to entertain, inform or persuade?
Your speech may have more than one purpose.
2 Select a topic for your speech – it is best to select a topic that you know about or one
that you are very interested in and would like to know about. If you are not interested
in your topic then your audience will not be either. A speaker’s level of enthusiasm for
the topic can easily be detected by his/her audience.
3 Research your topic – find out everything you can on the subject.You need to
know more about it than you will tell your audience.You must appear authoritative,
knowledgeable and in control of your material.
4 Consider your audience – what are they likely to be interested in? You will not be
able to put everything you know about a subject into a speech, so understanding your
audience enables you to streamline and select the aspects most appealing to them.
5 Using the audience-centred approach – plan your speech. Write your central idea and
outline the main points. Decide which information from your research you will use to
support your points. No matter how short it may be, ensure that your speech has
(a) an introduction, (b) a body and (c) a conclusion.
6 Write out your speech so that you can practise it. Then make an outline with just your
main points. This is what you will speak from.
7 Select your visual aids if you intend to use them. Make sure that they are pertinent to
your topic and that they enhance rather than distract.
8 Rehearse your speech – use a mirror to monitor your body language and a voice
recorder to evaluate your vocal impact.
Components of the speech
Introduction
Often, the most difficult part of
preparing for a speech is planning
your introduction. The introduction
usually determines whether your
audience is going to sit up and pay
attention or begin to tune you out.
It must characterise you as someone
with something important and
interesting to say and the audience
must know what you are going
to talk about; however, under no
circumstances should you begin
with, ’The topic of my speech is ….’
Essentially, the introduction has three
major roles: to attract the listener’s
interest, to place the topic in context
for the listener and to deliver a
speech-focusing statement.
Fig. 10.4 A rambling introduction
165
166
UNIT 4: STRUCTURING COMMUNICATION
There are several types of speech openers
that can be used to catch the audience’s
interest. However, whichever one you
select must be intrinsic to your topic. For
example, if you decide to begin with a
question, it should be answered by the end
of the speech and if you begin with a
quotation, it should be elucidated or
illustrated during your speech. There are
some examples of openers on the right.
Once you have the attention of
the audience, you need to move your
introduction towards your exact topic by
first giving some general background or
contextual information, then zooming
in on the specific aspect(s) on which
you will be speaking. The final part of
your introduction is the speech-focusing
statement. This tells your audience exactly
what you will be talking about and in
what order.
Example
1. Ask a rhetorical question.
Example: Did you know that each
night, two hours of your sleep is spent
dreaming?
2. Use humour.
Example: We all know that the only
reliable way to predict the weather is
by washing your car.
3. Use a startling statement.
Example: By the time I have finished
my speech, 1500 children will have
died from hunger.
4. Open with a quotation.
Example: The famous writer Mark
Twain once said, ’Every time you stop
a school, you will have to build a jail.’
We all know that the only reliable way to predict rain is by washing your
vehicle. However, for centuries, human beings have tried to accurately
forecast weather systems, in an effort to plan agricultural or social events,
or simply in a vain attempt to gain some control over our environment.
Today, we can make more informed decisions on our activities largely
because the science (or art) of weather forecasting has become more
precise and dependable. Modern weather forecasting depends on a
combination of computer models, observation, and knowledge of trends
and patterns.
The body
The body of your speech develops your main points. It is where you carry out the
promise made to your audience in the introduction. Unlike a written piece that your
reader can peruse at will, savour slowly or return to several times, your speech must
accomplish your purpose within a given time. Therefore it must be carefully constructed
to deliver precisely the amount of information you intend, in a way that enables the
audience to comprehend easily, without having to tune out some parts while they try to
make sense of others.Your challenge is to keep the audience alert and interested while you
convey your points clearly. The approach you take towards constructing your speech will
depend on the type of speech and its purpose.
If you are telling a story, you will want to build suspense in your audience towards a
climactic point or the most dramatic part and then give the resolution or outcome.You
would also need to use highly descriptive language to keep the pictures in the audience’s
minds moving along with the story and to maintain the mood.
CHAPTER 10: SPEAKING
Conclusion
Your conclusion is perhaps the most important part of your speech, since this is the last
part of your message that your listeners will hear. This is the point at which you want your
audience entirely in agreement or having fully understood.Your main task in the conclusion
is to solidify their memory of the ideas you have put forward.You must summarise the main
points of your speech (remind your audience of what you have said). The main idea or thesis
should be clearly restated in your conclusion.You should also think carefully about the kind
of mood or frame of mind with which you would like to leave your audience. This will help
you to decide if you want to end by challenging your listeners to questions, appealing for
further action, or leaving them with food for thought in your last sentences.
10.4 Types of speech
Informative
The informative speech draws on some of the techniques used in narration. The facts
that you present must be brought alive in the minds of the audience. Simply giving out
information by listing facts will bore an audience. An effective approach would be to
present the facts in a descriptive manner by using analogies or comparisons and turning
your facts into pictures. For example, if you say, ‘Imagine that every minute an entire class
of students dies and every hour an entire school dies. That is the rate at which children are
dying of hunger worldwide,’ this gives your audience a better picture of what the actual
numbers mean when you give the statistics.
When giving a demonstrative speech, you should use the chronological or sequential
approach to ensure that the aspects of a process or item are presented in a logical order
that helps the audience in memorising them.You may also use a cause–effect method,
where you systematically show how one thing results in another.
The informative speech relies very heavily on careful and systematic construction,
since your audience is expected to learn or understand how things work or how to do
something. Structuring your information from the least to the most important points
(climax order) or vice versa (anti-climax order) enables your listeners mentally to list or
scaffold your points as you speak. Providing your audience with ordered structures helps
to keep them alert because their minds are busy filing this neatly packaged information.
Persuasive
The secondary purpose of these speeches can be to inspire, motivate, criticise or condemn;
however, their main purpose is to elicit some changes in the minds, values, attitudes,
beliefs or behaviours of the listeners. Therefore, the success of the persuasive speech would
be based on the degree to which the speaker is able to achieve the desired change.
First, a very effective way of influencing your audience is by use of repetition. It is
often said that, if one hears something often enough, one begins to believe it. Repetition
is a powerful persuasive tool. It creates emphasis and hammers home your points.
Second, you can use rhetorical questions to keep the attention of the audience and
suggest the absurdity of what you are persuading them against. Rhetorical questions
force the listener to respond mentally in a predictable way. They are not designed to elicit
debate, but to provide the stimulus for the only response that you are expecting.
Third, using language that appeals to specific emotions in your listeners is another
effective way of making them feel strongly about your position.
167
168
UNIT 4: STRUCTURING COMMUNICATION
ACTIVITY 10.2
Dramatise the extract below. Pay attention to the ways in which the speaker, Anthony, tries to influence his
audience, the plebeians. Then answer the questions that follow:
William Shakespeare
1. Pleb. This Caesar was a tyrant.
3. Pleb. Nay, that’s certain.
70
2. Pleb. If thou consider rightly of the matter, Caesar
has had great wrong.
We are blest that Rome is rid of him.
3. Pleb. Has he, masters?
2. Pleb. Peace! Let us hear what Antony can say.
I fear there will a worse come in his place.
Ant. You gentle Romans,–
4. Pleb. Mark’d ye his words? He would not take the crown;
All. Peace, ho! Let us hear him.
Therefore ’tis certain he was not ambitious.
Ant. Friends, Romans, countrymen, lend me your ears; 75
I come to bury Caesar, not to praise him.
1. Pleb. If it be found so, some will dear abide it.
The evil that men do lives after them,
3. Pleb. There’s not a nobler man in Rome than Antony.
The good is oft interred with their bones;
4. Pleb. Now mark him; he begins again to speak.
So let it be with Caesar. The noble Brutus
Ant. But yesterday the word of Caesar might
Hath told you Caesar was ambitious.
Have stood against the world; now lies he there,
80
2. Pleb. Poor soul! His eyes are red as fire with weeping.
If it were so, it was a grievous fault,
And none so poor to do him reverence.
And grievously hath Caesar answer’d it.
O masters! If I was dispos’d to stir
Here, under leave of Brutus and the rest,
Your hearts and minds to mutiny and rage,
(For Brutus is an honourable man,
I should do Brutus wrong, and Cassius wrong,
So are they all, all honourable men)
85
I will not do them wrong; I rather choose
He was my friend, faithful and just to me;
To wrong the dead, to wrong myself and you,
But Brutus says he was ambitious,
Than I will wrong such honourable men.
He hath brought many captives home to Rome,
But here’s a parchment with the seal of Caesar;
90
Let but the commons hear this testament,
Did this in Caesar seem ambitious?
Which, pardon me, I do not mean to read,
When that the poor have cried, Caesar hath wept;
And they would go and kiss dead Caesar’s wounds,
Ambition should be made of sterner stuff:
And dip their napkins in his sacred blood,
Yet Brutus says he was ambitious
Yea, beg a hair of him for memory,
And Brutus is an honourable man,
And, dying, mention it within their wills,
You all did see that on the Lupercal
Bequeathing it as a rich legacy
I thrice presented him a kingly crown,
Unto their issue.
Which he did thrice refuse. Was this ambition?
4. Pleb. We’ll hear the will. Read it, Mark Antony.
Yet Brutus says he was ambitious,
All. The will, the will! We will hear Caesar’s will!
100
And sure he is an honourable man.
Ant. Have patience, gentle friends; I must not read it.
I speak not to disprove what Brutus spoke,
It is not meet you know how Caesar lov’d you.
But here I am to speak what I do know.
You are not wood, you are not stones, but men;
You all did love him once, not without cause;
And being men, hearing the will of Caesar,
What cause withholds you then to mourn for him?
105
125
130
I found it in his closet; ’tis his will.
Whose ransoms did the general coffers fill:
95
120
Who, you all know, are honourable men.
Come I to speak in Caesar’s funeral.
And Brutus is an honourable man.
115
135
140
145
It will inflame you, it will make you mad.
O judgment, thou art fled to brutish beasts,
’Tis good you know not that you are his heirs;
And men have lost their reason. Bear with me;
For if you should, O, what would come of it?
My heart is in the coffin there with Caesar,
4. Pleb. Read the will! We’ll hear it, Antony!
And I must pause till it come back to me.
You shall read us the will, Caesar’s will!
1. Pleb. Methinks there is much reason in his sayings. 110
Ant. Will you be patient? Will you stay awhile?
150
CHAPTER 10: SPEAKING
I have o’ershot myself to tell you of it.
That day he overcame the Nervii.
I fear I wrong the honourable men
Look, in this place ran Cassius’ dagger through;
Whose daggers have stabb’ed Caesar; I do fear it.
4. Pleb. They were traitors. Honourable men!
See what a rent the envious Casca made:
155
Through this the well-beloved Brutus stabb’d;
All. The will! – The testament!
And as he pluck’d his cursed steel away
2. Pleb. They were villains, murderers! The will!
Read the will.
Mark how the blood of Caesar follow’d it,
If Brutus so unkindly knock’d or no;
160
For Brutus, as you know, was Caesar’s angel.
And let me show you him that made the will.
Judge, O you gods, how dearly Caesar lov’d him.
Shall I descend? And will you give me leave?
This was the most unkindest cut of all;
All. Come down.
For when the noble Caesar saw him stab,
2. Pleb. Descend.
3. Pleb. You shall have leave.
185
Ingratitude, more strong than traitors’ arms,
165
Quite vanquish’d him: then burst his mighty heart;
4. Pleb. A ring! Stand round.
And in his mantle muffling up his face,
1. Pleb. Stand from the hearse! Stand from the body!
Even at the base of Pompey’s statue
2. Pleb. Room for Antony, most noble Antony!
(Which all the while ran blood) great Caesar fell.
Ant. Nay, press not so upon me; stand far off.
All. Stand back! Room! Bear back!
180
As rushing out of doors, to be resolv’d
Ant. You will compel me then to read the will?
Then make a ring about the corpse of Caesar.
175
190
O, what a fall was there, my countrymen!
170
Then I, and you, and all of us fell down,
Whilst bloody treason flourish’d over us.
O, now you weep, and I perceive you feel
195
The dint of pity. These are gracious drops.
Kind souls, what weep you when you but behold
Our Caesar’s vesture wounded? Look you here!
Here is himself, marr’d as you see, with traitors.
1. Pleb. O piteous spectacle!
200
2. Pleb. O noble Caesar!
3. Pleb. O woeful day!
4. Pleb. O traitors! Villains!
1. Pleb. O most bloody sight!
2. Pleb. We will be revenged.
205
All. Revenge! – About! – Seek! – Burn! – Fire!
Fig. 10.5 Scene from Julius Caesar
– Kill! – Slay!
– Let not a traitor live.
Ant. If you have tears, prepare to shed them now.
Ant. Stay, countrymen.
You all do know this mantle. I remember
1. Pleb. Peace there! Hear the noble Antony.
The first time ever Caesar put it on;
’Twas on a summer’s evening in his tent,
210
William Shakespeare
1 What is the Plebians’ initial opinion of Caesar? At which point does it begin to change?
2 What do you believe are Antony’s intentions when he begins his speech?
3 Identify the main persuasive devices used by Antony.
4 Why do you think Antony (i) pauses during the speech and (ii) hesitates to read the will?
5 What actions / body language accompany his speech between lines 172 and 185? What do you think is his
final action in line 199?
6 Which parts of the speech are ironic and why?
169
170
UNIT 4: STRUCTURING COMMUNICATION
Debates
A debate is a formal method of interactive argument. It requires a presentation of two
sides of an argument in a structured manner, following specific rules of conduct. Debating
a topic does not mean that you necessarily believe or agree with the side you are arguing.
In fact, you may personally believe quite the opposite. A debate is actually a demonstration
of your knowledge of a topic, using logical reasoning, language techniques and delivery
skills. The debate topic is sometimes referred to as a moot and is presented as a statement
or a claim that something is true.
Debating is a team activity. The proposing or affirmative team is expected to prove why
the topic is true while the opposing or negative team does the opposite. Most debating
models require three members on each team with the following roles:
Proposing team
Opposing team
1st affirmative (team leader)
1st negative (team leader)
■
■
■
■
■
defines the topic
presents the team position
briefly outlines what each speaker will talk
about
presents the first half of the affirmative case
■
■
■
■
2nd affirmative
2nd negative
■
■
■
■
■
reiterates the team’s position
rebuts the main points presented by 1st
negative
presents the second half of the affirmative
case
■
reiterates the team’s position
rebuts the other main points of 1st
affirmative and some of 2nd affirmative
presents the second half of the
negative case
3rd affirmative
3rd negative
■
■
■
■
■
■
reaffirms the team’s position
rebuts all remaining points of negative’s case
summarises the affirmative’s case
concludes the affirmative’s case
■
■
Table 10.1 Roles in
a debate
accepts, qualifies or rejects the
definition used by the affirmative
presents the negative team position
briefly outlines what each team
member will say
rebuts a few of the main points of the
first affirmative speaker
presents the first half of the negative
case
reaffirms the team’s position
rebuts all remaining points of the
affirmative’s case
summarises the negative’s case
concludes the case for the negative
NB: No new points can be introduced by the third speakers
In some models, the debating team comprises two members and the team leaders speak
at the end to do the final rebutting and conclusion.
Much of a debate consists of rebuttal or showing why the other side is wrong. This
requires quick thinking and is the most challenging part of debating. If you have done
extensive research and preparation of your topic, you would have already anticipated
what points your opponents are likely to put forward and this will assist your rebuttals.
Rebuttals should be logically done so as to dismantle the opposing point. Under no
circumstance should you make personal references to, or criticisms of, your opponents.
Debating etiquette requires you to be courteous to the opposing side. Remember a
debate is not a quarrel.
CHAPTER 10: SPEAKING
A debate is judged according to the following:
ACTIVITY 10.3
In groups, research the following topics and list points to
support their affirmative and negative sides.
1 A unified Caribbean will always be a myth.
2 Capital punishment has no place in a civilised society.
3 The United Nations is a failure as an organisation and
should be dissolved.
4 The worst drugs are already legal.
5 There is no difference between a terrorist and a freedom
fighter.
6 Computer games do more harm than good.
7 It is impossible to have a world at peace; human beings are
confrontational by nature.
8 It is morally acceptable to experiment on non-human
animals to develop products that benefit human beings.
9 Democracy is not really the best form of government.
10 Examinations measure nothing useful and should be
replaced with other forms of assessment.
10.5
1 Matter: The substance of the speech;
the types of example and supporting
argument used.
2 Method: The organisation of your
speech; the unity of the team, logical
presentation of the arguments.
3 Manner: How you present your speech;
voice, audience rapport, body language;
no dependence on a written speech.
Delivering your speech
For some people this is the most difficult
part of the process because it means
putting themselves at the mercy of an
audience. The best way of building your
confidence is making sure that your speech
is well rehearsed. This means practising
in front of your mirror and recording
your speech to listen to yourself. Practise
your gestures, pauses and posture. Use a
dictionary to check your pronunciation
and word usage.Your aim should be to
know your speech well enough that you
do not need to read it. Reading your
speech makes delivery more difficult
because it is harder for your audience to
feel involved with you. It is also difficult
for you to monitor your audience’s
response and maintain eye contact.
Speaking entirely from memory can also
be risky, unless you are very comfortable
with public speaking and not prone to
loss of concentration. When reciting
from memory you also run the risk of
Fig. 10.6 Fear can be a problem
Fig. 10.7 Be yourself
171
172
UNIT 4: STRUCTURING COMMUNICATION
sounding robotic and monotonous especially if you are concentrating on remembering
your speech. The best option is using notes that give you cues to your points, so you need
only to glance down periodically. Avoid stapled pages since they require you to turn them
obviously. Small note cards are simplest and least obtrusive. Do not write out your entire
speech on the cards.You need only your outline points to aid your memory and help you
keep to your organisation.
Example
Weather foreing
cast
s ingg
Weather
W
Weatherforecast
forecasting
1. Compute
r models
er models
1.1 1. Comput
Computer
models
Use
of infotion
rmation
Use
Useofofinforma
information
Info
from sates,llite
s, ballo,ons,
stations
weather
weather
stati
s atioons
st
ns
Info
Infofrom
fromsatellite
satellites,balloons
balloons,
weather
stations
How
thes
e
work
How
Howthese
thesework
work
2. Observation
tion
2.
22. Observa
Observation
Tool
T thermom
s:
thermom
e anemom
, anemome
om
barome
eter,eeter
ter,
, baroter
eter,eter
met
e er
Tools:
Tools: thermometer,
anemometer,
barometer
How
thes
e
work
How
Howthese
thesework
work
3. Tren
T ds
3.3. Trends
Trends
Cloud patterns
Cloud
Cloudpatterns
patterns
Duss&t &water
water vapour
Dust
Dust & water vapour
vapour
EndNothing
: Nothinggis isfoolproo
foolpproo
End:
End: Nothing is foolprooff f
Fig. 10.8 Using
note cards
Before facing your audience, make sure that your visual aids are attractive, useful
and will be clearly visible to the entire audience. While visual aids can enhance your
presentation and improve the ability of your audience to retain information, poor quality
aids frustrate your listeners and make them inattentive.
You should also check your personal appearance to ensure that you are well groomed
and appropriately attired for the occasion. A floor length ball gown would be as out of
place at a career lecture as would a pair of jeans and a vest at a eulogy.
Once you are in front of the audience, remember to breathe deeply to steady your
voice and slow your tempo. (Speaking quickly is a customary response to nervousness.)
Make eye contact with your audience before you begin and relax your facial muscles.
A smile puts both you and your audience more at ease. Avoid fidgeting or excessive
gesturing. Use pauses to allow your audience to react to a startling fact or to laugh at
a humorous line. Significant pauses can also effectively emphasise a point. Above all, be
yourself and let your personality come across to the audience.
CHAPTER 10: SPEAKING
ACTIVITY 10.4
Read the following extract and make a list of the author’s suggestions for successfully facing an audience.
Public speaking is being practised increasingly as a
broader range of people are being called upon to ’say
a few words’ before an audience. Many speakers are
seized with stage fright as they rise to their feet. The
way to conquer this is also the way to make good
speeches: Be prepared!
More and more people these days are finding
themselves having to speak in public. In addition to
the usual occasions when they may be asked to address
a club or other social body, the number of situations
in which they may be obliged to face an audience
has grown.
For instance, for many, delivering eulogies at funerals
is an important custom, and participants in wedding
ceremonies are often expected to say a few words.
Whereas at one time only senior managers made
presentations or speeches as part of their jobs, almost
anyone in today’s workplace may be called upon to talk
to an employee or client group, or similar gathering.
Executives who once thought they could spend their
lives quietly administering affairs are now asked to
speak before gatherings of financial analysts, regulators
and community leaders to explain corporate policies
and promote the interests of their industries. Public
speaking has been included in their job descriptions
whether they like it or not.
And many people don’t like it at all. Often the most
insincere line in a speech comes when the speaker
attests to what a pleasure it is to be there, when in
fact he/she would sooner be almost anywhere else on
Earth at that moment. Yet it is an absolute fact that
public speaking can be an absolute pleasure for both
the speaker and the audience if it is approached with
due care.
The first step to making good speeches is to subdue
one’s fear of appearing in public.
Perhaps the first thing a prospective speaker should
know about stage fright is that almost everybody in a
like situation has it. Shy people tend to think that their
shyness is ’worse’ than anyone else’s even as they try
to hide it. In fact, many others are just as shy, and are
hiding it just as well.
It may be reassuring to remind yourself that the
audience is naturally less conscious of your nervousness
than you are. The tremor in your voice might sound like
a jackhammer in your own head, but ask friends in the
audience about it afterwards, and they probably didn’t
notice it. Even if your nervousness shows, your listeners
usually are unlikely to object to it.
Overcoming fear and appearing confident
Once you resign yourself to a certain degree of
nervousness, then you can start practising some of
the physical techniques for controlling it. Chief among
these is deep breathing. The extra oxygen is soothing
and the deliberate pacing of your breaths causes your
heart-beat to slow down.
The physical actions entailed in loosening up before a
public speaking appearance resemble the warm-ups
athletes go through before entering a competition:
You wiggle your toes and fingers, rotate your head
and stretch your neck, move your jaw from one side
to the other.
People accustomed to talking to groups develop an air
of poise which can be invaluable in meeting strangers,
participating in gatherings, and exercising leadership.
Carnegie advised speakers to take a bold stand though
they may be quaking inside: ’Stride forth bravely, stop,
stand still, and act as if you loved it.’ If you remain
nervous, try not to show it. You can relieve the tension
unobtrusively by doing things like twisting your fingers
behind your back, wiggling your toes, or clasping a coin
in your fist.
You should dress for a speech in the same way as you
would dress for a wedding or any other social occasion.
Your clothes should be suited to the occasion. A
speaker’s dress should never be so incongruous, flashy
or glamorous that it distracts attention from what he/
she has to say.
173
174
UNIT 4: STRUCTURING COMMUNICATION
People who are inclined to make flamboyant gestures
should try to curb them slightly, mindful that they can
also take the audience’s mind off their basic message.
Gestures, of course, are a highly individualistic feature
of a personality, and you would look and feel awkward
if you tried to suppress them totally. But you should
not just let yourself go – instead, you should be
aware of your gestures, and try to use them to your
best advantage. If truth be told, some of the most
apparently passionate orators have their gestures under
complete control. Unless you are a comedian, you are
best-off to try to give yourself an air of quiet dignity. The
degree of respect you elicit for your personality is bound
to affect your audience’s respect for what you have
to say. So be yourself, but be a little better than your
normal self. If you normally tend to slur your words, for
instance, take care to pronounce every word precisely
and clearly. If you ordinarily talk fast, slow down.
You may be an inveterate slouch in your daily life, but
this is the time to hold your chest high, tuck in your
stomach, and press the back of your neck against your
collar. Apart from enhancing your physical presence,
this stance deepens the chest cavity, allowing you to
bring your breathing under better control.
People cannot do much about the pitch of their voices,
but they can learn to use their voices more expressively.
As in singing, breath control helps them to do this by
permitting variations in volume and intonation. Nothing
turns an audience off more completely than the
featureless droning of a voice speaking in monotone.
As far as public speaking is concerned, timing is
everything. Pauses at psychological moments, speedups and slow-downs, abrupt changes of pace – these
can make the difference between stimulation and
stupefaction.
The greatest cause of failure among speeches is not
stage fright or delivery technique or the appearance of
the speaker. If a speech fails, it is usually because it was
written at the last minute and delivered without ever
being rehearsed.
The speaker most likely to succeed is the one who
has put many long hours into preparation. The public
platform should hold no terrors for the person who
knows the subject and knows what he/she wants to say.
Self-confidence is half the battle in the public arena,
and it cannot be gained without hard work and
forethought. But it makes the effort all the more
worthwhile when you realise that the confidence
gained in making successful speeches can extend into
every aspect of your life.
Royal Bank of Canada
It is important to be able to evaluate your delivery. Feedback allows you to improve
your presentation skills. Just as you work with peers to evaluate your written work, you
should do peer evaluation of your speaking skills. The evaluation form on page 175 can
be used for this purpose. Remember to discuss the positive aspects of the presentation first.
CHAPTER 10: SPEAKING
Speech Evaluation Form
Speaker:
Yes
Topic:
1
Was the purpose of the speech clear?
2
Was the topic relevant to the audience?
3
Was the introduction interesting?
4
Were the main points well supported?
5
Were the speaker’s ideas logically developed?
6
Was the conclusion effective?
7
Did the speaker use an original approach to
the topic?
8
Was the level of language appropriate to the audience?
9
Were the grammatical structures correct?
10
Did the speaker appear poised?
11
Was the speaker fluent?
12
Did the speaker use effective information?
13
Did the speaker use appropriate body language?
14
Did the speaker establish good rapport with the
audience?
15
Did visual aids (if used) contribute to the
effectiveness of the presentation?
No
Comments
Overall evaluation
____________________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________________
____________
Table 10.2 Speech
evaluation
Conclusion
Like the other communication skills, effective speaking requires
practice and continuous self-evaluation. You have learnt the basic
skills to be developed and various strategies for structuring and
delivering what you say. You have also learnt that meticulous
preparation is key to successful delivery, which translates into
a positive communicative experience for speaker and audience.
Chapter 11 also looks at the importance of preparation and
appropriate structuring of communication, this time in written form.
175
176
UNIT 4: STRUCTURING COMMUNICATION
Evaluation
and extension
l In groups, paraphrase (write in your own words)
the extract from Julius Caesar on page 168 and
read your paraphrased version aloud. Does it
seem to have the same effect as the original?
Discuss this in your groups.
2 Collect samples of public speeches and examine
them to identify the speaker’s purpose and
devices. Try to obtain samples of recorded
speeches from your electronic media (GIS, radio
and television stations, Internet) and listen to
evaluate the speaker’s oral techniques.
3 Prepare a speech on one of the following topics
and present it to your class. Each speaker will be
evaluated using the Speech Evaluation Form
on page 175.
(a) Caribbean governments invested large sums
of money in preparation for the hosting of
the Cricket World Cup 2007. What are the
legacies of the tournament?
(b) ‘Women appear to be making progress in the
workplace at the expense of family life.’ Take
a position on this.
(c) The feature address at a youth rally, entitled,
‘Youth, builders of tomorrow’s world’.
(d) The advantages of travel.
(e) Conservation: Do we care?
(f) Designing schools for this century.
(g) The good life.
References
Dorsch, T.S. (ed.) (1975). Julius Caesar. New Arden Shakespeare. Methuen &
Co. Ltd, pp. 81–5.
Speaking in Public (1992) Royal Bank of Canada Letter Collection, 73 (6) Nov/
Dec, available at www.rbc.com/responsibility/letter/nov_dec1992.html.
CHAPTER 11: WRITING
11
Writing
Although on average we communicate less through writing than through the
other language arts (listening, speaking, reading), writing takes up a considerable
amount of our time as students and certainly in many professions later in life.
The codes of language that we follow when writing are stricter and less flexible
than those of speech, and writing has to be formally learnt. This means that
much attention must be paid to the art of writing and we must understand
how to communicate effectively regardless of the type of writing that we are
required to produce. In Unit 3 Chapter 7, we looked at types of writing from the
perspective of the reader. This chapter focuses on understanding the process of
writing for others and the differences among the various types of writing. You
will understand how to engage in a process that enables you to polish and refine
your writing so that it serves its purpose. You will also learn how to manipulate
various types of writing to maximise the effectiveness of your communication.
The skills you learn in this chapter pertain to Module 3 Specific objectives 3, 4, 5 and 10.
Expected Learning Outcomes
On completing this chapter, you should be able to:
1 describe the writing process
2 apply the writing process to written communication
3 engage in objective criticism of your writing
4 identify various forms of writing.
Introduction
Like speaking, writing allows you to structure your language in ways that enable others to
understand and relate to what you are trying to communicate. The primary goal of
writing is to convey a message. Whether you are writing for yourself or for others, you are
writing with a purpose in mind.You may be writing for yourself in order to express your
Fig. 11.1 Writing for oneself
177
178
UNIT 4: STRUCTURING COMMUNICATION
feelings or to organise information in a way that is more meaningful to you or you may
be exploring how much you know about a topic.
You may be writing for others for a variety of reasons: to inform, instruct, persuade
or to entertain. The characteristics of your writing depend on its purpose. Writing for
yourself is typically writer oriented while writing for others must be reader oriented. The
latter immediately raises questions such as ‘How should I structure this?’ ‘What will the
reader think if I use this word?’ ‘Which sequence would make it clearer to the reader?’
11.1 The writing process
Most writers know that good writing is carefully planned and well rehearsed. Sometimes,
writers create several versions of a text before they are satisfied that it conveys the message
that they want in the best possible manner. Authors plan, organise, draft, revise, edit and
proofread their work before they make it public. By engaging in these activities, they are
going through what is called the writing process. The steps of the process are as follows:
ACTIVITY 11.1
Think about the
following questions:
Have you ever sat
down to a writing
task and begun to
write immediately and
continuously?
Having written your
piece, were you
satisfied that it was
interesting, accurate
and clear to the
reader?
What do you normally
do before you begin to
write?
Fig. 11.2 The writing process
Notice that the writing process is not linear. Writers often repeat different steps of the
process, as needed, to complete the writing task satisfactorily. Of course, the circumstances
under which you are writing, determine the extent to which you can repeat, refine and
re-polish as well as the length of time you can spend on each step. If you are writing a
term paper, you obviously have more time to refine your work continuously than if you
are writing an essay that is due in two or three days. However, no matter what the time
CHAPTER 11: WRITING
frame, you should never compromise your use of the
writing process because this will affect the quality of
your writing.
Once you get into the habit of using the process, you
will be able to adapt it to the time available to you. Even
under examination conditions, you must go through an
abridged form of the process if you want to produce
answers that are clear, informative, well structured and free
of errors. During an examination, your use of the process
may be limited to three to five minutes of brainstorming
and jotting down a quick plan or notes and a minute or
two at the end for a quick review of what you’ve written.
The more you use the process, the easier it becomes and
the better your writing develops.
Did you
know?
The English word essay
comes from the French
verb essayer which means
to try or to attempt.
Pre-writing
This is the foundation stage of your writing and, like any foundation; it determines the
substance of your writing and the shape it will take.
Identifying the writing task
‘What am I being asked to do?’Your answer to this question determines the type(s)
of writing that are possible in the specific case, and the kind of critical thinking skills
necessary to accomplish the task. The main modes of writing and related critical thinking
skills are as follows:
Mode of writing
Related critical thinking skills
Descriptive
Tells how something looks, sounds, feels, acts,
smells or tastes.
Analysis through comparison/contrast or
classification, summarising
Narrative
Tells what happened over a period of time and
in what sequence, usually in combination with
descriptive
Summarising, sequencing, analysis
through cause and effect
Expository
Explains something, making it clear to the
reader. Uses techniques of comparison/contrast,
cause and effect, definition or classification
Table 11.1
Identifying the
writing task
Synthesising, analysing, interpreting,
drawing conclusions
Argumentative
Puts forward a statement as truth, which is
Drawing conclusions, rebutting, analysing
defended by the writer through reliable evidence through cause and effect
The way in which you prepare for writing, the approach that you select and how you
actually write your paper depend on the purpose of the writing task. Of course, a paper
can serve more than one purpose. Examine your topic closely and ask yourself:
179
180
UNIT 4: STRUCTURING COMMUNICATION
Is my purpose to:
Provide?
Report?
Summarise?
Analyse?
Interpret?
Discuss?
Define?
Evaluate?
Self-express?
Once you are clear about your purpose for writing, then the mode or type of writing
that you are meant to produce is also clear.
ACTIVITY 11.2
For each of the following questions/topics, identify the mode(s) of writing required.
1 Identify and discuss the risks associated with promiscuous sexual behaviour.
2 How would you respond to the statement: ‘Only team members themselves can be
blamed for the poor performance of a sporting team’?
3 Compare the main characters in A House for Mr Biswas and The Enigma of Arrival.
4 What constitutes the ideal school environment?
5 Write a report to your school principal on your geography field trip.
Identifying the audience
As in the case of oral communication, the nature of your writing is largely dictated by
your audience (in this case your reader/s).
Remember that the purpose of your writing is not handing
in an essay to your teacher, but addressing a specific audience.
For example, if you were asked to write an article for The
Compass, which is a yachting magazine, and one for Business
Focus, which is a commercial sector magazine, your audiences
would be distinctly different from each other. The more specific
your choice of audience is, the easier your decisions about the
characteristics of your writing will be.
The tone, style and structure must be carefully designed to elicit
the required response or to convey the intended message to the
target audience. A good writer establishes a relationship with his/her
readers.Therefore you should have a good idea of the characteristics
of those at whom your writing is aimed. These include their
general background, knowledge, experiences and possible points
of view.You should ask yourself the following questions:
Fig. 11.3 Identify the audience
Who are my readers?
■ What do I have in common with my readers?
■ How am I different from my readers?
■ What topics, details or approaches will interest my readers?
■ What level of language should I use?
■ What might be my readers’ typical reaction to this topic?
■ What might my readers already know about this topic?
■ What would my readers need to know?
■
The most significant task in your writing is establishing a rapport with your readers.
Your relationship with the reader is most often defined from the introductory paragraph,
CHAPTER 11: WRITING
which either directly or indirectly defines your audience.
Once you have identified your audience, you need to determine what the tone of your
writing will be. Essentially, your tone is your attitude towards the topic and reader. It
enables you to create a general atmosphere. As you learnt in Chapter 7, writing can vary
significantly in tone. A piece of writing can be humorous, sympathetic, indignant, sarcastic,
indifferent and so on. For academic writing, you should aim for a serious and
knowledgeable tone without being condescending or artificial.You may want to review
the section on identifying tone, in Chapter 7.
ACTIVITY 11.3
See if you can identify the intended audience in each case from the introduction
excerpts below:
1 Most stay-at-home mothers underestimate their economic contribution to the family.
2 The rising cost of textbooks is in direct correlation to the elevation of parental blood
pressure at the start of every academic year.
3 One should note, however, that exploring the islands calls for resourcefulness,
patience, the ability to adapt easily and no small amount of courage.
Determining information needed
All writing tasks require a certain amount of research, whether it is as simple as searching
your memory or as complex as administering and analysing questionnaires. In your
planning or pre-writing stage, you must determine how much information you will need
in addition to your personal experience, and which are the most likely or appropriate
sources of such information.Your identification of task and audience will largely
determine the type and amount of research you do. Regardless of the extent of research
that you intend to do, the first step is exploring what you know.Your own experience
often serves as a basis from which to build ideas. There are many useful techniques for
discovering the knowledge you possess about a topic. These include brainstorming, free
writing, clustering/mapping and using graphic organisers.
(i) Brainstorming or listing can generate a lot of information in a short time whether
you are working alone or with partners. Use the following steps:
■ Jot down all the words or phrases that come to mind as you think about your
topic. If you are working in a group, one member writes while the others generate
ideas. Do not consider whether ideas are good or bad; write down everything.
■ Look at the items you have jotted down and group them in ways that make sense
to you.
■ Think of a label for each group. Now you should begin to see possible points
of development for your topic. At this point you will also begin to think about
which areas of development would be more suited to your audience and purpose
and you may discard some groups.
■ Write a sentence about the label of each group.Your sentence should summarise
the main idea suggested by the group of words/phrases/ideas. Now you have a set
of topic sentences that you can organise and develop into paragraphs, using the
brainstormed ideas as supporting details. Remember that you do not have to use
all your brainstormed ideas in your composition.
181
182
UNIT 4: STRUCTURING COMMUNICATION
ACTIVITY 11.4
Look at the following example of a student’s brainstormed ideas on a topic. Keeping
the topic in mind, group the ideas and give each group a label. Write a sentence about
each one.
Causes and effects of water pollution
chemicals
population increase
weed killers
rivers
fertilisers
agriculture
diseased fish
human waste
toxic
Industry
environment
deforestation
sediment
aquatic animals
waterborne diseases
endangered turtles
recreation
human health
plastics
animals
viral transmission
pesticides
plants
acid rain
poor waste management
turbidity
garbage
sewage
(ii) Free writing allows you to generate a lot of information by writing non-stop for a
period of time.You focus on the topic and write quickly on it without stopping to
consider or edit what you have written. Continue writing for 5 to 10 minutes nonstop. Even if nothing specific comes to mind, force yourself to continue writing.
Look back over what you have written and highlight the most interesting ideas.You
can use these ideas to generate more free writing and go through the process again
using each of your highlighted topics. This step can be repeated several times in this
way. This technique is called looping. It enables you to narrow your topic and give
your writing a more specific focus.
(iii) Clustering (also called mapping or webbing) is a strategy that enables you to link
ideas and explore the relationships between them. Starting with your topic in the
centre of the page, as you think of ideas you link them to the topic, then link other
new ideas to the first set and so on. As you cluster, you begin to see how the ideas
fit together and understand the possible directions your writing may take.
Once you have sorted or grouped your brainstormed or free written ideas, you should
begin to narrow your topic. This means that you think of a particular focus for your
composition and determine the main idea that you want your readers to get. That main
idea will become the thesis statement for your essay.
CHAPTER 11: WRITING
Developing a thesis
When you have a range of ideas and information on your topic, you will need to find a
focus for your essay.You are not likely to need or use all the material you may have come
up with, in a single essay. Therefore, your task at this point is to determine what angle or
stance you wish to take on the topic.Your thesis is the main idea that you want to share
with your readers on your topic. It is the premise on which your essay is based and it
clarifies the purpose of your paper. The thesis is usually expressed in the form of a thesis
statement. This is usually one sentence that states the exact focus of the essay. (In a long
paper, it may be more than one sentence.) While narrative or descriptive essays do not
normally have explicit thesis statements, no expository or persuasive essay can be properly
constructed without one. This is the most important part of the essay and everything else
that you write must stem from and be related to your thesis statement.
Think of your thesis statement as a pledge to your readers that your essay will deal with
precisely these aspects within these parameters and nothing else. Therefore, your thesis
statement is the foundation on which your essay is to be built.
The kind of thesis that you have depends on the purpose of your writing. However, all
thesis statements should tell your reader three things: your topic, the points you intend to
make about it and the order in which you will be presenting them.Your thesis statement
should be neither too broad that you would not be able to structure your essay nor too
narrow that you would not be able to write enough.
Example
1 Water pollution has numerous causes and a variety of adverse effects on
the environment.
2 Water pollution from industrial waste can negatively affect fish.
3 Water pollution, which is caused primarily by industrial waste, sewerage
and agricultural chemicals, can have serious effects on the marine
environment as well as on human health.
Clearly, statement 1 is far too broad and does not tell your reader what your focus will
be, while statement 2 is too narrow, since it restricts you to discussing only two aspects.
Your thesis statement is normally placed at the end of your introductory paragraph.You
will learn how to organise your introduction in Chapter 12.
Planning format
ACTIVITY 11.5
If you construct a good
Select one of the following topics and, after brainstorming,
thesis statement, then
write a thesis statement and create an outline.
planning a format for
1 The causes of increased crime in Caribbean societies
your essay is fairly
2 The benefits of belonging to a voluntary organisation
simple.You simply use
3 Coping with stress
your thesis statement as
4 The pros and cons of urban living
a base to construct the
5 The role of tertiary education institutions in the region
scaffolding of your essay.
6 Making a Caribbean single market and economy work.
The scaffolding is the
outline or essay map
that you will follow as you draft; it is the miniature version of your essay. This outline takes
each element of the thesis statement and sketches out exactly how you plan to deal with it
in the essay. Look at the student’s plan of his essay based on his thesis statement (no. 3 above).
183
184
UNIT 4: STRUCTURING COMMUNICATION
Example
Title: Causes and effects of water pollution
Thesis statement: Water pollution, which is caused primarily by industrial
waste, sewerage and agricultural chemicals, can have serious effects on the
marine environment as well as on human health.
1 Industrial wastes or effluent from factories constitute a large percentage
of pollutants
a) often discharged directly into water systems
b) usually non-biodegradable
c) toxic gases create acid rain which enters water sources
2 Sewerage or human waste is another major pollutant
a) increased waste from rapid urbanisation and population increase
b) treatment facilities have not kept pace
3 Agricultural practices indirectly pollute water sources
a) fertilisers, pesticides etc. seep into streams and rivers
b) animal waste contains hormones and antibiotics from feed
c) deforestation causes run-off of sediment into water courses
4 Pollutants cause severe stress on marine environments
a) changes in water composition affect animal health
b) sedimentation on coral reefs is destructive
c) balance of ecosystem is affected
5 Humans are dependent on water sources and are inevitably affected
a) bacterial diseases from recreative uses of water
b) viral diseases from polluted drinking water
Drafting
Writers use different approaches to drafting. Some use a ‘linear’ approach, which means
that they start at the introduction and write in a sequential manner through to the
conclusion. Others prefer a ‘recursive’ approach, where they write on a section for a
time, then move on to another part of the essay before
returning to the first section. The approach you use is
sometimes reflective of the type of writing, the length
of the piece and the conditions under which you are
writing. As long as you have a well-organised and
detailed plan for your writing and you are clear about
the structure of your essay, it does not matter which
approach you use. The most important thing is referring
to your plan (outline) at all times as you write.
The first draft of your writing will most likely
undergo several changes as you revise and try to perfect
it. As we indicated earlier, good writers make several
drafts of their writing before publishing or presenting it.
It is important to concentrate only on getting your
ideas down in accordance with your plan. Do not
Fig. 11.4 Have a well organised plan
CHAPTER 11: WRITING
pause to consider how you can say things better or whether or not you have spelt a word
correctly. This will interfere with your flow of ideas. These issues will be dealt with during
the later stages of the writing process. When writing your first draft, you should aim at
writing continuously and without interruption, on each section of your essay. It is also
useful to double-space your draft (or write on every other line) so that there is room for
you or your writing partner to write revision notes in the revision stage.
Revising
If you ever studied Shakespeare’s works, you would know that he made many revisions
of his plays. Good writers always revisit their work several times in an effort to take it
to the level closest to their idea. Revising literally means ‘seeing again’. Revising your
writing means checking to see if you have fulfilled your task according to the assignment
given or the goal you set for your essay. At this stage of the process, you are not primarily
concerned with mechanics (spelling and punctuation) or grammar.You need to satisfy
yourself that your ideas are clearly stated and your essay supports its thesis statement
adequately and coherently.You may find that you have to discard portions of your essay or
add to what you have already written.You may also have to return to step 1 of the writing
process and find additional or different information. During the revision stage, authors
may make several drafts of a piece of writing, experimenting with the effect of words and
phrases or moving things around. This is the process by which the substance of the essay is
perfected.Your main tasks when revising are to:
Check that the organisational structure of your essay is suited to your purpose or task.
For example, if you were asked to compare and contrast, does your essay present a
balanced view?
■ Ensure that each paragraph is relevant to the thesis statement.You should have no
material that does not support or expand your main idea.
■ Assess the substance of your paragraphs. Determine whether or not you have provided
enough details (facts, examples, explanations and so on) to support the points made in
each paragraph adequately.
■ Remove repetitive or superfluous ideas. Ask yourself if you have made the point already
and if repetition serves any particular purpose (some writers do this for effect).
■ Evaluate the appropriateness of your tone to the intended audience. Make sure that
you have not adopted a tone that would alienate your reader, for example by being
unduly sarcastic or even patronising.
Find an essay that you wrote some time ago and read it again. Note the number of things
you would probably change if you were to rewrite it. Revision is most effective when you
take some time out after you have written your first draft before returning to it. Revisiting
your writing enables you to see other possible ways of approaching or dealing with your
topic, which may not have occurred to you while drafting. Good revision requires your
ability to look at your writing critically.You are better able to view your essay from a fresh
perspective if you have been away from it for some time. The more objective you can be
about your writing, the more effectively you will revise it. If you have the time it is best
to wait a few hours or days before rereading your paper. It is important to try to see your
writing as your audience would. Many writers read their work aloud at this point, because
it is easier to pick up problems if you are hearing yourself. While rereading, you should ask
yourself the following questions on page 186:
■
185
186
UNIT 4: STRUCTURING COMMUNICATION
Revision checklist
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Is my thesis clear?
Have I given sufficient information?
Is my tone reader friendly?
Are my points logically structured?
Does the sequence of information match that indicated by my thesis?
Is each point adequately developed/explained?
Is my vocabulary varied and interesting?
Have I included irrelevant information?
ACTIVITY 11.6
Use the writing from your drafting exercise or an old unrevised essay and reread it while asking the questions
above.
Remember that at this stage of the writing process you are not mainly concerned with grammar and
mechanics, but primarily with meaning and appropriateness. Consider the example of a revised draft below:
Alcoholism
and
Alcoholism is one of the deadliest diseases known to man. Have you ever thought about it in that way? Alcoholism is one
of the major problems in society. The effects of this disease are far reaching. Many people easily get used to drinking
alcohol, and this can just as easily turn into abuse; that is the problem. Alcoholism can have physical, psychological, and
econmic effects.
Most significantly, alcoholism has several physical effects. These are the most important because these can cause your
In addition
can cause
death. For example, alcoholism causes cancer in the stomach, kidneys and liver. Alcohol impairs the digestion of
which in turn
results in
nutrients that the body needs to stay healthy. Alcoholism also causes serious and severe neurological damage, so it causes
uncontrollable body movements, loss of appetite, and depression. There are other effects in the body like gastritis and
these physical effects can be fatal if you drink alcohol in mass quantities.
cirrhosis of the liver. Over time this could cause your death.
Secondly, there are psychological effects caused by alcoholism. At the beginning, alcohol makes you feel relaxed, but if you
drink it in excess, it increases anxiety and causes depression. It also causes family and legal problems, violence, changes of
behavior, suicide, among others. Alcohol is very powerful and alters all your normal behaviors. (Expand paragraph)
Finally, effects of alcoholism are economic. Alcohol can be costly. Alcohol abuse costs the country millions of dollars in
lost productivity and health services. (Include statistics to support this) The personal cost is also high. Drinking two or
three times a week, can add up to a considerable sum. Eventually, alcoholics no longer even think about the money they
because
are spending The urge to drink has taken away their ability to think reasonably.
physical, psychological and economic
The effects of alcoholism which are physical, psychological, and economic can effect all aspects of life. Alcohol effects
one’s health and behaviour. It can result in eventual poverty and cause problems with family, friends and employers. It
may be
is critical for societies to find proactive ways of dealing with this scourge or else we are in danger of losing a significant
proportion of our potentially productive citizens.
Fig. 11.5 A revised draft
CHAPTER 11: WRITING
Fig. 11.6 Feedback
It is also useful to have a peer reviewer or ‘writing buddy’. Authors often work with
reviewers who give them feedback on their writing, because a reviewer is reading and
reacting to the work as an audience would. Therefore, elements that may escape the writer
because of his/her closeness to the writing would be obvious to an objective reader. A
peer reviewer should be honest but tactful, pointing out the strengths of the writing, as
well as the weaknesses. It is important for the reviewer to be specific about the problems
of the paper without rewriting or editing it for the writer. One way of getting feedback
on your draft from a ‘real’ audience is by using a peer reviewer or writing partner.
Working with a partner or writing group is one of the fastest ways of developing your
writing. In the same way that you use a checklist to guide your own revision, your
reviewer also uses a set of guidelines for evaluation:
Peer review checklist
1
Was the thesis of this paper clear to you?
2
What kind of evidence did the writer use to support the thesis?
Was it sufficient? Was it clearly related to the thesis?
3
Was the paper coherent and logically organised?
4
Were you confused about anything in the paper?
5
Does the introduction capture your attention?
6
Is the conclusion strong and effective?
7
What did you like best about this paper?
8
What does the author need to improve?
ACTIVITY 11.7
Exchange drafts with a partner and use the guidelines in
the peer review checklist to review each other’s draft.
187
188
UNIT 4: STRUCTURING COMMUNICATION
Editing and proofreading
This is the stage at which you perfect your writing prior to ’publishing’ or presenting
it to your audience. Regardless of how wonderful your ideas are and how impressive
the structure of your paper, if it has not been carefully proofread it will leave a poor
impression on the reader. During this stage of the writing process, you are looking
for specific errors in your writing. This requires you to read your paper slowly and
carefully.You should also read it aloud if possible. This makes it easier to pick up sentence
construction and punctuation errors.Very often, when you read silently, you miss several
errors because your brain automatically ’assumes’ that you have written what you
intended. Reading aloud forces your brain to focus on what is actually there.
A good way to approach your editing/proofreading is first to identify your typical
problem areas.You should know which areas of grammar and mechanics normally give
you difficulty, based on feedback from your teachers and peers. Therefore you can focus
your proofreading on looking for these specific errors while only cursorily checking those
aspects with which you typically have no problems. Refer to Chapter 13 of this book or
other grammar references while proofreading.You should also have a dictionary at hand.
Another useful proofreading technique is using a ’cover’. Slide a piece of paper or ruler down
each line as you read.This prevents you from automatically reading for meaning and forces your
brain to focus on mechanical details of your writing. The main areas of focus would be:
Subject and verb agreement: In each sentence, identify your subject and look for the
matching verb. Ensure that they agree in number.
■ Tenses: Check for consistency in the tense used throughout your essay. Look for
auxiliary verbs, for example is, was, has, have, had and been and ensure that they are
followed by the past participle.
■ Pronoun reference: Look for your pronoun (it, they, their, them, she, etc.).Then locate
the noun it replaces. Ensure that they agree in number.
■ Parallel structure: Look for key words, for example ’not only’, ’either…or’, ’but also’, ‘and’.
Make sure that items connected by these words are in the same grammatical format.
■ Fragments and run-on sentences: Read each sentence and stop. Does it express a
complete thought?
■ Spelling: Look for words that usually give you trouble or are commonly misspelt (see Chapter
13). Consult your dictionary or use the spell check feature on your computer’s software.
Remember that British spelling is normally required for CXC or Cambridge assignments.
■ Punctuation: Check commas to see if you have altered your intended meaning by their
placement. Ensure that the appropriate words are capitalised and semicolons and dashes
have not been arbitrarily used. Check that words belonging to other sources have been
put into quotation marks.
■
Remember that an unedited paper is an
unfinished work and gives the impression of
carelessness. Presenting sloppy work is insulting
to your reader and it also sends the message that
you have not mastered the written form of
communication.
Did you know?
In 2003, 5 million copies of Harry
Potter and the Order of the Phoenix by J.
K. Rowling were sold the first day of
appearing in bookstores, shattering
all records.
CHAPTER 11: WRITING
11.2 Types of writing
There are different categories, or types, of writing. Each one has a specific purpose and
clearly discernible characteristics that suit that purpose. The basic modes of writing are
literary (descriptive, narrative), expository and persuasive. Most of the writing you are
expected to produce at post-secondary or tertiary level is academic in nature. What do
we mean by academic writing? This type of writing generally makes use of the formal
register of the standard or official language of your territory or region. Academic writing
may be literary or technical in nature; however, when it is aimed at a general audience,
literary or technical jargon is avoided as much as possible and is clearly explained if used.
Most importantly, academic writing should always be objective, well researched and
logically presented. Academic writing is usually either expository or persuasive in nature.
Literary writing
Narrative writing essentially tells a story and often incorporates description in order to
do so. The primary purpose of descriptive writing is to describe a person, place, event or
thing in such a way that it can be clearly pictured in the reader’s mind. Therefore, the
main characteristic of this type of writing is the vivid, sensory details that you use to paint
this picture for the reader.You should also make use of specific literary devices that assist
the reader in forming a picture, by making comparisons with familiar things. Apart from
providing clear physical images, descriptive writing also uses words that are carefully
selected to convey a particular mood. The reader should be able to share your impression
of what is being described and get a sense of your feelings at that moment.
No Marva, you cannot
refer me to your blog to read
your assignment.
Fig. 11.7 Differentiate between academic and social communication
189
190
UNIT 4: STRUCTURING COMMUNICATION
ACTIVITY 11.8
Read the following extract from a story written by a student. Has the writer used appropriate sensory words?
Are you able to get a vivid picture of the scene?
Five thirty Saturday morning saw Ma Benson squeezing out of the front seat of her husband’s red pick-up van. She
was determined to regain her choice spot whether Ma Sookoo liked it or not. Her bench tucked under her arm and
a basket of fruit balancing precariously on her head, she waddled to the front of the market. She knew that Ma
Sookoo would arrive at six because her worthless husband would not wake up early so she took time to stop and
chat, occasionally giving her rich belly shaking laugh. By the time she reached her spot right under the huge round
clock, her husband had finished placing the produce in position and she settled like a mother hen in the space left
in the middle of the provisions. Pulling her large green rag out of her pocket, she wiped the sweat off her shiny
brown face. The market was already hot and steamy from the coal pots of frying bakes and bubbling cocoa that
vendors and customers alike would have for breakfast. She arranged her stiff black plaits carefully so that they
just peeked out under her red-checkered head tie. Ma Sookoo would be sure to notice the large yellow sleeveless
shirt that she wore tucked into her crimson skirt and which barely contained her pendulous breasts. Arranging her
produce with her small fat hands, which were bedecked with an array of dazzling rings, she waved graciously to
her first customer. Out of the corner of her eye, she watched Ma Sookoo work herself up into a hysterical scream.
Reflective writing
Reflective writing refers to writing that comes out of your thoughts or reflections on
a particular subject. In some cases you may be required to keep a journal or diary where
you capture your thoughts or feelings about a topic.Your response to that topic may
be written in prose, poetry or drama and any of those genres of writing may allow you
to effectively express your feelings. As you have already noted reflective writing is very
personal, in that it looks at what affects you.
Think of an issue or topic that affects you. Maybe you choose to write on the
presentation of women in rap. Reflection requires some reading on the topic or active
participation in what is happening or current. It is a response to statements, behaviours
or actions. So as the writer on the presentation of women in rap music you would have
to listen to and watch videos that present the subject. Next you would think about what
is being said on the subject and then you can write reflectively.Your writing may be
creative such as a prose piece – essay, letter or short story or you may choose to compose
a poem or song that encapsulates your feelings on the subject.You might even decide to
write a short dramatic piece that demonstrates your view of the subject. In addressing the
issue, you would have chosen a theme. For instance your theme may be ‘Violence against
women’ or ‘Protection of women’. The theme would then determine the angle from
which you write your reflection. Remember that like in other forms of writing, if you are
writing your piece in the form of an essay, the thesis statement must be made clear. The
paragraphs of the body should support your view and there should be a conclusion which
may challenge the reader also to reflect on the subject.
If you choose to write a literary piece then you must employ those devices appropriate
for that genre.
CHAPTER 11: WRITING
Definition
The word exposition
comes from ‘expose’,
which means to make
known, to disclose,
to bring to light or lay
open to view.
Expository writing
Expository writing aims to inform or explain. The reader is expected to have a clearer
understanding of the topic after reading an expository piece. Generally, an exposition
seeks to present a reasonably balanced and accurate view of a topic. There are several
methods of exposition, or ways to present an expository topic. The method you select
depends on the nature of the topic or the particular slant or focus that you wish to give it.
Division and classification
Division and classification are useful methods of organising and explaining information.
By separating a subject into parts (dividing or classifying), a writer makes it clearer and
more easily understood. These methods are often thought to be identical; however, while
they both distinguish a subject by its parts, they differ in an essential way. Division
separates a single subject into subunits without invoking any specific principle of
organisation. For example, the human body
can be divided into its parts: arms, head,
ACTIVITY 11.9
lungs, kidneys, arteries, mouth and so on.
Which of the following topics
These are individual components and each
would best be approached using
one can be discussed and described separately.
division/classification?
However, if you were to analyse the human
a) My CD collection
body according to its functions or systems –
b) How to rear pigs
respiratory, reproductive, digestive, circulatory
c) The good parent
– you would be categorising or classifying.
d) Self-defence techniques
Classification separates a subject on the basis
e) West Indian writers
of specific principles or common characteristics.
f) The pros and cons of rural living
Therefore, in a classification essay, you are not
only separating (dividing) but also grouping. It
is important to ensure that your categories are
distinct and do not overlap. For best control of your essay, you should use three to five
categories. Topics that cannot be broken down into parts should not be approached as
division or classification.
Classification should be based on a common principle. This means that there should
be a logical basis for your groupings. For example, if you were to classify the students
attending your school, you would not use gender, height and type of shoes as your
organising principles because these aspects are clearly unrelated. However, you may decide
to classify them according to area of study: natural science, social science, arts. In this case
your organising principle is ‘area of study’.
Division and classification are used in everyday life to help people locate and
understand information more easily – from the grouping of items in a supermarket to
the layout of a newspaper. Creating logical categories in your essay helps your reader
to process the information in a way that he/she is accustomed to using in other aspects
of life. At the same time, you should not bore your reader by using trite and useless
divisions. Categories should be meaningful and not superficial. For example, it would not
be particularly useful to classify your teachers according to hair colour, but you would
probably be able to write an interesting and entertaining analysis by grouping them
according to teaching styles.
Division and classification are often used to complement each other. An essay may
begin by classifying the main subtopics to be dealt with; then these are further subdivided
191
192
UNIT 4: STRUCTURING COMMUNICATION
to provide examples of types. The thesis statement always indicates the main categories to
be addressed. For example, an essay on kinds of shoes may be structured like this:
Fig. 11.8 Division and classification
ACTIVITY 11.10
Examine the Contents pages in
your textbooks. Note how topics
are divided and classified. Which
ones are most logical and useful?
Notice that this outline already indicates how the three main
paragraphs of the body of the essay will be handled. Avoid using
too many subdivisions that would detract from the tightness of
your essay structure. Once you have written the essay, you can use
the following review questions:
Have I used a distinct basis or principle for my classifications?
Have I created meaningful categories?
■ Did I avoid overlapping?
■ Have I used examples or illustrations for each category?
■ Do my examples all fit the specific category?
■ Are my categories clearly defined?
■
■
ACTIVITY 11.11
1 Discuss in your groups the
various ways in which you might
classify the following subjects:
• Vehicles
• Furniture
• Books
• Dogs
• Athletes
2 Select one of the above topics and
plan and write a classification essay.
Cause and effect
This is the approach you use when discussing the relationships or
links between one thing and another. This type of essay examines
how one thing either resulted in or was caused by another. If
you are discussing the results of an event or circumstance, you are
considering its effects or consequences. On the other hand, if
you are trying to identify what made something happen, you are
examining its cause. There are simple, straightforward links, for
example ‘the accident was caused by the driver’s speeding’. In this
case the speeding was the cause and the accident was the effect. However, an event may
have several causes, for example ‘the accident was the result of the wet road, poor visibility
and the driver’s speed’. In this case there is a combination of causes. Similarly, a single
cause may have either a single effect or multiple effects.
CHAPTER 11: WRITING
Example
The uneven sidewalk caused Lula to fall. (single)
The uneven sidewalk caused Lula to fall, dislocate her hip and have to
undergo surgery. (multiple)
It is often far easier to identify effects or consequences than it is to determine causes.
Tracing a cause requires you to make logical inferences that must be justifiable to the
reader. Sometimes there may be related causes: for example, if Lula (in the previous
example) had been wearing very high heels, this may have been a related cause. It would
be difficult to determine that the unevenness of the sidewalk alone caused her fall. Some
causes may also be more immediate or obvious, while others are remote or not as easily
apparent. If Lula had received some distressing news and was too preoccupied to be paying
attention to where she walked, her inattentiveness would not be obvious to the observer
but would be a probable cause.Your job as a writer using this method is to make clear,
logical and justifiable links between the causes that you identify and their effects.You also
have to determine which causes or effects you will deal with in your paper. If there are
too many to include all, you can include the most important, indicating that these are the
main, major, most important, most significant and so on. Qualifying your causes/effects in
this way suggests to your reader that there are other minor or less important ones that fall
outside the scope of your essay.
ACTIVITY 11.12
1 Working in groups, for each of the
topics in Figure 11.9, discuss and fill
in THREE main causes and THREE
main effects.
2 Read the student essay below on pages
194 – 195 while considering the following:
(a) Does the writer clearly identify
the effects of illiteracy?
(b) Are the relationships logical
and justifiable?
(c) Is the information well organised?
Fig. 11.9 Causes and effects
193
194
UNIT 4: STRUCTURING COMMUNICATION
Discuss the impact of illiteracy on the family and society
Thomas Carlyle said in the 19th century, ’that there
should be one man die ignorant, when he had the
capacity for knowledge, this I call a tragedy.’ Little did
Carlyle know that his fear for the 19th century would
be a tragedy that would linger on into the 20th century
and even in the advent of yet another millennium. In
1985 UNESCO estimated a 27.7% illiteracy rate on
a global level. This points to the alarming fact that a
little over one out of every five persons in the world is
illiterate. The figures are frighteningly high, yet they go
unnoticed or unattended by many. UNESCO defines a
functionally illiterate person as one who cannot engage
in all those activities in which literacy is required for
effective functioning of his group and community
or one who is unable to use reading, writing and
calculation for his own, and community’s development.
For the individual who has to function in a developed
or developing community, which relies heavily on print
for communication, illiteracy is a great handicap. This
intellectual deficiency or underdevelopment would affect
the individual and would ripple out into all of his other
relationships in the family and eventually into the society.
On a personal level, for many an illiterate person, their
condition is a terrible scourge. While they may be quite
orally proficient, in situations where reading is required, they
are condemned into silence. All self-confidence vanishes
giving way to feelings of intimidation and incompetence.
Very often even greater than the lack of self-confidence,
is the crippling fear that they might be discovered. When
’caught in a corner’ many resort to subterfuges like
pretending that they forgot their glasses. They live in a
lonely world where everyday things like television guides,
birthday cards and food labels, have no meaning.
In some instances the family provides refuge and
understanding for the illiterate individual, but it can
also be a source of greater pain and heartbreak for the
illiterate person and other family members. In some
cultures women are denied education. When these
marry, they live in the shadows of their husbands (if
he is literate). Unable to read they are automatically
excluded from many conversations and helping with
children’s homework. The latter can be particularly
painful where children misinterpret the absence of
academic support as a lack of care. This may draw
children to the seemingly more attentive parent to the
exclusion of the already lonely illiterate parent. With the
stigma attached to illiteracy children may resent or feel
shame toward the illiterate parent. Illiteracy can also
cause grave problems in marriages, particularly where
only one partner is literate. Communication is low and
there is very little discourse. This may lead the literate
partner to seek intellectual stimulation elsewhere,
causing friction in the relationship.
Economic problems may also arise because of illiteracy. It
would be difficult for such persons to find employment
especially in our modern times, when the most
menial of tasks now requires some level of literacy.
Persons who are unable to read may not be capable
of identifying employment vacancies. Frustration from
the inability to provide financially for their families may
find expression in domestic violence, increased crime
and drug or substance abuse. On the other hand,
the limitations imposed by illiteracy may have positive
results. Some parents having experienced the pain and
inconvenience of illiteracy begin to view their children’s
education as top priority. In an attempt to break the
cycle of illiteracy, whatever resources are available
would be channeled into the child’s academic future.
Bhola (1984) suggests that ’…there is a positive
relationship between the level of literacy in a society
and the economic, social and political development of
that country. The society is shaped by the individuals
who populate it. They come with their gifts, talents and
aptitudes which enrich or impoverish a community’.
Anderson (1963) found countries with per capita
income exceeding $US 500 a year in 1955 had a
literacy of 99% while those with less than $US 500 per
capita income a year had literacy of less than 80%. If
a society is populated by industrious, literate people,
that society would prosper. If however, the members
of the society are illiterate, then they are blocked from
making a valuable contribution to society. They cannot
participate fully in the social and political affairs of the
community. They are deprived of an effective voice
in the democratic process. They are drawing on the
national pool of brain power.
CHAPTER 11: WRITING
During a conference on literacy Carlos Mutore, head
of the Organisation of World Literacy said, ’illiteracy
kills. ’This may seem a very strong statement but it is
true. If one takes into account the fact that intellectual
handicaps like not being able to read, block one out
from receiving valuable information on issues such as
AIDS, this can be fatal. Other support for this truth
can be found in India where a high proportion of the
annual 40,000 and over road fatalities are due 90% of
the time to the fact that truck drivers cannot read the
traffic signs.
Illiteracy is a major problem impacting on all areas of
personal life and society in general. Remediation is costly
but is nowhere near the financial, social, human and
political losses incurred by failure to address the issue.
References
Holder, Gladstone. (1990). A nation at Risk. Weekend Nation 19th
February.
Bhola, H. S. (1984) Campaigning for literacy. France: UNESCO.
Johnson, Paul. (1987). Written Off. TSL 13th March 1987.
Lestage, Andre (1982). Literacy and illiteracy. UNESCO Educational
Studies and Documents. No. 42. 1982.
Life without literacy. Royal Bank Letter. September/October 1990.
Sir Arthur Lewis Community College Language Arts
Department essay collection
Definition
One way of clarifying or exposing something is by defining it (explaining its meaning).
Expository essays that rely on this method provide a core definition in the introduction
and extend it through the body of the essay. This technique is known as extended
definition. A definition essay is a personal, in-depth explanation and commentary on
what a word, term or concept means. Generally, definition essays deal with abstract concepts
that lend themselves to personal interpretation rather than with physical objects that have
a universal, agreed definition. It would be pointless writing an essay to define a chair or
a tree since most people already have almost identical definitions based on their physical
perspectives. However, definitions of love or the perfect vacation would vary widely since
perspectives on these topics are based on subjective opinion and personal experience.
You can employ a number of strategies to extend your definition. One of the easiest is
the use of examples that give concrete detail and help your reader to understand the subject.
Secondly, analogy, which is a lengthy comparison between two subjects, allows you to use
a subject familiar to the reader to explain your topic. Other expository methods such as
division and causal analysis (cause and effect) can also be incorporated into the definition
essay.You may also use description and short narration or anecdotes. In essence, a definition
essay can draw on a number of methods and use a combination of them to ensure that the
reader understands the definition being given.You can extend your definition as well, by
showing what something is not. Contrasting what you are defining with something else
enables your reader to understand what it is. This is called definition by negation.
Regardless of the extended definition strategies that you use, your definition essay
should always have a formal definition or defining statement as part of the introduction.
The purpose of a defining statement is to indicate what something is by (i) putting it in a
class and (ii) differentiating it from other members of its class.
Example
A hat (term) is an item of clothing (class) worn on the head
(differentiation).
195
196
UNIT 4: STRUCTURING COMMUNICATION
ACTIVITY 11.13
Create definition
statements for
the terms given
in Table 11.2. Try
to make your
differentiation
unusual and
interesting.
To say ‘a hat is an item of clothing’ would be an inadequate definition statement
because your reader would not know exactly which item it is.
Your defining statement should not repeat the word being defined; instead you
should use synonyms to expand your meaning. Repeating the word is a circular
approach that does not make anything clearer to the reader. For example, ‘A corporate
merger is a type of merger of corporate organisations’ adds nothing to the meaning of
‘corporate merger’. However ‘a corporate merger is a type of union involving two or
more businesses’ immediately begins to clarify meaning.
Term
Class
Differentiation
The ‘glass ceiling’
Democracy
Calypso
Anorexia
A ’party animal’
A poet
Table 11.2
Definition
statements
Good taste
Depression
Comparison and contrast
Fig. 11.10 Spot the differences
This is an expository method used to analyse two topics that have enough in common
to allow them to be considered together. Therefore, while you can easily compare and
contrast credit unions and banks, or public and private schools, you would not normally
CHAPTER 11: WRITING
compare and contrast horses and space shuttles. There must be a common aspect linking
the things being compared. For instance, credit unions and banks are both types of
financial institution and private and public schools are types of educational institution. In
both examples the two entities perform similar functions.
There are two main approaches to this type of essay. The first is the alternating or
point by point approach, where each point of similarity or difference is discussed,
considering both entities in turn. This is like holding two items side by side and looking
from one to the other, focusing on one aspect at a time.
Example
Beach and city vacations
Thesis
When deciding between the beach or the city, one should consider
activities, pace of life and comfort.
Body
(i) Activities (similarity or difference)
(a) Beach
(b) City
(ii) Pace of life (similarity or difference)
(a) Beach
(b) City
(iii) Comfort (similarity or difference)
(a) Beach
(b) City
Another method is the block approach, where all the points of similarity between the
two entities are dealt with before moving on to present all the differences between them.
This approach is more taxing on the reader, who may find it difficult to keep the first part
of the essay in perspective in order to make judgements or draw conclusions. The onus
is on you, the writer, to discuss the points in each case in exactly the same order, as the
parallel structure makes it more logical for the reader.
Example
Beach and city vacations
Thesis
When deciding between the beach or the city, one should consider
activities, pace of life and comfort.
Body
(i) Beach
(a) Activities
(b) Pace of life
(c) Comfort
(ii) City
(a) Activities
(b) Pace of life
(c) Comfort
(iii) Conclusion
197
198
UNIT 4: STRUCTURING COMMUNICATION
ACTIVITY 11.14
Using comparison and contrast, write an essay on one of the following:
• Two modes of travel
• Rugby and soccer or netball and basketball
• Primary and secondary schools
• Automatic and manual (stick shift) vehicles
• Two universities that you are interested in attending
• Cats and dogs as pets
ACTIVITY 11.15
Indicate whether the following process topics are directional or informational:
1 How to prepare a speech
2 The life cycle of the butterfly
3 How a hurricane is formed
4 What to do in case of accidental poisoning
5 How to repair a broken cell phone
6 Natural childbirth
ACTIVITY 11.16
Write a process analysis essay on one of the following topics:
1 Adjusting to a new school
2 Hosting a party
3 How to use the Internet
4 Preparing for a hurricane
Sometimes a question may ask you to compare two things without asking for contrast.
In this case the emphasis should be on the similarities. Likewise, if you are asked to
contrast only, there is no need to examine commonalities. Whether you are doing both
comparison and contrast or one or the other, you must select an organisational pattern
(either block or alternating) and use it throughout your essay.
Process
When you use process analysis in an essay, this means that you are explaining how to
do something, how something works or how something happens. A process essay either
gives specific directions (how to do) or information (how it works/happens). Regardless
of its purpose, the main characteristic of the process essay is its step by step method of
organisation. The process must be presented in chronological fashion. A lab report and
a cooking recipe are both examples of process writing. The lab report gives information
on how something was done or happened while the recipe gives directions on how to
do something.
CHAPTER 11: WRITING
When describing a process you should remain aware of your audience and ensure
that all new or unfamiliar terms are defined. If you are using directional process, you
should explain the purpose of a particular step where necessary. In addition, if there are
anticipated difficulties in the process, your reader should be warned of these. Ask yourself
the following questions as you write your process essay:
Why is this process important?
■ Are there different ways of doing this process? What are they?
■ What knowledge do my readers need to understand this process?
■ Have I identified the skills and equipment necessary?
■ What difficulties are involved in each step? How can they be overcome?
■ Are there terms to be defined?
■
Persuasive/argumentative writing
As you learnt in Chapter 7, this type of writing attempts to convince the reader that the
writer’s point of view is valid and desirable. As the author, you can be convincing only
if you fully understand both sides of the issue on which you are writing, although you
will be presenting only one side.You should state your position clearly in your thesis
and indicate the three main points that you will use to support it. In the body of your
essay, use specific evidence, statistics and examples to support your points. Avoid personal
opinions and generalisations that weaken your argument.You need to convince your
reader that you are a reasonable, objective person, since this gives weight to your point of
view. There are four main types of support for an argument:
1 Facts are a powerful means of convincing your reader, because a fact is proven and
documented evidence.You can accumulate facts from your reading and research.
2 Statistics also provide excellent support as long as you ensure that you use responsible
and reliable sources for your statistics. Remember to cite your sources.
3 Examples are the backbone of a persuasive essay. Most readers are convinced by
examples because they provide practical, tangible evidence of what you are saying.
4 Quotes from experts in the area that you are writing about can also lend support
to your position but you should ensure that the authority of these experts is well
documented.
An argument is essentially an appeal to a person’s reason.You should never take the
approach that there is only one side to an issue, since this would only alienate your reader;
however, you must convince your reader that the side you have chosen is the reasonable
one.You need to ensure that:
a) You have sufficient evidence
b) Your evidence is trustworthy
c) Your assumptions/conclusions are verifiable
d) Your conclusions follow logically from your evidence.
Although a line of reasoning may be logical, it is not necessarily strong or convincing.
Example
People who drink and drive are dangerous drivers.
Your sister drinks and drives, therefore your sister is a dangerous driver.
199
200
UNIT 4: STRUCTURING COMMUNICATION
While this may be logical, it would not be enough to convince your sister. Therefore,
you would need to add support to your basic line of argument by:
Citing court records or police statistics on correlations between drivers who drink and
numbers and types of accident.
■ Providing medical information on how drinking impairs reaction time and ability to
exercise judgement.
■ Giving examples of accidents caused by drunk drivers.
■
Human beings respond to logic but we are also strongly influenced by our emotions.
Therefore, as you learnt in Chapter 7, emotional appeals carry much weight in persuasive
writing. There is room for emotional appeal in argumentative writing but it must be used
ethically.You should not use stereotypes or play on emotions simply to evoke a visceral
response from your reader. Nor should you base your argument on emotional appeal.
When used, it should be linked to reason as far as possible. For example, having presented
an example of a case where drunk driving was linked to the death of a child, you may
refer to the anguish of the parents and that of the driver’s family, which would be a natural
consequence of this accident. Here, the emotional appeal is linked to a verifiable fact that
you used to support your argument.
ACTIVITY 11.17
Select one of the topics below and write on it.
1 Your Students’ Council has been discussing ways of improving your school or college.
Choose one of those ways and write a persuasive proposal to your School Board or
Ministry of Education.
2 Write an article for a local newspaper, in which you agree or disagree that certain
television programmes should be censored in your country.
3 Write a position paper or a proposal that sixth form students should complete 100
hours of community service as part of their graduation requirements.
4 Write a letter to the editor of a local newspaper supporting a position on one of
the following:
(a) The introduction of legislation to impose a 7 p.m. curfew for children under
the age of 16.
(b) The building of a major highway and shopping mall close to your school.
(c) A proposal by the Ministry of Sports to make physical education credits mandatory
for sixth form or college students.
11.3 Writing with style
At some time in your life as a student, your teacher may have identified your need to
‘improve your awkward style’ or may have indicated an instance where you used ‘good
style’. Style is, essentially, the way you put together a sentence or a group of sentences
and is a combination of tone, word choice and sentence construction. The assessment
of style can be subjective, since different readers have different perceptions of what
constitutes good style and this often depends on the discipline or subject area being
dealt with. For example, your physics teacher may not be bothered by short sentences or
more ‘matter of fact’ writing, but your geography teacher would prefer a more elegant
CHAPTER 11: WRITING
style.You may also be wondering why a sentence is grammatically correct but can be
considered stylistically flawed. It is possible to have awkward sentences that do not break
grammatically rules. Two fundamental principles of style are:
(i) Say exactly what you mean: avoid using words or complicated sentences simply to
impress your reader. Much awkwardness of style is the result of people trying to
imitate the style of material they have read.
(ii) Use the appropriate tone: except for dialogue or as a deliberate device, you should
not write exactly as you would speak to your friends. Academic writing can be
reader friendly without treating the reader as a personal friend.
Style can be improved if attention is paid to specific stylistic elements that contribute
to the overall effectiveness of your message and the appropriateness of tone. Learning to
recognise these elements of style will give you more control over your writing. As you
read through the following style problems, check your writing (or have your peer reviser
do so) for evidence of these problems.
Style problems
Wordiness
This is a major enemy of good style. It is the use of unnecessary words and ‘filler’ phrases
that add nothing to the meaning of the sentence. This is a habit that we transfer from our
oral communication where we are usually attempting to make a point as clear as possible
to the listener. In writing, these fillers are more obvious and can frustrate the reader.
(i) Redundant pairs are two words that mean the same thing. People often use them
as fillers, without thinking, simply because they hear them so often, for example first
and foremost; each and every; unexpected surprise.
ACTIVITY 11.18
Underline the redundant pairs in the following sentences and rephrase the sentences.
1 You must completely finish this exercise before moving on.
2 Past history suggests that human beings are always responsible for environmental
change.
3 If you haven’t grasped the basic fundamentals of mathematics, calculus will be a
mystery to you.
4 This sudden crisis resulted in closure of the entire factory.
5 I fell asleep and never saw the final outcome of the movie.
6 Marriage is definitely not part of my future plans.
7 I would like each individual to make a contribution to the fund, which will be a free
gift to the children of this country.
8 If we do not act now, the end result will be terrible tragedy.
(ii) Redundant categories refer to phrases that use a descriptive word in addition
to the general category which it already indicates. For example, ‘this shirt is red in
colour’. We know that red is a colour, so ‘this shirt is red’ would suffice.
201
202
UNIT 4: STRUCTURING COMMUNICATION
Example
rectangular in shape
large in size
in a confused state
often times
honest in character
at an early time
period in time
of a strange type
unusual in nature
Wordiness can also be avoided by eliminating the excessive use of qualifiers, which
tend to dilute the impact of a sentence.
Example
The problem really, is basically that people mostly rush into relationships
practically without thinking.
Notice that eliminating most of or all the qualifiers in the sentence above makes it
stronger and more direct.
Clichés
Clichés in writing are overused phrases or expressions. Although clichés are, technically,
metaphors drawn from everyday experience, they make your writing unimaginative
and are usually unnecessarily wordy. They should be avoided altogether except if being
deliberately used to make a point. The use of clichés gives the impression that your
vocabulary and ability to express yourself concisely are weak.
Example
Some examples of clichés
Few and far between
The ball is in your court
The buck stops here
Survival of the fittest
Bet your bottom dollar
Money is the root of all evil
At the eleventh hour/last minute
Call it a day
Give and take
What goes around comes around
See eye to eye
Hope against hope
Take the easy way out
Back to the drawing board
Best foot forward
Stock phrases
These, like clichés, are overused expressions but are not metaphors. They are often used
because they are thought to be more stylish. On the contrary, they can add tedium to
your writing since they can be contracted into a single word that expresses your meaning.
Consider the following sentences:
a) Regardless of the fact that she was in pain, she came to school every day.
b) Although she was in pain, she came to school every day.
CHAPTER 11: WRITING
ACTIVITY 11.19
Replace the underlined stock phrases in the sentences below with one of the words in
the box. You may need to change part of the sentence.
because
as
if
when
about
although
can
1 In the event that it rains, the match will be played indoors.
2 The graduation ceremony was postponed, due to the fact that a hurricane was
approaching.
3 Shy people often doubt themselves even when they have the capacity to do something.
4 I must speak to you concerning the matter of the prizes.
5 At the same time as I was heading for my car, it got towed away.
6 Regardless of the fact that he has apologised, he should be punished.
7 Under the circumstances in which she should be serious, she is usually too frivolous.
Nominalisation
This means making verbs and adjectives into abstract nouns.
Example
The police investigated the crime.
The police conducted an investigation of the crime.
Nominalisation is frequently used in academic and professional writing; however, too
much of it can make your writing sound too abstract and can alienate your reader.
Which of these sentences is clearer on first reading?
a) The formulation of special policy was done by the Board of Executives, whose
members felt that there was need for the streamlining of the company’s operation.
b) The Board of Executives formulated special policy to streamline the company’s operations.
You should be able to differentiate useless from useful nominalisation. It is useful if:
1 The abstract noun is a subject that refers to or follows from a previous sentence.
Example
The Board of Executives formulated special policy to streamline the
company’s operations.
This streamlining led to immediate profits.
2 It incorporates what would have been the object of its verb.
Example
I understand neither the way she speaks nor the way she writes.
I understand neither her speech nor her writing.
Notice that in this case the nominalisation makes the sentence more succinct.
203
204
UNIT 4: STRUCTURING COMMUNICATION
3 It replaces ‘the fact that’
Example
The fact that I sang so tunefully impressed the judges.
My tuneful singing impressed the judges.
Non-sexist language
There is no generic singular pronoun in English, therefore, the masculine pronouns ‘he’,
‘his’ and ‘him’ have traditionally been used when there is need for a common gender
pronoun. However, this is less acceptable in modern writing, and writers are very careful
to specify ‘his or her’, ‘he or she’ and so on in order not to appear sexist or discriminatory.
This often leads to cumbersome sentences, which, though grammatically correct, can be
awkward and tedious to read.
Example
Each student should bring his/her own pen, but if he/she runs out of ink,
the invigilator will lend him or her a substitute.
The alternative is no less repetitive.
One should bring one’s own pen, but if one runs out of ink the invigilator
will lend one a substitute.
The easiest way of dealing with such construction without being sexist is
to use the neutral plural forms:
Students should bring their own pens but if they run out of ink the
invigilator will lend them substitutes.
Similarly, words with masculine markers may be offensive to some readers, and writers
are faced with the challenge of finding neutral alternatives wherever possible. The
National Council of Teachers of English (NCTE) suggests the following alternatives:
Table 11.3 Nonsexist language
Sexist
Neutral
mankind
humanity, people, human beings
man-made
synthetic, manufactured
the common man
the average person, ordinary people
man-hours
staff hours
chairman
head, chair, presiding officer, moderator, coordinator
businessman
business executive
fireman
firefighter
mail man
mail carrier
steward/stewardess
flight attendant
policeman/woman
police officer
CHAPTER 11: WRITING
11.4
Examination tips
Take-home assignments and long papers allow you to make thorough use of the
writing process.You are able to spend time away from your writing so you can review
more objectively and you can make several drafts, rewriting as many times as necessary.
However, under examination or timed writing conditions you need to be able to collapse
the process.You should never forgo the process altogether if you want your writing to be
clear, thoughtful and well organised.
Planning and structuring your allotted time properly allows you to use a modified
version of the writing process and present a paper that approaches excellence. Before you
begin, consider the number of questions you are required to answer and apportion the
time that you will spend on each one. If the questions are of equal weighting (worth the
same number of marks), this is easily done by allocating the same amount of time to each.
Otherwise, the amount of time should be proportionate to the weighting of the question.
The following example uses a one-hour essay to indicate the adaptation of the process:
Example
10 minutes: Plan your essay – Identify your audience, brainstorm, write
your thesis statement, jot down a brief outline of your essay.
40 minutes: Write your essay – in an examination you must write in
sequence of introduction, body and conclusion.
10 minutes: Read over to amend sentences or correct mechanics. Simply
cross out errors and rewrite above them. Make sure that rewritings are
legible.
Remember that, under examination conditions, you will not be able to rewrite your
essay. Never write a rough draft with the intention of rewriting. Use jottings only and
write from your jotted points. Do not be afraid to cross out errors and rewrite above
them. Examiners expect this and it shows that you are able to review your writing
critically.You do not lose marks for crossing out; however, you must ensure that what you
have corrected is legible and clear.
Conclusion
In this chapter you have learnt about the process of writing and
how to apply that process when you write. It is important to
practise using the writing process until you are able to go through
it automatically and adapt it to your various writing contexts.
It is also important to focus on the type of writing in which you
are engaged, and to ensure that your purpose for writing is clear.
Above all, writing is always done with an audience in mind
and this thought should remain with you as you write. Having
understood the process of producing different types of writing,
you will learn in Chapter 12 to structure and organise the various
components of your essay. You will also learn to format other types
of written communication that are useful in everyday life.
205
206
UNIT 4: STRUCTURING COMMUNICATION
Evaluation
and extension
1 What are the main steps of the writing process?
2 List FOUR pre-writing activities that you can use
when preparing to write.
3 The following thesis statements are taken from
students’ essays. Evaluate them and make
suggestions for revising where necessary.
(a) Destruction of the forest can be caused by
natural events like hurricanes and electrical
storms, as well as by human activities such
as agricultural development or by logging.
(b) Today’s family has not disintegrated, but
rather has adapted itself to a changing society.
(c) There are several characteristics of
industrial design that are important in
determining the success or failure of a new
product on the market.
(d) The interest of Western countries in the
Caribbean may be for security, economic,
social and political reasons.
(e) Although young people are taller, heavier and
outwardly healthier than the youth of previous
generations, the majority have not developed
strong, agile and physically fit bodies.
4 Read the student essay below and evaluate it
using the following guidelines:
Clarity of thesis
Style
Logic of discussion
Adequacy of content
Use of supporting devices
The implications of the increased popularity of cosmetic surgery
’Life in plastic, it’s fantastic!’ is a quote from the
popular 1997 song ’Barbie Girl’ by Aqua. This quote
effectively describes today’s new craze for plastic
surgery. Although the term plastic surgery does not
refer to surgery with the use of plastic, it does seem
that way, as surgeons use artificial products like silicone
and botox to change parts of the body, which give the
body an artificial, or ’plastic’ image, like the popular
plastic Barbie doll. Cosmetic surgery is a type of plastic
surgery that is becoming a household name. Unlike
reconstructive surgery, which is done for rehabilitative
reasons, cosmetic surgery is performed purely for
aesthetic reasons. This practice has led to negative
consequences such as unrealistic views of a human’s
physical body and self-image, obsessive surgeries and
the commercialisation of cosmetic surgery.
The media is a major force in our society, promoting
unrealistic physical images. Daily you see thousands of
images of ’beautiful women’ claiming that you can be
beautiful too if you buy a certain product. Cosmetic
surgery is also being advertised as being the solution to
your problems by ’enhancing’ your features. However,
a large number of people go to a cosmetic surgeon
to change different parts of their bodies completely,
and not just alter them a bit. Additionally, celebrities
make it big in industry mostly because of their outward
appearances. Celebrities in magazines look flawless,
as a result of much airbrushing and digital altering. It
seems that being beautiful is the only way to get ahead
in the world. You hardly see average or ordinary looking
people in the limelight. Media also encourages cosmetic
procedures in shows like The Swan and Extreme
Makeover. These shows, among many others promote
cosmetic surgery as being an easy means of being
beautiful and successful in life.
From an early age, children are exposed to society’s
definition of beauty, from the many brands of dolls to
the fairy tales that their parents tell them. In all of these
aspects of growing up, beauty is seen as having fair,
even skin, blue eyes, a narrow nose, and a waist ’…small
enough for a man to encircle with his hands.’ (Sullivan
6) This idea of beauty is carried with children into their
teenage years, where it starts to manifest and create
self-conscious feelings. Children, especially girls look at
celebrities in movies and in magazines and believe that
the celebrities look like this normally. Girls who compare
themselves to these images feel inferior, as they obviously
do not look like their idols. ’47% of Canadian females
CHAPTER 11: WRITING
age 11, 58% of Canadian females age 13, and 55% of
Canadian females age 15 say they would change how
they look if they could’ (Health and Welfare Canada).
This society is a fast-paced society characterised by
obsessive behaviours. Everything is now instant, from fast
food restaurants to one-minute dinner meals. Cosmetic
surgery is another factor that has caught up with the
instant society. Cosmetic procedures are becoming faster,
easier and have less healing time. People view cosmetic
surgery as a magic procedure that can instantly remove
their flaws and make them beautiful because this is how
it is portrayed commercially. Many people go into surgery
with unrealistic expectations. For example, some women
go to a plastic surgeon’s office expecting to walk back
out with the exact nose or pair of lips of a celebrity that is
seen as beautiful at the time. The obsession starts when
they keep going back trying to get that perfection that
they were hoping for the first time. Blum realises from
her research that ’When you don’t like a body part, the
rest of the world looks like an array of perfect examples
of just what you lack.’ (Blum). Even if people approve
of their surgeries, they think that there is no reason to
stop at one surgery, but are now inspired to ’fix’ the rest
of their bodies. ’You will see the rest of the world as so
many possibilities.’ Most people that are obsessed with
cosmetic procedures are in debt and struggling to make
ends meet. They are also struggling with their inability
to control their obsession and are often confused and
unhappy. Many are unable to have normal relationships
because their lives are constantly absorbed by the next
cosmetic procedure. Cosmetic surgeons, however,
continue to practise on these people, although it is
evident that they have a psychological problem. These
’doctors’ do not care about the person’s psychological
stability and well-being, but are only interested in obtaining
the money for the procedure. This obsession is carried
through in a person, as he/she gets older, and may increase
with age, in an attempt to remain young and beautiful.
Cosmetic surgery is supposedly included in the medical
field. However, fuelled by the perfection frenzy, it has
become commercialised, and cosmetic surgeons now
run cosmetic surgery businesses. This is extremely
different from the proper definition of the medical field,
which is stated by the Miriam [sic] Webster dictionary
as ’the science and art dealing with the maintenance
of health and the prevention, alleviation, or cure of
disease.’ Cosmetic surgery does not deal with health
issues. This is left for reconstructive surgeons to do.
Therefore it should not be associated with medicine.
Businesses usually try to persuade people into buying
their product. This is the same with regards to cosmetic
surgery. The number of commercials for cosmetic
procedures has increased significantly in the past
ten years. Additionally, people have now turned to
’shopping’ for body parts in magazines and ’buying’
the body parts by making an appointment with
their cosmetic surgeon. The same way that society
is obsessed with material items, human bodies have
become itemised, and obsessed about as well. This
view of bodies as items or objects has also increased
the number of people that try to get the cheapest
procedures, which has caused a worldwide epidemic
of illegal practices. This is also a result of the excessive
commercialisation of cosmetic surgery. There are many
cases of uncertified medical practitioners causing major
damage to people and in worst cases killing them. A
study in Korea found that the subcutaneous injection
of silicone leads to severe pulmonary complications
(Chung KY et al.) There are also many news articles of
police raids in rundown apartment buildings, where
uncertified doctors are performing cosmetic procedures
on people, using silicone that is banned by the FDA to
be used on humans. (Lee Koh)
It is evident that plastic surgery is the alternative to
many things like exercising and growing old. However,
how ethical is this practice of changing a body to
achieve perfection? The media is the driving force
behind today’s image of beauty and also the increase
in cosmetic surgery procedures. This cosmetic surgery
trend is moving very quickly in the wrong direction
and if we do not act now, in the very near future it will
become an irreversible and tragic part of our lives.
References
American Society for Aesthetic Plastic Surgery. 2006 Statistics 29 March 2007.
http://www.surgery.org/press/statistics-2006.php
Bayer, Kathryn. ’Cosmetic Surgery and Cosmetics: Redefining the Appearance of
Age.’ Generation. San Francisco: Fall 2005. 29.3: p.13
Blair Lorrie and Maya Shalmon. ’Cosmetic Surgery and the Cultural Construction of
Beauty.’ Art Education. Reston: May 2005. 58.3: 14 –18
Blum, Virginia. ’Becoming the Other Woman: The Psychic Drama of Cosmetic
Surgery.’ Frontiers. Boulder: 2005. 26.2: 104–134
Chung KY et al. ’Clinicopathologic review of pulmonary silicone embolism with
special emphasis on the resultant histologic diversity in the lung – a review of
five cases’. Yonsei Med J. 2002 Apr; 43 (2): 152–9
Lee Koh Eun. Police Raid an Illegal Clinic Offering Cosmetic Surgery, The New
York Times. 21 April 2001. http://www.nytimes.com/2001/04/21/nyregion/
police-raid-an-illegal-clinic-offering-cosmetic-surgery.html. Accessed 21 May 2013.
207
208
UNIT 4: STRUCTURING COMMUNICATION
5 You have been asked to write an article in your
school’s magazine on the topic ‘Climate change:
its effect on the Caribbean’.
(a) Who is your audience?
(b) What method of exposition would you use?
Justify.
(c) How would you title the article? Explain why.
(d) Would you use photographs or diagrams?
Justify.
(e) In no more than 300 words write the article.
References
Bonander, R. (2006).Word Power. St Lucia Business Focus. Issue 37, December,
pp. 68–69.
Hacker, D. (1993), A Pocket Style Manual. New York: Bedford Books of St
Martin’s Press.
Kramer, M., Leggett, G & Mead, D. (1995). Prentice Hall Handbook for Writers.
New Jersey: Prentice Hall.
Language Arts Department. Sir Arthur Lewis Community College (St Lucia).
Student Essays.
Luengo, A. (1995). Canadian Writer’s Companion. Canada: Prentice Hall Ginn.
CHAPTER 12: ORGANISING SKILLS
12
Organising Skills
In the previous chapter we looked at the writing process – pre-writing, drafting,
revising, editing and publishing. In this chapter we take you a step further
by looking at polishing the written piece in terms of the components: the
introduction, the conclusion and the body. Oftentimes an essay is weakened
by the writer’s failure to pay attention to creating effective introductions and
conclusions that capture the audience’s attention. Another area that aids in
creating an effective piece is the linkages within and between paragraphs.
These help to create a flow of ideas that lead to better understanding of the
writer’s intent. This chapter also offers the reader ideas on how to format memos,
letters and reports, which are everyday requirements of the world of work.
The skills you learn in this chapter pertain to Module 3 and Specific Objective 9.
Expected Learning Outcomes
On completing this chapter, you should be able to:
1 demonstrate organising competencies in written communication
2 create an effective introduction using various techniques
3 create an effective conclusion using various styles
4 utilise linkages within paragraphs and between paragraphs to aid
in the logical flow of ideas
5 recognise the importance of sequencing within paragraphs
6 write memos, reports and letters.
Introduction
A piece of writing must be seen in terms of its components and its effectiveness depends
on how well each component is handled on its own as well as how well it fits in with the
others. Therefore, the parts of an essay must be organised in such a way that the reader
can read and follow the theme with minimum effort. As you have noticed, each form of
writing has its own characteristics. In this text, we have been dealing primarily with the
type of extended writing that college students are expected to master; however, other
forms of written communication such as reports and memos are equally important. The
organisation of these forms will be dealt with later in the chapter. In academic writing,
the essay consists of an introduction, a body and a conclusion.
209
210
UNIT 4: STRUCTURING COMMUNICATION
12.1
Components of academic writing
The introduction
Many writers find the introduction the most difficult aspect of compositions. Some deal
with the difficulty by writing the body of the essay before addressing the introduction.
However, this may not always be feasible, as in the case of an examination. An introduction
can be one or several paragraphs, depending on the length of your paper, but for the
purposes of this text, we will deal with the introductory paragraph. However you approach
it, the function of your introduction must be kept in mind. Whatever the type of writing,
the primary purpose of an introduction is to make your reader want to continue reading.
This means that great attention must be paid to crafting your introduction.
A good introduction has three functions:
(i) grabbing the reader’s attention
(ii) providing any necessary background to the topic
(iii) establishing the focus of the essay and the writer’s stance on the topic.
If you think about your introduction in this way, then it is easy to visualise how it should
be constructed.Your reader’s attention must be caught by the very first sentence or two.
Think of attention-getting devices that would suit your purpose such as a question, a powerful
quote, an interesting fact or a definition. The following are examples to illustrate this:
Example
Question: Are our men really at risk?
A powerful quote: ’What kind of an image do you have of yourself?’ asked
Errol Walton Barrow at a political rally in 1986.
An interesting fact: Thirty per cent of all drivers say they’ve fallen asleep at
the wheel at least once.
A definition: The Oxford Dictionary defines a tornado as a violent storm of
small extent with whirling winds.
The second part of your introduction should give your readers a brief orientation
to the topic. This should be very brief and just enough to place your topic in a context
for the reader. By extending this part of your introduction, you risk losing your reader’s
interest. In a typical short essay one or two sentences are generally sufficient for this part.
The third part of your introduction is the thesis statement, which you would already have
from your outline.
Things to avoid in your introduction:
Clichés (any word or phrase that you have heard several times before).
■ Obvious statements, for example ’There are many ways of defining love.’
■ Broad generalisations, for example ’For centuries the division of labour has been a problem.’
■ Stating what you will do ’In this essay, I will show that …’
■
CHAPTER 12: ORGANISING SKILLS
ACTIVITY 12.1
Read the following introductory paragraphs and identify the three main parts. What attention-getting
devices have been used?
Paragraph 1
Paragraph 2
Back in 1954, the Chordettes had a number one
hit singing the praises of ‘Mr. Sandman’, but today
he’s dead. It was a slow death; gradually, over a few
decades, Americans killed him. Farewell sweet dreams
and golden slumbers – we’ve entered into the age
of waking up tired. Don’t assume it’s not you, either.
Here’s a quick quiz: Do you get less than eight hours
of sleep a night? Fall asleep almost as soon as your
head hits the pillow? Need an alarm clock to wake up?
And sometimes that doesn’t even work? A ’yes’ to any
of those questions means you’re probably one of the
chronically sleep deprived.
K. McWhorter
What two-dimensional object has the ability to make
passers-by stop and think? A poster! Throughout
your day, take a look around and you’ll find posters
in your school, classroom, bus station, doctor’s office,
and probably in your bedroom. With just a few words
and a powerful visual image, a poster can inform,
entertain, or persuade its audience. Some posters are
so appealing that they are sold as pieces of art.
Definition
A paragraph can be
defined as a set of
related sentences that
deal with one idea or
topic in detail, in support
of the thesis of the essay.
R. Dawe et al.
The body
Your main task in the body of the essay is to develop the points in your outline into
logical coherent paragraphs. Each paragraph operates almost like a mini essay, and contains
a topic sentence, supporting details that develop or elaborate on the topic sentence and
a concluding sentence. The length of your paragraph depends on its purpose. However,
you should be conscious of maintaining balance in terms of the depth to which you
explore each topic.
(i) The topic sentence states the main idea of the paragraph and shows how it is
related to the thesis. It is generally placed near the beginning of the paragraph
but can really be placed anywhere in the paragraph depending on individual style
of organisation. However, the less experienced writer finds the paragraph easier
to handle if the topic sentence occurs at the beginning. Regardless of where it is
located, your topic sentence should ensure that your reader understands the main
idea of the paragraph.
(ii) Supporting details elaborate upon and justify your topic sentence. All supporting
sentences should be linked to the main idea of the paragraph. This is where the
topic is explored and illustrated in detail and the writer’s stance is clarified. The
information that you gathered during your pre-writing activities will be utilised
here. The supporting details can be referred to as the development of your
paragraph. They should be unified, that is, having a single focus, and coherent or
easily understandable to a reader.You can use some of the following methods to
develop your paragraphs:
211
212
UNIT 4: STRUCTURING COMMUNICATION
Define terms
Use examples
■ Compare and contrast
■ Demonstrate causes and effects
■ Provide an extended description of the topic
■ Analyse the topic
■ Cite facts, statistics and other supporting evidence
■ Introduce quotations or paraphrases that elucidate the topic
■ Use an anecdote or analogy
■ Illustrate a process through chronology.
■
■
Some of the ways in which you can enhance the coherence of your supporting
paragraphs are explored in the last section of Chapter 11, ‘writing with style’.
(iii) The concluding sentence is the final statement in the paragraph. It brings
together the gist of the details discussed in the paragraph and re-emphasises the
main idea. The concluding sentence can also provide a transition to the ideas of the
next paragraph.
Example
A well-organised essay presents its major points in a logical order. Readers
have an easier time understanding what you say if your ideas are organised
in a way that makes sense to them. To help readers understand your
organisational pattern, you will want to use transitions.
M. C. Rainey
The conclusion
Your concluding paragraph is your last opportunity to leave a good impression on
your readers. It allows you to re-emphasise the main idea of the essay and to leave your
readers with a sense of closure. Like your introduction, the conclusion varies in length
in proportion to the length of your paper. Its most important function is to ensure that
your readers understand how all your ideas fit together. The conclusion also reiterates the
significance of your topic in a wider context than that of your paper, thus underscoring
the importance of your contribution to the body of thought on that topic.
A good conclusion may use one or more of the following:
(i) Solution or recommendation – if you have been exploring a problem, you can
suggest ways of resolving the issue.
(ii) Statement of significance – indicate how your main idea is related to wider issues.
(iii) Speculation – offer one or two possible resolutions to an issue that you may not be
able to answer definitively.
(iv) Suggest further research – if you cannot make a pronouncement on an open-ended
issue, give specific suggestions for ways in which it may be investigated further.
(v) Call to action – if the topic lends itself to this, suggest ways in which your readers
themselves can respond to the issue.
Remember that, however you choose to leave a final impression in the reader’s mind,
your conclusion must round off your essay by relating directly to the thesis statement
without merely repeating or restating it.Your conclusion should never introduce new
information or a new topic.You should also avoid leaving your reader with the feeling
CHAPTER 12: ORGANISING SKILLS
of being preached at; rather you should encourage the reader to develop an opinion of
the views you have put forward. While, in the case of a test or examination, that final
impression aids in determining your grade, remember that writing is something you will
do for life; therefore you should view your closing as a way to help people remember
what you said so they can act on it in the appropriate way.
ACTIVITY 12.2
In an article in Family Magazine entitled ’An ounce of prevention’ the writer discusses
the parent’s role in drug prevention. Read the closing paragraph and discuss what
techniques the writer uses. Are there any he should have avoided? Are there any
changes you would suggest?
How committed are you to bringing up your children drug-free? Do you have a ‘No DrugUse Rule’? When initiating a ‘No-Use Rule’, it is extremely important to schedule sufficient
time to discuss it in a caring, respectful manner with complete explanations of how some
of the consequences could impact on both your child and the entire family. Remember,
‘An ounce of Prevention is better than a pound of Cure’.
I. Morris
Linkages
In any essay the paragraphs should be connected in some way so that the writer can
follow your thinking. One way of helping the reader to follow these logical steps is to
ensure that there are linkages or connections tying together the ideas in your paragraphs.
Of course the type of linkage that you use is dependent on the type of essay that you
are writing. For example, if you are describing a process then you may find yourself
using linkages such as first, second and lastly. However, in other types of essay you may
use linkages like therefore, ultimately, but, yet and consequently. Selection of an effective
transition word aids in the flow from one paragraph to the next. However, transitions
can also be used within paragraphs as these link the ideas in sentences and create unity of
thought in the paragraph.
Example
Parking in dark isolated parts of the parking lot may prevent a careless
driver from denting your car; on the other hand this may be quite
dangerous for you. How many times have you chosen a parking space
which you consider safe from those drivers who have difficulty lining
up their vehicle without scraping or bending yours? However, this
practice invites the potential car breaker, or worse, mugger who sees the
isolation as an advantage in carrying out the crime without being detected.
Consequently, it is in your best interest to choose a well-frequented area
of the car park and trust in the other drivers’ skills.
213
214
UNIT 4: STRUCTURING COMMUNICATION
ACTIVITY 12.3
Use these transitional words to link the following pairs of sentences:
consequently
therefore
however
similarly
1 Uniforms help us to identify our schoolmates. They are usually uncomfortable.
2 Drinking can impair your ability to make good judgements while driving. Drinking
and driving can be fatal.
3 The novel The Da Vinci Code was riveting from beginning to end. The movie
was interesting.
4 The drains were clogged. There was massive flooding.
The following table gives a list of various types of transition and some examples of
each. Use it as a reference while revising your writing.
Table 12.1
Transitional words
Type of transition
Examples
Addition
furthermore, next, first, second etc., besides, further, also, in
addition, again, as well as, even more, coupled with
Cause/effect
because, since, for that reason, therefore, consequently, thus,
hence, as a result, so, thereupon, due to
Comparison
likewise, similarly, in like manner, by the same token, in the same
way, comparatively, moreover
Contrast
yet, on the contrary, but, however, on the other hand, nonetheless,
though, otherwise, conversely, in contrast
Example/illustration
for instance, for example, to illustrate, as follows, in particular
Place/space
beyond, adjacent to, opposite to, nearby, above, below
Summary
therefore, in brief, in short, to sum up, in essence, for these reasons
Time/chronology
while, after, immediately, afterwards, in the meantime,
simultaneously, subsequently, next, meanwhile
Internal cohesion
In the discussion on linkages we looked at how linkages aid in unifying the paragraph. In
every paragraph there should be that sense of unity that allows the reader to follow your
argument or exposition. Internal cohesion refers to the writer’s ability to sustain an idea
that can be easily followed. The writer must be logical in the order in which ideas are
presented as well as in the development of the idea. Thus, while the use of connectives or
linkages aids in the internal cohesion of the paragraph, the information in the paragraph
must be logically sequenced in order to maintain that cohesion.
A simple example of internal cohesion can be seen in a process analysis like a recipe.
The logical progression would be for the writer to give the ingredients and tools needed
and then give the steps in the process of creating some tasty concoction. Imagine getting
started only to find later in the discourse that you do not have some key ingredient!
The internal cohesion of an argument or exposition works in the same way. There is
CHAPTER 12: ORGANISING SKILLS
a logical way to progress. For example, in an argument you might use examples and then
come to a conclusion that can be drawn from the examples.You would not expect to
come to the conclusion then go back to giving examples.
Example
Computers are used for a variety of everyday activities: computers are used
by tellers in banks to transact business. In supermarkets, scanners feed the
cost of the item into the computerised system. Likewise, in some countries,
students’ grades are entered into the school’s information systems and
emailed to parents. In recent times in the home, the personal computer has
replaced the encyclopaedia and dictionary. In essence, the computer has
become an indispensable tool in our daily lives.
12.2 Formatting business communication
There are standard structures for writing both in the academic world and the business
world. In Chapter 9 you would have learnt of the MLA and APA style manuals and ways
of presenting research. However, in the world of business there are also formats that are
considered acceptable. In the course of your adult life it is unlikely that you will avoid
having to write formal letters, reports, memos, résumés and curriculum vitae. The next
section gives a few suggestions as to how to set out these pieces of correspondence.
Memos
Should we call
a meeting?
I think we should
send a memo.
Fig. 12.1 Using memos
The memo is a short piece of internal correspondence written to colleagues in an institution.
It is usually informal in tone although in some cases it is used formally. Memos may be written
about a variety of subjects from non-technical to technical details. In terms of communication
it is an important aspect of interpersonal communication in the work environment.
There are specific components that you must use in creating a memo:
Date
To
■ From
■ Subject
■ Message
■
■
On page 216 is an example of an internal memo. Note that this is not a general staff
memo but has a specified audience.
215
216
UNIT 4: STRUCTURING COMMUNICATION
MEMORANDUM
To: Awards Committee
From: Dejanne Tun, Chairperson
Date: May 26, 2014
Subject: Confirmation of list of recipients (1)
Colleagues, a brief reminder that the list of recipients for this year’s company award
ceremony is due. (2)
It was agreed at the last meeting that this list would be in my hands by May 25, 2014,
however, I have only received confirmed lists from two committee members – Deon
Powell and Narad Kublasingh. (3)
Please send your lists by tomorrow, May 27, 2014 so that the final list can be collated
and sent to the CEO. (4)
Fig. 12.2 Internal memorandum
1 The subject line is important because it quickly informs the reader of the content of
the missive. Therefore it is important to capture the focus of the memo effectively.
2 The introduction is short and to the point. It is captured in one or two sentences.
3 The body of the memo is the discussion point you wish to make.
4 The conclusion tells the reader what to do.
As with all written communication, it is important to go through the stages of writing
(writing, rewriting, proofreading).
Fig. 12.3 Writing stages apply to all written communication
CHAPTER 12: ORGANISING SKILLS
The letter
There are various types of business letter that you may be required to write within
the world of work or your daily life. These include:
The letter of enquiry
■ The letter of complaint
■ Application letter.
■
As with the memo, there are specific components found in a letter. There are:
The writer’s address
The date
■ An inside address (the recipient’s address)
■ A salutation
■ The body of the letter
■ A closing
■ The writer’s typed name and signature.
■
■
22 Terrells Lane (1)
Goodwill
Dominica
May 09, 2014 (2)
The Manager (3)
Creative Homes
Bay Town Plaza
West Bay Road
Grand Cayman
Dear Sir/Madam: (4)
(5) I read the advertisement in the newspaper that informed of
your company’s ability to draw plans for any size home and for
those with a modest or expansive income. (i) The advertisement
did not include a website and I therefore would like to know if one
exists and failing that if there is a brochure that displays some of
your finished products. (ii)
I look forward to more information about your product including
the cost of drawing per square foot. (iii)
Yours sincerely (6)
Chandra Gopwani
Chandra Gopwani (7)
Fig. 12.4 Business letter
217
218
UNIT 4: STRUCTURING COMMUNICATION
Read the letter in Figure 12.4 as an example of a business letter. This is the full block
style letter, which is the preferred form in most businesses.
In the block style of letter writing both addresses are found on the left-hand side of the
page. The first address (1) is that of the sender. The date separates the two addresses (2) and
the second address (3) is that of the recipient and this includes the name or title of that
individual. The salutation (4) comes next and this is based on prior knowledge. That is, if
you know the name of the person to whom the letter is directed then you should use it.
However, if the name is unknown, as in this case, then the writer should use Sir/Madam.
The body of the letter (5) has an opening (i), middle (ii) and closing (iii). As with any
piece of writing, there is a need to organise ideas, thus the writer must introduce or give
some indication of the purpose of the letter then discuss what he/she wants and indicate
the action to be taken. The closing (6) comes next followed by the writer’s typed name
and signature (7).
Based on your reading you would have determined that this letter is a letter of
enquiry. The writer is seeking information from a company. Some questions that you
might bear in mind when composing the letter of enquiry are:
To whom are you writing? For example, the Manager.
Why are you writing?
■ What exactly do you want to know?
■ What do you want the writer to do in response to your enquiry?
■ How quickly would you like a response?
■
■
In answering these questions you would in fact clarify the purpose and help organise
your ideas. Of course, the next step is to write the letter. As with all writing it is necessary to:
Pre-write
Draft
■ Revise
■ Create the final draft
■ Format.
■
■
For more information on the writing process, see Chapter 11.
There are other types of business letter and one that individuals often have to use is the
letter of complaint. As the name suggests, this type of letter seeks to indicate a wrong and
have that wrong put right. Following on page 219 is an example of a letter of complaint.
As with the letter of enquiry, there are specific questions that guide you in writing the
letter of complaint:
Who is your audience?
■ Why exactly are you writing?
■ What is the nature of your complaint?
■ What action do you expect?
■ When should this action take place?
■
Using these questions helps you to organise your
writing. Remember that a business letter should be simple,
straightforward and allow for action to be taken.
Did you
know?
If you prepare your letter
on a computer you can
use the letter wizard in
Microsoft Word to help
you write your letter.
CHAPTER 12: ORGANISING SKILLS
Reservoir Heights
Brookdale
St Michael
May 27, 2014
The Chairman
The Board of Management
The Barbados Water Authority
Pine
St Michael
Dear Sir:
Over the past months, the reservoir in Brookdale, St Michael has become a haven for
rats and other vermin. This situation has come about because the reservoir has been
allowed to become overgrown.
In previous years the National Conservation Commission came regularly and
cleaned the whole property. However, the infrequent cleaning effected by
your company only extends to the cover of the actual reservoir leaving the
surrounding areas to become over-run with shrubbery of various heights.
Lest you question the presence of rats, I must indicate that I myself have seen
such vermin run from your property and onto my wall. In addition, because of
the height of the shrubs, one cannot be sure what other vermin lie awaiting the
right opportunity to pounce.
Sir, I have spoken to those responsible for cleaning the reservoir on various
occasions to no avail. I am now appealing to you to have the reservoir de-bushed
and to set in place a maintenance schedule to obviate my continued calls to
your company.
Your speedy response to this matter is vital to maintaining uncontaminated
water resources as well as ensuring the health and security of my family.
Yours truly,
.
Beverley Broome (Mrs)
Fig. 12.5 Letter of complaint
219
220
UNIT 4: STRUCTURING COMMUNICATION
Application letters
The application letter is one that accompanies your résumé or CV. This letter is short
and to the point, simply indicating your interest in a specific job, brief details of your
qualifications and your availability for an interview. The intent of this letter is to persuade
the reader that he/she should examine your résumé or CV. This letter, also known as
a cover letter, should be no more than a page in length. Following is an example of
an application letter.
14 Shaw’s Road
Newcastle
Nevis
November 7, 2013
The Personnel Manager
Island Furniture Store
#25 Frigate Bay Road
Basseterre
St. Kitts
Dear Ms Campbell:
I am responding to the advertisement in the October 30, 2013 issue of The St.
Kitts-Nevis Observer for an accounting officer. I have just completed an Associate
degree in Accounting at the Clarence Fitzroy Bryant College and I am sure that I
would be an asset to your company.
I have enclosed my résumé but I would like to highlight some important details.
For the past three years I have worked in the accounting department of the
Alexandra Hospital during the summer vacation. As such, I have gained first-hand
experience in the world of accounting and working in an office environment. I am
proficient in QuickBooks as well as the Microsoft Suite and have a working
knowledge of FoxPro.
I look forward to meeting with you to discuss employment possibilities. I can be
contacted at 916-4567 or 283-4567 at your convenience.
Thank you for your consideration.
Yours truly,
Michael McCarp
Enclosure
Fig. 12.6 Letter of application
CHAPTER 12: ORGANISING SKILLS
The résumé
The résumé is a one-page document that highlights your educational and professional
achievements. It has four components:
1 Personal data: name, address, telephone numbers, email address
2 Educational background
3 Work experience
4 Names of referees.
RÉSUMÉ
MICHAEL I. McCARP
NO 14 SHAW’S ROAD
NEWCASTLE
NEVIS
(876) 916-4567 OR (876) 283-4567
E-mail
mccarp@hotmail.com
Employment
2011–2013 Alexandra Hospital, Nevis
Accounts Clerk
• Assisted in billing patients
• Assisted in preparing receipts
• Input daily receipts
• Assisted in reconciliation of receivables
Education
2010–2013 Clarence Fitzroy Bryant College, St. Kitts
AD. Accounting
Expertise
Proficient in Microsoft Suite and QuickBooks
References
Available on request
Fig. 12.7 An example of a résumé
221
222
UNIT 4: STRUCTURING COMMUNICATION
When writing your résumé:
Do not make errors, as this is the first impression that your prospective employer receives.
■ If you have several different contact numbers, do not include all. One land line and one
cellular number are adequate.
■ Never give the present employer’s number as a contact number. This is poor business practice.
■
Fig. 12.8 The résumé
The curriculum vitae
The curriculum vitae, also known as a CV, is longer than the résumé and gives a fuller
picture of who you are. Like the résumé, it includes information about your education
and work experience but it also includes awards and honours received, as well as your
affiliations and interests. For example, if Michael McCarp received the prize for Accounts
at his secondary school, this should be in his
CV. His choral singing with the college chorale
should also be included, as well as his volunteer
ACTIVITY 12.4
work with the Red Cross Association. The
1 Try writing your résumé using
CV can also include personal details such as
the format in the first example.
your date of birth and marital status. There is a
Give it to a friend who knows
you well and ask him or her
difference in length as well. The CV is usually
to make recommendations for
two or more pages to allow for the additional
improvement.
information. While in the Caribbean the résumé
2 Now try writing the CV adding
and CV are requested by all types of company,
the specific pieces of additional
in North America the résumé is preferred in
information normally included in
the world of business while the CV is often
the CV.
requested in academic circles. See the example
of a curriculum vitae in Figure 12.9.
CHAPTER 12: ORGANISING SKILLS
Juanita Escobar
2418 Consuelo Street | Belize City
Tel. (501) 02-73516 or e-mail: scobanita@gmail.com
BIRTH:
September 12, 1994, Belize City, Belize
EDUCATION:
Associate Degree in Technology; Corozal Community College, Corozal, Belize 2010–2012
WORK EXPERIENCE:
•
•
Data Entry Clerk: Belize Telecommunications Ltd. Summer 2012
Receptionist/Office Attendant: Computer Services Ltd. Belize City, Summer 2011
ACHIEVEMENTS/AWARDS:
•
•
•
•
•
Corozal Community College Overall Outstanding Application Award
Award for Outstanding Performance at Caribbean Advanced Proficiency Examinations
President, Information Technology Club
Public Relations Officer, Young Leaders’ Group
Valedictorian, Graduation ceremony, 2012
MEMBERSHIPS:
•
•
•
•
Chess Club, Corozal Community College
National Youth Choir of Belize
Belize Red Cross
National HIV/AIDS Peer Counselling Group
LANGUAGES:
•
•
English (first language)
Spanish
HOBBIES & INTERESTS
Singing, reading, horseback riding, lawn tennis, dancing
OTHER INFORMATION:
•
•
Travel experience through the Caribbean & the USA
Excellent computer skills
REFERENCES:
Mr Ruben Martinez
Principal
Corozal Community College
Corozal, Belize
Tel. (501) 02-35227
Ms Jane Valdes
Human Resource Manager
Belize Telecommunications Ltd.
St. Thomas Street, Belize City
Tel. (501) 02-75165
Fig. 12.9 Example of a curriculum vitae
223
224
UNIT 4: STRUCTURING COMMUNICATION
Writing reports
In your day-to-day life, academic life as well as the world of work,
there will be occasions where you are asked to report on what you
have seen, where you went or what you are working on. These
reports fall into various categories. In this text we will explore
the following types of report:
■
■
Accident or incident report
Travel report.
There are some basic items that any report should contain:
Heading
Introduction
■ Body (discussion)
■ Conclusions/recommendations.
■
■
The heading indicates the date on which the report is written, the
person or persons to whom the report is directed, the name of the
person who is writing the report and the subject of the report.
Fig. 12.10 Business report
Example
Date: April 29, 2014
To: The Principal
From: Merton Charles
Subject: REPORT ON BREAKING OF CLASSROOM WINDOW
Next comes the introduction. In this case the introduction should indicate the reason
for the report.
Introduction
As requested this report explains what led to the breaking of the window
in Room 304.
In the body of the report the writer should provide a clear and concise discourse on
the incident.
Discussion
The incident occurred at approximately 2.00 p.m. Mr Simms was absent
from school and no teacher had arrived as a substitute. Soraya and Justin were
playing with the football in the classroom. Soraya told Justin that he was too
‘soft’ and couldn’t hit the ball hard enough. Justin kicked the ball with some
strength and the ball hit the wall and bounced into the window breaking the
glass. Soraya and Justin ran through the door and disappeared. The substitute
teacher arrived to find the window broken and glass on the floor.
The conclusion comes next.
Conclusion
This incident was an accident caused by the irresponsibility of two
students only. The rest of the class was not involved.
CHAPTER 12: ORGANISING SKILLS
Following is an example of a travel report.
To: Head of the Geography Department
From: Femi Bowen
Date: June 16, 2013
Subject: Geography tour to St Lucia
Introduction
On May 15, 2013, the Lower Sixth geography students went on an eight day tour
to St Lucia.
Twenty students and four staff members went on tour. Attached is a list of those
who went on tour.
Following is a report on the activities for the eight days.
Discussion
Wednesday 15 – Arrival in St Lucia. Orientation at hotel and tour assignments.
Thursday 16
– Visit to Pigeon Point Museum and observation of beach shape
and development.
Friday 17
– Les Pitons and Soufriere. Volcanic structures.
Saturday 18
– Dennery. A village on the eastern side of the island. Sandstone
formations. Observation of river course en route.
Sunday 19
– Rest day.
Monday 20
– Banana packing shed. Banana fields.
Tuesday 21
– Rain forest tour.
Wednesday 22 – Castries. The craft market. Depart St Lucia.
The students were transported by an air-conditioned tour bus outfitted with a
speaker which allowed teachers to inform students of what they were seeing
along the way.
This was a very successful tour that allowed students to view landforms not
visible in their own territory. It is the hope that these tours will become part of
the required coursework at this institution.
Attachment
Fig. 12.11 Travel report
There are several different types of report but, if you use the format as seen in the
examples above and on page 224, you should be able to produce a concise and clear
document that provides your audience with the required information.
225
226
UNIT 4: STRUCTURING COMMUNICATION
ACTIVITY 12.5
1 Write a report on an incident that occurred at your institution. Use
the suggested format.
2 You are engaged in research for your SBA in communication studies.
Write a progress report for your teacher. Remember that all reports
contain the same headings.
Conclusion
Organisation is key to effective communication. Everything that
we write, whether it be in school, the world of work or at home,
tells the reader something about the writer. If the ideas we
want to express are not well organised then we are likely to be
misunderstood or not understood at all. Think of occasions when
you have received assignments with comments such as ‘unclear’
or ‘clarify’ or ‘your ideas are jumbled’. These comments can be
avoided if you take some time to organise your ideas, to sequence,
to make linkages and to format your writing. If you do this there
will be improved clarity of expression. Now that you have learnt
how to compose and organise your writing, the next chapter will
be relevant to the editing/proofreading stage of the writing process
and will help you to apply the rules of grammar to ensure a well
finished product.
CHAPTER 12: ORGANISING SKILLS
Evaluation
and extension
1 Read the following and answer the question
that follows.
3 Use one of the topics in question 2 to organise
and write a speech or essay.
4 Your best friend is about to enter an essay
competition. Discuss three aspects of writing the
essay you would share with her/him in order to
ensure that she/he is a sure winner.
5 Write a memo to the members of the Graduation
In its popular use the word culture usually refers
to refinement or cultivation. The cultured person
is thought to be one who is well educated,
well mannered, and refined in behaviour; who
appreciates a certain type of art and prefers
Beethoven to the latest hit tunes. As used in this
book culture has a different and more specialised
meaning. It refers to all the accepted and
patterned ways of behaviour of a given people. It
is a body of common understandings. It is the sum
total and the organisation or arrangement of all
the group’s ways of thinking, feeling and acting.
It also includes the physical manifestations of the
group as exhibited in the objects they make – the
clothing, shelter, tools, weapons, implements,
utensils, and so on. In this sense, of course, every
people – however primitive – has a culture, and
no individual can live without culture.
I.C. Brown
Committee indicating the progress in planning
for the event and reminding them of the next
meeting.
6 Write a progress report to the Principal from the
Graduation Committee.
7 Prepare a résumé and CV for use when you leave
your current institution. If possible, store this on
a computer, USB drive or compact disc for future
improvement and additions.
References
Brown, I. (1963). Understanding Other Cultures. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey:
Prentice Hall, pp. 3–4.
Dawe, R., Duncan, B. & Mathieu, W. (1995). Resource Lines 9/10. Canada:
Prentice Hall Ginn, p. 246.
Hodges, J. & Whitten, M. (1994). Harbrace College Handbook, 12th edn. Fort
Worth: Harcourt Brace Co.
McWhorter, K. (2002). Reading Across the Disciplines: College reading and
beyond. Longman, p. 426.
Morris, I. (2006). An Ounce of Prevention is Better than a Pound of Cure.
Family Magazine. The Barbados Family Planning Association. December, p. 23.
Rainey, M.C. (2003). Expressions. Longman, p. 173.
Types of Research. Handbook for Postgraduate Research Students, pp.1–7.
Retrieved 19
March 2007 from www.pginfo.uhi.ac.uk/types_of_research.htm.
What techniques has this writer used to develop
this paragraph? Look for transitions.
2 For each of the following topics create
introductory sentences that would capture the
reader’s attention.
(a) The human body
(b) Save our environment
(c) Violence against women
(d) The impact of music on the teenager.
Discuss your sentences with other members
of your class.
Zemach, D. & Rumisek, L. (2005). Academic Writing from Paragraph to Essay.
Oxford: Macmillan, p. 81.
227
228
UNIT 4: STRUCTURING COMMUNICATION
13
Applying the Rules
From the previous chapters, one may conclude that communication is
interaction using a set of processes that are governed by rules. Without rules,
there would be no meaning to our communicative behaviours. To communicate
effectively one should not only be theoretically familiar with the rules of
a language but should also be adept at implementing them in everyday
communication. This chapter reviews the areas of Standard English grammar
and mechanics that most often present difficulty to students. It is not a fully
comprehensive coverage of all aspects of English grammar, but focuses on the
problems that tend to persist up to the tertiary level. Most of the examples
used are taken from actual student writing.
The skills you learn in this chapter pertain to Specific Objective 1 in All Modules.
Expected Learning Outcomes
On completing this chapter, you should be able to:
1 use structures of English correctly and appropriately
2 identify the main types of error in English
3 edit and proofread written work
4 select and use appropriate structures to improve oral and written
communication style.
Introduction
Many errors result from careless or
hasty work that has not been edited.
As you have learnt, the editing stage
of the writing process is crucial to
the presentation of a lucid piece of
communication. While many structures
and rules are employed automatically as
we write or speak, others have not been
assimilated correctly or at all. Unless a
specific effort is made to revisit the latter,
we never fully grasp them and continue
making the same error. The main areas of
difficulty in English relate to the proper
use of verbs (agreement and tenses),
nouns and sentence structure. Some areas
of mechanics can also be problematic.
Fig. 13.1 Simple sentences
CHAPTER 13: APPLYING THE RULES
13.1
Sentence structure
Most structural errors occur either because writers do not differentiate between a phrase
and a clause or not enough attention is paid to punctuation. This results in fragments,
run-on sentences or dangling modifiers, which make your writing ungrammatical
and clumsy.
A phrase is a group of grammatically linked words that has either no subject or no
predicate (verb phrase), or neither subject nor predicate and cannot make complete sense.
Example
Bathing in the river (no subject)
The man on the beach (no predicate)
Across the room (no subject or predicate)
A clause is a group of grammatically linked words containing both a subject and a
predicate. An independent clause can stand alone as a sentence, meaning that it can
make complete sense on its own.
Example
Sherry Ann refused to apologise.
My mother pays all my fees.
The examples above are independent clauses and, therefore, they are sentences. A
sentence can also be made up of more than one independent clause.
Example
Sherry Ann refused to apologise because she thought that her actions were
justified.
Notice that the sentence now has two parts joined by the conjunction ‘because’, and
both parts can stand alone and make complete sense.
Dependent or subordinate clauses cannot stand alone as sentences even though they
contain both subject and predicate.
Example
Because the flight was late when she got married.
Subordinate clauses must be attached to an independent clause in order to acquire
complete meaning.
Example
We waited a long time because the flight was late.
She did not give up her job when she got married.
Subordinate clauses begin with a subordinate conjunction (when, if, because, so,
therefore, however, and so on).
229
230
UNIT 4: STRUCTURING COMMUNICATION
ACTIVITY 13.1
Label the following (a) Independent clause, (b) Dependent clause or (c) Phrase
Before the first day of school
2 When the game was over
3 I cannot tolerate this loud music
4 Kenneth refused to leave the room
5 Therefore there was no conclusion
6 Leaving behind his children
7 Torn into several bits
8 You need to check the telephone directory
9 Because there should not be two appliances running at once
10 Since he was unable to locate the lost document
11 No territory is truly independent
12 Between you and me
1
13.2 Fragments
Fragments are usually parts of sentences or phrases that are not connected to the main
clause and often occur because of faulty punctuation or lack of a subordinator.You may have
noticed that newspaper and magazine journalists use fragments as part of their journalistic
style. This is an acceptable practice in journalism, where it is a device often used for emphasis.
Example
The regional governments have not articulated clear policies on
integration. Which is why there is need for increased agitation by
the public.
This device is also often used in speech. However, you should avoid fragments in your
academic or formal writing.You would therefore write the above thus:
Example
The regional governments have not articulated clear policies on
integration; which is why there is need for increased agitation by
the public.
Not all fragments are merely disconnected phrases that can be edited by inserting
punctuation. Some are written as main clauses but lack a subject or main verb. These can
normally be edited by the addition of a verb or the creation of a subject.
Example
Clothes and books thrown everywhere.
Clothes and books were thrown everywhere. (Verb added.)
By staying out too late at night can affect your health.
Staying out too late at night can affect your health.
(Subject created by dropping preposition.)
CHAPTER 13: APPLYING THE RULES
13.3 Run-on sentences
Also known as fused sentences, run-on sentences are a series of clauses written without
any joining devices or any punctuation that would make them separate sentences. A runon sentence can be separated into at least two independent clauses; however, the length of
the sentence is no indicator as to whether it is a run-on or not. This structural flaw can
occur even in short sentences.
Example
The car stopped I hardly noticed it.
I looked out to the harbour the ship was in the bay.
The houses that were on the hill were blown away by the hurricane the
foundations were all that was left.
These sentences can be corrected in the following ways:
Example
The car stopped but I hardly noticed it.
I looked out to the harbour and saw that the ship was in the bay.
The houses that were on the hill were blown away by the hurricane and
the foundations were all that was left
ACTIVITY 13.2
Edit the following paragraph by correcting the fragments and run-ons.
There are many ways to select a topic for writing. Such as, brainstorming, referring to your
diary or finding something that interests you. Brainstorming means jotting down all the
ideas you can think of that means you just write without really thinking carefully. Your diary
is an excellent place to find topics. Also any notebooks you may have. You can look back at
things you have noted at various times in your life sometimes you may retrieve an idea that
you had not explored comprehensively at the time. Finally, you can always use your areas
of interest to select a topic that can be fully explored. The advantage of using this method
is that you should find it easy to generate ideas that is the aim of every writer. Most of all,
you will find writing your essay a very interesting activity. As it should be.
13.4
Dangling or misplaced modifiers
A modifier is a word or phrase that describes or adds information to another element
in the sentence. When the modifier does not clarify meaning or is placed in an illogical
position in the sentence, it is said to be dangling or misplaced. Badly used modifiers can
obscure the meaning that you would like your reader to get.
231
232
UNIT 4: STRUCTURING COMMUNICATION
Example 1
Walking to school, the dog tore my pants.
Is it clear who was walking to school? ‘Walking to school’ is a dangling modifier,
which can be made clear as follows:
As I was walking to school, the dog tore my pants.
Example 2
The Prime Minister arrived with her husband, wearing a pink
flowered dress.
If the dress was worn by the Prime Minister and not by her husband, then this is a
misplaced modifier. The sentence should be constructed thus:
The Prime Minister, wearing a pink flowered dress, arrived with
her husband.
Example 3
I nearly ran the entire marathon.
What does it mean to ‘nearly run’? The word ‘nearly’ has been misplaced as a modifier.
The sentence should read:
I ran nearly the entire marathon.
ACTIVITY 13.3
Reconstruct the following
sentences to eliminate
dangling or misplaced
modifiers:
1 The man was walking the
dog in a green army jacket.
2 Shazi almost ate an entire
box of chocolates.
3 Having finished all
homework, the games
began.
4 Coming home from work,
a tranquil home is the best
place to relax.
5 To be a good teacher,
homework must be
returned promptly.
6 I want to really do well
on this test.
Fig. 13.2 If only...
CHAPTER 13: APPLYING THE RULES
13.5 Verbs
Subject/verb agreement
This is a common source of error that can be avoided if you remember that, in a Standard
English sentence, the subject and verb must agree in number and person. The basic rule is
that subject and verb must be either both singular or both plural. In the present tense ‘s’ or
‘es’ is added to regular verbs for singular subjects except in the case of the first and second
person singular.
Example
The boys/they sing (plural subject)
The boy/he sings (singular subject)
In order to determine whether or not you have used the correct verb, you must be able
to identify the subject of your sentence. While the subject most often comes before the
verb, as in ‘Mandy was the first class prefect’, occasionally, a sentence has the subject after
the verb as in, ‘Swiftly, over the water, glides the swan.’ The latter type of construction is
most common in poetry or poetic prose. Another instance where the verb precedes the
subject is in sentences beginning with ‘there is’ or ‘there are’.
Example
There is a long queue at the bank.
There are numerous potholes in the road.
Some students make errors when a sentence has a modifying phrase between the
subject and the verb. A modifying phrase gives you more information about the subject
but is not essential to the sentence. It can be omitted without affecting the meaning.
Remember that the subject is never found in a modifying phrase.
Example
The survey, which was carried out with a large group of students, reveals
some unexpected information.
‘…which was carried out with a large group of students’ is a modifying phrase that
gives you more information about the survey but is not essential to the meaning of the
basic sentence, ‘The survey reveals some unexpected information.’
Sometimes it may be difficult to determine if the subject is singular or plural. Note the
following:
a) Indefinite pronouns, (each, someone, somebody, everyone, anyone) are considered singular.
Example
Anyone who wants to join the group has to be over sixteen.
Everyone is welcome to submit a proposal.
b) If the subject of a sentence consists of two or more nouns or pronouns connected by
‘and’, it is considered plural.
Example
Jenna and Sanjay are the nominees for valedictorian.
233
234
UNIT 4: STRUCTURING COMMUNICATION
c) Expressions such as together with, in addition to, including, accompanied by, do not
change the number of the subject.
Example
All the boys, including Akeem, are in the choir.
The Prime Minister, accompanied by his bodyguards, is due to arrive
soon.
d) If a compound subject contains both a singular and a plural noun or pronoun joined
by ‘or’ or ‘nor’, agreement should be with the part of the subject nearest the verb.
Example
Neither the students nor the teacher has been on time.
Neither the teacher nor the students have been on time.
Either you or Kayla is the culprit.
e) Some collective nouns can be singular when used to refer to a group as a unit, or plural
when referring to individuals in a group. Pay attention to the context of the sentence:
is the group in unanimous or separate actions? Unanimous action requires you to treat
the group as a singular subject. However, if the context makes it clear that individuals
in the group are engaged in different actions, the group must be treated as a plural subject.
Example
The jury has returned to the courtroom (singular)
The jury have been arguing over this matter (plural)
The group takes long walks together (singular)
The crowd were running in different directions (plural)
f) Some nouns ending in ‘s’ may be either singular or plural. These are called
unchangeable nouns, meaning that their spelling is never changed whether they are
singular or plural.
Example
Singular
Aerobics helps to maintain fitness levels.
Economics is the most popular subject at this school.
Bad news spreads quickly.
Plural
My glasses/spectacles are not tinted.
Not all scissors are sharp.
Obviously, your pants need a belt.
g) Unlike other verbs, the verb ‘to be’ does not have two forms in the present simple tense
(with ‘s’/‘es’ or without ‘s’/‘es’) but has three. The first person singular has its own verb
‘am’; third person singular subjects take ‘is’ and the second person singular takes ‘are’.
CHAPTER 13: APPLYING THE RULES
Example
I am never bored.
You/they/the children are excellent swimmers.
She/Percy/that child is my main competition.
h) Verbs that end with an ‘s’ sound must also have ‘s’ or ‘es’ added for the third person
singular in the present simple tense.
Example
If the criminal confesses his/her crime, the court may be more lenient.
Shanda possesses the most land in the village.
He often experiences dizzy spells.
ACTIVITY 13.4
Dinesh as well as Chad
Use the substitution
Table 13.1 to practise
subject and verb
agreement.
Make as many
sentences as you can.
Dr Perez
Either Shem or Lee
Kayla, one of the dancers
Rahid
is
was
plays
likes
She
Neither the dog nor the cat
Nikita and Sharla
The boys
All the students
The members of the group
They
Table 13.1 Subject
and verb agreement
are
were
play
like
deep sea diving
long walks
video games
the tenor pan
chess
in the choir
experts in karate
Mr and Mrs Chang
My pets
Tense
This is another area of grammar
that often gives rise to errors.
Verbs denote action and action
occurs within some time frame.
This time is denoted by the
tense of the verb. The ending
of a verb indicates its tense.
Fig. 13.3 Subject / verb agreement
Is is correct
or is are?
235
236
UNIT 4: STRUCTURING COMMUNICATION
a) The present tense deals with what is currently happening or continuously happens.
In the Caribbean we often add the ‘s’ to the first person ending of the verb in the
present tense:
Example
Table 13.2 Present
tense
Incorrect
Correct
I works at the local pharmacy.
I likes to eat.
I work at the local pharmacy.
I like to eat.
Remember the rule for the present tense of the verb:
Table 13.3 Present
tense verb endings
Singular endings
Plural endings
I work
You work
He, she or it works
We work
You work
They work
Notice that only the third person singular takes the ‘s’.
b) The past tense is also denoted by the verb ending. In the Caribbean we often drop
the ‘d’ or ‘ed’ ending of the verb. Regular verbs form the past tense using ‘d’ or ‘ed’.
Example
Table 13.4: Past
tense
Incorrect
Correct
I call you yesterday.
She collect the money for the
tour last week.
I called you yesterday.
She collected the money for the
tour last week.
Of course, there are many irregular verbs with which we must become familiar.
Note the following examples:
Table 13.5 List of
some irregular
verbs
Present
Past
come
buy
bring
speak
teach
drink
came
bought
brought
spoke
taught
drank
c) The present participle describes action that is happening over a sustained period.
The present participle is formed by adding ‘ing’ to the verb and using a helping verb.
A common error is the absence of the helping verb.
Example
Table 13.6 Present
participles
Incorrect
Correct
I going to the supermarket.
She eating.
I am going to the supermarket.
She is eating.
CHAPTER 13: APPLYING THE RULES
The correct use of helping verbs is seen in the following examples:
Example
Hundreds are going to the World Cup final.
Those children are running down the hill too quickly.
That CD has been playing all day.
We are running in the 400 metre final.
He has been looking for you all day.
d) When a writer is using the past tense and wants to tell us about something that
happened before, a helping verb (is, was, were, have, has, had) and the past participle
are used. The past participle is formed by adding ‘en’ or ‘ed’ to the regular verb as in the
following examples.
Example
The man was bitten by the next door
neighbour’s Akita.
These horses were ridden in the latest derby.
The boys have taken the ball from the office.
I have stayed at the Holiday Inn.
Edna was considered for the post.
In the Caribbean we often misuse ‘have’ as a helping verb or use the wrong form of the
verb as a past participle.
Spot the errors in the following sentences:
(i) The girl has forgot her books.
(ii) The play hasn’t end yet.
(iii) They have drove to town.
The correct sentences should read:
(i) The girl has forgotten her books.
(ii) The play hasn’t ended yet.
(iii) They have driven to town.
Past participles of irregular verbs should be memorised.
Table 13.7 Irregular
past participles
Base verb
Past form
Past participle
arise
eat
bite
fly
ring
do
know
forgive
sing
drive
arose
ate
bit
flew
rang
did
knew
forgave
sang
drove
arisen
eaten
bitten
flown
rung
done
known
forgiven
sung
driven
e) There are three problem verbs that commonly give trouble to the unsuspecting writer.
These verbs are: be, do and have.
237
238
UNIT 4: STRUCTURING COMMUNICATION
Be
This verb is especially problematic in the past tense but errors are also found in the
present tense. It is useful to review this verb structure.
Table 13.8 Be
Present tense
Common error
I am
You are
He, she, it is
We are
You are
They are
I is
You is
He, she or it are
We is
You is
They is
Past tense
Common error
I was
You were
He/she/it was
We were
You were
They were
I were
You was
He/she/it were
We was
You was
They was
As a good writer you must make a careful check for the errors listed above.You need
to recognise which errors you are prone to make and proofread for those specific errors.
Do
This is another verb that is often used incorrectly. Let us look at the correct form of the
verb and the common errors seen.
Table 13.9 Do
Present tense
Common error
ACTIVITY 13.5
I do
You do
He/she/it does
We do
You do
They do
I does
You does
He/she/it do
We does
You does
They does
Past tense
Common error
Correct the errors
in the following
sentences:
1 You does really eat a
lot of food.
2 Rashaad do his
speech on racism.
I did
You did
He/she/it did
We did
You did
They did
I done do
You done
He/she/it done
We done
You done
They done
3 They does their
exercises every night.
4 We done that book
in first form.
Quite often, Caribbean speakers use both ‘does’ and ‘do’ together as in ‘She does do
that all the time.’ Here, the word ‘does’ is used as a modifier in Creole, to indicate
continuous tense.You must be careful not to confuse this with the English usage of this
word for purposes of emphasis. For example, when reading the English sentence, ‘He
does sing well!’ you would stress or emphasise the word ‘does’ to indicate that there is no
doubt about the fact that he sings well; however, the sentence does not mean that he is
continuously singing.
CHAPTER 13: APPLYING THE RULES
Have
This verb is also problematic in both the present and past tense. Review its structure and
the common errors associated with its use.
Table 13.10 Have
Present tense
Common error
I have
You have
He/she/it has
We have
You have
They have
I has
You has
He/she/it have
We has
You has
They has
Past tense
Common error
I had
You had
He/she/it had
We had
You had
They had
I has
You have
He/she/it have
We has
You have
They has
ACTIVITY 13.6
Identify and correct the errors in the following sentences:
1 Kira have your telephone number.
2 I has the car keys.
3 This tree have a lot of mangoes.
4 They has a lot of holes in their pants.
Fill in the blanks using the verb ’to have’.
1 Tina and Ture already __________ jobs for the vacation.
2 Kiah __________ a detention this evening.
3 Jonquil and Kraig __________ tickets to the World Cup final.
4 The Caribbean islands __________ warm weather most of the year.
Remember, it is important to know your verb forms and to proofread carefully in
order to avoid these errors in your final draft.
Active and passive voice
Verb forms can be classified as either active or passive. When a verb is active, there is a
straightforward relationship between the subject performing the action and the verb.
Example
s
v
The police officer arrested the protestor.
s
v
The horse kicked the groom.
239
240
UNIT 4: STRUCTURING COMMUNICATION
In the above sentences the subject is doing something and is active; therefore the verb
is said to be in the active voice. In passive voice sentences, the subject of the sentence does
not act, but is acted upon.
Example
s
v
The protestor was arrested by the police officer.
s
v
The groom was kicked by the horse.
Notice that the subject is not responsible for performing the action and is therefore
said to be passive. In passive construction there is often no need to mention the agent
actually executing the action. ‘The protestor was arrested’ and ‘the groom was kicked’ are
perfectly acceptable sentences.
If you have used a word processing programme, you may have noticed your grammar
checking software highlighting your passive constructions and suggesting that you change
them to the active voice. In many cases, use of the active voice makes your writing more
interesting and lively; however, the passive voice is expected in some types of academic, legal
or scientific writing. It is also used when the actor in the situation is not important, the writer
wants to place emphasis on the passive subject, or responsibility for an action is not clear.
Example
The ’green flash’ phenomenon can be observed at sunset.
The Governor General has been appointed.
The new policy was approved on Wednesday.
Both active and passive voice constructions are useful in your writing; however, it is
important to be consistent within the sentence. Passive and active voices should not be
used in the same sentence.
Notice that the past participle form of the verb is always used in the passive voice,
regardless of the number or tense. An auxiliary or helping verb is used with the past
participle to create a passive verb.
There are certain verbs that cannot be transformed into passive construction; for
example, ‘I have a new car’ would not be expressed as ‘a new car is had by me’. This is not
a grammatically acceptable English construction.
Example
Table 13.11
Auxiliary verbs
Tense
Subject
Auxiliary
(singular)
Auxiliary
(plural)
Participle
Present
The child / children
is
are
adopted
Present perfect
The child / children
has been
have been
adopted
Past
The child / children
was
were
adopted
Past perfect
The child / children
had been
had been
adopted
Future
The child / children
will be
will be
adopted
Future perfect
The child / children
will have been
will have been
adopted
Present continuous
The child / children
is being
are being
adopted
Past continuous
The child / children
was being
were being
adopted
CHAPTER 13: APPLYING THE RULES
ACTIVITY 13.7
Read the sentences below and (i) identify those with verbs that cannot be transformed
into the passive voice, (ii) transform the others from active to passive or vice versa.
1 Our fund raising drive had been approved by the Principal.
2 The coach called a time-out with just ten seconds left in the game.
3 All new students will be informed of the school regulations by the President of the
Students’ Council.
4 Tama resembles her grandmother.
5 Jason lacks the qualifications required for the post.
6 An unexpected storm has hit the south of the country.
7 Indira can no longer fit into that dress.
8 Legal action is being considered by the victims.
13.6
Pronouns
Pronouns allow for better writing. The use of pronouns allows us to avoid repeating
ourselves, by replacing the noun to which we are referring. However, we must be careful
to ensure that the pronoun is close to its antecedent (the noun it refers to) or that there is
an antecedent. When this does not happen the effectiveness of our writing is weakened.
Another important issue is that of maintaining the same point of view in using pronouns.
For example, do not switch from ‘I’ to ‘you’ or ‘one’ to ‘you’.
Here are some examples of what to avoid.
Example 1
Incorrect
The recorder and the guitar were on the table. Marcus took it and began
to play. (Unclear antecedent: what did Marcus play – the recorder or the guitar?)
Correct
The recorder and the guitar were on the table. Marcus took the
recorder and began to play it.
Example 2
Incorrect
They say that a man’s best friend is a dog. (Missing antecedent:Who is ‘they’?)
Correct
An old saying states that a man’s best friend is a dog.
ACTIVITY 13.8
Correct the following:
1 Susan and Shalonde are taking her dog for a walk.
2 Peter, Paul and Mary are singing his song.
3 His car is not working at all.
4 She and her friends want to go sailing on it.
241
242
UNIT 4: STRUCTURING COMMUNICATION
I can’t think of any
adjectives to describe the robber;
can I give you some pronouns
and prepositions?
Fig. 13.4 Use parts of speech appropriately
Pronoun shifts
We must be careful to maintain the same point of view in our writing. For example, if
we start by using ‘I’ then we should continue to do so, however, if one begins with ‘you’
then this is how one should continue.
Example
When visiting the island of Barbados, one should visit Harrison’s Cave
and Little Bay. One should also make sure to take a dive on the Atlantis
submarine and take a cruise on the Jolly Roger.
Avoid doing the following:
a) When visiting the island of Barbados, you should visit Harrison’s Cave and Little Bay.
One should also make sure to take a dive on the Atlantis submarine and take a cruise
on the Jolly Roger.
b) The students are allowed to eat lunch at the tables just outside the classrooms. He/she
has to take care to avoid leaving crumbs behind.
In sentence (a) you should use either ‘you’ or ‘one’ consistently. In sentence (b) the
correct pronoun is ‘they’.
CHAPTER 13: APPLYING THE RULES
13.7
Possessives
The possessive shows ownership or possession. It also shows a comparable relationship. In
both cases the apostrophe is used. Following is a review of how the apostrophe is used.
In the case of singular nouns and indefinite pronouns, add the apostrophe and s.
Example
Beverley’s voice
Shavonne’s car
one’s classes
a week’s pay
If a singular noun ends in ‘s’ add the apostrophe after the ‘s’ or add ’s.
In the case of plural nouns ending in s, add the apostrophe only. For plural nouns not
ending in s add the ’s.
Example
the girls’ dresses
the students’ books
women’s shoes
sheep’s clothing
In the case of compounds and word groups add the apostrophe and s to the last word.
Example
son-in law’s business
the Headteacher’s secretary
To indicate joint ownership add ‘s to the last name or to both names.
Example
Ben and Jermaine’s car or Ben’s and Jermaine’s car
NB Remember that possessive pronouns do not need anything added to
make them possessive (theirs, his, hers, ours, its). A common error
is adding an apostrophe to these possessive pronouns.
Example
Incorrect
The dog wagged it’s tail
This house is our’s
They have already eaten their’s
Correct
The dog wagged its tail
This house is ours
They have already eaten theirs
243
244
UNIT 4: STRUCTURING COMMUNICATION
13.8 Commonly misused words
Some words are misused because communicators confuse their meaning. These words may
carry similar meanings but must be used in different contexts.
(i) Among refers to being in the midst of more than two, while between refers to only
two.
Example
I could not identify my son among all the students on the field.
I hated sitting between Frankie and Tara.
(ii) Amount is used when referring to an uncountable quantity, while number is used
for countable quantities. The same rule applies to less and fewer.
Example
Tell me what amount of sugar should be added.
The number of people in the store made it impossible to see the
merchandise.
There is less water coming down now.
I will return when there are fewer people in the store.
(iii) Borrow means to take temporarily and lend means to give temporarily.
Example
I don’t usually borrow movies from the video store during the week.
I can lend you a costume for the party.
(iv) Can means the ability to do something and may is used to express permission.
Example
None of these players can shoot the ball accurately.
You may leave school early today.
(v) Due to means ‘caused by’ and normally follows a form of the verb ‘to be’, and
owing to means ‘because of ’. If you mentally substitute ‘caused by’ and ‘because of ’
as indicated, it is easy to avoid this error.
Example
His grief was due to the death of his mother.
Owing to her poor performance, she was asked to repeat the test.
(vi) Flaunt means to show off and flout means to defy convention.
Example
She flaunted her agility by balancing on one hand.
He flouted the rules by refusing to accept the referee’s decision.
Words are also often used in the wrong context because they look alike or have similar
pronunciations. Ensure that you learn to differentiate between these words because, even
if you are using a computer, the spell-check utility will not pick up misused words.
CHAPTER 13: APPLYING THE RULES
And this, Rachel,
is the Bored Room.
Fig. 13.5 Misused words
ACTIVITY 13.9
Use your dictionary to help you select the correct word for each of the following sentence pairs.
1a. You must be of strong __________ character to apply for the job.
1b. After the departure of the Principal, staff __________ was low.
2a. The coach has cancelled volleyball __________ today.
2b. As soon as we started to __________, I twisted my ankle.
3a. The __________ reason for the protest was the poor treatment
of workers.
3b. All these laws are based on a common __________.
4a. You should at least __________ her for getting the award.
4b. The bridegroom’s suit was designed to __________ the colour of
morale
moral
practise
practice
principal
principle
complement
compliment
the bride’s dress.
5a. Everyone needs other people’s __________ sometimes.
5b. I cannot __________ you on this; it’s a private matter.
6a. You should use the vacation to do other things __________ shopping.
6b. I refuse to stand __________ this enemy of the poor.
7a. That joke was an __________ to an incident from his childhood.
7b. Her calm appearance is only an __________ ; she’s really very nervous.
advice
advise
beside
besides
illusion
allusion
245
246
UNIT 4: STRUCTURING COMMUNICATION
13.9 Spelling
After learning the basic rules of spelling in primary school, there is no better way of
continuing to learn to spell than by reading regularly and using your dictionary. There
are many words that do not conform to the basic rules of English spelling and these
must simply be memorised. Many of these words are derived from other languages and
maintain the rules or patterns of their language of origin. Study the plural forms of the
following nouns. Do you observe any patterns?
Singular
Plural
Table 13.12
Unusual plurals
alumnus
nucleus
stimulus
analysis
axis
basis
crisis
diagnosis
ellipsis
appendix
matrix
bacterium
curriculum
datum
medium
stratum
criterion
phenomenon
antenna
formula
nebula
vertebra
alumni
nuclei
stimuli
analyses
axes
bases
crises
diagnoses
ellipses
appendices
matrices
bacteria
curricula
data
media
strata
criteria
phenomena
antennae
formulae
nebulae
vertebrae
Table 13.13
Spelling test
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
accomodation
address
consensus
corrollory
harassment
idiosyncrasy
liaison
mischievous
noticable
paralell
referred
spacial
vicious
accommodation
adress
concensus
corollary
harrassment
idiosyncracy
liason
mischievious
noticeable
parallel
refered
spatial
viscious
ACTIVITY 13.10
Pick out the incorrectly
spelt word in each pair
of words in Table 13.13.
Several words can be regarded as problematic because they are frequently misspelt.
Some of these words have double letters, or letter combinations that do not follow a
consistent pattern.You need to make every effort to learn those words. Despite the spellcheck software on your computer, learning to spell words correctly is still an important
CHAPTER 13: APPLYING THE RULES
skill. Much communication, including
that for examination purposes, is still
handwritten and editing your work
requires you to check your spelling.
Words are also often misspelt because
they sound alike and writers are not sure
which spelling is the right one for the
particular context. The following are
examples of words that are usually
confused because they sound alike:
13.10
cereal
serial
cite
site
sight
council
counsel
consul
devise
device
discreet
discrete
eligible
illegible
eminent
imminent
ACTIVITY 13.11
ingenious
ingenuous
passed
past
reality
realty
Check the meaning of the words in the box
in your dictionary. Use each of them to make
sentences.
Fig. 13.6 Detail matters
Punctuation
Punctuation works like the stage directions to a reader. Punctuation marks tell the reader
when to pause or stop; indicate lists, abbreviations or quotations; identify tones of voice and
generally signal meaning. Incorrect punctuation can often send the wrong message to your
reader. Observe how simple punctuation can change the entire meaning of a piece of writing:
Did you know?
There were no spaces between
words until sometime between
600 and 800 AD and early writing
contained no punctuation marks
at all. The earliest punctuation
was developed to help readers by
representing the natural intonation
and rhythm of speech.
Fig. 13.7 The importance of correct punctuation
247
248
UNIT 4: STRUCTURING COMMUNICATION
The punctuation marks that are most problematic at the college level are the comma,
the semicolon and the colon.
The comma is the most misused, underused or overused punctuation mark. It is also
one of the most useful. Use the comma for the following purposes:
(i) To separate parts of a place name or address or parts of a date:
Example
Ian is from Grenville, Grenada. He was born on Wednesday, August 5,
1987.
(ii) To separate independent clauses joined by these subordinating conjunctions: and,
but, so, or, nor, for, yet:
Example
Anya swam as quickly as she could, but was still placed second to
Shamini.
Bob Marley died many years ago, yet his music is still very popular.
(iii) To separate items in a list or series:
Example
Chen Lee has travelled to the Bahamas, Belize, Tortola,Venezuela and
St Martin.
(iv) After introductory clauses, phrases or words that come before the main clause:
Example
While we were at assembly, the Minister paid an unexpected visit to
the school.
Obviously, there are too many people in the bus.
(v) To set off clauses, phrases or words that are non-restrictive (not essential to the
meaning of the sentence):
Example
Friday, which happens to be a holiday, is the deadline for submitting
that essay.
Sarita, of course, was the only one to score full marks.
(vi) To shift between the main discourse and a quotation:
Example
Nelson Mandela said, ‘I was not born with a hunger to be free. I was
born free.’
DO NOT use commas:
(i) To separate the subject from its verb:
Example
The winners of the tournament, were awarded their prizes. The most
useful part of the presentation, was the poster.
CHAPTER 13: APPLYING THE RULES
(ii) Between two nouns or noun phrases or clauses in a compound subject or
compound object:
Example
The protesting market vendors, and the City Council came to an
agreement.
Celeste told me that the canteen had been left in a mess, and that the
Principal wanted to see me.
(iii) After the main clause when a dependent clause follows it:
Example
She was unable to run, because she sprained her ankle.
There was a heavy shower of rain, while we were at the games.
The semicolon is quite easy to use because it has two basic uses:
(i) To connect two independent clauses not joined by a conjunction:
Example
Some people like to do aerobic exercises; others prefer to do strength
training.
(ii) To link items in a series that contains internal punctuation:
Example
Some people like to do aerobic exercises, which include swimming,
dancing or running; others prefer to do strength-training activities
like weight lifting, calisthenics or rock climbing.
The colon is used after an independent clause to draw attention to the words
that follow it. Most often, it serves to introduce a list or series, a quotation or an
illustrative/explanatory clause.
Example
You will have to follow the usual process: identifying a subject,
carrying out the research, analysing your data and compiling your
report.
The valedictorian reiterated the point when she said: ‘Only the truly
pathetic give up halfway.’
I was able to achieve my two main objectives: learning self-defence
techniques and finding a job.
Did you know?
The semicolon and the colon
have no equivalent in speech
and are used only for purposes
of sentence structure.
249
250
UNIT 4: STRUCTURING COMMUNICATION
Fig. 13.8 The effects of over-editing
Conclusion
Editing and proofreading make a major difference in the quality
of your work and the impression that it makes on a reader. It is
always advisable to go over your work meticulously and clean
up sloppy errors that may paint a negative picture of you to your
reader and may even prejudice how your reader views what you
write. More importantly, a well-edited piece of writing goes a long
way towards making your meaning clear. One of the greatest
barriers to effective written communication is ungrammatical
writing. Remember that a good communicator takes all the
necessary steps to facilitate the transfer of meaning.
CHAPTER 13: APPLYING THE RULES
Evaluation
and extension
1 Rewrite the following sentences to make them
more concise:
(a) The teacher is, for all intents and purposes,
the manager of the classroom.
(b) The prize would be given to the employee
with the most ambition.
(c) The Principal, who was recently appointed,
changed a large proportion of the school
rules.
(d) All persons who are applying for the job must
first and foremost submit a résumé via email.
(e) The function of the coach is the preparation
of players for the tournament.
(f) The fact that the automatic teller machines
keep breaking down has caused customers to
become dissatisfied with the bank’s service.
(g) In accordance with your request, I am
therefore submitting my receipts.
(h) It is necessary that we take into consideration
the state of our finances before we commit
ourselves to any further expenditure.
(i) At the end of every half-year, you will have
the opportunity to review your performance.
(j) For all intents and purposes the Caribbean
economy is really and truly at the mercy of a
large number of external factors.
2 Read the following sentences and correct the
grammatical, punctuation, spelling and usage
errors. Some sentences have multiple errors.
(a) Gavin gave me a list of his favourite singers.
Sean Paul, Destra, Kevin Lyttle and Seal.
(b) You should not feed the puppy with adult dog
food; its too soon.
(c) It was impossible to see the stage because
their were too many people.
(d) Neither of the two schools are winning this
year.
(e) A country cannot continue to deplete it’s
natural resources if it expects to maintain a
legacy for their future generations.
(f) Most young people possesses good morals
and keep up good standards.
(g) Most of the stores on this street sell children
clothing.
(h) One cannot expect the goverment to provide
everything we need.
(i) If you break anything you must insure that
you pay for the damage.
(j) Strolling along the sea wall, a huge wave
washed over me.
3 Exchange essay drafts with a partner and edit his/
her draft.
4 Collect newspaper articles and peruse them for
errors that may have escaped the editor.
References
Barrow, E. (1973). Address at signing ceremony of the Treaty of Chaguaramas,
establishing the Caribbean Community and Common Market (CARICOM),
Chaguaramas, Trinidad: 4 July, in Yussuff, H. (ed.) (1987). Speeches by Errol
Barrow. London: Hansib Publishing Ltd, p. 99.
251
252
End of Unit
Test 4
2 Compose item (b) and item (c).
(16 marks)
3 Read the following passage and answer the questions
1 Your Student’s Council would like to embark on a
fund-raising drive. As Secretary to the Council:
(a) Communicate with the Principal to indicate your
intentions and seek permission.
(b) Advertise your first fund-raising event to be held in
your community.
(c) Thank your main sponsors after the event.
below:
(a) Give an example from the passage of each of the
following public speaking devices.
(3 marks)
(i) anecdote
(ii) humour
(iii) quotation
(b) In each case comment on the effectiveness of the
device.
(6 marks)
(c) Identify three other aspects of the passage that are
characteristic of spoken communication. (3 marks)
Select the appropriate mode for EACH of the above and
justify your choice.
(9 marks)
‘A giant step for all of us’
Your Excellencies,
Distinguished guests,
Comrades and friends,
To those who have not been engaged upon the slow
process of Caribbean integration, it would appear that
this journey commenced at Chaguaramas a few short
months ago, and like a race which takes place in a
stadium, the end is where the start was.
But the process, as far as three of us, I would say
all of us here, certainly the four Prime Ministers, are
concerned, goes a long way further back than that.
To the Chairman of this meeting, and the distinguished
Prime Minister of Trinidad and Tobago, it started with
his struggles at the University of Oxford, when I can
truly say, he wrestled with the beast at Ephesus. That
chapter in his life has not really been written, but some
of us are aware that those who would distort the
whole course of West Indian history set out to thwart
the attempts of our distinguished Prime Minister of
Trinidad and Tobago, to put the West Indian history
in its proper perspective, and to give new hope to the
people who had been subjected to colonial tutelage
for such a long time.
I think that the writings of Dr Williams, the economic
researches of Professor Arthur Lewis, were the first faint
glimmerings of the indication that the Caribbean people
were capable of managing their own affairs.
We have been a people who have been imbued
with a sense of our own inadequacy. Half a generation
later, the Prime Minister of Jamaica, who is on this
platform, the Prime Minister of Guyana who is on my
left, and I, under the leadership of the Prime Minister
of Guyana, who was the President of the first West
Indian association founded in the United Kingdom,
that was the West Indian Student’s Union; we staged
the first public meeting on Caribbean integration in
the United Kingdom, and we followed the biblical
injunction by staging that meeting in the lion’s den
itself; in the bastion of imperialism which is described
as Trafalgar Square.
Occasions for making disclosures of this kind are not
frequent. I can now disclose that it was on the 4th
July, 1965, that the Prime Minister of Guyana met
with me in Barbados, at my invitation to discuss the
possibility of establishing a free trade area between
our two countries in the first instance, and the rest of
the Caribbean at such time as they would be ready to
follow our example.
The letter which I wrote was in my own fine Barbadian
hand which is sometimes illegible. But apparently,
the Prime Minister of Guyana was able to read that
letter, because of his, he informs me, Barbadian
ancestry. Therefore, the hieroglyphics were not entirely
strange to him.
253
In that letter, I invited the Prime Minister of Guyana
to come to Barbados so that we could hold these
discussions and today, I am very happy to be here, some
eight years later to be a signatory to the documents
for whose signing we have been summoned by the
distinguished Prime Minister of Trinidad and Tobago.
To me it is the end of a long journey. Neither one of
us, either the Prime Minister of Jamaica, the Prime
Minister of Guyana, or I, had any ambitions to be Prime
Ministers. We had ambitions at that time, to see the
Caribbean integrated. Today I hear the young aspiring
political contenders stating that they want to be Prime
Ministers as if being a Prime Minister is like taking an
examination and once you achieve the pass mark you
are automatically a Prime Minister.
Today when I hear criticism of leadership in the
Caribbean, those criticisms would probably have
been justified, and justifiably leveled at some of our
References: Unit 4 Additional reading
Barrow, E. (1987). Speeches. London: Hansib Publishing Ltd.
Flachmann, K. (2002). Mosaics – Focusing on Sentences in Context. New
Jersey: Prentice Hall.
Hodge, M. (1997). The Knots in English: A Manual for Caribbean Users.
Wellesley, Massachusetts: Calaloux Publications.
Lalla, B. (1998). English for Academic Purposes. Bridgetown, Barbados: The
University of the West Indies.
Lannon, J. (2007). The Writing Process, 9th edn. Pearson Longman.
Peck, J. & Coyle, M. (2005). The Student’s Guide to Writing. Palgrave
Macmillan.
Peters, B., Roberts, V., Whittington, L. & Best, G. (2002). The Associate Degree
in the Caribbean with Particular Reference to the OECS. Cavehill Campus,
Barbados: TLI Unit of the University of the West Indies.
Simmons-McDonald, H. (1997). Writing in English. Kingston, Jamaica: Ian
Randle Publishers.
Toner, H. & Whittome, E. (2003). AS Level English Language and Literature.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
predecessors in office; but they certainly cannot be
leveled against any of the four heads of governments
here who have been dragged reluctantly to the high
offices which we now occupy.
I hope that when the time comes that we will not be
dragged reluctantly from those high offices which we
now occupy. The problem which confronts the West
Indian people today, is one of persuasion, to persuade
people of the caliber of the Prime Minister of Trinidad
and Tobago and other distinguished people who have
contributed towards the success of this experiment to
remain with us and to make a further contribution so
that our countries will be able to progress.
So, Mr. Chairman, it was on the 4th July, 1965 one
small step for two countries. Today as a signatory to this
agreement, I should like to paraphrase the words of Mr.
Neil Armstrong and say it is a giant step for all of us.
Errol Barrow
254
PRACTICE EXAMINATION PAPERS
PRACTICE EXAMINATION PAPERS
PAPER 1A
Try to do this paper in 1 hour 15 minutes.
MODULE 1 – GATHERING AND PROCESSING INFORMATION
Questions 1 – 2
Read the situation below and then answer questions 1 and 2.
Joseph is a University student and he is researching the uses of cell phones by secondary
students in his country. He wants to find out for what purposes students use their cell phones other
than for social media. Joseph has prepared a questionnaire and is ready to collect his data.
1.
(a)
State four ways in which the questionnaire could be administered.
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
(b)
(4 marks)
Create four questions that Joseph could possibly use in the questionnaire about cell usage.
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
2.
(a)
(4 marks)
Identify three groups/individuals, other than students, from whom Joseph could
request information about student cell phone use.
i.
ii.
iii.
(b)
(3 marks)
State one reason why Joseph’s research findings would apply to the country in general
and state one mistake that Joseph may make with the sample that narrows the
application of his research findings.
Reason:
Mistake:
(4 marks)
(Total 15 marks)
PRACTICE EXAMINATION PAPERS
MODULE 2 – LANGUAGE AND COMMUNITY
Questions 3 – 6
3.
State and explain four characteristics of language.
Characteristic
Explanation
E.g. Human
Language is peculiar to human beings even though parrots
may be able to repeat certain words.
1.
2.
3.
4.
(8 marks)
4.
(a)
The Principal has asked you to speak to the students in the lower school about deportment.
i.
State one reason why you would use Standard English only in speaking to the
students.
ii.
State one reason why you might use Creole in your delivery.
iii.
State one occasion where it might be considered totally inappropriate to use Creole.
iv.
State one occasion where Standard English may not be the best choice.
(4 marks)
5.
6.
(b)
State four characteristics of English Creole that make it different from Caribbean
Standard English.
(4 marks)
(a)
Illustrate, with examples, two ways in which the history of your territory has influenced
the language spoken.
(4 marks)
(b)
State three ways that cultural communication in the region has been improved
through the use of technology.
(3 marks)
Read the message in the box below.
Wat up. U goin 2 d party wid
me on Sat? Lemme no asap.
255
256
PRACTICE EXAMINATION PAPERS
(a)
With reference to the screen above point out three ways in which texting/messaging
may be contributing to the death of Standard English as we know it.
(3 marks)
(b)
Your family owns a business that has potential for growth in the region.
Explain how two examples of electronic communication technology could improve
your business communication.
(4 marks)
(Total 30 marks)
MODULE 3 – SPEAKING AND WRITING
Questions 7 – 10
7.
(a)
Fill in the missing spaces in the diagram below:
feedback
sender
4
2
3
2.
3.
4.
(b)
(3 marks)
i.
State two examples of barriers to communication.
ii.
State two facilitators of communication.
(4 marks)
8.
A lecturer visited your school/college and spoke to your class on ‘Contexts of Workplace
Communication’.
(a)
List four contexts of communication that you noted as she spoke.
(4 marks)
PRACTICE EXAMINATION PAPERS
(b)
9.
Give an example of two of the contexts you have listed above and show how they
relate to communicating in the workplace.
(4 marks)
Read the scenario and answer the questions below:
Your church is seeking funding to do repairs. It is of historical value and therefore it is important
that people be persuaded to support this project. You have been selected to make a speech to the
community to persuade them to support this venture.
(a)
List three examples of non-verbal communication that you might use to persuade your
audience.
(3 marks)
(b)
Explain how you would use two of the examples given above.
(4 marks)
10.
Your best friend has suggested that you should use the organising skills used in your
Communication Studies class. Fill in the blank spaces in the table below to ensure that you
understand what your friend meant.
Organising skill
Explanation
Introductions and conclusions
Focus and emphasis
Logical linkages
Revising and editing
(8 marks)
(Total 30 marks)
257
258
PRACTICE EXAMINATION PAPERS
PAPER 1B
Questions 1 – 4
Try to do this paper in 30 minutes.
Have someone read this passage to you. It should be read twice. You should take 5 minutes
to read the questions beforehand and you may write notes while you listen. Take a further
20 minutes to answer the questions in full sentences.
It was an eerie silence that enveloped the island that morning; when the winds finally
abated and we looked outside. Not a bird sang, not a dog barked; not a sound of vehicles or
children’s voices could be heard. The trees were stark sentinels, brown and gaunt, their leaves
stripped from them by the furious winds of the night before. The wet, shiny mud stretched as
far as the eye could see, like a giant sheet that covered every blade of grass. Every few yards,
a bit of zinc roofing or a piece of gaily painted board stuck up from the mud, giving notice that here,
once was a house, or shop, or fence. At some time in the night, at the height of the hurricane, the
hillside had slithered silently down, blanketing the tiny village. As if by magic, the mud had separated
into two streams, making their way on either side of our house, which still stood, the only testament
to the vibrant community that was no more.
1.
State the main idea of the extract in about 20 words.
(3 marks)
2.
Give four details that support the main idea.
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
3.
(a)
(4 marks)
Identify two literary devices used in this extract.
i.
ii.
(b)
Give one example of each device given above.
(4 marks)
4.
List four details about the scene described in the extract.
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
(4 marks)
(Total 15 marks)
PRACTICE EXAMINATION PAPERS
PAPER 2
Try to do this paper in 2 hours 30 minutes.
MODULE 1 – GATHERING AND PROCESSING INFORMATION
Questions 1a – b
Read the extract below and answer the questions that follow:
Can We Find Time to Care?
We have lost the ability to communicate! Despite the fact that we live in an era where we
have the most numerous means of communication ever known to humankind, our communication
skills are at an all-time low.
Modern technology has made it possible for us to have hundreds of ‘friends’ yet live alone and
lonely. At the click of a button or a tap of a screen we can be in instant contact with someone in any
part of the world, even the most remote human community, but we do not know the name of our
neighbour next door. We move from one screen to another: from tablet to touch phone to television
to music player; eyes and ears always busy, always engaged but we do not see the outstretched hand
of the blind man on the corner nor do we hear the cries of the hungry child across the street. How
have we come to this? How have we become more social but less sociable... more connected but less
caring... more informed but less involved?
Thirty year old Maureen Osborne laments, ‘My life is so busy; I hardly have time to call my
mother’. Maureen is single and spends every evening after work at home catching up with her
‘tweets’ and the latest activities of her social media friends or downloading the latest ‘viral’ videos.
On weekends she works on updating her blog and other online posts and uploads her latest pictures.
She participates in no face to face social activities and finds that by the time she has completed all
her daily online activity it is nearly midnight. She is exhausted at work every day and complains that
it is impossible to find time to relax. ‘I don’t know when last I heard a friend’s voice’, she says, ‘we
text all the time’.
The Psychology Alert magazine cites poor interpersonal communication as one of the biggest
problems today in personal as well as in professional life and outlines a number of human life skills
that have been lost, including the ability to empathise. Dr. Mosse Knowles, consultant psychologist
for the Association for Human Relations agrees that we are in the middle of a social crisis and that
interpersonal skills are at an all-time low. She lists several habits that we should cultivate, in order to
avoid descending into what she calls ‘the abyss of anti-humanity’; including among others: (i) visit
friends often, (ii) become a member of a charitable organisation, (iii) register for classes to learn new
skills like cooking or tennis, (iv) host a book club or action group, (v) go to the cinema instead of
renting a movie.
Losing that unfiltered connection with other humans can only result in the loss of our own
humanity. We are, after all, social beings by nature and must suffer some major psychological
problems when we are boxed into a lifestyle where every bit of communication takes place in an
artificial, virtual environment. The evidence is all around us in the breakdown of relationships and
259
260
PRACTICE EXAMINATION PAPERS
the rise of violent behaviour due to an inability to sit down and look each other in the eye and really
listen. We need to rescue ourselves from the technological enslavement and find time to care.
1.
(a)
State the writer’s main point in about 30 words.
(3 marks)
(b)
Write an essay in about 500 words in which you address the following:
i.
The writer’s purpose
ii.
The strategies used by the writer to achieve his purpose. (This section may include
organisational and language strategies and tone.)
(22 marks)
(Total 25 marks)
MODULE 2 – LANGUAGE AND COMMUNITY
Questions 2 a – b
Read the passage below and answer the questions that follow:
Ma Elgin: (walking quickly) You better not let the teacher tell me any chupidness dis morning.
Why she want to see me eh? What you do in de people school? I tired tell you is just to go and get
eddication in your hard head so you doh have to struggle like your dotish father! Why you have to
behave bad so?
Joniah: (sniffles) I eh know Ma. I eh do nuffin. She just eh like me. Just so, she does bawl me out and
make me feel stupid in front de class. Always tellin me I speakin bad English and she doh know why
you does even sen me to school. You walkin too fas Ma! (tries to slow down)
Ma Elgin: (turns around and grabs his shirt) You tink I have time to waste chile? I done late for work
by Miss Baxter and she arready say she give me enough time off. You want me to lose me wuk? Boy
hurry up! You eh hear de teacher say I mus come wid you dis morning? Look she by de school gate!
Lawd, like dey goin put you out de school boy!
Miss Baxter: (holds out her hand) Good morning Mrs. Elgin. I am happy that you managed to make
it here on time.
Ma Elgin: (breathing hard) Mornin Miss Baxter. I has tried my very best to be here. I really wants to make
sure for Elgin to get a good eddication. Lord knows I has done everything I can.
Miss Baxter: (smiling) Oh no Mrs. Elgin; it’s not about Joniah’s behaviour at all. On the contrary, he
has been selected to represent the school at the national sports meet and the Principal needs you to
sign some documents. This way please (gesticulates).
Joniah: (delighted) You see Ma, I told you Miss Baxter is the best teacher!
PRACTICE EXAMINATION PAPERS
2.
In an essay of about 500 words, discuss the use of language in the excerpt, with reference to the
following:
(a)
The language choice of the various speakers and the link to social identification.
(b)
The way the various non-verbal behaviours could be highlighted in a video production.
(Total 25 marks)
MODULE 3 – SPEAKING AND WRITING
Questions 3a – b
3.
Read the scenario and answer the questions that follow:
You have just been hired at the Water Company in your territory. You have been assigned to
work with a team to come up with a campaign to prevent water wastage.
(a)
In about 50 words explain what three types of verbal medium you would suggest that
your team use to get the message across.
(6 marks)
(b)
In about 300 words write the speech for the launch of this new campaign.
(19 marks)
(Total 25 marks)
261
262
INDEX
INDEX
abbreviations 83
note-making 131
academic communication 32, 181
academic writing 189
components of 210–15
accent 49, 79
acculturation 60–1
acknowledging sources 149–50
active voice 239–41
Adams, R. 156
addition transition 214
Airasian, P. 142
alliteration 115
allusion 115
alternating approach in writing 197
American Standard English (ASE) 48
analogy 195
anonymity of the Internet 89, 147
antecedent 241
anti-climax order 167
Antigua 77
APA (American Psychological Association)
manual 150–3, 215
apostrophe 243
application letter 220
applied level of comprehension 100
argumentative writing 115–17, 179, 183,
199–200
articulation 162
attention-getting devices 210–11
attitudes to language 64–9
audience–speaker rapport 164
audio conferencing 29
authoritative opinion 115
authority 144
Awake! 147–8
back-focusing 55
barriers to communication 8, 9
Barrow, Errol 252–3
Barry, D. 112–13
Bateman, T. 27
Bennett, Louise 65, 66
bias 146
Bible Society in the Caribbean (BSEC) 69
bibliographies 150–3
bilingual society 58
Bird, L. 129
block approach in writing 197
block quotations 152
block style of letter writing 218
blogs 81
body
in an essay 197, 199, 211–12
in letter writing 218
in a memo 216
in report writing 224, 225
in speech 167
body language 15–16, 80
Braiker, Harriet B. 25
braille 21
brainstorming 181–2
Brathwaite, Edward 114
Breeze, Jean Binta 47
British Standard English (BSE) 48
Brown, I.C. 227
Bryson, Bill 43
business communication 78–9
curriculum vitae 222–3
letters 217–20
memos 215–16
résumé 221–2
and technology 88
writing reports 224–6
The Cabin (Brathwaite) 114
calques 55
careful reading 103
Caribbean
attitudes to language 65–6
language situation 61–4
vocabulary variations 49
Caribbean Creole
by country 62–3
and cultural identity 72
grammar 53–5
New Testament 68–9
proverbs 71
semantics 55
sound units 52–3
students’ attitude to 67
vocabulary 53
see also English Creole; French Creole
Caribbean Standard English (CSE) 48
carnivals 21, 77
Carroll, Lewis 10
cause and effect 107, 167, 192–5
transition 214
cell phones 84, 147, 148
channels of communication 4
barriers and facilitators 9
selection 6
chat rooms 29
Chinese 64
Chow, Susan 117
chronemics 18
chronological approach in speech 167
chronology transition 214
circle diagram 135
citing indirect sources 152
class presentations 87
classification 108–9, 191–2
clauses 229–30, 248–9
clichés 202, 210
climax order 167
clothing see dress
cluster sampling 143
clustering 182
code mixing 60
code switching 49
cogency 145
cognitive purposes of language 45
Coleman, V. 155
collective nouns 234
collectivist cultures 30
colloquial language 50
colon 249
colonisation 59, 62, 63
colour of clothing 18–19
comma 248–9
communication
academic 32, 181
in business see business
communication
contexts see contexts of
communication
cross-cultural 32–3, 79
and culture 77–80
definition 3–4
forms see forms of communication
and technology 81–2
see also comprehension; information;
language; research; speech; writing
communication barriers 8, 9
communication process 3–10
decoding and interpretation 6
elements of 4–5
encoding 5
feedback 4, 7–8
selecting medium/channel 6
comparison and contrast 196–8
method 107–8
transition 214
comprehension
and listening 101–2
INDEX
and meaning 120–3
process of 97–8
and reading 102–3
comprehension levels 99–101
applying 103–20
concluding sentence 212
conclusion
in an essay 212–13
in letter writing 218
in a memo 216
from reasoning 116
in report writing 224
in a speech 167
consonant sounds 162
Constance, Z. 93
context clues 120–3
context of research 144
contexts of communication 25–34
academic 32
intercultural 32–3
interpersonal 26–9
intrapersonal 25–6
organisational 30–2
small group 29–30
contrast see comparison and contrast
controlling style 27
Cooper, Carolyn 47
correlational research 141
cover letter 220
Creole 51–5, 56
see also Caribbean Creole
cricket 104–5
critical thinking skills 109, 179
cross-cultural communication 32–3, 79
cultural capital 73
cultural diversity 29–30, 32–3
culture
and communication 77–80
definition 77
individualist and collectivist 30
and language 43, 60–1, 72, 77–9
meanings of 227
and technology 83–90
curriculum vitae 222–3
cyber bullying 89, 148
cycle map 134
dangling modifiers 229, 231–2
data 141
data collection methods 144
Dawe, R. 211
debates 170–1
decoding 6
barriers to 9
deductive reasoning 116
definition 121, 210
by negation 195
statement 195–6
dependent clause 229–30, 249
description 121
descriptive research 141
descriptive writing 115, 179, 189–90
dialect 48, 49, 60
differences in 79
diary 44, 190
dictionaries 42
direct quotation 149
discussion board 29
division of information 191–2
dogs, communication 3–4
Dominica 63
double negatives 54
double-spacing 185
downward communication 30
drafting 178, 184–5
dress 18–21, 80
in public speaking 164, 172, 173
drug problem 112–13
Dry foot bwoy (Bennett) 66
Dubbed Out (Breeze) 47
Dutch language 62, 63
dynamic style
in communication 28
of language 60
e-books 87
editing 178, 188
fragments and run-ons 231
importance of 228
over-editing 250
effect see cause and effect
effective communication 9
egalitarian style 27
email 31, 82, 84, 85
emotional appeal 118, 200
encoding 5
English Creole 54, 62–3, 77
English language
acculturation 60–1
in business 79
Caribbean variations 49
and the Internet 83
as main language 59
as official language 62–3
sound patterns 40
variations 48
see also Standard English
enunciation 162–3
Esposito, A. 16
ethnographic research 140–1
evaluation
peer 174–5
sources 144, 145–8
Evans, H. 67
evidence 115
evolutionary nature of language 42
examinations
practice papers 254–61
tips 205
writing process 179
examples
in comprehension 122
in persuasive writing 199
in summarising information 129
of transitions 214
expertise 144
expository materials 103–4
expository writing 179, 183
cause and effect 192–5
comparison and contrast 196–8
definition 191, 195–6
division and classification 191–2
process analysis 198–9
expressive purposes of language 44
extended definition 195
external validity 145
face to face interviews 144
Facebook 86
facilitators 9
facts 199, 210
factual accuracy 144
fallacy 116
false premise 115, 116
fear of public speaking 165, 171, 173
feedback 4, 7–8
in public speaking 174–5
in writing 187
figurative language 115
flags 22
flowchart 134
folk stories 77
font 151
food-related vocabulary 64, 77
formal means of communication 30
forms of communication 11–24
non-verbal see non-verbal
communication
verbal 11–12, 23, 24
263
264
INDEX
Fox, W. 136
fragments 229, 230, 231
Frank, Anne 44
free writing 182
French Creole 54, 62–3, 68, 69, 77
French language 48
in Haiti 68
as official language 62, 63
front focusing 55
future perfect tense 240
future tense 240
Gates, Bill 81
Gay, L.R. 142
gestures 174
Gioa, Dana 8
gist 127–8
global village 33
grammar 40–1
Caribbean Creole 53–5
errors in 188
see also paragraphs; punctuation;
sentences; spelling; verbs; words
grapevine 30
graphic organisers 133–5
graphics 21–2
Grenada 45, 63
Hurricane Ivan 110–11
gross translation errors 79
Guyana 64
hairstyle 19
Haiti 68, 77
Hall, S. 99
Handbook for Writers of Research Papers
(MLA) 150–3, 215
headings 151
in report writing 224, 225
hearing 101
helping verbs 236–7, 240
Hernandez, R. 137
highlighting key words 106–7
historical factors, language 59
historical research 140–1
Hodge, Merle 92
horizontal communication 30
human aspect of language 40
human rights 119–20
Hurricane Ivan 110–11
hyperbole 115
ideas, main and subsidiary 127–30, 136,
182–3
identification 151
illiteracy 194–5
in-text citations 152
indefinite pronouns 233
independent clause 229–30, 248–9
index card file 149
India 64, 77
individualist cultures 30
inductive reasoning 116
ineffective communication 9
informal means of communication 30
letters 47, 85
information 141
comprehending see comprehension
division of 191–2
pre-writing 181–2
researching see research
summarising see summarising
information
informative purposes of language 45
informative speech 167
instant messaging 81, 84
instruments (research) 142
interactive communication 82
intercultural communication 32–3, 79
internal cohesion 214–15
internal discourse 26
internal memorandum 216
internal validity 145
internal variation 48
Internet 81, 83–4
citing sources 153
communication networks 88
and communication skills 89
effects on young people 147–8
evaluating sources 144, 146
job market 129
text communication 22
VOIP 84–5
interpersonal communication 26–9
four principles of 26
six styles of 27–8
interpersonal space 16
interpretation 6
see also misinterpretation
interpretive level of comprehension 100
interrogative word order 54
interview schedules 142
intimate distance 16
intranet 30
intrapersonal communication 25–6
introduction
in a memo 216
in report writing 224, 225
in a speech 165–6
in writing 210–11
irregular verbs 236, 237
Jamaican Creole 67, 68
James, C.L.R. 105
jargon 50, 51
job interviews 161
Julius Caesar (Shakespeare) 168–9
Kennedy, X.J. 8
key words 106–7
kinesics 17–18
KWL strategy 104, 106
language
attitudes to 64–9
characteristics of 40–3
choice of 70–2
and culture 43, 60–1, 72, 77–9
definitions 39
factors influencing 59–61
figurative 115
modern language situation 58–9
non-sexist 204
purposes of 44–7
and social class 73–4
and technology 83
variation 48–51
see also English language; French
language; official language; Spanish
language; speech
language situation
Caribbean 61–4
today 58–9
learning, and technology 87
lecture notes 131
lecturer academic communication 32
letter sounds 40
letter writing 84, 88
application letter 220
business letters 217–20
informal letters 47, 85
letter of complaint 218–19
letter of enquiry 218
linear approach to drafting 184
linear outlines 132–3
linkages 213–14
list servers 29
INDEX
listening
barriers to 102
and comprehension 98
definition 101
process 101
purposes of 101–2
techniques 29
and technology 87
see also speech
listing works cited 152
literal level of comprehension 100, 106
literary writing 189–90
logical arguments 199–200
logical structure 145, 214–15
London, multilingual 58
looping 182
Louisy, Dame Pearlette 72
McWhorter, K. 211
main idea 127–30, 136, 182–3
mapping 182
Marcus, A. 83
margins 151
Markham, R. 139, 146
meaning
changes in 43, 83
and culture 227
and language 41–2
understanding 120–3
medium, selection 6
memos 215–16
message 4, 6
metacognition 97, 98
metalinguistic purposes of language 47
metaphor 115
migrants/refugees 58, 60, 62
misinterpretation 6, 15, 79
of tone 111
misplaced modifiers 231–2
misunderstanding 79
MLA (Modern Language Association)
Handbook for Writers of Research
Papers 150–3, 215
modifying phrase 233
Mohammed, J. 73
monitoring 98
monolingual society 58
mood of writing 113–14
moot 170
Morris, I. 213
multilingual society 58
music
and culture 80
and technology 87
narrative writing 179, 189–90
National Council of Teachers of English
(NCTE) 204
national language 59
negotiation skills 124–5
Netlingo 83–4
New Testament, in Creole 68–9
Noh lickle twang! (Bennett) 65
noise 9
nominalisation 203–4
non sequitur 116
non-sexist language 204
non-standard language see Caribbean
Creole
non-verbal communication 13–23, 24
body language 15–16
chronemics 18
dress 18–21, 164
examples 13, 14
graphics and symbols 21–2
kinesics 17–18
paralanguage 22
proxemics 16–17
normal reading 103
North American culture 78, 79
North Central Regional Educational
Laboratory (NCREL) 82
note-making 130–5
in public speaking 172
‘O’ magazine 133
obscene language 60
observation 144
official language 58, 59, 61
in the Caribbean 62–3
officially recognised language 59
Okpewho, Isidore 27
onomatopoeia 115
opposing team 170
optical telegraphy 22
organisational communication 30–2
orthography 59
packaging 112–13
pagination 151
paragraphs 211
development of 212
linkages 213–14
paralanguage 22
paraphrasing 126, 149
passive voice 239–41
past continuous tense 240
past participle 237, 240
past perfect tense 240
past tense 236, 237, 238, 239, 240
patois 52, 68
peace sign 80
peer evaluation 174–5
peer reviewer 187
personal distance 16
personification 115
persuasive speech 167–9
persuasive writing 118–20, 183, 199–200
phatic purposes of language 46–7
phone interviews 144
phrases 229–30
modifying 233
stock phrases 202–3
pidgins 51–2, 63
pitch 163
place/space transition 214
plagiarism 150
inadvertant 149
planning a format 183
plantains 99–100
plurals 233–5
apostrophe 243
in Standard English and Creole 53–4
unusual 246
poetic purposes of language 46
poetry 47, 56, 65, 66
point by point approach 197
political bias 144
political factors, language 61
population (research) 142–4
possessives 243
post-reading 98
pre-reading 98, 103
pre-writing 178, 179–84
précis 149
predicate adjectives 54
predictions 98
premise 116
present continuous tense 240
present participle 236–7
present perfect tense 240
present tense 236, 238, 239, 240
primary research 140–1, 145
printing press 81
process analysis 198–9, 214
265
266
INDEX
pronouns 241–2
indefinite 233
possessive 243
shifts 242
proofreading 178, 188
proposing team 170
prose summary 129–30
proverbs 71, 77
proxemics 16–17
public distance 16
public speaking
dress and 164, 172, 173
fear of 165, 171, 173
feedback from 174–5
summary and 167
visual aids 172
punctuation 188, 247–9
qualitative research 140–1
quantitative research 141
Quebec, Canada 61
questionnaires 142, 144
questions
and comprehension 100
rhetorical 119, 167
quotations
block 152
direct 149
quotes 199, 210
Rainey, M.C. 212
rapid reading 103
Rastafarians 50, 63
reading 102–3
and comprehension 98
definition 103
good readers 103
identifying readers 180–1
styles of 103
and technology 87
see also writing
reasoning 116–17
rebuttal 170
receiver 4
barriers and facilitators 9
decoding and interpretation 6
feedback 7
listening techniques 29
recursive approach to drafting 184
redundant categories 201–2
redundant pairs 201
references 150–3
reflective writing 190
register 49–50
rehearsals 171, 174
reliability 142, 144–5
relinquishing style 28
repetition 55, 119, 167
repetitive stress injuries 133
report writing 224–6
rereading 185–6
research
acknowledging sources 149–50
definition 139
evaluating sources 144, 145–8
information/data 141
instruments 142
population 142–4
pre-writing 181
references and bibliographies 150–3
reliability and validity 142, 144–5
types 140–1
research paper 139
Restak, R. 157
résumé 221–2
revising 178, 185–7
rhetorical questions 119, 167
Rickford, J. 53, 64
Rifkin, J. 128
Rosen, Larry D. 86
roti 64
Royal Bank of Canada 124–5, 173–4
run-on sentences 229, 231
St John, Bruce 56
St Lucia 63, 68, 69
sampling 142–3
Sanders, W. 74
Santo Domingo 77
scanning 103
Schlosser, E. 128
school uniforms 19
secondary research 140, 144
semantics, Caribbean Creole 55
semaphore 22
semicolon 249
sender 4
barriers and facilitators 9
feedback 7
medium selection 6
sentences
concluding 212
dangling modifiers 229, 231–2
run-on 229, 231
structure 229–30
topic sentence 127, 129, 211
Shakespeare, William 109, 168–9
shopping online 88
sign language 21, 40
alphabet 42
simile 115
simple random sampling 143
singing 12
singular 233–5, 246
apostrophe 243
Sir Arthur Lewis Community College
Language Arts Department 194–5
skimming 103
slang 50
small group communication 29–30
SMS (simultaneous messaging service) 84
snail mail 84, 85
social class, and language 73–4
social distance 16
social factors
and illiteracy 194–5
language 60, 70
and technology 87–8
social networking 81, 86, 88, 147–8
sociolinguistics 79
solo vocalising 26
solo writing 26
sound patterns 40
Caribbean Creole 52–3
sources
acknowledging 149–50
citing indirect 152
citing Internet 153
evaluating 144, 145–8
spacing 151
spam 82
Spanglish 60
Spanish language 48, 54, 60
as official language 62, 63
speech 161–76, 252–3
basic skills 162–4
components of 165–7
delivering 171–5
preparation 164–5
types of 167–71
see also language; listening; public
speaking
speech community 49
speech-focusing statement 166
spelling 78, 188, 246–7
spider map 138
Standard English 48
in Caribbean society 65–7
INDEX
and Creole 52, 53–4
standard language 60, 65, 70–1
standard variety 48
standardised tests 142
statistics 199
stock phrases 202–3
stratified sampling 143
structuring style 28
student academic communication 32
style guides 150–3
style in writing 200–5
subheadings 132
subject line 216
subject / verb agreement 233–5
subordinate clause 229–30, 249
subsidiary ideas 129
Sullivan, D. 136
summarising information 126–38
main and subsidiary ideas see ideas
note-making 130–5, 172
summary
acknowledging sources 149
definition 126
prose 129–30
in public speaking 167
transition 214
Summer Institute of Linguistics (SIL) 69
supporting details 211–12
surveys 141
symbolism in language 41–2
symbols 21–2, 80
synonym 121
syntax 50
systematic aspect of language 40 –1
systematic sampling 143
team leader 170
technology
and communication 81–2
and culture 83–90
definition 81
see also Internet
television 78, 87
tempo 163
tense (verb) 235–9, 240
text communication 22
‘th’ sound 40, 52, 162
thesis 183, 197
thesis statement 183, 184, 190, 192, 206,
210
timing 174
title page 151
titles in references 153
tone of voice 163
tone of writing 109–13, 181, 201
topic sentence 127, 129, 211
topics 127, 191
translation
errors 79
on the Internet 83
New Testament 68–9
travel 78
travel report 225
Trinidad and Tobago 63, 64
‘twang’ 65–6
Tyne, Tom 110, 111
unchangeable nouns 234
Updike, David 20
upward communication 30
usage (in speech) 163
vagrants 119–20
validity 142, 145
Venn diagram 134–5
verbal communication 11–12, 23, 24
verbs active and passive voice 239–41
‘be’ 238
‘do’ 238
‘have’ 239
in Standard English and Creole 54
subject/verb agreement 233–5
tense 235–9, 240
Victor, David 79
video conferencing 29
visual aids, in public speaking 172
visual clues 122
vocabulary 50–1
Caribbean Creole 53
food-related 64, 77
and technology 83
see also words
vocal characterisers 22
vocal qualifiers 22
vocal segregates 22
voice control 163
VOIP (voice over internet provider) 84–5
volume (voice) 163
vowel sounds 162
web addresses 153
web cameras 89
webbing 182
West African language 53, 62
Wiio, Osmo 26
withdrawing style 28
wordiness 201–2
words
choice 164
commonly misused 244–5
interrogative 54
key words 106–7
order 41
see also meaning; plurals; singular;
vocabulary
Worrall, S. 58
writing 177–208
argumentative 115–17, 179, 183, 199–
200
cause and effect 107
classification of topics 108–9
comparison/contrast method 107–8
descriptive 115, 179, 189–90
examination tips 205
modes of 179
mood of 113–14
persuasive 118–20, 183, 199–200
purpose of 180
with style 200–5
tone of 109–13, 181, 201
types of 189–200
see also academic writing; business
communication; expository writing;
letter writing; reading
writing buddy 187
writing process 178–88
letters 218
method 106
written communication 12
YouTube 88
Zeithaml, C. 27
267