Information
Technology
for CSEC® Examinations 3rd Edition
Howard Campbell and Alan Wood
Contributors: Keith Burkette (Trinidad and Tobago),
Desrie Elwin (Dominica), Andrew Samuels (Jamaica),
Nnaemeke Vesprey (Grenada), Camille Bruno-Audain
(St Kitts and Nevis), Jesse James (St Vincent)
CSEC® is a registered trade mark of the Caribbean Examination Council (CXC).
INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY for CSEC® EXAMINATIONS THIRD EDITION is an
independent publication and has not been authorized, sponsored, or otherwise approved
by CXC.
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Contents
About this book
Introduction
v
vii
Countermeasures to mitigate the effects of identified
threats
113
Assess the effects of automation on job security
Theory
1
2
3
Computer fundamentals
2
The concept of information technology
3
Major types of computer systems
4
Assess the impact of information and
communications technology on selected fields
The major hardware components of a computer system 10
Productivity Tools
The interrelationship of the major hardware
components of a computer system
17
5
Evaluating the relative merits of cloud storage and
local storage
120
Mastering word processing
128
19
Creating documents using content from a variety of
sources
129
Selecting appropriate input and output devices
20
Using appropriate document-formatting features
133
The role of the different types of software
29
Different types of user interface
33
Using appropriate editing features to structure and
organise a document
140
Evaluating the suitability of a computer system
37
Troubleshooting basic hardware problems
40
Using review features to enhance document
readiness
146
Information processing
46
Information and data
47
Evaluating the reliability of information obtained from
online sources
54
File organisation
61
Choosing an appropriate file access method
66
Computer networks and web technologies
71
Introduction to computer networks
72
Appropriately using features that allow protection of
a document
150
6
Distinguish between different types of network: LANs,
73
MANs and WANs
The functions of the basic components of a network
Key web technology concepts
90
Social and economic impact of Information and
Communication Technology
98
Introduction to the concepts of computer security,
cybersecurity and computer misuse
99
Assess the potential impact of computer misuse on
the main entities impacted
Generating a table of contents for a document
151
Using mail merge features in a range of situations
152
Creating a fillable electronic form for online use
154
Mastering web page design
161
Planning a website structure and organisation of
pages
162
Designing and creating simple pages
165
Inserting hyperlink into a web page
172
Testing and evaluating a website for accuracy, user- friendliness and effective display
176
82
The importance of mobile communications technology 88
4
117
Describe the roles of various personnel in computerrelated professions
119
7
Mastering spreadsheets
182
The purpose of spreadsheets
183
Using appropriate terminology associated with
103
spreadsheets
184
Using basic predefined functions
186
Creating advanced arithmetic formulae
193
Replicating (copying) formulae to other cells
194
Manipulating rows and columns: insert, delete
and modify
199
iii
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8
Manipulating data in a spreadsheet
200
Performing charting operations
210
Manipulating one or more worksheets
215
Mastering databases
221
The concept of a database
222
Terminology commonly associated with a database
223
Creating a database
225
Manipulating data in a database
236
Programming
9
Problem-solving and program design
252
Outline steps in problem-solving
253
Using divide-and-conquer approach to decompose
large everyday problems into smaller tasks
255
Defining a problem by decomposing it into its
significant components
257
Distinguishing between variables and constants
265
The concept of an algorithm
267
Representing algorithms in the form of pseudocode
and flowcharts
268
Testing algorithms for correctness
276
10 Program implementation
283
Distinguishing between low-level and high-level
languages
284
The sequence of steps in implementing a program
285
Performing checks and tests on programs to verify
correctness
291
Declaring variables and constants using basic
data types
295
Translating algorithmic statements into high-level
language syntax
296
Documenting programs effectively
322
11 The School-Based Assessment
327
Appendix A Specimen Paper 01
340
Appendix B Specimen Paper 02
346
Glossary
353
Index
358
iv
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About this Book
Unique, practical application-based approach
The 3rd edition takes
a unique approach
Caribbean Travel Services (CTS) operates scheduled bus services
which provides realand vehicle rentals in several towns across several countries in the
life context for the
Caribbean. In each town CTS has an office, a garage and a depot
from which its vehicles operate.
concepts and skills
taught: At the heart of
this approach are two companies: the fictional company, Caribbean Travel Services
(CTS), and a second company created by the students themselves at the start of the
course.
Through examples and activities throughout the course, these companies are
used to first show, and then to actively apply, the ways that a typical organisation
uses Information Technology to help it with all aspects of the company’s operations.
You can find out more about these in the introduction, which is an essential first
lesson for this course.
Welcome to Caribbean Travel Services.
ACTIVITY 1.2 Selecting the correct type of computer
Use the company you created in earlier activities or use St Luago Fashion.
• As you read through the following section, consider whether the type of
computer being described might be utilised in your company.
• Justify your reasoning.
• Record your findings in your notebook.
The 3rd edition aligns directly to the 2017 CSEC® Information Technology syllabus:
• Chapters are grouped into three main parts to mirror the three examination
profiles: Theory (Chapters 1–4), Productivity Tools (Chapters 5–8) and
Programming (Chapters 9–10).
• Each Chapter corresponds to a section of the syllabus.
• Learning objectives from the syllabus are listed at the beginning of every chapter
and then clearly sign-posted within the chapter via the handy ‘objective’ icon
heading – so you’ll always know where in the syllabus you’ve got to.
Key web technology concepts
Re-vamped Productivity and Programming sections
Application and programming skills are taught and practised in a way that instills
broadly transferable skills, ensuring students aren’t limited to using specific
programs and languages.
• In the Productivity Tools
section, examples are demonstrated
in Microsoft Office screenshots.
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Computer
fundamentals
About this book
Major hardware
components
IPOS cycle
storage
Types of
software
periperal
devices
cloud
storage
input
devices
local
storage
ouut
devices
• In
application
software
system
software
secondary
storage
Types of
user interface
operating
systems
system
utilities
Programming
languages
are demonstrated: Pascal,
command line
with which
most teachers
interface
are familiar,
and Python, an
menu-driven
interface
industry-leading
language
graphical
that will equipuser
students with
interface (GUI)
the foundation needed to
pursue programming careers
in the 21st century.
the
software
hardware
section, interfaces
two
interfaces
Pascal program
PROGRAM service;
VAR
kms : REAL;
BEGIN
WRITELN ('A simple program to see if a vehicle service is required');
WRITELN ('Please give the kms covered since last service ');
READ (kms);
WRITELN (kms);
IF (kms >=100000) THEN
BEGIN
WRITELN ('YES Service required');
END;
WRITELN ('Press Enter to finish.');
READLN;
END.
Python program
kmsCovered = 0
print ('A simple program to see if a vehicle service has to be performed.')
kmsCovered = input('Please give the kms the vehicle has covered since last service ')
if int(kmsCovered) >= 100000:
print('YES vehicle need a service')
Key features in every chapter
Information processing
Evaluating online
data
Choosing a file
access method
File organisation
verification &
validation
file access
methods
how data
is stored
how files are
stored
methods of
verification
serial file access
methods of
validation
sequential file
access
random file
access
direct file access
ITQ 1.1
Name the THREE fields of study
that have been merged to form
the field of IT.
Mobile devices ▶
Mobile devices are computing
devices that are small enough to
hold and operate in one’s hand
and are easily portable.
• Concept maps bring together all the different concepts in the chapter and
show how they fit together – a great teaching tool for starting a new topic, or a
handy revision aid later on.
• The activities are central to the learning experience of this book. They
encourage students to apply what they have learnt to their own situation, and
to practise the skills needed to complete the SBA project. Some activities can
be completed individually, but many involve working with classmates in a
collaborative way. Look out for these icons to see which are which.
• In-text questions (ITQs) check students’ understanding as they work
through the text. If students can’t answer the ITQ, they should go back and reread the section. Answers are provided at the end of each chapter.
• Key terms from the syllabus are flagged in the left-hand margin and defined
clearly in the text on first use. These important terms are also listed in the
glossary at the end of the book.
• Smartphone users can use ‘Scan-Me codes’ to access online resources. A list
of these URLs is also provided in the teacher’s resources if teachers want to
show them on a computer.
End of chapter resources
At the end of each chapter you will find:
• a summary of key content for that chapter to help you check your understanding
• revision notes that include suggested answers to the ITQs
• examination-style questions (multiple choice and structured) to check your
learning and help practise your exam skills.
vi
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Introduction
In the following pages we are going to cover all you need to know to achieve
a great grade in your CSEC Information Technology examination. This
introduction is an important place to start as it explains the book’s content and,
most importantly of all, introduces you to a case study that you will be using
throughout the course to help you understand and apply the information in the
book. This is central to all the activities throughout the book, so pay attention!
On completion of this course of study in IT, as well as getting a great examination
result, you will have developed an understanding of important IT concepts and
practical, hands-on IT skills. These are listed in the table below.
Important IT knowledge
Essential IT skills
• Develop an understanding of the
• Maintain safe and secure computing
fundamental hardware and software
environments
components and the interrelationships
• Develop computer-generated documents
among them
using a range of tools
• Develop expertise in evaluating computer • Apply a structured approach to solving
systems
problems
• Develop an understanding of basic
• Translate algorithms into high-level
information-processing principles and basic
programs
networking concepts, including mobile
networks and Internet and web technology
concepts
The School Based Assessment (SBA) part of your examination requires you to
apply the knowledge, skills and aptitudes you have learnt in a practical way.
If you complete all the activities in this book, you will have all the skills you
will need for a great SBA. We recommend that you start a notebook to record
everything in one place.
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Introduction
What is Information Technology?
Information Technology is the use of technology to process data into useful
information. You will already be familiar with some of the technologies because
you will have used or seen computers, smartphones, laptops, tablets and games
consoles in action.
ACTIVITY
Introductory activity
• Write down all the computers, smartphones, laptops, tablets and games consoles
you have used or seen in the last week. Include devices that you have seen on
TV or in films.
• For each device in your list, record what it was being used for.
• Review your list with the other members of the group to create a combined list.
• Share this list with the class by displaying it on the class noticeboard.
An example of Information Technology in action that you will be familiar with is in
your school. Students’ attendance, and examination and test scores, will be stored
on a computer and processed so that questions such as ‘Which students passed the
test?’ and ‘What is the attendance record of a particular student?’ can be answered
quickly and easily. The answers are incorporated in the student’s term report to be
viewed by parents or guardians.
This is what Information Technology is all about: technology that manages
information to make solving problems, answering questions and displaying results
quicker and easier.
Information technology in the real
world
In this book we will be looking at how to use Information Technology to help
Caribbean citizens operate more effectively. Whether the task is to process the
payroll in a factory, advertise new products on the World Wide Web (WWW, a
huge number of documents that can be accessed using the Internet) write letters to
customers or keep supplier records up to date, Information Technology can help.
Introducing our study example
Throughout this book we are going to use an example Caribbean company to show
you how a typical organisation uses Information Technology to help with all aspects
of its operations. Whenever you learn about a new topic in the book, you will be
shown how it can be applied in the real world, using this company as an example.
Welcome to Caribbean Travel Services.
Caribbean Travel Services (CTS) operates scheduled bus services
and vehicle rentals in several towns across several countries in the
Caribbean. In each town CTS has an office, a garage and a depot
from which its vehicles operate.
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1 • Computer Fundamentals
Introduction
Creating your own study example
As well as seeing how the principles from the book can be applied to Caribbean
Travel Services, you will be asked to apply them yourself, to your company. You
are now going to get into groups and create that company.
ACTIVITY
Create a Caribbean company
Working with a small group of classmates (groups of four to six), invent a Caribbean
company and establish:
• a name for the company
• the main product area of the company.
If you are short of ideas, think of a clothing retailer. Your company might specialise in
selling shoes, outdoor clothing, wedding clothing or children’s clothing.
Don’t forget, you’ll be using this company and working with your group all the way
through the two years of your course, so make sure you are all happy with it.
The syllabus in context
Each of the chapters in this book relates to a section of the CXC syllabus. These
sections cover really important aspects of Information Technology that will be
relevant to almost any company, including the one you have created. Below is
a summary of what each chapter is about. We are going to use these chapters to
guide us through the development of your company and learn new skills on the
way.
Chapter 1 Computer fundamentals
An understanding of the major types of computer systems and how they work
will enable you to choose the correct technologies for your company. You will
also need to consider what extra peripheral devices are required: a barcode reader
or 3-D printer perhaps. What programs will you need to install on the company
computers? You will certainly need a system to operate your computers, a word
processor for documents, a spreadsheet to manage the finances and a database for
storing all your records. You will also need to know how to fix any problems that
may occur. We will cover all this in Chapter 1.
Chapter 2 Information-processing
Data and information are of central importance to almost all organisations.
Your company will soon fail if you don’t know who your employees are, how
they can be contacted or whether they have been paid or not. You will need to
understand where any data comes from and how it will arrive. Will it be taken over
the telephone (oral), written on a printed form, produced by another computer
(a barcode for example), or directly captured by a sensor or measuring device
(perhaps an anemometer, which is used to measure wind speed)? It is important to
consider how reliable all this data and information is and how it can be checked to
make sure it is correct. Finally you will need to know how the data will be stored
and used inside the company’s Information Technology computer systems. As you
work through Chapter 2 you will consider all this in relation to your company.
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Introduction
Chapter 3
Computer networks and web technologies
An organisation of any size will have many computing devices. Company
administration in head office will have computers that need to be connected to
each other as well as to the sales offices. Travelling representatives, using mobile
devices such as smartphones and laptops, also need to be connected to head office.
As your company grows you need to understand the basics of computer networks
and the different options (wired and wireless) for networking devices together. The
Internet and World Wide Web are likely to be important to your new company so
you will need to understand key web technology concepts, such as “hyperlink”
and “web server”. We will lead you through the basics of computer networks in
Chapter 3.
Chapter 4
Social and economic impact of Information and Communication Technology
As the world, and your company, become more connected, it becomes more
important to understand the need for computer security and cybersecurity.
Unfortunately, successful companies like yours can become the target of criminals.
You need to consider the vulnerabilities, threats and potential attacks but most
importantly the countermeasures that you can employ to eliminate or minimise
these risks. You are not alone as there is a range of computer-related professionals
you can call on to help you develop, maintain and secure your computer systems.
In Chapter 4 we will introduce many of these professions and explain how they
can help your company.
Chapter 5
Mastering word processing
A word processing program is a tool with which you can manipulate text. All
companies rely heavily on documentation: letters to clients, brochures, reports,
memos and user manuals to name a few. All your company documents need to be
well presented and will probably include formatted text, images, tables and bullet
points, and may include headers, footers, a table of contents and forms. Of course,
all your documents need to be free of spelling and grammar errors and may need
to be reviewed by others within the company. Finally we will show you how to do
a bulk mail to your customers. Chapter 5 is a practical chapter, giving you a range
of skills to create great-looking documents.
Chapter 6
Mastering web page design
Companies like yours need a presence on the WWW to advertise and attract
customers. In order to do this you will need to understand the main concepts of web
page design and develop the practical skills to create, evaluate and test a website. We
cover this in Chapter 6.
Chapter 7
Mastering spreadsheets
A spreadsheet program is an automatic calculation tool. The finance department
in your company will almost certainly be using a spreadsheet program to manage
the finances. We will introduce you to the basic concepts of spreadsheets. You
will gain the practical skills to sort, filter and even create charts from the data in a
spreadsheet. In Chapter 7 you will gain the skills necessary to keep your company
on a strong financial footing.
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Introduction
Chapter 8
Mastering databases
A database management system is a powerful tool for manipulating records of data.
All organisations need to keep records and your company will be no exception.
Staff records, stock records, sales or rental records and supplier records are just
a few of the types of records your company may need to keep. A well-designed
database management system can store all your records in a set of related tables
and provide the tools to search, sort and view the data in meaningful ways. You
will need to summarise the data in the database and generate professional-looking
reports. Chapter 8 will give you the understanding to design and create a great
database system.
Chapter 9
Problem-solving and program design
As your company grows, problems may arise for which general-purpose programs
such as word processing, spreadsheets or database programs don’t offer a good
solution. You will need to create your own special-purpose program. We will help
you define the problem by decomposing it into its significant components, which
can be easily solved. You will then propose and evaluate possible solutions before
selecting the best. From this you will need to develop an algorithm, test it and
validate the solution. In other words you will need to split the problem into small,
easy-to-deal-with parts and then write the instructions to solve each part of the
problem before testing and checking the whole solution. Don’t worry, in Chapter 9
we will lead you through this process step by step.
Chapter 10 Program implementation
Following on from Chapter 9 you need to take your program design and use it
to develop a computer program that will run on the company’s computers. In
order to do this you will need to understand the sequence of steps that must be
followed to implement and run a program. We will lead you through translating
your algorithm into a working computer program written in a high-level language.
You will also need to test your new program and create a user manual document
for it. Chapter 10 covers all the essentials for program implementation.
ACTIVITY
Creating departments for your company
Working with your small group of classmates, build on the Caribbean company you
established in the earlier activity. You already have a name and the main activity; now
identify some of the departments your company might have and how they will support
the company. These are some ideas to get you started:
• The advertising department is responsible for activities such as the company
website, bulk emails to customers and production of brochures.
• The human resources department manages all aspects of employee wellbeing
including recruitment, training, benefits and holiday entitlements.
• The finance department manages the income and expenditure of the company.
• The operations department is responsible for the day-to-day running of the business.
Now your company is set up, we think you are ready to start.
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12
1 • Computer Fundamentals
Computer
fundamentals
To use Information Technology effectively and to choose the right technologies to meet
your needs, you will need to understand what the major types of computer systems
are and how they work. You will need to think about what peripheral devices are
required, what software programs you will need, the type of system to operate your
computer, a word processor for documents, a spreadsheet for accounting, a database for
record keeping and perhaps a web browser and some games.
Computer systems are the foundation on which Information Technology is based.
A complete computer system is made up of many different components, including
hardware and software, which work together. This chapter will help you understand
the basics of hardware and software and how they relate to one another. On completion
of this chapter, you should be able to evaluate various aspects of a computer system, the
hardware, the system software and the applications software. You will then be able to
select a suitable system to meet your needs.
By the end of this chapter
you should be able to:
✔✔ Explain the concept of Information Technology.
✔✔ Distinguish among the major types of computer systems in terms of
processing speed, storage and portability.
✔✔ Explain the functions of the major hardware components of a computer
system.
✔✔ Explain how the major hardware components of a computer system
interrelate.
✔✔ Evaluate the relative merits of local storage and cloud storage.
✔✔ Select appropriate input/output devices to meet the needs of specified
applications.
✔✔ Explain the role of the different types of software in computer operations.
✔✔ Discuss the relative merits of the various types of user interfaces.
✔✔ Evaluate the suitability of a given computer system for a specific purpose.
✔✔ Troubleshoot basic computer hardware problems.
Computer
fundamentals
Types of
computer system
Major hardware
components
supercomputers
IPOS cycle
mainframes
primary storage
Types of
software
system
software
secondary
storage
peripheral
devices
mobile devices
cloud
storage
input
devices
embedded
devices
local
storage
output
devices
desktop
systems
Central
Processing Unit
(CPU)
Types of
user interface
application
software
hardware
interfaces
software
interfaces
operating
systems
command line
interface
system
utilities
menu-driven
interface
graphical user
interface (GUI)
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1 • Computer fundamentals
The concept of Information
Technology
Information Technology (IT) ▶
ITQ 1.1
Name the THREE fields of study
that have been merged to form
the field of IT.
Information Technology is made up of the technologies that are used to capture
input data; it processes that data into useful information, displays the output
information and stores it for future use.
Information Technology (IT) can be described as ‘the use of computers, storage,
communication and other physical devices to create, process and exchange all
forms of electronic data’.
IT merges the fields of Computer Science, Information and Communications
Technology (ICT) and Office Automation. Information is the foundation of all
Information Technology activities. IT involves the collection, processing, storage,
retrieval and dissemination of information. Nowadays IT impacts many areas of
life, including work and social activities.
Let’s put this into context using Caribbean Travel Services (CTS), the example
from the introduction (if you haven’t read this yet, go back and look at it now – it
will be difficult to continue with the chapter otherwise).
• information
• problem solving
processing
• algorithms
• productivity
• program
Computer
Office
tools
design
Science
Automation
• program
• impact on job
implementation
skills and
Information and
careers
Communications Technology
• cyber
• computer
• computer security
fundamentals • computer
networks
misuse
• web technologies
Figure 1.1 Information Technology merges
Computer Science, Office Automation and ICT
Information Technology (IT) merges the study of…
• Computer Science – we have already established that Caribbean
Travel Services is going to rely heavily on computer systems to
operate efficiently
• Information and Communications Technology (ICT) – CTS will
certainly need to have great communications within the head
office and to the remote offices, maintenance garages and vehicle
depots
• and Office Automation – CTS will need to automate many
repetitive office operations such as payroll and recording bus
journey data to maximise efficiency.
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Theory
ACTIVITY 1.1 Information Technology in a Caribbean company
In small groups use the company you created in the introduction. If you haven’t read the
introduction yet, go back and do so now – you will need to have created your company
in order to carry out many of the activities in this book. Alternatively, you can use our
pre-made company, St Luago Fashion, a retailer specialising in wedding fashions.
Discuss how Information Technology applies to your company. You may wish to
use the following key terms to stimulate your discussions:
• Information and Communications Technology
• office automation
• the collection, processing, storage, retrieval and dissemination of information.
Record your main findings in your notebook.
Major types of computer systems
Computer system ▶
We need to understand the different types of computer systems that are available
to individuals and organisations, both big and small, so that we can choose the best
type of computer system to use. Computer systems are tools and we want to select
the best tool to get the job done.
A computer system is a complete computer installation including hardware,
software, users, procedures and data. But a computer system is just a tool, a tool to
help us achieve our aims quickly, accurately and efficiently.
DVD drive
CD-ROM drive
flat screen
monitor
power supply
ITQ 1.2
State ONE important difference
between a computer and a
computer system.
wireless
mouse
motherboard
hard disk drive
wireless
keyboard
USB ports
Figure 1.2 A desktop computer system
Computer ▶
ITQ 1.3
Watch this video about
computers. What are
the two types of
personal computer?
In its simplest form a computer is an electronic device capable of executing a set
of instructions or a ‘program’. An electronic calculator is a simple computer, a tool
that helps us solve mathematical problems quickly, accurately and efficiently.
Computer systems may be classified into five major types: supercomputers,
mainframes, desktop systems, mobile devices and embedded devices. We will now
look at each type in detail.
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ACTIVITY 1.2 Selecting the correct type of computer
Use the company you created in earlier activities or use St Luago Fashion.
• As you read through the following section, consider whether the type of
computer being described might be utilised in your company.
• Justify your reasoning.
• Record your findings in your notebook.
Supercomputers ▶
ITQ 1.4
The tera prefix means add how
many zeros to the number?
Supercomputers
Supercomputers are designed to carry out single, extremely complex computing
tasks such as climate research, cryptanalysis (code breaking), physical simulations,
oil and gas exploration and weather forecasting.
They use the maximum computing power to solve a single large problem in the
shortest amount of time. Speed is measured in FLOPS (floating point operations
per second) but this is really only useful when comparing supercomputers. The top
10 supercomputers in 2019 had speeds ranging from 14,000 to 143,500 teraFLOPS.
That is 143,500,000,000,000,000 instructions per second – and that is fast.
You are very lucky if you ever get to see a supercomputer. They are extremely
expensive systems that require secure and climate-controlled purpose-built
buildings. As a consequence, supercomputers are usually found only in research
environments and in very large specialist organisations.
Supercomputers are critical for the
Caribbean because the predictions
of severe weather events made
by the Caribbean Hurricane
Network are only possible with
the climate modelling performed
on supercomputers.
Figure 1.3 Supercomputer in a purposebuilt facility
ITQ 1.5
Supercomputers are used in climate
research and weather forecasting.
Suggest reasons why the Caribbean
national weather services rely on
the US National Weather Service
for long-range forecasts.
ACTIVITY 1.3 Exploring supercomputers
Conduct independent research online or from written sources to find out the role that
supercomputers play in one or both of the following areas:
• exploration for oil and gas
• climate change modelling.
a) Write brief notes documenting your findings.
b) Create an information poster to share with the rest of the class.
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Mainframes
Mainframe ▶
CPU ▶
Backing storage ▶
A mainframe is a large-scale, powerful computer with a large storage capacity and
a fast Central Processing Unit (CPU).
The CPU is the ‘brains’ of the computer, where the program instructions
(calculations) are processed or carried out. It is also called the processor or
microprocessor.
Backing storage is the computer’s secondary storage: the hard disk drives and
optical drives.
Mainframe computers are usually computer systems used by large enterprises.
Mainframes are designed, manufactured and supported by a few vendors, primarily
IBM, Unisys and Fujitsu. They are known for their reliability and rarely require
downtime for upgrades or repairs. If the system is brought down by a fault, it must
be repaired quickly so normal service can resume.
You will find mainframe computers supporting the operation of many large
organisations. For example, a mainframe will be at the heart of an airline’s booking
system. This will allow seats on any particular flight to be reserved, cancelled or
changed by a customer. Contact details, payment record, meal preference option
and other such information will also be associated with each booking.
Figure 1.4 A mainframe computer system
ITQ 1.6
What are the main differences
between a supercomputer and a
mainframe computer?
Mainframes are used primarily for transaction processing, for example:
• processing transactions related to logistics (parcel pickup and delivery, tracking,
billing and maintaining customer records)
• national and international payments and transactions (credit card transaction
processing).
It is highly likely that your next e-commerce transaction, such as an online purchase
or topping up the credit on your smartphone, will be processed by a mainframe.
Desktop systems
Desktop system ▶
General-purpose computer ▶
A desktop system (or ‘desktop computer’) is a computer system small enough to
fit on a desk, but also powerful enough for common business tasks and inexpensive
enough for home ownership.
A desktop computer system is an example of a general-purpose computer system,
which is one that is suitable for undertaking a wide range of common computing
tasks.
Desktop systems are usually installed in homes, offices, computer labs in schools
and Internet cafes. These systems, also called ‘desktops’, are commonly used in
small and medium-sized organisations. They are typically offered for sale at a range
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ITQ 1.7
Watch this video that
describes the basic
parts of a desktop
computer. Name the
four essential parts of a desktop
computer.
of prices reflecting the processing speed, memory and storage capacity installed on
them. Desktop systems come in different sizes and shapes that make them more or
less easy to place on or under a desk.
Figure 1.5 (a) An all-in-one
desktop computer
Figure 1.5 (b) A typical desktop computer system
Size/shape
Description
Advantages
Slim/small
Miniature systems usually the size of a shoe box
Easily accommodated on a busy desk
All-in-one systems
System units integrated into the visual display
Everything in one unit so is easy to position on a desk
Towers
Vertical-style, usually floor-mounted, system units Large and can be placed tidily under the desk
with a separate visual display
Desktop
Horizontal-style, usually desk-mounted, system
units with a separate visual display
Placed on the desk with the monitor on top to save space
Table 1.1 Desktop systems and their advantages
Mobile devices
Mobile devices ▶
ITQ 1.8
Put the following into ascending
physical size order:
• laptop
• smartphone
• netbook
• tablet.
Mobile devices are computing devices that are small enough to hold and operate
in one’s hand and are easily portable.
This grouping is dynamic and ever expanding, thanks to the consumer’s desire to
be able to work on the move. Each year new types of device enter the category. For
example, years ago laptops and netbooks were very common. However, in 2010 the
first-generation iPad was unveiled, a tablet computer designed and marketed by
Apple Inc. Nowadays, the tablet computer category is quite extensive and includes a
wide range of device sizes. In more recent times, mobile devices such as smartphones
have become commonplace and the latest smartphones have folding screens.
Although these devices are small in size they include powerful processors and
a lot of memory and storage capacity. The higher-specification smartphones are as
powerful as lower-specification desktops.
Some categories of mobile device include:
• laptops and notebooks
• ultra-portables, for example netbooks and Chromebooks
Figure 1.6 (a) tablet computer,
(b) smartphone
(a)
(b)
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Theory
• tablets and eReaders, for example Apple iPad and Amazon Kindle
• smartphones and phablets (phone tablets), for example Samsung Note
• games consoles, for example Nintendo Switch.
ACTIVITY 1.4 Recording mobile devices
Recall all the examples of mobile devices that you have seen in the last week.
• In your notebook, name each mobile device.
• For each record, write down what you think the device was being used for.
• Create a table with column headings ‘Device’ and ‘Used For’ to record your results
and share with the rest of the class on the class noticeboard.
Embedded devices
Special-purpose computer ▶
Embedded device ▶
(a)
(b)
Figure 1.7 Embedded systems:
(a) automobile system
(b) electronic security system
A special-purpose computer is a computer system which performs a small range
of tasks and contains features uniquely designed for use in a particular industry or
application.
An embedded device is a special-purpose computer that carries out a specific (and
dedicated) function within a larger electrical or mechanical system or a combination
of both. Common examples of embedded devices include DVD players and video
game consoles.
Embedded systems include all the elements of a computer system – a processor,
memory and storage – but on a very small and simple level. Common embedded
systems include: electronic calculator, handheld games controller, home assistants,
touchscreen controller and GPS satellite navigation systems. Embedded systems
help control thousands of devices in common use today. Approximately 98 percent
of all microprocessors are manufactured as components of embedded systems.
Table 1.2 shows common devices and the functions of their embedded systems.
Device/system
Embedded system
Smart microwave oven
Wi-Fi connection module allowing the oven to be controlled
from a smartphone or home assistant.
Moisture sensor controller to prevent the food drying out.
Automated teller machines Anti-skimming defence systems to prevent the fraudulent
copying of data from a customer’s automated teller machine
(ATM) card.
Cash dispenser controlling the sensors and activators that count,
check and dispense cash.
Automobiles
Sensor controller that controls rain-sensing wipers, tyre-pressure
monitors, and airbag deployment (in the event of a collision).
Data-acquisition module: control system for automatic parking.
Electronic security systems Motion sensor controller to manage glass-break sensors and
vibration sensors.
GPS transmitter/receiver: auto-dialler (to dial the saved number
for the monitoring and control centre in the event of an issue).
Home automation
Wireless local area network (LAN) controller: turn lights on/off
based on remote signals sent over a network or based on data
downloaded from the Internet.
Motion sensor controller that activates a video recording device
the moment a person enters a room.
Table 1.2 Everyday devices and examples of the embedded systems they contain
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ITQ 1.9
Smart air-conditioning systems and
ATMs are electromechanical systems
typically found in everyday use.
a) Name ONE other
electromechanical system that may
be found in both a school cafeteria
and a school’s administrative office.
b) State the functions of TWO
embedded devices that EACH of
these systems might contain.
With the five main types of computer system in mind
(supercomputers, mainframes, desktops, mobile devices and
embedded devices), it is time to consider what types of systems
Caribbean Travel Services will need.
• Supercomputers are too expensive, too powerful and require
purpose-built buildings.
• Mainframes are too expensive at the moment but may be needed
as the company continues to expand.
• At head office CTS will need a powerful desktop computer to run
the main administration functions of the company.
• The finance department will need a desktop for their tasks
involving: payroll, customer accounts, supplier accounts, tax
processing and individual vehicle accounts.
• The human resources department will need a desktop for their
tasks involving: employee records and maintaining the company’s
health and safety procedures.
• Each of the remote offices, maintenance garages and vehicle
depots will need desktops or laptops for their tasks involving:
service schedules and recording journey data.
• Company representatives such as bus supervisors need mobile
devices because the supervisors will be travelling on the buses,
checking punctuality against the timetable and recording
passenger numbers and user satisfaction; these devices could be
laptops, smartphones or tablets.
• Embedded devices are used at the garages and depots for security
and safety with CCTV (closed-circuit television) cameras, containing
embedded systems connecting to the company’s network.
ACTIVITY 1.5 Select a computer system for your company
Use the company you created in earlier activities or use St Luago Fashion.
• Review the activities your company will perform.
• Identify the best type of computer system to fulfil these activities.
• Record your results in the form of a summary document for the Board of
Directors of your company.
• Share your report on the classroom noticeboard.
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The major hardware components
of a computer system
Hardware ▶
We need to understand the major hardware components that make up a computer
system so that we can select compatible components. We need to appreciate the
purpose and limitations of particular components so we can easily resolve faults
and hardware failures when they occur. Remember – computer systems are tools
and we want to use the best tool to get the job done.
A computer system includes hardware, software, users, procedures and data. In
this section we focus on the hardware.
The term hardware component (or simply ‘hardware’) refers to the physical parts
of the computer system.
Hardware is comprised of core components (such as the processor, memory and
storage) and peripherals (such as input/output devices).
All computer systems need hardware to carry out the following four main
processes:
• accepting input
• processing that input
• producing output information
• storing data and/or information for later retrieval and use.
The hardware that carries out each of the main processes is given in Table 1.3. The
main hardware components and their descriptions and functions are shown in
Table 1.4.
Process
Description
Hardware component
Input
The act of accepting data from the
outside world
Input devices, examples are
keyboard and sensors
Processing
The act of transforming data into
Microprocessor
information that will be useful to the user
Output
The act of presenting information to the
user
Storage
The act of holding data, program
Storage devices, examples are hard
instructions and information for later use disk drive and USB flash drive
Output devices, examples are
visual display unit and speakers
Table 1.3 Processes carried out by a computer system
Figure 1.8 Hardware components: (a) input
(b) processing (c) output and (d) storage
(a)
(b)
main
keyboard
function
keys
cursor
keys
numeric
keypad
(c)
(d)
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Component
Description
Function(s)
Central Processing
Unit (CPU) or
processor
The processor is the brains of the computer and
comprises a control unit (CU) and an arithmetic logic
unit (ALU). Technically, a CPU may contain one or more
microprocessors (also called cores) on the same chip.
For example, a quad-core processor is a chip with four
independent cores that read and execute instructions.
1 Fetches program instructions stored in memory.
2 Executes instructions by performing
• arithmetic operations (for example, add, subtract) and
• logic operations (for example, carry out a particular action if a condition is met).
Primary storage (also Memory is usually slotted into the main board
known as ‘memory’) (motherboard) of a computer.
Variants include Read Only Memory (ROM) and
Random Access Memory (RAM). While both store data,
ROM stores data (encoded during its manufacture)
permanently whereas RAM stores data temporarily, only
while the computer system is switched on.
ROM
Stores start-up instructions for a computer; these
instructions are used to start up (boot) the computer when
the power button is switched on.
RAM
1 Stores program instructions that are awaiting execution.
2 Stores data ready to be processed by the CPU.
3 Stores data that is being transferred in/out of input and
output devices (I/O devices).
Secondary storage
Secondary storage connects to a computer’s
motherboard internally or externally. It is used to store
software and user files (text, audio, images, video, etc.).
1 Stores data and programs.
2 Holds files permanently (from when they are saved until
they are erased or re-written).
Input/output devices
Input/output devices accept input from the user and
give output to the user of a computer system.
Input:
1 Accepts digital data via devices such as keyboards and barcode readers.
2 Accepts analogue data from devices such as microphones
and sensors.
Output:
1 Presents visual output to a user via devices such as monitors and printers.
2 Presents audible output to a user via devices such as headsets and speakers.
Table 1.4 Major components of computer systems: descriptions and functions
ACTIVITY 1.6
Look at one of the school computers and identify the main components. Complete the
following table:
Process
Hardware components
Input
• Mouse
•
•
•
Processing
Microprocessor
Output
• Speakers
•
•
•
Storage
• CD/DVD-RW drive
•
•
•
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Theory
Figure 1.9 shows a Raspberry Pi computer and the main components inside
the computer box, which you can’t usually see. The Raspberry Pi is a basic,
inexpensive, educational computer that is delivered as shown so you can see the
various components.
(a) USB ports
(b) CPU
(d) Network connection
(e) Audio output
(c) HDMI port
Figure 1.9 A Raspberry Pi computer showing (a) 4 USB ports for keyboard and mouse, (b) central processing unit,
(c) HDMI port for connecting a monitor, (d) network port, (e) audio output for connecting a speaker
Port ▶
ITQ 1.10
Name any TWO devices that may
connect to a computer system
using a USB cable.
A port is a physical docking point by which an external device can be connected to
a computer or other electronic device.
An external device may be connected to a port using a cable. A USB (Universal
Serial Bus) port is a common type of port; a USB cable is one of the more widely
used cables. It may be used to connect a wide range of input, output and storage
devices to a computer.
PROCESSOR
CONTROL
UNIT
ARITHMETIC
LOGIC UNIT (ALU)
instructions
data
information
ITQ 1.11
What is the main difference
between primary and secondary
storage?
INPUT
DEVICES
MEMORY
data
information
OUTPUT
DEVICES
instructions
data
information
STORAGE
DEVICES
Figure 1.10 Diagram showing the interrelationship of major hardware components of a computer system and
how data/information passes through the system
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1 • Computer fundamentals
Secondary storage devices
Whether as an individual user, a business, or an enterprise spanning the globe,
computer users all have a need to store their files.
Consider the following scenarios:
• A student needs to transfer a file from one device to another without using any
network services.
• A business lost its computer system in a fire but was able to resume operating
normally because it had the data stored elsewhere.
• A large commercial bank requires a solution that allows it to keep digital copies
of all transactions, offline (not connected to the computer system), for at least
seven years.
Secondary storage device ▶
All the scenarios listed use external secondary storage devices.
A secondary storage device retains data permanently, even when the device is
disconnected or the computer system is turned off.
The options we will explore are hard disk drives, magnetic tape, flash memory
(USB drives and memory cards) and optical discs (CD, DVD and Blu-Ray).
The data storage needs of individuals and organisations can be met by a range of
local devices. These devices are usually pre-installed in computer systems (as an
internal drive); however, a user may choose to add devices via available ports such
as USB or Firewire (as an external drive).
A backup is simply a copy of important files that can be used if the original files
are lost. A good backup system means that an organisation can quickly resume
operation after a disaster like a fire destroys its computer systems. Users may
choose from a range of storage technologies such as magnetic, optical and compact
flash memory. These are discussed on the following pages.
Figure 1.11 External hard disk drives usually have
large storage capacities and often come equipped with
software that can automate backup procedures
Storage devices that use magnetic technology
Figure 1.12 (a) Internal view of a hard disk drive
showing the read/write heads attached to a moveable
arm, (b) Magnetic tape cassette
(a)
(b)
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Theory
Device
Description
Usage
Hard disk drive
• A system of ceramic disks coated with a magnetic
Used for a range of data storage solutions when attached to
laptops, desktops and other computing devices. Widely used
because of their speed in reading and writing. Uses include:
• storage of operating systems, applications and user data
• storage of media files (photographic images, music and
video).
material that can store data permanently.
• A set of read/write heads attached to a moveable
arm is used to transfer data to/from the disk.
• Available in wide range of capacities, data transfer
speeds, and as internal and externally connected
devices.
Magnetic tape
• A long and narrow strip of plastic with a thin
coating of magnetic material, rolled onto a reel and
usually encased in a plastic housing.
• Provided as a single-reel removable tape storage
solution and read from/written to using a tape drive
equipped with a read/record head.
• Latest generation of tape technology offers tens of
terabytes (TB) of capacity.
Used for a range of computer data storage solutions where
cost per gigabyte (GB) is more important than speed and
requires that:
• the data can be stored for long periods of time
• the device and the media are separate so the media can be
stored in a safe place.
Magnetic tape is ideal for:
• backup and recovery: organisations maintain backup copies
of their files in a secure storage space (usually waterproof
and fireproof) to ensure that their operations can resume
after a disaster has occurred. In the event of data loss that
could be due to a mistake or malicious intent, the data may
be restored from the backup.
Table 1.5 Storage devices that use magnetic technology
ITQ 1.12
What magnetic storage device
would be suitable if speed was
considered more important than
cost?
ACTIVITY 1.7 Collecting storage media
• Collect old storage media, for example: floppy diskette, music/data cassette tape
and CD.
• Create labels for the items you have collected.
• Assemble the items in a display for the rest of the class.
Storage devices that use flash memory
Flash memory ▶
ITQ 1.13
What flash memory device is most
suitable for digital cameras?
Flash memory is a small electronic device that maintains stored data without any
external power source.
Flash memory is used in storage devices such as memory sticks (also known USB
drives), solid state disk (SSD) drives and memory cards.
It is called flash memory because sections of the memory can be erased and
written in a flash.
In recent years, flash memory devices have become very popular for storing
data. They are removeable and they store data even when the power is removed.
Their high capacity, reasonable data transfer rate, low cost, durability and extremely
high portability are reasons for their popularity.
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1 • Computer fundamentals
Device
Description
Usage
Memory card
• Small, postage stamp-sized device that is inserted into
Provides adequate speed data access required by:
• digital cameras
• smartphones
• tablets
• vehicle recorders and spy cameras
• action cameras (such as the GoPro range)
• Available as internal and external drives for day-to-
Used as internal storage drive of choice in devices
such as:
• ultra-portable laptops
• small form factor desktop computers
Provides the external data storage required by
professionals such as:
• graphic artists
• film editors
• photographers
• Available in a wide range of capacities suitable for
• File storage for individuals in their personal and
memory card slots that are built into a wide range of
devices; data is read from and written to the cards
• Available in different physical sizes; the larger one
is known as an ‘SD card’ (secure digital card) but
smaller miniSD and microSD cards are available
• Capacities range from tens of GB to hundreds of GB
Solid state drive (SSD)
day storage needs
• Available in a range of size formats that makes them
suitable for use in many different types of mobile
devices
• Capacities range from tens of GB to tens of TB
USB flash drive
many different application areas
• Capacities range from tens of GB to hundreds of GB
professional lives
• File sharing during face-to-face meetings
• Distribution of educational, technical and
promotional materials
• File storage required by home entertainment
systems
Table 1.6 Storage devices that use flash
memory
Storage devices that use optical technology
The first commercial compact disc (CD) was produced on August 17, 1982. For
the next 20+ years, the CD was a popular choice for storage. For example, the
Windows 95 operating system was distributed on a single CD. CD drives utilise
a fine laser light to read a disc because the light either reflects from the mirrored
surface of the disc or does not. When writing a disc, the laser light is used to burn
the surface of the disc, or not burn, depending whether a 0 or 1 is being written.
Media/Device
Description
CD-ROM/RW
• Digital optical disc storage format invented and
(ROM: read only)
developed in 1982.
(RW: read and write) • Has capacity of approximately 700 megabytes (CDs).
• Read using a CD drive.
• Different types of CDs include CD-R (a recordable disc
that is sold blank and may have data written to it once)
and a CD-RW (a re-writable disc that is sold blank and
may have data written, erased and re-written many times).
DVD-ROM/RW
• Digital optical disc storage format invented and
developed in 1995.
• Has capacity of 4.7GB.
• Read using a DVD drive, which may be a standalone
device or integrated in other systems such as desktop
computers, entertainment systems and automobiles.
• Different types of DVD include DVD-R and DVD-RW.
Blu-Ray Disc
• Digital optical disc storage format invented and
developed in 2006.
• Has capacity of 25GB (single-layer); 50GB (dual-layer).
• Read using a Blu-Ray drive.
Usage
• Backup
• Data storage
• Distribution of ‘off-the-shelf’ products such as games,
software and music.
Can store any kind of digital data. Widely used for:
• users’ data files
• video programs for playback on a DVD drive
• sale of ‘off-the-shelf’ products such as computer
games and software.
Can store any kind of digital video. Widely used for:
• high-definition (HD) resolution video
• ultra-high-definition resolution video (4K video).
Table 1.7 Secondary storage devices that store data using optical technology
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Theory
ITQ 1.14
Name the optical disc MOST suitable
for storing two 60-minute videos
of 600MB each originally recorded
using a smartphone.
Note: Most optical drives on sale are combo drives. This means they work with
CDs, DVDs and Blu-Ray discs.
While DVDs and CDs are no longer widely used for the commercial distribution
of software, they are still used extensively in some Caribbean countries for informal
commercial activities.
ACTIVITY 1.8 Selecting a storage device
Milanne is shopping for a storage device capable of holding her collection of photos
(40.5GB), music (7,332MB) and videos (0.5TB). She is cost-conscious, and has identified
three possible devices: an external solid state drive (250GB, US$120), an external hard
disk drive (2TB, US$80) and a USB flash drive (32GB, US$15).
Milanne requires your help to determine which device is best for her needs.
• Assuming an additional 10% of storage, what is the total capacity (in gigabytes and
terabytes) that Milanne needs?
• Conduct research to determine what the comparative price per megabyte for each
device is.
• Suggest, with reasons, which device Milanne should purchase.
• Compute how much free space she is likely to have (in gigabytes) remaining after
storing all her files.
• Sketch a pie chart showing the free space and the space used for photos, music
and videos.
Units of storage
Bit ▶
Byte ▶
ITQ 1.15
How many bytes of data are
required to store the word
‘TECHNOLOGY’?
ITQ 1.16
Determine the unit of storage that
is approximately equal to each of
the following:
a) 1,000,000 megabytes
b) one-thousandth of a terabyte.
Data is stored and transferred from one hardware component to another as digital
data using the values ‘0’ and ‘1’. Each of these values is known as a binary digit
(or a ‘bit’).
A bit is a binary digit, taking a value of either 0 or 1.
Data transfer and storage take place in groups of bits referred to as bytes.
A byte is a collection of eight bits that is referenced as a single unit.
One byte of data is required to store a single character such as A, x or $.
With large volumes of data being created, transmitted and stored by users, there is
a need for storage, units that are multiples of the byte. Table 1.8, showing the more
common units of storage, is provided for easy reference.
Name
Symbol
Number of bytes
In base 2
Approximate
Exact
Bit
b
N/A
N/A
N/A
Byte
B
2
N/A
1
Kilobyte
KB
210
1 thousand
1,024
Megabyte
MB
2
20
1 million
1,048,576
Gigabyte
GB
230
1 billion
1,073,741,824
Terabyte
TB
2
1 trillion
1,099,511,627,776
Petabyte
PB
250
1 quadrillion
1,125,899,906,842,624
0
40
Table 1.8 Common units of storage
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The terabyte (TB) is already widely used as a unit of storage for non-enterprise users
(students, home users and small business operators). Most new desktop computers
sell with at least 1TB of storage. For enterprise users there are high-capacity, highperformance storage devices but these are very expensive.
ACTIVITY 1.9 Converting storage units
Copy and complete the following table that shows the equivalence among various
quantities.
Bytes
Kilobytes
Megabytes
10
0.01
3000
Gigabytes
0.000003
8000
The interrelationship of the major
hardware components of
a computer system
We need to understand the interrelationship of the major hardware components
because this is when the magic happens. Think of all the parts of a bicycle. They
don’t make much sense or anything useful until you put them all together,
hopefully in the right order. It’s the same with computer components; we need to
understand how all the components come together.
Having discussed the hardware that makes up a computer, it’s time to see how
these major hardware components come together to make a functioning computer.
The Input, Process, Output, Storage cycle
At the heart of every functioning computer system is the idea of:
input some data
process that data into useful information
output the resulting information in a way useful to humans
store the information for future use.
The IPOS cycle ▶
The IPOS cycle is the Input, Process, Output, Store cycle.
Figure 1.13 The IPOS cycle
showing how data is input,
processed, output and stored
output
input
processing
storage
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Caribbean Travel Services uses the IPOS cycle in producing payroll.
1 Take some input data
Each employee’s ID number and the number of hours they have worked
in the last week will need to be entered into a computer. This is the input
data and it will probably be entered using a keyboard as an input device.
2 Process that data into useful The computer needs to execute a sequence of instructions to take the input
information
data and calculate the pay earned and the tax payable by each employee.
3 Output the resulting
information in a way useful
to humans
The output of the resulting useful information – the payslip and tax
notification – will be printed out in a human-readable form.
4 Store the information for
future use
The results of the processing will also need to be stored on the computer’s
storage system for future reuse. At the end of the year CTS will have to
produce annual pay totals and annual tax returns.
ACTIVITY 1.10 The Input, Process, Output, Storage for your company
Use the company you created in earlier activities or use St Luago Fashion.
• Review one of the activities your company will perform.
• Create a poster to show the IPOS cycle for this activity.
Data ▶
Information ▶
Processing ▶
Program ▶
ITQ 1.17
Write down the calculation
needed to work out how old you
are in years.
Some definitions will help here.
Data is raw, unprocessed facts. This may be facts about persons, places, things or
events that have been collected through observation or measurement.
Information is useful, meaningful knowledge created from raw data.
Data that has been processed, related to other data, organised or put into context
so that it is meaningful to the user/recipient may be regarded as information.
Data and information can occur in many forms but words, numbers, graphics
and sound are common.
Processing is performing a series of instructions in order to convert data into useful
information.
In Information Technology the series of instructions is called a ‘program’.
A program is a sequence of instructions that a computer can interpret or execute.
An application is just a program that interacts with the user. All the programs
you use are applications.
A further detailed example will help you understand the IPOS cycle.
You can use an example IPOS cycle to solve the problem:
What is your age this year (in round numbers)?
The answer is simple: the current year minus the year you were born.
Input: Processing:
Output:
Store: get the current year and the year of birth, the input data.
age = current year − year of birth.
display age, output the meaningful information.
write age to a file for future use.
Chapters 9 and 10 look at program design and implementation in much more
detail.
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Evaluating the relative merits of
cloud storage and local storage
Cloud storage ▶
Local storage ▶
ITQ 1.18
Give ONE difference between
cloud storage and local storage.
Earlier in this section we covered local storage, including hard disk drives, flash drives
and DVD-RW drives, in some detail. It is now time to consider cloud and local storage.
Cloud storage is a model in which data is stored on remote servers and can be
accessed only via the Internet or cloud.
Cloud storage is still hardware, usually hard disk drives. The difference between
local storage and cloud storage is that local storage is physically connected to your
computer system.
Local storage is any physical storage device directly connected, internally or
externally, to the computer system hardware.
Cloud storage can be anywhere in the world and is indirectly connected to the
computer hardware via a computer network, usually the Internet. Cloud storage
services allow users to edit, save, synchronise, collaborate and share data via an
Internet connection. Some popular applications such as Dropbox, Google Apps
and Office 365 make extensive use of cloud storage. Cloud storage is deemed to be
quite secure, provided users set up their accounts correctly and take the necessary
precautions with their access credentials (username, password, and any other
tokens/pass codes that may be provided).
ITQ 1.19
Watch this video that
introduces the cloud.
Give one benefit of
using the cloud.
Figure 1.14 Devices linking to files stored
in the cloud
Evaluation criteria for choosing storage
solutions
Computer users have a wide range of options when considering their storage needs.
The storage needs of individuals usually differ from those of businesses. In this
section, we will evaluate the relative merits of cloud and local storage.
Some of the local storage devices and cloud storage services that are popular are
listed in Table 1.9.
Local storage devices
Cloud storage services
• Flash memory (USB drives, memory cards
• Dropbox
• Google Drive
• iCloud
• Microsoft OneDrive
and solid state drives)
• Hard disk drives (internal and external)
• Optical disks (CD, DVD and Blu-Ray)
Table 1.9 Popular local storage devices and cloud storage services
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Accessibility
Capacity
• For local storage the user needs physical access to the computer to which the storage is attached.
• Cloud storage can be accessed from any Internet-based computer device.
• Local storage capacity is determined by the decision made at the time of purchase, additional storage can
always be added if needed.
• Cloud storage capacity is much more flexible as users rent as much as they need.
Security
(a) Security of the hardware
(b) Security of your data
Cost
There are two aspects to security:
• Security is your responsibility with local storage – you need to ensure that some form of backup is in place if
a storage device should fail.
• Security is the responsibility of the cloud storage supplier. For many small organisations this is the main
advantage of cloud storage.
• Local storage can be made very secure against an unauthorised person maliciously accessing your data.
• Cloud storage data is encrypted before being sent over the Internet. However, there is a greater chance of
unauthorised access when using cloud storage.
• Local storage has an initial purchase cost but there are no ongoing charges.
• Cloud storage suppliers usually charge a monthly fee per 100GB of storage.
Table 1.10 Evaluation criteria for choosing storage solutions
ITQ 1.20
Give ONE disadvantage of using a
local data storage solution.
ACTIVITY 1.11 Selecting and using secondary storage
Outline in your notebook the advantages of using:
• cloud storage compared to local storage
• local storage compared to cloud storage.
Discuss your findings with the class.
Selecting appropriate input and
output devices
Input devices
Input ▶
Input device ▶
Peripheral ▶
Earlier in this chapter you learnt that computer systems must accept input. A
computer system depends on input devices to collect data from sources external to
the computer and output devices to display the information after processing.
Before we explain the uses of various input devices we need to define key
terms:
Input is data entered into the computer via some form of input device such as
keyboard, mouse, microphone or scanner.
An input device is any specialised hardware peripheral component that allows the
entry of data and instructions into a computer.
A peripheral is any hardware device connected to and controlled by the central
processing unit.
Table 1.11 presents a list of the devices that we will explore on the pages that
follow.
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Devices that sense light
Devices that sense sound
Devices that sense pressure and touch
• barcode reader
• biometric systems (for example, automated
• sound capture devices
• graphic pads and tablets
• keyboard
• mouse
• pointing devices (joystick and touchpad)
• sensor (pressure)
• touchscreens (including points of sale and ATMs)
MIDI Musical Instrument Digital
Interface
ATM Automatic Teller Machine
fingerprint identification system)
• character readers (OCR and MICR)
• digital cameras and webcams
• document scanner
• light pen
• optical mark reader (OMR)
• remote controls
• sensor (light)
OCR Optical Character Recognition
MICR Magnetic Ink Character Recognition
OMR Optical Mark Recognition
• microphone (sound capture)
• MIDI
• voice response unit
Table 1.11 List of input devices that ‘see’, ‘hear’ or sense pressure
We will now explore a range of input devices, their functions and their applications
in everyday life. Having read this section and completed the activities, you should
be able to select the most appropriate device to meet your needs.
Input devices that sense light
Like some living organisms, computer systems are equipped with devices that allow
them to sense input using ‘eyes’. In this regard, we may consider these devices as
receiving inputs using the sense of sight.
Figure 1.15 Barcode being used for parcel delivery
Figure 1.16 Light pen and CRT monitor
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Device
Function
Suitable for
Barcode reader
Automated data capture by
reading and recognising black and
white lines of varying widths.
• airline industry to identify and track passengers
and baggage
• healthcare industry to identify and track patients,
drugs and equipment
• package delivery (by global carriers such as DHL,
FedEx and UPS)
Camera (including digital camera and webcam) Captures digital images and video.
• photography and videography
• video messaging (for example, using apps such
as FaceTime, WhatsApp, Skype)
Document scanner (most often integrated with
OCR)
Captures digital images input as
text, diagrams and pictures.
Optical character recognition (OCR)
Automated data capture by reading
and recognising shape of each
character.
• book scanning
• document management and classification
• eBook creation from printed book
• form processing (automate data entry from
hand-filled applications, surveys, forms and other
paper documents)
A camera that takes an image of
the fingerprint. The captured image
is compared to a known image of
authorised users and the results
used to grant/deny access.
• access control (on mobile devices such as
Senses the position of marks made
on a hard copy and converts them
into meaningful data.
• leisure (selection of numbers on a lottery form)
• education (selecting an answer to a multiple
Light pen
Used like a pen to draw. Light pens
work with the light from old-style
cathode ray tube (CRT) monitors.
• capturing handwriting directly
• high-precision data input by artists and graphic
Light sensor
Measures physical characteristics
such as movement or light.
• greenhouse farming
• automated manufacturing
• intrusion detection systems (security systems)
Fingerprint reader (as an example of a
biometric system)
laptops, smartphones and point-of-sale systems)
• access control (to secure areas in industrial
facilities)
• border control screening (at ports of entry such
as airports)
Optical mark reader (OMR)
choice question)
designers
Table 1.12 Input devices that sense light: functions and applications
ITQ 1.21
Suggest ONE way in which a
Language Arts teacher could use
a scanner in each of the following
contexts:
a) to prepare for a lesson
b) after a lesson.
Input devices that work with sound
Computer systems are usually equipped with a microphone as well as ports (such
as the USB port) that allow sound and musical devices to be attached. These
(microphone and musical devices) allow the computer system to sense input using
‘ears’. In this regard, we may consider these devices as receiving inputs using the
sense of hearing.
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1 • Computer fundamentals
Device
Function
Uses
Microphone
Accepts and converts the mechanical energy of sound
waves into an electric signal which can be converted to
a digital signal suitable for computers.
• virtual assistant device control
• assistive technology (for example, text-to-speech
Musical instrument
digital interface
Used for recording and playing back music on digital
synthesisers, supported by sound cards installed in
computer systems.
software)
• speech recognition
• recording and playing music created by musical
instruments and synthesisers connected to a
computer
Table 1.13 Input devices that work with sound: functions and applications
Input devices that work with the sense of touch
Computer systems may be equipped with devices that respond to the sense of
touch including clicks on a joystick or mouse, key presses on a keyboard, pressing
on a touchscreen, and writing/drawing on a graphic pad or tablet.
Figure 1.17 Stylus and graphics pad
Device
Function
Uses
Graphic pad
and tablet
Uses a special pen (called a stylus) to
provide a more natural way of writing and
drawing
Joystick
Moves a pointer on a screen according to
the movement of the lever by the user
• architecture and industrial design
• digital media creation (including design and illustration)
• signature capture
• assistive technology: pointing device for people who may find it easier to
Keyboard
Facilitates entry of letters, numbers or
symbols (characters), or simultaneous key
presses to produce actions or execute
computer commands
Mouse
Moves a cursor on the screen in a graphic
interface environment, and manipulates
screen objects/elements (by hovering,
clicking, scrolling and dragging)
Touch sensor
Measures physical characteristics such as
pressure
Touchscreen
control than alternatives
• computer video games
• computer systems control (simultaneous key presses can produce actions
or execute computer commands)
• office applications that require the text entry of letters, numbers or
symbols
• computer navigation and control
• computer gaming
• office applications that require selection and moving block functions
• greenhouse farming
• package logistics
• automated manufacturing
• security systems
Computer-pointing technology based upon • ATMs
the sense of touch
• self-service kiosks (in airports, photo labs, phone credit vending machines)
• tablets (such as the Apple iPad and Samsung Galaxy)
Table 1.14 Input devices that use a sense of touch: functions and applications
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Theory
(a)
(c)
(d)
Figure 1.18 From left to right, (a) a mini
travel mouse with retractable USB cord,
(b) a wireless mouse on a graphics pad, (c)
a cordless optical mouse, and
(d) a joystick
(b)
ITQ 1.22
Why might you choose a joystick
instead of a mouse?
ACTIVITY 1.12 Finding input devices
• For the next week record all the different types of input devices you come across.
This can include devices you see on TV, in films or in books and magazines.
• Share your results with the class, and add to your list any devices others spotted but
you didn’t.
That concludes input devices so now it is time to consider output devices.
Output devices
Information produced by a computer must be presented in a useful form to be of
value to the user. We will discuss two types of output, categorised as:
• visual devices in the form of monitors, printers (including 3D printers), plotters
and microfilm
• audio devices in the form of speakers, headphones and earphones.
Output ▶
Output device ▶
Hard copy ▶
Soft copy ▶
Output is the displaying, playing, printing or storing of the information a computer
generates as a result of its processing.
An output device is any device that displays, plays or prints the results of processing
operations or status messages related to that processing.
Computer output may be printed on paper/plastic, displayed on a monitor/screen,
stored on a secondary storage medium, or presented as audible or video output.
Hard copy is permanent printed output from the computer.
Soft copy is a temporary form of output, as produced by a visual display unit or
audio output device.
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1 • Computer fundamentals
Output devices that produce printed output
While all printers produce hard copy, they differ in the mechanisms used to
produce it. All printers create output in monochrome, colour, or, in the case of a
3D printer, solid object. Different types of printer include dot matrix, inkjet, laser,
3D and thermal printers, and plotters.
When comparing printers and plotters it is useful to consider: resolution, print
speed, memory capacity and paper tray capacity.
ITQ 1.23
Feature
Description
Does a printer produce soft copy
or hard copy?
Resolution
The sharpness of printed images and text depends on the printer’s resolution.
Printer resolution is measured by the number of dots printed per inch (DPI).
Print speed
Measured in pages per minute (ppm), lines per minute (lpm) or characters per
second (cps).
Memory
The amount of primary storage the device has in order to process print jobs or
to queue jobs as they are sent from the computing device.
Paper tray
capacity
Sheet-feed printers are equipped with at least one tray that may hold tens to
hundreds of sheets of paper. Some printers let you add paper trays to extend
the number of pages that you can print without stopping to add more paper.
Table 1.15 Description of printer features (including plotters but excluding 3D printers)
Figure 1.19 Inkjet printer
Figure 1.20 Laser printer
ITQ 1.24
Suggest the most appropriate
printer to keep costs down in a
busy office.
In order to select the ‘right’ printers to meet the needs of an organisation we should
understand how printers produce their output as well as the key features and/or
limitations of each printer.
Device
Mechanism and function
Suitable for
Dot matrix
printer
Suitable for use when:
Printer that uses a set of small pin head
hammers and a ribbon to form images from • a document needs to be printed on thicker paper or card that would jam
dots
in a laser or inkjet printer
Inkjet printer
Printer that uses nozzle-like print head
to spray ink onto medium (paper, plastic
transparencies or vinyl) to form output
Laser printer
Suitable for printing a wide range of items such as:
Creates output in monochrome (black
and white) or colour hard copy using a
• documents that must be colour fast (ink will not smudge) such as legal
technology similar to photocopy machines.
documents
Prints high-resolution pages with high print • large-volume office documents: black-and-white laser printing is low cost
speed (> 30 pages per minute)
per page; colour printing carries a higher cost per page
Suitable for use when:
• requires colour printout where few pages are needed because cost per
page is high
Table 1.16 Dot matrix, inkjet and laser printers: mechanisms, features, limitations and applications
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Theory
Device
Mechanism and function
3D printer
• Printer that uses an additive (see below) manufacturing
Suitable for
Suitable for use for:
process to create three-dimensional objects using a wide • physical objects (of almost any shape or geometry)
range of materials such as plastic and nylon.
• architectural models such as:
• ‘Additive’ refers to the successive addition of thin layers of • biomedical devices
materials to create an object.
• components (for aircrafts and other high-performance
vehicles)
Thermal (direct) • Printer prints the image by burning dots onto coated
Suitable for use for:
paper as the paper passes over the heated print head.
• small, low-cost, single-use printouts such as:
• No printer ribbons or ink are used; special rolls of thermal
• fast-food receipts
(heat-sensitive) paper are required.
• transaction receipts produced by ATMs and point-ofsale terminals
Plotter
• Uses a set of different coloured pens. One pen is selected in Suitable for printing large-format graphical output, for
turn and is moved over the paper to draw the picture.
example:
• Some plotters work by holding the pen still and moving the • architectural drawings
paper.
• meeting and event signage
• Some plotters spray ink onto the paper instead of using a • wallpaper murals
pen.
• Can plot on large-format paper.
Table 1.17 Three-dimensional printers (3D), thermal printers and plotters: mechanisms, features, limitations and uses
.
Figure 1.21 (a) A large-scale industrial inkjet printer;
(b) Plans for a new building being output on a plotter
(a)
(b)
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1 • Computer fundamentals
ITQ 1.25
Suggest TWO types of commercial
business that would use laser
printers for producing multi-copy
output.
Microfilm (on a roll) and microfiche (on flat sheets) printers are now very rare;
they can be used to print microfilm or microfiche.
ACTIVITY 1.13 Shopping for printers
This activity is suitable for small groups of four.
You are part of a four-member team that has agreed to pool resources to establish
a printing station at your school. Your Principal has endorsed the idea and has
committed to provide a loan of US$1,000 to be used for the purchase of two printers and
consumables (ink/toner/ribbon).
a)
b)
c)
The group should collectively decide what types of printer should be purchased. Why did you choose these types?
Each member should research one of the types of printer.
Review the specifications of each printer and complete the following table:
Type
Manufacturer
and model
Price
Price of
replacement
toner/ink/ribbon
Price per page
Item 1
Item 2
d)
e)
As a group, review the findings from each group member and make a decision as to which printers will be purchased.
Prepare an evaluation report that will be delivered to the Principal, asking for approval to purchase the printers and consumables identified. The report should clearly state:
(i) reasons for choosing the two types of printer
(ii) reasons for choosing the make (manufacturer) and models chosen
(iii) the total price of the printers and the consumables.
Output devices that display temporary output on a screen
Visual display unit ▶
A visual display unit (VDU) is the main output hardware component of a computer
system that handles the display of soft copy information that the user sees.
This information may be program output, error messages, data that is being
entered at the keyboard, or input from some other input device. Other common
names for the VDU are monitor, cathode ray tube (CRT) and screen. When selecting
a VDU, the user should consider three factors: type, size and resolution.
Sizes range from 5 inches to 52 inches; however, common sizes for computers
and laptops will range between 10 and 22 inches. The resolution of a VDU is the
quality of the image displayed. Resolution is measured in pixels. A pixel is a single
picture element dot, many of which make up an image. The higher the resolution,
the better the quality of the image produced. High-resolution monitors are useful
for very detailed graphic work.
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Theory
In general, VDUs are used as:
• the primary display device attached to desktop computers, workstations, servers
and gaming systems
• digital signage in airports, cinemas, fast-food restaurants, retail shops, places of
worship and public spaces
• display devices in monitoring and control systems in industries such as public
utilities and law enforcement.
Output devices that produce audible output
Speakers, headphone, earphones ▶
Speakers, headphones and earphones are all hardware devices that enable the
user to hear sounds as they are generated (soft copy).
Figure 1.22 Headphones for audio output
They all feature a loudspeaker that generates sounds which are temporary and, as
such, cannot be kept for later use.
Audible output is usually required in situations when:
• audio is the primary output method, for example virtual assistants
• the user has a visual impairment and relies on sound as the key component of
the user interface
• the user is playing audio/video, for example during computer gaming, playing
music and movies, and videoconferencing
• audio is the most appropriate method of providing output, for example when
sounding emergency alerts or system notifications.
Speakers provide output at different power levels (measured in watts). They
connect to the audio output or USB port on desktop systems. On laptops, tablets and
smartphones there is usually a small built-in speaker as well as audio and USB ports.
Caribbean Travel Services requires a range of input and output devices.
For the office:
For the maintenance garage:
For the bus depot:
• Keyboard
• Mouse
• Inkjet printer for
colour pages
• High-capacity,
networked,
monochrome laser
printer for printing of
bulk mail
• Thermal wax printer to print
waterproof labels
• Barcode reader for checking parts
from suppliers
• Digital camera to photograph
damaged vehicles
• Sensors detecting bus movement
around the depot
• Large display monitors for public
display of bus information
• Touchscreens in information kiosks
for passenger information
• Printer to print passenger tickets
and receipts
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ACTIVITY 1.14 Identifying appropriate input and output devices
Use the company you created in earlier activities or use St Luago Fashion.
• Review the activities your company will perform.
• Identify the input and output devices your company will need.
• Record your results in a simple list.
The role of the different types
of software
Software ▶
We have considered the hardware that makes up a computer system. Now we
need to understand the different types of software.
Software is the program (set of instructions) that is executed by the hardware.
Think of a kitchen full of cooking utensils (hardware) and ingredients (input
data). What is missing is the recipes, the instructions, that when executed using
the hardware turn the input ingredients into the finished dish (the output). The
recipes are the software of cooking.
Now we can see why we need to understand the different types of software. It
is the hardware and software working together that makes the computer system
such a powerful tool.
There are two basic types of software: system software such as the operating
system (OS), and application programs such as a word-processing program. Both
types of software are needed in a computer system.
Software
System
Translators
Utilities
Application
Operating
systems
General
purpose
Special
purpose
Figure 1.23 The general classification of software
System software
System software ▶
System software is the category of software used to operate and maintain a
computer system including the operating system, utility programs and program
language translators.
Operating systems
Operating system ▶
An operating system (OS) is a collection of software that manages computer
hardware resources and provides common services for computer programs.
When the computer is first turned on the operating system is loaded. Home
and business desktop computer systems commonly use the Windows 10 operating
system from Microsoft (MS) but older computers may use Windows 8.1 or even
Windows 7. Even mainframes and supercomputers require an OS in order to
operate. Operating systems have six primary functions, as shown in Figure 1.24.
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Theory
User interface
Establish basic elements
for communicating
with the user.
Security management
Process management
Mantain a secure
Manage processor
computing
resources.
environment.
Operating
System
Memory management
Manage memory.
Resource management
Manage storage devices,
input and output
devices.
Figure 1.24 The roles of the operating system
ITQ 1.26
Operating systems are available
for different types of computer
systems.
Name two operating systems
for a desktop computer and two
operating systems for a smart
mobile phone.
System utility ▶
File management
Manage files and folders.
A good operating system is one that you do not notice. For example, when you
plug in a new printer a good operating system prepares it for use so users can just
issue a print command. Attach an external hard disk drive to provide extra storage
and the OS makes it available for storing files. Insert a music CD into the CD/DVD
drive and the OS will ask if you want to listen to the songs.
Popular operating systems include the Windows, Chrome, Linux and Mac
operating systems for desktop and laptops and the Android and Apple iOS families
(formerly iPhone OS) for smartphones.
System utilities
A system utility is a specialised program that assists in maintaining and improving
the efficiency of a computer system.
Utility program
Utility function
Backup
Creates a spare copy of data and program files to protect them in
case of accidental loss/deletion/damage or file corruption.
Disk defragmenter
Organises files on the disk drive so that the computer can access
files faster.
Disk error checker
Examines files, folders and the platter surfaces of the specified
hard disk drive and repairs any faults found.
Disk cleanup
Clears a disk of unnecessary files.
Antivirus
Checks for and removes viruses infecting the system and also
prevents viral infections.
Table 1.18 Common utility programs and their functions
Application software
Application software ▶
Application software is the category of software that performs end user tasks.
It performs the useful tasks that organisations and home users rely on, such as:
• writing a letter using a word processor
• creating and sending an email
• managing records in a database
• performing automatic calculations in a spreadsheet
• creating a web page for publication on the World Wide Web
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ITQ 1.27
Give two examples of generalpurpose software.
General-purpose application ▶
Integrated package ▶
Special-purpose application ▶
• adding a filter to a photo
• making a video call
• listening to music.
Application software may be regarded as general-purpose or special-purpose
(specialised applications) depending on how broadly or narrowly focused its
intended tasks are.
A general-purpose application is software that is used to perform a wide range
of related tasks.
For example, a word processor, as a general-purpose application software
tool, may be used to produce hundreds of different types of documents, such as
announcements, reports, birthday cards, credit notes, letters and notices.
Sometimes several related application programs are combined into a single
package. Office productivity programs such as Microsoft Office and LibreOffice
contain word processor, spreadsheet and database programs.
Integrated package software contains several related programs in one package.
A special-purpose application is software that is used to perform narrowly
focused tasks.
A payroll package has one specific task and has built-in tools for keeping records
of persons to be paid and wage rates, and for storing payment and tax data. Specialpurpose applications have built-in tools, and templates for forms and reports that
help to automate tasks or otherwise aid the user.
Software category
Sub-category
Examples
Nature of tasks that a user may carry out
General-purpose
Word processor
Google Docs
LibreOffice Writer
Microsoft Word
Pages
Create and edit text and graphics in letters and web pages
Spreadsheet
Microsoft Excel
Numbers
LibreOffice Calc
Perform calculations, analyse information, manage lists and
create charts
Database
FileMaker
LibreOffice Base
Microsoft Access
Create and link tables to contain records and programs to
manage those records
Web page design
Adobe Dreamweaver
Google Web Designer
Create websites
Web browser
Microsoft Edge
Mozilla Firefox
Google Chrome
Safari
Request, retrieve and display web pages
Photo-editing
Adobe Photoshop
Apple Photos
Microsoft Photo
Enhance photographs
Media player
QuickTime by Apple
Microsoft Groove
View videos and listen to music
Special-purpose
Table 1.19 General-purpose and special-purpose software: examples and their roles in computer operation
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Theory
At Caribbean Travel Services a variety of applications will be needed.
General-purpose • Word processing for general documentation, letters
and reports.
applications
• Spreadsheets for financial tasks such as vehicle
maintenance accounts.
• Database software for record keeping including:
journey records, vehicle records and employee records.
ITQ 1.28
Give TWO examples of specialpurpose software.
Special-purpose • Web page creation tool for creating Caribbean
Travel Services’ website.
applications
• Photo-editing software for producing advertising
media.
• Barcode software for processing barcodes in the
garage.
ACTIVITY 1.15 Identifying appropriate software
Use the company you created in earlier activities or use St Luago Fashion.
• Review the activities your company will perform.
• Identify the general-purpose application programs your company will need.
• Record your results in a simple list.
• Identify any special-purpose application programs your company will need.
• Record your results in a simple list.
Sources of software
Individuals and organisations wanting to obtain and use software can do so in a
number of ways. These include:
1 Off-the-shelf: purchasing packaged software from a computer store or purchasing online.
2 Customised: using features in the software to personalise or modify the software
that already exists. For example, creating a set of template documents that
include the company name, logo and colours in a word processing program.
3 Custom-written: developing their own software programs from scratch.
4 SaaS: using ‘software as a service’ as provided by online companies, for example,
Google Docs and Word Online.
ITQ 1.29
Tanice has a specific task requiring a
highly rated software package. She
has only 20 days to finish the task.
a) Which method should Tanice use
to obtain the software required?
b) Justify your response.
Figure 1.25 Selecting
packaged software, also
called ‘shrink-wrapped
software’ because it
sometimes comes in a
pre-sealed, cellophaneclad package
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1 • Computer fundamentals
Source
Features
Advantages (in comparison to other sources)
Off-the-shelf
Developed by a software company and
marketed and distributed by them through
traditional retail stores (brick-and-mortar)
and online channels.
• Higher availability: Available for immediate purchase and installation
Configured to a user’s liking through the
selection of options or preferences, or the
installation of components (add-ins) or
modules.
• Better fit to user needs: Software is tailored to suit the needs of the
Created by one or more programmers on
behalf of an organisation to meet that
organisation’s unique requirements.
• Higher efficiency: The software will utilise resources efficiently as the
Customised
Custom-written
as needed.
• More product support options: Technical support usually available
via multiple channels such as an online knowledge base, a user
community and telephone customer service.
user. For example, moving tools that are regularly used onto a toolbar.
• More flexibility: New features are easily added by installing readily
available add-ins and plug-ins.
code is optimised for a specific environment.
• Better fit to user needs: The software is produced to match
requirements specified by the user.
SaaS
Method of software delivery whereby
• More accessible: Web-based use allows subscribers to access the
applications are hosted remotely by a vendor
software easily from any location with Internet capabilities.
or service provider and are made available
• Lower cost of ownership for short-term tasks: Especially advantageous
to customers over a network (such as the
for small businesses as it provides access to expensive, high-powered
Internet).
software that might otherwise have been unobtainable through
The customer pays a licence fee on a
conventional purchasing methods.
subscription basis.
• Many large software companies now deliver software via this service,
including Microsoft Office 365 Online and Adobe.
Table 1.20 Outline of the features and comparative advantages of four sources of software
Different types of user interface
User interface ▶
Hardware interface ▶
Software interface ▶
A user interface is the combination of hardware and software that allows users
and computers to communicate with each other effectively.
Humans interact with computers in many ways, and the design of the places
at which humans and computers interact (the interface) is crucial for effective use
of computer systems. Examples include: playing a game using a game controller,
withdrawing cash at an ATM, writing a letter using a keyboard and monitor, or
updating social media on a smartphone touchscreen.
The user interface is made up of a hardware interface and a software interface.
A hardware interface is those physical hardware components (input and output
devices) that allow the user to manipulate the computer.
A software interface is the programs that are used to communicate with the
computer via the hardware.
Hardware interfaces
Earlier in this chapter we covered input and output devices. Some of these will
be connected to any computer system: keyboard, mouse, monitor and printer is a
common minimum configuration.
Increasingly, users are choosing to interact with their computing devices using
their voice or even hand gestures. This type of interface is increasingly popular and
is used to power virtual assistants such as:
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Theory
• Siri, the iPhone’s virtual assistant, released in 2011
• Amazon Alexa, a virtual assistant developed by Amazon, first used in the
Amazon Echo and the Amazon Echo Dot smart speakers released in 2014
• Cortana, a virtual assistant created for a range of Microsoft and other products,
released in 2015.
Figure 1.26 A virtual assistant smart speaker
Table 1.21 explores the features of some of the more common hardware and the
benefits of each.
Type
Features
Benefits
Touch user
interface
• Relies on the sense of touch (haptics).
• Includes multi-touch touchscreen gestures such as
• Easy: Intuitive to use with no special ICT skills such as
pinching action.
• Interaction is by your finger touching the screen; the
touching is detected and translated by the device into
instructions. Tapping, swiping and pinching actions are
also received and interpreted as instructions.
• Smartphones, automated teller machines and self-service
kiosks utilise touch interfaces.
Speech and
sound interface
• Interaction is by speech using normal everyday language in • Easy to use: The user does not need to be trained in
order to interact with the computer.
• Usually found on smartphones, car entertainment, climate
and navigation systems, and virtual assistants (such as
Amazon Echo, Google Home).
Specialised
keyboards
typing required; user can usually see all of the options
available so there is no need to remember commands
or search through menus.
• Enjoyable: Users will spend hours swiping!
• Interaction is via special keys fitted with one or more
features such as raised dots, colour coding, icons or
descriptive text.
• Usually attached to systems utilised by persons with
disabilities.
how to use the interface; offers more flexibility than
the other interfaces.
• Support for persons unable to use alternatives:
users who are not able to type or who have visual
impairments are able to operate this interface.
• Flexible: They allow a computer system to be quickly
adapted to a user’s needs.
• Support for users with visual impairments: users feel
the pattern of the dots on each key, e.g. a Braille
keyboard.
Table 1.21 Features and benefits of different types of hardware user interfaces
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ITQ 1.30
Cortana is a virtual digital assistant.
Name TWO other similar services
that have a voice user interface.
Caribbean Travel Services uses touchscreens on its smartphones
and tablets. It also has some specialist touchscreens in the garages
that enable the mechanics to simply check off service tasks as they
are completed on a vehicle. CTS also uses a large-key keyboard in
the garage because mechanics sometimes wear gloves, and the
Chief Executive has a speech-activated virtual assistant in their
office.
Software interfaces
Earlier in this chapter we stated that one of the functions of the operating system
was to enable communication between the user and the computer system. In the
early days computers interacted with the user through a text-based command line
interface: the user typed in a command and the computer responded with a line
of text.
Command line interface
Command line interface ▶
ITQ 1.31
Though the average computer
user may never have a need
for a command line, it’s still an
essential tool for a few technical
professionals. Name ANY TWO
computer professionals who use this
interface on a regular basis.
A command line interface is when interaction with a computer is by means of
individual lines of text.
For example, in the MS-DOS operating system the command ‘DIR’ means
‘Display a list of files and subdirectories in a directory’.
DIR
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9,623
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Chapter3
Chapter4
Figure 1.27 Directory listing using the DIR command in MS-DOS (Microsoft Disk Operating System)
Command line interfaces are still in use but are restricted to specialist roles such
as system administrators, program developers, database administrators, network
managers and home enthusiasts.
ACTIVITY 1.16 Using the DIR command in MS-DOS
Starting a command prompt program will depend on your computer system:
Look to see if there is an icon for a command program on the desktop.
If not try
Start button and look for Command Prompt
Otherwise your teacher will tell you how to start the command program.
Type
DIR followed by ‘Enter’
Next type
HELP
Help gives you all the different commands available in the command prompt.
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Theory
Another type of software interface is menu-driven.
Menu-driven interface
Menu-driven interface ▶
A menu-driven interface is when interaction with a computer is by the user
selecting one option from a list of presented options.
These are usually found on simple computer systems. A menu is a list of options
from which the user has to select one. The user is then presented with another
menu depending on their first selection. For example, at an ATM machine when
you have inserted your card and entered your personal identification number
(PIN) you are presented with a menu of options (see Figure 1.28(a)). If you select
Withdraw Cash you are presented with another menu (see Figure 1.28(b)).
St Luago Bank ATM
St Luago Bank ATM
Display balance
$20
Withdraw cash
$40
Payments & Transfers
$100
Deposits
$200
Cancel
Cancel
(a)
(b)
Figure 1.28 (a) Selecting an option on an ATM (b) Selecting the cash amount on an ATM
The menu-driven interface is ideally suited for applications used for ‘walk-up-anduse systems’, such as:
• ATMs
• kiosks that vend/sell mobile phone top-up (credit)
• self-service food and beverage kiosks in casual dining establishments such as Big
Banana (Antigua), Bickles (St Vincent), BK, Chefette (Barbados), KFC, Mothers
(Jamaica) and Pizza Boys (Trinidad).
ITQ 1.32
Suggest ONE industry that uses
menu-driven interfaces extensively
as a part of its point-of-sale systems.
Touchscreen software interfaces are similar to menu-driven and are often found
in fast-food outlets. When you order your meal the operator simply touches your
selection on their terminal. Some of the larger fast-food outlets even have selfservice touch-interface machines for quicker service.
Graphical user interface (GUI)
Graphical user interface ▶
By far the most common software interface that we are all familiar with is the
Graphical User Interface.
A Graphical user interface (GUI) is when interaction with a computer is by using
a pointing device.
In a simple form, a GUI displays elements such as Windows, Icons, Menus and
Pointers (WIMP) on the screen and the user points and clicks with a mouse or types
on a keyboard to operate the computer. A more complex GUI will include onscreen
controls such as radio buttons (select one only), check boxes (select many) and
command buttons (perform an action).
The pointing device may be a trackball, joystick or touchscreen instead of a
mouse and actions may include drag and drop, click and drag to select as well as
simple click.
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The onscreen aspects of a GUI are often referred to using the acronym WIMP.
The GUI interface is ideally suited for applications in which users interact with a
range of elements on a screen in various ways. These include:
• desktops/home screens (on smartphones, tablets, laptops and desktop computer
systems) provided by operating systems such as those in the Android, iOS, Mac
OS, Linux and Windows families
• information/entertainment systems in motor vehicles used to set temperatures,
make phone calls and set up playlists.
Figure 1.29 A graphical user interface on a laptop, tablet, smartphone and smart watch
Evaluating the suitability of
a computer system
Earlier we outlined the various types of computers: supercomputer, mainframe,
desktop, mobile and embedded. We saw that for most organisations desktop and
mobile devices were most appropriate. If you go into your local computer store
you will see a wide selection of desktops, laptops and smartphones. You need to
understand the system specification to select the best system for your needs.
ACTIVITY 1.17 Checking the specification of computer systems
Visit a computer store:
• Check the specifications of several laptop and desktop computers.
• Record your findings in your notebook.
• Discuss your findings with a partner.
The system’s specifications include its processing speed, memory, secondary storage,
types of software and input/output devices.
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Theory
Processing speed
Processing speed, at a basic level, is how quickly a microprocessor operates. The
specification of a computer will certainly include the CPU speed measured in hertz
and expressed as megahertz (a million hertz) or gigahertz (a billion hertz).
Unfortunately the situation is not as simple as comparing CPU speeds.
Microprocessor manufacturers produce a range of products in different price
ranges and for different purposes. For example, the Intel ninth-generation range
includes processors with different numbers of processing units (called processor
cores) on a single chip and different amounts of very fast memory (called L3
cache memory). Users can purchase the computer most suitable for their needs,
depending on whether they need fast speeds, or more memory. To illustrate, the
detailed specifications for the Intel range are shown in Table 1.22.
Processor
Price (US$)
Number of cores
CPU speed
L3 cache
i9-9900K
529
8
3.6Ghz
16MB
i7-9700K
399
8
3.7Ghz
12MB
i5-9600K
299
6
3.7Ghz
9MB
i3-9350KF
173
4
4.0Ghz
8MB
Table 1.22 Desktop computer system specifications.
Clearly the overall processing power of an i9 processor with eight cores is greater
than that of an i3 with only four cores, even though their CPU speeds are similar.
Memory
Main memory ▶
Main memory is the functional unit of a computer that stores data and instructions
being used by the CPU.
Main memory is also known as primary
storage or just as ‘memory’. In addition to
main memory, modern microprocessors have
a small amount of extremely fast memory built
into the processor. This ‘L3 cache memory’
significantly improves the microprocessor
performance and helps to explain why an
i9 processor with 16MB of L3 cache vastly
outperforms an i3 processor with only 8MB
of L3 cache. It is often possible to improve
performance by adding more main memory
to a computer system by inserting extra
memory modules into expansion slots on the
computer’s main motherboard.
ITQ 1.33
Suggest ONE way to improve the
performance of a computer system.
Figure 1.30 Additional main memory can be inserted in a free
slot on a computer motherboard to improve performance
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1 • Computer fundamentals
Secondary storage (capacity and speed)
ITQ 1.34
a) Suggest ONE advantage of using
a solid state disk instead of a hard
disk drive.
b) Suggest ONE advantage of using
a hard disk drive instead of a solid
state disk.
The secondary storage being considered here is the internal storage of the computer
system that stores data even when the computer is turned off. It is common for new
computers to be delivered with a single, large-capacity hard disk drive installed.
There are two main types of disk drive:
• solid state drive (SSD): very fast and robust but expensive per gigabyte
• hard disk drive (HDD): slower and less robust but much cheaper per gigabyte.
A higher-specification desktop computer might include two internal disk drives.
The first disk drive, a fast SSD, is used to store the operating system, system utilities
and all the application programs. The second disk drive, an HDD, will be used to
store all the user’s data.
Types of software
We have seen that all computers need an operating system to manage the user
interface, processes, security, memory, files and hardware resources. System
utilities are also needed as these assist in maintaining and improving the efficiency
of a computer system. In addition, application programs are the software that
perform end user tasks, for example word processing, database, video editing and
spreadsheets. The application programs installed will depend on the intended use
of the computer system. For the software to run smoothly a computer system
needs to have sufficient performance. Performance can be measured in terms
of processing speed, amount of internal memory and the amount of secondary
storage. Some application programs, video editing for example, require a highperformance computer system to run efficiently.
Input and output devices
Input and output devices were covered in some detail earlier in this chapter. One
point to note when choosing between different monitors is that the quoted size of
a screen is measured as the diagonal distance of the viewable area.
Types of visual display units include LEDs (light emitting diodes) and older-style
CRTs (cathode ray tubes) and LCDs (liquid crystal displays).
(a)
(b)
Figure 1.31 (a) An old-style CRT monitor and a modern LCD monitor; (b) measuring the size of a laptop screen.
The size is measured as the diagonal distance of the viewable area. Some VDUs are now available in wide-screen
versions
Having looked at processing speed, memory, secondary storage, types of software
and input/output devices we know what to consider when choosing a computer.
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Theory
Suggested specifications for different uses
ITQ 1.35
Suggest the main reason that
someone might choose an i5
processor instead of an i9 processor
Basic budget computers are suitable for applications such as web browsing, email
and word processing. A suggested specification would be an Intel i3 processor, 4GB
of RAM and 500GB hard disk drive.
Home and student-level computers will perform all the above but may also be
used for tasks such as streaming video, preparing presentations, photo-editing and
spreadsheets. A suggested specification would an Intel i3 or i5 processor, 4–8GB of
RAM and 1TB hard disk drive.
Business-level computers will perform all of the above but may also be used for
tasks such as large database applications and video-editing. A suggested specification
would be an Intel i7 or i9 processor, 8–16GB of RAM and one 1TB hard disk drive
plus a 256GB solid state disk drive.
Gaming-level computers are very powerful systems that could perform all of
the above but have been specifically designed to run electronic games. A suggested
specification would be an Intel i9 processor, 32GB of RAM and 3TB hard disk
drive plus a 512GB solid state disk drive. A gaming-level machine may also feature
upgraded video and sound hardware.
Troubleshooting basic hardware
problems
From time to time, one or more of your hardware devices may malfunction or
fail. Table 1.23 contains possible solutions for seven common problems that affect
general-purpose computer systems.
Issue
Possible causes
System unit does • Power cable may be loose or
not boot
disconnected
• Power outlet may be faulty
• Hardware malfunction or failure
Possible solution(s)
1 First check the cable. Unplug it from the computer and the outlet. Re-plug in
both sides (computer then outlet) and try booting computer again.
2 Check the wall outlet. Plug something else into the outlet and see if it works.
If you are using a surge protector, try a different outlet.
3 Turn the system off, wait 30 seconds and then try again. Listen for beeps and
look for onscreen error messages.
4 If the system still does not boot, report it to the computer technician,
ensuring that you provide as much information as possible.
No picture on
display
• Monitor may be in sleep/hibernate
1 Check if the monitor power button is in the ‘ON’ position.
2 Check the monitor controls, brightness and contrast to ensure they are not at
the lowest levels.
3 Check the signal cable; ensure that it is firmly connected to the VGA/HDMI
port on the system unit.
4 Check the power cable; ensure it is firmly connected to the monitor and the
power outlet.
Printer not
printing
• Power cable may be loose
• Interface cable may be loose or
1 Check if the power cable is seated properly at
(i) the interface with the device and (ii) the power outlet.
2 Make sure USB receiver or cable is plugged in correctly.
3 Plug USB receiver or cable into another port.
4 Check for error messages – paper out, paper jam or toner out – and refer to
manual to rectify.
5 Check all doors are firmly closed.
mode
• Improperly adjusted monitor
controls
• Loose interface cable
• No power
disconnected
• Printer may be out of paper or
jammed
• Printer may be out of toner/ink
• Door to paper/toner compartment
may be open
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1 • Computer fundamentals
Issue
Possible causes
Possible solution(s)
Wireless
keyboard/mouse
not responding
• USB receiver loose
• Battery contacts may be dirty
• Battery may be dead
1 Check to ensure USB receiver is plugged in correctly.
2 Plug USB receiver into another port.
3 Remove the batteries, clean battery contacts with an eraser, replace the
batteries with a fresh set.
Wireless
connection not
working
• Wireless radio is off
• Wireless network adapter not
‘Network cable
unplugged’
errors
• Network adapter may be
1 Check if the wireless radio is on: look for a hardware switch or special
function key on your device that can turn the wireless radio on or off. If
you’re using a USB wireless network adapter, make sure it’s plugged in
plugged in
correctly.
• No Wi-Fi device (such as a router)
2 Try to get closer to the router/access point; eliminate interference.
is in range
• Incorrect wireless password entered 3 Restart or reset the wireless router or access point and/or your device.
4 Enter password again carefully, making sure that ‘Caps Lock’ is not turned
in device
on.
malfunctioning
• Network device driver missing,
corrupted or out of date
• Network cable loose or faulty
1 Turn the computer off and then restart to ensure any temporary memory
corruption issues are cleared.
2 Check both ends of the network cable connected to the adapter to ensure
they are firmly connected to the network port and that no part of the cable is
frayed or broken.
Table 1.23 Troubleshooting computer systems
Insert image 049.5/>
Figure 1.32 Troubleshooting a failed computer system
ACTIVITY 1.18 Troubleshooting basic computer hardware problems
Here is an opportunity for you to develop the expertise required to effectively
troubleshoot some common basic computer hardware problems.
For each problem, you should:
• read the issue stated in column 1 of the troubleshooting Table 1.23 (this is the
undesirable situation observed by the user that will help to identify that a problem
exists);
• examine the possible causes listed in column 2; then
• carry out (or simulate) each ‘fix’ suggested in column 3 (possible solutions).
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Theory
Summary
• Information Technology is the technologies that are
• The Input, Process, Output, Store (IPOS) cycle summarises
used to capture input data, process that data into useful
information, display the output information and store it
for future use.
• Cloud storage has some advantages over local storage; this
• There are five major types of computers: supercomputers,
• Software is a key component of Information Technology
mainframes, desktops, mobile devices and embedded
devices; these are distinguished from each other by
comparing their processing speed, storage and portability.
• A computer may be either general-purpose or specialpurpose; all computers comprise four major components:
processor, memory, secondary storage and input/output
devices.
• Main memory stores data being processed by the CPU and
data being transferred in and out of the computer via
input/output (I/O) devices.
• Secondary storage holds data, program instructions and
information that are not currently being processed by the
CPU.
• Secondary storage media can be compared with respect to
portability, speed, capacity and cost.
• Capacity of storage devices is measured using units such as
megabyte, gigabyte and terabyte.
the operation of a computer system.
includes lower cost and greater flexibility as regards capacity.
systems; the two main categories of software are system
software and application software.
• Application software may be bought off-the-shelf and
may be customised; it may also be custom-written.
• Users interact with computer systems via a user interface;
types of user interface include command-driven, graphical
(GUI), menu-driven, touch and voice.
• Information
(data, information or status messages)
produced by a computer must be presented to the user:
output is conveyed to the user via images or sound.
• Output devices are visual display units, printers, plotters,
headphones and speakers.
• Specified applications require that the appropriate input and
output devices are selected to meet the needs of the user.
• Computer
system hardware sometimes
problems that need troubleshooting.
encounters
Answers to ITQs
1.1 The three fields that have combined to form
Information Technology are: Computer Science,
Information and Communications Technology (ICT) and
Office Automation.
1.2 A computer system includes hardware, software, users,
procedures and data. A simple computer is a single
hardware device with no software.
1.3 The two main types of personal computers are desktop
and laptop.
1.4 Tera is approximately 1,000,000,000,000 or 12 zeros. In
IT the exact figure is 240 or 1,099,511,627,776.
1.5 Supercomputers are extremely expensive to buy and
run. As a consequence very few organisations have
supercomputers. National weather services within
the Caribbean do not have cost-effective access to
the computing power and data-collection capabilities
required for accurate long-range weather forecasting.
1.6 Mainframes are found in many large commercial
organisations running transaction-based processing such
as banking where thousands of different transactions
are performed per second. Supercomputers are more
likely to be found in research establishments, where
they are used for one task such as modelling the
weather. Supercomputers have higher performance than
mainframes but mainframes are considerably cheaper to
purchase and operate.
1.7 The four essential parts of a desktop computer are: base
unit or case, monitor, keyboard and mouse.
1.8 Measured by physical size, large to small, the order of
devices is: laptop, netbook, tablet, smartphone.
1.9 Electromechanical systems in a cafeteria or school
kitchen include: commercial cookers, dishwashers,
freezers and ovens. Devices in a school’s administrative
office include photocopier, public address system and
telephone system. Devices in a motor vehicle include
airbag protection, central locking, collision avoidance,
cruise control, self-parking.
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1 • Computer fundamentals
1.10 A large number of devices connect using the USB port.
Common devices include printer, mouse, keyboard,
digital camera and scanner.
1.11 With primary storage data is lost when the power is
turned off. With secondary storage the data is NOT lost
when the power is turned off.
1.12 A hard disk drive (HDD) is much faster than magnetic
tape but magnetic tape is very economical.
1.13 Digital cameras have a slot which accepts a memory
card.
1.14 A DVD has a capacity of 4.7GB and will easily store two
60-minute videos of 600MB.
1.15 TECHNOLOGY is 10 letters so will occupy 10 bytes, one
byte for each character in the word.
1.16 1,000,000 megabytes is 1 petabyte, one-thousandth of a
terabyte is 1 gigabyte.
1.17 To calculate your age in years the calculation would be:
your age = this year – year you were born.
1.18 Local storage is attached directly to the physical
computer; cloud storage is connected via a network.
Local storage is usually purchased; cloud storage is
usually rented.
1.19 The advantages of using cloud storage are that it
keeps your files safe or allows access from any Internetconnected device.
1.20 The main disadvantage of using local storage are the
danger of loss or failure of the device.
1.21 A Language Arts teacher could use a scanner to scan
images for inclusion in a print-based activity; scan
pictures for projection using a multimedia system; scan
a map, reduce it, print note-sized versions of it and
paste these in students’ books for easy reference during
a class. After the class they may scan handwritten
student work for discussion or scan student work and
keep in an electronic portfolio.
1.22 Some users with poor hand control may prefer the
larger format of a joystick. A joystick is more realistic in
many computer games and is often attached to games
consoles.
1.23 A printer produces hard copy, usually printed on paper.
1.24 A dot matrix printer has the lowest cost per page but is
very slow; a monochrome laser printer has higher cost
per page but is still economical to run.
1.25 Almost all commercial businesses now need brochures,
leaflets, flyers and business cards. Examples are
transport companies, hotels, shops and travel agents.
1.26 Operating systems for a desktop computer include: the
Windows family (10, 8.1, 7, Vista), Linux family (Ubuntu,
Redhat, Mint) and macOS. Operating systems for a
smart mobile phone include Android and iOS.
1.27 General-purpose software includes: word processing,
spreadsheets, database software, presentation software.
1.28 Special-purpose software includes: web page design
software, web browsers, photo-editing and media
player software.
1.29 When choosing software it may be possible to
download a trial version of the program. Trial periods
vary but 30 days is common.
1.30 Alexa (by Amazon), Bixby (by Samsung) and Google
Assistant (by Google) are all examples of digital
assistants.
1.31 Professionals who may use a command line
interface include: computer programmers, database
administrators, network managers and systems
administrators.
1.32 Wi-Fi hotspots are often found in: fine-dining
restaurants, quick-service/fast-food restaurants and bars.
1.33 Adding more main memory is a good way to improve a
computer’s performance. Replacing the hard disk drive
with a solid state disk will also improve performance.
1.34 Solid state disks are higher performance and are more
robust. Hard disk drives are cheaper per GB and are
available in high capacities.
1.35 When choosing a processor, cost is the main reason for
choosing a lower-powered processor.
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1 • The computer system
Theory
Examination-style questions: Multiple Choice
Instructions: Each item in this test has four suggested
responses labelled (A), (B), (C) or (D). Read each question
carefully then select the most suitable response.
1)
2)
Which of the following is in the correct order of
computer processing speed, from most powerful to
least powerful?
A) desktop, supercomputer, smartphone, mainframe
B) supercomputer, mainframe, desktop, smartphone
C) smartphone, mainframe, desktop, embedded
system
D) supercomputer, desktop, mainframe, smartphone
Which of the following is 1,024 bytes?
A) terabyte
B) gigabyte
C) megabyte
D) kilobyte
3)
Which of the following produces soft copy?
I
printer
II
monitor
III
speakers
IV plotter
A) I and IV
B) II, III and IV
C) II and III
D) III
4)
Which of the following is NOT an optical storage device?
A) DVD
B) Blu-ray
C) Flash memory
D) CD
5)
In a computer system, the _________ holds data when
the power is on whereas _________ holds data when
the power is off.
A) processors and storage
B) memory and processor
C) storage and CPU
D) memory and storage
6)
Which of the following is NOT a type of special-purpose
application software used with general-purpose
computers?
A) media player
B) statistical software
C) web browser
D) word processor
7)
Which of the following types of interface is MOST
LIKELY to be used in a bank ATM?
A) command-driven
B) graphical user
C) menu-driven
D) voice-controlled
8)
Cloud storage has some advantages as compared to
local storage. Which of the following statements are
NOT true?
A) Cloud storage is generally less expensive than
local storage.
B) Cloud storage offers users more flexibility options
in choosing capacity.
C) Documents stored in the cloud are always
accessible from a local device.
D) Cloud storage offers more data security than data
stored on desktop computers.
9)
Which of the following pairs of devices are MOST
LIKELY to be used by immigration personnel at ports of
entry to capture biometric data?
A) digital camera and fingerprint reader
B) document scanner and barcode reader
C) light pen and graphic pad
D) web camera and fingerprint reader
10) Your computer monitor’s power switch is in the ‘ON’
position; however, the display is blank. Which of the
following is NOT a likely cause of this problem?
A) The interface cable may be loose.
B) The network adapter is malfunctioning.
C) Monitor may be in sleep/hibernate mode.
D) The monitor controls are improperly adjusted.
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1 • Computer fundamentals
Examination-style questions: Structured
1)
Meghan Brown is an entrepreneur; she is getting ready to open her new computer store. She plans to sell computer
hardware and software to individuals and small business operators. Her business plan will include the items she will sell.
a)
Meghan intends to sell desktop systems and laptops.
i) State the category of computer systems to which laptops belong. [1]
ii) Name TWO OTHER types of devices that belong to the category named in part i) [2]
b)
State ANY FOUR of the major components that desktop systems and laptops should have. c)
Meghan is a graphic designer and intends to stock input, output and storage devices that will be needed by graphic
artists and people involved in desktop publishing. Name devices that she should stock that can perform the tasks
stated:
i) Provide an external storage solution using technology OTHER than optical storage technology.
[1]
ii) Print large-format output on paper, vinyl and other types of material. [1]
iii) Create digital images from hard-copy photographs and advertisements. [1]
iv) Facilitate the sketching and colouring of illustrations. [1]
d)
Meghan will sell all computer systems with an operating system, system utilities, general purpose application
programs and special purpose application programs pre-installed. Explain, using an example, the role of each of
these software components, why they are needed and how they might be obtained? [10]
e)
A prospective customer has suggested that Meghan might give advice on the four types of user interface. Briefly
describe the four types of user interface.
[4]
[4]
Total 25 marks
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1 • Computer Fundamentals
2
Information processing
Data is the primary input to an information processing system. Information processing
systems produce meaningful information that is relied upon for decision making. The
quality of the information produced will depend on the quality of the source data. We
must ensure that our data comes from a reliable source and we must use validation
and verification checks to ensure that it is input correctly. In this chapter, we will
explore data, data sources, data processing, data storage and methods of evaluating
information obtained from a variety sources, including online sources. On completion
of this chapter, you should have developed an understanding of basic information
processing principles.
By the end of this chapter
you should be able to:
✔✔ Distinguish between data and information.
✔✔ Evaluate the reliability of information obtained from online sources.
✔✔ Differentiate between validation and verification of data.
✔✔ Identify appropriate validation and verification checks given a particular
scenario.
✔✔ Select appropriate forms of file organisation for particular applications.
Information processing
Information
& data
Evaluating online
data
sources of
data
verification &
validation
types of
document
methods of
verification
serial file access
methods of
validation
sequential file
access
Choosing a file
access method
File organisation
file access
methods
how data
is stored
how files are
stored
random file
access
direct file access
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2 • Information processing
Information and data
Data is raw, unprocessed facts. This may be facts about persons, places, things or
events that have been collected through observation or measurement (Table 2.1).
Example
Data items
How the data was obtained
1
1500, 1502, 1552, 1506,
1508, 1554
Data collected at the Piarco International Airport
through observation one weekday morning.
2
197, 140, 110, 122, 167
Data collected at a church through counting.
3
744, 724, 717, 700, 696
Candidate numbers extracted from the CXC
Statistical Bulletin 2012.
4
91.05, 91.09, 91.07, 91.12, Data extracted from a spreadsheet containing
91.10, 91.13
foreign currency exchange rates (JM$:US$).
Table 2.1 Examples of data
Information is meaningful knowledge derived from raw data (Table 2.2). Data that
has been processed, organised or put into context so that it is meaningful to the
user may be regarded as information (Table 2.3).
Example
Information
What information is presented
The process used to obtain
information from the data
1
1552, 1500, First six daily Caribbean
1502, 1554, Airlines flights from Port of
1506, 1508 Spain to Tobago.
2
147
The average weekly attendance Computing a mathematical
at the 10am worship service at average of all the data items.
a specific church during March
2020.
3
24
The difference between
the number of candidates
presented by the two centres
with the highest number of
candidates in the June 2008
CSEC exams.
4
y = 0.0238x A linear growth rate equation
+ 91.014
that relates to the set of
exchange rates.
Sorting flight numbers in
ascending order of the departure
time of the flight.
Subtracting the second-highest
number of candidates in the
list from the highest number of
candidates.
Trend analysis.
Table 2.2 Examples of information
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Theory
Data
Information
• Raw facts
• No context
• Plain numbers, text, images,
• Processed data
• Data with context
• Value added to data through
sound clips and codes
• analysis (comparisons)
• organisation (sorting, ranking)
• computations (counting, totals, averages)
Table 2.3 Data versus information
ITQ 2.1
Samantha weighs 58 kilograms.
State THREE examples of data
about yourself.
Figure 2.1 Counting the number of persons entering a church
Sources of data
‘Sources of data’ has two different, but related, meanings in Information Technology
and we need to be clear about the difference. The first meaning of ‘the source of
data’ is: the thing that has been measured.
Examples of data from measurements are shown in Table 2.4.
Example
Value
Wind speed
22 knots
Temperature
28º
Humidity
74%
Rainfall
2.2cm
Table 2.4 Data automatically recorded from sensors on a weather station
It is highly likely that the measurement was automatically recorded by a sensor
linked to an embedded device and directly stored on an electronic storage media.
The source of this data is the thing that was being measured.
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2 • Information processing
Examples of data from measurements at Caribbean Travel Services
are when the speed of the vehicle on a journey is automatically
recorded and the number of passengers entering a vehicle is
detected by a pressure sensor and automatically recorded.
The second meaning of ‘the source of data’ is: the person or organisation that
provided the data from observation. Examples of data from observation are given
in Table 2.5.
ITQ 2.2
a) Which is more reliable?
1) An automatic timing system
records your friend’s 100m
sprint time at 15.6 seconds.
2) Your friend reports that he
ran the 100m in a time of 15.2
seconds.
b) Justify your choice.
Example
Value
Data on vehicles passing a road junction in
an hour collected by traffic department staff
57
Data collected by immigration officers
Traveller’s name, destination, flight number
and length of stay
Data collected by a police officer at a road
accident
Time, date, location, weather conditions, cars
involved, driver details and witness details
Table 2.5 Examples of data collected by observation
Observations are usually recorded by a human onto a paper form for later input
into a computer system or directly input into the computer system by the observer.
The source of this data is the person who did the observing.
Examples of data from observation at Caribbean Travel Services
are the number of seats in bus registration number 2150 HB, and
the number of parking bays at the Littletown depot. When the
observation was made it was recorded in a document of some
form. The data is then read from the document and entered into a
computer system.
Consider this further example: The Caribbean Post newspaper
reported that Caribbean Travel Services’ newest addition to its
luxury fleet of vehicles is a 35-seat, easy-rider coach. The source of
this data is the Caribbean Post newspaper.
ITQ 2.3
What is the difference between an
observation and a measurement?
Data is generated continually but not always recorded. Nature is a big producer
of data. It produces data such as temperature, wind speed, amount of rainfall and
humidity.
Human activities also create data. In cities around the Caribbean and elsewhere,
the number of vehicles passing through an intersection per hour is an example of
data, even if this number is zero.
As persons travel – by air, rail, the ocean and road – data is generated in numerous
ways. One such way is through the records that are kept as travellers cross the
border from one country into another. Figure 2.2 is an example of a departure card
completed by a passenger leaving St Luago by air. This is an example of a source
document. This data will be manually entered into an information processing
system by an immigration officer at the airport.
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Theory
Types of document
Source document ▶
A source document is a document that contains data for input into an information
processing system.
Please retain Departure Record for presentation upon departure
Departure
DEPARTURE RECORD (B)
1. Flight / Vessel Name
2. Port of Final Destination
3. Last Name
ITQ 2.4
List the data that might be
collected from a passenger on a
flight departure card.
4. First Name
5. Middle Name
6. Date of Birth
D
D
9. Nationality
7. Sex
M
F
M
M
Y
8. Passport #
Y
10. Country of Birth
Signature
B CUL DIP
Date
E
H
NE
PR
RR RRV
S
T
UL
UN
V
Figure 2.2 A departure record card
ACTIVITY 2.1 Exploring data
• List in your notebook three documents that are examples of a source of data. For
example, a bus ticket or product label, a credit card, a bank cheque or a utility bill.
• Compare your list with the class, and amend your list to include the additional
sources of data that your classmates may have shared.
Depending on the source of the data, the data values obtained will exist in different
types, such as text and images. Data may exist as one of the primary data types
listed in Table 2.6.
Type
Example
Text
• data obtained through conducting surveys using questionnaires
and similar instruments
ITQ 2.5
State TWO forms in which data
collected using a paper-based
survey may exist.
• data such as ‘name’ and ‘time in’ recorded by a visitor to a place,
such as a school
Images
Animation sequences
• picture of a vehicle’s licence plate as captured by a traffic camera
• picture submitted as part of an application for a passport
• a virtual egg timer displayed on screen indicating an action is in
progress
Audio
Graphic objects
Video
• text ‘flying’ onto a slide during a presentation
• notes produced by a musical instrument
• voice interview recorded using a mobile phone
• drawings
• illustrations
• YouTube video
• Snapchat video
Table 2.6 Primary media data types.
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2 • Information processing
ACTIVITY 2.2 Exploring forms of data
In small groups, for each source of data listed in the previous activity:
• Identify the key data in each document.
• State the type(s) that the data item usually is.
• Share your findings with the rest of your group.
Document types used to collect, store and
share data
Document ▶
Human-readable document ▶
Machine-readable document ▶
Figure 2.3 A QR code that will take the user to
www.macmillan-caribbean.com
A document is printed or written, is usually paper-based, and is used to collect,
store and share data.
Documents may be generated by hand or by a machine such as a computer
printer. Some documents may be read and processed by humans whereas others
are read and processed by machines.
A human-readable document is a document that may be read by a human but may
not be in a form that a computer can automatically accept as input. An example is
a handwritten list of vehicle parts.
A machine-readable document is a document that can be read directly and
understood by computer systems. Examples are documents that include barcodes
and QR (scan) codes. QR codes are like barcodes but are made up of small black
and white squares instead of lines (see Figure 2.3).
Some documents can be both human-readable and machine-readable, for
example a product label that contains text about the item and a barcode to identify
the item.
ACTIVITY 2.3 Exploring document types
Examine the product label in Figure 2.4 closely and answer the questions in your
notebook.
Figure 2.4 A product label
• State what type(s) of document the product label is.
• For each type suggested, identify at least one form of data that will help to justify
your suggestions.
• Suggest what data item is most likely to be encoded in the barcode.
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Theory
Turnaround document ▶
Type
Turnaround document
A turnaround document is a printed document that has been output from a
computer system and that contains machine-readable objects that will allow the
same document to subsequently provide input to a computer system.
A turnaround document helps an organisation to increase efficiency by reducing
the time it takes for data entry and helping to minimise and eliminate data entry errors.
Remember that hard copy is permanent printed output from the computer.
Features
Examples
Hard copy document
• parking tickets issued by automated parking kiosks
• utility bills with detachable remittance/payment slips
• boarding passes used for boarding aircraft and other
• output by a computer system
• received by end user
• input back into the computer
transport
Machine-readable
Hard copy document that has typewritten text,
text written using special symbols, or codes (such
as barcodes, QR codes) that can be automatically
recognised by data capture devices
Human-readable
Hard copy document that has text and/or images that
can be read and understood by a human
• handwritten letters
• shopping lists
• books
• product labels
• utility bills
• web page content
Table 2.7 Comparison of document types
(a)
(a)
(b)
Figure 2.5 Source documents: (a) a handwritten list is a human-readable document, (b) a boarding pass
containing human-readable text and a machine-readable barcode is an example of a turnaround document
ITQ 2.6
• State ONE difference and ONE
similarity between a machinereadable document and a
human-readable document.
It will come as no surprise that a company like Caribbean Travel
Services uses a wide variety of documents.
• An example of a human-only readable document is the mechanics’
parts list, handwritten as the mechanics examine a vehicle that is
in for a service.
• In the customer relations department, staff process applications
for annual bus passes, which result in turnaround documents
being produced. The customer receives this document, which
contains the customer ID, the customer’s name, their photograph
and a unique barcode. The barcode is scanned on every journey.
This document is human-readable and machine-readable.
• Head office produces documents including timetables, brochures,
supply orders, business cards, invoices and application forms, to
name a few.
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2 • Information processing
ACTIVITY 2.4 Creating a document scrap book of source documents
• Collect examples of these documents: bank statement, business letter, delivery note,
invoice, order form, point-of-sale transaction receipt and product label. Be sure to
remove any personal data.
• Paste each document in your scrap book.
• Label each document as either human-readable, machine-readable or both.
ITQ 2.7
Is a departure record an example
of a human-readable or a
machine-readable document or
both?
Figure 2.6 Example of a car park ticket issued by a kiosk
Now try to apply what you have learnt to your own company.
ACTIVITY 2.5 Creating documents for your company
Use the company you created in earlier activities or use St Luago Fashion.
• Discuss examples of the documents your company will need. You could start with:
product labels, product specification, advertising brochure, stock check forms, staff
application forms.
• Identify each document as either human-readable, machine-readable or both.
• Suggest any specialist input and output devices you will need to deal with these
documents.
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Theory
Evaluating the reliability of
information obtained from online
sources
ITQ 2.8
Which is likely to be more
reliable: information taken from
a respected newspaper or from
someone’s blog?
Reliability ▶
ITQ 2.9
Watch this video for an
introduction to assessing
the reliability of online
information. How can
you overcome bias?
Earlier we discussed sources of data and information. One such place is ‘online’.
By online, we mean Internet-based sources accessed primarily via the World
Wide Web. These online sources may include databases, magazines, newspapers
and news websites such as the BBC, CNN or Al Jazeera. Respected and reviewed
journals, forums, blogs and social media sites are also online sources. Some other
terms for online sources are electronic sources, web sources and Internet sources.
The quality of data and information available from online sources will vary
from one source to another. This is because the different authors will have differing
motives for publishing the data and information. Additionally, each author may
have taken differing levels of care to ensure that the information being presented is
accurate and unbiased. While there are different ways to judge the overall quality
of information, one generally accepted measure is its reliability.
Reliability is the degree or extent to which the content of the information can be
depended on to be accurate.
Reliability has four characteristics:
Characteristic
Meaning
Authenticity
the information is real or true
Lack of bias
the information has been judged fairly and is not influenced by
personal opinions
Currency
the information has the quality of belonging to the present time and is
not out of date
Relevance
the information is connected or appropriate to its use
Table 2.8 Characteristics that contribute to the reliability of information
ITQ 2.10
Which reliability characteristic
matches each situation?
(a) Three independent
eyewitnesses saw the accident.
(b) Yesterday the eyewitness
posted an account of the
accident on his blog within five
minutes of it happening.
(c) Despite eyewitnesses being
present, the suspect claimed he
didn’t do it and that he was ‘an
honest person’.
(d) A passer-by was on their way to
the shops.
Persons who retrieve data and information from any source, but particularly
online sources, should carefully evaluate the information to determine whether
it is reliable. To do this, the user can test the information for authenticity, bias,
currency and relevance.
You should use only highly reliable information. In order to test the overall
quality of the information, you will need to test the quality of each characteristic
by conducting a ‘four-way test’:
1
Is the same data or information available from multiple independent sources?
2
Is the information presented in an impartial manner?
3
Is the information up to date?
4
Is the information appropriate for the intended purpose?
If the answer to all four questions is yes then the information may be deemed to
have excellent overall quality and may be used with caution. If the information
scores three out of four, the quality is suspect and the information should be used
with extreme caution. A score of one or two out of four is a definite red flag and
the data should not be used.
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2 • Information processing
ACTIVITY 2.6 Exploring the reliability of online information
Imagine you are preparing a short presentation on a topic of your choice.
• Source two articles, ideally online, but newspaper and magazine articles can be used.
• Apply the four-way reliability test.
• What is the score you obtained?
• Write a paragraph to explain which of the articles you would use (if any) and why.
Now try to apply what you have learnt to your own company.
ACTIVITY 2.7 Check the reliability of sources of information
Use the company you created in earlier activities or use St Luago Fashion.
Your company will have to rely on information from many sources.
• Potential suppliers will provide product descriptions. Within the group discuss how you
might judge the reliability of this information.
• When your company is looking for new premises, an estate agent shows you the details
of a property that has been on the market for two years. Discuss the problems with the
reliability of the information in this document using the four reliability tests.
Differentiate between verification and
validation
Verification ▶
Typographical error ▶
Transposition error ▶
In many situations data is collected on forms, which means that the data is in a
human-readable format. In order to be processed by a computer, data needs to be
input into the computer system. This may be done manually by a data entry clerk
typing the data on a keyboard or by use of a data capture device such as a scanner
or optical character recognition (OCR) device.
Because humans are prone to making mistakes, measures must be put in place
to identify and correct errors that may have been introduced during the data entry
processes. A variety of verification and validation checks are used to identify and
correct a number of errors that may occur.
Verification is a process during which data that has already been input or captured
is checked to ensure that it matches the data on the source document.
Good verification significantly reduces the number of typographical and
transposition errors that occur during data entry.
A typographical error is a typing error that affects the text, such as missing or
additional characters. Examples are: Guyyana and Britsh Virgins Islanbs.
A transposition error is one caused by switching the position of two adjacent
characters in a number or text string. Examples are typing $5,450 instead of $5,540
or Gyuana instead of Guyana.
Figure 2.7 and Table 2.9 provide examples of the types of errors that may be
classified as typographical and transposition errors.
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Theory
In othre news, toady the local boys' circket team takes on
their local rvials for the inter-schol championship cup.
The macth will start at 4pm on the recreaton ground.
Figure 2.7 Typographical and transposition errors
ITQ 2.11
State whether each of the
following is a typographical or
transposition error:
(a) 1659 instead of 1569
(b) 4300.00 instead of $300.00
(c) 2345 instead of 2435
(d) Cookies 7 cream instead of
Cookies & cream
(e) Guyaana instead of Guyana.
Data collection
Description
What was written/typed
Correct data
Typographical
errors
Missing character
A290312
A2930312
Missing text
[Nothing]
SLG
Incomplete text
SL
SLG
Incorrect text
SLU
SLG
LU840
LU804
A2933012
A2930312
1909
1099
31-21-2012
31-12-2012
Transposition errors Swapping the
position of two
adjacent characters
Table 2.9 Examples of typographical and transposition errors
Validation ▶
Validation is a checking process in a program which is aimed at finding out if the
data is genuine.
Validation ensures that data entered into a database form, web form or computer
program conforms to a set of validation rules and may include a presence check to
check whether the data is present, or a range check, for example to ensure that the
data is between 1 and 100.
Any data that is invalid is rejected by the validation process and must be
corrected before the data is accepted.
Validation checks include:
• range check
• reasonableness check
• data type check
• consistency check
• presence check
• format check
• length check.
ITQ 2.12
Scan to learn about
validation rules in Excel.
What does range check
validation prevent?
The main difference between verification and validation is that verification checks
the data being input to the system while validation authenticates the data once it
is in the system. Verification is carried out by humans; validation is carried out by
the computer.
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Methods of verification: double entry and
proofreading
The two main methods of verification for detecting typographical and transposition
errors are double entry and proofreading.
Double entry is a data verification method that requires that the data is entered
twice; this should be done by two different data entry clerks and both entries are
checked against each other to ensure that they are identical.
If the two copies are the same we can be sure the data has been input without
any errors.
Some online forms utilise double entry to verify data items such as passwords
and email addresses, although this is not as reliable as when two independent
persons enter data.
Proofreading is a manual method of verification during which a data entry clerk
visually checks the source document against data that has already been input by
another data entry clerk.
Proofreading is less reliable than double entry verification but it is significantly
quicker.
Double entry ▶
Proofreading ▶
ITQ 2.13
Suggest why proofreading is a
quicker method of verification than
double entry verification.
Verification is a manual process carried out by humans. All data entry at Caribbean Travel Services is verified
by double entry verification.
Figure 2.8 (a) shows a picture of a departure record, a paper-based document completed by passengers
departing the island of St Luago, which could be used during proofreading verification.
(a)
Please retain Departure Record for presentation upon departure
Departure
(b)
DEPARTURE RECORD (B)
1. Flight / Vessel Name
2. Port of Final Destination
3. Last Name
4. First Name
5. Middle Name
6. Date of Birth
D
D
9. Nationality
7. Sex
M
F
M
M
Y
Y
10. Country of Birth
Signature
B CUL DIP
8. Passport
Date
E
H
NE
PR
RR RRV
S
T
UL
UN
V
Figure 2.8 (a) Source document (b) A data entry screen
used for capturing passenger departure information
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Theory
ACTIVITY 2.9 Proofreading
Best done in small groups so that members of the group can compare results.
Paragraph 1
“The delivery ceremny of 3 new luxury busses,
which were recentllly purchased by the Caribbean
Travel Services Company, will be held on
Wednsday, June 27th at Caribbean Trvl Services’s
head office at 10:30am. Members of the public are
invited to join the drivers, conductors and general
staff at 17 Main Street, Quenestown for the
ceremony. The short ceremony will followwed by
live entertainment and members of the public will
have the opportunitty to experience the luxury
of these vehicles with short tours round the city
centre. We look forward to greeting you for this
special occasion.”
Paragraph 2
“The delivery ceremony of 3 new luxury buses,
which were recently purchased by the Caribbean
Travel Company Services, will be held on
Wednesday, June 27th at Caribbean Travel’s
head office at 10:30am. Members of the public
are invited to join the drivers, conductors and
general staff at 17 Main Street, Queenstown
for the ceremony. The short ceremony will be
followed by live entertainment and members of
the public will have the opportunity to experience
the luxury of these new vehicles with short tours
round the city centre. We look forward to greeting
you for this special occasion.”
Consider the two paragraphs displayed above. Paragraph 2 is the corrected version of
paragraph 1.
• Read paragraph 1 and correct the errors as you find them.
• Determine the type(s) of errors that were found. Comment on whether they are all of
the same type and why this is so.
• Using a ruler or sheet of paper as a guide, read both paragraphs line by line. Make a
note of differences between the paragraphs. Did you identify any additional errors?
If yes, comment on why these were not found when you read the paragraph the first
time.
• What insights have you gathered about proofreading as a method of verification?
ITQ 2.14
Missing data is one example of an
error that should be detected by
verification.
Give TWO other examples of
the kinds of errors that may be
present on a document such as a
completed job application form.
Now try to apply what you have learnt to your own company.
ACTIVITY 2.9 Checking data is input to your company computer system correctly
Use the company you created in earlier activities or use St Luago Fashion.
• In the group decide what steps your company will take to ensure that data is input
correctly.
• Record your findings in your notebook.
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Methods of validation
We have seen that validation is a process that ensures that data entered into a
computer system conforms to a set of validation rules.
Validation checks include:
• range check: is the data value within the expected range? (Example: number
of passenger seats in a vehicle must be in the range 4–68.)
• reasonableness check: is the data reasonable within the context? (Example:
it is unreasonable for an employee without a driving licence to be allocated the
role of driver.)
• data type check: is the data of the intended data type? (Examples: ‘colour’
must be text; ‘length’ must be a number.)
• consistency check: does the data relate correctly to other data? (Example: if
type is minibus then number of seats must be less than 20.)
• presence check: is data present? (Example: all fields that are marked ‘required’
must have data entered.)
• format check: does the data conform to the format required? (Example: date
must be in the format dd/mm/yyyy.)
• length check: is the data of the correct length? (Example: year of birth must
be four digits, e.g. 2004.)
Table 2.10 provides an outline of each of the validation checks and examples of the
types of errors the particular validation process might pick up.
Method
Ensures that …
By …
For example
Range check
the data entered falls
within the expected
range
checking that an input value is within a
predetermined range of values
A month must be in the range 1–12, an
examination score must be in the range
0–100.
Reasonableness
check
the input conforms to
specified criteria
comparing the input value with expected
reasonable values or testing it based on set
rules
A field that requires ‘number of CSEC
passes’ may flag an entry of ‘55’ because
the rule may say that a reasonable range is
0–5.
Data type check
comparing an input value with the type of data
data entered in a
particular field is correct permissible for the specified data type
for the data type defined
for that field
Consistency
check
the data does not
contradict other data in
the set
Presence check
data has been entered in enforcing a rule that the field cannot be left
the field
blank/empty
Date of birth must be present on an
application to join the under-15s team.
Format check
data is supplied in the
format expected
checking the character type (numeric,
alphabetic, symbol) entered at each position in
a field
An ID number may be in the form A99–
9999 where the ‘A’ represents a character
between ‘A’ and ‘Z’ and the ‘9’ represents
any value 0 to 9.
Length check
the data isn’t too short
or too long
counting the number of characters entered and An eight-character ID number will be
comparing it with what is expected
checked to ensure that only eight characters
are accepted.
detecting whether the current value is in
contradiction with other data or a reference
data item (i.e. the standard data expected)
An integer-type field will typically expect
a whole number, so a value such as ‘1.2’
will result in an error since the ‘.’ is not
expected.
If the ‘date of final exam’ field is empty, then
there should not be any data in the ‘year of
graduation’ field.
Table 2.10 Validation methods
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Theory
ITQ 2.15
A student is required to complete
a form by writing his full name,
class, email address and student ID
number. In addition to a presence
check, state one other validation
check that should be carried out
on each data field to ensure that
good quality data is collected.
(a)
(b)
Figure 2.9 Software programs such as Microsoft Excel can (a) automatically apply validation rules and
(b) give the user a friendly message indicating the error and asking them to try again
ACTIVITY 2.10 Developing a data validation plan
• Select three documents from your scrapbook.
• On each document, select three different data fields.
• For each field, suggest all the appropriate validation methods that could be used to
validate the data being collected in that field.
• Present your results in a tabular form.
• Share your findings with the class by displaying your table on the class noticeboard.
Now try to apply what you have learnt to your own company.
ACTIVITY 2.11 Developing a validation plan for your company
Use the company you created in earlier activities or use St Luago Fashion.
Potential new staff are required to fill in an online application form. In the group decide
what questions will appear on the form and the validation checks that might be applied.
Use the following suggestions for required information to get started:
• First name
• Position applied for
• Last name
• Driving licence
• Date of birth
• Required salary
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File organisation
File ▶
When data has been input, verified and validated it usually ends up stored in a file.
A file is a container in a computer system for storing data, information or programs.
Files usually exist permanently on a secondary storage media. Disk drives (HDD
and SSD), USB pen drives and DVDs are all types of secondary storage media.
File access methods
The term ‘file access methods’ can have two meanings in Information Technology:
1 How data is stored in the file.
2 How files are stored on the storage media.
We need to be clear about the similarities and differences. The important
words are:
• serial
• sequential
• random and direct.
ITQ 2.16
What is the primary use of a
computer file?
ITQ 2.17
What is the main difference
between serial and sequential
access?
Consider these simple examples relating to how we can read text:
‘Serial access’ means to start at the beginning and read to the end in one go.
Serial access – reading in the order in which the words were written – is great for a
short magazine article but not so good for a long book. To read Chapter 3 the day
after reading Chapters 1 and 2, you have to read Chapters 1 and 2 again just to get
to Chapter 3.
‘Sequential access’ requires the material to be ordered in some way. If the book’s
publisher sequenced the chapters in order then we could access Chapter 3, or any
chapter we want, more quickly than for serial access, as described above.
A simple method to find the chapter we want is to open the book halfway
through and see what chapter we are in. Now we can decide if the chapter we want
is in the first half of the book or the second half. Repeat this procedure in half of
the book, then quarter of the book, and continue until you find the chapter you
are looking for.
You use this same technique, technically called a ‘binary chop’, when searching
for a word in the dictionary or looking up someone’s telephone number in a directory.
In both these examples the data is ordered in alphabetical sequence (order).
ACTIVITY 2.12 Dictionary search
Find the word ‘technology’ using the binary chop method in a dictionary.
• How many pages in the dictionary did you have to look at?
• How many pages are there in the dictionary?
Race against a partner to find the word ‘information’.
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Theory
Random and direct are the final methods of access. In the reading example above,
random and direct access allows us to jump straight to the required chapter. If the
publisher of the book has provided a table of contents, we can quickly jump to the
right page by looking up the chapter in the table of contents.
Figure 2.10 A table of contents helps the reader to quickly find a particular chapter
(A special case of random and direct access that is useful to computer programmers
is if every chapter is exactly 10 pages long. In this case the table of contents is not
needed. For Chapter 5, we can calculate: 5 (chapters) × 10 (pages) to work out that
Chapter 5 starts on page 40 and ends on page 50. This allows for very quick access
to any chapter in the book.)
Technology such as an eBook reader works by utilising direct access.
ACTIVITY 2.13 Serial, sequential, random and direct access
1 With the permission of the librarian, one member chooses one book at random and
remembers the title.
2 Reveal the name of the book to the rest of the group, who must find the book without
using the catalogue (serial access).
3 One member chooses one book at random and remembers the Dewey Decimal number.
4 Reveal the Dewey Decimal number of the book to the rest of the group, who must
find the book without using the catalogue (sequential access).
5 Each group member can now select a book by name and find it using the library catalogue (direct access).
Discuss your findings within your group.
Now we need to apply these ideas to Information Technology.
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How data is stored in the file
Serial file access ▶
Sequential file access ▶
ITQ 2.18
Why is an index required when
using direct access?
First we will look at the ideas of serial, sequential, direct and random access as they
apply to how data is stored in the file.
Serial file access is where the data is stored in the file in the order in which the
data was written to the file.
For example, when you save and close a text document you have been working
on, the words are stored in the file in the order they appear on the page. When
you open the file again the words are read back into memory in the same order.
This is just what you would expect. Serial files are easy and efficient to use when
the whole contents of the file can easily be held in the computer’s main memory
(RAM). A range of applications such as word processing, spreadsheet, photoediting, music player and desktop publishing applications uses serial file access
because of its simplicity.
In sequential file access, data is stored in an ordered way or in sequence.
An example of sequential access in a file is storing a telephone directory. The
data is stored in the file in ‘family name’ order and is read out of the file in ‘family
name’ order. If the telephone directory is so large that it will not all fit into main
memory (highly unlikely on modern computers), then sequential file access is
better than serial access.
For example, if we aren’t sure that the Miller family has a telephone number,
we can open the file and start to read the records. We either find the record for the
Miller family or we reach the record for the Morgan family, which alphabetically
comes after ‘Miller’. If we reach the Morgan family, we know the Miller family
doesn’t have a phone number listed in the directory.
When compared to a serial file this system is more efficient because in serial
files every record in the file would have to be read because the Miller family record
might be the last record in the file.
ITQ 2.19
How is the data in a filing cabinet
organised for quick access to a
particular file?
Figure 2.11 A telephone directory
As we will see in the next section, random access and direct access don’t usually
refer to how data is stored in a file.
Having looked at how data is stored in a file, we look in the next section at how
files are stored on storage media.
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Theory
How files are stored on storage media
Now we will look at the ideas of serial, sequential, direct and random access as they
apply to how data is stored on storage media.
To understand how files are stored on storage media consider a simple example
of how books are stored in a library.
Serial file access to files stored on a storage medium
ITQ 2.20
Why are backup files usually stored
on serial media like magnetic
tapes?
Backup ▶
System backup ▶
Archiving ▶
Files are stored on a storage medium in a serial way when they are stored in the
order in which they were written.
Consider books in a library: serial file access would be putting books on the
shelves in the order in which they arrive in the library. Finding a particular book
involves looking along all the shelves until the required book is found. Serial file
access is simple but very inefficient.
Serial access is usually only used on secondary storage devices when there
are a small number of files that are not accessed very often. System backup and
archiving are examples of programs that deal with a small number of files that are
not accessed very often and so serial access may be appropriate.
Backup is the copying of files to a separate, removable storage device so that they
can be restored to the original location if the original data is ever lost or destroyed.
A system backup is a copy of all the files on a computer system that can be used to
restore the whole computer after a case of hardware failure or data loss.
Archiving is storing files that are accessed only infrequently, and modified even
less frequently, on another storage device.
Archive storage media like magnetic tape is usually less expensive than other
types of storage but it is much slower when looking for a particular file.
The security of data is important at Caribbean Travel Services,
so regular backups of important files are made to high-capacity
magnetic tape media at the end of every day. At the end of every
year CTS archives the ‘Journeys’ database table in preparation for
the start of the new year. This archive is placed in a waterproof,
fireproof cabinet for safekeeping.
Sequential file access to files stored on a storage medium
ITQ 2.21
Scan to watch an
explanation of
sequential and direct
access. Which is faster,
sequential or direct access?
Consider again books in a library; in a sequential system books are stored on the
shelves in order of their Dewey Decimal number. To find a book with a particular
Dewey Decimal number, you can guess where the book might be on the shelves,
go to that location and then decide if the book is to the left or the right and make
another guess. You use the same ‘binary chop’ technique when searching for a
word in the dictionary or looking up someone’s telephone number in a directory.
In both these examples the data is ordered in alphabetical sequence.
Conducting a search using the ‘binary chop’ method (see Figure 2.12): the
numbers represent the page numbers in a 15-page book. To find page 13 you only
have to look at 4 pages. Open the book halfway through, page 8 – the page we
are looking for, 13, is in the last half, so ignore the first half of the book. Open the
remainder halfway through, page 12 – the page we are looking for, 13, is in the
last half, so ignore the first half. Open the remainder halfway through, page 14 –
the page we are looking for, 13, is in the first half, so ignore the last half. Open the
remainder halfway through, page 13 – success, having only looked at 4 pages: 8,
12, 14 and 13.
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2 • Information processing
8
4
12
2
1
6
3
5
10
7
9
14
11
13
15
Figure 2.12 Conducting a search using the ‘binary chop’ method. To find page 13 you only have to look at three
pages – 8, 12, 14 – before finding page 13
Files are stored on storage media in a sequential way when they are stored in
some sort of sequence. Magnetic tapes can store files sequentially. However, this
type of storage method is largely historic, rather like the old music cassette tapes
that stored songs sequentially and you had to fast-forward to where you thought
the particular song might be. These old cassette devices have been replaced by
MP3 players that use direct access to go straight to the required song. Historically,
sequential file storage on magnetic tapes was used for payroll applications.
ACTIVITY 2.14 Exploring access methods
A telephone directory is sorted by family name:
• How does storing the information in this way help when trying to find a particular
family’s telephone number?
• Does storing the information in this way help if we have only the family’s address?
• Discuss your results with the class.
Random file access to files stored on a storage medium
Random access and direct access are often used interchangeably. One common
way to distinguish between them is the following:
• Random access: the organisation of data in main memory (random access
memory or RAM).
• Direct access: the organisation of files on a disk drive.
Random access ▶
In random access, data can be quickly accessed wherever it occurs in main memory.
Think about a table of values held in main memory. Given the column and row
it is very quick and easy to access the particular cell value.
Direct file access to files stored on a storage medium
Direct access storage media ▶
Direct access storage media is secondary storage where each file has a specific
location or unique address in the storage, allowing it to be accessed quickly.
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Theory
Consider books in our library again; in direct access finding a book involves
accessing the library catalogue, which tells you exactly where a particular book is
shelved so you can go directly to the book. Direct access storage media like flash
drives, solid state disk drives and hard disk drives manage the files and the index
so an application program can simply request access to a particular file. That is like
you simply asking the library staff for a particular book: they find it for you and
bring it to your desk.
To clarify these ideas here is a complete example.
,
The finance department at Caribbean Travel Services maintains
many spreadsheet files held on a hard disk drive. When the
spreadsheet application opens the file, the operating system asks
the hard disk for the file. The hard disk drive’s electronics looks up
the name of the requested file in its index to find its address and then
accesses the file directly (direct access). Data is stored in the file
serially so the application reads each value in turn and puts it into
a table in memory (serial access). Now that all the data is in main
memory it can be quickly accessed and updated by the spreadsheet
program using random access. When closed, the spreadsheet
program writes the values in the table back into the file in serial
order, ready for the next time the file is needed.
ACTIVITY 2.15 Race against a classmate
Suitable for pair working.
• Find a dictionary (an example of a sequential book).
• Find a novel (an example of a serial book).
• See who can find the word ‘random’ in their book the quickest.
• Suggest reasons for your result.
Choosing an appropriate file
access method
Real-time system ▶
Over the years, operating systems and the electronics built into storage devices
have improved to the point where they are largely smart enough to make decisions
about how files will be stored.
Software developers of programs such as archiving, payroll and online banking
ensure that they select and use the most appropriate file access methods.
Table 2.11 examines three application areas: archiving, payroll processing and
real-time systems (for example, online banking and airline ticketing). The table
states the most appropriate file organisation method for each application area and
suggests reasons why this is so.
A real-time system is a computer system where response time is critical. Example:
computer systems controlling self-driving cars have to be real-time systems.
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Application area
Suggested file
organisation
method
Reason for selecting method
Archiving and
backups
serial
A full system backup of a computer system’s hard disk
drive involves writing the entire contents of the disk
drive to a different storage device. If it is ever needed,
the backup copy is written back onto the hard disk in
the same order in which it was written to the backup.
Payroll processing
sequential
Historic payroll systems had at least one sequential
master file and one or more sequential transaction files.
Information in the files was stored in order of employee
ID. The files were processed in order, one record after
the other, starting with the first record in the master
file.
Real-time systems
random and
direct
A real-time system has to be highly efficient and will
therefore use random access for data that is in main
memory and direct access to files stored on secondary
storage.
ITQ 2.22
A 10 × 10 table is held in memory.
If row 1, column 1 is memory
location 1, then what memory
location is row 5, column 3?
Table 2.11 Appropriate file organisation for selected applications
ACTIVITY 2.16 Selecting appropriate file organisation methods for particular applications
Copy the following table into your notebook.
Application area
Suggested file
organisation
method
Reason for selecting method
A shopping list
serial
reminder application
sequential
A banking
application
The vast amount of data received from the
scientific space satellite is stored day-by-day on
magnetic tape. Magnetic tapes are an economical
way to store vast amounts of data.
random and
direct
• Complete the table with the name of the application area (in column 1), the proposed
organisational method (in column 2) and a reason for the selection (in column 3).
Now try to apply what you have learnt to your own company.
ACTIVITY 2.17 Selecting appropriate file access methods for your company
Use the company you created in earlier activities or use St Luago Fashion.
An older member of the Board of Governors wants the company to use sequential
access on a hard disk drive to store company files. Create a short summary document to
explain to the Board why this is not a good idea.
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Theory
Summary
• Data is raw, unprocessed facts. This may be facts about
• Range check, presence check and format check are three
persons, places, things or events that have been collected
through observation or measurement.
examples of validation used to check that the data entered
is correct.
• Information is useful, meaningful knowledge derived from
• Serial access is when access is in the order in which the data
raw data.
• Data can be from direct measurement or from observation
by an indirect source.
• Document
was written.
• Sequential access is used when data is stored in an ordered
way or in sequence.
types include: human-readable, machinereadable or both.
• Random access is how the microprocessor accesses data in
• A turnaround document is an output document that is
• Files stored on a hard disk drive are accessed by direct
subsequently used as input to another computer system.
• Information always needs to be checked to ensure that it is
authentic, unbiased, current and relevant.
main memory.
access using an index.
• Archiving often uses serial access files on magnetic tape.
• Double entry and proofreading verification are ways to
check that data has been input correctly.
Answers to ITQs
2.1 Facts are raw data about a person, event or thing, so
you may have included height, weight, eye colour, hair
colour or foot/shoe size as data about a person.
2.2 The automatic measurement is likely to be more reliable
than your friend’s reporting of their time. Their report
may be biased as they want a fast time.
2.3 Measurements are usually taken automatically using
sensors; observations are usually recorded on a form
before being input into a computer system.
2.4 The information on a flight departure card may
include: passenger name, nationality, passport number,
destination, departure port, ticket reference and
journey reference.
2.5 Paper-based forms may include surveys on: traffic
control, satisfaction feedback, voting intentions, social
media usage or TV-watching habits.
2.6 Machine-readable documents can be automatically read
by an input device. Human-readable documents may
not be able to be read automatically by an input device.
Both a machine-readable document and a humanreadable document may be read by a human.
2.7 A departure card is both machine-readable and humanreadable.
2.8 Information taken from a peer-reviewed journal is more
reliable than an individual’s blog because it has been
checked by knowledgeable experts.
2.9 To avoid bias web pages always focus on the facts and
check multiple websites.
2.10 The information is
a Reliable. The fact that there was more than one
independent report improves the reliability.
b Timely. Because the information is only days old.
c Biased. Because the suspect is likely to be biased.
d Not relevant. Because the passer-by is not relevant to
the incident.
2.11 The errors are:
a Transposition error
1659 instead of 1569
b Typographical error
4300.00 instead of $300.00
c Transposition error
2345 instead of 2435
d Typographical error
Cookies 7 cream instead
of Cookies & cream
e Typographical error
Guyaana instead of Guyana.
2.12 Range check validation prevents users entering values
that are outside a predefined range.
2.13 Proofreading is quicker than double entry verification
because it involves typing in the data only once. Double
entry requires the data to be typed twice, which takes
longer.
2.14 Common errors on written and typed documents are
transposition and typographical errors.
2.15 Validation checks on data may include:
a full name: type check, must be a character string
b form: range check, the form must be 1–60
c email address: format check, emails must be of the
form …@...
d student ID: type check, must be a number.
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• The computer
2 •1Information
processing
system
2.16 A computer file is used to store data, information or
programs.
2.17 The difference between sequential and serial access is
that sequential access requires the records to be sorted
in some way. Serial files do not need to be sorted.
2.18 Direct access needs an index so the location of a file can
be looked up to allow quick access.
2.20 Direct access is faster than sequential access.
2.21 Magnetic tapes are very economical removable storage
media.
2.22 To calculate the location of the item in row 5 column
3: 4 rows of 10 to get to row 5 is 40, plus column 3:
4*10+3= 43. The location is the 43rd in the table.
2.19 Data in a filing cabinet is usually organised alphabetically.
Examination-style questions: Multiple Choice
Instructions: Each item in this test has four suggested
responses labelled (A), (B), (C) or (D). Read each question
carefully then select the most suitable response.
1)
2)
3)
4)
Which of the following statements are TRUE about
information?
I
It takes the form of numbers only.
II
It may be presented as symbols, pictures or sounds.
III
When in the form of words or numbers, it must be
presented so that it is meaningful.
IV It may be produced by counting, sorting and
carrying out mathematical computations on
numeric values.
A) I and IV ONLY
B) II, III and IV ONLY
C) II and III ONLY
D) II and IV ONLY
Which of the following statements DOES NOT
represent information?
A) The number is 650.
B) The average number of meals sold last week was 73.
C) The last flights leaving today are 1552, 1500 and 1502.
D) The first flight that departed Port of Spain
yesterday was 1552.
Which of the following statements is UNTRUE about
an attendance register used by a homeroom teacher to
record daily attendance of students?
A) It is human-readable.
B) It is a source document.
C) It is a turnaround document.
D) It contains both data and information.
An automated parking attendant at a parking lot issues a
printed ticket to motorists when they park. Which of the
following statements about the ticket are most likely true?
I
It is hard copy.
II
It is soft copy.
III
It is human-readable.
IV It is machine-readable.
A) I and III ONLY
B) II and III ONLY
C) II and IV ONLY
D) I, III and IV ONLY
5)
A website with a ‘last updated’ date more than a
year ago may be an unreliable source of information
because of its
A) authenticity
B) currency
C) level of bias
D) relevance
6)
Which of the following statements are TRUE about
data verification?
I
It is performed by a human.
II
It is performed by a computer system.
III
It may be implemented using proofreading.
IV It includes methods such as range check and data
type check.
A) I and III ONLY
B) II and III ONLY
C) II, III and IV ONLY
D) II and IV ONLY
7)
Which statement is UNTRUE about length checks?
A) It is a data validation method.
B) It can be applied to numeric fields only.
C) It is carried out by the computer system.
D) It can be applied to text and numeric fields.
8)
Which of the following is NOT a validation check?
A) range check
B) consistency check
C) random check
D) format check
9)
Writing ‘757’ instead of ‘775’ is an example of a
_______________ error.
A) data type
B) proofreading
C) transposition
D) typographical
10) Accessing records in a file in the same order in which
they were written is an example of what type of file
organisation?
A) direct
B) random
C) sequential
D) serial
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Examination-style questions: Structured
1)
The LLF Law Firm purchases office supplies from OSD Office Supplies Depot. The illustration below shows the process
and information flow involved in the requisition, ordering and delivery process.
PROCESS 1
Form U
Admin assistant
LLF Law Firm
prepares office
supplies requisition
(form U) by hand
PROCESS 1
Form U
Form U
Admin assistant
checks computerised
version to ensure it
matches what she
wrote on the original
document
Purchasing
officer at
LLF Law Firm
keys data from
Form U into
computer system
Document W
Document Y
Updated invoice
sent along with
office supplies via
delivery van to
LLF Law Firm
a)
b)
c)
Document X
Printed invoice
sent by bearer
along with
cheque to OSD
Invoice with barcode
generated by computer
and automatically
emailed to
Purchasing officer
Client service rep at OSD Office Supplies
retrieves email attachment (Document V)
and uses data to generate an invoice
(Document W) using his specialised
invoicing software
Document V
Purchasing
officer generates
purchase order
(Document V)
using the computer
system and sends
as an email
attachment
Using the letters U to Y, state which document(s) is/are
i) hard copy
ii) soft copy
iii) human-readable
iv) machine-readable
v) turnaround document [5]
State ONE item of data that is likely to be found on
i) U but not V
ii) W but not V
iii) Y but not W [3]
The admin assistant at LLF visited the web page of OSD in order to find out the correct product names,
specifications and item numbers. The web page was last updated one year ago. Explain why the information
retrieved may be unreliable. [3]
d)
In order to ensure the correctness of the purchase order, the ordering process included two important processes –
Process 1 and Process 2.
i) Name these two processes. [1]
ii) State the name of THREE methods of checking the input data that are likely to be used during Process 1.
[3]
iii) Use an example to explain how ONE of the above methods work.
[2]
e)
Both LLF and OSD used computer-based application software to generate the purchase order and invoice
respectively. The data files used by these software systems are stored on internal hard drives installed on the
companies’ desktop computer systems.
i) Name the method of file organisation MOST LIKELY used by the application software systems.
ii) Justify the reason for your selection in part (e) i).
[1]
[2]
Total 20 marks
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3
By the end of this chapter
you should be able to:
Computer networks
and web technologies
Computer networks and web technologies are now key components in
Information Technology. Knowledge of these areas will help you to understand,
and better utilise, the capabilities and facilities offered by computer networks
and the Internet. This chapter will increase your awareness and understanding of
basic networking concepts. The components of networks are described including
router, switch, hotspot and transmission media. The terminology associated with
the Internet and its interrelationship with the World Wide Web are also explored.
✔✔ Distinguish among types of networks based on key characteristics.
✔✔ Explain the functions of basic networking components.
✔✔ Assess the importance of mobile communication technologies.
✔✔ Explain the interrelationships among key web technology concepts.
Computer networks and
web technologies
Introduction
to computer
networks
Types of networks
LANs, MAMs
and WANs
Mobile networks as
common carriers
From 2G
to 5G
Wireless
network
technologies
Basic components
of a network
Transmission Connection
devices
media
Physical wired
transmission
media
Wireless
transmission
media
Mobile
communications
Network
cards and
adapters
Mobile networks
in education,
commerce and
journalism
Web technologies
HTML
URLs
Interacting with
websites
Email
Networks and
privacy
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Theory
Introduction to computer
networks
Computer network ▶
Mobile network ▶
ITQ 3.1
Why might someone on the move
want to join a computer network?
A computer network is a group of computing devices that are connected together
so that they can share data and resources.
A mobile network is a network of communication and computing devices where
the last link is over a mobile phone network.
Originally developed for mobile phone systems, mobile networks now carry
data as well as voice communication. Persons on the move with smartphones can
now join a computer network.
Computer networks are needed because organisations want to communicate
with others and share data files and other resources.
Computer networks at CTS are integral to how the company
functions. Some of the newer buses are fitted with Wi-Fi, accessed
using a mobile network, allowing passengers to access the Internet
when travelling on the bus. Employees of CTS want to be able to
communicate with each other using email. All the computers in CTS
head office need to access the company printer and so need to be
connected together.
All these tasks are achieved by networking computers together.
ACTIVITY 3.1 Uses of a network in your company
Use the company you created in the Introduction or use St Luago Fashion.
• Discuss how the employees and management in your company will need to
communicate and share data and resources.
• Select three employees and create a short report outlining the tasks these employees
will be able to achieve using the company network.
• Display your report on the classroom noticeboard for the rest of the class.
Wi-Fi ▶
ITQ 3.2
a) What is the main difference
between a wired and a wireless
network?
b) Give ONE advantage of using a
wireless network.
Most modern computing devices have networking facilities built in. Desktop
computers and laptops will usually have a network port into which a physical
network cable can be plugged and a wireless network adapter allowing the
computer to join a Wi-Fi network without a physical cable. Smartphones are able
to connect to a mobile network and they also include a wireless Wi-Fi network
adapter.
Wi-Fi is a standard for wireless communication between computing devices.
In a wired network computing devices communicate using physical wires.
In a wireless network computing devices communicate using electromagnetic (radio)
waves of different frequencies. Types of wireless communication are Bluetooth,
Wi-Fi and mobile 2G (second generation), 3G, 4G – but more about them later.
Most networks are a combination of wired and wireless.
Networks range from a few computers connected together in an office to billions
of computers connected together to create the Internet.
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ACTIVITY 3.2 Advantages and disadvantages of mobile networks
1
2
3
List the names of mobile network providers in your territory.
Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of a mobile network when compared
with a traditional wire-based telephone system. You may start by considering coverage, cost and availability of alternatives.
Elect one member of the group to present a summary of your findings to the rest of
the class.
Distinguish between different
types of network: LANs, MANs and
WANs
A computer network may be classified based on its geographic span. Computer
networks are designed to meet the data communication needs of individuals and
organisations. A small network may connect computers in multiple rooms in a
building; large networks may connect computers in different countries. The three
types of network based on geographic span are discussed below.
Local area networks
Local area network ▶
Local area networks are everywhere!
A local area network (LAN) is a computer network that interconnects computers
within a limited area such as a home, school, laboratory or office building.
Chances are there is a government office or a private organisation nearby that
has a LAN in operation. The computer lab at your school may well have a local
area network in operation. As a matter of fact, there may be more than one LAN
in operation at your school.
hub
Figure 3.1 A four-computer local area network using a hub
The network within the head office of Caribbean Travel Services
is a local area network allowing staff to share a single Internet
connection, printers and files.
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Metropolitan area networks
Metropolitan area network ▶
ITQ 3.3
a) What does the L in LAN stand
for?
b) What does the M in MAN stand
for?
A metropolitan area network (MAN) is a computer network in a geographic area
or region larger than that covered by a LAN.
A number of Caribbean governments have already started to set up metropolitan
area networks. These networks give employees around a town or city access to a
range of government information and services. Private sector businesses have also
set up MANs in cities and towns across the Caribbean. A local supermarket chain
will have branches throughout the city. Each branch will have one or more local
area networks but they will all be networked to the head office in the city centre,
creating a metropolitan area network.
At Caribbean Travel Services the maintenance garage, the bus
depot and the head office are located in the towns from which the
company operates. Each has a LAN within the building but the sites
are connected together to form a MAN.
Wide area networks
Wide area network ▶
A wide area network (WAN) is a computer network in which the computers
connected may be far apart, even in different countries.
WANs provide national, regional and international organisations with the
connectivity needed to sustain their operations. Large financial institutions, utility
companies and telecommunications service providers are some of the types of
organisations that set up and operate WANs. You are able to use your bank card to
access funds at an automated teller machine anywhere in your country (and even
regionally and internationally). This is due to the fact that your bank operates a
WAN either singly or in collaboration with other institutions.
ITQ 3.4
a) What type of network does
your local dental practice use?
b) What type of network does
your international airline use?
c) What type of network does
your district government use?
Figure 3.2 Wide area networks are used to provide ATM services such as balance enquiries and cash
withdrawal locally and internationally
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As Caribbean Travel Services expanded, it set up operations offices,
maintenance offices and bus depots in different towns and it hopes
to expand into different territories. The networks in each town need
to be connected to head office so a WAN is needed.
ACTIVITY 3.3 Choosing the best geographic network for your company
Use the company you created in the Introduction or use St Luago Fashion.
• Discuss what sort of network might be most suitable in the early years of your
company’s development.
• Will the network requirements change as you open a second and third location?
• Be prepared to answer your teacher’s questions about your results.
In addition to LANs, MANs and WANs, mobile networks introduce a new dimension
to networking. A computer network using a mobile network effectively extends
the physical distribution of a network to anywhere that receives a mobile phone
signal such as onto buses.
ria
f Pa
lf o
Gu
Figure 3.3 Map of Trinidad showing routes with Wi-Fi enabled buses. Source: http://ttwifii.gov
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Mobile networks as radio-based common
carriers
Common carrier ▶
ITQ 3.5
Where are the THREE nearest
mobile phone masts to your
school?
Recall that a mobile network is a network of communication and computing devices
where the last link is over a mobile phone network. Mobile network services are
operated by a few large companies in each country, for example Digicel and FLOW.
Many computer networks rely on mobile networks to provided additional flexible
connectivity.
A common carrier is a company that offers communication services to the general
public.
Mobile networks started life as networks for cellular phones. They are called cell
phones because of the way in which mobile networks work. A mobile phone mast
has a radio transmitter and receiver at the top. The signals from the mast reach out
in a circle – or cell. Any mobile phone within that cell can communicate with the
mast. In a city there are many hundreds of masts spread throughout the city area
so that their cells overlap. All the masts are networked together so a mobile phone
in one cell can communicate with a mobile phone in the same cell or another cell.
From its early days this system has expanded and now covers the majority of urban
areas around the globe.
One particularly clever aspect of a mobile network is that if you leave one cell
and enter another, your communication device automatically disconnects from
one mast and reconnects to the new mast without any interruption to service.
Mobile networks continue to expandin coverage, speed and capacity.
Figure 3.4 A mobile network mast
Mobile wireless standards: from 2G to 5G
First there was mobile technology, then second-generation mobile technology
(2G). As of 2019, 3G and 4G are in widespread use around the Caribbean and the
world. The change from 2G to 3G was a major breakthrough in communications.
3G receives a signal from the nearest mobile phone tower and is used for phone
calls, messaging and data. It is generally accepted that 4G works the same as 3G
but with a faster Internet connection. 4G claims to be around five times faster than
existing 3G services.
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ITQ 3.6
State ONE similarity and ONE
difference between a computer
network and a mobile network.
Technology
generation
Expected download speed
1G
up to 2.4 kbps (kilobits per second)
2G
up to 64 kbps
3G
up to 5 mbps (megabits per second)
4G
up to 25 mbps
Table 3.1 Comparing potential speed of different generations of mobile networks
By the time you are reading this book 5G will already be widely available.
Mobile network operator
(Common carrier)
Data (voice/video/text) sent as
mirowave signal from mobile
device registered on
common carrier’s network
Microwave signal received
from customer and relayed
to destination using the
infrastructure operated
by the common carrier
Customer 1 at location A
Microwave signal from
original customer relayed
to its destination
Customer 2 at location B
Figure 3.5 Interrelationship of network components on a mobile network
Now try to apply what you have learnt to your own company.
ACTIVITY 3.4 Mobile networks for a growing company
Use the company you created in earlier activities or use St Luago Fashion.
• Review the activities your company will perform.
• Identify activities that involve employees travelling.
• Find out what generation of mobile network is available in your location: 3G, 4G or 5G.
• Discuss if the employees will need to use mobile networks to connect to the
company network.
• Record your results in a list to share with the class.
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Wireless network technologies
Bluetooth ▶
Protocol ▶
Mobile networks aren’t the only wireless radio-based communication technologies
used in Information Technology. Both Bluetooth and Wi-Fi are widely used.
Bluetooth is a wireless protocol for exchanging data over short distances from one
device to another.
A protocol is a set of rules or an agreed way to exchange or transmit data between
devices.
Look for the Bluetooth symbol.
Bluetooth has a limited range (approximately 10 metres) and does not penetrate
walls easily so there will be little interference from other devices in adjoining
rooms. Communication between computers, graphic pads, digital cameras, mobile
phones, wireless headphones and wireless speakers is often by Bluetooth.
In Caribbean Travel Services’ garage workshop they often listen to
music streamed from a computer onto a Bluetooth speaker.
ITQ 3.7
Name ONE difference between
Bluetooth and Wi-Fi.
Wi-Fi® is a wireless technology protocol used to connect hardware such as
computers, peripherals, tablets and smartphones to local area networks without
cables. Wi-Fi devices are based on the IEEE 802.11 standard, introduced in
September 1998. Wi-Fi Alliance® was established in 1999 to drive global Wi-Fi
adoption and evolution. This group developed programs that certify devices work
well together, regardless of vendor. The term “Wi-Fi” and its logo were introduced
by Wi-Fi Alliance to give consumers a way to distinguish Wi-Fi devices from other
wireless products. Most wireless networks today operate on the 802.11 standard
and more than half all Internet traffic traverses Wi-Fi networks, making Wi-Fi one
of the greatest technological advances in history.
Figure 3.6 Wi-Fi Alliance’s Wi-Fi CERTIFIED logo, which is available for use only on certified products
ACTIVITY 3.5 School’s Bluetooth and Wi-Fi devices
• Check your school networks.
• List any devices that can communicate using Bluetooth.
• List any devices that can communicate using Wi-Fi.
• Share and compare your list with the class.
Hotspot ▶
Wi-Fi can be useful when you are on the move.
A hotspot is a physical location where persons may obtain Internet access, typically
using Wi-Fi technology.
Public hotspots may be created by a business for use by customers in places such
as coffee shops, restaurants, shopping malls and hotels.
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ITQ 3.8
Venues that have broadband
Internet access often create public
wireless access.
a) What is the technical term for
this public wireless access?
b) Name THREE types of venue
that often provide public
wireless access.
Figure 3.7 Customers in a coffee shop accessing Wi-Fi via a hotspot
Caribbean Travel Services has a Wi-Fi hotspot in the conference
room at head office so visitors can check their emails while waiting
for meetings to start.
Now try to apply what you have learnt to your own company.
ACTIVITY 3.6 Locating a hotspot for your company
Use the company you created in the Introduction or use St Luago Fashion.
• Discuss whether your company needs to provide an Internet hotspot.
• List the potential locations for the hotspot.
• Identify the advantages of locating a hotspot in each of the locations identified.
Levels of privacy provided by an intranet, an
extranet and the Internet
Intranets
Intranet ▶
ITQ 3.9
Suggest TWO reasons why an
organisation may choose to set up
an intranet.
An intranet is a private computer network where only authorised persons within
an organisation can access resources.
Intranets are designed to meet the needs of a single organisation that needs to
keep its data private and secure. It usually utilises familiar facilities such as web
pages and web browsers.
Hospitals utilise this type of network to keep the many departments connected
so that up-to-date information is readily accessible when needed by authorised
persons. An intranet provides secure access to patient records, employee records
and other important information within the confines of the hospital.
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Caribbean Travel Services needs an intranet because some of the
data it handles, such as bus maintenance records and employee
records, is confidential but needs to be accessed by employees at
the different sites.
Extranets
Extranet ▶
An extranet is a private computer network where authorised persons within an
organisation and selected partners outside the organisation can access specific
resources.
External partners access the organisation’s resources using the Internet so an
extranet is more at risk and less secure than an intranet.
It is customary for two or more corporations to collaborate using an extranet.
For example, Amadeus, a global travel services provider, will allow airlines, for
example Caribbean Airlines and LIAT, to access its network. Similarly, Caribbean
Airlines and LIAT each operate extranets. They offer access to authorised external
partners such as the Immigration Departments of various countries, travel agents
and customers like you and me.
Caribbean Travel Services wants external partners to be able to
access certain information stored on its systems. Travel and tour
companies often want to charter its coaches and need to check
which coaches are available on the required dates. An extranet
allows them to access this information directly when they supply
a correct username and password. This is far more efficient than
having to phone the office to check availability.
ITQ 3.10
List THREE types of business
enterprise that could benefit from
setting up an extranet.
Firefox
Mozilla Firefox Start Page
Add-ons Manager
https://slb.slbnetbank.com/Login.asp
Google
Sign in to Online Banking
User ID:
Password:
Sign In >
SLB
If you are experiencing problems with St. Luago Bank Internet Bank website
please email us at: support@slbbank.com
St. Luago
© copyright 2020 St. Luago Bank
Figure 3.8 The extranet operated by St Luago National Bank allows customers around-the-clock access to
banking services
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The Internet
Internet ▶
ITQ 3.11
What does the P in ISP stand for?
Encryption ▶
The Internet is a public, globally accessible, wide area network providing
information and communication facilities.
With its global reach, the Internet serves the data communication needs of
businesses worldwide and billions of individuals. Within countries, the Internet is
accessible via Internet service providers (ISPs). An ISP is a company that provides
individuals and other organisations with access to the Internet and other related
services. An ISP will usually have a direct connection to at least one fast access
connection to the country’s main Internet infrastructure, the Internet backbone.
Within the Caribbean, Cable & Wireless, Digicel and FLOW are well-known Internet
service providers. Information travelling over the Internet is not secure and can
easily be seen. If you need to send confidential information over the Internet it
should be encrypted first.
Encryption is the process of converting data/information to a code to prevent
unauthorised persons from accessing it.
ACTIVITY 3.7 Exploring local Internet service providers
This activity is suitable for groups of two or three persons; however, larger groups may
do the activity as long as each person conducts research into a different ISP company.
• Conduct research into the cost and terms of use of your chosen ISP.
• Share and discuss your results with the rest of the group.
• Recommend, with your justification, the best option for Internet access for typical
home use.
• Present the group’s recommendation to the rest of the class.
While all three types of network – intranet, extranet and Internet – have
similarities, they also have features that set them apart. The Internet provides
the infrastructure that supports business-to-business e-commerce, email systems,
telecommunications, the World Wide Web and a host of other services.
Table 3.2 compares the Internet, intranets and extranets using three
characteristics: level of privacy, ownership and information sharing.
ITQ 3.12
Watch this video on
how to connect to the
Internet. What device
do you need if you
want to connect devices without
using cables?
Characteristic
Internet
Intranet
Extranet
Level of privacy
Public: Anyone can
access
Private: Only
authorised employees
can access
Private: Only authorised
persons can access
Ownership
Not owned by anyone
Owned by a particular May be owned by one
organisation
or more collaborating
organisations
Information
sharing
Information can be
shared with everyone
across the world
Information can be
Information can be
shared securely within shared between
employees and external
an organisation
colleagues
Table 3.2 Comparing intranets, extranets and the Internet
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Now try to apply what you have learnt to your own company.
ACTIVITY 3.8 Intranet, extranet or Internet for your company?
Use the company you created in the Introduction or use St Luago Fashion.
• Identify the sorts of data that your company might need to share. To start you
might consider: employee records, product design details, product specification,
advertising brochures, price lists and store locations.
• Discuss whether your company needs to provide an intranet or an extranet or can
simply rely on the Internet to securely supply this information.
• Write a short summary report of your findings for the Board of Directors.
• Display the report on the classroom noticeboard.
The functions of the basic
components of a network
Wired network ▶
Wireless network ▶
ITQ 3.13
Give ONE advantage and ONE
disadvantage of a wired network
when compared to a wireless
network.
Networks are all around. As an Information Technology professional you will need
to understand the various elements of a network and how they work together.
Earlier we established that two connection methods are available: wired and
wireless.
A wired network uses a wired medium such as twisted pair cable, optical fibre
cable or coaxial cable to transfer data between connected devices.
A wireless network uses radio waves instead of physical cables as the transmission
medium.
Most networks use a combination of wired and wireless technologies.
A wired transmission medium carries data directly from one point to another
whereas a wireless medium broadcasts the data, which is carried to all devices
within its range.
A range of hardware devices and transmission media is used in the creation and
operation of a computer network. These are listed in Table 3.3.
Method of
connectivity
Networking devices
Transmission media
Wired
• hub
• switch
• router
• network interface card/adapter
• wireless access point
• wireless adapter
• cables
• coaxial
• twisted pair
• fibre optic
• Bluetooth
• microwave
• radio
• satellite
• Wi-Fi
Wireless
Table 3.3 Networking devices and transmission media
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Network designers make decisions as to which type of transmission media to use
based on a number of factors. These include:
• the physical environment, for example location of the rooms in relation to each
other, their size, and the material used to construct the walls
• the volume of data that will be transmitted and received by the various devices
• the flexibility and convenience required by users’ devices, for example fixed
desktop computers or mobile devices.
Networks are created by combining computing devices (desktop computers, laptops,
tablets and smartphones) and peripherals (printers, scanners, network-attached
storage) to a central connection point known as a hub. We need to understand all
the components used in a network:
• Transmission media are the cables that connect everything together.
• Hubs, routers and switches make sure that data gets directed to the right
computer.
• Network interface cards and network adapters ensure that computers can
receive the data.
We cover these in the next sections.
Transmission media
Transmission media ▶
The transmission media are the mechanisms by which computing devices are
connected together.
Transmission media can be physical hardware (cables) or wireless media
(infrared, Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, microwaves, satellites and mobile networks).
Physical wired network transmission media
Twisted pair ▶
Twisted pair cable consists of eight copper wires, twisted in pairs to reduce
interference and enclosed in a plastic covering.
(a)
(b)
ITQ 3.14
How many individual wires will
you find in a networking twisted
pair?
ITQ 3.15
Are the school’s computers
connected to a network via
twisted pair cable?
Figure 3.9 Twisted pair cable is often used in computer networks: (a) cable, (b) cable with connector
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Coaxial cable ▶
Fibre optic cable ▶
Coaxial cable consists of a single copper core surrounded by a metal shield to
reduce interference and all enclosed in a plastic covering.
Coaxial cable was used during the 1980s to early 1990s but is hardly ever used
in modern networks.
Fibre optic cable consists of flexible fibres with a glass core; they carry information
using light.
Figure 3.10 Coaxial cable
Figure 3.11 High-performance fibre optic cable
Fibre optic cables are high-performance and very-high-capacity communication
media and so are used extensively for a country’s Internet backbone connecting the
country’s main cities and towns. The backbone network is miles and miles of cable
that is run either underground or overhead and that connects major conurbations
together.
Larger organisations are increasingly using fibre optic cable in their own
networks where high-performance networking is required.
Physical transmission media are common but we also need to consider nonphysical transmission. We have already considered mobile networks, Bluetooth
and Wi-Fi wireless; now we will consider infrared, microwaves and satellites as
transmission media.
Wireless network transmission media
Infrared ▶
Microwaves ▶
ITQ 3.16
Give one similarity and one
difference between infrared and
microwave as transmission media.
Satellite ▶
Infrared is part of the electromagnetic radiation spectrum at wavelengths that fall
between visible light and radio waves at frequencies 300GHz up to 430THz.
In terms of Information Technology, infrared communication works in the same
way as Wi-Fi but at a different frequency. An example of infrared transmission is
communication between a desktop and netbook computer where the distance is
small and there is a clear line of sight between the two devices. The requirement
for a clear line of sight between devices has limited the popularity of infrared
communication.
Microwaves are part of the electromagnetic radiation spectrum at frequencies
300MHz to 300GHz.
Like infrared, microwave communication works in the same way as Wi-Fi.
The range of microwave transmission is many kilometres but there has to be clear
line of sight between the two antennae. Microwave communications can be used
to connect remote locations to a network providing there is a clear line of sight:
for example, a hilltop weather station may be networked to the valley-bottom
laboratory using microwaves.
A satellite is a communication device orbiting in space that relays and amplifies
radio telecommunication signals to and from remote locations.
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Communication satellites can be
included in a computer network when
a remote computer system needs to
join a network and no other solutions
are possible because of distance or
location. Many airplane flights offer
Wi-Fi connection to their passengers;
this can be achieved only through
use of satellite communication. Other
transmission media such as fibre optic
cable offer much better value.
Figure 3.12 Satellite communication can be used
to include computers at very remote locations in a
network
Connection devices: hubs, routers, switches
and modems
Hub ▶
In a really simple network connecting a few computers, the computers will all be
directly connected together via a hub.
A hub is a multiport device that connects many computing devices together.
hub
Figure 3.13 A network hub with ports for connecting multiple devices
A simple hub works by repeating data received from one of its ports to all other
ports. Every computer linked to the hub ‘hears’ everything any of the other
computers ‘says’ but ignores anything not meant for them. This is like a roundtable meeting. Participants sit round a table listening to others and asking questions
but responding only when remarks or questions are addressed to them.
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Router ▶
ITQ 3.17
State the difference between a
hub and a router.
A large organisation will typically have hundreds of computers connected to
its networks and will need to include devices that direct data traffic to its correct
destination. A computer network can be compared to a road system. The roads
are the cables and the roundabouts are the hubs, routers and switches. When
traffic reaches a roundabout it needs to be sent in the correct direction to reach its
destination. Routers and switches send data on a network in the right direction.
A router is an intelligent network device that connects two networks together.
The term ‘Internet router’ refers to the device that home users and small offices
use to connect their LAN to the Internet. It is usually a combined hub and router in
one device. Acting as a hub it allows all your computing devices to be attached to
each other, wired or wirelessly. The router is also connected to the Internet, usually
via a telephone line, and it joins your local network to the Internet.
(a)
(b)
Figure 3.14 (a) Front view of a Wi-Fi router (b) rear view of a wireless router showing connection ports
ACTIVITY 3.9 Exploring a home router: hub and router
Look at a home router, or pictures of home routers.
• Identify:
• where the twisted pair cables will be connected (the router acting as a hub)
• the antenna which allows wireless devices to join the network (the router acting
as a hub)
• where the telephone line connects to the router (the router joining two networks
together).
• Sketch a router and label each of the above items in your notebook.
• Identify where you have seen a home router and identify similarities to and
differences from the one sketched.
• Share your findings with a partner.
Switch ▶
A switch is an intelligent device that routes incoming data directly to the specific
output port that will take the data towards its intended destination.
ITQ 3.18
Scan to watch an
overview of the Internet.
Then answer this
question:
What is the role of switches and
routers on the Internet?
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Modem ▶
Switches and routers are similar devices but operate on a different technical
level. For example, switches use MAC (Media Access Control) addresses while
routers use IP (Internet Protocol) addresses.
Modem is an abbreviation for modulator-demodulator, a device that converts
signals from analogue to digital and vice versa. A modem allows computers to
exchange information through telephone lines.
Modems are now much less common because they offer only slow Internet
connection and connect only a single computer to the Internet. Modems are being
replaced by more up-to-date technologies.
Network interface cards and network
adapters
Network interface card ▶
Any device that wants to connect to a network needs a network interface card or
a network adapter.
A network interface card (NIC) is a computer hardware component installed in a
device into which a network cable may be plugged.
As the name suggests, a wireless network interface card communicates wirelessly
and has an antenna instead of a port that accepts a cable.
Figure 3.15 A network interface card fits inside the computing device
Network adapter ▶
A network adapter is a converter that adapts/extends a USB port in order for it to
function like a NIC or a wireless NIC.
A network adapter is needed if the computing device does not have a built-in
networking component.
ACTIVITY 3.10 Constructing a wired LAN
• Using readily available materials (for example, string for cables, matchbox for a hub)
construct a model of a basic computer network connected using a hub.
• Display your model in the classroom.
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The importance of mobile
communications technology
ITQ 3.19
Suggest two industries in the
Caribbean that are currently
experiencing benefits as a result of
access to modern mobile networks.
As mobile networks are rolled out with 4G and 5G performance reaching more
locations, an increasing number of organisations are taking advantage of these
networks. In this section we are going to look at how the powerful combination
of smartphones and mobile networks is impacting on education, commerce and
journalism.
Mobile networks in education
In education, public school students are increasingly able to access services via
mobile networks. Mobile networks are well suited to the education sector,
providing access to streaming content from services like TeacherTube, YouTube
and Khan Academy, and providing syllabi as enhanced eBooks from the Caribbean
Examinations Council. While supply of the services mentioned is much better and
cheaper via cabled solutions, mobile networks allow these services to be accessed
where there is no cabled Internet infrastructure. This is the situation in some
remote rural areas in many Caribbean countries.
ITQ 3.20
eBooks are increasingly being used
to support the teaching/learning
process in Caribbean schools.
Suggest two video-streaming
services that are of value to
students.
Figure 3.16 Homework study projects and independent research are greatly enhanced with access to mobile
networks
Mobile networks used with mobile devices such as smartphones, laptops and
tablets are playing an increasing role in education. They enable learning away from
the traditional classroom environment where teacher and students are in the same
room. Using mobile networks teachers and students don’t need to be in the same
room; they don’t even need to be in the same country.
When learning moves away from the classroom and onto a network, eBooks
replace physical books, e-assessment replaces paper-based testing, videoconferencing replaces face-to-face tutor communication, and collaborative
working online with shared documents replaces collaborative group working in
the classroom. Activity monitoring is automatically performed by the system.
CXC’s new interactive learning site ‘CXC Learning Hub’ is an example of how
education is responding to the opportunities digital technology brings with it.
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ITQ 3.21
Give TWO advantages for a
student studying remotely using
a smartphone connected to the
Internet over a mobile network.
The main advantages to the student of this way of working are that they don’t
have to attend a physical location, they can work from anywhere with a mobile
phone signal, and they can do most of the work at a time that suits them.
For teachers an advantage of this way of working is that many administrative
tasks can be automated. Monitoring activities, conducting tests, which are
automatically marked, and updating course resources are all easily automated.
Mobile networks in commerce
E-commerce or electronic commerce has been about for many years and involves
trading products and services via the Internet and other computer networks.
Examples include banking, retail, insurance and advertising.
M-commerce has developed from e-commerce and involves using computing
devices connected to the Internet via mobile networks to carry out e-commerce.
The advantage of m-commerce is improved portability and flexibility. Typical
commercial applications that use mobile networks include:
• Mobile banking. Checking your bank balance, paying directly using a
smartphone, managing your accounts and executing money transfers are
examples of mobile banking.
• Mobile buying and selling. Shopping can now be done on the move using your
ITQ 3.22
Name one business in your country
that conducts business primarily
via a mobile app.
mobile. You can make purchases on the seller’s website or in their dedicated app.
• Mobile tickets, boarding passes and vouchers. Printed tickets are replaced with
an electronic version containing a machine-readable barcode or QR code, which
is scanned at the venue directly from a smartphone.
At Caribbean Travel Services regular travellers carry their bus
passes as QR codes on their smartphones. The QR code is scanned
as they enter the bus to register their journey.
ITQ 3.23
Give two ways in which a holiday
maker might use commerce using
a smartphone.
Mobile networks in journalism
Journalism is one of the first professions to reap the benefits of the new mobile
network technology as it has developed with mobile devices such as smartphones,
laptops and tablets. Journalists may be reporting on breaking or in-depth stories
for newspapers, magazines, websites, TV or radio, or creating blogs and podcasts.
Working to tight deadlines, a journalist would traditionally investigate the story
and then return to the office to create the report.
The use of mobile networks and smartphones allows a journalist to file a report
on the go when a big story breaks. Camera applications allow the capture of video
and still photographs, word processing apps allow words to be added to the story,
and audio-recording apps allow for the capture of interviews for radio stations and
podcasts. This content is then transmitted back to the editor in the office using
mobile network communication.
ACTIVITY 3.11 Work for a newspaper for a day
In a group of three:
• Take the role of either:
a. Journalist b. Photographer c. Editor.
• List what computing devices you will need.
• List what information you need to share and with whom.
• Compare your list with the other members of the group.
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Key web technology concepts
World Wide Web ▶
Web browser ▶
ITQ 3.24
State the difference between a
web page and a web browser.
The World Wide Web (WWW), commonly referred to as the ‘web’, is a graphical,
easy-to-use system of inter-linked files on the Internet.
Another way of thinking about the WWW is as a collection of billions of
documents, accessed through the Internet, using a web-browsing application.
A web browser is a program that allows users to view and explore information on
the World Wide Web.
Web browsers such as Internet Explorer, Edge, Mozilla Firefox, Google Chrome
and Apple’s Safari are available. You need a web browser application program to
view web pages on the WWW.
Figure 3.17 A web page being viewed in a web browser. Each of the items in the central boxes is a hyperlink to
other pages on the Macmillan Caribbean website
Now try to apply what you have learnt to your own company.
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ACTIVITY 3.12 Recommending a web browser
Use the company you created in earlier activities or use St Luago Fashion.
Each person should choose one of these web browsers:
• Microsoft Internet Explorer
• Microsoft Edge
• Mozilla Firefox
• Apple’s Safari
• Google Chrome
• Use the browser, conduct research and evaluate the browser for its suitability for
your company.
• Debate your findings with the rest of the group.
• As a group vote on the best browser.
• Create a document to summarise your discussion and place it on the classroom
noticeboard.
Hypertext Mark-up Language (HTML)
Hypertext Mark-up Language ▶
ITQ 3.25
Check the school computers and
any smartphones you have access
to. List the names of all the web
browser application programs.
Hyperlink ▶
Hypertext Mark-up Language is a mark-up language used to structure text and
multimedia documents. Mark-up consists of assigning different tags to elements of
a text to indicate their relation to the rest of the text or to state how they should be
displayed. HTML is used extensively on the World Wide Web.
HTML is used to tell a web browser what to display: this may be text or images
and possibly sounds, videos and interactive content. It also contains information
to tell the web browser how to display the content. For example, ‘this sentence
should be in large, bright red text and positioned in the centre of the page’.
HTML also includes information about hyperlinks.
A hyperlink is a piece of text or part of a web page or an image that when selected
and clicked with the mouse displays another web page document (or resource).
Hyperlinks are what make the WWW so easy to use.
ACTIVITY 3.13 Using hyperlinks
• Using a computer or smartphone, open a web browser application program.
• Identify a hyperlink: by convention text hyperlinks are underlined and are often in a
different colour.
• Select the hyperlink with a mouse click or by touching it on a smartphone touch screen.
Uniform Resource Locator (URL)
Uniform Resource Locators ▶
To make the WWW really easy to use every resource on the web has a Uniform
Reference Locator, or URL for short.
Each page on the World Wide Web has a unique address; these addresses are called
Uniform Resource Locators (URLs).
ITQ 3.26
Scan to watch an
explanation of URLs.
What does the domain
name usually tell you?
Figure 3.18 The address bar of a web
browser where a URL is displayed
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ITQ 3.27
What does the L in URL stand for?
ITQ 3.28
In the URL
https://www.cxc.org/examinations/
csec/manuals/
what is the correct term for the
cxc.org part of the URL?
When a URL is entered in a web browser, the home page of the website is
automatically downloaded (if no file is specified in the URL). For example, http://
www.macmillan-Caribbean.com/ takes you to the Macmillan Caribbean home
page or to the different sections of the website.
The URL can also include information about how the resource should be
accessed. Here is an example URL:
http://www.macmillan-Caribbean.com/Products/CAPE-Maths-Unit-1.html.
Table 3.4 explains what each part of the URL is for.
URL part
Function
http://
HTTP is a special language (protocol) that tells the web browser
that this resource can be accessed using the Hypertext Transfer
Protocol
www
The ‘www’ tells the browser that this is a web page
macmillan-Caribbean.
com
This is the domain name and tells the web browser to contact
the Macmillan Caribbean web server to obtain this resource. A
domain name is a label that identifies a network
/Products/
This describes the directory structure (where the document is
stored)
CAPE-Maths-Unit-1
This is the document’s name
.html
.html is the file type and indicates that the document was created
using the Hypertext Mark-up Language
Table 3.4 The various parts of a Uniform Resource Locator
ACTIVITY 3.14 Examining URLs
Consider these two URLs:
https://cxc-store.com/csec-information-technology-syllabus-2010-2019-ebook.html
http://www.macmillan-Caribbean.com/Products/CAPE-Maths-Unit-1.html
• Create the following table in your notebook:
URL #1
URL #2
Protocol
Domain name
Folder
Filename
File type (of web page)
• Look at the URL and complete the URL #1 and URL #2 columns of the table.
• Examine both URLs carefully, noting similarities and differences. Are your findings in
keeping with your expectations? Justify your response.
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Interacting with websites
Web server ▶
Hypertext Transfer Protocol ▶
Users interact with websites in a number of ways and it is useful to understand the
main concepts and terms used for such interaction.
A web server is a computer that delivers (serves up) web pages. When a request
is made to access a website, the request is sent to the web server. The server then
fetches the page and sends it to your browser.
Web servers usually run on powerful computers dedicated to the task. When
you type in a web address or click on a hyperlink, routers and switches direct
your request to the correct web server. Web browsers and web servers use their
own special language, Hypertext Transfer (or Transport) Protocol (HTTP), to
communicate with each other. HTTP comes in two variations: HTTP and HTTPS.
The ‘S’ in the second variation stands for secure and is used for applications like
passwords and online banking.
Hypertext Transfer Protocol is a protocol used to request and transmit files,
especially web pages and web page components, over the Internet or other
computer network.
Caribbean Travel Services has an extensive website with information
including: bus routes, timetables, fares, coach rentals, discount
offers and current status information. Navigation around the website
is made easy using hyperlinks; for example, clicking on a bus route
number takes you to the timetable page for that route.
Now try to apply what you have learnt to your own company.
ACTIVITY 3.15 Information for your company’s website
Use the company you created in the Introduction or use St Luago Fashion.
• Discuss whether your company needs to provide a website.
• List the contents you will need to include on your website in your notebook.
File Transfer Protocol ▶
ITQ 3.29
State ONE difference between
HTTP and FTP.
Upload ▶
Sometimes a website will allow you to download a particular file, for example
a brochure, a new application program or game. In these cases the File Transfer
Protocol (FTP) is used.
File Transfer Protocol (FTP) is the special language two computers use when
copying or moving files between them.
Caribbean Travel Services also supports downloads using FTP. It
may be useful for regular users of a particular bus route to download
and print a copy of that bus’s timetable so that they can carry it with
them.
When files are transferred to another computer they are sent or ‘uploaded’ by one
computer and received or ‘downloaded’ by the other computer.
Upload is a process of reading data from a user’s computer storage and sending it
to another computer via communication channels.
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Download ▶
Download is a process whereby programs or data are transferred via communications
channels from a computer and stored on media located at the user’s computer.
In simple terms you upload files TO another computer and download FROM
the other computer.
Email
Electronic mail ▶
The last key concept we will look at is email or electronic mail. Email replaces the
traditional letter that is written on paper, addressed and delivered by the postal
service.
Electronic mail is mail or messages transmitted electronically by computers via a
communications channel. It is usual for such messages to be held in a central store
for retrieval at the user’s convenience.
Figure 3.19 An email being created and sent from a tablet and smartphone
ITQ 3.30
Give ONE circumstance where
regular postal mail is better than
email.
Email applications allow users to send an electronic message over a network, usually
the Internet, to anyone with an email address and access to a computer system
connected to the network. An email address is always in the form username@
domain_name, for example info@macmillan-Caribbean.com.
Common desktop email application programs include: Outlook and Outlook
Express, Thunderbird and Apple Mail. Many users have free web-based email
accounts like Gmail, Hotmail and Yahoo Mail provided by Google, Microsoft and
Yahoo respectively.
An email message is usually text-based but may include images, sounds and
video clips as attachments. Unlike regular surface mail (‘snail mail’), we cannot
send physical objects using email. All email applications have similar functionality
including the ability to read and store received messages, and create and send new
messages. Messages can be sent to one or more recipients. Facilities to maintain an
address book or contacts list are also usually provided. This makes it quicker and
easier to send email to the correct recipients. The delivery of email usually takes a
matter of seconds, and in the situation where delivery fails, the sender is advised
accordingly.
Email messages, address books and contacts are all stored in cloud storage. This
means you can access your email services on any device that is connected to the
Internet.
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Summary
• A computer network is a communication, data-exchange
• Hubs and hotspots connect computers together while
and resource-sharing system created by linking two or
more computing devices.
• A protocol is a set of rules that governs communications
• Local area networks (LAN), metropolitan area networks
(MAN) and wide area networks (WAN) cover different
geographical areas.
• A mobile network is used to carry voice calls and data
traffic. Many computer networks rely on mobile networks
to provided additional connectivity.
• Wi-Fi and Bluetooth are examples of wireless network
technologies.
routers and switches direct data to the correct address.
between computers on a network.
• A range of hardware devices including network cards,
switches and routers, and various transmission media such
as twisted pair, fibre optic and radio waves, are used in the
creation and operation of computer networks.
• Mobile networks are suitable for various applications in
important sectors such as commerce, education, healthcare,
journalism, national security, tourism and transportation.
• Wired and wireless networks are two classifications of
• The World Wide Web is a huge collection of documents
network transmission media; the classifications are based
on whether wires/cables or radio signals are used as the
connectivity medium.
called web pages, which are grouped into websites and
stored on web servers.
• A computer network may be classified based on its level of
privacy, that is, who has authorised access; the classifications
include intranet, extranet and the Internet.
• Twisted pair, coaxial cable and fibre optic are all types of
wired network transmission media.
• Web pages are requested, downloaded and displayed on a
user’s computer by a web browser.
• The operation of the World Wide Web is largely governed
by the Hypertext Mark-up Language (HTML) and Hypertext
Transfer Protocol (HTTP).
Answers to ITQs
3.1 There are lots of reasons for connecting to a network
while on the move: to check the weather, send email,
check flight information, access work documents in the
cloud, or join a video conference.
3.2 The main difference between a wired and wireless
network is that a wired network requires a physical
connection between devices and a wireless network
does not. Wireless networks have the advantage that
you can easily move your device around an office or
home.
3.3 LAN is local area network, MAN is metropolitan area
network and WAN is wide area network.
3.4 A local dental practice will use a LAN. An international
airline will use a WAN. A district government will use a
MAN.
3.5 There may be several mobile phone masts in your local
area. Check your answer with other members of the
class.
3.6 Both a computer network and mobile networks connect
communication devices together but a computer
network can be wired or wireless while on a mobile
network the last leg of transmission is mobile wireless.
3.7 Bluetooth is short range, usually within a room; Wi-Fi
may range over a small building.
3.8 A public wireless access point is known as a hotspot.
Hotspots might be found in coffee shops, hotels,
government offices and libraries.
3.9 An intranet allows organisations to share information
and resources while keeping the data and information
secure.
3.10 An extranet will benefit organisations that want to
share information with partners securely, for example:
travel agents, airlines, shops and suppliers, banks and
credit card companies.
3.11 ISP stands for Internet Service Provider, a company
that connects a user to the Internet usually using a
telephone line.
3.12 To connect to a network without using cables you will
need a wireless router and each device will require a
wireless network card or adaptor.
3.13 A disadvantage of a wired network is that it requires
cables to be laid between computers and the network
hub. However, they are more secure than wireless
networks.
3.14 Twisted pair cables contain eight wires made up of four
pairs of twisted wires.
3.15 Computers in a school’s local area network will almost
certainly be connected using twisted pair cables. This is
a low-cost, high-performance solution.
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Theory
3.16 Infrared and microwave are both wireless but infrared
is short range (a few metres) and microwave is longer
range (a few kilometres).
3.23 A holiday maker may use their mobile device
(smartphone) to check flights, book a hotel, order
sunscreen or email to order a taxi.
3.17 A hub joins computers together while a router joins
networks together.
3.24 A web page is an HTML document file accessible on
the WWW. A web browser is an application program
needed to view web pages.
3.18 To connect to a network without using cables you will
need a wireless router and each device will require a
wireless network card or adaptor.
3.19 Many industries in the Caribbean use modern mobile
networks including: law enforcement agencies, law
offices, manufacturing companies, medical practices,
research facilities and telecommunications service
providers.
3.20 Video-streaming services that might be of interest to
students include: Teacher Tube, YouTube and Khan
Academy.
3.21 The advantage of a student studying remotely is that
they don’t need to attend class and they can work at a
time to suit them.
3.25 Common web browsers include: Microsoft Edge,
Internet Explorer, Firefox, Safari, Chrome and the
Android browser.
3.26 Routers and switches direct message packets to their
correct destinations.
3.27 URL stands for Uniform Resource Locator. Every
document or resource on the Internet has a unique URL.
3.28 cxc.org is an example of a domain name.
3.29 HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol) is the protocol for
transferring web pages. FTP (File Transfer Protocol) is
the protocol for transferring files.
3.30 Regular mail is the only way to send physical objects.
3.22 Many businesses in your country may conduct business
primarily via a mobile app. Check your answer with
other members of the class.
Examination-style questions: Multiple Choice
Instructions: Each item in this test has four suggested
responses labelled (A), (B), (C) or (D). Read each question
carefully, then select the most suitable response.
1)
Which of the following statements is NOT TRUE about
computer networks?
A) All activities are governed by protocols.
B) A LAN may include wired media only.
C) A WAN may include both wired and wireless media.
D) Data downloads are received from a remote
computer only.
3)
The portion of Yellow Diamond’s private network
accessible by customers and contract drivers is an
example of what type of network:
A) extranet
B) intranet
C) LAN
D) Internet
4)
Based on its geographic span and the information
provided, Yellow Diamond is operating what type of
network?
A) LAN
B) MAN
C) VPN
D) WAN
Questions 2–4 are based on the following narrative:
2)
The Yellow Diamond Transport Service operates a
nationwide school bus service. Its six regional offices
are all connected via a private network which is based
on Internet protocols. Customers and contract drivers
are able to access parts of Yellow Diamond’s network.
Yellow Diamond’s private network, accessible ONLY
from inside the organisation, is an example of what
type of network:
A) extranet
B) intranet
C) LAN
D) Internet
Questions 5–7 are based on the following narrative:
5)
Caribbean Network Solutions is a company that
specialises in network design and installation. The
company has been contracted by your school to install
a wired LAN in the school’s library.
Which device should ideally be used as the central
communication point for the network?
A) hub
B) network controller card
C) router
D) modem
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3 • Computer networks
1 • The
and computer
web technologies
system
6)
Which of the following types of cable would it be
economical to use to connect the computers to the
device named in Question 5?
A) coaxial
B) fibre optic
C) twisted pair
D) none of the above
9)
7)
One of the desktop computers does not have a port
in which to plug the cable referred to in Question 6.
Which of the following components should be added
to the computer to facilitate this connectivity?
A) hub
B) network interface card
C) router
D) wireless access point
10) Which of the following are TRUE about web
technologies?
I
A website must be written using ONLY HTML
II
A web page is accessible only on the Internet
III
A website may consist of a single web page only
IV A home page is the default initial page on a
website.
8)
Which of the following technologies are utilised by
mobile networks as the carrier of its signals?
A) bluetooth
B) radio
C) satellite
D) Wi-Fi
________ are special-purpose application software that
run on an Internet-connected computer and use the
_______ to connect with ________.
A) web browsers, HTML, web servers
B) web browsers, HTTP, web servers
C) web servers, FTP, web browsers
D) web servers, HTTP, web browsers
A)
B)
C)
D)
I, II and III only
I, II and IV only
II, III and IV only
III and IV only
Examination-style questions: Structured
1)
A group of doctors are planning to set up a medical centre. They are hoping to integrate the use of computer networks
and web technologies into all their operations.
a)
All the doctors agree that they should install a computer network. One doctor has suggested that they install a LAN
and another doctor disagrees, suggesting that an intranet should be installed.
i) Define what a computer network is. [1]
ii) Explain the relationship between an intranet and a LAN. [2]
iii) Suggest with reasons whether the doctors should set up a computer network that is both a LAN and an
intranet. [3]
b)
All the doctors who will be using the network are expert users of web technologies such as web pages, websites
and web servers. They want to set up the network in such a way that their patients can have access to their medical
records from the comfort of their homes.
i) Name the type of network that will facilitate patient access to the medical centre’s private network.
[1]
ii) Outline how the web technologies named could be used to facilitate the access described. [3]
iii) Explain the possible role of the Internet in facilitating the operation of the network named in part i).
[2]
c)
The medical centre will have reliable and fast access to the Internet. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages
of using cloud storage compared with local storage to store the practices files. d)
The company hired to design the network has indicated that the medical centre will need to install routers and
these should be connected by fibre optic cable. The company also suggested that the doctors should consider
creating a hotspot in the patient’s waiting room.
i) Explain the role of a router in the operation of a network. ii) Suggest TWO advantages of using fibre optic cable as compared to other wired transmission media.
iii) Explain what a hotspot is and name ANY TWO computer network components that are necessary for
the setup of a hotspot.
[5]
[2]
[2]
[4]
Total 25 marks
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4
Social and economic
impact of information
and communication
technology
As computer systems increasingly automate tasks and connect through networks
such as the Internet, they also become more at risk from computer users who may
have bad intentions. To protect our computer systems and ourselves we need
to understand the threats that are out there and introduce computer security and
cybersecurity to minimise the risks. Threats might involve a person accessing your
data without your permission, cyberbullying on social media, theft of large amounts
of data stored on an organisation’s computers, or publication of obscene materials
for blackmail purposes. When computer systems are attacked and data is lost or
misused this can have serious results for an individual or an organisation.
On completion of this chapter you will understand the effects that technology
may have on society, for example the types of jobs that are created and the jobs that
may be lost. This chapter will also consider the impact that IT can have on various
organisations and on the wider community.
By the end of this chapter
you should be able to:
✔✔ Outline the concepts of computer security, cybersecurity and computer misuse.
✔✔ Assess the potential impact of computer misuse on the main entities impacted.
✔✔ Describe suitable countermeasures to mitigate the effects of identified threats.
✔✔ Assess the effect of automation on job security.
✔✔ Describe the roles of personnel in computer-related professions.
✔✔ Assess the impact of Information Technology on selected fields.
Social and economic impact of
information and communication
technology
Computer
security and
cybersecurity
Elements of
computer
security
Computer
misuse by
individuals,
organisations,
and
governments
Automation and
job security
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Computerrelated
professions
Potential impacts
of computer
misuse
Impact of ICT
Education
Impact on
organisations
Impact on
governments
Impact on
individuals
Copyright
infringement
and software
piracy
Electronic
eavesdropping
Cyberbullying
Medicine
Countermeasures
to identified
threats
Physical security
measures
Business
Propaganda
Identity theft
Data theft
Obscene
materials
DDOS attack
Phishing attacks
Malware
Violation of
privacy
Law
enforcement
Recreation
Software
measures
Personal security
practices
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4 • Social and economic impact of ICT
Introduction to the concepts of
computer security, cybersecurity
and computer misuse
Computer security and cybersecurity
Computer security ▶
Computer misuse ▶
Cyberspace ▶
Computer security is all the activities related to identifying, assessing and managing
vulnerabilities, threats and attacks on a computer system.
Computer users, both authorised (lawfully) and unauthorised, sometimes
misuse computer systems in a way that constitutes a risk to the computer system
itself or to the data and programs stored on the system’s storage devices.
Computer misuse is any activity during which a computer system or computer
network is accessed, or its data is accessed, modified or deleted without proper
authorisation.
As soon as a computer is connected to the Internet it has access to cyberspace.
Cyberspace generally refers to any data or resources that can be accessed via a
network or the space where the Internet operates.
The Internet gives users access to large parts of cyberspace; web pages that
contain text, images, videos and interactive content are all part of cyberspace. Files
stored on remote computers that can be accessed using the File Transfer Protocol
are also part of cyberspace. Cyberspace is also information and resources that you
may be able to access on intranets or extranets.
ACTIVITY 4.1 Exploring cyberspace
• List all activities conducted by members in the past week that involved cyberspace.
• Think again: have you used an ATM, streamed video or shopped in a supermarket?
• For these activities explain how cyberspace is involved.
Elect a spokesperson for your group to share your combined findings with the rest of
the class.
Cybercrime ▶
Cybersecurity ▶
ITQ 4.1
What is cybercrime?
With all this information and resources at our fingertips the opportunities for
misuse, intentional or not, are vast. If our computer systems are networked, they
have access to cyberspace and we need cybersecurity as well as local computer
security.
Cybercrime is any crime perpetrated using computers and networks.
An example of cybercrime is music piracy. Pirates steal recordings of music from
musicians, who are the rightful owners, and sell copies illegally over the Internet
by FTP download.
Cybersecurity is all the activities related to identifying, assessing and managing
the vulnerabilities, threats and attacks originating from cyberspace.
An example of cybersecurity is a spam filter in an email application program.
Spam filters identify emails that are trying to scam legitimate users and automatically
delete them.
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ACTIVITY 4.2 Cybercrime laws in the Caribbean
• Download the Cybercrimes Acts for both Jamaica and Trinidad and Tobago or ask
your teacher for a copy.
• Read Part 1, which contains the definition of the various terms. Write the definitions
for data, damage and electronic communication system in your notebook.
• In your group discuss the definitions in both laws, focusing on their similarities and
differences.
• Be prepared to take part in a class debate.
Cybersecurity is the body of technologies, processes and practices designed to protect
networks, computers, programs and data from attack, damage or unauthorised access.
Based on what we have learnt so far, we can conclude that:
• an individual who accesses a computer system without authorisation may have
committed a crime
• the ‘misuse’ could be an illegal activity, an unethical activity, or merely one that
causes embarrassment
• the misuse may be localised to a private computer system or computer network
or may extend to a public network nationally or globally.
Internet-based computing
environment (cyberspace)
Local computing environment
sers
ed u
oris
Denial of service attacks
Data
t by
thef
uth
una
Equipment damage
Internet
by fire etc.
Phishing attempts
Malw
are via
Viruses, Trojans, worms
Internet-based threats
infect
ed US
B flas
h driv
e
Local threats
Figure 4.1 Security threats are all around; the risk increases if you connect to the Internet
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4 • Social and economic impact of ICT
Cybersecurity and computer security are closely related. Computer security is
inward-looking, with the focus on safeguarding local computer installations under
our control. Cybersecurity looks outwards to focus on providing safeguards when
our computer systems connect to external networks such as the Internet.
A combination of good computer security and good cybersecurity procedures
working together is needed to protect a computer system.
ITQ 4.2
Suggest ONE similarity and ONE
difference between cybersecurity
and computer security.
Elements of computer security
Firewall ▶
Computer security has four main elements: vulnerability, threat, attack and
countermeasure. Each of these is described below, but first a definition.
A firewall monitors a network, blocking dangerous content such as viruses.
Firewalls can be either a physical device attached to the network or software
running on the connected computer.
(a)
Internet
your organisation’s PCs
Corporate
network
firewall
Figure 4.2 (a) A firewall helps to protect a network
from threats originating from outside. (b) Windows
Defender Firewall is implemented as a software-only
file security mechanism and is a component of the
operating system
(b)
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Theory
Element
Meaning
Vulnerability
Exposure to the possibility Computer systems that are connected to
the Internet are vulnerable because a large
of being attacked or
number of remote computers, and so a large
harmed.
number of potential criminals, have network
access to the system.
Threat
A resentful ex-employee may state his
A statement of an
intention to inflict harm or intention to gain unauthorised access to an
organisation’s computer system to delete
damage.
critical files or steal confidential information
unless some ransom is paid.
Attack
Actual action that causes
harm or damage.
The resentful ex-employee may encrypt
company files and demand a ransom for the
recovery of the files.
Countermeasure
An action taken to
counteract a threat.
Set the firewall to allow access from current
employees’ devices only.
ITQ 4.3
What sort of countermeasures
might you put in place to prevent
physical access to a computer room?
Example
Table 4.1 Elements of computer security
Figure 4.3 Physical security countermeasures: first
door of the ‘man trap’ leading to the data centre floor.
This door requires keycard access and must be closed
before the next door can be opened
Figure 4.4 Physical security countermeasures:
a security cable attached to the security slot on
a laptop.
Computer misuse by individuals,
organisations and governments
Computer misuse is considered to include:
• acts which are likely to cause unauthorised modification, removal or copying of
the contents of any computer system
• directly or indirectly obtaining computer service without proper authorisation
(e.g. music download from an illegal site)
• accessing programs or data on a computer with the intent to commit a crime
• unauthorised access to a computer system.
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Computer misuse by an individual ranges from sending a personal email from
a work computer during periods of work to gaining unauthorised access to the
company’s online banking service and moving funds from a company account into
a personal account.
Caribbean Travel Services has established clear guidelines on the
use of company computers. Employees are allowed to send personal
emails and to browse the Internet during their breaks but not during
periods of work. The viewing of any inappropriate material such as
obscene pictures is strictly banned, with immediate dismissal for
non-compliance with company rules.
ITQ 4.4
State at least TWO ways an
individual can misuse a computer
system.
ACTIVITY 4.3
Use the company you created in earlier activities or use St Luago Fashion.
• Discuss the procedures you might need to regulate employees’ use of company
computers.
• Create a summary document entitled ‘Acceptable Use of Computer Systems at
<your company name>’.
• Share your document by displaying it on the class noticeboard.
ITQ 4.5
State at least TWO ways a
government can misuse a computer
system.
Computer misuse by an organisation can range from software piracy, where
software is used without paying the appropriate fees, to industrial espionage,
which is the unauthorised accessing of a competitor’s computer system to copy
confidential data.
Governments also sometimes misuse computer systems and data by intercepting
private emails, by altering election results or by spreading ‘fake news’.
Assess the potential impact of
computer misuse on the main
entities impacted
Some common ways in which computer systems and data may be misused are
given in Table 4.2.
Individual
• cyberbullying
• financial abuse (credit card
Organisation
• copyright infringement
• data theft
fraud and identity theft)
• denial-of-service attacks
• online publication of obscene • financial abuse
materials
• industrial espionage
• phishing attacks
• software and music piracy
• violation of privacy
• transmission of malware
Government
• electronic eavesdropping
• espionage
• manipulation of data
• propaganda
Table 4.2 Common ways in which computer systems and data may be misused
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Computer misuse that impacts individuals
In this section, we will outline five acts of computer misuse that primarily impact
individuals: cyberbullying, identity theft, online publication of obscene materials,
phishing attacks and violation of privacy.
Cyberbullying
Cyberbullying ▶
Figure 4.5 Cyberbullying on a smartphone
Cyberbullying is a form of bullying or harassment using computer-based
communications.
Cyberbullying can occur through SMS (Short Messaging Service (text)) or social
networking apps, or online on social media and gaming platforms where persons
can view, participate in or share content. Cyberbullying includes sending, posting
or sharing negative, harmful, false or mean content about someone else, usually
causing embarrassment or humiliation.
Cyberbullying can be:
• hard to notice – because teachers, parents
and other adults may not overhear or
see cyberbullying taking place
Yuh nuh have nuh fren
and nobody nuh like yuh
Waah gwaan ugly pickney
Wi nuh like Teachas Pet
ITQ 4.6
Suggest THREE possible ways
cyberbullying could be carried out.
bawly bawly yuh cry
too much
yuh neva look good yet,
yuh cant dress at all
Message
• persistent – digital devices offer the
ability to immediately and continuously
communicate 24 hours a day, so it can
be difficult for persons experiencing
cyberbullying to find relief
• permanent
– most
information
communicated
electronically
is
permanent and public if not reported
and removed.
If you suspect that you are being bullied,
or that someone else is being bullied, tell
someone. A teacher, guidance counsellor
or parent should be notified; don’t suffer
in silence.
ACTIVITY 4.4 Preventing cyberbullying
Cyberbullying is a real problem in some schools. In small groups:
• Discuss why it is important to identify cyberbullying.
• Define, in your own words, harassment, discrimination and threat of violence.
• List the ways in which a person may be harassed online.
Identity theft
Identity theft ▶
Identity theft is the deliberate use of someone else’s identity, usually to gain a
financial advantage.
All individuals are vulnerable to having their identity stolen because data about
them is held on multiple government and company computers. With enough
identifying information about an individual, a criminal can steal an individual’s
identity in order to conduct a wide range of crimes. For example:
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4 • Social and economic impact of ICT
• false applications for loans and credit cards
• fraudulent withdrawals from bank accounts
• fraudulent use of online accounts
• fraudulently obtaining other goods or services.
An unfortunate incident happened at Caribbean Travel Services. An
employee had their identity stolen and the criminals telephoned the
CTS payroll section requesting a large loan using the stolen personal
information. Fortunately the processes at CTS require all such
requests to be accompanied by a physical signature. The fraud was
discovered only when the payroll section called the employee into
the office to sign the agreement.
ACTIVITY 4.5 Exploring identity theft
In a small group discuss how you might feel if someone stole your identity and was
pretending to be you: sending email, posting on social media, ordering items to be
delivered to your home.
• Create a short sketch to demonstrate how you might feel.
• Share your sketch with the rest of the class.
Online publication of obscene materials
Obscene material ▶
ITQ 4.7
Suggest TWO ways in which a victim
may be negatively impacted by the
effects of the online publication of
obscene materials.
Obscene material is material of a sexual nature or material that offends against
society’s morality.
Obscene material is offensive to look at and someone who accidentally views
this material may feel invasion of privacy because this is on their computer, in their
home. This can lead to emotional distress.
The publication of obscene material may impact the person targeted, the
perpetrator (criminal) and, in some cases, the online outlet through which the
materials were published. In some cases the perpetrator, if caught, may lose their
job and be sent to prison and the affected person may have to relocate to a new
town to try to lessen the psychological effects.
Phishing attacks
Phishing ▶
Phishing is the attempt to obtain sensitive information such as usernames,
passwords and credit card details by sending emails pretending to be from a
legitimate organisation.
Users are tricked into responding to the email because it looks believable,
promises them some benefit or warns of some penalty. Users are asked to click on
a link; the link then takes the user to a fake website which tricks them into entering
personal information.
Phishing emails can be detected because:
1 they are unsolicited (e.g. the sender has no permission to send it to you)
2 they often contain spelling or grammar errors
3 they urge you to act immediately
4 an email program may warn you that the email is potentially a scam.
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Theory
Figure 4.6 Example of a phishing email,
Godaddy Webmail
Godaddy Webmail
To: Recipients
Reply-To: no-reply@godaddy.com
Today at 10:24 AM
Important notice
Dear Customer
We received an instruction to empty all your Inbox and sent folders.
We will Delete and Close Your Account Within 48 hours,
If you think it is an error, take action immediately to stop this process
CANCEL & STOP NOW
Thank you for being a Web-Based Email customer. We’re available
24-7 to help you with any questions regarding your email.
Sincerely,
The Web-Based Email team
Figure 4.7 Example of a phishing email,
Barrister Darlington Adams
This message has been identified as junk.
Not junk Show images
From: BARRISTER DARLINGTON ADAMS <bdadams06@gmail.com>
Sent: Sunday, April 28, 2019 1:04:22 AM
To: John.Doe@gmail.com
Subject: YOUR COMPENSATION OF USD$1.5 MILLION REPLY URGENTLY.
Dear Friend,
This will be a surprised mail to you; i have tried as much as possible to get you on
phone, to inform you that i have finally claimed the fund both of us suffered so much.
ITQ 4.8
Watch the video about
spam and phishing.
What is phishing?
I succeeded to have it with the help of another partner, who made a tremendous financial
commitment to see it through, i bargained with him, before we proceeding on seeing it through
I am compensating you, with the sum of us$1.5 million due to your name was legally
used for the claim and remittance of this fund and all the sufferings we've been through
to make it a reality.
I have directed my secretary to assist in sending the share of the fund to you, i am
currently in Asia continent now, on business investments with the new partner that
assisted me, and i will not be able to respond to emails.
So do contact me when my secretary has concluded on sending your share to you.
Please do contact him on this email addresses:
His name is Mr. John Huru
Email : huru_jo06@yahoo.com
Regard
BARRISTER DARLINGTON ADAMS
ITQ 4.9
Phishing emails can be identified by
careful users. Suggest three features
of a phishing email that may cause
the recipient to become suspicious.
Communications claiming to be from financial institutions, service providers (such
as online payment processors and hosting providers), social websites, package
delivery companies or IT administrators are often used to lure potential victims
into a phishing scam.
The effects on the individual of falling for a phishing scam are the same as
suffering identity theft. In addition, phishing emails may be the first step in
establishing a fraudulent relationship for the purposes of grooming or financial
fraud. In both these cases the initial phishing email is followed by more emails, text
messages and telephone calls.
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4 • Social and economic impact of ICT
At Caribbean Travel Services all staff who deal with incoming email
are trained to spot phishing email. The email is then referred to
management so that all relevant staff can be warned.
Violation of privacy
Privacy ▶
Privacy is the right of persons to choose freely under what circumstances and to
what extent they will reveal information about themselves.
Privacy relates to an individual’s ability to control their personal information.
Governments and organisations that store our personal data must keep it private.
Personal data includes name, address, date of birth, bank information, telephone
numbers, driving licence number and family information such as mother’s maiden
name (which is often used as a security question for checking a person’s identity).
Any act that violates any of these rights is deemed a violation of privacy including:
• storage of inaccurate personal data
• sharing of data (for free or for a fee) without the owner’s consent
• using data for purposes other than that for which it was collected.
Many websites include a privacy policy and in addition some territories have passed
data protection legislation. Privacy policies outline how the data that websites
collect will be used and what rights the user is giving up when they accept the
website’s terms of service.
ACTIVITY 4.6 Exploring individual privacy
Alexia uploaded a picture of herself to a website in order add to filters to it. She was
asked to provide her email address so that the completed picture could be sent to her
by email. She did not provide the website with any authorisation to use the personal
data provided.
• State two items of personal data that were provided to the website.
• Suggest two ways in which her privacy may be violated.
• Compare your results with the rest of the class.
Cookies ▶
The impact of privacy violations on an individual may be at minimum severe
embarrassment, and at worst, identity theft.
A cookie is a piece of data sent from a website and stored on the user’s computer
by the user’s web browser while the user is browsing.
This screenshot shows a request to install cookies on a computer system.
We use cookies to provide you with a better browsing experience.
By continuing to browse, you are agreeing to our Cookie Policy.
Figure 4.8 Pay close attention to the opt-in options. In this example by simply continuing you are agreeing to this
company’s Cookie Policy
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Computer misuse that impacts organisations
ITQ 4.10
Suggest how an extreme case of
violation of privacy could lead to
identity theft.
In this section, we will outline five acts of computer misuse that primarily impact
organisations: copyright infringement, software/music piracy, data theft, denial-ofservice attack and malware.
Copyright infringement and software piracy
Copyright ▶
Copyright is a legal right that gives the creator of an original work exclusive rights
over its use and distribution. Copyright is a form of intellectual property applicable
to certain forms of creative work such as books, illustrations, maps, poetry and
plays. These rights include reproduction, control over derivative works (works
based on the original work), distribution and public performance.
Figure 4.9 The copyright symbol indicates that the piece of work is under copyright and permission of the
copyright holder must be sought before use
Copyright infringement occurs when an entity that is not a rights holder
reproduces, creates a derivative work, distributes, performs or otherwise benefits
from the copyrighted work without obtaining the requisite permissions (and
paying any associated rights fees). Copyright can be infringed by individuals and
organisations alike. For example, the installation and use of proprietary software,
such as Microsoft Windows and Office 365, without the requisite licence is a form
of copyright infringement, whether the software is used on a personal tablet or on
100 corporate laptops. The easy availability of material on the WWW has made
copyright infringement a serious problem.
ACTIVITY 4.7 Exploring plagiarism
This activity is for larger groups.
Plagiarism is copying someone else’s work and pretending it is your own. With all the
information available on the WWW some foolish students are tempted to copy other
persons’ work and claim that it is their own.
You are going to prepare for a debate titled ‘It is legitimate to base your homework
on a piece of copyrighted work.’
• Split into two subgroups.
• Decide which group will be for and which group will be against the motion.
• Prepare your arguments for the debate.
• Be prepared to take part in a class debate on the motion.
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Software piracy ▶
One effect of copyright infringement is the loss of revenues to the rights holder.
Organisations that get caught using unauthorised copyrighted software risk
potential negative publicity and significant fines for copyright infringement.
Software and music piracy are specialised cases of copyright infringement.
Software piracy is the unauthorised reproduction, distribution or use of software
products.
Software publishers spend years developing software for the public to use; a
significant portion of every dollar spent in purchasing original software is funnelled
back into research and development so that better, more advanced software
products can be produced. In some countries or regions pirated software can be
bought illegally in street markets.
Caribbean Travel Services has procedures in place to ensure that
all software has the appropriate licences. Audits of the software
installed on company computers are regularly carried out to identify
possible unlicensed software.
ACTIVITY 4.8
Use the company you created in earlier activities or use St Luago Fashion.
The Board of Directors wants to know how you are going to ensure that all
software is correctly licensed.
• Create a three-minute presentation to give to the Board.
• Be prepared to give your presentation to the rest of the class.
Software piracy negatively impacts the legal owners that produce the software
because it reduces their revenues. It also harms national and regional economies.
A lower number of legitimate software sales results in lost tax revenue. Software
piracy greatly hinders the development of national software industries, an
increasingly lucrative industry that many Caribbean governments have set their
sights on.
Data theft
Data theft ▶
Dark Net ▶
Data theft is the unauthorised copying or removal of data from the legitimate
owner’s computer system.
The Dark Net is the term given to the parts of the Internet that are kept hidden
from the general public and cannot be accessed by standard search engines such as
Google and Bing. Suspect activities such as computer hacking and fraud take place
on Dark Net websites.
Criminals target computers that store personal or commercial data because this
data, especially in large volumes, has significant economic value in the criminal
underworld. In many cases, data stolen during these breaches is offered for sale
in places such as the Dark Net. A data theft that accesses full names and national
registration numbers enables identity theft.
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Figure 4.10 A hacker tries to break into a computer system
ACTIVITY 4.9 The Dark Net
Data stolen during data breaches is often sold in places such as the Dark Net, which
serves as a marketplace for stolen data. In a small group discuss the Dark Net and how
might it support an identity theft attack.
Data theft may be instigated internally, by an employee, or externally, by hackers
exploiting poor security or lost/stolen storage devices or media. The effects on an
organisation of data theft include reputational loss and loss of customers, possibly
leading to reduction in profits, and in extreme cases the organisation may be forced
to cease operating.
Denial-of-service attack
Denial-of-service attack ▶
Distributed denial-of-service attack ▶
A denial-of-service attack (DOS attack) is a cyber-attack where the intent is to
prevent a service being delivered by the target system.
The attack could be by an individual hacker exploiting a vulnerability in the
target system to gain unauthorised access and so crash the system from within.
When the attack is directed from the outside in, it may be a distributed denial-ofservice attack.
A distributed denial-of-service attack (DDOS attack) is a cyber-attack during
which the target system is flooded with requests that overload the targeted system.
A DDOS attack is often staged by activists and blackmailers. It can be as simple
as sending thousands or millions of emails to the same address at the same time
to swamp an organisation’s email service, causing it to fail. It may have the shortterm impact of making the resource or service unavailable for anywhere from a
few minutes to a few hours. In the short term, the organisation could lose business
as a result of the temporary outage. Over the long term, customers may decide to
switch to an alternative provider as they fear future security issues or simply can’t
afford to have a service unavailable.
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Malware
Malware ▶
ITQ 4.11
Suggest TWO ways malware may
gain entry to a computer system.
Malware, malicious software, is software designed to disrupt, damage or gain
unauthorised access to a computer system. Viruses, worms, trojans, ransomware
and spyware are all types of malware, as shown in Table 4.3.
The writers of malware programs use a variety of means to spread malware and
infect devices and networks. Malicious programs can be delivered:
1 physically to a system through a USB drive or other external storage device
2 via the Internet – when a user downloads a legitimate program, the malicious
program automatically downloads to the user’s system without their approval or
knowledge; this situation is usually initiated when a user visits a malicious website
3 via phishing attacks which use emails disguised as legitimate messages but which
contain malicious links that when clicked automatically download malware
programs.
Name
Description
Ransomware
A type of malware designed to infect a user’s system and encrypt the data;
cybercriminals then demand a ransom payment from the victim in exchange
for promising to decrypt the system’s data. Often the promise is not fulfilled.
Spyware
A type of malware designed to collect information and data on users and
observe their activity without their knowledge.
Trojans
A type of malware included with a legitimate program and activated
following installation, Trojans execute (run) malicious functions such as
stealing usernames and passwords.
Viruses
A type of malware that resides in a host program and executes itself when
the program runs. It spreads by replicating itself and infecting other programs
or files; it can corrupt or delete data on a computer system.
Worms
A type of malware that can self-replicate without a host program; worms typically
spread without any human interaction or directives from the malware authors.
ITQ 4.12
Watch this video about
protecting your
computer. What is
malware?
Table 4.3 Types of malware: what they are and what they do
Infected computer
Computer 1
Computer 2
V
V
V
V
Computer 3
Computer 4
Infected storage
media
V
V
V
Hub
V
Figure 4.11 How a virus spreads from an external storage device to infect computers on a network
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Theory
The effect on an organisation of being infected by any type of malware can be
catastrophic. Because computer systems are networked, malware often spreads
and infects all the computers connected to the network. In the worst case the
malware can encrypt or delete critical data files on every computer system.
ACTIVITY 4.10 Viruses, worms, spyware and Trojans
Many types of malware affect personal and organisational computer systems. Some
threats, like ransomware, target large organisations that rely on their data to provide
core services to their clients. In groups of three or four:
• Name the types of malware that affect individuals and organisations alike.
• Each member of the group should take one malware type and conduct research to
determine how this malware is spread.
• Report your findings back to the group or the class.
Caribbean Travel Services regularly employs a computer security
consultant to review the vulnerabilities and threats to its computer
systems. Suitable countermeasures are then put in place to prevent
attacks.
Computer misuse that involves governments
In this section, we will outline two acts of computer misuse that primarily involve
governments: electronic eavesdropping and propaganda.
Electronic eavesdropping
Electronic eavesdropping ▶
Electronic eavesdropping is the act of electronically intercepting communications
without the knowledge or consent of at least one of the participants.
Electronic eavesdropping (or electronic surveillance as it is more formally
known) is used by law enforcement and criminal elements. Today, the available
eavesdropping tools include:
• intercepting emails
• activating a laptop webcam to watch you remotely
• Internet-enabled home security systems that can be hacked so criminals can
view your home
• voice-controlled TVs that can be hacked to listen into your conversations.
Governments do carry out electronic eavesdropping activities in valid ways
when trying to keep their citizens safe; for example, email interception can prevent
terrorist atrocities or disrupt criminal activities.
However, when a government uses its digital eavesdropping resources against
another government this can cause serious trouble. For example, if confidential
government emails are intercepted by foreign governments the impact can be
serious and cause a diplomatic incident.
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Propaganda
Propaganda ▶
ITQ 4.13
State TWO positive implications
of the legal use of electronic
eavesdropping.
Propaganda is communication of information that is of a biased or misleading
nature and that is aimed at influencing the recipient. Propaganda can be used
by many different organisations, including activist groups, companies, the media
and government bodies, for various purposes. The content is usually repeated and
dispersed over a wide variety of media.
Online platforms such as Facebook, Twitter and YouTube give individuals
worldwide reach for their opinions with very little regulation. Facebook publicly
acknowledged that its platform had been exploited by governments seeking to
manipulate public opinion in other countries. Both the United States of America
and France claim that their presidential elections were influenced by external
governments using social media.
ACTIVITY 4.11
In addition to threats that arise from the outside, there are a few threats that arise from
inside organisations. These threats may result in data loss, theft or breach of the data’s
integrity, through accidental or deliberate acts.
• Working in groups of four, conduct research to identify potential threats from inside
an organisation including:
• Fraud
• Why might an employee try to defraud the organisation?
• How might they commit the fraud?
• Revenge
• Who might want revenge?
• What form might their revenge take?
• Hardware malfunction or failure
• What sort of failures: disk drive failure, power outage?
• Could this be deliberate damage?
• Environmental factors
• How might fire and flood damage occur?
• Discuss the findings as a group.
• Share the insights gained with the class using a presentation on PowerPoint,
LibreOffice Impress or a similar tool.
Countermeasures to mitigate the
effects of identified threats
Earlier in this chapter, the concept of security was identified as a process of
mitigating or eliminating risk by implementing countermeasures.
We will explore three areas of countermeasures:
• physical measures
• software measures
• personal security practices.
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Theory
When combined, these measures can provide effective computer security and
cybersecurity to computer systems.
Physical security measures
Physical security measure ▶
A physical security measure is any mechanism that reduces the risks of
unauthorised access to a computer system’s hardware.
These can be:
1 controlling access to locations containing computer hardware
2 restricting the movement of computer hardware and storage media
3 reducing the chances of damage to hardware and storage media from
environmental damage and deliberate damage.
Physical security
countermeasure
How it should be used
Secure location
Suitable locations are places/spaces that are not well trafficked
such as a room on the top floor of a building or at the end of a
passage.
Security personnel
Well-trained security personnel (security guards), operating at
access points to process visitors and grant access to authorised
persons only.
Electronic access systems
Include biometric systems, key cards, magnetic swipe cards,
numeric keypads and proximity cards at key access points
which automatically record details of authorised access or
unauthorised attempts.
Equipment locks
Secure locking mechanisms fitted on computer system cases,
peripheral devices, communication equipment enclosures, and
storage cabinets.
Fireproof and waterproof
storage
Purpose-built cabinets or safe boxes that can withstand fire and
flood events are used to store removable storage media (disks,
tapes, flash memory cards, optical media (CDs and DVDs)) when
not in use.
Table 4.4 Physical measures that can mitigate computer security risk
(a)
(b)
(c)
Figure 4.12 Electronic access systems:
(a) numeric keypad, (b) proximity card being
read by a card reader (c) proximity card
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ITQ 4.14
The offices, garages and depots of Caribbean Travel Services all
have appropriate physical security. Head office is particularly well
secured, with barred windows in the main computer room, which
is situated well away from the public area and requires an access
card to gain entry. All CTS computer systems are fitted with locks to
secure them to office furniture or directly to building walls. Both the
garages and depots are covered by security CCTV (closed-circuit
television) cameras integrated into the site’s Local Area Networks..
Suggest THREE physical
countermeasures that an
e-commerce business may employ
to prevent unauthorised persons
accessing their computer systems.
ACTIVITY 4.12
Use the company you created in earlier activities or use St Luago Fashion. In the early
days of your company, keeping cost down is going to be important.
• Discuss what physical security measures might be applicable to protect the
company’s computer systems.
• Order these starting with the most cost effective.
• Create a list to share with the class.
Software measures
Software countermeasures ▶
Software countermeasures are a combination of specialised system software and
application software used to protect computer systems.
Software countermeasure
How it should be used
Backup and recovery policy and
operational plan
• Make a safety copy of important files (a backup) regularly to a removable storage device and keep at
Effective identity checking systems
(including biometrics)
a remote location in a secure fireproof/waterproof cabinet.
• Recover data from the copy in case of an event that causes data damage or loss.
• Grant access to restricted areas or resources based on the presentation of a password or access
code.
• Grant access to restricted areas or resources based on unique biological features such as fingerprint,
retina or voice.
Encryption (using a code so the data • Encrypt sensitive data before transmitting it over public networks or storing on removable media.
cannot be understood)
• Use higher levels of encryption for more sensitive data such as access codes and credit card
numbers.
Firewall (blocks dangerous content
on a network)
Malware detection and removal
• Restrict network traffic entering, or leaving, a system, usually blocking all traffic except email and
access to the WWW.
• Use a firewall as a barrier between a public network and the organisation’s private network.
• Set anti-virus tools to automatically scan for malware all removable devices attached to a computer
system and all network traffic including incoming email and FTP-downloaded files.
• Keep up to date and regularly run an anti-virus program to perform an in-depth scan of all files on
the computer system.
Operating system updates
• Immediately quarantine and/or remove identified threats.
• Set the operating system to automatically download and install updates.
• In mission-critical systems, updates may have to be installed manually because they may affect
system performance (mission-critical systems are systems that are essential to the operation or
survival of an organisation).
Table 4.5 Software measures that can mitigate or eliminate computer security or cybersecurity risks
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Theory
ACTIVITY 4.13
Investigate how one of the following individuals protects the files on their computer
systems to maintain their integrity and keep them secure:
• a classmate
• a staff member in the school’s bursary
• a teacher
• a staff member in the school’s student records office.
1 Describe the measures used by the individual selected.
2 Collaborate on the preparation of a report to summarise your findings.
3 Share the insights gained with the class using a presentation on PowerPoint,
LibreOffice Impress or a similar tool.
Personal security practices
Personal security practices ▶
Personal security practices are countermeasures used by individuals to implement
computer security and cybersecurity.
Education is the key to good personal security practice. Both employers and
employees should be trained in the following practices that help to mitigate
computer security risk.
Practice
How it should be used
Limit use of open Wi-Fi networks
• Exercise extreme caution when using an open Wi-Fi connection.
• Never use an open Wi-Fi connection for confidential work such as online banking.
• Create secure (but memorable) passwords. The passphrase I@mAB!gB0y has good strength: it
Follow password best practices
includes lowercase, uppercase and special characters, and a digit. This is much stronger than a
password such as Benji261185 (which includes a name and a date of birth).
• Commit your passwords to memory or simply write them down and store them in a secure location
(such as a locked cabinet, a password app that requires a fingerprint to open or an electronic
encrypted password-protected file).
• Never share your password/access cards/access codes/credentials/username with anyone.
Defend against identity theft
• Reduce the sharing of personal identifying information including dates, places and names.
• Birth dates; full names of family members, close friends and associates; and information that
may identify places frequented (such as homes, social spaces and businesses) should be shared
sparingly.
Always be aware of phishing emails
• Remain alert whenever you receive an unsolicited email.
• Check URLs and hyperlinks before clicking; ensure that each is from a trusted source and is
legitimate, especially those contained in unsolicited emails.
Keep track of your mobile devices
and removable storage devices
• Know where each device is at all times and ensure that those in storage require a password/PIN to
gain access when powered up.
Access sensitive files only on a secure • Don’t access sensitive files or carry out banking transactions on free public Wi-Fi in the shopping
network
mall or park because these are not secure.
Make regular backups of your own
files
• Make a safety copy of your files to a secondary storage device and keep that safe.
• Work files should be backed up by the company and so shouldn’t be copied by employees as this
presents a security risk.
Table 4.6 Personal security practices that can mitigate computer security risk.
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Figure 4.13 The Backup and Restore tool is one of
the Windows operating system accessories.
Staff at Caribbean Travel Services all undertake personal security
practice training and are encouraged to study further. CTS pays for
employees who undertake additional computer security training.
Assess the effects of automation
on job security
We have seen that computers systems are now used in a vast range of application
areas. This has changed how we prepare for jobs, apply for jobs and perform these
jobs. In this section we will explore a wide range of skilled and unskilled jobs and
how they have been affected by the introduction of IT systems.
Figure 4.14 14 Hospital receptionists have to become skilled in computerised record-keeping
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Theory
The introduction of computers has led to a change in the way persons work. Being
able to use a computer system has become an indispensable skill. Unskilled and
low-skilled workers are retraining and becoming more productive by using IT
systems.
• In offices, typists have had to retrain to become skilled word processing clerks.
ITQ 4.15
Watch a video about
creating a safe
workspace. How can
using a computer at
work impact on someone’s health?
• In education, teachers and lecturers need skills similar to those of modern office
personnel to access student records, produce test papers and maintain electronic
mark books.
• Medical personnel need to access patient records, produce documents, plot
charts and graphs of patients’ progress and operate computerised life-support
systems.
• Musicians now use computers as a creative tool to create, mix and distribute
their music.
• Mass media personnel also use computers in a creative way. Newspaper
publishers must be skilled in desktop publishing to lay out their magazines and
papers. Photo-editing skills are needed to enhance pictures ready for publication.
In the visual mass media such as television, the skills to create animations,
charts and graphs must be mastered.
• Law enforcement officers require computer literacy skills including word
processing to fill in crime reports, database skills to access criminal records, and
specialist skills to operate a variety of software such as fingerprint-matching and
photo-fit picture software.
• In the movie industry, staff must be able to exploit the power of computers,
particularly when editing the movie and in the production of special effects,
animation and computer modelling.
ACTIVITY 4.14 The changing face of jobs
Identify up to five employed persons who use computers.
• Interview one or more of these persons about their experience before and after they
started to use computers.
• Record the results in your notebook.
• Note any change in the job or in productivity that was noticed with the introduction
of computers to the job.
ITQ 4.16
Describe ONE positive and ONE
negative impact that Information
Technology has had on a medical
professional.
In some cases, the introduction of computer technology has resulted in job losses as
the business becomes more efficient. The nature of the remaining jobs changes in a
positive way as they become more varied, interesting and challenging, and require
higher levels of skill. Consequently, there is a need for retraining and continuing
education.
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Describe the roles of various
personnel in computer-related
professions
Computers systems require a large number of skilled professionals to: develop
software, maintain websites, manage databases, run social media, and keep
computers and networks running smoothly.
Some organisations base their business on their computer systems; for example,
banks, online retailers and insurance companies. These organisations have large
dedicated IT departments employing hundreds of staff.
Job title Role
Role
Network engineer
Responsible for the design and implementation of computer network LANs, MANs and WANs.
Computer programmer
Writes programs based on specifications, prepares documentation and maintains existing software.
Computer support specialist
Assists users who are having problems with their computer systems. Known as a help desk this service is
often available as telephone support.
Systems analyst
Oversees activities related to the design and development of new information systems.
Database administrator
Responsible for designing and maintaining the organisation’s database system.
Network administrator
Responsible for day-to-day smooth running of an organisation’s networks.
Software developer
Works with the system analyst and develops the program specifications that the programmers will work from.
Web developer
Takes a web design from a client and turns it into an operational website.
Social media specialist
Responsible for planning and implementing a company’s social media strategy and output which may
include Facebook, Twitter, Instagram, WhatsApp and many more.
System administrator
Responsible for the day-to-day running and management of the computer systems. Installs and updates
software and ensures the system is secure.
Table 4.7 Staff in a typical IT department
ITQ 4.17
List the roles of any FOUR
employees in the IT department of
a large organisation.
Figure 4.15 A network engineer creating a local
area network
.
Caribbean Travel Services is a growing company and has a small
IT department of permanent staff including a systems analyst,
database engineer and network engineer. For other IT task such
as web development, social media activity and programming, CTS
employs freelance consultants when required.
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Theory
Assess the impact of information
and communications technology
on selected fields
Computers and their impact on education
Figure 4.16 A school computer lab in Trinidad
Schools and universities of all types now have computers. In schools, office
administrators maintain all the school records – student attendance registers,
course details and test results – on the computer system. They also keep the staff
records, calculate salaries and maintain an inventory of the equipment owned by
the school.
However, it is in the classroom that computers are having the largest impact.
The multimedia facilities of a modern computer make it an ideal teaching aid.
When computers are used in this way it is known as computer-aided instruction
(CAI) or computer-aided learning (CAL). Interactive computer-based training
packages allow students to work at their own pace and at a time that is convenient
to them. Modern training packages regularly test the student and progress through
the course at different speeds depending on how well the student is scoring in the
tests.
If students live in remote areas, distance learning
may be appropriate. In distance learning the
tutor and the students are in different locations
and make use of learning management systems.
Students use CAI packages and communicate
with their tutors via the Internet. Students
use email to submit assignments and receive
feedback. Students sometimes want to
undertake individual projects, in which case
the Internet and electronic encyclopaedias are
excellent research tools for finding information
on all sorts of topics. Remember though to be
careful with information found online – use
trustworthy websites and use the methods
listed in Chapter 2 to verify the information.
ACTIVITY 4.15 Computers for learning
Use an Internet-based video viewing tool such as YouTube, educational television
programmes, or video clips that your teacher has provided (teachers: the free Child
Exploitation and Online Protection (CEOP) videos are good for this).
In small groups:
• Discuss each video or programme, focusing on how it taught you something new.
• Present what you have learnt as a one-page poster.
• Recommend one video to the rest of the class.
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ITQ 4.18
List THREE ways in which computers
are now used in classrooms at your
school in the teaching/learning
process.
Computer applications found in the classroom will certainly include word processing
to create documents for projects and school-based assessments. Spreadsheets might
be used by teachers to automatically calculate students’ average marks and sort
them into rank order. Presentation packages allow university lecturers to prepare
slides on a topic, which can be displayed from a laptop computer onto a large
screen using a projector, allowing a large number of students to attend lectures.
A desktop-publishing application would be used to create a school’s newsletter or
posters advertising the drama department’s latest show. Computers are certainly
widely used in all aspects of education.
Computers and their impact on medicine
Modern health services in the Caribbean rely heavily on computer systems for
their day-to-day operation. A busy doctor may be asked to review many chest
X-rays for diseases such as tuberculosis or pneumonia during a shift. Computer
expert systems can help reduce this load by analysing the X-rays and identifying
those with abnormalities that need further investigation. These systems support
doctors because they may spot a problem that a busy doctor has missed.
A CT scan, also known as computed tomography, produces a set of 2-dimensional
images. Powerful computers systems take these and create a 3-dimensional model
that is used by the specialist doctors to diagnose problems. In some cases it may be
useful to print a physical model on a 3D printer.
Figure 4.17 A computer controlled scanner maps a patient’s brain function
In hospital wards patients may be connected to computer systems that continually
monitor their condition. A patient’s heart rate, oxygen level, blood pressure and
temperature are typically monitored by these systems, which alert staff if certain
values are exceeded.
In a doctor’s practice, uses of computer systems include:
• managing patient files
ITQ 4.19
Suggest THREE ways in which a
nurse in a busy hospital may use a
computer system.
• financial accounting of profit and loss statements
• billing and managing insurance forms
• managing employee records
• accessing the Internet and extranets for immediate access to drugs databases
and to check disease symptoms.
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Theory
Computers and their impact on business
Figure 4.18 Electronic equipment at the checkout
in a supermarket
Figure 4.19 Magnetic strip point-of-sale equipment
ITQ 4.20
(a) What does EPOS stand for?
(b) Where might an EPOS be found?
ITQ 4.21
List the advantages that working
from home may have for
telecommuting workers.
Business is usually concerned with buying and selling or financial dealings.
Supermarkets, importers/exporters and banks are commercial businesses. Industry
is usually concerned with producing items. Many businesses and industries rely
heavily on computer systems.
Supermarkets have specialised EPOS (electronic point-of-sale) hardware and
software. EPOS is a combination of hardware and software used in retail outlets to
improve service to customers and to control stock.
An EPOS terminal in a
supermarket consists of the cash
register, magnetic stripe reader for
credit card payments, barcode reader,
mini touchscreen monitor, mini
thermal printer, weighing scales
with weight sensors and keyboard.
All the EPOS terminals in the store
are connected to the supermarket’s
mainframe computer system.
The software is based on a
database that stores the description
of all items available in the shop,
their barcode number, their price,
the number left in stock and other
associated information. This database is
continually and automatically updated
as items are sold and as new items
arrive from suppliers. When new stock
deliveries are made they are recorded
on the database system – the computer
system.
Having access to up-to-date stock
information about how well different
products are selling allows wellplanned stock reordering. Summary
information about daily sales is
collected from all the branches in the
supermarket chain and fed to the
head office so that strategic long-term
decisions can be made by the executives of the organisation. Computerisation has
revolutionised the way supermarkets and other commercial businesses operate at
all levels, from the workforce to the top management. In other business the need
to cut down on office space has led to the widespread use of freelance workers and
teleworkers who work from home.
Companies allow certain groups of employees to work from home under an
arrangement called telecommuting. These employees stay at home but work over
the telephone lines. They use their computer, the Internet service and special system
software to establish a secure connection between the company’s computer system
and their own. By doing this, they have access to the full range of software and
data on the computer system at work, enabling them to work just as productively
from home.
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Computers and their impact on law
enforcement
Figure 4.20 Police officer accessing data on a
computer system
Figure 4.21 Fingerprint matching in progress
Police forces make extensive use of IT
systems. Police officers and detectives
need to maintain or have access to
many up-to-date databases.
Traffic police need immediate access
to vehicle and driver details when they
are carrying out a check, e.g. whether a
particular vehicle is registered and the
appropriate tax has been paid, whether
the vehicle has been reported stolen,
whether it has valid insurance, whether
the driver holds the correct licence or
what is the driver’s home address and
phone number. A traffic officer needs
this information when on patrol, so
they will have a portable computing device connected to the police network over
a mobile network.
Detectives investigating crimes such as theft of property need access to a
fingerprint database to allow matching of prints taken from a crime scene against
those of known criminals. Modern DNA analysis means that if a sample of DNA from
the crime scene is matched with an entry in a DNA database, further investigation
into a suspect will be needed. Analysis of a reported crimes database may find
similarities and relationships between different crimes indicating that they were
committed by the same criminal. A database of stolen goods may allow a detective
to return recovered items to their rightful owners.
Internationally, law enforcement databases, such those maintained by Interpol,
may allow stolen art works or stolen passports to be identified. This data sharing
works both ways, with local law enforcement sharing their information with other
selected partners using an extranet.
Increasingly, facial recognition is being used in busy public environments such as
airports. Many countries are now installing cameras and facial recognition systems
at borders, allowing persons’ identity to be automatically checked against their
passport photograph. This reduces the need for border control staff and improves
passengers’ experience as they pass through the control much quicker.
The Internet, the WWW and various social media sites such as Facebook, Twitter
and Instagram are extensively used by law enforcement agencies. Monitoring
social media may identify a range of illegal activities including: drug dealing, child
grooming, financial fraud, phishing scams, cyberbullying, publication of obscene
material, copyright infringement and music piracy.
ACTIVITY 4.16 Law enforcement
Law enforcement agencies are tracking criminals.
• Give examples from cyberspace where law enforcement agencies are monitoring
activities.
• List information a policeman might check about a vehicle you are travelling in.
• Combine your answers with those from the rest of the group.
• List your combined answers to share on the class notice board.
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Theory
Computers and their impact on recreation
Figure 4.22 Enjoying computer games
Computers appear in a great variety of recreation and
entertainment situations. In the home, computer games are
often more enjoyable with a plug-in steering wheel, joystick
or laser gun to reproduce arcade game effects. Internet
games such as ‘Words with Friends’ can be played with
opponents on other computers connected to the Internet.
Specialist gaming hardware is used in game stations such as
PlayStation, Xbox and Wii.
In modern recording studios, musicians work with
computers to create complex electronic music. Music is
captured through connection of musical instruments to
the computer system using the Musical Instrument Digital
Interface (MIDI). This is then manipulated using specialpurpose synthesiser programs.
In large entertainment venues sound and light shows are often computer
controlled. In smaller venues disc jockeys (DJs) no longer play vinyl records on
a record player. A laptop connected to the sound system allows the DJ to line up
and mix tracks using special-purpose DJ software. Adding a large-screen display or
projector and specialist karaoke software allows karaoke evenings to be easily run.
Figure 4.23 A DJ’s equipment: music decks and controls, recording and sound equipment
On the tennis court, the computer acts as a line judge. When the ball bounces
close to the line markings, it can be called ‘in’ or ‘out’ by the computer system. The
computer also keeps track of the scores in the match. In the Olympic swimming
pool, where a fraction of a second can be the difference between gold and silver
medals, pressure pads connected to a computer detect exactly when each swimmer
touches home. It is now common to book airline seats and hotels over the Internet.
Some persons organise their entire holiday using the Internet. They find and book
the cheapest flight and hotel on the WWW, they arrange a taxi to pick them up at
the airport by email, and they buy necessary items for their holiday from online
retailers before they leave.
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• The computer
4 • Social and1economic
impactsystem
of ICT
Summary
• A computer security risk is any event, action or situation
that could compromise data stored on a computer system.
• Computer security is all the activities related to identifying,
assessing and mitigating computer security risks.
• Copyright
infringement, data theft, denial-of-service
attacks, financial abuse, industrial espionage, software and
music piracy, and transmission of malware can negatively
impact organisations.
• Cybersecurity is all the activities related to identifying,
• Physical security measures include intrusion detection and
assessing and managing the vulnerabilities, threats and
attacks originating from cyberspace.
• Software countermeasures to computer threats include
• Computer misuse relates to a range of illegal activities
during which a computer is accessed, its facilities modified
without proper authorisation, its services obtained, or its
services used to commit a criminal act.
• Computer security has four main elements: vulnerability,
threat, attack and countermeasure.
• A countermeasure is an action taken to counteract a threat;
for a particular countermeasure to work, it must effectively
minimise or eliminate one or more vulnerabilities.
• Cyberbullying, financial abuse, online publication of
obscene materials and phishing attacks are types of
computer misuse which may negatively affect individuals.
• Privacy relates to an individual’s ability to restrict or
eliminate the collection, use and sale of confidential
personally identifiable information. Any act that violates
any of these rights is deemed a violation of privacy.
biometric access controls.
anti-virus programs, firewalls, security updates and
encryption of data.
• Firewalls can be either a hardware device connected to a
network or software running on the network-connected
computer.
• Personal security practices include strong passwords, care
on public networks, awareness of phishing techniques and
managing personal information to minimise the risk of
identity theft.
• Information Technology has had both a positive and
negative impact on jobs – it has caused the creation of new
jobs and the loss of lower-paid unskilled jobs.
• Among the new generation of IT professionals there are
network engineers, system analysts, software developers,
web developers and social media specialists.
Answers to ITQs
4.1 Cybercrime is crime perpetrated using computers and
networks.
4.2 A similarity between computer security and
cybersecurity is that both focus on assessing and
minimising risks. The difference is that computer
security focus is on a local computer installation
controlled by an individual or entity whereas
cybersecurity focus is on network-connected computers.
4.3 Countermeasures to prevent physical access to a
computer system might include positioning of the
computer installation, guards at access point, locks on
doors, biometric security, entry cards and fittings to
secure computers to desks.
4.4 Individual misuse of a computer may include
unauthorised modification, removal or copying of data;
obtaining unauthorised computer service; intent to
commit a crime using a computer.
4.5 Governments may misuse computers by intercepting
diplomatic communications, fraudulently modifying
election results, spreading propaganda or deleting
inconvenient data.
4.6 Cyberbullying might include online name-calling; a text,
tweet or response to a status update on a social media
platform that is harsh, mean or cruel; impersonating a
victim online; posting personal information, photos or
videos designed to hurt or embarrass another person.
4.7 A victim of viewing obscene material may feel an
invasion of privacy and emotional distress.
4.8 A phishing email pretends to be from a bank or other
trusted source and tries to trick you into handing over
your personal information.
4.9 Phishing emails may be identified by aspects such as:
the email is from an entity that the recipient has no
business with; the email is not personally addressed to
the recipient; the domain name forming a part of the
sender’s email address does not match the name of the
sending entity; there are spelling, grammar or style/
formatting errors in the message.
4.10 If a hacker can steal sufficient personal information
they may be able to trick entities, such as banks, into
believing that they are that person.
4.11 Malware viruses may infect a computer: when an infected
removable media is connected to the computer, when
someone downloads a file containing a virus or when
someone visits an illegal website that downloads a virus.
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4.12 Malware is software designed to damage your
computer or gain unauthorised access.
4.13 Positive implications of eavesdropping by
law enforcement may be to monitor terrorist
communications leading to arrests. Criminals may be
deterred from criminal activity because they know their
communication is being monitored.
4.14 E-commerce businesses can physically secure their
computer systems by installing them in secure buildings,
employing guards at access points, putting locks on
doors, and using biometric security and entry cards.
4.15 Extended use of computers can cause health problems
that include: backache, wrist strains, eye strain and poor
posture.
4.16 Nurses and doctors have been impacted in many ways
by computers; automatic monitoring of patients,
immediate access to patient records and access to a
large database of available drugs are just a few of the
advantages. Disadvantages include the need to take
time to retrain and problems when the technology is
unavailable or not working.
4.17 The roles in a large IT department will include: network
engineer, computer programmer, computer support
specialist, systems analyst, database administrator,
network administrator, software developer, web
developer, social media specialist.
4.18 Teachers may use computers in the classroom to: give
presentations on a projector, use computer-aided
learning programs, perform automated testing, play
interactive learning games or conduct Internet research
activities.
4.19 A nurse in a hospital may use computers to monitor
patients automatically, access medical records, research
drugs and check hospital policies.
4.20 EPOS means electronic point-of-sale and these systems
are often found at supermarket checkouts.
4.21 There are many advantages to using IT to work from
home including no travel time, flexible work hours,
quiet and comfortable environment, and savings on
expensive office space.
Examination-style questions: Multiple Choice
Instructions: Each item in this test has four suggested
responses labelled (A), (B), (C) or (D). Read each question
carefully then select the most suitable response.
1)
2)
3)
4)
Which of these is NOT an element of computer risk
assessment?
A) vulnerability
B) threat
C) decision
D) attack
What best describes a malicious program on a
computer system?
A) a general-purpose program
B) a system program
C) a virus program
D) a utility program
Music piracy is an example of computer misuse. To which
category of computer misuse does music piracy belong?
A) identity theft
B) phishing attack
C) data theft
D) copyright infringement
What is the main purpose of propaganda on social media?
A) propagate good personal security
B) profile a user with intention to steal their identity
C) influence persons to adopt an idea
D) bully or embarrass a person
5)
Which of the following programs is least likely to be
used by a policeman?
A) word processing software
B) database management software
C) computer-aided design software
D) biometric software
6)
Which of the following personnel is best trained to
replace toner cartridge in a printer?
A) computer operator
B) system analyst
C) software engineer
D) IT manager
7)
Photo-editing software, desktop publishing, email and
word processing software are most likely to be used by:
A) law enforcement officers
B) musicians
C) mass media personnel
D) medical personnel
8)
Having gained several years’ experience a computer
technician would be well placed to advance their career
by becoming a:
A) data entry clerk
B) systems programmer
C) librarian
D) computer engineer
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9)
An EPOS system is most likely to be found in a:
A) supermarket
B) scientific laboratory
C) bank
D) industrial factory
10) The records of Caribbean criminals are most likely to be
stored in:
A) a spreadsheet on a personal computer
B) a file on a supercomputer
C) a database on a mainframe computer
D) custom-written software on a smartphone
Examination-style questions: Structured
1)
A private secondary school has just installed a computer network that serves the administrative offices and classrooms.
All student records are kept on a computerised database stored on network attached storage (NAS). Each classroom has a
desktop computer system equipped with webcams that are used for videoconferencing with various persons worldwide.
Students may also use the computer system for research and for preparation of their school-based assessment (SBA).
a)
The computer network and the computer systems in the classrooms are open to the possibility of harm and
different things could happen that may cause harm.
i) Name the elements of computer security that are referred to by the underlined sections of text.
ii) For EACH element named, state TWO examples that illustrate the elements named. [1]
[4]
b)
The building housing computer network equipment (server, storage device and switches) was destroyed by fire;
however, the school was able to gain full access to an up-to-date database the following day.
i) Name the physical measure that the school would have taken in order for it to have access to its data
after the fire. [1]
ii) Outline the steps that the school would have been required to take before the fire and after the fire
in order to implement the measure named in (b) (i). [2]
c)
The network was reportedly affected by malware.
i) Briefly explain what malware is.
ii) Name TWO types of malware. iii) Outline TWO scenarios that could cause the computer systems in the administrative office and classrooms to become infected by malware. iv) Suggest potential impacts of malware infection on individuals within the school and on the school
itself if the scenarios outlined in (c) (iii) were to happen.
v) State THREE measures the network administrator could take to minimise the harmful effects of the attack outlined in (c) (iii). [1]
[2]
[4]
[2]
[3]
Total 25 marks
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Theory
5 • xxx
Mastering
word processing
Word processing is one of the main applications used on personal computers
worldwide. A word processor is a useful tool for manipulating text. In this chapter,
we will help you to master the practical skills of word processing and use the many
features to create great-looking documents.
By completing practical activities for Caribbean Travel Services you will learn
how to format text, insert tables and pictures, use columns, review documents,
produce a table of contents and create bulk mail.
You will need to spend time practising these skills at the computer. Microsoft
Word is used for all examples in this chapter. All word processing programs,
including Microsoft Word and LibreOffice Writer, have similar features and the
explanations given in this chapter aim to give you the broader skills to master any
word processing program. We would encourage you to experiment with and explore
different word processors to widen your understanding of the concepts given in this
chapter.
By the end of this chapter ✔✔ Create documents using content from a variety of sources.
you should be able to: ✔✔ Use appropriate document and text-formatting features.
✔✔ Apply appropriate editing features to structure and organise a document.
By the end of this chapter
✔✔ Use review features to enhance document readiness for publication.
you should be able to:
✔✔ Appropriately use features that allow protection of a document.
✔✔ Generate a table of contents for a document.
✔✔ Use mail merge features to create bulk mail.
✔✔ Create a fillable electronic form for online use.
Mastering word processing
Creating
documents
Formatting
documents
Importing
text
Formatting
text and
headings
Text, images
and other
objects
Formatting
pages
Structuring
and organising
documents
Drag and drop
Polishing
documents
Protecting
documents
Other useful
tools
Spelling and
grammar
checking
Backups
and
passwords
Creating
a table of
contents
Search and
replace
The thesaurus
Using tables and
columns
Using mail
merge
The Track
Changes tool
Creating
electronic
forms
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LibreOffice Writer is a word processing program that is free to download, install
and use from libreoffice.org. Google Docs and Word online are both free-to-use,
Internet-based word processors.
To help you find your way about the programs in this (productivity tools)
section, we have a new colour-coded feature—the ‘Try’ feature—that you will see
on the pages that follow, for example: Try:
File > Save
This shows the path for the Microsoft Office application; similar words are used in
all word processing applications.
In this chapter you will learn the required skills of word processing by working
carefully through many Caribbean Travel Services worked examples, as well as
producing documents for your own company.
Creating documents using content
from a variety of sources
Watch this video about how
to get started with a wordprocessing program.
It is not difficult to see why word processing packages have become so common.
In the past hand-written or typed documents were the only options. Now most
printed documents are produced using a word processor. Some advantages of using
a word processor (as compared to traditional methods such as typewriting) include
the ability to:
• incorporate text from a range of sources
• include text, images and other objects in a document
• easily format the text to make it clear and easy to read
• quickly find words in a document and change them if required
• insert tables into a document (displaying information in a tabular format)
• use multiple columns of text
• correct grammar errors and check for possible spelling mistakes automatically
• produce tables of contents automatically
• mass produce a single document for multiple recipients.
ITQ 5.1
Suggest what a file named HCcv
might contain.
Whenever you create a piece of work you will want to save it in a file for future use.
It is good practice to clearly identify your files and give them a meaningful name.
This way everyone can see who the file belongs to and what the file contains. For
example, HCnameinfo indicates that this file belongs to Howard Campbell and
contains some sort of name information.
Creating a document
Get started with a simple document for Caribbean Travel Services. We need to start
by opening the word processing program.
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Opening a word processing program
As an administrator at Caribbean Travel Services, you have been
asked to create a document to track the details of Bus 301.
1 To begin, look to see if there is an icon for a word processing
program on the desktop. If not, Try:
Start button and look for Microsoft Office > Microsoft Word
Otherwise your teacher will tell you how to start the word
processing program.
2 Type ‘Bus 301’ on the page that appears.
3 To save document look for a ‘Save’ option. Try:
File > Save
4 You need to give the file a name: ‘your initials Bus301’, e.g. XXBus301.
Almost all programs can be closed by clicking the ‘X’ in the top-right
corner of the window.
Now try to apply what you have learnt to your own company.
ACTIVITY 5.1 Creating a document for your company
Use the company you created in earlier activities or use St Luago Fashion.
1 Create a simple document related to your company.
2 Add the details of an item your company deals with to the document, e.g. Wedding dress model 35.
3 Save the document with a meaningful name including your initials and close, e.g. XXwedding35.
Editing text in a word processing program
You now need to add details to your document about Bus 301.
1 Open your word processing program.
2 To open a document look for an ‘Open’ option. Try:
File > Open
ITQ 5.2
Why do we sometimes not have
to give a filename when saving a
document?
3 Browse to the folder containing the file and choose your file
XXBus301.
4 The document is opened and you see the information for Bus 301.
5 Continue your document and on a new line add more information
about Bus 301, e.g.:
Colour – red
Number of seats – 15
Seatbelts fitted – Yes
Manufacturer – Toyota
Model – Hiace.
Save your file like you did before. Note that this time we do
not need to give the file a name, it already has a name. We are
simply updating the contents of the file. To save the document
look for a ‘Save’ option. Try:
File > Save
6 Click the ‘X’ in the top-right corner of the window to close the program.
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Now try to apply what you have learnt to your own company.
ACTIVITY 5.2 Editing text in a document for your company
Use the company you created in earlier activities or use St Luago Fashion.
1 Open the document you created in the earlier activity: XXwedding35.
2 Add information to the document, e.g.:
Dress 35
Colour – white
Size – 12
Open back – Yes
Designer – Limor Rosen
Model – 35
3 Save the document and close.
Importing text
It can become tiresome to type text into your document. Many large documents are
created by teams of writers: for example, a dictionary may be created by a team of
26 members, each member being responsible for one letter of the alphabet. To create
the final dictionary we need to combine all 26 individual documents into one book.
Importing text into a document
Caribbean Travel Services has several documents containing information about each of its vehicles.
The Customer Service team has mentioned that they also need information about Bus 403. They
have asked if you can combine the details of Bus 301 and Bus 403 into one document.
1 Open your word processing program.
2 Type into the new document the title:
Caribbean Travel Services Vehicle Information
Below this we want to put the information about Bus 301.
3 Position the cursor below the title. (The cursor is a blinking underscore or vertical bar that
indicates where the next item will be inserted.)
4 Look for a ‘Text from file’ option. Try:
Insert > Text from file
5 Select your file that contains the information about Bus 301: XXBus301.
6 Select ‘Insert’ or double-click on the selected file. The information from this file is inserted into
the current document.
7 At the bottom of the document add information about Bus 403.
Bus 403
Colour – blue
Number of seats – 31
Seatbelts fitted – Yes
Manufacturer – Alexander Dennis
Model – Enviro200 8.9M
8 You can now go on and add details of more vehicles to the document.
9 Save this new document. Give this file a meaningful name: ‘your initials vehicleinfo’,
e.g. XXvehicleinfo.
10 Click the ‘X’ in the top-right corner of the window to close the program.
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Now try to apply what you have learnt to your own company.
ACTIVITY 5.3 Importing text into a document for your company
Use the company you created in earlier activities or use St Luago Fashion.
1 Open your word processor to a new document.
2 Add the name of your company as the first line.
3 Import the text from the file you created in the earlier activity, e.g. XXwedding35
Save the document, giving it a meaningful name like XXdresses, and close.
ITQ 5.3
Suggest when it might be
appropriate to import text into a
document.
Typewritten text, images and other objects
Up to now our documents haven’t been particularly exciting. We are going to change
that now by adding images to the document. These make your document more
visually interesting to the reader. Pictures should be used with care because they can
distract the reader from the main message of the document. Used well, an image can
improve the visual impact of the page and make the document easier to understand.
Adding images
ITQ 5.4
When is it appropriate to include a
picture in a document?
Adding pictures to your document is easy. Look for an ‘Insert’ option or an ‘Insert
picture’ option. Try:
Insert > Picture/Image
Figure 5.1 Inserting an image
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Inserting images
To help with visual referencing of each Caribbean Travel Services vehicle, you have decided to
include an image of each bus with its details.
1 Open the document XXvehicleinfo you created earlier.
2 Move the cursor down the document to the bottom of the information about Bus 301.
3 To insert a picture look for an ‘Insert’ option or an ‘Insert picture’ option. Try:
Insert > Picture/Image
4 Your teacher will supply you with an image for Bus 301. Select the file that contains this picture.
5 Save your file like you did before. Note that this time we do not need to give the file a name; it
already has a name.
Now try to apply what you have learnt to your own company.
ACTIVITY 5.4 Inserting images in a document for your company
Use the company you created in earlier activities or use St Luago Fashion.
1 Open the document you created in the earlier activity, e.g. XXdresses.
2 Add a suitable image to the document.
3 Save the document and close.
Using appropriate documentformatting features
Word wrap ▶
Font style ▶
All modern word processing programs have a large number of text-formatting
features. Before starting the activity there are some terms you need to be clear
about:
Word wrap refers to the idea that word processors automatically move text onto
a new line when the current line is full of characters and the cursor reaches the
right margin.
The user only has to press the ‘Enter’ key at the end of a paragraph. Word
wrap ensures that the text is automatically adjusted when text is added, deleted
or formatted. This means that the text is always aligned within the margins of the
page.
Font style is the way the characters look, e.g. A, A, A. A modern word processing
program will have many fonts to choose from.
Formatting text
Font type, font size, underline, bold, italics, superscript, subscript and highlighting can
all be used to make text stand out. The basic tools are similar in all word processors.
Try the ‘Home’ tab at the top or look for the formatting tools.
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Tools
ITQ 5.5
The letters ‘B’, ‘U’ and ‘I’ commonly
stand for which THREE fontformatting tools?
Figure 5.2 Text-formatting tools
Using formatting features
To make your document easier for the Customer Services team to read, you have decided to add
some formatting.
1 Open your word processing program.
2 To open a document look for an ‘Open’ option. Try:
File > Open
3 Find and choose your file XXvehicleinfo. It should look something like this.
Caribbean Travel Services Vehicle Information
Bus 301
Figure 5.3 CTS vehicle information document
Colour :- red
Number of seats :- 15
Seatbelts fitted :- Yes
Manufacturer :- Toyota
Model :- Hiace
Bus 403
4 Select the text ‘Caribbean Travel Services Vehicle Information’.
Colour :- blue
5 AllNumber
word of
processors
seats :- 31 have a font-formatting section. With the text selected, try the tools and
Seatbelts
fitted :- they
Yes have on the text. Here are some formatting effects that you might achieve.
note
the effect
Manufacturer :- Alexander Dennis
Modelstyle
:- Enviro 2008.9M
Font
Caribbean Travel Services Vehicle Information
Font size
Caribbean Travel Services Vehicle Information
Font colour
Caribbean Travel Services Vehicle Information
Bold
Caribbean Travel Services Vehicle Information
Italics
Caribbean Travel Services Vehicle Information
Underline
Caribbean Travel Services Vehicle Information
Strikethrough
Caribbean Travel Services Vehicle Information
Superscript and subscript
Caribbean Travel ServicesTM Vehicle Information
Highlight
Caribbean Travel Services Vehicle Information
6 Save your file like you did before.
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Now try to apply what you have learnt to your own company.
ACTIVITY 5.5 Formatting text in a document for your company
Use the company you created in earlier activities or use St Luago Fashion.
1 Open the document you created in the earlier activity, e.g.XXdresses.
2 Add suitable text formatting to the document.
3 Save the document and close.
Formatting headings
Some important formatting tools in word processing are the heading tools. These
tools have two purposes:
1 they make the formatting of headings in a document consistent; and
2 they are used to create a table of contents.
It is good practice to use headings in your documents. To find the heading tools
look for Heading 1, Heading 2, etc. Try:
Home tab
Figure 5.4 Creating headings
Using heading features
ITQ 5.6
Why should you use the built-in
heading styles for headings in your
document?
1 Open your document XXvehicleinfo.
2 Select the text ‘Caribbean Travel Services Vehicle Information’.
3 With the text selected click on Heading 1. The text formatting
automatically changes.
4 Now select the text ‘Bus 301’ and click Heading 2.
5 Make the text ‘Bus 403’ a Heading 2 as well.
6 Save your file like you did before.
7 Click the ‘X’ in the top-right corner of the window to close the program.
You will see the full benefit of using headings later when creating a table of contents.
Now try to apply what you have learnt to your own company.
ACTIVITY 5.6 Formatting text in a document for your company
Use the company you created in earlier activities or use St Luago Fashion.
1 Open the document you created in the earlier activity, e.g. XXdresses.
2 Add appropriate headings to the document.
3 Save the document and close.
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Formatting position of text
Full justification ▶
Tab stops ▶
Another set of formatting tools allows us to position content in the document. In
the next activity we will cover tab stops, bullets and numbering, line spacing and
justification (left, right, centred, full), which can all be used to position text on the page.
Full justification extends each line so that it reaches both margins and is often
used to improve the presentation of the text in books and newspapers.
Tab stops (tabulation stops) allow the layout of words in a document to be
controlled so that the words line up vertically.
Figure 5.5 Using font-formatting tools
Take a few moments to study the tools. Similar tools appear in all word processing
programs.
Using text-positioning tools and list tools
1 Open the document XXvehicleinfo you created earlier.
2 Move the cursor to a new line after the title.
3 Press the TAB key on the keyboard to move to the next tab stop
and type ‘Luxury’, press the TAB key and type ‘Coach’, TAB key
and type ‘Travel’.
You should have
Use the same technique to create
Luxury
Luxury
Coach
Style
Minibus
Comfort
Car
Coach Travel
4 Select all the lines of text about the
red bus.
With these lines selected try:
a. the bullet point tool
b. the numbered list tool.
Travel
Colour red
Number of seats 15
Seatbelts fitted Yes
Manufacturer Toyota
Model Hiace
Choose a style that you prefer and apply it to your document.
5 With the same lines selected use the line spacing tool to apply
1.5 spacing.
6 With the same line selected try:
a. the centre tool
b. the justify right tool
c. the left align tool.
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Choose a style that you prefer and apply it to your document.
7 Save your file like you did before.
8 Click the ‘X’ in the top-right corner of the window to close the
program.
Now try to apply what you have learnt to your own company.
ACTIVITY 5.7 Text-positioning and list tools in a document for your company
Use the company you created in earlier activities or use St Luago Fashion.
1 Open the document you created in the earlier activity, e.g. XXdresses.
2 Add text separated using the tab key to your document.
3 Use the font formatting to try bullets and numbering, line spacing and justification
(left, right, centre, full) in the document.
4 Save the document and close.
ITQ 5.7
What is the difference between
fully justified text and centrejustified text?
Header ▶
Footer ▶
Endnote ▶
Footnote ▶
Formatting the page
The next set of tools deals with formatting the page. In the next activity we will
cover page size, margins, page and section breaks, page numbers, headers, footers,
footnotes and endnotes.
A header is content that appears at the top of every page.
A footer is content that appears at the bottom of every page.
An endnote is a note at the end of the document, often used for references.
A footnote is a portion of text in the footer area of a page, often used to clarify or
comment on the text on the current page.
Page-management tools
ITQ 5.8
State the main difference between
a footer and a footnote.
All word processors have page-management tools. Page sizes in the Caribbean
include:
A4 size
210 × 297 millimetres
or
8.27 × 11.69 inches
Figure 5.6 Common paper sizes
ITQ 5.9
Watch the video about
headers and footers in
word processing. What
two items might appear
in a header or footer?
a
legal size
216 × 356 millimetres
or
8.5 × 14 inches
letter size
215.9 × 297.4 millimetres
or
8.5 × 11 inches
b
c
To change page details such as page size and margins look for ‘Page Layout’ or
‘Format Page’. Try:
Layout > Size
Layout > Margins
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Figure 5.7 Using the page size and margin tools
ITQ 5.10
Name TWO common paper sizes in
the Caribbean for word processing
document preparation.
For adding headers, footers, footnotes and endnotes look for `Headers’ and
`Footers’. Try:
Insert > Header and Footer......
References > Footnotes and Endnotes
Figure 5.8 Using the header, footer, footnote and endnote tools
For page and section breaks look for ‘Page Break’ or ‘Manual Breaks’. Page breaks
and section breaks simply allow you to force the start of a new page or section. Try:
Insert > Page Break
Using page-management features
You have been asked to format your document to align it to Caribbean Travel Services design
specifications.
1 Open the document XXvehicleinfo you created earlier.
2 To change the page size look for ‘Size’. Try:
Layout > Size
All the main page sizes are available; A4, letter and legal are three common sizes of paper in
the Caribbean. Set the paper size to the one you use.
3 To change the margins look for ‘Margins’. Try:
Layout > Margins
Margins are the white space around the borders of the page. You can make the margins
smaller to get more content onto the page. Set the margins in your document to be narrower.
4 To insert a page break look for ‘Page Break’. Try:
Insert > Page Break
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Page breaks and section breaks simply allow you to force the start of a new page or section.
This might be useful if you want to start each topic in a report on a new page. Use the Page
Break tool to force each vehicle’s information to start on a new page.
5 To add content to the header or footer look for ‘Header’ or ‘Footer’. Try:
Insert > Header
Headers and footers put content at the top and bottom of every page so are useful for items
such as the document title in the header and author’s name in the footer.
1 Use the Header tool to add ‘Caribbean Travel Services’ to the
header and put your name in the footer.
2 The Page Numbering tool is included in the header or footer;
this tool numbers pages automatically.
6 To add page numbers, look for ‘Page Numbers’. Try:
Insert > Page Number
Add page numbering at the bottom of the pages in your document.
7 To add a footnote or endnote look for ‘Footnote’ or ‘Endnote’. Try:
References > Insert Footnote
Footnotes and endnotes allow you to add notes either at the bottom of the current page or at
the end of the document. Before you add a footnote or endnote you must position the cursor
where you want the note marker to appear.
8 Position the cursor after the ‘15’, the number of seats.
9 Use the footnote tool to add a footnote that says ‘12 seats if luggage carried’.
10 Position the cursor after ‘Toyota’.
11 Use the endnote tool to add an endnote that says ‘Reference: Toyota Hiace Manual’.
12 Save your file like you did before.
13 Click the ‘X’ in the top-right corner of the window to close the program.
Now try to apply what you have learnt to your own company.
ACTIVITY 5.8 Page-formatting tools in a document for your company
Use the company you created in earlier activities or use St Luago Fashion.
• Open the document you created in the earlier activity, e.g. XXdresses.
• Change the page size and margins and add a page break.
• Add page numbers, header, footer, footnote and endnote to your document.
• Save the document and close.
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Using appropriate editing features
to structure and organise a
document
Useful tools that are available in all office application programs are the block
operations: cut, copy and paste.
Drag-and-drop editing (block operations)
Clipboard ▶
One advantage of word processing is the ability to move sections of text (a block)
from one part of the document to another. For example, we may wish to rearrange
the order of vehicles in the Caribbean Travel Services vehicle information document.
The main block operations are cut, copy and paste. Word processing packages
use the clipboard to manage the cut, copy and paste operations.
The clipboard is a temporary area of memory where applications can store items
for future use.
Cut and copy have a similar function, which is to place the selected content
onto the clipboard. The difference is that the cut operation takes the content out of
the original position in the document and the copy operation leaves the content in
the original position. Paste copies the contents of the clipboard into the document
at the current cursor position. All word processors have Cut, Copy and Paste tools.
To use the Cut, Copy and Paste tools look for ‘Cut’, ‘Copy’ and ‘Paste’. Try:
Home > Cut
ITQ 5.11
Which THREE features are
commonly used in block editing in
a word processing program?
Figure 5.9 Block editing
tools: cut
Figure 5.10 Block editing
tools: copy
Figure 5.11 Block editing
tools: paste
Using ‘cut, copy and paste’ and ‘drag-and-drop’ (block operations)
A new bus has been added to the fleet of vehicles at Caribbean Travel Services and the
Customer Services team has asked you to update your document with the new information.
1 Open the document XXvehicleinfo you created earlier.
2 Select all the information for Bus 403 and use the Copy tool to place that information on
the clipboard.
3 Place the cursor marker below the information for Bus 403 and use the Paste tool. A copy
of Bus 403’s information should appear.
4 Edit this with the following information:
• 403 changes to 404.
• The colour of the new bus is green.
• It has been reduced to a 29-seater to allow room for luggage.
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6
7
8
This is the newest vehicle in the fleet so we want it to be the first vehicle in the document.
Select all the information for Bus 404 and use the Cut tool.
Move the cursor to the first page just below the section
Luxury
Coach Travel
Style
Minibus
Travel
Comfort Car
Travel
and use the Paste tool. Bus 404’s information should appear.
Insert a page break so that Bus 404 starts on a new page.
When we want to move some text, an alternative to cut and paste is drag-and-drop editing.
Drag-and-drop can be useful for moving a small amount of content a small distance in the
document.
Select the text ‘Colour – red’ in Bus 301.
Bus 301
Colour :- red
Number of seats :- 15
Seatbelts fitted :- Yes
Manufacturer :- Toyota
Model :- Hiace
9 Simply left-click and hold onto this text and drag it to after the ‘Model – Hiace’ text.
10 Move the text ‘Colour – red’ back to where it belongs.
11 Save your file as you did before.
12 Click the ‘X’ in the top-right corner of the window to close the program.
ITQ 5.12
Under what circumstances might
drag-and-drop be used instead of
cut and paste?
Now try to apply what you have learnt to your own company.
ACTIVITY 5.9 Using block tools in a document for your company
Use the company you created in earlier activities or use St Luago Fashion.
1 Open the document you created in the earlier activity, e.g. XXdresses.
2 Copy the product information for an item and paste it below.
3 Change the product information to reflect a new product. Reorder the products in
the document using cut and paste.
4 Save the document and close.
A related, and very useful, feature that will help you complete your School Based
Assessment is screenshot or print screen. Print screen takes an exact copy of
what is on your screen and places it on to the clipboard. Look for a ‘PrtSc’ key on
the keyboard. Usually the ‘Shift’ + ‘PrtSc’ must be pressed together to copy the
screen. In your document use the paste option as usual to include the image in
the document. You will see lots of examples of screenshots throughout this book.
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Search and replace function
As documents become longer it is useful to be able to find particular words quickly.
Word processing programs can automatically locate words in a document. It is
also possible to find and replace all occurrences of a sequence of characters with
another. An example of this might be to replace all occurrences of 2019 with 2020
as a document is updated for a new year.
To use the Find tool look for ‘Find’ or ‘Find & Replace’. Try:
Home > Find
Home > Replace
ITQ 5.13
Figure 5.12 Find and Replace tool
Suggest the best way to quickly
find a combination of words in a
large document.
Using find and replace tools
Some information for Bus 403 needs to be edited.
1 Open the document XXvehicleinfo you created earlier.
You want to be able to find and edit the information quickly using the Find tool.
2 To use the Find tool, look for ‘Find’. Try:
Home > Find
3 Type ‘403’ in the pop-up Navigation dialog box. The page on which the first
occurrence of the required text appears will be displayed. The number
of times the text appears in the document will also be shown along with
navigation tools that allow you to move to the next or previous occurrences
of the text. Keep the document open for the next part of the activity.
The chief executive wants you to replace all occurrences of ‘Bus’ in
Caribbean Travel Services’ documentation to ‘Luxury Bus’ to better
reflect the service offered. We could use the Find tool to search for every
occurrence of the text ‘Bus’ and add the word ‘Luxury’, but why not let the
computer perform the task automatically?
4 To use the replace tool look for ‘Replace’. Try:
Home > Replace
5 Type ‘Bus’ in the pop-up dialog box ‘Find what’ section and ‘Luxury Bus’ in
the ‘Replace with’ section.
6 Click on ‘Replace All’.
7 Save your file like you did before.
8 Click the ‘X’ in the top-right corner of the window to close the program.
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ACTIVITY 5.21 Find and replace tools in a document for your company
Use the company you created in earlier activities or use St Luago Fashion.
1 Open the document you created in the earlier activity, e.g. XXdresses.
2 Use the Find tool to navigate to a particular item.
3 Use the Replace tool to replace a description of an item with an improved description.
4 Save the document and close.
Using tables and table formatting
Tables can be useful for displaying data. A table consists of rows and columns. Text
is written in the cells and these cells may be resized, merged and coloured, or may
even have borders.
To insert a table look for ‘Table’. Try:
Insert > Table
Figure 5.13 Inserting tables
Inserting a table into a document
You have been asked to add a table to your document that outlines driver, route and
operational details for each bus.
1 Open the document XXvehicleinfo you created in the earlier activity.
2 Move to the last page of the document.
3 To insert a table look for ‘Table’. Try:
Insert > Table
4 Choose to insert a 3 × 5 table and add the information below.
Caribbean Travel Services
Luxury Bus
Driver
Route
301
Shana Goldstone
Georgetown
404
Tyrone Edgar
Kingston
403
Nyoka Small
Negril
Different word processing programs have different ways to enhance your table.
You should be able to merge or split cells.
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5 To merge or split cells in a table look for ‘Merge’ or ‘Split’. Click on the table and find
Table Tools > Layout > Merge Cells or Split Cells
6 Use the Merge Cells tool, the Split Cells tool, the Font Size tool and the Centre Justification
tool so that your table looks like this:
Caribbean Travel Services
Luxury Bus
Driver
Route
301
Shana Goldstone
Georgetown
404
Tyrone Edgar
Kingston
403
Nyoka Small
Negril
Mandeville
7 To add new columns or rows to a table, click on the table and Try:
Table Tools > Layout > Insert Above
8 Look for ‘Insert Above’, ‘Insert Below’, ‘Insert Left’ or ‘Insert Right’.
9 Use these tools to extend your table as shown below:
Caribbean Travel Services
Luxury Bus
Driver
Route
301
Shana Goldstone
Georgetown
Days
Mandeville
Mon–Fri
404
Tyrone Edgar
Kingston
Every day
403
Nyoka Small
Negril
Mon–Fri
408
John Allison
Bridgetown
Sat–Thur
There are many more tools for shading cells, adding borders to cells, adjusting cell margins,
changing cell size and changing the direction of the text in the cells.
10 Click on the table and you will find these in
Table Tools > Layout > …, Table Tools > Design > … or Table > Table Properties > …
11 Apply your own changes to your table. Here is an example.
Caribbean Travel Services
Luxury Bus
Driver
Route
301
Shana Goldstone
Georgetown
302
Tyrone Edgar
Kingston
Every day
403
Nyoka Small
Negril
Mon-Fri
408
John Allison
Bridgetown
Sat-Thur
Days
Mandeville
Mon-Fri
Figure 5.14 An example of advanced table formatting
12 Save your file like you did before.
13 Click the ‘X’ in the top-right corner of the window to close the program.
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Now try to apply what you have learnt to your own company.
ACTIVITY 5.11 Inserting and formatting tables in a document for your company.
Use the company you created in earlier activities or use St Luago Fashion.
1 Open the document you created in the earlier activity, e.g. XXdresses.
2 Create a table to contain information relevant to your company.
3 Improve the look of the table using the table formatting tools.
4 Save the document and close.
Using columns
Word processors allow you to divide your document into columns. This can
enhance your document, improving the appearance and making it easier to read.
It is particularly useful when creating newsletters, brochures, magazines and other
similar documents.
To convert text into two or more columns look for ‘Columns’. Try:
Layout > Columns
Figure 5.15 Using the Columns tool
A column break works in the same way as a page break. Inserting a column
break forces a new column to be started.
Organising text in columns
The Marketing Department has asked if you could format a press release they’ve written about three
new buses that have been added to the fleet.
1 Open the document XXvehicleinfo you created in the earlier activity.
2 Move the cursor to the end of the document.
3 Type in the following text for a press release.
‘The delivery ceremony of 3 new luxury buses, which were recently purchased by the Caribbean Travel
Services Company, will be held on Wednesday, June 27th at Caribbean Travel Services’ head office at
10:30am. Members of the public are invited to join the drivers, conductors and general staff at 17 Main
Street, Queenstown for the ceremony. The short ceremony will be followed by live entertainment and
members of the public will have the opportunity to experience the luxury of these new vehicles with
short tours around the city centre. We look forward to greeting you for this special occasion.’
4 Convert this new text into two columns; look for ‘Columns’. Try:
Layout > Columns
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5 Select the text and use the Column tool to create two columns. Fully justify the text.
‘The delivery ceremony of 3 new luxury buses,
which were recently purchased by the Caribbean
Travel Services Company, will be held on
Wednesday, June 27th at Caribbean Travel
Services’ head office at 10:30am. Members of the
public are invited to join the drivers, conductors
and general staff at 17 Main Street, Queenstown
for the ceremony. The short ceremony will be
followed by live entertainment and members of
the public will have the opportunity to experience
the luxury of these new vehicles with short
tours around the city centre. We look forward to
greeting you for this special occasion.’
6 Position the cursor between ‘10:30am’ and ‘Members’. Try:
Layout > Breaks > Column Break
‘The delivery ceremony of 3 new luxury
buses, which were recently purchased by the
Caribbean Travel Services Company, will be
held on Wednesday, June 27th at Caribbean
Travel Services’ head office at 10:30am.
Members of the public are invited to join the
drivers, conductors and general staff at 17
Main Street, Queenstown for the ceremony.
The short ceremony will be followed by live
entertainment and members of the public will
have the opportunity to experience the luxury of
these new vehicles with short tours around the
city centre. We look forward to greeting you for
this special occasion.’
7 Save your file as you did before.
Now try to apply what you have learnt to your own company.
ACTIVITY 5.12 Organising text in columns in a document for your company
Use the company you created in earlier activities or use St Luago Fashion.
1 Open the document you created in the earlier activity, e.g. XXdresses.
2 Create a press release for your company.
3 Format the press release text into three columns.
4 Save the document and close.
ITQ 5.14
Give TWO reasons for splitting a
section of text into columns.
Using review features to enhance
document readiness
Spelling and grammar checking, word count
and the thesaurus
For many persons the main advantage of using a word processing package is the
ability to correct mistakes before sending a document to be printed. All good word
processing packages have a built-in dictionary to check the spelling of every word
in the document. The user may select the dictionary to use. Additionally, a user
may add words, such as regularly used names, to a dictionary. As you type, the
word processing program will warn you if you make spelling or grammar mistakes
by placing straight or wavy coloured lines under the text.
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ITQ 5.15
Why is it good practice to
spellcheck a document before
printing?
Note that if you print a document with these underlines, they will not show
up on printed pages. It may be too time-consuming to stop every time you see
wavy underlines so you can just ignore them as you go. When you have finished
typing your text, you can tell the word processing program to check spelling and
grammar all at one time. It may also be useful to know the number of words in
your document; this is usually displayed in the status information at the bottom of
the word processor window.
The thesaurus is another useful tool. A thesaurus is a tool that suggests
alternatives for the selected word.
It is always a good idea to proofread your work after you spellcheck it. When using
a word processor there is no excuse for spelling or grammatical errors in a document.
Proofreading is the careful reading of the document and the marking of any errors
found.
To check the spelling and grammar look for ‘Spelling and Grammar’. Try:
Review > Spelling & Grammar
Figure 5.16 Thesaurus and spelling and grammar checking tool
To use the thesaurus feature select an individual word and look for ‘Thesaurus’. Try:
Review > Thesaurus
Using the spellcheck and grammar tools
1 Open the document XXvehicleinfo you created in the earlier activity.
2 Move to the end of the document.
3 Insert the following three lines of text exactly as typed.
Some of the routes that Carib Travel Services cover mountinous areas. One such road is
over Morne Diablotins Mountain. The driver wanted to know:
‘What is the hight of Morne Diablotins Mountain.’
4 First check the proofing language; this is the language against which the spelling and grammar
will be checked. For example, in U.S. English ‘color’ is the correct spelling but in U.K. English
‘colour’ is correct. To check the proofing language, look for ‘Set Proofing Language’ or just
‘Language’. Try:
Review > Language > Set Proofing Language
5 Select the language you require.
6 To check the spelling and grammar look for ‘Spelling and Grammar’. Try:
Review > Spelling & Grammar
The tool will check your document and if any errors are found it will prompt you to take action.
These action prompts are usually: ‘Ignore Once’, ‘Ignore All’ and ‘Add to Dictionary’.
The system may also offer a correction, or ask you to select from a list of possible corrections. You
have the option to accept or reject the suggested correction.
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7 Use the spelling and grammar checker in your word processing program to find and correct errors
in the document.
Notes: In the example text
• the word ‘hight’ is misspelt so accept the suggestion ‘height’ by clicking the Change button;
• the word ‘Morne’ is the correct spelling for the name of the mountain so click on the Ignore All button;
• the word ‘Diablotins’ is also correct, so click on the Ignore All button.
The final warning is for the word ‘Mountain’. This is a grammar error and the word processor suggests that
a ‘?’ is needed because it has identified the sentence as a question.
8 Save your file like you did before. (If you are interested, the answer is 1,447 metres.)
9 Select the word ‘routes’ in the document and use the Thesaurus tool to find alternative words.
10 To check the thesaurus look for ‘Thesaurus’. Try:
Review > Thesaurus
11 Save your file as you did before.
12 Click the ‘X’ in the top-right corner of the window to close the program.
Now try to apply what you have learnt to your own company.
ACTIVITY 5.13 Check your company document for spelling and grammar mistakes
Use the company you created in earlier activities or use St Luago Fashion.
1 Open the document you created in the earlier activity, e.g.XXdresses.
2 Use the spelling and grammar checking tools to make sure your document is free
of errors.
3 Save the document and close.
ITQ 5.16
What is the role of a thesaurus?
Review features: tracking and comments
Word processors are ideal for professional organisations because they include
tracking and comment tools. Tracking allows any changes made to the document
to be visible and reversible. This may be useful when a document is reviewed,
by a senior manager for example. Any changes made by the manager are clearly
marked in the document and can be either accepted or rejected by the author
when the document is returned.
An alternative to tracking is for the reviewer to add comments to your document.
The Comment tool may be used by a reviewer to insert a comment by selecting text
and adding the comment.
To turn on tracking, look for ‘Track Changes’. Try:
Review > Track Changes
Figure 5.17 Tracking changes tools
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To add a comment to a document, look for ‘Comments’. Try:
Review > New Comment
Figure 5.18 Tools for adding a comment to a document
ITQ 5.17
Who might want to review a
document in an organisation?
Using the tracking and Comment tools
1 Open the document XXvehicleinfo you created in the earlier
activity.
2 To turn on tracking look for Track Changes. Try:
Review > Track Changes
3 To see how tracking works make some changes to the document,
e.g. change the colour of Bus 404 to grey.
4 Choose from the ‘Previous’, ‘Next’, ‘Accept’ and ‘Reject’ options
to reject the change.
5 Turn tracking off before continuing.
6 To add a comment to a document look for ‘Comments’. Try:
Review > New Comment
7 To remove the comment select the comment and look for ‘Delete
Comment’. Try:
Review > Delete Comment
ITQ 5.18
After a new comment is added to
a document, the comment may
undergo different operations.
Name ANY TWO of these
operations.
8 Save your file like you did before.
9 Click the ‘X’ in the top-right corner of the window to close the
program.
Now try to apply what you have learnt to your own company.
ACTIVITY 5.14 Review your company document
Use the company you created in earlier activities or use St Luago Fashion.
1 Split into two small groups. Each group should take a copy of the document you
created in the earlier activity, e.g. XXdresses.
2 Turn on tracking and make some changes and add comments to the document.
3 Save the file.
4 Swap files with the other small group, look at the changes and comments that have
been made and accept or reject the changes.
5 Save the document and close.
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Appropriately using features that
allow protection of a document
As your documents become more professional it may be necessary to create a
safety backup copy in case of hardware failure or natural disaster. Modern word
processors automatically back up any document you are working on. If the system
should crash or there is a power outage the word processor will use this backup
copy when it restarts. It is good practice to regularly make a backup copy of
your document files and store them on removable storage media to keep them
safe. If a document contains confidential data we need to password-protect the
document file so that it cannot be accessed by unauthorised persons. If you forget
the password, the document file can never be opened.
To password-protect a document look for ‘Encrypt with Password’ or ‘Save with
Password’. Try:
ITQ 5.19
What is the main disadvantage of
password-protecting a document?
File > Info > Protect Document > Encrypt with Password
Figure 5.19 Password-protecting a document
Password-protecting a file and creating a backup
One of the office administrators accidentally made changes to your document that you now have
to correct. You decide to password-protect the document to stop anyone other than yourself from
making changes to it in future.
1 Open the document XXvehicleinfo you created in the earlier activity.
2 To password-protect this file look for ‘Protection’ or ‘Password’. Try:
File > Info > Protect Document > Encrypt with Password
3 Set a simple password on your document file, e.g. ‘ABC’, so it is easy to remember.
4 Click the ‘X’ in the top-right corner of the window to close the program.
5 Open the document XXvehicleinfo again and see how you need the password to open the
document.
6 An easy way to make a backup copy of the document file is to use ‘Save As’. Insert a
removable storage device, for example a USB pen drive.
7 To use the ‘Save As’ feature look for ‘Save As’. Try:
File > Save As
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ACTIVITY 5.15 Password-protect your company document
Use the company you created in earlier activities or use St Luago Fashion.
1 Open the document you created in the earlier activity, e.g. XXdresses.
2 Use the password-protect tools to encrypt your document.
3 Save the document.
4 Make a backup of your document to removable media such as a USB pen drive and
close.
Generating a table of contents for
a document
Large professional documents almost always have a table of contents that allows
readers to quickly find different sections in the document. Fortunately, a word
processing program can automatically create a table of contents for us. Earlier in
this chapter we considered using headings in the document. The table of contents
will be created using these headings and sub-headings.
To create a table of contents, look for ‘Table of Contents’. Try:
Reference > Table of Contents
Figure 5.20 Creating a table of contents from the
headings in a document
Creating a table of contents for a document
Now that your document has different types of information in it, you think it would be useful to
add a table of contents, which will also make navigation to each piece of information easier.
1 Open the document XXvehicleinfo you created in the earlier activity.
2 To create a table of contents look for ‘Table of Contents’. Try:
Reference > Table of Contents
3 Move the cursor to a new line below ‘Caribbean Travel Services’.
4 Use the Table of Contents tool to create a table of contents (ToC), choosing a suitable layout
for your ToC.
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5 Save your file like you did before.
6 Click the ‘X’ in the top-right corner of the window to close the program.
Now try to apply what you have learnt to your own company.
ACTIVITY 5.16 Create a table of contents for your company document
Use the company you created in earlier activities or use St Luago Fashion.
1 Open the document you created in the earlier activity, e.g. XXdresses.
2 Use the Table of Contents tool to add a table of contents to your document.
3 Save the document.
ITQ 5.20
Watch the video about
mail merge. In what
situation would you
consider using mail
merge?
Note that creating the table of contents is the final task for the document. It will
need to be recreated if the document is updated.
Using mail merge features in a
range of situations
If a company like Caribbean Travel Services wanted to send a letter or an email to
every VIP passenger to inform them of a ceremony to celebrate the delivery of the
new buses for the fleet they could begin the letter ‘Dear Passenger’ and then send
it to everyone. Caribbean Travel Services would like to build a strong relationship
with their passengers and feel that a more personal approach will support this. So
they would rather begin the letter ‘Dear Mr Douglas’ or ‘Dear Miss O’Connor’, etc.
The mail merge feature of a word processing program can be used to import the
individual’s personal information from a table, database or spreadsheet into the
correct position in a template letter. The result is that each letter is personalised for
every individual passenger.
Mail merge can be used to create a variety of different personalised documents
such as: invitations, utility bills and invoices.
Mail merge requires two files:
• a primary template document (e.g. the letter to the passengers) and
• a data file which is the source of the data to be inserted into the template.
ITQ 5.21
Identify the THREE documents
involved when a bulk mail is
created.
The mail merge process produces one file, the merged document file. Word
processing programs try to lead you through the mail merge process. To start a
mail merge look for ‘Mailing’ or ‘Mail Merge Wizard’. Try:
Mailings > Start Mail Merge > Letters
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Figure 5.21 Mail merge tools
Creating a mail merge document
The Managing Director has given you instructions to create an invitation to be sent out to important
stakeholders to celebrate the arrival of the three new buses.
1 Create a new primary document containing the text given below.
Caribbean Travel Services
The executive board would like to invite
to a celebration of the delivery of 3 new luxury buses recently purchased by the Company.
The ceremony and celebration will be held on Wednesday, June 27th at Caribbean Travel Services’ head
office at 10:30am. VIP guests are invited to join the drivers, conductors and general staff at 17 Main Street,
Queenstown for drinks at 10:00am. A short ceremony at 10:30am will be followed by live entertainment
and VIP passengers will have the opportunity to experience the luxury of these new vehicles with short
tours around the city centre. We look forward to greeting you for this special occasion.
Howard Campbell
On behalf of the Board of Caribbean Travel Services
2 Save your file like you did before. You need to give this new document file a name ‘your initials
VIPletters’, e.g. XXVIPletters.
3 Click the ‘X’ in the top-right corner of the window to close the program.
4 Create a new data file document containing the table given below. The column headings ‘Title’ and
Last name’ are the field names that will be used to insert the data into the mail merge.
Title
Last name
Mr
Hussey
Mrs
Douglas
Mr
Castille
Miss
Hosein
Mrs
Ventura
Mrs
Ridout
5 Save your file like you did before. You need to give this new document file a name ‘your initials
VIPnames’, e.g. XXVIPnames.
6 Click the ‘X’ in the top-right corner of the window to close the program.
7 Open the document XXVIPletters you created earlier.
8 Move the cursor to a new line under the text ‘The executive board would like to invite’.
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9 To create a mail merge document look for ‘Mailings’ or ‘Merge Wizard’. Try:
Mailings > Select Recipients > Use Existing List
Browse to find your XXVIPnames document file.
Mailings > Insert Merge Fields > Title
Mailings > Insert Merge Fields > Last Name
Mailings > Finish & Merge > Edit Individual Documents
or Tools > Mail Merge Wizard
Follow the instructions given by the wizard.
A new document is automatically produced that contains all the personalised letters ready for printing.
This document is six pages long since there are six VIPs. Mail merge can easily produce hundreds of
pages, so check the length of a document before printing.
10 Save this document file like you did before. You need to give this new document file a name ‘your
initials VIPinvite’, e.g. XXVIPinvite.
11 Click the ‘X’ in the top-right corner of the window to close the program.
Now try to apply what you have learnt to your own company.
ACTIVITY 5.17 Create a mail merge for a new product release at your company
Use the company you created in earlier activities or use St Luago Fashion.
1 Open the word processor and create a new template document inviting customers
to a special event. Leave gaps for the names of the attendees. Save and close this
document.
2 Open the word processor and create a table containing the attendees’ details. Save
and close this document.
3 Use the mail merge tool to combine these two documents into a bulk mail document.
4 Save the documents and close.
Creating a fillable electronic form
for online use
Word processing packages now allow you to create fillable forms. This means that
the document contains elements that can be filled in by the user. These elements
include the following: check boxes, text boxes, date picker, drop-down lists and
command buttons.
• A check box control allows a user to tick the box or leave it empty.
• A text box control allows a user to enter text into a form.
• A date picker control allows the user to select a date from a drop-down calendar.
• A drop-down list allows the user to select a single item from a predefined list.
• A command button allows a user to initiate an action.
The syllabus requires you to create a fillable electronic form for online use.
There are now much better tools for creating online forms than a word processing
program, so in this section we briefly cover creating fillable forms and include this
document in a web page in Chapter 6, Mastering web page design.
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ITQ 5.22
State THREE content controls
that may be used on a fillable
electronic form.
One important feature of fillable forms is the idea of design mode. When design
mode is ‘on’ the form can be created and modified. When design mode is ‘off’ the
form can be interactively filled in.
The developer of the form will use design mode ‘on’; the user of the document
will use design mode ‘off’. When developing a fillable form you will frequently
be switching between the two modes, design mode ‘on’ when creating the form
and design mode ‘off’ when testing the form. To create fillable form component
controls look for ‘Controls’ or ‘Form Controls’. Try:
Developer > Controls
Figure 5.22 Developing a fillable form: turning design mode on and off
Note that the Developer options can be turned on by selecting
File > Options > Customize Ribbon > Developer
Creating a fillable form in a document
The Customer Services team has asked you to create a form for prospective clients who want to
enquire about renting a coach from Caribbean Travel Services.
1 Create a new document containing the text given below:
Caribbean Travel Services
Coach Rental Enquiry Form
Your Name
Your Address
Your Telephone Number
Coach Required
Driver Required
Date Required
Please print the completed form and send to:
Caribbean Travel Services
Rental Department
17 Main Street
Queenstown
Or email the completed form to rentals@Caribbeantravelservices.jm.
One of our helpful staff will contact you.
Thank you for considering Caribbean Travel Services.
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2 Move the cursor to a new line under the text ‘Your Name’.
3 Now you can use the fillable form controls. Try:
Developer > Controls
Figure 5.23 The fillable form controls
4 Identify the Design Mode button and make sure it is ‘on’.
5 Create a text box control. Try:
Developer > Controls > Plain Text Control
and draw a box in the correct position.
6 Repeat this process to add a text box control for the Address and Telephone Number.
7 For the Coach Required we will use a drop-down list. Try:
Developer > Controls > Drop-down List Control Content
With the list selected, click on Properties.
Add ‘15-seater’
Add ‘32-seater’
Add ‘52-seater’
or
Form Controls > List Box
and draw a box in the correct position.
8 For the Driver Required we will use a check box. Try:
Developer > Controls > Check Box Content Control
and draw a box in the correct position.
9 Finally for the Date Required we will use a date picker or date field. Try:
Developer > Controls > Date Picker Content Control
and draw a box in the correct position.
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fundamentals
processing
Caribbean Travel Services
Coach Rental Enquiry Form
Your Name
Click here to enter text.
Your Address
Click here to enter text.
Your Telephone number
Click here to enter text.
Coach Required
Choose an item.
Driver Required
Date Required
Figure 5.24 A fillable form shown in Design Mode ‘on’
10 Now, to check your fillable form, click Design Mode to turn it ‘off’.
11 Test the controls to ensure they work as you expect.
12 Save this document file like you did before. You need to give this new document file a name ‘your
initials enquiry’, e.g. XXenquiry.
13 Click the ‘X’ in the top-right corner of the window to close the program.
Now try to apply what you have learnt to your own company.
ACTIVITY 5.18 Create a fillable form for your company to deal with enquiries from
customers
Use the company you created in earlier activities or use St Luago Fashion.
1 Open the word processor and create a new fillable form document.
2 Save the documents and close.
That concludes our introduction to word processing. There are lots more features
to discover in word processing but it’s time to move on.
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Summary
• A word processor is a computer application used for
manipulating text.
• Tables, consisting of rows and columns, are useful for
organising data.
• A document may be created using content from a range
• Spelling and grammar checkers are word processing
of sources such as the keyboard, other documents or an
image gallery.
features that may be used to enhance the readiness of
a document; the feature can automatically detect and
correct commonly misspelt words.
• Text-formatting features include: bold, italics, underline,
font size, font style, font colour, subscript and superscript.
• Automatically saving a backup copy of a document that
• The block editing tools are: cut, copy, paste and drag-and-
is being edited, and restricting the editing of a document
using password-protection, are two features that facilitate
the protection of a document.
drop.
• The find and replace features of word processors can
quickly find text or replace text with alternative text.
• Page formatting allows you to change the page size and
the margins of a page.
• Headers and footers appear on every page.
• References can be added to the end of a document using
endnotes.
• The use of columns is a paragraph-formatting feature; it
• A table of contents for a document may be automatically
generated based on the built-in heading styles used in the
document.
• The mail merge feature may be used in the preparation of
a personalised bulk mail document.
• A word processor may be used to create a fillable electronic
form for online use.
allows you to organise content into two or more columns.
Answers to ITQs
5.1 Files should always have meaningful names so a
file named HCcv might contain Howard Campbell’s
curriculum vitae.
5.2 ‘Save’ writes the contents of the document you are
working on into the file. If the file does not exist it is
created and you are prompted to provide a name. If the
file already exists, there is no need to give the filename.
5.7 Fully justified text is spaced so that it neatly aligns with
the left and right margins and is often used in books
and magazines. Centred text is placed in the middle of
the page.
5.8 A footer is text that appears at the bottom of every
page. A footnote is referenced in the text and is
included at the bottom of the page it is referenced on.
5.3 There are occasions when the text you want to include
in a document already exists in another document. It is
easier and quicker to import this text than to retype the
data.
5.9 Headers and footers are often used to contain
information like document title, author and the date.
5.4 Adding pictures to documents should enhance the
viewer’s experience. The picture might complement the
text, clarify the text or simply break large sections of text.
5.11 Cut, copy and paste are commonly used in block editing.
Cut removes the selected text and places it on the
clipboard for later use. Copy duplicates the selected text
and places a copy on the clipboard for later use. Paste
copies whatever is on the clipboard into the document
at the current cursor position.
5.5 In almost all word processors, ‘B’ indicates bold, ‘U’
indicates underline and ‘I’ indicates italics. Selecting
text and clicking on the B, U or I button applies the
formatting.
5.6 The built-in headings in a word processing program are
used to create automatic tables of contents. It is good
practice to use built-in headings in your document to
enable this function.
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5.10 The two common paper sizes in use in the Caribbean
are A4 and letter.
5.12 If only a small amount of text is to be moved only a
short distance, drag-and-drop may be quicker than cut
and paste.
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5.13 The powerful Find tools included in all word
processing programs make it easy to navigate around
large documents by quickly finding a given word or
combination of words.
5.14 You might want to format a section of text into multiple
columns to improve the appearance of the document
and make it easier to read.
5.15 Spell checking and grammar checking a document
before it is printed ensures that there are no spelling or
grammar errors in the document.
5.16 A thesaurus can be a useful tool to improve vocabulary
in a document because it provides suggestions for
alternatives for the selected word.
5.17 When producing a professional document it is good
practice to have it checked by someone else. At school
this might be a classmate, in a commercial operation
it might be a manager. Changes and comments can be
used to improve the document before publication.
5.18 When a document is being reviewed the reviewer may
add comments to the document. It is then up to the
author to delete or edit the comment.
5.19 The big disadvantage of password-protecting a
document is that if the password is forgotten you can
never open the document.
5.20 Mail merge is used to produce personalised bulk mail.
5.21 When creating a mail merge you need to create the
main template letter and the document containing the
personal information to be inserted. The result is a large
file that contains all the personalised letters.
5.22 Fillable forms have many controls. The check box control
allows a user to tick the box or leave it empty, the text
box control allows a user to enter text into a form, the
date picker control allows the user to select a date from
a drop-down calendar, a drop-down list allows the user
to select a single item from a predefined list, and the
command button allows a user to initiate an action.
Examination-style questions: Multiple Choice
Instructions: Each item in this test has four suggested
responses labelled (A), (B), (C) or (D). Read each question
carefully then select the most suitable response.
1)
3)
Which of the following is correct in relation to footers,
footnotes and endnotes?
A) A page can have a footer and footnotes at the
bottom.
B) Footers, footnotes and endnotes all appear at the
bottom of the page.
C) Footers only appear at the end of a document.
D) Footnotes and endnotes cannot appear on the
same page.
5)
To create an automatic table of contents which of the
following must be applied to text in the document?
A) text size 14
B) text colour ‘blue’
C) headings
D) headers
6)
Which of the following tasks may be accomplished
using the cut-and-paste technique?
I
selecting text
II
copying text
III
moving text
Which of the following types of content may be used
to create a word processing document for printing?
I
animated gifs
II
shapes
III
text
IV videos
A)
B)
C)
D)
2)
4)
II only
II and III only
III only
IV only
Word processing programs have features to emphasise
text. Which of the following is NOT true?
A) Bold makes the characters darker.
B) Italics slant the characters.
C) Highlight makes the characters taller.
D) Underline places a line underneath the characters.
Which of the following is NOT a source of content for
creating a word processing document?
A) keyboard
B) local storage
C) speech
D) video
A)
B)
C)
D)
I and II only
II and III only
I and III only
III only
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7)
Which of the following tasks may be accomplished
using drag-and-drop editing?
I
selecting text
II
copying text
III
moving text
A)
B)
C)
D)
8)
I only
I and II only
III only
II and III only
Which of the following is the LEAST appropriate
feature that may be applied to the text word ‘player’ to
make it stand out in a document?
A) bold
B) colour
C) italics
D) capitalisation
9)
Which of the following pairs of formatting features are
usually used together with references in a document?
A) bullets and numbering
B) footnotes and endnotes
C) superscript and endnotes
D) subscript and footnotes
10) Which of the following statements about the mail
merge feature is TRUE?
A) Field names in the primary document are optional.
B) Multiple recipient data files may be used for the
same merge.
C) Both a primary document and a data file are
required.
D) The primary document must be longer than the
recipient data file.
Examination-style questions: Structured
JAM CELLULAR
Front Street, St Phillipsburg, St Maarten
Tel: 707-2700, sales@jamcellular.com
October 20, 2020
Dear Mr Mouse,
As a valued customer JamCellular would like to reward your loyalty
with this special offer.
Bonus: Free calls at weekend to other Jam Cellular users.
Bonus: Unlimited text on weekdays.
Bonus: Huge 500MB allowance per day.
Please phone our sales team from 8:00AM−8:00PM by dialling 7912386.
We look forward to hearing from you.
Yours Sincerely,
Michelle Ollivierre
Sales Manager
1)
The Technical Services Manager wants to modify the document shown above for use as a primary document for mail merging.
a)
The manager wants to ensure that the formatting of the document is correct. State what formatting now exists for
each part of the document specified:
i) the justification used for the title [1]
ii) the formatting applied to the text ‘Jam Cellular users’ [1]
b) In order to enhance document readiness, a spellcheck is to be done.
i) Explain why this is good practice. [2]
ii) Outline how the appropriate features may be used to ensure that the document is free of spelling and
grammatical errors. [2]
c)
The company’s logo, stored on a USB flash drive, is to be inserted in the header. The logo image should be
positioned to the right. Outline the steps required to do this. [4]
d) The document is to be used as a basis for a bulk mailing using a mail merge so that each customer receives
a personal letter. Explain what mail merge is, what additional files will be needed and describe the general
procedure for creating a bulk mailing.
[10]
Total 20 marks
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6
By the end of this chapter
you should be able to:
Mastering web page
design
The ability to plan, design, create, publish and maintain an effective web page is
a highly sought-after skill. There are many specialist website creation programs
available, but to master the basic concepts of website creation a word processing
program is an ideal tool. To create an effective website you need to consider: the
reason for the website; the intended audience; and the number of pages and their
layout and content. Your website will need text, images and hyperlinks. In this
chapter, we will help you to master website creation and to use the available
features to create great-looking websites.
You will need to spend time practising these skills at the computer. Microsoft
Word is used for all examples in this chapter. All word processing programs,
including Microsoft Word and LibreOffice Writer, have similar features that allow
you to create and edit web pages. The explanations given in this chapter aim to give
you the broader skills to master any web creation program. We would encourage
you to experiment with and explore different web creation programs to widen
your understanding of the concepts given in this chapter.
✔✔ Plan a website structure and organisation of pages.
✔✔ Design and create simple pages.
✔✔ Insert hyperlinks into a web page.
✔✔ Evaluate a website for content accuracy, user-friendliness and effective display.
Mastering web page design
Planning a
website
Creating
web pages
Reasons for
the website
Inserting
content
Audience
Viewing in a
web browser
Number and
content of
pages
Layout of
pages
Adding
hyperlinks to
web pages
Link to another
web page
Link to place in
web page
Link to email
address
Testing a
website
Publishing
a website
Testing for
accuracy
Web hosting
and domain
names
Testing for
accuracy
Testing for
accuracy
Link to user file
In this chapter you will learn the required skills of web design by working carefully
through many Caribbean Travel Services’ worked examples, as well as producing
web pages for your own company’s website.
SeaMonkey Composer (seamonkey-project.org) and LibreOffice Writer
(libreoffice. org) are website creation programs that are free to download, install
and use. Wix and Weebly are two examples of free online Internet-based website
creation tools.
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Planning a website structure and
organisation of pages
The idea of a website was introduced in Chapter 3, Computer networks and
web technologies. A website is a collection of web pages created by companies,
organisations or individuals to share information. Web pages are stored in the
cloud and are viewed using a web browser program on an Internet-connected
device. Look back at Chapter 3 if you need to refresh your memory.
Figure 6.1 The Pan Macmillan Science Fiction
and Fantasy page is an example of a great user
interface design
Reasons for the website
ITQ 6.1
Suggest the primary purpose for
EACH of the following websites:
(a) www.cxc.org
(b) www.games.com
(c) www.foxnews.com
Web design is an art. As you surf the World Wide Web, take note of the wide
variety of web page designs. Before we start there are some important matters you
should consider if you are going to create an effective website. The first is: what is
the main purpose of the website?
Websites are created for lots of different reasons. Some reasons are:
• to entertain
• to educate and inform
• to persuade
• to sell goods and services
• to collect feedback
• to connect family and friends.
The website created by Caribbean Travel Services is primarily used
to provide information to passengers and potential clients for vehicle
rentals.
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1 • Computer
web
Fundamentals
page design
The intended audience
Intended audience ▶
The intended audience is the main group of persons that a website is designed to
target or appeal to. A website intended for business users (such as www.FedEx.
com) is likely to be very different from one such as www.rihanna-fenty.com, which
is intended to appeal to fans of international pop megastar Rihanna.
Website
Possible reason for creating website
Intended audience
fedex.com
To allow shippers to plan, ship and track their
packages
Individuals and organisations that require logistics
and shipping services
surveymonkey.com
To provide researchers with tools to conduct and
report on surveys
Researchers, individuals and organisations collecting
data using surveys
rihanna-fenty.com/
To provide fans with latest news, photos, videos and Fans of Rihanna (born Robyn Rihanna Fenty)
more concerning the pop star Rihanna
ITQ 6.2
Table 6.1 Websites with possible reasons they were created and their intended audiences
Suggest the intended audience for
EACH of the following websites:
(a) www.cxc.org
(b) www.games.com
(c) www.foxnews.com
The audience for the Caribbean Travel Services website includes a
wide range of passengers and clients of different ages and social
backgrounds. The website must provide information in a userfriendly, easy-to-access way to all viewers.
Number of web pages in a website
A large website may have hundreds or thousands of interlinked pages. Great care
will be needed to provide navigation features to allow users to quickly and easily
find the information they are looking for.
Our website will be a maximum of three pages.
The website created by Caribbean Travel Services has many pages,
with effective navigation links on every page.
Content of each web page on a website
Web page layout ▶
Viewers will be disappointed if they view a web page and it doesn’t contain the
information they were expecting. Website content may include, among other
things, text, images, animations, sounds, video clips and interactive content.
The content of your website will be guided by the main purpose for your website
that you established earlier. The layout of information on a page is important. If
you put too much content on a page it may become cluttered and difficult to view;
too little and it looks bare and simplistic. A balance of text and images is usually
effective.
Web page layout is the positioning and sizing of text and images on the web page.
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Productivity Tools
The Caribbean Travel Services website has a balance of page
content. Images are included where appropriate, for example
each vehicle information page includes an image of the vehicle.
Timetables for schedule routes include only a small CTS logo but use
tables to lay out the information on the page.
Layout of web pages on a website
Website theme ▶
It is good practice to establish a common theme for web pages in your website. One
popular layout is to include the organisation’s name, logo and navigation tools at
the top of every page. Using the same colours, fonts and navigation on every page
helps the user become familiar with your website.
A website theme is the use of common elements such as page layout, navigation
hyperlinks, colours and pictures on every web page.
Figure 6.2 depicts a generally accepted and widely used framework for large
corporate websites showing the placing of the major elements on the page.
Your website will have a much simpler layout. The organisation’s name and the
navigation features appear at the top of every page in the website.
Primary location for search, shopping carts
Link to home page
Logo or
identity
Calendar | A - Z Index
Search this site
Go
Lorem ipsum
Header
Lorem ipsum | Ipsum lorems | Ipsum lorems
Selected Tab Style
Lorem ipsum
Unselected Tab
Unselected Tab
Navigation and
search
Identity and titles
Navigation links
Tab navigation
Breadcrumb trail
Home page | Selection menu | Submenu
Ipsumna aingtbe
Local
navigation
Alternative right
location for scan
column
Oxhxtygbd sjdkll
Ipsumna aingtbe
Oxhxtygb dsjdkll
Common
location for
banner ads
Ntgjiv nsser
Search,
banner ads,
contact
information
Left scan
column
(optional)
Main content
column
∆ Last revised 2020
Footer
Company Name and address
Copyright © 2020, Company Name. All rights reserved. Tel number. Contact us about this site.
Right scan
column
(optional)
Last revised,
jump-to-top
button
Content
information,
copyrights,
dates
Figure 6.2 A possible page design and major page elements
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Designing and creating simple
pages
Web pages are written in special language called HyperText Markup Language
(HTML). The file extensions ‘.htm’ and ‘.html’ tell the operating system that these
documents are web pages. A web browser is used to view these file types.
Fortunately, we don’t have to learn the HTML language because we can use
website builders, website creation tools or content management systems (CMS) to
create the HTML for us.
Website creation programs such as Dreamweaver, Google Web Designer and
SeaMonkey Composer include many advanced features that allow users to create
feature-rich websites. Common word-processing programs also allow you to create
simple but effective websites like the one shown in Figure 6.3.
Figure 6.3 A personal website created in a word
processing program and viewed in a web browser
ITQ 6.3
Give TWO programs you might use
for web page creation.
ITQ 6.4
These tools are a good introduction to web page design that leads on to more
advanced CMSs like WordPress and Joomla, both of which are free and opensource tools for creating websites.
In addition to using the tools already mentioned, many small businesses rely on
the services of online website creation tools provided by various hosts, including:
Duda, GoDaddy, Google Sites, Sitey, Webs, Weebly and Wix.
Watch a video about
creating a web page in
a word processing
program. What ‘Save As’
file type should be used to create a
web page?
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Theory
Productivity Tools
To learn the concepts of web page
creation we can use a word processing
package that allows us to save our
document as a web page. We are already
familiar with using a word processing
program; we will use it to create our
web pages. Although Microsoft Word
and LibreOffice Writer are usually
‘WYSIWYG’ (What You See Is What You
Get) editors, when used as web page
design tools, the final web page (as
viewed in a browser) may be different
from what appears on the word
processing screen. Because of this, it is
recommended that you view your pages
in a browser before publishing them.
Figure 6.4 A personal website created online using
Google Sites and viewed in a web browser
WYSIWYG ▶
Publishing a website ▶
A WYSIWYG editor is a program that allows you to see what the end result will
look like while the interface or document is being created.
Publishing a website is to make it available so it can be viewed by anyone with
an Internet-connected device and a web browser program.
Inserting text in a web page
Opening a word processing program for creating a web page
You are going to create a web page for Caribbean Travel Services.
1 Open your word processing program.
2 Type ‘Caribbean Travel Services’ on the page that appears. If you save this document as usual using
the ‘Save’ option, it will be saved as a word processing document. We want to save the document as
a web page, a .html file.
3 To save the document as a web page look for a ‘Save As’ option. Try:
File > Save As
Figure 6.5 Dialogue for Save As
showing File Type to save a document
as a web page
4 Save your file as a web page (.htm, .html) file and give the file the name ‘your initials CTSindex’, e.g.
XXCTSindex.
5 Click the ‘X’ in the top right-hand corner of the window to close the program.
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Home page ▶
It is good practice to call a website’s first page the home page or index. Index is the
standard default name for a home page and allows web browsers to find the page
easily.
A home page is the starting page of a website; it usually contains navigation links
to the content of the website.
Now try to apply what you have learnt to your own company.
ACTIVITY 6.1 Creating a home web page for your company
Use the company you created in earlier activities or use St Luago Fashion.
1 Create a web page related to your company. Add the company name to the document.
2 Save the document as a web page (.html) with the name ‘your initials company
initials index’, e.g. XXSLFindex.
ITQ 6.5
What TWO file extensions indicate
that the file is a web page?
Adding content to a web page
That was a good start and now we need to add content to our web page.
Editing text on a web page
1 Open your word processing program.
2 To open a saved document look for an ‘Open’ option. Try:
File > Open
3 Browse to the folder containing your file XXCTSindex.
4 Open the file; you see ‘Caribbean Travel Services’.
5 Continue your document and use your word processing skills to
create the following document.
Caribbean Travel Services
Contact Us: info@Caribbeantravelservices.com
Caribbean Travel Services Rental Enquiry Form
Caribbean Travel Services are delighted to provide scheduled bus service and
luxury rentals throughout the Caribbean.
We have an extensive fleet of vehicles.
Our buses run on scheduled routes.
Our luxury coaches, minibuses and cars are available with one of our
experienced drivers or self-drive.
Hyperlink to Destinations
Hyperlink to Vehicle
Data to be input to the CTSindex file example.
6 Save your file as you did before; look for a ‘Save’ option. Try:
File > Save
Note that this time we are not required to give the file a name; it
already has a name.
7 Click the ‘X’ in the top right-hand corner to close the program.
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Now try to apply what you have learnt to your own company.
ACTIVITY 6.2 Editing text on a web page for your company
Use the company you created in earlier activities or use St Luago Fashion.
1 Open the document you created in the earlier activity, e.g. XXSLFindex.
2 Add information to the document.
3 Save the document and close.
Viewing web page in a web browser
ITQ 6.6
Suggest a reason for test viewing
your web page in a web browser.
Having created a web page, it is a good idea to view the page to see what it really
looks like. Viewing the page in a web browser will allow you to see what your
intended audience will see when they view your pages on the World Wide Web.
Viewing your web page in a web browser
1 Open your web browser program.
2 Look to see if there is an icon for a web-browsing program like Internet Explorer, Edge, Firefox,
Chrome or Safari on a Mac computer or on the desktop. If not try the Start button and look for
Edge, Internet Explorer, Chrome or Firefox. Otherwise your teacher will tell you how to start the
web-browsing program.
3 Open the file you created in the earlier activity XXCTSindex. In most web browsers. Try:
File > Open
4 Your document should be displayed in the browser window.
5 Click the ‘X’ in the top right-hand corner to close the web-browsing program.
Some web browsers, like Edge and Chrome, don’t have a File > Open option. You can always open
your web page using this alternative method.
1 Open a File Explorer program – look to see if there is an icon for File Explorer on the desktop. If
not try:
Start button > File Explorer
Otherwise your teacher will tell you how to start the File Explorer program.
2 Browse to the folder containing your web page.
3 Double-click on the .html or .htm file.
Congratulations – you have created and viewed your first web page!
Now try to apply what you have learnt to your own company.
ACTIVITY 6.3 Editing text on a web page for your company
Use the company you created in earlier activities or use St Luago Fashion.
1 Open the document you created in the earlier activity, e.g. XXSLFindex.
2 Add information to the document.
3 Check the web page by viewing in a web browser.
4 Save the document and close.
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Did the page display correctly? Were you able to read all the text correctly? If not,
you should go back and ensure that you completed all the steps correctly.
ITQ 6.7
Watch this video about
basic web browsing.
Name three web
browsers.
Creating more web pages
Your website is going to need another two web pages. The next activity will create
these pages.
Creating more web pages
Create another web page and include the text below.
Caribbean Travel Services
Destinations
> Town A
> Town B
> Town C
> Town D
Replace Towns A–D with your own destinations.
Add at least 25 additional destinations.
Back to top of page
Hyperlink to Homepage
Hyperlink to Vehicle
Data to be input to the Destinations file.
2 As in the previous activity, save your file as a web page (.htm, .html) file and give the file the name
‘your initials destinations’, e.g. XXdestinations.
3 Check that this web page displays correctly by viewing it in a web browser as before.
4 Now create the final web page for your website.
Caribbean Travel Services
Vehicles
> 52-seater luxury coach
> 12-seater electric
> 25-seater with cycle carrier
> 25-seater minibus
Add your own vehicles to this list
Hyperlink to Vehicle
Hyperlink to Homepage
Data to be input to the Vehicles file.
5 Save your file as a web page (.htm, .html) file and give the file the name ‘your initials vehicles’,
e.g. XXvehicles.
6 Check this web page displays correctly by viewing it in a web browser as before.
7 Click the ‘X’ in the top right-hand corner to close the program.
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Now try to apply what you have learnt to your own company.
ACTIVITY 6.4 Creating more web pages for your company
Use the company you created in earlier activities or use St Luago Fashion.
1 Create two more pages. If you are using St Luago Fashion, your pages could
include Wedding Dresses and Mother of the Bride Dresses.
2 Check the web pages by viewing in a web browser.
3 Save the documents and close.
You have created your second and third web pages; we hope you are getting the
hang of it.
You should now have three web pages: XXCTSindex.html, XXdestinations.
html and XXvehicles.html.
Inserting graphics and pictures into a web
page
A major part of web design is the imagery you use. Images should be carefully
selected and placed on the page in a way that will help viewers understand the
information on the web page. An image can:
• help explain what the text on the page is about
• attract the reader’s attention and encourage them to read the accompanying text
• set an emotion/mood.
When selecting and using images, you should be aware that each image is owned
by someone and as such may be copyrighted. If the image is copyrighted, you will
require the owner’s permission to use it on your website.
Figure 6.6 Website home page created in this chapter viewed in a web browser
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To insert a picture, look for an ‘Insert’ option or an ‘Insert picture’ option. Try:
Insert > Picture/Image
ITQ 6.8
Suggest why care should be taken
if you include a picture in your
web page when you found the
picture online.
Figure 6.7 Inserting an image
Inserting images in a web page
1 Open your word processing program.
2 Open the web page XXCTSindex.
3 To insert a picture into the web page, look for ‘Picture’. Try:
Insert > Picture
The picture you choose should be copyright-free. Your teacher may provide a set of suitable
pictures for you to choose from.
Caribbean Travel Services
Contact Us: info@Caribbeantravelservices.com
Caribbean Travel Services Rental Enquiry Form
<< insert your picture here >>
……
……
Hyperlink to Destinations
Hyperlink to Vehicles
Positioning an image on the web page
4 Modify the picture’s size as necessary by using the handles that appear when the picture is
selected.
Some website creation programs insist that you provide alternative text if your picture cannot
be displayed. This should be a simple description of the picture, e.g. ‘Caribbean Travel Services
Bus 301’.
5
6
7
8
To delete a picture select the picture and press the Delete key on the keyboard.
Save your file.
Check that this web page displays correctly by viewing it in a web browser as before.
Click the ‘X’ in the top right-hand corner to close the program.
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Now try to apply what you have learnt to your own company.
ACTIVITY 6.5 Inserting images in web pages for your company
Use the company you created in earlier activities or use St Luago Fashion.
1 Add images to your web pages.
2 Check the web pages by viewing them in a web browser.
3 Save the documents and close.
Wrapping text with an image on a web page
The syllabus requires that you learn how to ‘wrap text with image’, that is, to ‘wrap’
text around an image. This is coming to be seen as poor practice because web pages
are now increasingly viewed on small-screen devices such as smartphones, and
using ‘wrap text with image’ may not allow the image to be displayed well on a
small screen. If you must wrap text with an image, use a simple table. For example:
ITQ 6.9
Give ONE reason why wrapping
text with an image is becoming
unpopular.
Insert the text here
Insert the image here
View your web page on a small screen device to see if the effect is what you require.
Inserting hyperlinks into a web
page
Hyperlinks allow the author of a website to join one web page to others. They also
allow the viewer of the web page to access external resources. Recall that a hyperlink
is part of a web page; it can be in the form of text or an image that when selected
and clicked with the mouse displays another web page document (or resource). The
person viewing a page can simply click on a hyperlink to view the linked content.
Figure 6.8 Viewing a website in a web
browser and clicking on a hyperlink
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The use of hyperlinks is not restricted to jumping to another web page, although
this is the most common use of hyperlinks. Look at the ‘Insert Hyperlink’ window
in Figure 6.9 and notice that you can link to: an existing web page, a place in the
current document (‘This document’), an email address or a user-created document
file.
Figure 6.9 The options for inserting hyperlinks
ITQ 6.10
Suggest a reason why a web
page should contain at least one
hyperlink.
Creating a hyperlink to another web page
The following activities will develop your ability to insert hyperlinks into a
document. You will use the application’s ‘Insert Hyperlink’ feature to:
• link selected text or an image to another web page
• link selected text or an image to another place in the document
• link to an email address
• link to a user-created document file.
Once correctly completed, the appearance of the hyperlinked text will change; it
will be blue in colour and will be underlined.
To insert a hyperlink into a web page, look for ‘Hyperlink’ or ‘Insert Hyperlink’.
Try:
Insert > Hyperlink
ITQ 6.11
Figure 6.10 Inserting a hyperlink
Watch a video giving
some simple Internet
safety information.
What does the padlock
and https mean in a web browser?
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Adding hyperlinks to a web page
1 Open your web page XXCTSindex.
2 To convert the text ‘Hyperlink to Destinations’ to a hyperlink,
select the words ‘Hyperlink to Destinations’ with the cursor.
3 Find the file to link to. Try:
Insert > Link > Link > Existing File
4 Browse to find the file and select the .html file XXdestinations.
html as the target web page.
5 Click OK to create the hyperlink.
6 Now convert the text ‘Hyperlink to Vehicles’ to a hyperlink by
repeating the above steps, but this time select the XXvehicles.
html file.
7 Save your file.
8 Click the ‘X’ in the top right-hand corner to close the program.
9 Check this web page displays correctly by viewing it in a web
browser.
Now try to apply what you have learnt to your own company.
ACTIVITY 6.6 Adding hyperlinks to a web page for your company
Use the company you created in earlier activities or use St Luago Fashion.
1 Add hyperlinks to your index (home) web page.
2 Save the document and close.
3 Check the web pages by viewing in a web browser.
Having added hyperlinks to the index page of the CTS website, you need to continue
and add appropriate hyperlinks to the other two pages: XXdestinations.html
and XXvehicles.html. The process is the same.
Adding hyperlinks to the Destinations and Vehicles pages
1 Repeat the actions in the previous activity to add hyperlinks to
the Destinations and Vehicles web pages.
2 Click the ‘X’ in the top right-hand corner to close the program.
3 The complete website is now available, so you must check all the
hyperlinks on all the pages. In a web browser, navigate around
the website using all hyperlinks and check they all work.
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Now try to apply what you have learnt to your own company.
ACTIVITY 6.7 Adding hyperlinks to all web pages for your company
Use the company you created in earlier activities or use St Luago Fashion.
1 Add hyperlinks to the remaining web pages that make up your website.
2 Save the documents and close.
3 Check the web pages and hyperlinks by viewing in a web browser.
ITQ 6.12
Why is it important to check
hyperlinks in a web browser when
they have been created?
Creating a hyperlink to a location within the
web page
Sometimes the information that you present on a web page is lengthy and requires
the viewer to scroll down the page. Your Destinations web page is an example of
this, as all the destinations cannot be displayed on a typical monitor screen. That is
why we included the text ‘Back to top of page’.
Adding hyperlinks to a place in a document
1 To create a hyperlink to a location within a web page look on the
hyperlink dialog for ‘Place in this Document’ or ‘Document’. Try:
Insert > Hyperlink > Place in this Document
Figure 6.11 Inserting a hyperlink to a location within the web page
2 In the XXdestinations web page convert the text ‘Back to top of
page’ to a hyperlink to the top of the page.
Creating a hyperlink to an email address
You should be expert at adding hyperlinks so now try to add a hyperlink that will
send an email to you when clicked. Remember that email addresses are always in
the same form, for example: info@Caribbeantravelservices.com.
In the XXCTSindex web page, convert the text ‘Contact Us’ to a hyperlink for
an email.
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Creating a hyperlink to a user-created file
Creating a hyperlink to a user-created document
Finally, you might want to create a hyperlink to a file that you have
created. The process is similar. In Chapter 5 you created a fillable
form to enquire about coach rental, XXenquiry. You will now link to
this document.
1 Open your web page XXCTSindex in a word-processing program.
2 Select the words ‘Caribbean Travel Services Rental Enquiry
Form’ to convert the text to a hyperlink. Try:
Insert > Hyperlink > Existing File or Web Page
3
4
5
6
7
Browse to and select the document XXenquiry as the target file.
Click ‘OK’ to create the hyperlink.
Save your file.
Click the ‘X’ in the top right-hand corner to close the program.
Check that this web page displays correctly by viewing it in a
web browser. When you click on the hyperlink the Caribbean
Travel Services Rental Enquiry Form should open.
Now try to apply what you have learnt to your own company.
ACTIVITY 6.8 Creating a hyperlink to a user-created document for your company
Use the company you created in earlier activities or use St Luago Fashion.
1 On the index web page, add a hyperlink that links to the fillable form you created for
your company in Chapter 5.
2 Save the documents and close.
3 Check the web pages by viewing in a web browser.
ITQ 6.13
What type of hyperlink is most
applicable for the ‘Contact Us’ text
on a web page?
Testing and evaluating a website
for accuracy, user-friendliness and
effective display
Persons will use a wide variety of devices from smartphones to desktop computers
to view your website. These devices will have different versions of various web
browser programs. In addition to ensuring that all hyperlinks work as expected,
you need to make sure that your website is displayed effectively and in a userfriendly way on all devices that viewers might use.
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Considerations for publishing a website
It is now time to consider uploading your website onto the World Wide Web. To
make a website available on the WWW, you will need:
• the website’s content (all the .html files and the associated images)
• a domain name
• a web-hosting service.
Hosting ▶
ITQ 6.14
State the THREE components
needed for publishing a website.
Hosting is the act of making a website available on the World Wide Web.
Many companies provide services to allow you to publish your website to the
WWW. These include Duda, GoDaddy, Google Sites, Sitey, Webs, Weebly and Wix.
Web-hosting companies offer a full range of services that covers registering your
domain name, hosting your website and providing email addresses associated with
your domain name. The costs of these services vary considerably depending on
the size of your website, the expected number of viewers visiting the website, the
number of company email addresses that you may want, and whether you want
additional services such as a shopping cart and payment facilities.
Once you have chosen a host provider you will be able to upload your files and
publish your site. Your web-hosting company will provide you with instructions on
how to upload your files. Once this is done, your website will be available to
billions of viewers on the World Wide Web within a few minutes.
Verifying that all hyperlinks work correctly
The last thing that visitors to your site want is to click on a hyperlink that leads
them nowhere, or worse, to a totally unintended place. Whatever the cause,
broken links are frustrating errors that need to be addressed immediately. A broken
link could prevent a website user doing what they came to the site to do. In order
to provide the user with an effective and enjoyable experience, it is good practice
to test all links ahead of publishing a website.
It can be useful to use a table to create a site map to ensure that all hyperlinks
are checked. An example from the testing of the Caribbean Travel Services website
is given in Table 6.2.
Web page
Hyperlink
Link works
Yes
Home page
No
Destinations page
Vehicles page
Contact Us
Caribbean Travel Brochure
Destinations page
Home page
Vehicles page
Back to top of page
Vehicles page
Home page
Destinations page
Table 6.2 Grid for a table for testing hyperlinks in a website
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Open each web page listed in the web page column in the table. Test the hyperlinks
listed in column 2 and record whether the link works (‘Yes’) or not (‘No’) by placing
a tick under the applicable column.
Testing hyperlinks in a website
Open your web page XXCTSindex in a web browser.
Test each hyperlink on the web page.
Open the XXvehicles web page and test all hyperlinks.
Repeat for all remaining web pages in the website.
Correct any problem(s) that may exist by editing the source files
(the .html files), then retest the affected link(s).
6 Save the files if necessary and click the ‘X’ in the top right-hand
corner to close the program.
1
2
3
4
5
Now try to apply what you have learnt to your own company.
ACTIVITY 6.9 Testing all hyperlinks in your company’s website
Use the company you created in earlier activities or use St Luago Fashion.
1 Test all hyperlinks in the website by viewing in a web browser and correct any errors.
2 Save the documents and close the web browser.
Using a test audience
Before publishing a website, it is important that you ensure that:
• the content is complete, accurate and up to date
• the navigation and hyperlinks work correctly
• the pages display effectively on a range of devices and platforms.
ITQ 6.15
In addition to Chrome and Edge,
name THREE other web browsers
that you could use to test a
website.
Proofreading is checking for errors in a document or web page.
Proofreading your content ensures completeness, accuracy and currency.
Content should be proofread by a test audience made up of more than one person
to ensure that it is complete, free of errors and up to date. Considering that your
website is going to be available on the World Wide Web, it is possible that you may
have millions of viewers. To ensure that each of these viewers has a good user
experience, it is recommended that you use your test audience to test your website
using a selection of web browsers and hardware. This testing will help you review:
• how the website looks if the viewer is using an older/newer version of your
web browser
• how the website looks if the viewer is using a different browser
• how the website looks when viewed on a tablet or smart mobile phone
• how the website looks to the visually impaired or colour-blind.
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Verifying that all content on a website is up
to date
Website maintenance is an integral part of updating and keeping your site working
properly. When properly maintained a website will:
• be free of broken hyperlinks
• provide current and relevant content to its users
• have an information section at the bottom showing the date the page was last
updated and the details of the authors or organisation.
It is important that you regularly check and update your website. Information can
soon become out of date.
Every six months Caribbean Travel Services updates its advertising
brochure and prints two thousand for distribution to depots, garages
and libraries. The website must be updated alongside the production
of the new brochure so that online viewers can also see and
download the very latest brochure.
Summary
• When creating a website, always consider the reasons for
the website and the intended audience.
• The number of web pages desired, the content of each
page and the layout of the web pages are important
aspects of web page design.
• Choosing an appropriate design for a page is an important
first step in the web page design process.
• Word processing programs can be used as simple web page
creation tools.
• Hyperlinks may be text or an image which links to another
web page, a location within the web page, an email
address or user-created files.
• When testing a website, testers should use a variety of web
browsers and devices to verify that all the hyperlinks work
and that pages display correctly.
• To make a website available on the web, designers should
ensure they have a domain name and a hosting service so
the files can be uploaded to the hosting company’s server.
• A web page may include text, graphics and hyperlinks.
Answers to ITQs
6.1 The cxc.org website has been designed to provide
information about study and examinations to students
and teachers. The main purpose of games.com is to
provide interactive online games but it also includes
product adverts. The foxnews.com website’s main
purpose is the dissemination of current news stories.
6.2 The intended audience for www.cxc.org is students
and teachers. For games.com the intended audience is
young game players. The foxnews.com website has a
wide audience of persons interested in American and
international news.
6.3 There are many programs that can be used for web
page creation. Word processors such as Microsoft Word
and LibreOffice Writer have features to create web
pages. Specialist web page creation programs include
SeaMonkey, Composer and Dreamweaver. You might
also choose an online website builder tool such as Wix,
GoDaddy or Weebly.
6.4 Web pages have the file extension .htm or .html.
6.5 The two file extensions that indicate that the file is a
web page are .htm and .html.
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6.6 Among the most popular web browsers are: Edge,
Firefox, Safari, Chrome, Internet Explorer.
6.7 It is important to view any web pages you create in a
web browser to check that they are displayed as you
anticipated.
6.8 When copying pictures online you should always check
whether they are copyrighted. Many images online
are copyrighted but personal and educational use
is allowed. Microsoft clipart images can be used for
personal and educational use.
6.9 As screens become smaller, particularly on smartphones,
wrapping text so that it appears alongside an image is
becoming unpopular in web page design.
6.10 A web page needs at least one hyperlink to allow
viewers to move away from that page. Otherwise the
viewer is left viewing the page with no way to move on.
6.11 The padlock symbol and https as part of a web page’s
URL indicate that the site has an added level of security
to keep your personal data safe.
6.12 You should always test hyperlinks thoroughly in a web
browser to ensure that they function correctly. Viewers
become frustrated if hyperlinks don’t function properly.
6.13 There are two options for the hyperlink on the text
‘Contact Us’. The hyperlink may be to an email address
so the viewer can directly email the organisation. The
second option is that the hyperlink leads to another
web page which contains all the contact information.
6.14 To publish a website you will need: all the website’s
content (all the .html files and the associated images), a
domain name and a web-hosting service.
6.15 Chrome and Edge are popular web browsers but users
may prefer Internet Explorer, Safari, Firefox or Opera.
Examination-style questions: Multiple Choice
1)
When planning a website, the _______________ is LEAST
important.
A) intended audience
B) number of hyperlinks
C) layout of the web pages
D) content of each web page
2)
All of the following are tasks that are used to develop a
simple web page EXCEPT:
A) inserting text and graphics
B) uploading page to test server
C) creating a home page with hyperlink
D) choosing an appropriate design for the page
3)
A hyperlink is used to:
A) link one web page to your computer
B) link a web browser to a web page
C) link one web page to another web page
D) link the World Wide Web to your computer
4)
Which of the following is NOT a target for a hyperlink?
A) a web page
B) an anchor point within a web page
C) an email message
D) a web browser
5)
Which components are necessary to make a website
available on the WWW?
I
web host
II
domain name
III
web browser
IV web pages
A) I, II and III only
B) I, II and IV only
C) II, III and IV only
D) IV only
Questions 6–7 are based on the stimulus material below.
Resources
Download the resources by clicking on any of the images below.
Workbook
Worksheets
Model
Answers
The entire package of resources may be downloaded from www.myresourzeweb/pkg
Please email webmaster@myresourzeweb.net if you experience any technical issues.
6)
How many hyperlinks are displayed on the web page?
A) 3
B) 4
C) 5
D) 6
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7)
How many different types of hyperlink targets are
displayed on the web page?
A) 2
B) 3
C) 4
D) 5
Questions 8–10 are based on the stimulus material below.
Jonathon, the web developer at Possibility High School, just
completed the development of the school’s new website
using an online tool.
8)
All the teachers in the Mathematics and Science
Departments were asked to interact with the website
for one month. The teachers were most likely operating
in a role as:
A) web hosts
B) test users
C) content updaters
D) user interface designers
9)
Two teachers reported that they experienced difficulty
in navigating through the site. This navigation issue
will MOST LIKELY affect the ________________ of the
website.
A) accuracy
B) content
C) effective display
D) user-friendliness
10) Which of the following processes would help to verify
that all content is up to date?
I
using a test audience
II
checking all names and dates
III
verifying that all the hyperlinks work correctly
A) I and II only
B) I and III only
C) II and III only
D) I, II and III
Examination-style questions: Structured
1)
Your uncle wants to create simple web pages, using a variety of design features, for his new bike repair business. He has
no knowledge of web page design and has come to you for assistance.
a)
Outline THREE things he should consider during the planning stage of the project and explain the importance of
each item in the web page design process. [6]
b)
c)
Your uncle plans to include a hyperlink to another website from his home page.
i) State what a hyperlink is. ii) Name TWO OTHER targets a hyperlink could link to. iii) Name TWO OTHER types of content that could be included on a page. iv) Outline a strategy that he could use to ensure that the hyperlinks work for the life of the website.
A test audience was used to evaluate the website for accuracy and effective display.
i) What is a test audience?
ii) Name FIVE OTHER aspects of the website that the test audience could evaluate. [1]
[2]
[2]
[3]
[1]
[5]
Total 20 marks
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By the end of this chapter
you should be able to:
Mastering spreadsheets
Spreadsheets are one of the main applications used for financial management on
personal computers worldwide. A spreadsheet is an important tool for performing
automatic calculations and is an electronic replacement for the traditional financial
tools: the accountant’s ledger, pencil and calculator. Spreadsheets carry out
calculations ranging from large amounts of data, as in a company’s annual account,
to small-scale personal use, as in a family budget. In this chapter, we will help
you to master spreadsheets and use their many features to create effective financial
workbooks. You will learn to enter and format labels, values and formulae, and to
sort, filter and display data as charts and graphs.
You will need to spend time practising these skills at the computer. Microsoft Excel
is used for all examples in this chapter. All spreadsheet programs, including Microsoft
Excel and LibreOffice Calc, have similar features and the explanations given in this
chapter aim to give you the broader skills to master any spreadsheet program. We
would encourage you to experiment with and explore different spreadsheet programs
to widen your understanding of the concepts given in this chapter.
✔✔ Explain the purpose of a spreadsheet.
✔✔ Use appropriate terminologies associated with spreadsheets.
✔✔ Use basic predefined functions.
✔✔ Create advanced arithmetic formulae.
✔✔ Replicate (copy) formulae to other cells.
✔✔ Manipulate rows and columns.
✔✔ Manipulate data in a spreadsheet.
✔✔ Perform charting operations.
✔✔ Manipulate one or more worksheets.
Mastering web page design
The
purpose of
spreadsheets
Spreadsheet
terminology
Using predefined
spreadsheet
functions
General
functions
Count functions
Lookup
functions
PMT and IF
functions
Working with
spreadsheets
Replicating
formulae
Creating
arithmetic
formulae
Relative
addressing
Absolute
addressing
Move,
copy,
delete
Rows and
columns
Manipulating
data
Formatting
data
Performing
charting
operations
Manipulating
worksheets
Chart
types
Sorting data
Filtering data
Labelling
charts
Pivot tables
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In this chapter you will learn how to use the required functions and features
of a spreadsheet mainly by working carefully through many worked examples,
with data relating to Caribbean Travel Services.
The LibreOffice Calc spreadsheet program is free to download, install and use
from LibreOffice.org. Google Sheets and Excel online are both free-to-use Internetbased spreadsheets.
The purpose of spreadsheets
Spreadsheet ▶
A spreadsheet is basically an automatic calculation tool.
A spreadsheet is a computer program that allows the entry, automatic calculation
and storage of data in the form of tables. A single spreadsheet workbook can contain
a number of related worksheets, just like an accountant’s ledger can contain many
pages.
Some advantages of using a spreadsheet (as compared to traditional methods
such as ledger and calculator) include the ability to:
• perform error-free automatic calculation and recalculation every time a
worksheet is changed
• format the contents of a worksheet into a professional-looking document
• move or copy sections of the worksheet to another area of the worksheet or to
another worksheet
ITQ 7.1
What traditional tools does a
spreadsheet replace?
• insert or delete rows or columns at any position in the worksheet
• sort the entries in a worksheet ready for printing
• select entries to be displayed using powerful filtering functionality
• create graphs and charts from the data
• link data in two or more worksheets.
The most important feature of a spreadsheet is that it performs automatic
calculations on data in a tabular form.
A
B
C
D
2
Price per Km
Kms covered
Cost
3
2.5
32
=B3*C3
1
4
Table 7.1 Example of an automatic calculation in a spreadsheet program
A prospective customer has asked what the total cost would be if
they rented a coach from Caribbean Travel Services’. The cost is
the Price per Km (kilometre) multiplied by the Kms covered, so we
multiply the value in cell B3 (2.5) by the value in cell C3 (32). This
gives: Cost = 2.5 * 32 (= B3 * C3). The spreadsheet automatically
performs the calculation, so the cost, 80, will be shown in cell D3.
If we change the value in B3 or C3 because a different
coach was used or a detour was taken, the cost is automatically
recalculated.
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Using appropriate terminology
associated with spreadsheets
You need to be familiar with some of the key ideas and terms associated with all
spreadsheet programs including Microsoft Excel and LibreOffice Calc.
Term
Definition
Workbook
A single spreadsheet file. A spreadsheet workbook is made up of one or more
worksheets.
Worksheet
A worksheet is a single page of a workbook and is made up of a grid of cells,
a table. This grid is made up of horizontal rows and vertical columns.
Columns are named A, B, C …, Y, Z, AA, AB, AC, etc.
Rows are numbered 1, 2, 3, 4, etc.
Cell
A cell is the intersection of a column and a row.
Cell address
The cell address is the column letter and the row number combination that
can be used to uniquely identify a cell. Examples of a cell address are B5, C4
and AD324 .
NOTE: Another term for ‘cell address’ is ‘cell reference’. We use ‘cell address’
for clarity.
Cell range
The cell range is a rectangle of selected cells. Examples of cell ranges are
C9:C24, B5:E17 and D14:G22.
Table 7.2 Spreadsheet terminology
Figure 7.1 Worksheet showing cell range
B5:E17 selected
ITQ 7.2
B28:D36 is an example of what in a
worksheet?
ITQ 7.3
What is the correct term for
‘=C8+C9’?
Label ▶
Value ▶
Formula ▶
Function ▶
Cells can contain three types of data. These are illustrated in Figure 7.2.
A label is simple text, for example ‘Number of Passengers’ or ‘Fare’.
A value is numeric data, for example 34, $52 or 27.85.
A formula is an automatic calculation, for example =A5*A6. This means: take the
value in cell A5, multiply it by the contents of cell A6, and put the answer in this cell.
A function is a standard routine used to perform a mathematical task.
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You will already be familiar with
many functions from your studies in
mathematics such as average, sum, max
and min. A wide range of functions is
available in modern spreadsheets, for
example the ‘PMT’ function, which
calculates the payment required to pay
off a loan or investment over a specified
time period.
Let’s get started with some simple
spreadsheet examples.
Figure 7.2 Cell B2 is an example of a label, cell B3
is an example of a value cell, D3 is an example of a
formula and cell C5 is an example of the SUM function
in a formula
Opening a spreadsheet program
You have been tasked with putting together a spreadsheet that calculates the total cost of hiring a coach from Caribbean
Travel Services to assist the Customer Services team in responding quickly to cost queries from new customers.
1 Look to see if there is an icon for a spreadsheet program on the desktop. If not, click the Start button and try:
Microsoft Office > Microsoft Excel
Otherwise your teacher will tell you how to start the spreadsheet program. When a spreadsheet program starts it
displays a grid or table of values. Each cell in the grid is identified by a cell address.
2 Look at Figure 7.3 and type the values and formula into your worksheet exactly as they are shown.
A
B
C
D
1
A
B
C
D
1
2
Price per
Km
Kms
covered
Cost
2
Price per
Km
Kms
covered
Cost
3
2.5
3.2
=B3*C3
3
2.5
3.2
8
4
4
Figure 7.3 Data to be input for the simple formula example.
Figure 7.4 The results should look like the ones shown above.
3 Try changing the values for Price per Km and Kms covered and see how the Cost value is automatically
updated.
4 To complete your School Based Assessment you need to provide evidence of the formula you have used.
To display a formula, instead of the result, choose a ‘Show Formula’ option. Try:
Formulas > Show Formula
5 To revert to showing the results of the formula, repeat:
Formulas > Show Formula
6 To save the document look for a ‘Save’ option. Try:
File > Save
7 You need to give the file a name: ‘your initials kmscosts’, e.g. XXkmscosts.
8 Click the ‘X’ in the top-right corner of the window to close the program.
NOTE: Almost all programs can be closed by clicking the ‘X’ in the top-right corner
of the window.
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Now try to apply what you have learnt to your own company.
ACTIVITY 7.1 Opening a spreadsheet program and creating a workbook for your company
Use the company you created in earlier activities or use St Luago Fashion.
1 Open your preferred spreadsheet program.
2 Add data for your company. For example, material pattern and cost per metre
stocked by St Luago Fashion.
A
B
C
D
Metres of fabric Price per metre
Cost
15
=C3*B3
4.5
E
Figure 7.5 Example data to be input for the simple formula example
3
4
Save the workbook. You need to give a meaningful file name, for
example ‘your initials fabriccosts’, e.g. XXfabriccosts.
Click the ‘X’ to close the program.
Using basic predefined functions
ITQ 7.4
Watch a video about
using cells. What is the
difference between
clearing cells and
deleting cells?
ITQ 7.5
What function returns the value of
a number of cells added up?
Modern spreadsheet programs have hundreds of predefined functions ready for
you to use. They range from simple (sum, average, date …) to very complex
calculations. Whatever the calculation you want to perform there is probably a
function to help you.
The basic functions include:
Function name
Function definition
SUM function
Adds up the values in a cell range. For example =SUM(B5:C8) adds up
the values in cells: B5 + B6 + B7 + B8 + C5 + C6 + C7 + C8
AVERAGE function
Finds the mean of values in a cell range. For example
=AVERAGE(B5:C6) calculates the average of the values in the specified
cells: (B5 + B6 + C5 + C6)/4
DATE function
Takes the values for the year, month and day and combines them to
form a date. For example, if cell B2 contains 2019, B3 contains 3 and
B4 contains 12 then =DATE(B2, B3, B4) returns 12/3/2019
MAX function
Finds the largest value in a cell range. For example =MAX(B5:C6)
MIN function
Finds the smallest value in a cell range. For example =MIN(B5:C6)
Table 7.3 Predefined functions in spreadsheet programs
More useful date functions are
TODAY() which gives the current date
and
NOW() which gives the current date and time.
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Using predefined functions: SUM, AVERAGE,
MAX, MIN and DATE
Spreadsheets programs include a large range of mathematical and date functions
that you will recognise, including ROUNDUP and ROUNDDOWN. Take some time
to look at the functions available in the spreadsheet program you are using.
Using predefined functions SUM, AVERAGE, MAX, MIN and DATE in a spreadsheet program
You have been asked by management to report on how many kilometres Caribbean Travel Services’ bus fleet
travels in a day.
1 Open your spreadsheet program.
2 Look at Figure 7.6 and type the values and formulae into your worksheet exactly as they are shown.
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
1
2
Day
Month
Year
3
3
5
2020
4
5
Bus ID
Kilometres
6
B 301
25467
7
B 302
18834
Total Kms covered
=SUM(C6:C13)
8
B 403
32481
Average Kms
=AVERAGE(C6:C13)
9
B 408
6735
Most Kms
=MAX(C6:C13)
10
B 204
28419
Least Kms
=MIN(C6:C13)
11
B 202
12455
12
B 105
9341
Today is
=DATE(E3,D3,C3)
13
B 101
18984
14
Figure 7.6 Data to be input for the predefined functions activity
The results should look like the ones shown
in Figure 7.7.
Figure 7.7 Expected results for the simple predefined
functions activity
3 To save the document look for a ‘Save’ option. Try:
File > Save
4 You need to give the file a name: ‘your initials definedfunctions’, e.g. XXdefinedfunctions.
5 Click the ‘X’ in the top-right corner of the window to close the program.
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Using predefined functions: COUNT, COUNTA
and COUNTIF
ITQ 7.6
What spreadsheet function would
you use to find the average
of a column of numbers in a
worksheet?
The COUNT function can be useful. For example, a teacher might want to count
how many students have been given a mark for their SBA assignment. They may
then want to count the number who have achieved a mark of greater than 60; this
uses the COUNTIF function.
The COUNT function returns the number of cells that contain a value or formula
in a cell range. The COUNT function does not count cells that contain labels (text).
In a worksheet not all the cells in a cell range need to contain values. Remember
cells can contain values (numbers), labels (text) or formulae (calculations).
The COUNTA function returns the number of non-blank cells in a cell range. For
example, in the worksheet below =COUNTA(B2:E6) would result in 18.
The COUNTIF function returns the number of cells in a cell range that contain
a value that meets a condition. For example, in the worksheet (Figure 7.6) below
=COUNTIF(C3:D6,">30") would result in 1.
=COUNTIF(C3:E6,">30") would result in 3.
COUNT ▶
COUNTA ▶
COUNTIF ▶
ITQ 7.7
What is the difference between
the COUNT and COUNTA
predefined functions?
Using predefined functions: COUNT, COUNTA and COUNTIF in a spreadsheet program
1 Open your spreadsheet program.
2 Look at Figure 7.8 and type the values and formulae into your worksheet exactly as they are
shown.
A
B
C
D
E
2
Day
Price per Km
Kms covered
Cost
3
Mon
2.5
32
=C3*D3
F
1
4
Tues
2.5
5
Wed
2.5
6
Thur
2.5
=C4*D4
17
=C5*D5
=C6*D6
7
8
countif (Kms>30)
=COUNTIF(D3:D6,">30")
9
count (values)
=COUNT(B2:E6)
10
counta (non-blanks)
=COUNTA(B2:E6)
11
12
13
14
Figure 7.8 Data to be input for the COUNT, COUNTA and COUNTIF functions activity
The results should look like the ones shown in Figure 7.9.
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Figure 7.9 Expected results for the COUNT, COUNTA and
COUNTIF functions activity
3 Change cell D4 to contain the value 21 and observe the results.
4 Save your file like you did before. You need to give the file a name: ‘your initials countfunctions’,
e.g. XXcountfunctions.
5 Click the ‘X’ in the top-right corner of the window to close the program.
Using predefined functions: VLOOKUP
VLOOKUP ▶
VLOOKUP, vertical lookup, is a function that allows you to find the closest value in
a column of cells to a given value. Having found the correct row it returns another
value from that row. For example, a teacher might have the student names and
marks in two columns. To find a particular student’s mark they must find the
student’s name in the first column and then read out the mark from the second
column of the same row. VLOOKUP automates this process and will even work if
the name is misspelt because VLOOKUP finds the best match.
The VLOOKUP function performs a vertical lookup by searching for a value in
the first column of a cell range and returning the value in the same row in another
column.
A
B
C
D
E
2
Day
Price per Km
Kms
covered
Cost
3
Mon
2.5
32
4
Tues
2.5
5
Wed
2.5
6
Thur
2.5
F
1
=C3*D3
=C4*D4
17
=C5*D5
=C6*D6
7
8
Choose day
9
Wed
=VLOOKUP
(B9,B2:E6,4)
10
Figure 7.10 Example data for the VLOOKUP function example
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The result is shown in Figure 7.11.
Figure 7.11 Expected results for the VLOOKUP function example
In this example =VLOOKUP(B9,B2:E6,4) means
• Look for the value in B9: ‘Wed’.
• Look in cell range B2:E6. Table 7.4 shows the part of the table to be looked up:
Day
Price per Km
Kms covered
Cost
Mon
2.5
32
80
Tues
2.5
Wed
2.5
Thur
2.5
0
17
42.5
0
Table 7.4 The table referenced in a VLOOKUP function
• Then take the value in the fourth column – ‘Cost’ – in the matching row
(i.e. the row containing the value ‘Wed’). This is the ‘4’ in the formula
=VLOOKUP(B9,B2:E6,4).
ITQ 7.8
• ‘Wed’ is identified in the first column and the value in the fourth column of this
Suggest what the function
HLOOKUP does.
The following example will make this clear.
row is 42.5. The result of this VLOOKUP is 42.5.
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Using the predefined function VLOOKUP in a spreadsheet program
This activity is suitable for individual work or small groups.
1 Open your spreadsheet program.
2 Look at Figure 7.12 and type the values and formulae into your worksheet exactly as they are
shown.
A
B
C
D
E
2
Day
Price per Km
Kms
covered
Cost
3
Mon
2.5
32
=C3*D3
4
Tues
2.5
5
Wed
2.5
6
Thur
2.5
F
1
=C4*D4
17
=C5*D5
=C6*D6
7
8
Choose day
9
Wed
=VLOOKUP
(B9,B2:E6,4)
10
Figure 7.12 Data to be input for the VLOOKUP functions activity
3 Try changing the value below ‘Choose day’ to ‘Mon’.
4 Now try ‘Thar’, deliberately typing it this way because VLOOKUP finds the closest match, in
this case ‘Thur’, and displays the correct result.
5 Save your file like you did before. You need to give the file a name: ‘your initials VLOOKUP’. For
example: XXVLOOKUP.
6 Click the ‘X’ in the top-right corner of the window to close the program.
Using predefined functions: PMT and IF
PMT function ▶
PMT stands for payment and the PMT function is used to calculate the payments
required to pay off a loan. Companies like Caribbean Travel Services often require a
loan to finance the purchase of new premises or vehicles, and PMT calculates what
the repayments will be for a given loan amount, borrowed over a fixed period at a
fixed interest rate.
The IF function is used whenever you want to make a decision. For example,
at CTS if the passenger number is greater than 50 the company wants to run extra
buses on this route.
The PMT function calculates the payment required to pay off a loan or investment,
over a specified time period.
Caribbean Travel Services is thinking of taking out a loan to purchase a new coach.
A
B
C
D
E
3
Interest
Rate
Number of Amount
payments
borrowed
Payment
4
0.03
120
PMT(B4,C4,D4)
F
1
2
50000
5
Figure 7.13 Example data for the PMT function example
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The result is shown in Figure 7.14.
Figure 7.14 Expected results for the PMT
function example
For example, in Figure 7.14, in the function =PMT(B4,C4,D4), B4 contains the
interest rate, C4 contains the number of payments and D4 contains the present
value of the loan. The answer is that to borrow $50,000 at 3% over 10 years (10
years × 12 months per year = 120 payments), the repayments would be $1,544.50
per month.
Using predefined function PMT in a spreadsheet program
1 Open your spreadsheet program.
2 Look at Figure 7.15 and type the values and formulae into your worksheet exactly as they
are shown.
A
B
C
D
E
3
Interest
Rate
Number of Amount
payments
borrowed
Payment
4
0.03
120
PMT(B4,C4,D4)
F
1
2
50000
5
Figure 7.15 Data to be input for the PMT function activity
3 Try increasing the number of payments value to 180 to change the repayment period to 15
years (15 × 12).
4 Save your file like you did before. You need to give the file a name: ‘your initials PMT’,
e.g. XXPMT.
5 Click the ‘X’ in the top-right corner of the window to close the program.
ACTIVITY 7.2 Opening a spreadsheet program and creating a workbook for your company
Use the company you created in earlier activities or use St Luago Fashion. Open your
spreadsheet program.
1 Your company is considering taking a loan to purchase a new delivery van. Create
a worksheet to show the manager the monthly repayments on a $25,000 loan over
5, 6 and 7 years if the interest rate is 5%.
2 Save the workbook. You need to give the file a meaningful name, for example
‘your initials vanloan’: XXvanloan.
3 Click the ‘X’ to close the program.
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IF function ▶
ITQ 7.9
What function counts all the nonblank cells in a cell range?
The IF function performs a logical test and returns one of two results. For example,
=IF(A1>=70,"Pass","Fail") would return ‘Pass’ if the value in cell A1 is greater than
or equal to 70 and ‘Fail’ if the value in A1 is less than 70.
Creating advanced arithmetic
formulae
ITQ 7.10
Put these arithmetic operations
into the correct order of
evaluation:
• Multiplication
• Ordinates
(powers)
• Subtraction
• Brackets
• Division
• Addition.
It is now time to look at some advanced arithmetic formulae. When working with
formulae in spreadsheets it is important to understand that the normal BODMAS
rules apply. You will have learnt the BODMAS rules in mathematics, but here is a
quick recap.
BODMAS stands for Brackets, Ordinates (powers and roots), Division,
Multiplication, Addition and Subtraction. This is the order in which a spreadsheet
will solve a formula.
For example, does 3 + 5 * 2
mean 3 added to 5 giving 8, then 8 multiplied by 2 to give 16
or
mean 5 multiplied by 2 giving 10, then 3 added to 10 to give 13?
The BODMAS rule states multiplication before addition, so perform the
multiplication first: 5 * 2 = 10, then perform the addition: 3 + 10 = 13. The correct
answer is 13.
ACTIVITY 7.3 The BODMAS rule
Ask your mathematics teacher for a BODMAS rule test. Well, maybe not a test, but do
ask for help in understanding the BODMAS rule.
Try these examples using the BODMAS rule.
ACTIVITY 7.4 Using advanced arithmetic formulae in a spreadsheet
1 Open your spreadsheet program.
2 Look at Figure 7.16 and type the values and formulae into your worksheet exactly as
they are shown.
A
B
C
D
E
F
3
7
8
4
2
G
H
1
2
3
4
BODMAS
5
=B3+C3-D3/E3*F3
6
=B3*C3-D3/E3+F3
7
=(B3+C3)/D3*(E3+F3)
8
Figure 7.16 Data to be input for the BODMAS activity
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The results should look like the ones shown in Figure 7.17.
Figure 7.17 Expected results for the BODMAS
activity
3 Save your file like you did before. You need to give the file a name: ‘your initials
BODMAS’. For example: XXBODMAS.
4 Click the ‘X’ in the top-right corner of the window to close the program.
Replicating (copying) formulae
to other cells
It is sometimes necessary to move or copy the contents of cells. Because some of the
contents being moved or copied may contain formulae, you need to understand what
happens to a formula when it is moved or copied. In general, when cells are moved,
the spreadsheet automatically updates the formula to reflect the change in position.
Relative addressing
Spreadsheets have two different modes of cell addressing: relative addressing and
absolute addressing. In normal working we use relative addressing. Using relative
addressing allows a formula’s cell references to change when they are copied or
moved simply because any two cells can be related by position.
For example, consider the cells shown in Figure 7.18.
A
B
C
D
E
Price per
Km
Kms
covered
Cost
2.5
32
=C3*D3
F
1
2
3
Mon
4
Tue
5
Wed
6
Thur
7
Fri
8
Sat
9
Sun
10
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Figure 7.18 Example data for the relative addressing example
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ITQ 7.11
Using relative addressing we can read the formula =C3*D3 as ‘multiply the contents
of the cell one to the left by the contents of the cell two to the left’. If the formula
is copied from cell E3 into cell E4 it is automatically corrected, so that ‘multiply
the contents of the cell one to the left by the contents of the cell two to the left’
becomes =C4*D4.
Relative addressing allows formulae in a spreadsheet to be automatically updated
if they are copied or moved.
Why is relative addressing called
‘relative’?
Relative addressing ▶
Using relative addressing in a spreadsheet
1 Open your spreadsheet program.
2 Look at Figure 7.19 and type the values and formulae into your worksheet exactly as they
are shown.
A
B
C
D
E
2
Bus ID
Price per
Km
Kms
covered
Cost
3
B 301
2.5
32
=C3*D3
4
B 302
2.5
47
5
B 403
1.8
12
6
B 408
2.2
58
7
B 204
4.5
35
8
B 202
4.5
19
9
B 105
4.7
23
10
B 101
4.2
27
F
1
11
Figure 7.19 Data to be input for the PMT function activity
3 Copy the formula in cell E3 into cells E4 to E10. You can use the Copy and Paste tools that you
are used to from word processing, but many spreadsheet programs allow quick copying.
Click in the cell to be copied, E3 in this case, move to the bottom-right corner, click, hold and
drag down to copy.
Figure 7.20 Expected results for the relative addressing activity
Perfect, the formula has been correctly adjusted because of relative addressing.
4 Save your file like you did before. You need to give the file a name: ‘your initials relative’. For
example, XXrelative.
5 Click the ‘X’ in the top-right corner of the window to close the program.
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Absolute addressing
Relative addressing is normally what we want as formulae are automatically
updated when moved or copied. Sometimes, however, this is not what we want.
Look at this example of a travel tax calculation.
Caribbean Travel Services has to collect a 5% tax on behalf of the
government and this has to be included in the total cost.
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
2
Bus ID
Price per
Km
Kms
covered
Cost
Tax
Cost +
Tax
3
B 301
2.5
32
=C3*D3
=E3*C13
4
B 302
2.5
47
5
B 403
1.8
12
6
B 408
2.2
58
7
B 204
4.5
35
8
B 202
4.5
19
9
B 105
4.7
23
10
B 101
4.2
27
Tax
0.05
H
1
11
12
13
14
Figure 7.21 Example data for the absolute addressing example showing incorrect use of relative addressing.
In this case to calculate the tax for bus B 301 we might use the formula =E3*C13
in cell F3, which works well. But what happens when we copy this formula into cell
F4? Remember, relative addressing allows the spreadsheet to update the formula
when it is copied or moved, which is what happens here. The calculation of the
formula in F4 (=E4*C14) results in 0, which is not what we want.
What has happened? When we moved the formula the spreadsheet automatically
updated the formula for us from =E3*C13 to =E4*C14, but this is incorrect because
cell C14 is empty; the formula is now wrong, it should be =E4*C13. In this case we
don’t want the part of the formula C13 to change. We want to make the reference
to cell C13 absolute so it does not change when the formula is moved or copied.
Fortunately this is easily done by changing ‘C13’ (relative address) to ‘$C$13’
(absolute address). Now we can copy or move the formula and it will always refer
to cell C13, the tax rate (Figure 7.22).
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A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
2
Bus ID
Price per
Km
Kms
covered
Cost
Tax
Cost +
Tax
3
B 301
2.5
32
=C3*D3
=E3*$C$13
4
B 302
2.5
47
=C4*D4
5
B 403
1.8
12
=C5*D5
6
B 408
2.2
58
=C6*D6
7
B 204
4.5
35
=C7*D7
8
B 202
4.5
19
=C8*D8
9
B 105
4.7
23
=C9*D9
10
B 101
4.2
27
=C10*D10
Tax
0.05
1
11
12
13
14
Figure 7.22 Example data for the absolute addressing example showing correct absolute addressing.
Absolute addressing ▶
Note that because we did not include the extra $ signs in the reference to cell E3,
this remained a relative address and so was updated when we copied the formula,
which is just what we wanted.
Absolute addressing prevents a formula, or part of a formula, being automatically
updated when the formula is copied or moved.
The CTS example below will make absolute addressing clear.
Using absolute addressing in a spreadsheet
The Finance Department at Caribbean Travel Services have asked you to include tax to the total
cost per kilometre for each bus.
1 Open your spreadsheet program.
2 Look at Figure 7.23 and type the values and formulae into your worksheet exactly as they are
shown or open the spreadsheet XXrelative from the previous exercise (if you do this, do a Save
As and give the new file the name ‘your initials absolute’ before continuing).
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
2
Bus ID
Price per
Km
Kms
covered
Cost
Tax
Cost +
Tax
3
B 301
2.5
32
=C3*D3
=E3*C13
4
B 302
2.5
47
5
B 403
1.8
12
6
B 408
2.2
58
7
B 204
4.5
35
8
B 202
4.5
19
9
B 105
4.7
23
10
B 101
4.2
27
H
1
11
12
Figure 7.23 Data to be input for the absolute addressing activity
3 Try to copy the formula in cell F3 into cells F4 to F10. You will see incorrect results.
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4 Correct the formula in cell F3 to =E3*$C$13.
5 Copy the formula in cell F3 into cells F4 to F10. You will now see the results are correct.
Before closing the spreadsheet program we will look at naming a cell range.
6 Select the cell range D3:D10; this is the ‘Kms covered’. Towards the top-left corner you can
now type ‘kmcovered’ to name this cell range.
Figure 7.24 Giving a cell range a name
This can be useful because we can now include this name in formulae to make them more
meaningful.
Figure 7.25 Using a named
cell range in a function, SUM in
this example
In Figure 7.25, the formula =SUM(kmcovered) is the same as =SUM(D3:D10) but is more meaningful
to anyone looking at the formula.
7 Save your file like you did before. You need to give the file a name: ‘your initials absolute’. For
example: XXabsolute.
8 Click the ‘X’ in the top-right corner of the window to close the program.
ITQ 7.12
What is the difference between
relative and absolute addressing?
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Effect of move, copy and delete operations
on formulae
Professional workbooks can become very large and contain hundreds of formulae,
so it is important that they are designed properly. In a working workbook, try to
avoid moving or deleting data in cells. Formulae may rely on that data and will
give unexpected incorrect results as a result of the contents of cells being moved
or deleted.
Copying the contents of cells will not affect any formulae that depend on the
cells. Design your workbooks well so that you don’t have to move or delete the
contents of cells in a working spreadsheet. If you must move or delete the contents
of cells in a working spreadsheet, thoroughly check all formulae to ensure that
they are still correct.
Manipulating rows and columns:
insert, delete and modify
Adding or deleting a row or column in a working worksheet should be avoided
if possible, although using the relative and absolute addressing in formulae will
usually have the desired effect even if rows are added or deleted.
All spreadsheet programs have ‘Insert rows and columns’ tools to make
adjustments.
To insert a new row or column look for ‘Insert’, ‘Copy’ and ‘Paste’. Try:
Home > Insert or Sheet > Insert Row
Figure 7.26 Inserting rows and columns
ITQ 7.13
State ONE reason why a column’s
width may need changing.
Try to design your spreadsheets well so that you don’t have to insert or delete
cells in a working workbook.
The width and height of rows and columns can be easily modified to improve
the appearance of your worksheet. Simply click and drag a row or column
boundary to change its size.
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Manipulating data in a
spreadsheet
Formatting data in a worksheet can make it easier to understand. For example,
adding a $ sign to a number indicates this is a monetary value. Sorting can make
the data meaningful. Filtering a large amount of data can be used to select only the
relevant rows of data.
Formatting numeric data
Because spreadsheets are frequently used to manage financial data they include
formatting tools to improve the presentation of financial data. Formatting data as
currency, accounting format, percentage or comma separated, and specifying the
number of decimal places, can all help improve the presentation of the data. We
will use these formatting tools to improve the XXabsolute spreadsheet you created
above.
To apply formatting to numeric data, look for ‘Number’ or ‘Currency’. Try:
Home tab
Figure 7.27 Applying numeric data formatting
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Using numeric data formatting in a spreadsheet
Your spreadsheet needs to be presented to the Caribbean Travel Services’ Board of Directors. You decide to
format it to make it more presentable.
1 Open your spreadsheet program.
2 Look at Figure 7.28 and type the values and formulae into your worksheet exactly as they are shown or open
the worksheet XXabsolute from the previous activity and modify the data (if you do this, do a Save As ‘your
initials formatting’ before continuing).
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
2
Bus ID
Price per
Km
Kms
covered
Cost
Tax
Cost +
Tax
3
B 301
2.5
32
=C3*D3
=E3*$C$13
=E3+F3
4
B 302
2.5
47
=C4*D4
=E4*$C$13
=E4+F4
5
B 403
1.8
12
=C5*D5
=E5*$C$13
=E5+F5
6
B 408
2.2
58
=C6*D6
=E6*$C$13
=E6+F6
7
B 204
4.5
35
=C7*D7
=E7*$C$13
=E7+F7
8
B 202
4.5
19
=C8*D8
=E8*$C$13
=E8+F8
9
B 105
4.7
23
=C9*D9
=E9*$C$13
=E9+F9
10
B 101
4.2
27
=C10*D10
=E10*$C$13
=E10+F10
Tax
0.05
H
1
11
12
13
14
Figure 7.28 Data to be input for the formatting activity
3 Select the cells E3:F10.
4 To change the format of these cells to currency look for ‘Currency’. Try:
Home > (Number) Currency
5 Accounting formatting is similar to currency so select cells G3:G10 and change to ‘accounting’.
6 The tax rate 0.05 is a percentage. Select cell B13 and change the formatting to percentage.
7 Select the cell range D3:D10 and change to Number formatting with commas and 2 decimal places. Try:
Home > Numbers > More Number Formats
The result should be:
Figure 7.29 Expected results for the formatting cells activity
8 Save your file like you did before. You need to give the file a name: ‘your initials formatting’. For example:
XXformatting.
9 Click the ‘X’ in the top-right corner of the window to close the program.
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ITQ 7.14
State the main difference
between currency formatting and
accounting formatting.
Sorting data
To present the data in a worksheet in a meaningful way it can be useful to sort the
data. Modern spreadsheet programs include powerful sorting tools. Data can be
sorted in ascending (going up) or descending (coming down) order.
It is possible to sort on two or more fields. This means that if the values in the
primary sort field are the same (and so can’t be sorted), the system will look at the
values in the secondary field to decide which order to place the rows in.
To sort data, look for ‘Sort’ or ‘Data sort’. Try:
Data > Sort
Figure 7.30 Sorting selected data
Figure 7.31 shows some data before sorting cell range B2:G10.
Figure 7.31 Example data for the sorting example
After sorting with primary field ‘Price per Km’ descending, and secondary field
‘Kms covered’ descending, i.e. largest to smallest:
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Figure 7.32 Expected results for the sorting example
Pay particular attention to where the ‘Price per Km’ values were the same; on
these rows the ‘Kms covered’ field was used to decide the order.
Sorting data in a spreadsheet
The Board of Directors at Caribbean Travel Services are reviewing the Price per Km that is charged for each
vehicle. To do this they require the data to be sorted on the Price per Km column.
1 Open your spreadsheet program.
2 Look at Figure 7.33 and type the values and formulae into your worksheet exactly as they are shown or open
the spreadsheet XXformatting from the previous activity and modify the data (if you do this, do a Save As
‘your initials sorting’ before continuing).
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
2
Bus ID
Price per
Km
Kms
covered
Cost
Tax
Cost +
Tax
3
B 301
2.5
32
=C3*D3
=E3*$C$13
=E3+F3
4
B 302
2.5
47
=C4*D4
=E4*$C$13
=E4+F4
5
B 403
1.8
12
=C5*D5
=E5*$C$13
=E5+F5
6
B 408
2.2
58
=C6*D6
=E6*$C$13
=E6+F6
7
B 204
4.5
35
=C7*D7
=E7*$C$13
=E7+F7
8
B 202
4.5
19
=C8*D8
=E8*$C$13
=E8+F8
9
B 105
4.7
23
=C9*D9
=E9*$C$13
=E9+F9
10
B 101
4.2
27
=C10*D10
=E10*$C$13
=E10+F10
Tax
0.05
H
1
11
12
13
14
Figure 7.33 Data to be input for the sorting activity
3 Select the cells B2:G10. Notice that this includes the column titles and all the data.
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4 To sort data in selected cells look for ‘Sort’. Try:
Data > Sort
Figure 7.34 Sorting selected data
The result should be:
Figure 7.35 Expected results for the sorting
activity
5 Save your file like you did before. You need to give the file a name: ‘your initials sorting’. For example:
XXsorting.
6 Click the ‘X’ in the top-right corner of the window to close the program.
ITQ 7.15
Suggest why it is sometimes
helpful to sort data in a worksheet.
ITQ 7.16
Filtering data
When spreadsheets contain large amounts of data the display can be confusing. It
can be useful to filter the data so that only the data you need is displayed. Modern
spreadsheet programs include useful filtering tools. Large amounts of data can be
filtered before being displayed. It is possible to filter on two or more fields and
using complex criteria.
What feature in a spreadsheet
program can be used to reduce the
amount of data being displayed by
rejecting some rows using a given
set of criteria?
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To filter data look for ‘Filter’ or ‘More Filters’. Try:
Data > Filter
Figure 7.36 Filtering selected data
The next two examples show how to apply simple and more complex filter data in
the CTS spreadsheets.
Filtering data in a spreadsheet
1 Open your spreadsheet program.
2 Look at Figure 7.37 and type the values and formulae into your worksheet exactly as they are
shown or open the spreadsheet XXsorting from the previous activity and modify the data (if
you do this do a Save As ‘your initials filtering’ before continuing).
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
Bus ID
Price per
Km
Kms
covered
Cost
Tax
Cost +
Tax
5
Bus ID
Price per
Km
Kms
covered
Cost
Tax
Cost +
Tax
6
B 301
2.5
32
=C3*D3
=E6*$C$16
=E6+F6
7
B 302
2.5
47
=C4*D4
=E7*$C$16
=E7+F7
8
B 403
1.8
12
=C5*D5
=E8*$C$16
=E8+F8
9
B 408
2.2
58
=C6*D6
=E9*$C$16
=E9+F9
10
B 204
4.5
35
=C7*D7
=E10*$C$16
=E10+F10
11
B 202
4.5
19
=C8*D8
=E11*$C$16
=E11+F11
12
B 105
4.7
23
=C9*D9
=E12*$C$16
=E12+F12
13
B 101
4.2
27
=C10*D10
=E13*$C$16
=E13+F13
Tax
0.05
H
1
2
3
4
14
15
16
17
Figure 7.37 Data to be input for the data filtering activity
3 Select the cells B2:G13. Notice that this includes the column titles and all the data.
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4 To filter data in selected cells look for ‘Filter’. Try:
Data > Filter
The filters appear as shown in Figure 7.38 and can be used to filter the data. In this example the
‘Price per Km’ filter has been set to show only 2.2 and 2.5.
Figure 7.38 Expected results
after filtering in the filtering
activity
Of course, you can filter on more than one field.
5 Clear any filters you have applied before continuing with the next example.
Complex data filtering in a spreadsheet
CTS wants to find the vehicles that covered more than 3,000 kms and where the tax was less than
$600. You need to set up the criteria with exactly the same names as those used in the data. Then
just add the criteria to the table as shown in Figure 7.39.
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
Bus ID
Price per
Km
Kms
covered
Cost
Tax
Cost + tax
H
1
2
3
>3000
<600
4
5
Bus ID
Price per
Km
Kms
covered
Cost
Tax
Cost + tax
6
B 403
1.8
1,293.00
$2,327.40
$116.37
$2,443.77
7
B 408
2.2
5,841.00
$12,850.20
$642.51
$13,492.71
8
B 301
2.5
3,234.00
$8,085.00
$404.25
$8,489.25
9
B 302
2.5
4,756.00
$11,890.00
$594.50
$12,484.50
10
B 101
4.2
2,756.00
$11,575.20
$578.76
$12,153.96
11
B 202
4.5
1,934.00
$8,703.00
$435.15
$9,138.15
12
B 204
4.5
3,548.00
$15,966.00
$798.30
$16,764.30
13
B 105
4.7
2,381.00
$11,190.70
$559.54
$11,750.24
Tax rate
5%
14
15
16
Figure 7.39 Data to be input for the complex data filtering activity
1 Select the cells B5:G13. Notice that this includes the column titles and all the data. Try:
Data > Filter > Advanced Filter
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2 If it has not been automatically inserted, select the List Range as $B$5:$G$13 and the Criteria Range
as $B$2:$G$3.
Figure 7.40 Selecting List Range and Criteria Range
The result of applying these filters should be just what the CTS Board want.
Figure 7.41 Expected results for the filtering activity
3 Clear this filter before trying a few of your own filters.
4 Save your file like you did before. You need to give the file a name: ‘your initials filtering’. For example:
XXfiltering.
5 Click the ‘X’ in the top-right corner of the window to close the program.
Applying a pivot table and pivot chart to data
Pivot table ▶
When you need to summarise large amounts of data, there are two useful tools:
pivot tables and pivot charts.
A pivot table allows you to summarise complex data in a worksheet into a neat
tabular form.
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Pivot chart ▶
A pivot chart is a graphical presentation of a pivot table.
To create a pivot table, look for ‘Pivot Table’. Try:
Insert > Pivot Table
To create a pivot chart, look for ‘Pivot Chart’. Try:
Insert > Pivot Chart
We go straight into an example to show you pivot tables in action.
ITQ 7.17
Watch a video about
creating pivot tables.
What are pivot tables
used for?
Figure 7.42 Inserting a pivot chart
Summarising data in pivot tables and pivot charts in a spreadsheet
1 Open your spreadsheet program.
2 Look at Figure 7.43 and type the values into your worksheet as they are shown or insert your own
numbers.
A
B
C
D
E
F
Year
Quarter
B 101
B 202
B 204
1
2
3
2010
1Qtr
4
5
6
4
2010
2Qtr
4
3
7
5
2010
3Qtr
7
4
5
6
2010
4Qtr
5
4
8
7
2011
1Qtr
3
5
9
8
2011
2Qtr
3
2
3
9
2011
3Qtr
9
5
8
10
2011
4Qtr
7
3
6
11
2012
1Qtr
5
8
5
12
2012
2Qtr
2
6
3
13
2012
3Qtr
5
2
3
14
2012
4Qtr
5
3
5
15
2013
1Qtr
7
5
3
16
2013
2Qtr
5
2
7
17
2013
3Qtr
7
8
3
18
2013
4Qtr
3
7
7
19
Figure 7.43 Data to be input for the pivot table activity
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3 Select the cells B2:F18. Notice that this includes the column titles and all the data.
4 To create a pivot table, look for ‘Pivot Table’. Try:
Insert > Pivot Table
5 Spreadsheet programs vary as regards how they create a pivot table. Experiment with your program. In the
pivot table in Figure 7.44 we have summarised the data for Report Filter ‘Year’, showing Row Label ‘Quarter’
and using the data from ‘Buses’.
Figure 7.44 Possible expected results for the pivot table example
6 Return to Sheet 1, the original data.
7 Select cells B2:F18 again. Notice that this includes the column titles and all the data.
8 To create a pivot chart, look for ‘Pivot Chart’. Try:
Insert > Pivot Chart
9 Spreadsheet programs vary as regards how they create a pivot chart. Experiment with your program. In the
pivot chart in Figure 7.45 we have summarised the data for Report Filter ‘Year’, Axis (Categories) ‘Quarter’ and
using the data from ‘Buses’.
Figure 7.45 Pivot chart
10 Save your file like you did before. You need to give the file a name: ‘your initials pivot’. For example: XXpivot.
11 Click the ‘X’ in the top-right corner of the window to close the program.
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Spreadsheet programs include many analysis tools. For example, to create a
frequency distribution, look for the FREQUENCY function. This function takes a
column of values and summarises them into groups. Consider 1000 student marks
in a test. The frequency distribution required might be 0–20, 21–40, 41–60, 61–80
and 81–100. Each mark is counted into the appropriate ‘bin’. Each of the 1000
marks has been distributed into one of five bins. This a good way to summarise
large amounts of data.
Performing charting operations
Charts or graphs are a great way to display numeric data to make it meaningful
to the viewer. Spreadsheet programs include powerful charting tools. Careful use
of charts can summarise a set of complex data into an easy-to-understand picture.
Good use of charts can reveal useful patterns and trends in the data.
Selecting appropriate chart types: column
chart, bar chart, line graph or pie chart
Column and bar charts ▶
Line graphs ▶
Pie charts ▶
When using a graphical representation, select the type of chart or graph carefully.
Column charts, bar charts, line graphs and pie charts are all easily created in a
spreadsheet application, but consider carefully the best way to present the data.
Always be ready to answer the question ‘Why did you use an XYZ chart to present
that data?’ The three main types of chart are:
Column and bar charts are used for comparing a series of values. For example,
the distance covered by a bus in the four quarters of the year.
Line graphs are used to compare changes over a period of time. For example, how
the distance covered by buses varies with time.
Pie charts are used to display the contribution of each part to the total. For example,
how the distance covered in a year is made by the four quarters.
To create a graph or chart, look for ‘Chart’ or ‘Graph’. Try:
Insert > Chart
ITQ 7.18
What type of chart is most suitable
to show the contribution of many
parts to a total?
Figure 7.46 Inserting graphs and charts
The following example shows how to display data as column (bar), line and pie charts.
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Representing data in charts and graphs
The garage at CTS is looking at the distance covered by each vehicle. Tables of data are not useful for this task.
Graphs and charts will summarise the data in a user-friendly way.
1 Open your spreadsheet program.
2 Look at Figure 7.47 and type the values into your spreadsheet as they are shown or open the spreadsheet
XXpivot from the previous activity and modify the data (if you do this, do a Save As ‘your initials charts’ before
continuing).
A
B
C
D
E
F
2
Year
Quarter
B 101
B 202
B 204
3
2010
1Qtr
1,707
3,562
6,001
4
2010
2Qtr
3,035
3,944
13,732
5
2010
3Qtr
8,930
1,633
2,976
6
2010
4Qtr
4,674
4,528
352
7
2011
1Qtr
7,307
458
8,097
8
2011
2Qtr
3,318
101
3,802
9
2011
3Qtr
979
3,105
18,619
10
2011
4Qtr
7,000
1,511
5,444
11
2012
1Qtr
9,825
2,700
13,305
12
2012
2Qtr
2,001
4,322
8,440
13
2012
3Qtr
7,286
3,696
2,742
14
2012
4Qtr
262
3,705
13,764
15
2013
1Qtr
3,308
396
4,720
16
2013
2Qtr
2,287
4,796
8,925
17
2013
3Qtr
3,328
3,255
8,098
18
2013
4Qtr
2,864
2,876
8,865
G
1
19
Figure 7.47 Data to be input for the charting activity
Column and bar charts are similar: column charts are vertical and bar charts are horizontal.
3 Select the cells B2:D6. Notice that this includes the column titles and the data. To insert a column chart, use
‘Chart Column’. Try:
Insert > Chart > Column
and follow the instructions.
4 Spreadsheet programs vary as regards how they create a chart. Experiment with your preferred program.
Figure 7.48 A bar chart is created in the same way
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5 Now, drag and drop the graph away from the data.
6 For a line graph select the cell range B2:F18.
7 To insert a line graph, look for ‘Chart Line’. Try:
Insert > Chart > Line
Figure 7.49 Possible expected line chart for the charting activity; yours may be different
From this graph you should easily be able to answer the questions: ‘Which bus is doing the most work?’ and ‘Which
bus is doing the least work?’ Line graphs can be very powerful for decision makers.
Finally, for a pie chart select the cell range B2:D6.
8 To insert a pie chart, look for ‘Chart Pie’. Try:
Insert > Chart > Pie
Figure 7.50 Possible expected column chart for the charting
activity; yours may be different
9 Save your file like you did before. You need to give the file a name: ‘your initials charts’. For example: XXcharts.
10 Click the ‘X’ in the top-right corner of the window to close the program.
Labelling charts: titles, axis labels and data
labels
Having created your chart or graph you can add more detail by inserting more
information including: titles, axis labels and data labels.
To add labels to a chart, look for ‘Chart Tools’ or the Chart toolbar.
Click or double-click on the chart to display the Chart toolbar.
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Figure 7.51 Charting tools in a spreadsheet
program
The next example shows you how to insert details to make it clear what your
charts are showing.
Improving charts and graphs by adding titles, axis labels and data labels
You have been asked to include a bar chart of the kilometres travelled by Bus 101 during 2010.
1 Open your spreadsheet program.
2 Look at Figure 7.52 and type the values into your worksheet exactly as they are shown or open the spreadsheet
XXcharts from the previous activity and modify the data (if you do this, do a Save As ‘your initials chartlabels’
before continuing).
A
B
C
D
E
F
2
Year
Quarter
B 101
B 202
B 204
3
2010
1Qtr
1,707
3,562
6,001
4
2010
2Qtr
3,035
3,944
13,732
5
2010
3Qtr
8,930
1,633
2,976
6
2010
4Qtr
4,674
4,528
352
7
2011
1Qtr
7,307
458
8,097
8
2011
2Qtr
3,318
101
3,802
9
2011
3Qtr
979
3,105
18,619
10
2011
4Qtr
7,000
1,511
5,444
11
2012
1Qtr
9,825
2,700
13,305
12
2012
2Qtr
2,001
4,322
8,440
13
2012
3Qtr
7,286
3,696
2,742
14
2012
4Qtr
262
3,705
13,764
15
2013
1Qtr
3,308
396
4,720
16
2013
2Qtr
2,287
4,796
8,925
17
2013
3Qtr
3,328
3,255
8,098
18
2013
4Qtr
2,864
2,876
8,865
G
H
1
19
Figure 7.52 Data to be input for the adding details to a chart activity
3 Select the cells B2:D6. Notice that this includes the column titles and all the data.
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4 To insert a column chart, use ‘Chart Column’. Try:
Insert > Chart > Column and follow the instructions.
Figure 7.53 Possible expected column chart with data and column titles; yours may be different
You will see that the spreadsheet has included a title for the chart.
5 You can change the text of the title by double-clicking on it and typing the new title.
6 For more control over the main title, look for ‘Title’. Try:
Chart Tools > Layout > Chart Title
7 Adding titles to the axes is similar to changing the title; look for ‘Axis Title’. Try:
Chart Tools > Layout > Axis Title
8 Add labels ‘Kms covered’ and ‘Quarter’ to your axes.
Figure 7.54 Possible expected column chart with axis titles and chart title; yours may be different
9 Finally, to add data values to the columns look for ‘Data Labels’. Try:
Chart Tools > Layout > Data Labels
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Figure 7.55 Possible expected column chart with data point label; yours may be different
10 Save your file like you did before. You need to give the file a name: ‘your initials chartlabels’. For example:
XXchartlabels.
11 Click the ‘X’ in the top-right corner of the window to close the program.
ITQ 7.19
In addition to a chart title what
information might be added to a
chart?
Manipulating one or more
worksheets
Earlier we introduced the idea that a workbook is made up of one or more
worksheets. A worksheet is a single page of a workbook and is made up of a grid
of cells, a table. In all our activities so far we have just used one worksheet in each
workbook. We have just used the first page in each spreadsheet workbook.
Using one or more worksheets
Sometimes we have several tables that are related. For example, the data about
each vehicle at Caribbean Travel Services is related. We would like to have one
spreadsheet book to contain a worksheet page for each vehicle. Spreadsheet
programs allow for multiple worksheets in a single spreadsheet workbook.
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Using multiple worksheets in a spreadsheet
You have been asked to create separate worksheets detailing each bus in Caribbean Travel Services’
fleet in a single spreadsheet.
1 Open your spreadsheet program.
2 Look at Figure 7.56 and type the values into your worksheet exactly as they are shown.
A
B
C
D
1
2
Bus 301
3
Colour
Red
4
Number of seats
15
5
Seatbelts fitted
Yes
6
Manufacturer
Toyota
7
Model
Hiace
8
Figure 7.56 Example data for the linking worksheets example; Sheet 1, Bus 301
Notice at the bottom of the page it says Sheet 1. This is the first worksheet in this workbook.
3 Double-click on this name and change it to ‘Bus 301’.
4 Now click on Sheet 2 or the ‘+’ symbol or ‘Insert Worksheet’ and type the values shown in Figure
7.57 into your worksheet exactly as they are shown.
A
B
C
D
1
2
Bus 403
3
Colour
Blue
4
Number of seats
31
5
Seatbelts fitted
Yes
6
Manufacturer
Alexander Dennis
7
Model
Enviro200 9.8M
8
Figure 7.57 Example data for the linking worksheets example; Sheet 2, Bus 403
Notice at the bottom of the page it says Sheet 2.
5 Double-click on this name and change it to ‘Bus 403’.
These are very simple worksheets but you can make each worksheet as complex as you like.
6 Add a few more vehicles to your fleet.
7 Save your file like you did before. You need to give the file a name: ‘your initials vehicles’. For
example: XXvehicles.
8 Click the ‘X’ in the top-right corner of the window to close the program.
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Linking two or more worksheets to solve
problems
A problem that has arisen at Caribbean Travel Services is ‘What is the total seating
capacity of the vehicle fleet?’ To get the answer we need to link cells in worksheets
together. This is achieved using formulae; for example =‘Bus 301’!C4. This formula
looks in the worksheet called ‘Bus 301’ for the value in cell C4.
Our final example demonstrates how to link spreadsheets.
Linking two or more worksheets to solve problems
1 Open your spreadsheet program.
2 Open the spreadsheet XXvehicles you created in the last activity or simply repeat the last activity
without closing the spreadsheet. In our example the fleet has only two vehicles; your example
may have more.
3 On the next free worksheet, ‘Sheet 3’ in our example, type the values and formulae into your
worksheet exactly as they are shown in Figure 7.58.
Figure 7.58 Data to be input for the linking worksheets example summary sheet
Your summary worksheet can include all the vehicles in your fleet.
Notice at the bottom of the page it says Sheet?
4 Double-click on this name and change it to ‘Fleet Summary’.
5 Save your file like you did before. You need to give the file a name: ‘your initials vehiclesummary’.
For example: XXvehiclesummary.
6 Click the ‘X’ in the top-right corner of the window to close the program.
That concludes our introduction to spreadsheets. There are lots more features to
discover in spreadsheets but it’s time to move on.
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Summary
• A worksheet is a single working area in a spreadsheet
• Spreadsheets are flexible and additional rows and columns
program, consisting of a grid of lettered columns and
numbered rows, whereas a workbook is a collection of
related worksheets saved as one file.
• Formulae can be written to allow a spreadsheet to do
• A worksheet is a table consisting of cells (row/column
• Data in a spreadsheet table may be sorted to arrange the
locations) that hold accounting or financial data that
simulates the traditional accountant’s ledger book and
calculator.
• A cell in worksheet can contain a label (text), a value
(numbers) or a formula (calculation).
• Most
spreadsheets provide basic predefined systems
functions such as SUM, AVERAGE, DATE, MAX, MIN, COUNT,
IF and VLOOKUP.
• Cells can be addressed in two ways: in relative addressing
may be inserted.
computations automatically.
data in a predetermined order or the data may be filtered
to show only the relevant records.
• Spreadsheets use charts and graphs to illustrate the data in
a user-friendly way.
• Types of charts and graphs in a spreadsheet program
include bar charts, column charts, line graphs and pie
charts.
• Data in several worksheets can be linked together.
the cell addresses in a formula change when the formula
is moved or copied, while in absolute addressing the cell
addresses in a formula do not change when the formula is
moved or copied.
Answers to ITQs
7.1 Traditionally an accountant would use a ledger book,
pencil and calculator to manage an organisation’s
accounts. Spreadsheet programs have replaced these
tools.
7.2 B28:D36 is an example of a cell range. A cell range
includes all the cells in a rectangle with corners at cells
B28 and D36.
7.3 In a spreadsheet program any cell that contains an ‘=’ as
the first character is a formula; the ‘=’ indicates that this
cell has to be calculated.
7.4 Clearing a cell removes the contents of the cell, but
leaves the cell in place. Deleting a cell removes the cell
completely, together with its contents.
7.5 To add up the values in a rectangle of cells given by cell
range use the SUM function.
7.6 The AVERAGE function calculates the average of the
values in a rectangle of cells given by cell range.
7.7 COUNT and COUNTA are similar predefined functions
but COUNT counts the number of values (numbers) in a
rectangle of cells given by cell range. COUNTA is more
general and counts the number of non-blank cells in a
rectangle of cells given by cell range including labels,
values and formulae.
7.8 VLOOKUP is Vertical lookup so HLOOKUP is Horizontal
lookup.
7.9 COUNTA is a predefined function that counts the
number of non-blank cells in a rectangle of cells given
by cell range including labels, values and formula.
7.10 The BODMAS rule defines the order in which
mathematical operations should be performed: Brackets,
Ordinates (powers), Division, Multiplication, Addition and
Subtraction.
7.11 Relative addressing gets its name from the idea that
cells in a formula can be addressed relative to each
other. For example, multiply the contents of the cell one
to the left by the contents of the cell two to the left.
7.12 When a formula is copied or moved, relative addresses
are automatically changed to reflect the move and
absolute addresses are not changed.
7.13 Often the contents of a cell are longer than the width
of the cell. This means that not all the information is
displayed. In these cases the column’s width may need
increasing so all the data can be seen.
7.14 Currency formatting and accounting formatting are
very similar. In currency format the currency symbol
is placed next to the value. In accounting format the
currency symbol is placed at the left of the cell.
7.15 In many cases data is more meaningful when sorted. For
example, sorting vehicles on kilometres covered is useful
in identifying vehicles that are ready for replacement.
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7.16 Filtering can be used to reduce the amount of data
being displayed. Filtering works by taking a criterion
and applying it to selected data in a worksheet. Only
rows that meet the criterion are displayed. For example,
the criterion ‘<200,000’ applied to the Kms covered data
filters in vehicles that have not yet covered 200,000kms.
7.17 Pivot tables can be used to summarise large amounts of
data.
7.18 A pie chart is used to show the contribution of many
parts to a total.
7.19 A chart can be enhanced by including: axis titles, data
labels, legend, chart title, axis values and grid lines.
Examination-style questions: Multiple Choice
Instructions: Each item in this test has four suggested
responses labelled (A), (B), (C) or (D). Read each question
carefully then select the most suitable response.
1)
Which of the following is NOT a purpose of a
spreadsheet?
A) to create simple tabulations such as invoices and
price lists
B) to hold accounting or financial data
C) to perform advanced text processing
D) to capture, manipulate and display numeric data
2)
B5:D9 is best described as a:
A) cell range
B) row range
C) column range
D) cell reference
3)
Which of the following functions should be selected to
count the number of flower names in column A?
A
B
1
Chrysanthemum
350
2
Tulips
550
3
Lilies
275
4
Carnations
300
4)
A)
B)
C)
D)
C
COUNT
COUNTA
COUNTIF
COUNTIFS
I and II only
II and III only
I and III only
I, II and III
5)
Which of the following chart types is best for displaying
the contribution of each part to the total?
A) bar chart
B) column chart
C) line graph
D) pie chart
6)
A spreadsheet contains the formula =$A$9/B25 in cell
C1. What will be the contents of cell D2 if the content
of C1 is copied there?
A) =$B$9/C25
B) =$A$9/B25
C) =$A$9/B26
D) =$A$9/C26
7)
The text ‘Total Amount’ in a cell is best described as a
____________.
A) value
B) formula
C) label
D) function
5
A)
B)
C)
D)
Which of the following formulae would produce the
result shown in cell D2?
I
= (A2+B2+C2)/3
II
= AVERAGE(A2:C2)
III
= SUM(A1:C1)/3
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8)
9)
A cell contains the formula ‘=SUM(A5:A10)+17’. Which
of the following statements is UNTRUE?
A) 17 is a constant.
B) A5:A10 + 17 is a formula.
C) SUM is the name of a function.
D) The result will be the sum of the values in A5, A6,
A7, A8, A9 and A10 plus the value 17.
Which samples will be filtered for ‘>1.5’ applied to
height AND ‘<2.0’ applied to weight?
A
B
C
1
Sample#
Height
Weight
2
1
1.1
2.3
3
2
1.7
2
4
3
2.2
2.1
5
4
2.4
1.9
6
5
0.9
2.5
D
A)
B)
C)
D)
2 and 3 only
2 and 4 only
2, 3 and 4 only
4 only
10) Which of the following chart types represents data
using a structure that is vertical in orientation?
A) bar chart
B) column chart
C) line graph
D) pie chart
Examination-style questions: Structured
1)
The spreadsheet shows the performance of 50 students from a particular high school in an external exam.
A
1
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
I
V
Number Passed
Number Failed
Percentage Pass
J
Summary of examination results for the Science department
2
3
4
PASS
SUBJECTS
I
FAIL
II
III
IV
5
Int. Science
24
12
8
4
2
44
6
88.00%
6
Chemistry
17
8
9
9
3
34
12
73.91%
7
Biology
16
5
20
3
2
41
5
89.13%
8
Physics
14
14
21
8
2
49
10
83.05%
Average Pass Percentage
83.52%
9
10
a)
State the number of columns that are illustrated in the spreadsheet. [1]
b)
State the type of data in:
i) cell A5
ii) cell B5
iii) cell G5
[3]
c)
What spreadsheet feature has been used on row 1 in this worksheet? [1]
d)
Write the formula used to calculate the Number Passed in cell G5. [2]
e)
Write the formula used to calculate the Percentage Pass in cell I5. [2]
f)
What is the correct term for the formatting applied to cell H10? [1]
g)
State the function used in cell I10.
[2]
h)
A chart has to be created for Integrated Science students to show the contribution of each grade to the total.
Suggest the most suitable type of chart. Justify your answer.
[3]
i)
Spreadsheets have two addressing modes: relative addressing and absolute addressing. Use examples to
clearly explain how these addressing modes differ when a formula is copied from one cell to another.
[10]
Total 25 marks
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By the end of this chapter
you should be able to:
Mastering databases
A database system is a useful tool for manipulating records of data. Databases are
widely used by large organisations and governments but are also available on
personal computers. Commercial enterprises with large database systems such as
banks and airlines use specialised database systems including: Oracle, MySQL,
Microsoft SQL server, Postgres and IBM Db2. The most common database systems
for personal computers are Microsoft Access and LibreOffice Base. Whether to
manage the bank accounts of millions of customers or the records of a local sports
club, a database system is fit for the task. In this chapter, we will help you to master
databases and use their many features to design, create and update database tables.
You will also need to know how to create queries, forms and reports.
You will need to spend time practising these skills at the computer. Microsoft
Access is used for all examples in this chapter. All database programs, including
Microsoft Access and LibreOffice Base, have similar features and the explanations
given in this chapter aim to give you the broader skills to master any database
program. We would encourage you to experiment with and explore different database
programs to widen your understanding of the concepts given in this chapter.
✔✔ Explain the concept of a database.
✔✔ Use terminology commonly associated with a database.
✔✔ Design and create a database.
✔✔ Create and populate tables in a database.
✔✔ Link tables using a primary key, foreign key combination.
✔✔ Manipulate data in a database.
✔✔ Use forms and sub-forms to input data to a database.
✔✔ Create queries on the data in a database.
✔✔ Create reports based on the data in a database.
Mastering databases
The concept
of a database
(DB)
Database
systems
Purpose of DB
systems
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Vocabulary
Data types
Manipulating
data in a DB
Creating a
database
Database
terminology
Table
structure
concepts
Creating
the table
structure
Modifying
the table
structure
Creating DB
tables
Establishing
primary keys
Populating
tables with data
Linking tables
with primary keys
Creating
and using
forms
Creating and
using queries
Creating
and using
reports
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In this chapter you will learn how to use the required functions and features of a
database mainly by working carefully through many worked examples, with data
relating to Caribbean Travel Services.
LibreOffice Base is a database program that is free to download, install and use
from libreoffice.org.
The concept of a database
Large database systems are at the heart of many businesses. Banks use huge
databases to store account transactions, airlines use them to manage bookings,
and social media companies rely on them to store posts. On a much smaller scale
a sports club might use a database system to manage membership records, team
fixtures and results, and equipment inventory.
Definition of a database system
Database ▶
Think about how Caribbean Travel Services’ data was organised before the
introduction of computers. In the office were three filing cabinets. The first held
the employee records, the second held the vehicle records and a third held the
journey records. This was a manual database system.
A database is an organised set of records (data) held in tables that can be easily
managed.
This is how the CTS database was organised:
If a new driver was recruited a new employee record would be
created and inserted into the Employees filing cabinet.
If a new vehicle was purchased a new vehicle record would be
created and inserted into the Vehicles filing cabinet.
After every journey a new journey record would be created and
inserted into the Journeys filing cabinet.
ITQ 8.1
Watch a video
introduction to
databases. Give two
examples of when
you might have seen a database in
action.
Now, the records in these filing cabinets are clearly related. A driver
(an employee) takes a vehicle on a journey. Given time, you could
find the phone number of the driver who drove the bus on Route 7 on
March 13 this year. You would probably need to follow these steps:
Look in the Journeys filing cabinet for the records from March 13.
From these, find the record for Route 7.
From this, find the driver’s Employee ID.
Use this to search through the Employees filing cabinet to find the
driver’s record.
Look up their phone number in the record.
Database systems are great for managing large numbers of records and answering
questions. Our example shows that a database is a store of information where
records are kept in tables that are related to each other.
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ITQ 8.2
What is the relationship between a
record and a database?
When computers became available Caribbean Travel Services was able to
replace the filing cabinets with a database, enabling them to answer queries such
as the one above very quickly.
Purposes of an electronic database system
As we have seen, the main function of a database system is to manage records of
data. With the introduction of computers came many more functions that were not
practical in a paper-based system:
• Databases can store millions of records.
• Databases can be designed so that data is never duplicated.
• Powerful and flexible sorting can be applied to the data very quickly.
• Records can quickly be selected from the database based on given criteria.
• Selected records can be viewed in different user-friendly ways.
• Calculations can be performed automatically and the results presented.
• Selected records can be presented in professional-looking reports.
ITQ 8.3
What does RDBMS stand for?
The most common type of database system is an electronic Relational Database
Management System (RDBMS). As we will see in the following sections, the
purpose of an RDBMS is to: input, modify, sort, query, report on, view and calculate
from large numbers of records held in related tables.
Terminology commonly associated
with a database
Some database vocabulary
These are the key terms relating to databases that we need to understand:
Term
Definition
Database Management System
Manages the storing, retrieval and updating of records.
Relational Database Management A type of database that stores records in a set of related
System (RDBMS)
tables with tools to efficiently manage those records.
Figure 8.1 A red 15-seat Toyota bus
Database table
Used to contain numerous related records of stored data.
Record
Contains data about individual item or entity.
Entity
A thing, person or event that has characteristics for
which we are interested in recording data. A bus is an
example of an entity. It may have characteristics such as:
colour, number of seats, seat belts fitted, manufacturer
and model. Of course, a bus will have many more
characteristics.
A single record will hold the data, the characteristics,
about a single bus.
Field
Part of a database record and contains a single piece of
data. For example: colour ‘red’, number of seats ‘15’ or
manufacturer ‘Toyota’.
Table 8.1 Database terms and definitions
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To summarise:
• A database management system manages a set of related databases tables.
• Each database table contains many records.
• Each record contains many fields.
• Each field contains a data item about a particular entity.
The Caribbean Travel Services database will contain three tables:
• Employee records
• Vehicle records
• Journey records.
Each Employee record contains: Each Vehicle record contains:
Each Journey record contains:
• Employee ID
• Employee first name
• Employee last name
• Home telephone number
• Salary rate
• House number
• Street name
• Town
• Journey ID
• Employee ID
• Vehicle ID
• Route
• Date
• Fare
• Number of passengers
• Vehicle ID
• Colour
• Number of seats
• Seatbelts fitted
• Manufacturer
• Model
Figure 8.2 Table structure for CTS database
ITQ 8.4
We will introduce other database terminology as we progress through this chapter.
State what should be stored in a
field.
Data types in database tables
A wide range of data types is available in an RDBMS. Some common types are:
• Text: words, or more precisely, a sequence of alphanumeric characters.
• Numeric: numbers can be integer (whole numbers) or real (decimal numbers).
• Logical: true or false. Sometimes known as Boolean or Yes/No.
• Currency: monetary values.
• Date/Time: various formats for holding the date and time.
In the Caribbean Travel Services database, the fields in the Employees table will have
these data types:
Field name
Data type
Employee ID
Text
Employee first name
Text
Employee last name
Text
Home telephone number
Text
Salary rate
Currency
House number
Numeric
Street name
Text
Town
Text
Figure 8.3 Employee data types for CTS database
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The fields in the Vehicles table will have these data types:
Field name
Data type
Vehicle ID
Text
Colour
Text
Number of seats
Numeric
Seatbelts fitted
Boolean (Yes/No)
Manufacturer
Text
Model
Text
Street name
Text
Figure 8.4 Vehicle data
types for CTS database
The fields in the Journeys table will have these data types:
Field name
Data type
Journey ID
Text
Employee ID
Text
Vehicle ID
Text
Route
Numeric
Date
Date/Time
Fare
Currency/Decimal
Number of passengers
Numeric
Figure 8.5 Journey data
types for CTS database
Creating a database
ITQ 8.5
Currency and Date/Time are two
data types in a database; give TWO
other database data types.
Before starting to design a database system you must try to understand what the
database will be used for. A good starting point is to ask: ‘What are the questions
that the database will be used to answer?’ Listing these questions will help you
decide the tables you will need and the fields that make up the records in each
table.
Table structure in a database
The database for Caribbean Travel Services allows you to answer
questions about the data held. The first question was: Could you
find the phone number of the driver who took the bus on Route 7 on
March 13 this year?
Here are some more:
• Find me all the journeys that bus with ID ‘Bus 301’ took from March
1 to March 31.
• Find me the number of passengers that used Route 4 from
February 1 to February 28.
• Create a report showing the total fares collected from passengers
on ‘Bus 403’ in April.
• Show me all the vehicles that have more than 20 seats and are
fitted with seatbelts.
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From these questions we can think about what tables we will need. There are
questions about drivers, vehicles and journeys, so that is why we need the three
tables:
• Employees table
• Vehicles table
• Journeys table.
The questions should also help to consider what fields are needed in each table:
• There were questions about a driver’s phone number, bus ID, journey date,
route number, seatbelts and number of seats. Can you tell which fields belong
in which table?
• Some special fields seem to belong in more than one table. A journey needs a
vehicle—Vehicle ID, and a driver—Employee ID. These ‘special key fields’ join
the tables together.
Primary key ▶
Secondary key ▶
We now need to define some more terms:
A primary key is a field whose values are unique so they can be used to identify
a particular record.
A secondary key is a field whose values are not unique so a particular value may
identify several records.
Figure 8.6 Primary key
Composite key ▶
Candidate key ▶
For example, Employee ID is the primary key in the Employees table and Vehicle
ID is the primary key in the Vehicles table. An employee’s first name is a secondary
key as there may well be more than one employee with the same first name. It
is possible to use a combination of fields to create a primary key. For example, a
combination of the ‘First Name’ and ‘Last Name’ of an employee could be used to
create a primary key. However, it is much easier to give each employee a unique
‘Employee ID’.
A composite key is a combination of fields used to create a primary key. For
example, the ‘First Name’ and ‘Last Name’ combine to create a composite key.
A candidate key is a field that is considered a possibility for a primary field. For
example, the ‘Employee ID’ field and the composite ‘First Name’ plus ‘Last Name’
key are both candidates for the primary key in the Employees table. However, it is
much easier to simply create unique primary key information for each table.
Earlier we saw that the Journeys table will have:
• Journey ID
• Employee ID
• Vehicle ID
• Route
• Date
• Fare
• Number of passengers.
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ITQ 8.6
What is the difference between a
primary key and a foreign key?
Foreign key ▶
The ‘Employee ID’ belongs in the Employees table. It is a foreign key in the Journeys
table, which allows a link to be made between the two tables Journeys and
Employees. Likewise ‘Vehicle ID’ belongs in the Vehicles table. It is a foreign key
in the Journeys table, which allows a link to be made between the two tables
Journeys and Vehicles. The foreign key links to a primary key field in another
database table.
A foreign key appears in a table where it doesn’t really belong but allows two
tables to be linked.
Creating the table structure
Let’s get started with some simple database examples:
To open your preferred database program, look to see if there is an icon for a
database program on the desktop. If not Try: Start button and look for:
Microsoft Office > Microsoft Access
Otherwise your teacher will tell you how to start the database program.
To create a new table, look for ‘Create Table’ or ‘Create a Table in Design View’. Try:
Create > Table
You may need to turn on Design View; look for ‘Design View’. Try:
Home tab > View > Design View
Figure 8.7 Using Design View
When in Design View, add fields to the table and select the appropriate data type
from the drop-down menu.
Figure 8.8 Creating tables and selecting Field/Data
Types from a dropdown menu
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Creating the tables in a database
A good way to think about creating a database table is to list the fields and their
data types before creating the table design. We have already done this for our
Caribbean Travel Services example.
Opening and creating a database table
You have been tasked with setting the data Caribbean Travel Services holds about employees,
vehicles and their journeys into a database.
When a database program starts it requires you to either open an existing database or
create a new database.
1 Select ‘Create’ to create a new database.
2 A database needs at least one table, so if the ‘Create table tools’ does not automatically
open, look for ‘Create Table’. Try:
Create > Table
3 As explained earlier, you may need to turn on Design View; look for ‘Design View’. Try:
Home tab > View > Design View
4 The first table we need to create for the Caribbean Travel Services database is for the
employees. Type in the names of each field and select the correct data type from the
drop-down menu. We have shortened some of the names.
Figure 8.9 Creating tables
Each Employee record contains:
Field name
Data type
Employee ID
Text
First name
Text
Last name
Text
Tel number
Text
Salary
Currency/Decimal
House number
Numeric
Street
Text
Town
Text
Figure 8.10 Employee data types for CTS
database
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5 To save this table look for ‘Save this Object As’ or ‘Save As’. Save this table with the
name ‘Employees’. Try:
File > Save this Object As or File > Save As
Figure 8.11 Save Object As
NOTE: For steps 6, 7 and 8: if asked about a primary key choose ‘no’; we will come to
primary keys later.
6 Create a new table for vehicles. Each Vehicle record contains:
Field name
Data type
Vehicle ID
Text
Colour
Text
Num of seats
Numeric
Seatbelts
Boolean (Yes/No)
Manufacturer
Text
Model
Text
Figure 8.12 Vehicle data types for CTS
database
7 Save this table with the name Vehicles.
8 Create a new table for journeys. Each Journey record contains:
Field name
Data type
Journey ID
Text
Employee ID
Text
Vehicle ID
Text
Route
Numeric
Date
Date/Time
Fare
Currency/Decimal
Passengers
Numeric
Figure 8.13 Journey data types for CTS
database
9 Save this table with the name Journeys.
10 When you have created the three tables you need to save the database file. To save your
database file, look for ‘Save Database As’ or ‘Save As’. Try:
File > Save Database As
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Figure 8.14 Saving the database
11 Save your database file as ‘your initials CTS’, for Caribbean Travel Services; for example
XXCTS.
Database programs usually save as you work so there is no need to save your database
when you close. The system will prompt you if you need to save.
12 Click the ‘X’ in the top-right corner of the window to close the program.
Having created the tables in the database the next step is to input data to the tables.
Figure 8.15 Entering data into a table
Putting data into the database tables
Inputting data to a table
1 Open your database program.
2 Open the database you created in the previous activity XXCTS. Try:
File > Open
3 Select the Vehicles table.
4 You may need to switch from Design View to Datasheet View; look for ‘Datasheet View’. Try:
Home > View > Datasheet View
or double-click on the table to open.
5 Now you can simply type input data into the fields. In the Vehicles table we have already
identified three Vehicle IDs: Bus 301, Bus 302 and Bus 403, so use the data for these three buses
to get started.
Bus 301
Colour: red
Number of seats: 15
Seatbelts fitted: Yes
Manufacturer: Toyota
Model: Hiace
Bus 302
Colour: green
Number of seats: 12
Seatbelts fitted: Yes
Manufacturer: Toyota
Model: Hiace
Bus 403
Colour: blue
Number of seats: 31
Seatbelts fitted: Yes
Manufacturer: Alexander Dennis
Model: Enviro200 8.9M
Figure 8.16 Data to be input into the Vehicles table
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6 Click on the Vehicles table and enter the data in Datasheet View. Provide data for several more
vehicle records in the Vehicles table.
7 Click on the Employees table and enter the data in Datasheet View. Input the employee data and
from Figure 8.17 add some employees of your own. All employees need an Employee ID. At CTS
they use a code with a letter indicating the role of the employee followed by a unique number. }
For example, D 0001 is a driver, O 0003 is an office employee, C 0005 is a conductor and G 0008 is
a garage employee.
Employees
Employee ID Firstname Lastname
Tel number
Salary
House
num
Street
Town
D 0003
Earl
Hussey
876-900-9433
$2,950.00
34
King Street
Kingston
C 0010
Sageena
Murphy
876-903-6547
$2,750.00
3
North Avenue
Kingston
C 0014
Akeem
Douglas
880-456-2943
$2,950.00
17
Itsy Road
Mandeville
D 0001
Arturu
Hosein
874-979-2854
$3,450.00
27
Weaver Close
Negril
D 0002
Mike
Venutra
880-842-8931
$3,450.00
164
Keats Crescent
Georgetown
D 0005
Lesline
Ridout
886-385-3843
$3,450.00
54
Queen Street
Chapeltown
D 0008
Jasmine
Castille
894-738-2847
$3,550.00
11
Elgin Road
Maggotty
D 0011
Kate
Wilson
874-384-4858
$3,450.00
46
Monk Street
Negril
D 0012
Ula
Upchurch
876-475-5746
$3,550.00
2
Burlington Crescent
Kingston
G 0006
Chad
Courtois
876-584-2849
$2,800.00
18
Cassia Street
Kingston
O 0004
Cindi
Clevenger
875-858-4221
$3,250.00
38
Brandon Road
Ewarton
Figure 8.17 Data to be input to the Employees table
8 Click on the Journeys table and enter the data shown in Figure 8.18 in Datasheet View. Provide
data for several more journey records in the Journeys table.
Journeys
Journey ID
Employee ID
Vehicle ID
Route
Date
Time
Fare
Passengers
J 000001
D 0003
Bus 403
3
02/04/2019
9:30am
$1.00
23
J 000002
D 0012
Bus 301
7
02/04/2019
9:45am
$3.20
74
J 000003
D 0008
Bus 406
5
02/04/2019
10:00am
$1.50
34
J 000004
D 0011
Bus 302
2
02/04/2019
10:30am
$2.70
58
J 000005
D 0003
Bus 403
1
02/04/2019
12:30pm
$2.20
43
J 000006
D 0012
Bus 301
8
02/04/2019
1:00pm
$1.60
63
J 000007
D 0011
Bus 302
4
02/04/2019
1:15pm
$2.00
14
J 000008
D 0008
Bus 406
6
02/04/2019
2:00pm
$2.80
59
Figure 8.18 Data to be input to the Journeys table
Remember: Database programs save as you work so there is no need to save your database
when you close. The system will prompt you if you need to save.
9 Click the ‘X’ in the top-right corner of the window to close the program.
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Creating your company project database
Almost all companies will need to create a database to store their records. Your
company and St Luago Fashion are no exception.
ACTIVITY 8.1 Creating a database for your company
Use the company you created in earlier activities or use St Luago Fashion.
1 Create a database with three tables to manage the staff at your stores or other
locations. For example, St Luago Fashion has three stores and five employees
working shifts.
Employee ID
Firstname
Lastname
Payrate
001
Earl
Hussey
$12.50
002
Sageena
Murphy
$14.50
003
Akeem
Douglas
$11.50
004
Arturu
Hosein
$14.00
005
Mike
Ventura
$12.60
Figure 8.19 Example data to be input to the St Luago Fashion Employees table
Shift ID
Employee ID
Store ID
Week
Day
Hours Worked
0001
001
1
1
Mon
8
0002
003
1
1
Mon
6
0003
004
2
1
Mon
8
0004
005
3
1
Mon
8
0005
001
1
1
Tue
7
0006
003
2
1
Tue
8
0007
002
3
1
Tue
8
0008
001
1
1
Wed
7
0009
003
2
1
Wed
8
0010
004
2
1
Wed
6
0011
005
3
1
Wed
8
Figure 8.20 Example data to be input to the St Luago Fashion Shifts table
Store ID
Street Number
Street
Town
S1
35
Main Street
Kingston
S2
4
King Street
Georgetown
S3
17
Monk Avenue
Kingston
Figure 8.21 Example data to be input to the St Luago Fashion Stores table
2 Save the tables and the database and close the program.
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Modifying the table structure
ITQ 8.7
Watch a video about
modifying a database
table. Suggest a reason
to add a validation rule
to a field.
We really hope that you carefully thought through the design of your table structure
before you created the tables. If you did, there should be no reason to modify the
structure of your tables. However, if you have made an error or omission this is
the last chance to correct the structure of the database tables. If you leave changes
any later there is a serious risk that things will go disastrously wrong with your
database. You have been warned.
To modify a table structure, select the table and turn on Design View; look for
‘Design View’ or ‘Edit’. Try:
Table > Table Tools > Design View
Now you can add new fields, delete fields and change field definitions. Make
the required changes and use ‘Save Object as’ or ‘Save As’ to save the table.
Establishing primary keys
We introduced the idea of a primary key earlier. A primary key is a field whose
values are unique so they can be used to identify a particular record in a table. A
foreign key appears in a table where it doesn’t really belong but allows two tables
to be linked.
It should be clear that the primary keys for our tables are:
Vehicles table
Employees table
Journeys table
Vehicle ID
Employee ID
Journey ID
It should also be clear that the fields Vehicle ID and Employee ID in the Journeys
table are foreign keys, used to link tables together.
To make a field a primary key, make sure that Design View is on, select the field
and look for ‘Primary Key’. Try:
Primary Key
or right-click on the field and select ‘Primary Key’.
Figure 8.22 Making a selected field a primary key
ITQ 8.8
Why is a primary key needed in a
database table?
As you become more experienced at creating database tables you will be able to
create the primary key at the time you create each database table.
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Creating primary keys
You now need to choose a primary key for each of your tables.
1 Open your database program.
2 Open the database you created in the previous activity XXCTS.
3 To modify a table structure, select the table and turn on Design
View; look for ‘Design View’ or ‘Edit’. Try:
Table > Table Tools > Design View
4 To make a field a primary key, select the field and look for
‘Primary Key’. Try:
Primary Key
5
6
7
8
9
or right-click on the field and select ‘Primary Key’.
Make the Vehicle ID the primary key in the Vehicles table.
Make the Employee ID the primary key in the Employees table.
Make the Journey ID the primary key in the Journeys table.
Save if prompted to do so.
Click the ‘X’ in the top-right corner of the window to close the
program.
Now try to apply what you have learnt to your own company.
ACTIVITY 8.2 Add primary keys to the tables in the database for your company
Use the company you created in earlier activities or use St Luago Fashion.
1 Add primary keys to the tables in your database.
2 Close the program.
Linking tables using a primary key
ITQ 8.9
What type of relationship must
be avoided when designing a
database?
One-to-one relationship ▶
One-to-many relationship ▶
ITQ 8.10
State the TWO different types of
relationship used in a relational
database management system.
We have seen that the primary key in one table can be used as a foreign key in
another table to link the two tables. This allows the database system to automatically
retrieve data from multiple tables to answer our queries.
In our example, Vehicle ID and Employee ID are the primary keys in the
Vehicles and Employees tables respectively. They are foreign keys in the Journeys
table. Different types of link are possible:
One-to-one relationship is when one record in the first table matches zero or one
records in the second table. For example, one employee has one next of kin.
One-to-many relationship is when one record in the first table may match many
records in the second table. For example, one vehicle can go on many journeys.
You might accidentally create a many-to-many relationship. This is when many
records in the first table match many records in the second table. ‘Many-to-many’
relationships MUST be avoided if a database is to perform correctly. If you include a
many-to-many relationship in your database it will not perform correctly. You will
need to start again and redesign your table structures.
To join two or more tables look for ‘Relationships’. Try:
Database Tools > Relationships
Add all three tables. To link the tables drag the Vehicle ID in the Vehicles table
to the Vehicle ID in the Journeys table.
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Figure 8.23 Creating relationships between
database tables
Some database programs show the type of relationship, as in this example.
Work through this activity to reinforce your understanding of this difficult idea.
Establishing relationships between tables, joining tables
1 Open your database program.
2 Open the database you created in the previous activity XXCTS.
3 To join two or more tables, look for ‘Relationships’. Try:
Database Tools > Relationships
ITQ 8.11
Watch a video
explaining relationships
between database
tables. Why are
relationships between tables
important in a database system?
4 Add all three tables.
5 To link the tables try dragging the Vehicle ID in the Vehicles table
to the Vehicle ID in the Journeys table.
Figure 8.24 Creating relationships between database tables
6 Save if prompted to do so.
7 Click the ‘X’ in the top-right corner of the window to close the
program.
Now try to apply what you have learnt to your own company.
ACTIVITY 8.3 Create relationships between the tables in the database for your company
Use the company you created in earlier activities or use St Luago Fashion.
1 Create relationships between the tables in your database.
2 Close the program.
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Manipulating data in a database
For a database to be useful, we need to be able to view the data in a user-friendly
way. Forms and reports are a good way to do this. Often we don’t want to view all
the data, but by creating queries we can select only the data that is of interest to us.
Creating and using forms
In a database system forms are used to make using the database user-friendly. As
we have seen you can input data straight to a database table, but using a form
makes the process of inputting data easier for the user. Forms can also be used to
display the data in a database in a user-friendly way.
A form is a user-friendly interface to a database system. Forms can be used for
inputting data or simply viewing data in a user-friendly way.
Simple forms are based on a single table but complex forms that are based on
two tables are particularly useful when viewing large amounts of data. Database
developers have complete control over the contents of a form and how it is laid
out. In this section we limit ourselves to simple forms and sub-forms created using
a Form Wizard.
Form ▶
ITQ 8.12
Why do database designers include
forms in their systems?
Simple forms
To create a form look for ‘Form Wizard’, Try:
Create > Form Wizard
Figure 8.25 Creating a simple form using a wizard
Creating forms based on a single table
At CTS the human resources department wants to view the information about its employees
in an easy-to-use way.
1
2
3
4
Open your database program.
Open the database you created in the previous activity XXCTS.
Select the table Employees.
To create a form based on this table look for ‘Form Wizard’. Try:
Create > Form Wizard
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5 Move all the fields onto the Selected Fields before continuing.
Figure 8.26 Selecting fields for a form
6 Accept all other defaults until the wizard closes.
7 To view the form, make sure that you are in Form View; look for ‘Form View’. Try:
Home tab > View > Form View
Figure 8.27 Changing to Form View
8 To look through the records in order, use the Record tool at the bottom of the page.
Figure 8.28 Stepping through records
using a form on a single table
9 Save if prompted to do so.
10 Click the ‘X’ in the top-right corner of the window to close the program.
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Sub-forms
Caribbean Travel Services wants to see all the journeys that each of its drivers has
done. A sub-form achieves this: the main form contains the employee information
and the sub-form contains the journeys this employee has been involved in. In
most database programs the easiest way to create forms with sub-forms is by using
the Form Wizard.
Creating complex forms and sub-forms based on multiple tables
1
2
3
4
5
6
Open your database program.
Open the database you created in the previous activity XXCTS.
Select the table Employees.
To create a form based on this table look for ‘Form Wizard’.
Move all the fields onto Selected Fields as you did in the previous activity.
Open the Journeys table and add all the fields to Selected Fields before continuing or
moving on to the ‘Set up a sub-form’ step.
Figure 8.29 Adding the Journeys table as
a sub-form
7 Accept all other defaults until the wizard closes.
8 Make sure that you are in Form View; look for ‘Form View’.
Figure 8.30 A form and sub-form showing the record for driver Jasmine Venutra from the Employees table and the
journeys where Jasmine was the driver from the Journeys table as a sub-form
9 Save if prompted to do so.
10 Click the ‘X’ in the top-right corner of the window to close the program.
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Now try to apply what you have learnt to your own company.
ACTIVITY 8.4 Create forms for the tables in the database for your company
Use the company you created in earlier activities or use St Luago Fashion.
1 Create forms for viewing and inputting data to the tables in your database.
2 Create a form and sub-form showing employees in the main form and the shifts they
have worked in the sub-form.
3 Save the form and database and close the program.
ITQ 8.13
When might a form and sub-form
view be useful?
Creating and using queries
Queries are one of the most useful features of a database system. Queries answer
the questions that users pose. During the design phase of the database CTS tried to
anticipate all these questions. In the earlier Caribbean Travel Services example we
identified the following questions:
• Find all the journeys that bus with ID ‘Bus 301’ took from March 1
to March 31.
• Find the number of passengers that used Route 4 from February 1
to February 28.
• Create a report showing the total fares collected from passengers
on ‘Bus 403’ in April.
• Show all the vehicles that have more than 20 seats and are fitted
with seatbelts.
We will simplify these questions to demonstrate queries. For example, Caribbean
Travel Services wants to see all the journeys Bus 301 has undertaken. To create a
query, look for ‘Query’. Try:
Create > Query Design
Figure 8.31 Creating a query
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Add the table or tables and then the fields that you want to appear in the query by
clicking in the next free field and choosing the field from the drop-down menu.
Figure 8.32 Selecting Table and Field in
a query
In the Criteria row add your criteria. In this example we want to find the journeys
made by Bus 301, the vehicle with Vehicle ID ‘Bus 301’.
Figure 8.33 A query with criteria set to
‘Bus 301’
To run the query, look for ‘Run’ or the run symbol.
Figure 8.34 The Run tool
ITQ 8.14
What is a query?
The results of the query will be displayed showing only the journeys made by
Bus 301.
Now we are going to carry out this query activity. Caribbean Travel Services
wants to see all the journeys Bus 301 has undertaken.
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5 • XXX
Creating queries on a database
You have been asked to find the journey data for Bus 301 so that the Customer Services team
can determine the passenger ratio per route.
1 Open your database program.
2 Open the database you created in the previous activity XXCTS.
3 To create a query on a table, look for ‘Query’. Try:
Create > Query Design
Figure 8.35 Creating a query
4 Add the table or tables and close the tables dialog. Then add the fields that you want to
appear in the query by clicking in the next free field.
Figure 8.36 Selecting fields from a drop-down menu for inclusion in a query
5 In the Criteria row add your criteria. You will want to find the journeys made by Bus 301,
the vehicle with Vehicle ID ‘Bus 301’.
Figure 8.37 A query with criteria set to ‘Bus 301’
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6 To save this query, look for ‘Save Object as’ or ‘Save As’. Try:
File > Save Object As
Give the query the meaningful name ‘Bus 301 journeys’.
7 To run the query look for ‘Run’ or the run symbol.
Figure 8.38 The Run tool
The results of the query will be displayed.
8 Save if prompted to do so.
9 Click the ‘X’ in the top-right corner of the window to close the program.
Creating a query on more than one table
Because all the tables in our database are related, creating a query on more than one
table is easy, as shown in the previous activity. Simply add more tables and more
fields to the query during the query design phase. For example, find the names of
the drivers at Caribbean Travel Services who have driven ‘Bus 403’ on Route 3. This
involves the Journeys and Employees tables.
Figure 8.39 The result of a query to find the drivers of Bus 403 on Route 3
Calculated field ▶
To expand this example a little further, having identified the drivers we would like
to see how much should be in their cash tills. This needs a calculated field.
A calculated field is a field that derives its value by performing a function on
values from other table fields.
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Calculated fields are easy to add to a query: just type the formula in a free field
during the query design.
Figure 8.40 Creating a calculated field
The way you specify calculated fields in different database programs can vary.
Try:
Cash in Till:[Passengers] * [Fare]
If you make a mistake in the calculated field most database programs will try to
automatically correct the calculation for you. The result of the query showing the
calculated field is shown in Figure 8.41.
ITQ 8.15
Suggest ONE reason for including
a calculated field in a query.
Figure 8.41 The calculated field
Creating queries on multiple tables in a database
1
2
3
4
Open your database program.
Open the database you created in the previous activity XXCTS.
Start to create a query as you did in the previous activity.
Add the Journeys table and the Employees table before closing the tables dialog. Then add
the fields that you want to appear in the query: First name, Last name from the Employees
table and Vehicle ID, Fare and Passengers from the Journeys table.
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5 In the next free field create a calculated field for the total in the till. In Microsoft Access:
Try:
Cash in Till: [Passengers]* [Fare]
Figure 8.42 Creating a calculated field
6 In the Criteria row add your criteria. In this example we want to find the journeys made by
Bus 403, the vehicle with Vehicle ID ‘Bus 403’, on Route 3.
Figure 8.43 Creating the criteria Vehicle ID is ‘Bus 403’ and Route is ‘3’
7 Use ‘Save Object As’ or ‘Save As’ to save this query, giving it the meaningful name ‘Cash
in Till 403’.
8 Run the query using the Run button.
9 The results of the query will be displayed.
10 Click the ‘X’ in the top-right corner of the window to close the program.
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Now try to apply what you have learnt to your own company.
ACTIVITY 8.5 Creating queries for the tables in the database for your company
Use the company you created in earlier activities or use St Luago Fashion.
1 Create queries to question the data in the tables in your database.
2 Create a query with a calculated field to show employees’ names, hours worked,
hourly rate and the calculated pay.
3 Close the program.
Creating and using reports
The results of querying a database sometimes need to be printed out in a
professional-looking document. This might be so that it can be presented to the
Board of Governors or included in an annual report. The Board of Caribbean Travel
Services often want to review a summary of the database information.
The reporting tools include many features and can be used to include grouping,
sorting and totals in a report. Grouping allows records with the same value in a
selected field to be displayed together. For example, we might group journeys by
Vehicle ID or by the driver’s last name. Sorting allows the records to be displayed in
order, either ascending or descending. The easiest way to start with the reporting
tools is to use the Report Wizard.
As with forms, database developers have complete control over the contents of
a report and how it is laid out. In this section we limit ourselves to simple reports
using a Report Wizard. To create a report look for ‘Report Wizard’.Try:
Create > Report Wizard
and follow the instructions.
Figure 8.44 Creating a report using the Report Wizard
The wizard leads you through the following steps:
• Add the tables or queries, and then the fields that you want to appear in the
report. In this example add the: Vehicle ID, Route and Passengers from the
Journeys table and First name and Last name from the Employees table.
• Select any grouping that you want to be applied to the report. In this example,
group by Vehicle ID.
• Select any sorting and any summary options that you want to be applied to the
report. In this example, sort by Route.
• When the wizard finishes, the report is displayed.
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Figure 8.45 Section of a report grouped by Vehicle ID, sorted by Route and including the total number of
passengers that use each route
ITQ 8.16
What is the main reason for
creating a report from data held in
a database?
In some database systems, like LibreOffice Base, you create a query containing the
fields needed for the report and then use the Report Wizard to create the report
based on the query.
Creating a report from multiple tables in a database
The Human Resources team have asked you to pull a report to see which buses and routes the
drivers are working.
1 Open your database program.
2 Open the database you created in the previous activity XXCTS.
3 To create a report look for ‘Report Wizard’ or ‘Use Wizard to Create Report’. Try:
Create > Report Wizard
and follow the instructions.
Figure 8.46 Creating a report using the report Wizard
4 Add the tables or queries, and then the fields that you want to appear in the report. Add the:
Vehicle ID, Route and Passengers from the Journeys table and First name and Last name
from the Employees table.
5 The wizard leads you through the following.
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Figure 8.47 Stages in the wizard
6 Select any grouping that you want to be applied to the report. Group by Vehicle ID.
Figure 8.48 Selecting any grouping in the report, group by Vehicle ID, using the Report Wizard
7 Select any sorting and summary options that you want to be applied to the report. Sort by
Route.
Figure 8.49 Selecting any sorting required in the Report, sorted by Route, using the Report Wizard
8 When the wizard finishes, the report is displayed.
9 Use ‘Save Object As’ or ‘Save As’ to save this report, giving it the meaningful name ‘Bus
and Driver’. The results of the query will be displayed.
10 Click the ‘X’ in the top-right corner of the window to close the program.
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Now try to apply what you have learnt to your own company.
ACTIVITY 8.15 Create a report for your company
Use the company you created in earlier activities or use St Luago Fashion.
1 Create reports on different aspects of the data in your database.
2 Reports should include grouped and sorted data.
3 Close the program.
That concludes our introduction to databases. There are lots more features to
discover in databases but it’s time to move on.
Summary
• A database is a collection of records stored in a set of
related tables.
• A record contains data stored in individual fields.
• Data stored in a field can be: text, numeric, logical, date/
time, currency.
• Every table needs a primary key that uniquely identifies
individual records in the table.
• Forms can be created to view or enter data into a database
table in a user-friendly way.
• Forms can be main form/sub-form combinations.
• Queries select data from a database depending on the
given criteria.
• Reports allow you to group, sort and summarise data and
present it in a professional-looking document.
• A foreign key is a field that doesn’t really belong in a table
but is included so that tables can be joined or related.
Answers to ITQs
8.1 Databases are everywhere. Uses include your patient
records at the doctor’s surgery or looking up stock items
in a store.
8.4 A field in a database table is used to store a single
attribute or characteristic about a person, thing or
event – an entity.
8.2 A database file can contain many tables, a table can
contain many records and a record can contain many
fields.
8.5 Modern database systems allow a range of data types.
The most common are: Text: words, Numeric: numbers,
Logical: true or false, Currency: monetary values, and
Date/Time.
8.3 RDBMS stands for Relational DataBase Management
System. ‘Relational’ is used because tables in the
database are related or joined using primary key/
foreign key pairs.
8.6 A primary key belongs in a table and can be used to
uniquely identify any particular record in the table. A
foreign key appears in a table where it doesn’t really
belong; it is added so that two tables can be joined or
related.
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8.7 Validation can be added to a field to check the range of
a numeric input or to select an allowable input from a
list.
8.8 A primary key is needed in a database table to uniquely
identify any particular record in the table.
8.9 Many-to-many relationships should be eliminated as
you develop your database tables.
8.10 The three types of relationship are one-to-one, oneto-many and many-to-many but only two should be
present in a database as many-to-many relationships
should be eliminated as you develop your database
tables.
8.11 Relationships join tables together allowing data in one
table to be joined with data in another table.
8.14 A query is a question that the database system can
answer. The essential part of a query is the criteria, such
as ‘Passengers greater than 40’. The result is either true,
in which case the record is selected for inclusion, or
false, in which case the record is not included.
8.15 Calculated fields can be included in a query to perform
simple calculations based on numeric values contained
in other fields. They eliminate the need to enter this
data directly and are automatically updated if the data
they refer to changes.
8.16 Reports are created from data held in a database when
a professional-looking document is required. Grouping,
sorting and summary options all help in producing
meaningful, professional reports.
8.12 In a database system forms are a user-friendly way to
view and enter data.
8.13 Main form/sub-form combinations are particularly
useful when viewing a large amount of data in tables
that are related in a one-to-many relationship.
Examination-style questions: Multiple Choice
1)
Which statement best describes a database?
A) a collection of tables
B) tables that are in sequence
C) tables of related information
D) a collection of related tables
2)
Possibility High School maintains a database containing
tables related to its students and the subjects offered.
Which of the following represents a table within the
database?
A) a student’s name
B) a student’s record
C) all the personal data on students
D) the age of a student
3)
Which is NOT a database data type?
A) numeric
B) currency
C) text
D) key
4)
Which one of the following is NOT a type of database
relationship?
A) many-to-many
B) one-to-some
C) one-to-many
D) one-to-one
5)
Which of the following statements about database
forms is TRUE?
A) Forms can only be created on a single table.
B) A sub-form always needs a main form.
C) Forms must be used to enter data into a table.
D) When creating a form it has to be either a main
form or a sub-form.
6)
Databases and spreadsheets can both be used to store
data. Which of the following is NOT true?
A) Spreadsheet and database are different names for
the same program.
B) Databases can contain many related tables and
worksheets in a spreadsheet can be linked.
C) Database tables and spreadsheet worksheets can
both hold records of data.
D) Both spreadsheets and databases can perform
calculations.
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The following database table should be used to answer
Questions 7–10.
Employee ID Firstname
Lastname
How many different field types are used to store the
data?
A) 3
B) 4
C) 5
D) 6
Payrate
001
Earl
Hussey
$12.50
002
Sageena
Murphy
$14.50
003
Akeem
Douglas
$11.50
004
Arturu
Hosein
$14.00
005
Mike
Ventura
$12.60
7)
How many records are displayed in the table?
A) 3
B) 4
C) 5
D) 6
8)
9)
10) Consider the following statements and state which are
TRUE:
I
The Payrate field type is Currency
II
Data in text fields is left aligned
III
The Payrate field type is Numeric
IV The Employee ID field type is Boolean
A)
B)
C)
D)
How many fields are in the table?
A) 3
B) 4
C) 5
D) 6
I and II
II and IV
II and III
I and IV
Examination-style questions: Structured
1)
The trade promotion agency in St Luago uses a database named INVESTMENTS to store data related to applications for
licences to operate in the country. The database contains two tables: COUNTRY and APPLICATIONS.
Ccode
Cname
BB
Barbados
TT
Trinidad and Tobago
SV
St Vincent and the Grenadines
SL
St Lucia
Table 1 COUNTRY
AppID
Ccode
ProjectType
InvestmentAmt
Duration
ForeignStaff
A100
TT
Agriculture
$10,000,000
16
No
B200
BB
Mining
$4,000,000
4
Yes
C325
SV
Retail
$1,500,000
8
No
D450
SL
Financial
$8,000,000
12
No
E503
BB
Retail
$12,000,000
15
Yes
F645
SV
Mining
$9,500,000
10
No
Table 2 APPLICATIONS
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a)
Copy and complete the following table to state the data types of the fields indicated: Fieldname
[4]
Data type
AppID
InvestmentAmt
Duration
ForeignStaff
b)
Name the primary key for the COUNTRY table. [1]
c)
Name the field that would be used to join the two tables. [1]
d)
State the technical term for the field referred to in part (c). [1]
e)
Write or draw queries to:
i) List all project types with investment amounts greater than two million dollars. ii) List the country that submitted the application that requires foreign staff. iii) Create a calculated field to store an ApplicationFee which is 0.5% of the InvestmentAmt.
iv) List the following fields: Cname, ProjectType and InvestmentAmt. f)
g)
[2]
[2]
[2]
[2]
Grouping is a useful feature when creating a report. Explain what grouping means and state the TWO fields
that might be used for grouping when creating a report on the APPLICATIONS table.
What feature in a DBMS would you use to allow users to view an AppID, CCode and all the relevant
applications? [4]
[1]
Total 20 marks
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9
Problem-solving and
program design
We have already been using programs and we know that there is a wide range
of application programs available. However, sometimes we just cannot find an
application program that can solve a particular problem. In this situation we need
to write our own program. Before any programming can take place the problem
has to be analysed so it is fully understood. Potential solutions can then be
considered and the design of a program established. The design has to be clearly
represented as a pseudocode algorithm or flowchart before it can be passed to a
programmer for implementation.
In this chapter we will consider aspects of problem-solving and program
design to give you the skills and techniques you will need to develop successful
programs.
By the end of this chapter
you should be able to:
✔✔ Outline the steps in problem-solving.
✔✔ Use a divide-and-conquer approach to decompose large everyday problems
into smaller tasks.
✔✔ Define a problem by decomposing it into significant components.
✔✔ Distinguish between variables and constants.
✔✔ Explain the concept of algorithms.
✔✔ Represent algorithms in the form of pseudocode and flowcharts.
✔✔ Test algorithms for correctness.
Problem-solving &
program design
Problemsolving
using steps
The divide
& conquer
approach
Dividing into
sub-problems
Decomposing
a problem
Variables &
constants
Algorithms
IPO charts
Data types
Definitions &
characteristics
Decisions
Pseudocode &
flowcharts
Testing
algorithms
Relational
operators
Local
operators
Arithmetic
operators
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Outline steps in problem-solving
Problem ▶
Organisations and individuals face many problems. Information Technology can’t
help you if you fall out with your best friend but for some problems IT can provide
an effective solution. In this chapter we look at techniques to help you look at
problems and decide if the use of Information Technology can provide a solution.
Information Technology is primarily concerned with taking input data,
processing that data and outputting useful information.
A problem is a discrepancy (or difference) between the data we have and the
information we require.
Problems can range from simple to complex. A simple problem usually
involves only a few instructions to process the input data into the required output
information; for example, computing the tax payable on a single item. More
complex problems may take thousands or millions of instructions to process the
input data into the required output information. For example, weather forecasting
takes thousands of weather readings and processes them into a weather forecast.
Figure 9.1 Thousands of weather readings (from
1851 in the Atlantic and 1949 in the Pacific) are
processed into cyclone tracks allowing the track of
future cyclones to be predicted
ITQ 9.1
Watch a video about
the concept of an
algorithm. What is an
algorithm?
ITQ 9.2
List THREE simple mathematics
problems that you have solved
recently.
Solution ▶
Problem-solving ▶
Algorithm ▶
Simple problems
More complex problems
Finding the average of a set of numbers
Calculating tax payable on a single item
Computing the area of a rectangle
Determining the larger of two numbers
Generating a list of prime numbers
Performing a sort (for example, sorting
numbers into ascending order)
Determining the orbit of a satellite
Calculating the tax return for a company
Table 9.1 Simple and complex problems
Here are some key terms in problems solving. As we go through this chapter we
will explain these terms using practical examples.
A solution is a set of instructions that, if followed in order, will produce the
required information.
Problem-solving is the process of creating a set of instructions that, when
executed, accepts input data and produces meaningful information.
An algorithm is a sequence of instructions which rigorously defines a solution to a
problem. Put more simply, an algorithm is a set of instructions, written in everyday
English, that solves a problem.
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Pseudocode ▶
Flowchart ▶
Pseudocode is a language consisting of English-like statements used to define an
algorithm. Pseudocode is a formal way of writing an algorithm using structured
English text, numbers and special characters.
A flowchart is a pictorial way of representing an algorithm using a set of standard
symbols (shapes).
When faced with a problem
take time to clearly specify
the problem
ITQ 9.3
Sequence the following list of
terms as they appear naturally in
the problem-solving process:
• test
• define problem
• propose solutions
• create pseudocode or flowchart
• choose best solution
• develop algorithm.
Think about the ways you
might solve the problem
Implement the solution to
create valuable information
Figure 9.2 Problem-solving defines how to turn the input data into meaningful, valuable information
A typical problem-solving process involves six steps:
1 Define the problem.
2 Propose and evaluate solutions.
3 Determine the best solution.
4 Develop the algorithm.
5 Represent the algorithm as pseudocode or a flowchart.
6 Test and validate the solution.
Note: the syllabus requires you to ‘determine the most efficient’ solution. An
efficient solution may not be user-friendly and may not include any validation
checks. For this reason we use ‘choose the best solution’.
Step
Outline of activities
Define the problem
Aim is to understand the problem. Start with a clear description of the problem in
narrative form. An Input-Process-Output (I-P-O) chart is used to break the problem
down into three main component parts.
Propose and evaluate solutions
Consider alternative solutions to the problem. Evaluate each proposed solution.
Determine the best solution
Based on the evaluation of the solutions from the previous step, determine which
one is best.
Develop the algorithm
Formulate the solution into a set of instructions expressed in natural, everyday
language.
Represent the algorithm as pseudocode or a flowchart
Represent the solution as formal pseudocode or a flowchart.
Test and validate the solution
Test the pseudocode/flowchart for correctness using a trace table. If the algorithm
produces correct results for a set of carefully selected test data then the design is
deemed valid and program implementation may begin.
Table 9.2 The problem-solving process
The first step in solving a problem is to write a clear problem definition and the
first step in writing a clear problem definition is to understand the problem. To gain
a good understanding of the problem we might: interview persons, observe the
situation in which the problem occurs, look at any existing paperwork or manual
system and consider the objectives to be achieved. We need to know what the
inputs will be and what outputs are required. Only when you fully understand the
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problem can you write the problem definition. The problem definition should be
agreed by all the parties involved. Once we have a clear problem definition we can
think about solving the problem.
Using divide-and-conquer
approach to decompose large
everyday problems into smaller
tasks
Divide-and-conquer approach ▶
Some problems may be easy to solve. Others may appear difficult at first, but the
divide-and-conquer approach provides a structured method for solving complex
problems. For a simple problem it may be immediately apparent how the input
data is to be processed into the required information. For example: Finding the
average of a set of numbers.
You are probably thinking:
1 Read the numbers
2 Add them together
3 Count the number of numbers
4 Calculate the average = sum of the numbers / number of numbers
5 Write out the average.
Unfortunately not all problems are that simple. In the case of more complex
problems, using the divide-and-conquer approach may help you break down the
problem into manageable parts.
The divide-and-conquer approach is to repeatedly split a large problem into a
number of smaller sub-problems until a complete solution is identified.
You use the divide-and-conquer approach in your everyday life. To fry an egg
you need to:
1 Put your frying pan on a medium-to-low heat.
2 Add sufficient cooking oil to coat the bottom of the pan.
3 Crack the egg into the pan.
4 When the egg is cooked to your liking, remove the pan from the heat.
5 Transfer the egg onto a plate using a spatula.
6 Enjoy your fried egg.
How to divide the problem into sub-problems
Think of your own bicycle. How would you build a bicycle? What parts would
you need from the supplier? Building a bicycle is an example of a more complex
problem. We can use the divide-and-conquer approach to solve this problem.
These steps show you how to divide the problem into simpler, more manageable,
sub-problems:
1 Get a frame
2 Build the wheels and tyres
3 Make the brakes and cables
4 Make the chain and cogs
5 Get the handlebars
6 Assemble the complete bicycle.
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Figure 9.3 Dividing the problem into
simpler sub-problems
full bicycle
handlebar
gears
seat
forks
frame
pedals
wheels
brakes
chain
brake cables
rim
hub
spokes
tyre
valve
Now we have divided the problem into sub-problems, we can deal with each subproblem in turn.
For example: Getting the frame is easy: order from a supplier.
Building the wheels and tyres still needs a little more work so divide the problem
into simpler sub problems:
1 Get two hubs: order from supplier
2 Get spokes: order from supplier
3 Get rim: order from supplier
4 Get tyres: order from supplier
5 Assemble hub, spokes and rim
6 Fit tyres to the wheels.
Continue to break down the sub-problems until you reach only simple actions, e.g.
order from supplier or assemble parts. We conquer the problem of building a bicycle by
dividing it into smaller, simpler problems and solving each of these simple problems.
We can apply these ideas to solve Information Technology problems. For example:
Calculate the tax payable when a company, such as Caribbean
Travel Services, buys and subsequently sells an item for a profit.
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Divide the problem into simpler sub-problems:
1 Input purchase price, sales price and tax rate.
2 Calculate the tax due.
3 Output the tax due.
ITQ 9.4
What is the divide-and-conquer
approach to problem-solving?
Having divided the problem into sub-problems we can deal with each sub-problem
in turn:
1 Input purchase price, sales price and tax rate.
a Write ‘Please give the purchase price.’
b Get the purchase price.
c Write ‘Please give the sales price.’
d Get the sales price.
e Write ‘Please give the tax rate.’
f Get the tax rate.
2 Calculate the tax due.
a profit = sales price – purchase price
b tax due = profit * tax rate
3 Output the tax due.
a Write ‘The tax due is’
b Write tax due.
Defining a problem by
decomposing it into its significant
components
Decompose ▶
Another way to think of divide-and-conquer is as decomposing large problems into
smaller problems that can easily be solved.
To decompose is to break down into a combination of simpler components.
We decompose the complex problem into a number of simpler sub-problems
step by step, breaking down each of these sub-problems into even simpler subproblems. Using this step-by-step decomposition method, the number of problems
to be solved will increase but each problem becomes easier to solve. Eventually
all the sub-problems become simple problems that we know how to solve with a
single action or instruction.
Creating an IPO chart
A good place to start when developing a computer program is to break the problem
down into these three parts:
1 Get the inputs
2 Perform the processing
3 Display the output.
An Input-Process-Output (IPO) chart is a helpful diagrammatical way to start.
Simply start with the following outline table.
Input
identify all inputs here
Processing
Output
identify all the outputs here
identify the processing that
needs to take place to convert
the input data into the output
information
Table 9.3 An outline IPO chart
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ITQ 9.5
What are the three column
headings in an IPO chart?
Earlier we defined a problem as a discrepancy between the data we have and
the information we require. When investigating the problem in order to write
the problem definition, we identified the input data; this will be the input to
the program. The required information is the output from the program. A good
understanding of the problem and a clearly written problem definition will allow
you to identify all the inputs and outputs.
Here is a simple example. A simple definition of the problem is:
At Caribbean Travel Services a bus operates the same route twice a
day. The number of passengers on each journey is recorded. Create
a program to get the two passenger numbers from the driver, add
them together and display the total result.
The IPO chart is:
Input
first number
second number
Processing
Output
total = first number + second total
number
Table 9.4 An IPO chart for the Simple Add algorithm
In this IPO chart we have introduced the idea of a variable. You should already
be familiar with the idea of variables from mathematics. A variable is simply a
container. In this simple example we have used three variables: (i) first number,
(ii) second number and (iii) total.
If you were asked to solve this problem manually you might start with a pen
and paper and draw:
first number
(a)
second number
(b)
total
(c)
You are now waiting for your teacher to give you the first number (the first input),
which you will write into the container, the variable (a). You will write the second
number (the second input) into variable (b) and, when you have performed the
calculation, you will write the answer into variable (c). Now we are ready to output
the required information when your teacher asks you for the answer.
We cover variables in more detail in a later section.
Developing an addition algorithm from the
IPO chart
The natural, everyday language algorithm developed from the IPO chart is:
• write ‘Please give the number of passengers on the first journey’
• read the first number
• write ‘Please give the number of passengers on the second journey’
• read the second number
• calculate the total = first number + second number
• write ‘The total number of passengers on the route today was’
• write the total.
A more complex example involves another fictional company, Caribbean Cellular.
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Caribbean Cellular is a St Vincent-based mobile phone provider with operations
in Barbados, Guyana, Jamaica, Trinidad and Tobago and most of the Eastern
Caribbean. It has a special introductory offer in which customers get 20% more
credit with every top-up over $100, 30% more credit with every top-up over $200
and 40% with every top-up over $500.
Thinking about the problem, the complete IPO chart would be:
Input
phone number
credit amount
Processing
Compute the bonus
Add the bonus to the credit
Output
phone number
total credit
Table 9.5 IPO chart for introductory offer
First step, divide the problem into:
1 Get inputs
2 Perform processing
3 Write outputs.
Second step, divide each sub-problem:
1 Get inputs
a Get phone number
b Get credit amount.
2 Perform processing
a Compute bonus
i if amount is more than $100 but less than $200, bonus = credit amount * 0.2
ii if amount is more than $200 but less than $500, bonus = credit amount * 0.3
iii if amount is more than $500, bonus = credit amount * 0.4
b Add bonus to credit amount: credit amount = credit amount + bonus.
3 Write outputs
a Write phone number
b Write total credit.
Our complete solution is:
1 Get phone number
2 Get credit amount
3 If amount is more than $100 but less than $200, bonus = credit amount * 0.2
4 If amount is more than $200 but less than $500, bonus = credit amount * 0.3
5 If amount is more than $500, bonus = credit amount * 0.4
6 Add bonus to credit amount: credit amount = credit amount + bonus
7 Write phone number
8 Write total credit.
The above steps need no further refinement as they each represent a single
instruction that we know how to perform. We have broken the problem down
into simple instructions. We can implement the simple instructions directly.
Create an IPO chart and write an algorithm
Look at the following problem: Caribbean Travel Services records the number of passengers on
its buses. Bus 301 has three journeys in a day. Create an IPO chart and algorithm to get three
numbers from the user, add them together and display the result.
1 Create an IPO chart for this problem.
2 Write an algorithm to solve this problem.
CTS also wants to calculate the average number of passengers for the three journeys of Bus 301.
3 Re-use your ideas to create a new IPO chart and write an algorithm to find the average of
three numbers input by the drivers.
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ACTIVITY 9.1 Decompose a ‘number of tiles needed’ problem
1
2
ITQ 9.6
What does IPO stand for?
A wall is measured by its height and width in metres. How many 1 m2 tiles will be
needed to cover the whole wall?
Draw an IPO chart and write an algorithm to solve this problem.
The problems that we have looked at so far have been simple problems that are
solved by executing a set of instructions in sequence. In a sequence, instructions
are executed one after the other. We represent this structure as a set of statements,
written one after the other.
Develop an ‘Average’ algorithm from the IPO
chart: Loops
At CTS Bus 403 covers a short route 25 times a day. CTS wants to
know the average number of passengers on these journeys. Create
a program to read 25 passenger numbers, calculate the average and
display the result. We need ways of saying ‘do this a fixed number of
times’. This is called looping; the technical term is ‘iteration’.
When designing a solution to the problem of finding the average of 25 numbers
we might be thinking of this IPO chart:
Input
The 25 numbers; these are
the number of passengers on
each of the 25 bus journeys
Processing
total = 0
loop 25 times
input the next number
total = total + number
end loop
average = total/25
output average
Output
average
Table 9.6 An IPO chart for the Average algorithm
Figure 9.4 Looping a fixed number of times
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The natural, everyday language algorithm is:
Write ‘A simple program to average the number of passengers on 25 bus journeys.’
total = 0
Do the following 25 times
Write ‘Please give the next passenger number’
Read the number
total = total + number
Calculate the average = total/25
Write ‘The average number of passengers is’
Write the average
Notice the indentation: this shows the instructions that need to be repeated
25 times. To make this even clearer you may put:
Write ‘A simple program to average the number of passengers on 25 bus journeys.’
total = 0
Do the following 25 times
Begin the loop
Write ‘Please give the next passenger number’
Read the next number
total = total + number
End the loop
Calculate the average = total/25
Write ‘The average of these 25 numbers is’
Write the average
This type of loop is useful when the number of times to loop is known; this is 25
in this example.
Other types of loop: REPEAT UNTIL
There are other types of loop that may arise when you are decomposing a problem.
You may have to think about looping an unknown number of times. You may be
thinking ‘repeat this until something happens’. Here is an example:
CTS sometimes runs more buses than scheduled on a route on busy
days. On these occasions we don’t know how many journeys there
will be. The problem is to read in passenger numbers until there are
no more numbers and calculate the average. In these circumstances
a REPEAT UNTIL loop is what is needed.
An easy way to indicate that there are no more journeys is for the driver to enter
a 0 as the number of passengers. When the program reads a 0 it knows it should
now calculate and display the average before closing.
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Input
a set of passenger numbers
from the user, terminated by
a0
Processing
Output
average
total = 0
counter = 0
Repeat
Get the next passenger number
total = total + number
counter = counter + 1
Until number is equal to 0
counter = counter −1
Calculate the average = total/counter
Write the average
Table 9.7 Indicating no more journeys
This is how we write the natural language algorithm solution:
total = 0
counter = 0
Repeat
Get the next passenger number
total = total + number
counter = counter + 1
Until number is equal to 0
counter = counter −1 (we counted the 0 as a number, see Note below)
Calculate the average = total/counter
Write the average
ITQ 9.7
What is the minimum number
of times a REPEAT UNTIL loop
executes the included instructions?
Figure 9.5 A Rubik’s cube is another type of
complex problem that can be solved by an
algorithm using a while do loop (‘while do the
cube not solved’) statement
Note: Make sure that you understand why we included the line:
counter = counter −1
If the numbers entered were 4, 6, 0 then counter would be 3 because we counted
the 0. However, the 0 doesn’t indicate a journey; instead it indicates that there are
no more journeys, so we shouldn’t count it. We need to take 1 off the counter to
get the correct value, 2.
REPEAT UNTIL loops execute the included instructions at least once, in this
example at least one journey. A REPEAT UNTIL loop is sometimes known as a
post-test loop. This is because the test for continuing the loop comes after (post)
the instructions in the loop have been executed.
Other types of loop: WHILE DO
The final type of loop is not so common. When decomposing the problem you
might be thinking ‘while some condition is true do this’. For example, a modern
bus with an automatic crash system might operate while there is no object in
the way and keep the power on and brakes off. An embedded computer system
continuously monitors a sensor that detects an object in the vehicle’s path.
The IPO chart is:
Input
object present or absent
Processing
while noObject is true
Begin
power = on
brakes = off
End
brakes = on
power = off
Output
power
brake
Table 9.8 IPO chart
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This is how we write the natural language algorithm solution:
while object detected is equal to No
Begin the loop
power = on
brakes = off
End the loop
brakes = on
power = off
A WHILE DO loop may not execute the instructions included between Begin
and End. WHILE DO loops execute the included instructions zero or more times.
A WHILE DO loop is sometimes known as a pre-test loop. This is because the test
for continuing the loop comes before (pre) the instructions in the loop have been
executed.
ACTIVITY 9.2 Loops
Consider the following looping scenarios:
1 A batter at the crease in cricket
2 A knitter following a knitting pattern
3 A vehicle approaching road traffic lights.
• In your group decide which type of loop is most appropriate. Clues: a batter must
face at least one bowl; a vehicle may not have to stop at the traffic lights.
• Justify your decisions.
ITQ 9.8
What is the minimum number of
times a WHILE DO loop executes
the included instructions?
Decisions: IF-THEN, IF-THEN-ELSE
The final tool to look at when performing divide-and-conquer problem-solving is
the decision process. When you are decomposing a problem you may be thinking
‘if this is true then we need to execute these instructions’.
At Caribbean Travel Services vehicles need to be serviced once they
reach 100,000 kms after their last service. Designing a solution to
this problem might involve reading in a vehicle’s kilometres covered
since the last service and deciding if a service is needed.
The problem is to decide if a vehicle needs a service.
The IPO chart is:
Input
Processing
Output
Kms covered
If Kms >= 100,000
then service is yes
service
Table 9.9 An IPO chart for the Service (IF-THEN) algorithm
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This is how we write the natural language algorithm solution:
Get the vehicle’s Kms covered since last service
If Kms covered is 100,000 or greater
Output ‘Yes’
Note: Again the indentation shows the instructions that need to be executed if
the condition is met.
We can extend the problem above to decide if: ‘yes’ the vehicle needs a service,
or ‘no’ the vehicle does not need a service.
Now you should be thinking:
‘If this is true we need to execute these instructions otherwise we need to
execute a different set of instructions.’ An ‘IF-THEN-ELSE’ decision is needed.
The IPO chart is:
Input
Processing
Output
Kms covered
If Kmscovered >= 100000 then
result is ‘Yes’
else (otherwise)
result is ‘No’
result
Table 9.10 An IPO chart for the Service (IF-THEN-ELSE) algorithm
ITQ 9.9
What is the difference between
IF-THEN and IF-THEN-ELSE?
This is how we write the natural language algorithm solution:
Get the vehicle’s Kms covered since the last service reading
If Kmscovered is 100,000 or greater then
Output ‘Yes’
Else
Output ‘No’
End of the if
ACTIVITY 9.3 Decisions
Consider the following decision scenarios:
1 What happens when the batter misses the ball in cricket?
2 At simple red/green traffic lights what action should a driver take?
• In your group decide which type of decision is most appropriate.
• Justify your decisions.
The more problems you consider and break down, the easier it becomes. Solving the
following problems requires you to use sequences of instructions, loops and decisions.
If you get stuck on the following activities try re-reading the above sections.
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ACTIVITY 9.4 Solving problems
Use the company you created in earlier activities or use St Luago Fashion.
Solve the following problems by:
1 Defining the problem.
2 Creating an IPO chart.
3 Writing a natural language algorithm solution in your notebook. You will need these
algorithms in the next chapter.
• Your company has three stores. At the end of the day all three stores report their
takings to head office. Create an algorithm to input the three values, add them
together and output the total.
• At the end of the week each of the branches needs to average the five days’ takings.
Create an algorithm to input the five values, calculate the average and output the
average. (Use a loop.)
• Your company has started attending markets during the week. The number of
markets varies. Create an algorithm to input the takings at each market, add them
together and output the total.
• The Board of your company has decided to update underperforming branches.
Create an algorithm to input the annual profit of a branch. If the profit is less than or
equal to 50,000, then the output is ‘Update’.
• The Board of your company has decided to update underperforming branches. Create
an algorithm to input the annual profit of a branch. If the profit is less than or equal to
50,000 then the output is ‘Update’, otherwise the output is ‘Excellent performance’.
Determining the best solution
During the problem-solving process it is usual for one solution to become clear.
However, on rare occasions, there may be more than one possible solution.
For a simple example: Calculate the tax payable on the sale of 10 items.
Two solutions might come out of applying the divide-and-conquer method which
can be summarised as:
1 For each of the 10 items, calculate profit, calculate the tax payable on the
profit of each item sold and then add this to the total tax payable.
2
For each item, calculate the profit, add this to the total profit and after all 10
items calculate the total tax payable.
In these cases the problem solver has to select which solution is best. (The second
option is more efficient; it needs only 21 calculations where the first solution needs
30 calculations.)
Distinguishing between variables
and constants
In the previous section we considered inputs and outputs but now it is time to
consider how these are dealt with in more detail. When a program reads an input it
takes the data from the input device and stores it in main memory (RAM). To do this,
part of the main memory is split into containers; each container will hold a value.
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Each of these containers must have:
• a name (identifier) so that we can easily refer to it
• a data type so we know the size of the container and what sort of data the
container holds; for example a number or character.
Variables and constants
Variable ▶
Constant ▶
The technical terms for these containers are ‘variable’ and ‘constant’.
A variable is an area of storage whose value can change during processing. A
constant is also a container but the value in a constant cannot be changed.
A constant is an area of storage whose value cannot be changed during processing.
Constants are useful for fixed values. For example, pi is always 3.14159 to 5 decimal
places. It is good practice to use constants because it makes the source code easier
to understand and it means the value of the constant appears only once in the code
and so is easy to change.
Memory location
25
26
B
27
28
u
s
29
30
16
vehicle
3.1459
seats
pi
variable names
Figure 9.6 Memory locations 26 to 28 contain a variable for the type of vehicle, location 29 contains an integer
variable for number of seats and location 30 contains a constant for pi
Identifier ▶
ITQ 9.10
The name given to variable or a constant by a programmer is called an identifier.
When programming it is good practice to develop a system for creating
meaningful identifiers. In this book:
• each identifier is meaningful, it describes what data is being stored, for example
average, totalCost and taxRate
What is the difference between a
variable and a constant?
• all identifiers begin with a lowercase letter
• no underscores are used, instead of total_cost we write totalCost.
Variables are needed for storing:
• all input data that will be provided by the user
• any memory that will be required during processing, for example the total
when calculating an average
• all output data.
A clear understanding of the problem and the use of the divide-and-conquer
method in problem-solving should have indicated the variables that will be needed.
For example, a simple problem is to read in 3 numbers and output the average. The
IPO chart would be:
Input
input
num1
num2
num3
Processing
numOfNumbers = 3
total = num1+num2+num3f
average = total/numOfNumbers
Output
Output
average
Table 9.11 IPO chart for the Average problem
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From this the variables and constants are identified:
Variables:
num1
num2
num3
total
average
Constants:
numOfNumbers
Data types
Before variables and constants can be used in a program they should be declared.
This allows the computer to allocate the correct amount of memory to hold the
values.
To declare a variable or constant the programmer must provide:
• an identifier (a name)
• a data type.
Data type ▶
ITQ 9.11
Suggest the most appropriate data
type to store values related to
EACH of the following:
• An employee’s age
• An employee’s last name
• An employee’s initial
• An employee’s hourly wage
• Is the employee single?
A data type specifies what sort of values a variable or constant can hold.
The main data types that are used for writing simple programs are:
• integer: whole numbers such as 0, 5, 10, 1,024 and –50 (negative 50)
• floating point (real): any number that contains decimal places such as 0.2, 1.5
and –50.4 (negative 50.4)
• character: units of data including letters, numbers and symbols such as A, a, 9,
$ and @
• string: a sequence of characters such as ‘Frank’, ‘Ruth’, ‘bus’ and ‘925-0000’
• boolean: a true or false value, Yes/No.
The concept of an algorithm
In previous sections we have considered:
1 Define the problem
2
Propose and evaluate solutions
3
Determine the best solution.
It is now time to look at algorithms in more detail. We have been creating natural,
everyday language algorithms but now we need to check that our algorithms
conform to guidelines.
Definition and characteristics of an algorithm
An algorithm is a set of instructions that if followed in sequence will lead to a
solution for the problem.
All algorithms share these basic characteristics:
• They have a limited (finite) number of steps to be performed.
• They must contain a finite number of instructions. A complex algorithm may
contain thousands of instructions but it must be a finite number, it must always
finish.
• The statements used are precise.
• An algorithm is precise when it is strictly defined.
• The statements used are unambiguous.
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• An algorithm is unambiguous when it is not open to more than one
ITQ 9.12
Which of the following are
ambiguous?
(a)Is the person old?
(b) Is the number of passengers
greater than vehicle capacity?
(c)Is the bus fast?
(d) Is the bus’s maximum speed
greater than 100?
interpretation. Algorithms cannot include words or phrases like ‘looks bigger’
or ‘best’, because these can be interpreted differently by different programmers.
• They have instructions that pass the flow of control from one process/action to
another.
• Instructions in an algorithm must be followed in a sequence, control passes
from one process to the next until the algorithm terminates.
• They eventually terminate.
• All algorithms must eventually finish.
Representing algorithms in
the form of pseudocode and
flowcharts
Pseudocode and flowcharts are two ways of representing algorithms:
• Pseudocode is written in text
• Flowcharts are drawn using special symbols (shapes).
Using pseudocode to represent algorithms
ITQ 9.13
Watch a video that
introduces pseudocode.
What are the three
structures used in
pseudocode?
Pseudocode is a way of representing an algorithm using structured English text,
numbers and special characters. When writing pseudocode it is useful to use a
special set of language building blocks. When you were thinking about how to
solve problems in the previous sections you will have been using some of these
building blocks.
Here are some examples:
READ the student’s score.
total = total + score
WRITE the total
Some of the other constructs will need a bit more work.
For example:
Do the following 25 times
Begin
Write ‘Give the next passenger number’
Read the next number
total = total + number
End
becomes
FOR counter = 1 TO 25 DO
WRITE ‘Give the next passenger number’
INPUT the next number
total = total + number
ENDFOR
Look at the above example to make sure you understand what is going on.
Here is another example – see if you can work out what this pseudocode does.
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ACTIVITY 9.5
FOR counter = 1 TO 3 DO
WRITE ‘hip hooray’
ENDFOR
Discuss what the above algorithm does in your group.
The next example involves Repeat … Until. Remember this is used when we want
to loop at least once but we don’t know how many times to loop.
Earlier in this chapter we saw:
Repeat
Get the next passenger number
total = total + number
counter = counter + 1
Until number is equal to 0
this becomes
REPEAT
READ passengerNumber
total = total + passengerNumber
counter = counter + 1
UNTIL (passengerNumber = 0)
The next example involves DO … WHILE. Remember this is used when we may
not want to loop at all but we don’t know how many times to loop.
Earlier in this chapter we saw:
While No object detected
Begin
power = on
brakes = off
End
brakes = on
power = off
this becomes
WHILE (noObjectDetected) DO
BEGIN
power = on
brakes = off
END
brakes = on
power = off
The next example involves IF-THEN. Remember this is used for simple decisions.
If Kms covered is 100,000 or greater then
Output ‘Yes’
this becomes
IF (Kms covered >= 100000) THEN
WRITE ‘Yes’
The final example involves IF-THEN-ELSE. This is used for a decisions between
two options.
If Kms covered is 100,000 or greater then
Output ‘Yes’
Else
Output ‘No’
this becomes
IF (Kms covered >= 100000) THEN
WRITE ‘Yes’
ELSE
WRITE ‘No’
Pseudocode is a more formal way of writing instructions so that they are
unambiguous. If you have been doing all the activities in the earlier section you
should already be thinking in the right way.
When writing pseudocode it is useful to use the following language constructs.
This will help when you get to the program implementation stage.
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What do you want to do
Verb/construct to use
Example of how to use it
Input data
INPUT
or
READ
INPUT name
READ name
Assign a new value to a variable
(or initialise a variable)
STORE, = or :=
STORE age + 1 TO age
age = age + 1
age := age + 1
Output data and information
OUTPUT,
PRINT
or
WRITE
OUTPUT ‘Please enter a number’
PRINT ‘End of processing’
OUTPUT total
WRITE ‘The total is ’, total
Repeat a statement or set of
statements a fixed number of
times
FOR … DO
FOR counter = 1 to 5 DO
OUTPUT counter
ENDFOR
Repeat a statement or set of
statements based on a condition
that is tested before loop entry.
Loop must execute at least once
REPEAT … UNTIL
total = 0
REPEAT
INPUT coin
total = total + coin
UNTIL (total >= 20)
Repeat a statement or set of
statements based on a condition
that is tested before loop entry.
Loop may not execute
WHILE … DO
counter = 1
WHILE (counter < 5) DO
OUTPUT counter
counter = counter + 1
ENDWHILE
Make a decision with one
possible action
IF-THEN
IF (x > 5) THEN
PRINT x
ENDIF
Make a decision with two
possible actions
IF-THEN-ELSE
IF (passMark > 50) THEN
PRINT ‘Pass’
ELSE
PRINT ‘Fail’
ENDIF
ITQ 9.14
List THREE keywords (verbs) that
may be used as instructions for
outputting information when
writing pseudocode.
Table 9.12 Summary of the verbs and control structures used when writing pseudocode
There are lots of examples of pseudocode coming up in the following section, but
now let us look at an alternative way to represent an algorithm: flowcharts.
ITQ 9.15
Watch a video that
introduces flowcharts.
What is a rhombus
shape used for in a
flowchart?
ITQ 9.16
Which is the only flowchart symbol
which MUST be used at least twice
in every flowchart?
Using flowcharts to represent algorithms
A flowchart is a pictorial way of representing an algorithm using a set of standard
symbols (shapes).
Flowcharts use different symbols to represent input, processing and output
operations. Operations are connected with arrows which serve as flow lines.
Flowcharts are usually drawn from top to bottom or left to right. It is important
that the symbols are used as intended so that the completed flowchart is clear to
the programmers. Examples of correct usage of the five standard flowchart symbols
are shown below.
Each flowchart should have only two terminal symbols. The first one should
be labelled either ‘Begin’ or ‘Start’ and the other labelled either ‘End’ or ‘Stop’.
‘Begin’ and ‘End’ will be used in all flowcharts in this chapter. This will help to
easily convert the algorithms to program code later.
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Process
Symbol
Description
Terminal
Terminators show the start and stop points in a process.
Use only TWO terminators for EACH flowchart.
Label the first terminator BEGIN and the second one END.
Input/Output
Parallelogram.
This symbol indicates inputs to and outputs from a process.
The shape must be labelled with either INPUT or OUTPUT.
Process
Rectangle.
Program instruction(s) that transform(s) input(s) into
output(s) are recorded here.
Each symbol MUST be labelled with an operation that
includes the assignment operator (➝ or =).
Decision
Rhombus.
Indicates a question or branch in the process flow; for
example x > 0?
No need to write the words ‘IF…THEN’ in the shape.
Label one branch Yes and the other No.
Flowlines
Flowlines join flowchart symbols and indicate the direction in
which the process flows.
Table 9.13 Flowchart symbols and their meaning and usage
ITQ 9.17
What is the purpose of flowlines in
a flowchart?
The input/output symbol is used to document data that is coming in or going out
of the program. If multiple data items are being input or output one after the other
then include them in the same symbol.
input
fare
output
‘Amount in till’
Figure 9.7 A data (input/output) symbol must be
labelled with input or output as well as the variable
or variables
The process symbol is used to show variables being initialised to starting values
and variables being assigned new values provided by an arithmetic operation. The
following are all valid labels:
STORE 1 TO X
X=1
X➝1
X := 1
We will use the ‘=’ as our assignment symbol in all our flowcharts.
counter = 0
sum = 0
counter =
counter + 1
average =
total/counter
Initialising variable
Adding 1 to a counter
A division operation
Figure 9.8 Correct labelling of the process symbols. Note that each symbol has only one flow line entering and
one leaving
The decision symbol is used when the flow can miss out a process or pass to one
of two possible processes depending on a condition.
While there are no very firm rules governing the labelling of the decision
symbol, good practice suggests that you should label the:
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Theory
• decision symbol with the question being posed rather than if…then; the shape
itself already represents if…then
• left branch of a decision symbol ‘No’ and the right branch ‘Yes’ (since we read
from left to right, we will naturally read the question in the symbol then process
what is on the right as ‘Yes’).
No
Age >= 21?
Yes
Figure 9.9 A correctly drawn decision symbol is labelled
with a question and has two labelled arrows leaving it. The
flow lines leaving the symbol must be labelled, one with
‘No’ and the other with ‘Yes’
Using relational operators
Both pseudocode and flowcharts have mechanisms to represent decisions. A decision
always has a condition that evaluates to true or false. Examples of conditions are:
Algorithm
Pseudocode
passengers is greater than 50
passengers > 50
letter is ‘K’
letter = ‘K’
first letter is ‘O’ and second letter is ‘K’
firstLetter = ‘O’ and secondLetter = ‘K’
the input word is not equal to ‘exit’
inputWord <> ‘exit’
Table 9.14 Conditions that evaluate to true or false
Relational operators ▶
Condition ▶
Operand ▶
These use what are called the relational operators and always result in true or
false. Relational operators test the relationship between two values and always
result in true or false.
A condition is an expression that includes a relational operator and the two
operands on which it operates.
An operand is a data value, held in a variable that is part of a condition.
Symbol
Meaning
>
greater than
>=
greater than or equal to
=
equal to
<> or!=
not equal to
<
less than
<=
less than or equal to
Table 9.15 Relation operators
Take as an example these three boxes of spare parts in a garage:
Figure 9.10 Boxes 1, 2 and 3 containing spare
parts in a garage
Based on the values shown in Box 1, Box 2 and Box 3, the statement:
1 ‘Box 1 = 5’ is TRUE
2
‘Box 1 < Box 2’ is TRUE
3
‘Box 1 = Box 2’ is FALSE
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ITQ 9.18
Based on the values shown:
Box 1
Box 2
4
‘Box 2 = Box 3’ is TRUE
5
‘Box 2 <> Box 3’ is FALSE
6
‘Box 2 > Box 1’ is TRUE
7
‘Box 2 <= 8’ is TRUE
Caribbean Travel Services regularly uses relational operators. Some
examples are:
• In the garage tyre pressure must be equal to 28psi, (pressure = 28)
Boxes 1 and 2 containing pens and pencils
in an office.
State whether EACH of the
following statements is TRUE or
FALSE:
(a) Box1 = 4
(d) Box1 = Box2
(b) Box2 > Box1 (e) Box1 <> Box2
(c) Box1 < Box2
• In the depot a vehicle cannot enter unless there is at least one
free bay, (freeBays >= 1)
• At the head office there are less than 5 reams of paper left, it is
time to re-order, (paperReams <= 5)
ACTIVITY 9.6 Relational operators in your company
Use the company you created in earlier activities or use St Luago Fashion.
• Identify five or more examples of when your company will need relational operators.
• Create a condition for each example, e.g. (salary >= 10,000).
• Create a short document of your examples and share with the class on the class
noticeboard.
An important skill that you will need to develop is being able to correctly identify
a condition in a problem statement. Below is an example based on the following
problem narrative:
Caribbean Travel Services has a strict ‘14 years and over’ policy for
travel before 6 a.m., unless with an accompanying adult.
Develop an algorithm to prompt for, and accept, the age of a person and, if the
age is under 14, print ‘sorry – no underage travel before 6 a.m.’.
ITQ 9.19
What is the meaning of the ‘>=’
relational operator?
Step 1
Identify keywords such as equal to, greater The keyword ‘IF’ has been identified, it
than, less than, if, then, until and while.
appears in italics.
Step 2
Identify variables and values that appear The variable ‘age of a person’ and the
close to the keywords identified in step 1. value ‘14’ appear. Both appear close to
the keyword.
Step 3
Write down the condition; ensure that you
have used the correct relational operator.
Write the condition as personsAge < 14?
Table 9.16 Developing an algorithm
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Using logical operators
Logical operators ▶
Earlier we saw that one of the main data types used for writing simple programs is
Boolean, which results in a true or false value.
The most common Boolean, or logical operators, perform AND, NOT and OR
actions. They occur:
• before another condition in the case of the NOT operator
• between two relational conditions as in the case of the AND OR operators.
The use of a logical operator turns a simple relational condition into a compound
condition.
Simple conditions:
counter = 5
num1 > 7
amount = 8
Compound conditions:
(power = true) AND (brakes = false)
(amount > 10) OR (discount > 0.2)
NOT (taxPaid >= 100)
A truth table is helpful in determining whether a statement involving a logical
operator is true or false. A truth table is a diagram in rows and columns showing
how the truth or falsity of a statement varies with that of its components. A truth
table shows all possible true/false values for an expression.
A
B
A OR B
A
B
A AND B
TRUE
TRUE
TRUE
TRUE
TRUE
TRUE
TRUE
FALSE
TRUE
TRUE
FALSE
FALSE
FALSE
TRUE
TRUE
FALSE
TRUE
FALSE
FALSE
FALSE
FALSE
FALSE
FALSE
FALSE
Table 9.17 Truth table for the OR operator
A
NOT A
TRUE
FALSE
FALSE
TRUE
Table 9.18 Truth table for the AND operator
Table 9.19 Truth table for the NOT operator
Based on the values shown:
Based on the values shown in Box 1, Box 2 and Box 3, the statement:
• (Box1 = 5) AND (Box2 = 7) is TRUE (since both conditions are true; look at row
1 in the AND table)
• (Box2 = Box3) OR (Box2 = 7) is TRUE (since both conditions are true; look at
row 1 in the OR table)
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• NOT (Box1 > 10) is TRUE (since the expression was originally false; look at row
ITQ 9.20
2 in the NOT table)
Based on the values shown:
Box 1
• (Box2 < 5) AND (Box3 = 7) is FALSE (first expression is false and second
Box 2
expression is true; row 3 of the AND table).
Caribbean Travel Services regularly uses compound conditions.
Some examples are:
• Before a vehicle leaves the garage tyre pressure must be equal to
28psi and fuel must be greater than 100 litres ((pressure = 28) AND
(fuel>=100)).
state whether EACH of the
following statements is TRUE or
FALSE:
• (Box1 = 4) AND (Box2 =8)
• NOT (Box1 <= 5)
• (Box2 > Box1) OR (Box1 <= 7)
• NOT (Box1 < Box2)
• (Box1 = Box2) OR (Box1 =4).
• In the depot a vehicle cannot enter unless there is at least one
free bay or it needs refuelling ((freeBays >= 1) OR (fuel <= 100)).
• At the head office, if the reams of paper are less than or equal
to 5 or toner cartridges are less than 2, it is time to re-order
((paperReams <= 5) OR (toner < 2).
Using arithmetic operators
Arithmetic operators ▶
DIV ▶
MOD ▶
ITQ 9.21
Use integer arithmetic to calculate:
• 13 DIV 3
• 7 MOD 2
• 125 DIV 10
• 17 MOD 5
• 73 DIV 7
Other important symbols used in programming are those that represent
mathematical computations such as addition, subtraction, multiplication and
division. These are called the arithmetic operators and these perform +, −, *, /, DIV
and MOD actions. The addition, subtraction, multiplication and division operations
are the same actions as in mathematics. The DIV and MOD operators may be new
to you; they are used in integer arithmetic. Integers are whole numbers.
DIV is the integer division operator which discards the fractional part (remainder)
of the result. For example:
5 DIV 2 produces 2 since the remainder, which is 1, is discarded.
MOD is the integer remainder operator which gives the fractional part (remainder)
of the result. For example:
5 MOD 2 produces 1 since this is the remainder.
Integer operation
Explanation of results
11 DIV 5 = 2
We get a result of 2 since the DIV operation discards the remainder 1
7 MOD 2 = 1
We get a result of 1 since the MOD operation is only interested in the
remainder portion of the results
6 DIV 2 = 3
We get a result of 3 since the DIV operation discards the remainder 0
9 MOD 3 = 0
We get a result of 0 since the MOD operation is only interested in the
remainder portion of the results
Table 9.20 Examples of integer division operations and their results
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Theory
Testing algorithms for correctness
Dry run ▶
Test data ▶
Trace table ▶
Before implementing the program, it is wise to fully test the algorithm. Any
errors found at this stage are easy to correct. Errors that are not found until the
programming stage can be very time-consuming to correct.
A good way to test an algorithm is to perform a dry run, sometimes known as a
desk check.
A dry run is a practice run, a rehearsal of the process before the algorithm is
implemented as a program. Performing a dry run through the algorithm makes
sure that it operates in the expected way.
During the dry run method, the algorithm is tested by a human taking on the
role of the CPU, executing each instruction in sequence. When performing a dry
run on a program, input values for which the expected result is already known are
used. These values are called test data.
Test data is a set of carefully selected data values used to determine whether an
algorithm or program works as intended. For example, the test data used for dry
running an ‘average of three numbers’ algorithm might be 4, 5 and 6 because we
know the answer should be 5.
A trace table is used to display how the values of variables change as a dry run is
carried out. To construct a trace table:
1 Count the number of variables in the algorithm and add one for the output.
This will determine the number of columns.
2
Draw a table with the number of columns identified in Step 1 and at least
three rows. Always give yourself plenty of room for the trace table to expand
downwards.
3
Label the first row of your table with the names of the variables. The last
column is labelled output.
At Caribbean Travel Services an algorithm accepts the number of
passengers as input, calculates the total fares collected and outputs
the total monies that should be in the till.
The IPO chart is:
Input
number of passengers
Processing
fare = 2.5 total
Total amount in till = fare * number of
passengers
Output
total amount in
the till
Table 9.21 IPO chart for the ‘calculate amount in till’ problem
Construct a trace table for the pseudocode algorithm shown below.
BEGIN
fare = 2.5
READ numOfPassengers(a)
totalInTill = numOfPassengers * fare
(b)
WRITE totalInTill(c)
END
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Step 1
Identify the variables as numOfPassengers and totalInTill.
Fare is a constant.
Step 2
Draw a column for each variable and label the column headings with the
variable names as shown in Table 9.22.
numOfPassengers
totalInTill
Output
Table 9.22 A trace table with column headings
Step 3
Using the test value numOfPassengers = 5, we will step through the program,
executing the algorithm just as the processor will. The new value for the
variables will be recorded in the table. This corresponds to the dry run of the
algorithm line by line, starting with line 1.
As shown above, the steps are:
BEGIN
fare = 2.5
READ numOfPassengers(a)
totalInTill = numOfPassengers * fare
(b)
WRITE totalInTill(c)
END
numOfPassengers
5
totalInTill
(a)
12.5
Output
(b)
12.5
(c)
ITQ 9.22
Table 9.23 A trace table with recorded variable entries using test data 5
What is the benefit of doing a dry
run on an algorithm?
Let us expand the example of Caribbean Travel Services to deal with weekly
summaries:
At the end of the week CTS needs to summarise the total number of
passengers and total fares collected over the five working days.
The IPO chart is:
Input
number of passengers
(× 5 days)
Processing
fare = 2.5
totalPassengers = 0
for count = 1 to 5
input numOfPassengers
totalPassengers = totalPassengers +
numOfPassengers
totalFares = totalPassengers * fare
Output
totalPassengers
totalFares
Table 9.24 An IPO chart for the ‘calculate passengers and fares’ problem
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The pseudocode algorithm is:
fare = 2.5
totalPassengers = 0(a)
FOR count = 1 To 5
(b)
READ numOfPassengers(c)
totalPassengers = totalPassengers + numOfPassengers (d)
ENDFOR
totalFares = totalPassengers * fare
(e)
WRITE totalPassengers(f)
WRITE totalFares(g)
Construct a trace table for the algorithm shown.
Step 1
Identify the variables as numOfPassengers, totalPassengers, totalFares.
Step 2
Draw a column for each variable and label the column headings with the
variable names as shown in Table 9.25, not forgetting the output column.
totalPassengers
count
numOfPassengers
totalFares
output
Table 9.25 The trace table with column headings
Step 3
Dry run the algorithm with test data for passenger numbers 25, 35, 30,
20, 45. The expected results are total passengers 155 (the sum of all the
passenger numbers) and total fares US$387.50.
Data input will be 25, 35, 30, 20, 45.
As we showed above, the steps for this algorithm are:
fare = 2.5
totalPassengers = 0(a)
FOR count = 1 To 5(b)
READ numOfPassenger s(c)
totalPassengers = totalPassengers + numOfPassengers
(d)
ENDFOR
totalFares = totalPassengers * fare
(e)
WRITE totalPassengers(f)
WRITE totalFares(g)
totalPassengers
count
numOfPassengers
0
(a)
1
(b)
25
(c)
25
(d)
2
(b)
35
(c)
60
(d)
3
(b)
30
(c)
90
(d)
4
(b)
20
(c)
110
(d)
5
(b)
45
(c)
155
(e)
totalFares
387.5
output
(f)
387.5
(g)
Table 9.26 The completed trace table showing the changing variable values using test data: 25, 35, 30, 20, 45
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ACTIVITY 9.8
• Look at the pseudocode algorithm below.
REPEAT
READ passengerNumber
total = total + passengerNumber
counter = counter + 1
UNTIL passengerNumber = 0
WRITE total
• Identify the variables from the algorithm.
• Create the trace table for this algorithm.
• Dry run the algorithm to complete the trace table with the test data 27, 43, 0.
• Share your completed trace table with the class.
ITQ 9.23
Why might it be necessary to dry
run an algorithm with more than
one set of test data?
ITQ 9.24
What is the relationship between a
trace table and a dry run?
At this stage we have seen:
• defining a problem
• proposing and evaluating solutions
• determining the best solution
• developing the algorithm
• representing the algorithm as pseudocode or a flowchart
• testing and validating the solution.
Now that we are confident the solution is correct we can move to the next stage,
which is to implement the algorithm as a program.
Summary
• A problem is a discrepancy between the data we have and
the information we require.
• A program is a sequence of instructions that a computer
can interpret and execute.
• Problems may be partitioned into their three component
parts – input, process, output – using an IPO chart (note
that storage is also a step in all programming work).
• Variables and constants provide storage for program data:
• Pseudocode is a method of documenting algorithms using
simple structured instructions.
• Flowcharts are a pictorial way of representing algorithms
using a standard set of symbols.
• The keywords READ, INPUT and GET are used to accept
data; WRITE, PRINT and OUTPUT to output results.
• Algorithms may be designed using a combination of three
flow control structures: sequence, iteration (loops) and
decisions.
the value held by a variable can be changed while the
value held by a constant remains fixed for the life of the
program.
• The IF-THEN-ELSE control structure implements decision-
• A variable has both a name and a data type.
• Integer, real and character are data types for variables and
• Iteration (looping) is implemented in various ways: FOR
constants.
making logic.
loops, REPEAT UNTIL loops and WHILE DO loops.
• It is important to test an algorithm thoroughly.
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• To construct a trace table, identify the variables in the
pseudocode as the column headings.
• Humans dry run an algorithm by playing the part of the
processor and executing the sequence of instructions given
by the algorithm and recording interim results in the trace
table.
• Select appropriate data to ensure that all paths through
the algorithm are tested, for example where IF-THEN-ELSE
is used, there are a number of possible paths through the
algorithm.
Answers to ITQs
9.1 An algorithm is a set of steps used to achieve a specific
task.
9.2 Simple mathematics problems that you may have solved
recently might have included: calculating your change
from the shop, working out how many more points you
need to win a game, calculating how long a journey is
likely to take or working out if you have enough money
left to go to the cinema and buy popcorn.
9.3 The correct sequence in the problem-solving process is:
define problem, propose solutions, choose best solution,
develop algorithm, create pseudocode or flowchart, and
test.
9.4 The divide-and-conquer approach is to repeatedly split
a large problem into a number of smaller sub-problems
until a complete solution is identified.
9.5 An IPO chart or Input, Process, Output chart helps you
start breaking down a problem. The three column
headings are Input, Processing and Output.
9.6 IPO stands for Input, Process, Output.
9.7 A REPEAT UNTIL loop must execute the included
instructions at least once.
9.12 An ambiguous statement is one that can be interpreted
in different ways:
Is the person old? Is ambiguous.
Is the number of passengers greater than vehicle
capacity? Must be true or false so unambiguous.
Is the bus fast? Is ambiguous.
Is the bus’s maximum speed greater than 100? Must be
true or false so unambiguous.
Is the fare expensive? Is ambiguous.
9.13 The three structures used in pseudocode are: sequence,
selection and iteration, also known as sequence,
decisions and loops.
9.14 OUTPUT, PRINT and WRITE are three keywords used in
pseudocode to output results.
9.15 In a flowchart a rhombus shape is used to indicate a
selection or decision.
9.16 In a flowchart there must be only two terminator
symbols, one for BEGIN and the other for END.
9.17 Flowlines in a flowchart join symbols together.
9.18 If Box 1 is 4 and Box 2 is 8:
9.8 A WHILE DO loop executes zero or more times; the
included instructions may not be executed at all.
Box1 = 4 is TRUE
9.8 An IF-THEN decision executes the block of instructions
or does nothing. An IF-THEN-ELSE decision executes one
of two alternative blocks of instructions.
Box1 < Box2 is TRUE
9.10 The contents of a variable can change during
processing. The contents of a constant are fixed during
processing and cannot be changed.
9.11 An employee’s age, e.g. 34, is an integer.
Box2 > Box1 is TRUE
Box1 = Box2 is FALSE
Box1 <> Box2 is TRUE
9.19 The ‘>=’ relational operator is greater than or equal to.
9.20 If Box 1 is 4 and Box 2 is 8.
(Box1 = 4) AND (Box2 =8) is TRUE
An employee’s last name, e.g. Douglas, is a string.
NOT (Box1 <= 5) is FALSE
An employee’s initial, e.g. F, is a character.
(Box2 > Box1) OR (Box1 <= 7) is TRUE
An employee’s hourly wage e.g. 4.8, is a real or floating
point number.
NOT (Box1 < Box2) is FALSE
(Box1 = Box2) OR (Box1 =8) is TRUE
Whether employee is single, e.g. ‘Yes’, is a Boolean.
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9.21 Using integer division
18 DIV 3 = 6
7 MOD 2 = 1
125 DIV 10 = 12
17 MOD 5 = 2
9.23 It is always a good idea to test an algorithm with a
variety of test data including typical values and extreme
values.
9.24 When you dry run a program you act as the processor.
During a dry run the values of variables are recorded in
the trace table.
73 DIV 7 = 10
9.22 Dry running an algorithm can identify logic errors early
in the development of a program.
Examination-style questions: Multiple Choice
Instructions: Each item in this test has four suggested
responses labelled (A), (B), (C) or (D). Read each question
carefully then select the most suitable response.
1)
2)
3)
All the steps in problem-solving are correctly stated
EXCEPT:
A) define the problem
B) propose some solutions
C) determine the best solution
D) test and validate the solution
The divide-and-conquer approach is used to:
A) define a problem
B) validate a solution
C) decompose large problems
D) create solution algorithms
All the following statements about problem
decomposition are correct EXCEPT:
A) Significant components are input, process and
output.
B) An IPO chart may be used to delineate the
components.
C) Problems are broken down into simpler subproblems.
D) Problem decomposition simplifies the problem in
one step.
Questions 4–5 are based on the following algorithm:
SET pi TO 3.14
SET radius, circumference TO 0
READ radius
LET circumference = 2 * pi * radius
4)
The identifier pi is an example of a:
A) constant
B) data type
C) string
D) variable
5)
The identifier radius is an example of a:
A) constant
B) data type
C) string
D) variable
6)
Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of an
algorithm?
A) finite number of steps
B) flow of control is forward
C) precise
D) unambiguous
7)
When representing algorithms using a flowchart, the
rectangle may be used to represent:
A) input only
B) output only
C) both input and output
D) a process
8)
An algorithm that states ‘roll the dice a few times’ may
be described as:
A) imprecise
B) incomplete
C) infinite
D) unambiguous
9)
When representing algorithms using a flowchart, the
parallelogram may be used to represent:
A) input only
B) output only
C) both input and output
D) a process
10) Which of the following statements about a trace table
is UNTRUE?
A) values placed in cells
B) variables as row headings
C) identifiers as column headings
D) final variable values in last row
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1 • The computer system
Programming
Examination-style questions: Structured
1)
Jessica wants to start a small business. She decided to approach her bank for a small business loan in order to finance
the business.
a)
The bank has offered a loan at an annual rate of 7%. Jessica plans to manufacture and sell scented candles.
Each candle will be sold for $15.00 and will give a 20% profit.
Write algorithms to:
i) prompt for the loan principal and calculate and display the interest payable based on the formula:
interest = (principal * rate) ii)
b)
c)
[4]
prompt for the 12-monthly figures for candle sales, calculate and display the total number of candles and
total profit [4]
iii) prompt for the interest payable and total profit, calculate and display the difference. [2]
Suggest the MOST APPROPRIATE data types for each of the following:
i) the number of passengers on an aircraft
ii) the weight of fish, meat and vegetables
iii) the code used at the start of the following sequence: *120
iv) whether a payment is late or not. [4]
State the FIVE steps in problem-solving and explain how the divide-and-conquer approach may be used to
decompose a problem such as determining the passing score for a course comprised of three different types of
assessments (homework, tests and exams), each having different weighting.
[6]
Total 20 marks
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10
Program
implementation
Having developed algorithms in Chapter 9, it is now time to implement these as
programs. The process will start with the creation of source code in a high-level
programming language. We want you to learn the skills that you will need to
program in any programming language so we give Pascal examples but equivalent
Python code is also included so that you can see the similarities. Once a program
is written, it can be compiled. This checks the source code and translates it into
machine code. The program can then be executed and tested to make sure it
functions correctly in all circumstances. Next, the documentation for the user and
for other programmers needs to be created. The final step is to maintain and adapt
the program.
You will need to spend time practising at the computer. The practice activities
will help you develop all the skills you will need. All programming languages
have similar features and it is not our intention to limit your skills to one
particular programming language but to give you the broader skills to master any
programming language. We would encourage you to experiment and explore with
different programming languages to widen your understanding of the concepts
given in this chapter.
By the end of this chapter
you should be able to:
✔✔ Distinguish between low-level and high-level programming languages.
✔✔ Describe the sequence of steps in implementing a program.
✔✔ Perform checks and tests on programs to verify correctness.
✔✔ Declare variables and constants using elementary data types.
✔✔ Translate algorithmic statements into high-level language syntax.
✔✔ Effectively document programs.
Free Pascal Compiler (freepascal.org) and IDLE for Python (python.org) are
program development environments that are free to download, install and use.
Program
implementation
Low- &
high-level
languages
Machine &
assembly
language
Programming
languages
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Syntax, logical
and run-time
errors
Assignment
statements &
loops
Internal
documentation
Testing & test
data
Conditional
branching
Debugging
techniques
Integer
division &
constants
Creating
source code
Executing a
program
The
development
program
3 lines OM
Documenting
programs
Program tests
& checks
Translating
source code
Declaring
variables &
constants
Using highlevel languages
Implementing
a program
External
documentation
Combining
program
elements
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1 • Computer Fundamentals
Distinguishing between low-level
and high-level languages
Recall from Chapter 9 that an algorithm is a set of instructions that when executed
will solve a problem. It is the instructions that will process the input data into the
meaningful information required by the user. Having developed our algorithms
and documented them using pseudocode or flowcharts, we now need to ensure
that they are expressed in a way that the computer can understand.
Low-level languages (machine and assembly)
Machine language ▶
Binary code ▶
Assembly language ▶
The Central Processing Unit (CPU) of a computer understands a very specific
language called machine language.
Machine language consists of binary
code that a microprocessor can execute
directly.
Binary code is a sequence of 1s and 0s.
Here is an example of a machine code
instruction written in binary code:
00110010 00001110 00010010 00000000
You could write a program using
binary code but because humans often
make mistakes when using machine code
to write programs, the early computer
scientists created assembly language.
Assembly language uses short words
to represent simple instructions that can
Figure 10.1 Humans don’t read binary code well!
easily be translated into machine code.
Here is an example of an instruction
to move 5 into a variable called counter,
written in assembly code:
mov
Low-level language ▶
ITQ10.1
State the main difference between
machine code and assembly code.
High-level languages ▶
5,counter
Assembly language is translated into machine code using a special program
called an assembler.
Both machine code and assembly code are low-level languages and they aren’t
easy for humans to understand.
Low-level language is a machine-dependent language written in machine code
or assembly code.
Low-level languages are not useful for modern programming, so let us look at
high-level languages.
High-level languages (e.g. Pascal, Python,
Visual Basic and C)
High-level languages are machine-independent languages written in statements
that closely resemble English. High-level languages include Pascal, Python, Visual
Basic and C.
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10 • Program implementation
ACTIVITY 10.1 Understanding a simple Pascal program
Here is a simple example program written in the Pascal high-level language:
PROGRAM SimpleAdd;
VAR
firstNumber : INTEGER;
secondNumber : INTEGER;
total : INTEGER;
BEGIN
WRITELN ('Please give your first number');
READ (firstNumber);
WRITELN ('Please give your second number');
READ (secondNumber);
total := firstNumber + secondNumber;
WRITELN ('The total is', total);
END.
Use common sense to try to answer the following questions.
• What is the name of the program?
• What does the program do?
• How many inputs does the program take?
• Write down what you think the program will display. (Hint: WRITELN stands for write
line and go on to a new line.)
• How many outputs does the program produce?
• Discuss in the group how easy analysing this program was.
ITQ 10.2
Which level of language uses
‘human-like’ syntax?
Now it is time to look at how to implement a pseudocode algorithm or flowchart
in a high-level language.
The sequence of steps in
implementing a program
The process of implementing a program consists of four major steps:
1 Create source code (in a high-level programming language).
2 Translate source code into machine code.
3 Execute the program (run the machine code).
4 Maintain the program (using the documentation provided).
Step 1: Creating source code
All high-level languages have extensive books, tutorials, built-in help functions
and support forums to help you learn the language you choose to use. In this book
we give general advice applicable to all program languages but provide examples
only in Pascal and Python. If you are using another high-level language you will
be able to follow the examples but you will not be able to use the code examples
directly.
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Theory
ITQ 10.3
Watch this video that
introduces
programming.
Name three
programming languages.
All high-level languages you are likely to use will have one or two ‘help pages’.
Ask your teacher to find and print out a reference help page for the language you
are using. By looking at this, alongside the Pascal and Python examples in this
chapter, you will be able to implement the programs in your chosen language.
All programmers use a development environment to make writing programs
easy. Your teacher will have installed a development environment program on
the computers at your school. We use the Free Pascal Compiler and Python IDLE
because they are easy and free to install and use.
Important differences between Pascal and Python are:
• In Pascal, case (uppercase or lowercase) is not important; in Python, case is
important.
• In Pascal, indentation is good practice to aid understanding of the source code;
in Python, the correct use of indentation is essential to the correct operation of
the program.
• Pascal is a compiled language; a compiler is used to translate the source code
into machine code. Python is an interpreted language; an interpreter is used
to translate and run the source code directly.
Similarities of high-level languages
To see how similar high-level languages are, look at this example from Caribbean Travel Services.
At CTS a bus operates the same route two times per day. The number of passengers on each
journey is recorded. Create a program to get the two numbers from the driver, add them together
and display the total for the day.
The algorithm from Chapter 9
Write 'Please give the number of passengers on the first journey’
Read the first number
Write 'Please give the number of passengers on the second journey'
Read the second number
Calculate the total = first number + second number
Write 'The total number of passengers on the route today was '
Write the total
In the Pascal programming language the program is:
PROGRAM SimpleAdd;
VAR
firstNumber : INTEGER;
secondNumber : INTEGER;
total : INTEGER;
BEGIN
WRITELN ('A simple program to add the number of passengers on two journeys.');
WRITELN ('Please give the number of passengers on the first journey ');
READ (firstNumber);
WRITELN (firstNumber);
WRITELN ('Please give number of passengers on the second journey ');
READ (secondNumber);
WRITELN (secondNumber);
total := firstNumber + secondNumber;
WRITELN ('The total number of passengers is ',total);
READLN;
END.
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10 • Program implementation
In the ‘C’ programming language the program is:
#include<stdio.h>
int main()
{
int firstNumber;
int secondNumber;
int total;
printf("Please give the number of passengers of the first journey\n");
scanf("d", &firstNumber);
printf("Please give the number of passengers on the second journey\n");
scanf("d", &secondNumber);
total = firstNumber + secondNumber;
printf("Sum of the numbers = %d\n", total);
return 0;
}
In the Python programming language the program is:
print ('a simple program to add the number of passengers on two journeys')
print ('Please give the number of passengers on the first journey ')
firstnum = input('Enter first number: ')
print ('Please give the number of passengers on the second journey ')
secondnum = input('Enter second number: ')
total = int(firstnum) + int(secondnum)
print ('The total number of passengers is ', total)
• Identify similarities between the programs.
• Discuss each program to decide which is easiest to understand.
We hope you agree that these three programming languages all have similar features.
ITQ 10.4
Arrange the following into the
correct order to implement a
program:
• Translate source code into
machine code
• Create source code
• Maintain the program
• Execute the program
Development environment program
A development environment program will look a little like a word processor when
it runs, so we can just start typing our source code.
All development environments have enhanced features that will help you to
write correct source code. One of the ways it may do this is by displaying colourcoded text and automatic indentation which help you to better understand the
syntax of the language. A good development environment may also suggest what
needs to come next for correct code. For example, ‘IF’ must have a following
‘THEN’ in Pascal.
Figure 10.2 The simple, easy-to-use Python IDLE interface showing coloured text
A programmer must be aware of the reserved words and grammatical rules of
any programming language they choose to use.
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• Computer Fundamentals
Theory
1
Programming
Reserved words ▶
Syntax ▶
ITQ 10.5
What are reserved words in a
programming language?
The reserved words in a programming language have specific meaning and
use. It shouldn’t come as any surprise that some reserved words appear in most
programming languages.
For example:
IF
THEN
ELSE
REPEAT
UNTIL
BEGIN
END
AND
OR
NOT
The syntax rules of each language define how the reserved words should be used.
They help define the grammar of the language.
Syntax is a set of rules defining the structure of statements in a programming
language.
It is not necessary to memorise all the reserved words and syntax rules of a
language but you should have a reference help page or instruction book to hand so
you can easily look them up. Help pages for a language summarise all the reserved
words and syntax rules on one or two pages. Get a printout of the help pages for
the language you are using from your teacher.
Having written your source code in a programming language, you will need to
translate, or compile, it in order for it to be executed by a computer.
Step 2: Translating source code
Earlier in this chapter we saw that the microprocessor of a computer system can
execute only machine code, for example:
00110010 00001110 00010010 00000000
So, how do instructions written in a high-level language like Pascal end up as
machine code?
How does this:
WRITELN ('Please give your first number');
become this:
00110010 00001110 00010010 00000000
Translator ▶
Compiler ▶
Interpreter ▶
The answer is that we need a translator.
A translator converts one language into another.
A compiler is a special translator that converts high-level language into machine
code.
An interpreter is a translator that converts and executes high-level language in
one step.
The development environment for a high-level language will have a Compile
option or a Run option. Look for ‘Compile’ or ‘Run’ on a menu or a toolbar. Pascal
is a compiled language and so uses ‘Compile’; Python is an interpreted language
and so uses ‘Run Module’.
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(a)
(b)
Figure 10.3 Example of a Run option and a Compile option in different development environments: (a) Free Pascal Compiler, (b) Python IDLE
Syntax error ▶
ITQ 10.6
State why a compiler is needed in
program development.
The first role of the compiler or interpreter is to check that the high-level source
code is correct according to the syntax rules of the language.
A syntax error is an error in how the statements in source code are written in a
particular program.
When a syntax error occurs the compiler will stop and report the error back to
the user. Compilers will check the whole program and so will report all the syntax
errors at the end of the compilation. Interpreters will stop and report a syntax error
as soon as it is detected.
Either way the syntax errors have to be corrected and a compiler will try to help
you find and correct the error. Here are some examples of compiler error messages:
Error message
Example
Illegal use of ‘:’
You typed
READLN (firstNumber):
instead of
READLN (firstNumber);
Comparative operator must return
a Boolean value
You typed
IF (num1 > num2 < num3) THEN
instead of
IF ((num1 > 2) AND (num2 < num3)) THEN
Only one variable can be initialised
You typed
firstNumber, secondNumber : INTEGER;
instead of
firstNumber : INTEGER;
secondNumber : INTEGER;
Illegal expression
You typed
IF (num1 ( > num2)) THEN
instead of
IF (num1 > num2) THEN
ITQ 10.7
Which TWO of the following
sentences use correct English
syntax?
• Come for a visit I have plenty of
snacks.
• This car is dusty, filthy and
smelly.
• Come for a visit! I have plenty
of snacks.
• This car is dusty filthy and
smelly.
Table 10.1 Typical syntax errors
Unfortunately not all compiler error messages will be this easy to understand
and they may be very technical. Don’t worry; just look at your source code, find
the error and correct it. Repeat the compile process, correcting errors, until the
compiler returns a:
‘Compile successful: Press any key’
or similar message.
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• Computer Fundamentals
Theory
1
Programming
Step 3: Executing a program
At this point the compiler has successfully taken your high-level source code,
checked that it is free from syntax errors, translated it into machine code, and put
the result in an executable file, for example: SimpleAdd.exe. If your development
environment used a ‘Compile and Run’ or ‘Run’ option, your program will have
started to run automatically.
In Pascal the program no longer needs the development environment. You
could double-click on the executable file (SimpleAdd.exe) and your program will
run just like any other application program on your system. If you are using Pascal
ask your teacher where to find the SimpleAdd.pas and the SimpleAdd.exe file on
the school’s computer systems; remember that:
• a .pas file contains the Pascal source code
• a .exe file contains the executable code.
Figure 10.4 A folder showing a source code file (.pas) and an executable file (.exe)
ITQ 10.8
State why you cannot execute
Pascal source code.
As programs become more complex they may need to use facilities provided by the
operating system. For example, if your program wants to read input from a data
file instead of the keyboard then the operating system needs to be involved.
Remember that back in Chapter 1 we defined an operating system as a collection
of software that manages computer hardware resources and provides common
services for computer programs.
If your program needs the services provided by the operating system, like
opening a file, you need to
‘Compile and Link’
instead of the simple
‘Compile’
‘Compile and Link’ compiles the program and links it to the operating system.
However, none of the simple programs in this book needs the services provided by
the operating system.
Your program is running. It is now time to test and document the program.
A very simple program like Simple Add does not need extensive testing or
documentation but for larger, more complex programs testing and documentation
are important stages in program development. They are so important that they are
dealt with in their own sections later in this chapter.
The last step in the sequence of steps in implementing a program we identified
earlier is maintenance of the program.
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10 • Program implementation
Maintaining a program
Corrective maintenance ▶
Adaptive maintenance ▶
ITQ 10.9
When a program has been written, compiled, tested and documented it enters a
maintenance phase. This maintenance phase continues until the program is no
longer needed. Maintenance is of two types: corrective and adaptive.
Corrective maintenance is fixing program bugs or flaws in the program.
Adaptive maintenance is implementing new features or changing the way a
particular feature works.
What sort of maintenance is
needed if a bug is found in a
program?
Performing checks and tests on
programs to verify correctness
A critical part of program implementation is testing. Failure of a program can
have catastrophic results. Here is such an example: On June 4, 1996 an Ariane 5
rocket exploded just 40 seconds after its lift-off from Kourou, French Guiana. The
development of the rocket cost $7 billion. The rocket and its cargo were valued at
$500 million. The cause of the failure was a software error in the guidance system. A
64-bit floating point (real) number was converted to a 16-bit integer. The resulting
number was larger than 32,767, the largest integer storable in a 16-bit integer.
Figure 10.5 Photos show the maiden flight of the Ariane 5 rocket, at lift off, and its catastrophic explosion less than a minute later – caused by program failure
To avoid this type of catastrophic failure when developing a program, always check
and test at every stage during development and implementation. In Chapter 9,
‘Problem-solving and program design’, the testing process began. The design of the
algorithm was rigorously tested by desk checking, dry running and using trace tables.
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• Computer Fundamentals
Theory
1
Programming
Types of errors: syntax, logical and run-time
In this chapter the concern is about three types of potential errors: syntax, logic
and run-time errors.
Remember: a syntax error is an error in the structure of the source code. In the
example below there is a missing '(' character:
WRITELN 'Please give your second number');
logic error ▶
A logic error is a mistake in the design of the program.
In this example a mark of only 25 is given a pass and a mark of 80 is given a fail:
IF mark <= 40 THEN
PRINT ‘Pass’
ELSE
PRINT ‘Fail’
ENDIF
Run-time error ▶
Could you correct this error?
A run-time error is a program error that occurs during program execution.
For example: The Ariane 5 rocket disaster was caused by a run-time error.
Run-time errors are detected during
execution and usually cause the
program to terminate abnormally. Input
data values and/or variable declarations
are usually the cause of run-time errors.
The source code may not need to be
changed, only the data.
R
Create
source code
Compile
Link
S
Syntax errors are detected during
compilation. The programmer must
go back to the source code and
correct the statement containing the
error before the process can continue
through to the end.
ITQ 10.10
Give one difference between a
syntax error and a logic error.
Execute
Maintain
L
Logic errors are detected during execution.
Unlike syntax errors that cause the compilation
process to be aborted, a logic error has no
such effect. The programmer will detect that
a logic error exists when the program produces
results that are unexpected. S/he must go
back to the source code and locate and correct
the statement containing the error before the
process can continue through to the end.
Figure 10.6 Detecting and correcting syntax, logic and run-time errors in source code
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10 • Program implementation
Testing and test data
Test data ▶
ITQ 10.11
Why does a program need to be
tested with extreme values?
Knowing the types of errors that can occur in a program is not enough. You need
to understand how to detect and eliminate all errors in a program.
Test data is used to test an algorithm and to test a program when it has been
implemented.
Test data is a set of data values selected to test a computer program. Test data is
used for positive testing when the data values entered are what might be expected
during normal operation; in this case the anticipated result should be output. Test
data is also used for negative testing; in negative testing the data values entered
are unusual, extreme, exceptional or unexpected, and the question is: Does the
program still produce the expected output?
Test data should be selected to test all the paths through the program. For test
data to be useful the expected output must be known before the test data is input.
Example, the Simple Add program (get two numbers, add them together and
display the total):
Positive testing
Negative testing
Input
3
4
1304
2858
-37
47
-17
-21
Input
1000
2000
0
0
-1000
-2500
2000000000
2000000000
Expected output
7
4162
10
-38
3.5
4.5
Two
seven
Figure 10.7 Positive and negative tests for
SimpleAdd
Expected output
3000
0
-3500
What did you expect here? Does
your program accept numbers
this big?
What did you expect here, 8.0?
Does your program accept real
numbers?
What did you expect here, nine?
Did your program perform a
validation ‘data type check’ on
the inputs? (see Chapter 2)
Earlier in this chapter the problem was introduced as simply ‘a program to get two
numbers from the user, add them together and display the result’. A more detailed
understanding of the problem would have defined the problem like this:
Create a program to get two whole, numeric numbers in the range −10,000 to
10,000 from the user, add them together and display the result. Note:
• whole numbers because we declared the numbers as integers
• numeric because your program cannot accept text numbers like ‘two’ or ‘seven’
• in the range −10000 to 10000 because that is a good range for an integer. (The
actual range is 216 = 65536 which is −32768 to 32767.)
Fully understanding the problem to be solved and being able to fully define the
problem will always lead to a better solution.
Testing the program against the test data simply involves repeatedly running
the program with values from the test data and checking that the results produced
correspond to the expected results.
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• Computer Fundamentals
Theory
1
Programming
Debugging techniques
Debugging ▶
Debugging is the process of finding and removing errors from computer hardware
or software.
The origin story for the term ‘debugging’ goes that the original ‘bug’ in debugging
was a moth discovered stuck in a relay (an electrically operated switch) of an early
computer; to correct the problem the programmers had to ‘debug’ (remove the bug
from) the system.
We saw that the first opportunity to debug a program occurs at the program design
stage. During development the algorithm was rigorously tested by desk checking,
dry running, and using trace tables and test data.
You should now realise just how important that stage was, because errors
not found in the algorithm will progress into the program, where they are more
difficult and time-consuming to correct.
The second opportunity to debug a program is at compilation. The compiler will
identify any syntax errors (errors in the syntax or ‘grammar’ of the programming
language) so that they can be eliminated. Successful compilation does not mean
that the program is correct – only that it contains no syntax errors.
Logic errors are more difficult to detect because the program operates – it does
not terminate abnormally (or crash), but produces incorrect or undesired output.
The presence of a logic error may be revealed during testing, particularly if an
extensive, well-thought-out set of test data is used.
If specific input test data produces an unexpected result then a dry run of the
program producing a trace table can be used to locate the logic error. Desk checking
and dry running a program are exactly the same procedures as for an algorithm.
We covered dry running an algorithm in Chapter 9, Problem-solving and program
design.
As your programs become more complex and the dry run trace tables
become larger, it may become impossible to create a manual trace table. In these
circumstances the program development environment can help. Look for an option
to ‘Debug’.
(a)
(b)
Figure 10.8 Example of Debug options in different development environments. (a) Free Pascal Compiler,
(b) Python IDLE
Different program development environments have different debugging facilities
so you will need to check the documentation for the development environment
you are using.
We now look at the final type of error – a run-time error. Remember that a
run-time error is a program error that occurs during program execution. Run-time
errors may be caused by an error in the program but they may also be caused by an
external error, for example:
• a faulty keyboard being used to provide input data
• a hardware fault on a storage device.
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10 • Program implementation
ITQ 10.12
State THREE types of errors that
can occur in a program.
Good validation checks (see Chapter 2) may be able to detect corrupt input data
produced by a faulty keyboard. While such checks are not able to correct the error
the user will be alerted to a problem and the program will be suspended, without
crashing, while the problem is investigated and corrected.
Recall that in Chapter 1 we discussed the option of installing computer hardware
components, such as power supply units, in pairs, so that a hardware failure does
not affect the running of the computer system. This ‘built-in redundancy’ can help
prevent run-time errors that would otherwise have been caused by hardware failure.
Declaring variables and constants
using basic data types
Chapter 9 introduced the data types for developing algorithms. The main ones are:
Data type
Possible values that can be taken
Examples
Integer
Any whole number
0, –27, 540
Real or floating point
Any decimal number
13.5, 3.1472, –8.0
Character
A single value from the ASCII*
character set
‘D’, ‘k’, ‘#’
String
Multiple characters
‘Frank’, ‘Ruth’, ‘925–0000’
Boolean
One of two possible values
True/False, Yes/No
*Note: ASCII, abbreviated from American Standard Code for Information Interchange, is a
character encoding standard for electronic communication.
Table 10.2 Main data types in algorithms
The syntax of different programming languages allows many data types. In Pascal
for example the following data types can be used:
Name
Type of data
Examples
String
Text
‘New York’, ‘Evan’
Integer
Whole numbers
3, –6, 1024
Real
Decimal numbers
3.14, 503.2
Boolean
True or false
TRUE, FALSE
Character
Single character
‘A’, ‘E’
Table 10.3 Overview of common Pascal data types
When a string is declared in Pascal, it is usually given a length:
ITQ 10.13
What is the difference between
a) an integer and a real number
b) a character and a string?
For example:
town : STRING[25];
means that the variable ‘town’ is large enough for 25 characters.
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Theory
1
Programming
Translating algorithmic statements
into high-level language syntax
ITQ 10.14
Watch this video about
simple programming
using Python. What
does IDE stand for?
This section looks at taking a simple algorithm and writing high-level language
source code. The foundations for this have been laid throughout Chapter 9 and
earlier in this chapter.
The syllabus states that ‘no particular programming language will be assumed’,
so there is no need to memorise a particular language syntax or reserved words.
Remember that you should always have a language help sheet on your desk when
programming.
You are advised to try out solutions to a variety of different problems on a
computer using a programming language of your choice.
In Chapter 9 you learnt how to develop algorithms using:
1 A sequence of instructions
2
Loops
a FOR loops for looping a fixed number of times
b REPEAT UNTIL loops for looping until a condition is met (executes the
instructions in the loop at least once)
c WHILE DO loops for looping while a condition is met (executes the
instructions in the loop 0 or more times)
3 Decisions
a IF-THEN decisions simply decide whether the instructions in the decision are
executed or not
b IF-THEN-ELSE decisions decide which of two sets of instructions will be
executed, the IF instructions or the ELSE instructions.
The method we will follow:
The algorithms developed in Chapter 9 will be developed into Pascal and Python
source code. In order to provide a complete overview of the whole process of program
development, the problem definition, IPO chart, algorithm, pseudocode, flowchart,
Pascal and Python source code, test data and documentation are included. Detailed
discussion of the documentation for more complex programs is included in a later
section, but for these simple programs the documentation is straightforward.
If you are using another language you should ask your teacher to provide the
source code for these examples for you to work with.
Following the overview of the process you practise the programming process
for the CTS problem (which is ideal for teacher-guided classwork), as an extension
exercise, an algorithm is provided for you to translate into program code. This is
followed by an activity for your company. Note that you should complete each
activity before moving on as this will help to ensure that you understand how to
translate different types of algorithms into your chosen programming language
source code.
Assignment statements and input/output in
a sequence of instructions
You will be used to assignment statements because they are used all the time in
mathematics. For example, X = 5, means assign the value 5 to X; X now contains 5.
Here is an example of a program that uses assignment statements and input/
output statements to solve a simple problem.
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10 • Program implementation
At Caribbean Travel Services a bus operates the same route two
times per day. The number of passengers on each journey is
recorded. Create a program to get the two passenger numbers from
the driver, add them together and display the total result.
The IPO chart:
Input
first number
second number
Processing
Output
total = first number + second total = first number + second
number
number
The algorithm, pseudocode, flowchart, Pascal and Python program
source code:
Algorithm
Write 'A simple program to add the number of passengers on two journeys.'
Write 'Please give first number of passengers on the first journey '
Read the first number
Write 'Please give the number of passengers on the second journey '
Read the second number
Calculate the total = first number + second number
Write 'The total number of passengers is '
Write the total
Pseudocode
WRITE 'A simple program to add the number of passengers on two journeys.'
WRITE 'Please give first number of passengers on the first journey '
READ firstNumber
WRITE 'Please give the number of passengers on the second journey '
READ secondNumber
total = firstNumber + second Number
WRITE 'The total number of passengers is '
WRITE the total
Pascal program
PROGRAM SimpleAdd;
VAR
firstNumber : INTEGER;
secondNumber : INTEGER;
total : INTEGER;
BEGIN
WRITELN ('A simple program to add the number of passengers on two journeys.');
WRITELN ('Please give the number of passengers, between 1 and 100, on the first journey ');
READ (firstNumber);
WRITELN (firstNumber);
WRITELN ('Please give number of passengers, between 1 and 100, on the second journey ');
READ (secondNumber);
WRITELN (secondNumber);
total := firstNumber + secondNumber;
WRITELN ('The total number of passengers is ',total);
WRITELN ('Press Enter to finish.');
READLN;
END.
Flowchart
Begin
Output
‘welome’
prompt first number
Input
first number
Output
prompt second number
Input
second number
Total = first number +
second number
Output
total
End
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Programming
Python program
print ('a simple program to add the number of passengers on two journeys')
print ('Please give the number on passengers, between 1 and 100, on the first journey ')
firstnum = input('Enter first number: ')
print ('Please give the number on passengers, between 1 and 100, on the first journey ')
secondnum = input('Enter second number: ')
total = int(firstnum) + int(secondnum)
print('The total number of passengers is ', total)
Figure 10.9 Typical results from the Simple Add
program
The result of running this program is shown in Figure 10.9. This version was
created running the Python program in the IDLE environment. Your results may
be displayed in a different way.
>>>
RESTART: simpleadd.py
a simple program to add the number of passengers on two journeys
Please give the number on passengers, between 1 and 100, on the first journey
Enter first number: 78
Please give the number on passengers, between 1 and 100, on the first journey
Enter second number: 89
The total number of passengers is 167
>>>
User documentation:
This is a Caribbean Travel Services program. At the end of the day drivers should
record the number of passengers carried on each of their two journeys. Drivers
will be asked for the passenger numbers and the program prints the sum of the
numbers.
Limitations: The input numbers must be numeric integers in the range 0 to 100,
e.g. 12 or 58.
Test data:
This is a simple program, so test data will include just a few examples of expected
input values and a few examples of more extreme and unexpected values. Notice
that in the user documentation we limited the input values to numeric integer
values in the range 0 to 100. For test data values that do not meet this criteria, the
expected result will be a run-time error.
Input values
Reason
Expected result
Actual result
40, 52
typical values
92
92
24, 66
typical values
90
90
−10000, −15000
extreme values
error
−25000
4.6, 32.8
incorrect values
error
error 106
two, five
invalid type
error
error 106
Table 10.4 Test data for testing the Simple Add program
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Input, compile, correct, run and test the Simple Add
program
1 Use the Pascal or Python code on the previous page, or convert the
pseudocode algorithm into a high-level language of your choice.
2 Use a program development environment to type in the source
code program.
3 Compile the source code using the ‘Compile’, ‘Compile and Link’
or ‘Run’ option.
4 Correct any syntax errors that might occur.
5 Run or execute the program using the ‘Run’ option in the
development environment.
6 Test the program with the test data provided above.
EXTENSION ACTIVITY 10.2 Demonstrating a sequence of instructions
Use the above example as a starting point, develop an algorithm and implement a
program to solve the problem:
A program to get three numbers from the user, add them together and display the result.
ACTIVITY 10.3 Input, compile, correct, run and test the Simple Add program for your
own company
Use the company you created in earlier activities or use the St Luago Fashion company.
At the end of the day all three stores report their takings to head office. In an earlier
activity (Activity 9.5) you created an algorithm to input the three values, add them
together and output the total.
• Convert the pseudocode algorithm into a high-level language of your choice.
• Use a program development environment to type in the source code program.
• Compile the source code using the ‘Compile’, ‘Compile and Link’ option or ‘Run’ option.
• Correct any syntax errors that might occur.
• Run or execute the program using the ‘Run’ option in the development environment.
• Test the program with the test data.
• Create the user documentation for this program.
Syntax for iteration (loops): demonstrating
a FOR loop
Now we will demonstrate a FOR loop for looping a fixed number of times. Here is
an example of a program that uses a FOR loop to solve a simple averaging problem.
At Caribbean Travel Services a bus operates the same route 25 times
per day. The number of passengers on each journey is recorded.
Create a program to get the 25 numbers from the driver, calculate
the average and display the average result.
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Programming
The IPO chart for the Simple Average algorithm:
Input
25 numbers from user
Processing
total = 0
Do the following 25 times
Begin the loop
Get the next number
total = total + number
End of the loop
Calculate the average = total/25
Output
average
The algorithm, pseudocode, flowchart, Pascal and Python program
source code:
Algorithm
Flowchart
Write ‘A simple program to average the number of passengers on 25 bus journeys.’
total = 0
Do the following 25 times
Write 'Please give the next passenger number '
Read the number
total = total + number
Calculate the average = total/25
Write 'The average number of passengers is '
Write the average
Pseudocode
BEGIN
WRITE 'A simple program to average the number of passengers on 25 bus journeys.'
total = 0
FOR counter = 1 TO 25 DO
WRITE 'Please give the next passenger number, between 0 and 100 '
READ the number
total = total + number
END FOR
average = total/25
WRITE 'The average number of passengers is '
WRITE the average
END
Begin
Output
‘welcome’
Total = 0
counter = 0
Output
prompt for number
No
Input
number
Total = total + number
counter = count + 1
Counter == 25
Yes
Average = total/25
Output
average
End
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Pascal program
PROGRAM SimpleAverage;
VAR
currentNumber : REAL;
total : REAL;
average : REAL;
counter : INTEGER;
BEGIN
WRITELN ('A simple program to find the average number of passengers on 25 journeys.');
total := 0;
FOR counter := 1 TO 25 DO
BEGIN
WRITELN ('Please give the number of passengers, between 0 and 100 for journey ', counter);
READ (currentNumber);
WRITELN (currentNumber:10:0);
total := total + currentNumber;
END;
average := total/25;
WRITELN ('The average of these 25 numbers is ', average:10:2);
WRITELN ('Press Enter to finish.');
READLN;
END.
Python program
print ('A simple program to find the average number of passengers on 25 journeys.')
total = 0
counter = 0
numpassengers = 0
average = 0
for counter in range (0, 25):
numpassengers = input('Please give the number of passengers ')
total = int(numpassengers) + int(total)
counter = counter + 1
average = total/counter
print ('The average number of passengers is ',average)
User documentation:
This is a Caribbean Travel Services program. At the end of the day drivers should
record the number of passengers carried on each of the 25 journeys. Drivers will be
asked for the numbers and the program prints the average of the numbers.
Limitations: The input numbers must be numeric integers in the range 0 to 100,
e.g. 12 or 48.
Test data:
This is a simple program so test data will include a few examples of expected input
values and a few examples of more extreme and unexpected values. Notice that in
the user documentation we limited the input values to numeric integer values in
the range 0 to 100. For test data values that do not meet this criterion the expected
result will be a run-time error.
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Programming
Input values
Reason
Expected result
Actual result
4, 6, 4, 6, 4, 6, 4, 6, 4, 6,
4, 6, 4, 6, 4, 6, 4, 6, 4, 6,
5, 5, 5, 5, 5
typical values
5
5
error
6.84 (correct)
unexpected values
2.2, 3.6, 18.5, 5.1, 19.4,
20.6, 3.0, −34.0, 16.5, −4.5,
13.8, 3.4, 65.2, 5.9, −45.6,
−4.0, 56.2, 6.2, 7.2, −1.0,
−99.4, 5.7, 32.7, 18.0, 56.3
−20000,−20000,−20000,
−20000,−20000,−20000,
−20000,−20000,−20000,
−20000,−20000,−20000,
−20000,−20000,−20000,
−20000,−20000,−20000,
−20000,−20000,−20000,
−20000,−20000,−20000,
−20000
extreme values
−20000
−20000
two, five, …
invalid type
error
error 106
Table 10.5 Test data for testing the Simple Average program.
Input, compile, correct, run and test the Simple Average
program
• Use the Pascal or Python code above, or convert the
pseudocode algorithm into a high-level language of your choice.
• Use a program development environment to type in the source
code program.
• Compile the source code using the ‘Compile’, ‘Compile and Link’
option or ‘Run’ option. Run or execute the program using the
‘Run’ option in the development environment.
• Correct any syntax errors that might occur. Create the user
documentation for this program.
• Run or execute the program using the ‘Run’ option in the
development environment.
• Test the program with the test data provided above.
EXTENSION ACTIVITY 10.4 Demonstrating a sequence of instructions
Copy the above example and modify it to deal with 10 numbers instead of 25.
Make sure that you modify:
• the program definition
• the IPO chart
• the pseudocode algorithm or flowchart
• the source code program
• the user documentation
• the test data
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ACTIVITY 10.5 Input, compile, correct, run and test the Simple Average program
Use the company you created in earlier activities or use the St Luago Fashion company.
At your company, at the end of the week each branch needs to average the five days
takings. In an earlier activity (Activity 9.5) you created an algorithm to input the five
values, calculate the average and output the average. (Use a loop.)
1 Convert the algorithm into pseudocode or a flowchart.
2 Convert the pseudocode algorithm into a high-level language of your choice.
3 Use a program development environment to type in the source code program.
4 Compile the source code using the ‘Compile’, ‘Compile and link’ option or ‘Run’ option.
5 Correct any syntax errors that might occur.
6 Run or execute the program using the ‘Run’ option in the development environment.
7 Test the program with test data.
8 Create the user documentation for this program.
Syntax for iteration (loops): demonstrating a
REPEAT UNTIL loop
Now we will look at a REPEAT UNTIL loop for looping an unknown number of
times but at least once. Here is an example of a program using a REPEAT UNTIL
loop to solve a simple problem.
CTS sometimes runs more buses than scheduled on a route on busy
days. On these occasions we don’t know how many journeys there
will be or what the passenger numbers will be. The problem is to
read in numbers until a 0 is entered and then calculate the average.
The IPO chart for the Repeat Average algorithm:
Input
Processing
Output
average
total = 0
a set of passenger
numbers input by user and counter = 0
Repeat
terminated by a 0
Get the next passenger number
total = total + number counter =
counter + 1
Until number is equal to 0
counter = counter − 1
Calculate the average = total/counter
Write the average
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Programming
The algorithm, pseudocode, flowchart, Pascal and Python program
source code:
Algorithm
Flowchart
total = 0
counter = 0
Repeat
Get the next passenger number
total = total + number
counter = counter + 1
Until number is equal to 0
counter = counter – 1 because we counted the ‘0’
Calculate the average = total/counter
Write the average
Pseudocode
BEGIN
total = 0
counter = 0
REPEAT
WRITE 'Please give the number of passengers.'
READ the next passenger number
total = total + number
counter = counter + 1
UNTIL number = 0
counter = counter – 1 because we counted the ‘0’
Calculate the average = total/counter
WRITE 'The average number of passengers is '
WRITE average
END
Begin
Output
‘welcome’
Total = 0
counter = 0
Output
prompt for number
No
Input
number
Total = total + number
counter = count + 1
Number = 0
Yes
Counter = counter – 1
Average = total/counter
Output
average
End
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10 • Program implementation
Pascal program source code
PROGRAM RepeatAverage;
VAR
currentNumber : INTEGER;
total : REAL;
average : REAL;
counter : INTEGER;
BEGIN
WRITELN ('A simple program to read in the number of passengers ');
WRITELN ('terminated by 0 and to output the average');
total := 0;
counter := 0;
REPEAT
BEGIN
WRITELN ('Please give your next number of passengers, between 1 and 100. Enter 0 to end.');
READ (currentNumber);
WRITELN (currentNumber);
total := total + currentNumber;
counter := counter + 1;
END
UNTIL (currentNumber = 0);
(* Note to programmer: need to take one off the counter because we counted the 0 *)
counter := counter − 1;
average := total/counter;
WRITELN ('The average number of passengers on these ', counter, ' journeys ');
WRITELN ('is ', average:10:2);
WRITELN (‘Press Enter to finish.');
READLN;
END.
Python program
print ('A simple program to read in the number of passengers ')
print ('terminated by 0 and to output the average')
total = 0
counter = 0
numpassengers = 999
average = 0
while (int(numpassengers) != 0):
numpassengers = input('Please give the number of passengers ')
total = int(numpassengers) + int(total)
counter = counter + 1
counter = counter – 1
average = total/counter
print ('The average number of passengers on these ', counter, ' journeys is ', average)
User documentation:
This is a Caribbean Travel Services program. At the end of the day drivers should
record the number of passengers carried on each of the many journeys. Drivers will
be asked for the numbers and should enter 0 to indicate the last of the journeys.
The program prints the average number of passengers carried on the journeys.
Limitations: The input numbers must be numeric integers in the range 0 to 100,
e.g. 12 or 58.
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Programming
Test data:
This is a simple program so test data will include a few examples of expected input
values and a few examples of more extreme and unexpected values. Notice that in
the user documentation we limited the input values to be numeric integer values
in the range 0 to 100. For test data values that do not meet this criteria the expected
result will be a run-time error.
Input values
Reason
Expected result
Actual result
4, 5, 0
typical values
4.5
4.5
24, 66, 96, 0
typical values
62
62
–15459.67,
–23567.84,0
extreme/unexpected
values
–19513.76
–19513.76
two, five, zero
invalid type
error
error 106
Table 10.6 Test data for testing the Repeat Average program.
Input, compile, correct, run and test the Repeat Average
program.
Input the source code in your chosen development environment,
compile the source code correcting any syntax errors that may
occur. Run and test the program using suitable test data.
EXTENSION ACTIVITY 10.6 Demonstrating a REPEAT UNTIL loop
Use the above example as a starting point. Drivers reported that sometimes the bus is
empty and so when they input 0 the program finishes when it should not. To improve the
program, develop an algorithm and implement a program to solve the same problem but
terminating on the value –99 instead of 0.
What needs to be done to the total to make sure that –99 is not included in the total?
Test your program with the test data: 20, 30, 40, –99. The result should be 30.
ACTIVITY 10.7 Input, compile, correct, run and test the Simple Add program
Use the company you created in earlier activities or use the St Luago Fashion company.
Your company has started attending markets during the week. The number of markets
varies. In an earlier activity (Activity 9.5) you created an algorithm to input the takings at
each market, add them together and output the total. (Use a loop.)
1 Convert the algorithm into pseudocode or a flowchart.
2 Convert the pseudocode or flowchart into a high-level language of your choice.
3 Input, compile, correct, run, test and document this program.
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Syntax for iteration (loops): demonstrating a
WHILE DO loop
We now demonstrate a WHILE DO loop for looping an unknown number of times,
maybe zero. Now we will look at a WHILE DO loop for looping an unknown
number of times, maybe zero. Here is an example of a program using a WHILE DO
loop to solve a simple problem.
CTS installs crash detection systems to its vehicles. The problem
is to read from an object detection sensor, and while no object is
detected, to keep the power on and brakes off.
The IPO chart:
Input
object present or absent
Processing
While noObject is true
Begin
power = on
brakes = off
End
brakes = on
power = off
Output
power
brake
The algorithm, pseudocode, flowchart, Pascal and Python program
source code:
Algorithm
Flowchart
Write 'A simple program to stop a vehicle if an object is detected.'
Get the value of the object detected sensor
While object detected is 'no' do
Write 'power on'
Write 'brakes off'
Write ‘Please give result of object detection yes or no’
Get the next value of object detected
Write 'STOP!'
Write 'power on'
Write 'brakes off'
Begin
Output
‘welcome’
Object detected = ‘N’
Output
‘power ON’
‘power OFF’
Prompt for Y or N
Pseudocode
BEGIN
WRITE 'A simple program to stop a vehicle if an object is detected.'
READ the value of the object detected sensor
WHILE object detected = 'no' DO
WRITE 'Power ON'
WRITE 'Brakes OFF'
WRITE 'Please give result of object detection Y or N'
READ the next value of object detected
WRITE 'STOP!'
WRITE 'Power OFF'
WRITE 'Brakes ON'
END
Yes
Input
object detected
Object detected
=N
No
Output
‘STOP’
‘power OFF’
‘brakes ON’
End
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Theory
1
Programming
Pascal program
PROGRAM crashdetection;
VAR
objectDetected : CHAR;
enterDummy : CHAR;
BEGIN
WRITELN ('A simple program to model a crash prevention system');
objectDetected := 'N';
WHILE (objectDetected = 'N') DO
BEGIN
WRITELN ('Power ON');
WRITELN ('Brakes OFF');
WRITELN ('Please give result of object detection: Y for object detected otherwise N ');
READ (objectDetected);
(* This is a comment. It is used to add notes to aid understanding of the program. *)
(* Programmer note: read in the press of the Enter key because this is *)
(* an input character that is coming from the keyboard *)
READ (enterDummy);
END;
WRITELN ('EMERGENCY STOP! EMERGENCY STOP! EMERGENCY STOP!');
WRITELN ('Power OFF');
WRITELN ('Brakes ON');
WRITELN ('Press Enter to finish.');
READLN;
END.
Python program
print ('A simple program to model a crash detection system.')
objectDetected = input('Please give result of object detection: Y for object detected otherwise N ')
while (objectDetected == 'N'):
print ('power is ON')
print ('brakes are OFF')
objectDetected = input('Please give result of object detection: Y for object detected otherwise N ')
print ('EMERGENCY STOP! EMERGENCY STOP! EMERGENCY STOP! ')
print ('power is OFF')
print ('brakes are ON')
User documentation:
This is a Caribbean Travel Services program. CTS installs a crash detection system to
its vehicles. This program models the crash detection system, which reads in from
an object detection sensor and while no object is detected keeps the power on and
brakes off.
Limitations: The input must be ‘Y’ for ‘yes object detected’ or ‘N’ for ‘no object
detected’.
Test data:
This is a really simple program so test data will include a few examples of expected
input values and a few examples of more extreme and unexpected values. Notice
that in the user documentation we limited the input values ‘Y’ or ‘N’. For test data
values that do not meet this criteria the expected result will be a run-time error.
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Input values
Reason
Expected result
Actual result
N, N, Y
typical values
Power ON, Brakes OFF,
Power ON, Brakes OFF
Emergency Stop
Power OFF, Brakes ON
Power ON, Brakes OFF,
Power ON, Brakes OFF
Emergency Stop
Power OFF, Brakes ON
Y
typical value
Emergency Stop
Power OFF, Brakes ON
Power OFF, Brakes ON
Emergency Stop
Power OFF, Brakes ON
1.3, Y
invalid type
Error
Emergency Stop
Power OFF, Brakes ON
Stop, Y
invalid type
Error
Emergency Stop
Power OFF, Brakes ON
Table 10.7 Test data for testing the crash detection program
The 1.3, Y and Stop, Y sets of test data give an interesting outcome because the
program actually performs correctly even though an invalid data type is input.
This is because the program checks only for an ‘N’ to continue; any other input is
interpreted like a ‘Y’.
Input, compile, correct, run and test the crash detection
program
Input the source code in your chosen development environment,
compile the source code correcting any syntax errors that may
occur. Run and test the program using suitable test data.
EXTENSION ACTIVITY 10.8 Demonstrating a WHILE DO loop
Use the above example as a starting point, develop an algorithm and implement a
program to solve the problem:
Write a program to model a traffic light system. While the light is green the vehicle
can go; any other colour the vehicle must stop.
Syntax for conditional branching: IF-THEN
decisions
Here we demonstrate IF-THEN – a simple decision for deciding whether to execute
instructions or not.
At Caribbean Travel Services vehicles need to be serviced once
they reach 100,000 kms since the last service. Consider designing a
solution to the problem. Read in the vehicle’s ‘kilometres covered’
since last service and decide if a service is needed. The problem is
to decide if a vehicle needs a service.
The IPO chart for the Service Algorithm is:
Input
kms covered
Processing
If kms >= 100,000
service is yes
Output
service
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Programming
The algorithm, pseudocode, flowchart, Pascal and Python program source code:
Algorithm
Flowchart
Write 'A simple program to see if a vehicle requires a service.'
Write 'Please give the kms covered since last service.'
Get the kms covered
If the kms is greater than or equal to 100000 then
Write 'Yes service required'
Pseudocode
BEGIN
WRITE 'A simple program to see if a vehicle requires a service.'
WRITE 'Please give the kms covered since last service.'
READ the kms covered
IF the kms >= 100000 THEN
WRITE 'Yes service required'
END
Pascal program
PROGRAM service;
VAR
kms : REAL;
BEGIN
WRITELN ('A simple program to see if a vehicle service is required');
WRITELN ('Please give the kms covered since last service ');
READ (kms);
WRITELN (kms);
IF (kms >=100000) THEN
BEGIN
WRITELN ('YES Service required');
END;
WRITELN ('Press Enter to finish.');
READLN;
END.
Begin
Output
‘welcome’
Input
‘welcome’
Yes
Number
>= 100000
No
Output
‘Service required’
End
Python program
kmsCovered = 0
print ('A simple program to see if a vehicle service has to be performed.')
kmsCovered = input('Please give the kms the vehicle has covered since last service ')
if int(kmsCovered) >= 100000:
print('YES vehicle need a service')
User documentation:
This is a Caribbean Travel Services program. CTS needs to service vehicles when
the kms covered since the last service equals or exceeds 100,000. This program
determines if a service is required. The input is the kms covered since the last
service.
Limitations: The input must be a number.
Test data:
This is a simple program so test data will include a few examples of expected input
values and a few examples of more extreme and unexpected values. For test data
values that do not meet this criteria the expected result will be a run-time error.
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Input values
Reason
Expected Result
Actual result
34450
typical values
program terminates
program terminates
157082
typical values
Yes service required
Yes service require
0
extreme values
program terminates
program terminates
1000000
extreme values
Yes service required
Yes service required
Two
invalid type
error
error 106
Table 10.8 Test data for testing the simple service program
Input, compile, correct, run and test the service program
Input the source code in your chosen development environment.
Compile the source code, correcting any syntax errors that may
occur. Run and test the program using suitable test data.
EXTENSION ACTIVITY 10.9 Demonstrating an IF-THEN simple decision
Copy the above (servicetest) program source code and modify it to read in a student’s
test mark and display ‘pass’ if the mark is greater than or equal to 50.
ACTIVITY 10.10 Convert algorithm to source code; input, compile, correct, run and test
a program
Use the company you created in earlier activities or use the St Luago Fashion company.
The Board of your company has decided to update underperforming branches. In an
earlier activity (Activity 9.5) you created an algorithm to input the annual profit of a
branch. If the profit is less than or equal to 50,000, then the output is ‘Update’.
1 Convert the algorithm to pseudocode or a flowchart.
2 Convert the pseudocode or flowchart into a high-level language of your choice.
3 Input, compile, correct, run, test and document this program.
Syntax for conditional branching: IF-THENELSE decisions
Here we demonstrate an IF-THEN-ELSE decision for deciding which of two blocks
of instructions to execute.
We can pose a variation of the problem above which results in a more useful
version. In this version, users receive a clear ‘yes’ or ‘no’ answer.
At Caribbean Travel Services vehicles need to be serviced once
they reach 100,000 kms since the last service. Consider designing
a solution to the problem; read in the vehicle’s kilometres covered
since the last service and decide if a service is needed or if it is not
needed. The problem is to decide whether a vehicle needs a service
or not.
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1
Programming
The IPO chart for the Service Test algorithm is:
Input
kms covered
Processing
If kms >= 100,000
service is yes
else
service is no
Output
service
The algorithm, pseudocode, flowchart, Pascal and Python program source code:
Algorithm
Flowchart
Write 'A simple program to see if a vehicle requires a service.'
Write 'Please give the kms covered since last service.'
Get the kms covered
If the kms is greater than or equal to 100000 then
Write 'Yes service required'
Else
Write 'No service required'
Pseudocode
BEGIN
WRITE 'A simple program to see if a vehicle requires a service.'
WRITE 'Please give the kms covered since last service.'
Yes
READ the kms covered
IF kms >= 100000 THEN
WRITE 'Yes service required'
Output
ELSE
Output ‘YES
WRITE 'No service required'
Service required’
ENDIF
END
Pascal program
PROGRAM servicetest;
VAR
kms : REAL;
BEGIN
WRITELN ('A simple program to see if a vehicle service is required');
WRITELN ('Please give the kms covered since last service ');
READ (kms);
WRITELN (kms);
IF (kms >=100000) THEN
BEGIN
WRITELN ('YES Service required');
END
ELSE
BEGIN
WRITELN ('NO Service required on this vehicle');
END;
WRITELN ('Press Enter to finish.');
READLN;
END.
Python program
kmsCovered = 0
print (‘A simple program to see if a vehicle service has to be performed.’)
kmsCovered = input(‘Please give the kms the vehicle has covered since last service ‘)
if int(kmsCovered) >= 100000:
print(‘YES vehicle needs a service’)
else:
print(‘NO service needed on this vehicle’)
Begin
Output
‘welcome’
Input
‘welcome’
Number
>= 100000
No
Output
Output ‘NO
Service required’
End
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User documentation:
This is a Caribbean Travel Services program. CTS needs to service vehicles when kms
covered since the last service equals or exceeds 100,000. This program determines
if a service is required or not required. The input is the kms covered since the last
service.
Limitations: The input must be a number.
Test data:
This is a simple program so test data will include a few examples of expected input
values and a few examples of more extreme and unexpected values. For test data
values that do not meet this criteria the expected result will be a run-time error.
Input values
Reason
Expected result
Actual result
34450
typical values
No service required
No service required
157082
typical values
Yes service required
Yes service require
0
extreme values
No service required
No service required
1000000
extreme values
Yes service required
Yes service required
two
invalid type
error
error 106
Table 10.9 Test data for testing the simple service test program.
Input, compile, correct, run and test the service test
program
Input the source code in your chosen development environment.
Compile the source code, correcting any syntax errors that may
occur. Run and test the program using suitable test data.
EXTENSION ACTIVITY 10.11 Demonstrating an IF-THEN simple decision
Copy the above (service test) program source code and modify it to read in a student’s
test mark and display ‘pass’ if the mark is greater than or equal to 50 and ‘fail’ if the
mark is less than 50.
ACTIVITY 10.12 Convert algorithm to source code; input, compile, correct, run and test
a program
Use the company you created in earlier activities or use the St Luago Fashion company.
The Board of your company have decided to update underperforming branches. In
an earlier activity (Activity 9.5) you created an algorithm to input the annual profit of a
branch. If the profit is less than or equal to 50,000 then the output is ‘Update’, otherwise
the output is ‘Excellent performance’.
1 Convert the algorithm to pseudocode or a flowchart.
2 Convert the pseudocode or flowchart into a high-level language of your choice.
3 Input, compile, correct, run and test this program.
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Programming
Syntax for integer division: using MOD and
DIV integer operations
This problem demonstrates the MOD and DIV functions for integer arithmetic.
Remember that:
• Integers are whole numbers
• DIV is the integer division operator, which discards the fractional part
(remainder) of the result. For example: 5 DIV 2 produces 2 since the remainder,
which is 1, is discarded
• MOD is the integer remainder operator, which gives the fractional part
(remainder) of the result. For example: 5 MOD 2 produces 1 since this is the
remainder.
The Caribbean Travel Services vehicles record the duration of any
journey in minutes. A program is needed to read in a number of
minutes and convert it into hours and minutes.
The IPO chart for the hoursmins program is:
Input
Number of minutes
Processing
Output
Hours and minutes
Get the number of minutes
integer divide minutes by
60 to get the hours part,
(minutest DIV 60). Take the
remainder of minutes divided
by 60 to get the minutes part,
(minutes MOD 60)
The algorithm, pseudocode, flowchart, Pascal and Python program source code:
Algorithm
Write 'A simple program to convert minutes into hours and minutes.'
Write 'Please give the number of minutes.'
Get the minutes
Calculate the hours part
Calculate the minutes part
Write the hours part
Write the minutes part
Pseudocode
BEGIN
WRITE 'A simple program to convert minutes into hours and minutes.'
WRITE 'Please give the number of minutes.'
READ the minutes
hoursPart = minutes integer division by 60 (minutes DIV 60)
minsPart = remainder of minutes integer division by 60 (minutes MOD 60)
WRITE minutes, ' minutes is ', hoursPart, ' hours and ', minsPart, ' minutes'
END
Flowchart
Begin
Output
‘welome’
prompt first number
Input
mins
Hourspart= mins DIV 60
minspart = mins MOD 60
Output
hourspart
minspart
End
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Pascal program
PROGRAM hoursmins;
VAR
minutes : INTEGER;
hourspart : INTEGER;
minspart : INTEGER;
BEGIN
WRITELN ('A simple program to convert minutes into hours and minutes');
WRITELN ('Please give the number of minutes ');
READ (minutes);
WRITELN (minutes);
hourspart := minutes DIV 60;
WRITELN ('The hours part of ', minutes, ' is ', hourspart);
minspart := minutes MOD 60;
WRITELN ('The minutes part of ', minutes, ' is ‘, minspart);
WRITELN (minutes, ' minutes is ', hourspart, ' hours and ', minspart);
WRITELN ('Press Enter to finish.');
READLN;
END.
Python program
Python does not have a DIV function; instead use int to get the integer part of a number. For example: hourspart =
int(int(minutes)/60)
(It is beyond the scope of this book to explain why you need two int functions here. If you are interested look up
‘type casting in Python’.)
Python does not have a MOD function; instead use ‘%’ to get the remainder. For example: minspart =
int(minutes)%60
minutes = 0
hourspart = 0
minspart = 0
print (‘A simple program to convert minutes into hours and minutes.’)
minutes = input(‘Please give the number of minutes. ‘)
hourspart = int(int(minutes)/60)
minspart = int(minutes)%60
print(‘The hours part is ‘, hourspart)
print(‘The minutes partUser
is ‘, minspart)
documentation:
This is a Caribbean Travel Services program. The CTS vehicles record the duration
of a journey in minutes. A program is needed to read in a number of minutes and
convert it into hours and minutes.
Limitations: The input must be numeric integers in the range 0 to 10000, e.g.
1204 or 1858.
Test data:
This is a simple program so test data will include a few examples of expected input
values and a few examples of more extreme and unexpected values. Notice that in
the user documentation we limited the input values to be integer numbers in the
range 0 to 10000. For test data values that do not meet this criteria the expected
result will be a run-time error.
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Input values
Reason
Expected result
Actual result
340
typical values
5 hours 40 minutes
5 hours 40 minutes
5748
typical values
95 hours 48 minutes
95 hours 48 minutes
–10000
extreme values
–166 hours and 40 minutes
–166 hours and 40 minutes
15,000
invalid values
error
error 106
two
invalid type
error
error 106
Table 10.10 Test data for testing the minutes to hours program
Input, compile, correct, run and test the hoursmins program
Input the source code in your chosen development environment,
compile the source code correcting any syntax errors that may
occur. Run and test the program using suitable test data.
EXTENSION ACTIVITY 10.13 Demonstrating the DIV and MOD functions
Copy the above (hoursmins) program source code and modify it to accept hours and
display days and hours.
Syntax for using constants
Here we demonstrate the use of constants. Remember: a constant is an area of
storage whose value cannot be changed during processing.
If a value cannot be changed during processing it should be made a constant.
This makes your program easier to understand because it is easier for other
programmers to understand pi than 3.1416 to four decimal places. It is also good
practice to use a constant because the value is defined in only one place; this
makes it easy to change the value of the constant should the situation change. For
example, the taxRate may have been 25% when the program was written, but it
has now changed to 20%.
Declare values that don’t change as constants. Converting the hoursmins
program above to use constants will improve the program.
Figure 10.10 Timing the journey
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The IPO chart, algorithm, pseudocode, flowchart, documentation and
test data do not change.
Pascal program
PROGRAM useconst;
CONST
minsInHour = 60;
VAR
minutes : INTEGER;
hourspart : INTEGER;
minspart : INTEGER;
BEGIN
WRITELN ('A simple program to convert minutes into hours and minutes');
WRITELN ('Please give the number of minutes ');
READ (minutes);
WRITELN (minutes);
hourspart := minutes DIV minsInHour;
WRITELN ('The hours part of ', minutes, ' is ', hourspart);
minspart := minutes MOD minsInHour;
WRITELN ('The minutes part of ', minutes, ' is ', minspart);
WRITELN (minutes, ' minutes is ', hourspart, ' hours and ', minspart);
WRITELN ('Press Enter to finish.');
READLN;
END.
Python program
minsInHour = 60
hourspart = 0
minspart = 0
print('A simple program to convert minutes into hours and minutes.')
minutes = input('Please give the number of minutes. ')
hourspart = int(int(minutes)/minsInHour)
minspart = int(minutes)%minsInHour
print('The hours part is ', hourspart)
print('The minutes part is ', minspart)
Input, compile, correct, run and test the minutes to hours
conversion using constants program
Input the source code in your chosen development environment.
Compile the source code, correcting any syntax errors that may
occur. Run and test the program using suitable test data.
The above components of programming can be combined to solve more complex
problems.
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Programming
Combining program elements to solve more
complex problems
Here we demonstrate how programming elements can be combined.
At Caribbean Travel Services vehicles need to be serviced once they
reach 100,000 kms since the last service. The garage needs to plan
this work. Consider designing a solution to the problem.
For each vehicle:
• Read in the vehicle’s number of kilometres covered since the last
service (terminated by 0).
• Decide if a priority service is required (kms >= 120,000), a
scheduled service is required (kms >= 100,000) or if a service is not
needed.
• If too many vehicles have exceeded 120,000 kms since the last
service and need a priority service, the garage will have to open at
the weekend.
• Display the number of vehicles requiring a priority service,
the number requiring a scheduled service and the number not
requiring a service.
The IPO chart for the Service Priority program is:
:
Input
kms covered by each vehicle,
terminated by a 0
Processing
countPriority = 0
countService = 0else
countService = 0
Repeat
Get the next kmsCovered
If kmsCovered >= 120000
countPriority = countPriority +1
Else
If kmsCovered >= 100000
countService = countService + 1
Else
countNoService = countNoService + 1
Endif
Until kmsCovered is 0
Output countService
Output countNoService
Output countPriority
Output
Total number of vehicles
requiring service
Number of vehicles not
requiring a service
Number of vehicles requiring
priority service
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The algorithm, pseudocode, flowchart, Pascal and Python program
source code:
Algorithm
regularService = 100000
priorityService = 120000
countRegularService = 0
countNoService = 0
countPriorityService = 0
Repeat
Get the next kmsCovered
If kmsCovered >= priorityService
countPriorityService = countPriorityService + 1
Else
If kmsCovered >= regularService
countRegularService = countRegularService + 1
Else
countNoService = countNoService + 1
Endif
Endif
Until kmsCovered is 0
countNoService = countNoService – 1
Output countService
Output countNoService
Output countPriority
Pseudocode
regularService = 100000
priorityService = 120000
countRegularService = 0
countNoService = 0
countPriorityService = 0
Repeat
Get the next kmsCovered
If kmsCovered >= priorityService
countPriorityService = countPriorityService + 1
Else
If kmsCovered >= regularService
countRegularService = countRegularService + 1
Else
countNoService = countNoService
Endif
Endif
Until kmsCovered is 0
countNoService = countNoService – 1
Output countService
Output countNoService
Output countPriority
Flowchart
Begin
countPriority = 0
countService = 0
countNoService = 0
Output
‘welcome’
Output
‘prompt for Kms’
Input
Kms
Yes
No
Kms >= 120000
Yes
countPriority =
countPriority +1
Yes
Kms >= 100000
No
countService =
countService +1
countNoService =
countNoService +1
Kms >= 120000
No
countNoService =
countNoService -1
Output
countPriority
countService
countNoService
End
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Programming
Pascal program
(********************************************************************)
(* Program Service Priority—This program reads in kms covered by vehicles since
*)
(* the last service and counts the number that require a priority service, those that
*)
(* require a scheduled service and the number that do not require a service yet.
*)
(* The program is terminated by entering a 0 kms covered.
*)
(* The output is the number of vehicles:
*)
*)
(* requiring a priority service
(* requiring a service
*)
(* not requiring a service
*)
(*
*)
(* Author: Alan Wood
*)
(* Date: 20/10/2019
*)
(********************************************************************)
(PROGRAM servicepriority;
CONST
priorityService = 120000;
regularService = 100000;
VAR
kms : REAL;
countPriority : INTEGER;
countService : INTEGER;
countNoService : INTEGER;
BEGIN
countPriority := 0;
countService := 0;
countNoservice := 0;
WRITELN ('A simple program to count the number of vehicles ');
WRITELN (' requiring a priority service');
WRITELN (' requiring a scheduled service');
WRITELN (' not requiring a service');
WRITELN (' ');
REPEAT
BEGIN
WRITELN ('Enter the next vehicle’s kms covered since last service or terminate with 0');
READ (kms);
WRITELN (kms:10:0);
IF (kms >= priorityService) THEN
BEGIN
countPriority := countPriority + 1;
END
ELSE
BEGIN
IF (kms >= regularService) THEN
BEGIN
countService := countService + 1;
END
ELSE
BEGIN
countNoService := countNoService + 1;
END;
END;
END;
UNTIL (kms = 0);
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(* Programmer note subtract 1 from totalNoService because we counted the 0 as a NoService *)
countNoService := countNoService – 1;
WRITELN ('The number of vehicles requiring a priority service is ', countPriority);
WRITELN ('The total number of vehicles requiring a service is ', countService);
WRITELN ('The number of vehicles NOT requiring a service is ', countNoService);
WRITELN (' ');
WRITELN ('Press Enter to finish.');
READLN;
END.
Python program
# Program Service Priority—This program reads in kms covered
# by vehicles since last service and counts the number that require
# a priority service, those that require a scheduled service and
# those that do not require a service yet.
# The program is terminated by entering a 0 kms covered.
# The program displays:
# the number of vehicles requiring a service
# the number not requiring a service
# the number requiring a priority service
# Author: Howard Campbell
# Date: 20/10/2019
#
priorityService = 120000
regularService = 100000
kmsCovered = 99
countPriority = 0
countService = 0
countNoService = 0
print ('A simple program to count the number of vehicles ')
print (' requiring a priority service')
print (' requiring a service')
print (' that do not need a service')
while (int(kmsCovered) != 0):
kmsCovered = input('Please give the kms covered since last service, 0 to finish ')
print (kmsCovered)
if int(kmsCovered) >= priorityService:
countPriority = countPriority + 1
elsif int(kmsCovered) >= regularService:
countService = countService + 1
else:
countNoService = countNoService + 1
countNoService = countNoService – 1
#
# Programmer note subtract 1 from the countNoService because we counted the 0 as a NoService
print('The number of vehicles requiring priority service is ', countPriority)
print('The total number of vehicles requiring service is ', countService)
print('The number of vehicles NOT requiring a service is ', countNoService)
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User documentation:
This is a Caribbean Travel Services program. CTS vehicles need to be serviced
once they reach 100,000 kms and need a priority service if the kms covered is
greater than or equal to 120,000 since the last service. The garage needs to plan
this work. This program reads in vehicles’ current kilometres covered since last
service (terminated by 0). The program displays the total number requiring
a priority service, the number requiring a regular service and the number of
vehicles not needing a service.
Limitations: The inputs must be whole numbers.
Test data:
This is a simple program so test data will include a few examples of expected
input values and a few examples of more extreme and unexpected values.
Notice that in the user documentation we limited the input values to numbers.
For test data values that do not meet this criteria the expected result will be a
run-time error.
Input values
Reason
Expected result
Actual result
34450, 125968,
103456,
75832, 0
typical values
Total for priority service 1
Total for regular service 1
Not requiring service 2
Total for priority service 1
Total for regular service 1
Not requiring service 2
157082, 32, 0
typical values
Total for priority service 1
Not requiring service 1
Total for priority service 1
Not requiring service 1
0
extreme values
Total for priority service 0
Total for regular service 0
Not requiring service 0
Total for priority service 0
Total for regular service 0
Not requiring service 0
1000000,
–1000000,0
extreme values
Total for priority service 0
Total for regular service 1
Not requiring service 1
Total for priority service 0
Total for regular service 1
Not requiring service 1
Two
invalid type
error
error 106
Table 10.11 Test data for testing the service priority program
Input, compile, correct, run and test the service priority
program
Input the source code in your chosen development environment,
compile the source code correcting any syntax errors that may
occur. Run and test the program using suitable test data.
Documenting programs effectively
When a program has been implemented and tested it needs to be documented. It
is important to fully document so that users can correctly operate the program and
so that other programmers can easily understand the source code program.
There are two types of documentation: internal documentation and external
documentation.
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Features of internal documentation
Internal documentation ▶
Internal documentation is an aid to programmers trying to understand the source
code. If you look at an example of a well-written program it will include all these
features of internal documentation.
Some of the key features of internal documentation include:
• use of meaningful variable and constant names
• extensive use of comments
• good use of indentation to show the structure of the program
• effective use of white spaces to split the code into logical parts
• programmer notes explaining why the program was written in a particular way.
ITQ 10.15
State two features of good
internal documentation.
Internal documentation along with the external documentation provides potential
programmers with a means of understanding the workings of the code. This will be
useful for both corrective and adaptive maintenance.
Remember: corrective maintenance is fixing program bugs or flaws in the
program and adaptive maintenance is implementing new features or changing the
way a particular feature works.
Figure 10.11 Internal
documentation
Features of external documentation
External documentation is a manual, or instruction book, for users of the program.
A good user manual will usually:
• identify the context in which the program will operate
• clearly identify the problem that the program solves, i.e. the clear problem
definition created earlier
• give clear instructions for the use of the program
• identify all limitations of the program
• list any error codes, conditions or messages the program may produce. Errors
cause the program to terminate
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Problem-solving
Fundamentals
Fundamentals
and program design
• list any warning codes, conditions or messages the program may produce.
Warnings are issued when there is a problem but the program can continue to
run. For example, if an input value is rejected because of a range check validation
problem, the program continues to run and waits for a valid value to be input
• give contact details for customer support with the program’s operation.
ITQ 10.16
Suggest the main difference
between internal documentation
and external documentation.
For programs such as Microsoft Word, the external documentation, the user
manual, is hundreds of pages long and is supported by help facilities built into
the program and extensive online support. A payroll program will also have an
extensive user manual and built-in help features.
For your simple program all that will be required is simple external
documentation.
ACTIVITY 10.14 Using built-in help
Use the spreadsheet package you are familiar with and find the help facility. It may be
called ‘Help’ or be indicated by a ‘?’ icon.
1
Lookup the SUM function.
2
Find out about pivot tables.
3
Record your findings in your notebook.
Summary
• Assembly and machine language are two examples of low- • Relational operators, like ‘greater than’, compare values.
level languages.
• Test data is selected to check that the program produces
correct results in all situations.
• A programming language is a set of formal grammatical
rules used to write computer programs. Like natural • Program documentation consists of internal documentation
languages, there are many computer languages with their
own grammar (syntax) and vocabulary of reserved words.
• Machine language has a vocabulary consisting of ones and
zeros.
• There are four steps in implementing a program: create
source code, translate and/or link, execute/run program,
and maintain program.
and external documentation.
• Internal documentation is used by other programmers
who may need to understand the program ahead of
implementing changes.
• Good-quality internal documentation has features such as
meaningful variable names, comments, indentation and
effectively used white space.
• An incorrectly written program may contain all of the • External documentation is a guide for end users of the
following types of errors: syntax, logic and run-time.
• Syntax errors occur when the grammar and syntax of the
program.
programming language are incorrectly used.
• Programs written in high-level language must be translated
to machine language.
• Programs can contain loops and decisions as well as
sequences of instructions.
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Answers to ITQs
10.1 Machine code is made up of 1s and 0s and can be
directly executed by processor. Assembly code is
made up of simple words and numbers and has to
be translated into machine code using an assembler
program.
10.8 Pascal code cannot be executed because it is a high-level
language. It needs to be translated, using a compiler,
into machine code that can be executed.
10.2 High-level language uses ‘human-like’ syntax.
10.10 Syntax errors are detected by the compiler. Logic errors
are more difficult to find but may be identified during
dry run testing using a trace table.
10.3 Some of the languages you might name are Python,
JavaScript, Java, C++ and Pascal.
10.4 The correct order in which to implement a program is:
create source code, translate source code into machine
code, execute the program and, finally, maintain the
program.
10.5 The reserved words in a programming language have
special meaning and are used by a compiler to create
the correct source code.
10.6 A compiler is needed in program development to
translate the high-level language code that humans
understand into the machine code that the processor
understands.
10.7 The sentences written as: ‘This car is dusty, filthy and
smelly.’ and ‘Come for a visit! I have plenty of snacks.’
use correct English syntax.
10.9 Corrective maintenance is needed if a bug is found in a
program.
10.11 Programs need to be tested with a variety of test data
including typical values and extreme values to ensure
that they work properly under all circumstances.
10.12 The three types of errors are: syntax, logical and runtime.
10.13 An integer holds whole numbers, e.g. 32; a real number
holds decimal numbers, e.g. 2.56. A character holds a
single character, e.g. ‘H’; a string holds a sequence of
characters, e.g. ‘hello’.
10.14 Integrated development environment.
10.15 Good internal documentation will use meaningful
variable names, comments, indentation, white spaces
and programmer notes.
10.16 Internal documentation is to help programmers
understand the source code. External documentation is
to help the user to operate the program effectively.
Examination-style questions: Multiple Choice
Instructions: Each item in this test has four suggested
responses labelled (A), (B), (C) or (D). Read each question
carefully then select the most suitable response.
1)
2)
Which of the following programming languages is NOT
a high-level language?
A) Assembly
B) C
C) Pascal
D) Python
Which of the following correctly lists the sequence of
steps required to the complete implementation cycle of
a program?
A) create source code, translate, link, execute
B) assemble code, document, translate, execute
C) create source code, translate, execute, maintain
D) develop algorithm, create source code, link,
execute
3)
All of the following tools may be used to translate a
high-level program EXCEPT:
A) assembler
B) compiler
C) editor
D) interpreter
4)
Which of the following errors must be corrected before
a program can be executed?
I
logic
II
run-time
III
syntax
A)
B)
C)
D)
I and II only
II only
II and III only
III only
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Problem-solving
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and program design
5)
A program which executes but produces incorrect
output may have which type of error?
I
logic
II
run-time
III
syntax
A)
B)
C)
D)
6)
7)
I only
I and II only
II only
III only
If age and rate are numeric variables and dept is a
character variable, which of the following statements is
invalid?
A) age = 23
B) dept = ‘A’
C) dept = ‘Sales’
D) rate = age
Which of the following statements would be used to
implement conditional branching in a program?
A) IF value < 0
B) INPUT value
C) PRINT value
D) WHILE value = 0
8)
Which of the following controls would be used to
implement a pre-test loop in a program?
A) case
B) for
C) repeat
D) while
9)
When trying to debug a program a programmer is
MOST LIKELY to look at:
I
external documentation
II
internal documentation
III
source code
A)
B)
C)
D)
I and II only
II only
II and III only
III only
10) Which of the following will help to effectively
document a program by improving its readability?
I
mnemonic variable names
II
comments
white space
III
IV indentation
A)
B)
C)
D)
I and II only
II and III only
II, III and IV only
III and IV only
Examination-style questions: Structured
1)
Alexia has been asked to translate an algorithm to a program using a popular high-level programming language.
a)
Distinguish between a low-level language and a high-level language. [2]
b)
After successfully compiling the program, Alexia observed that the results produced were incorrect.
i) Name the process that Alexia could use to identify, locate and correct the error.
ii) Suggest the type of error that is MOST LIKELY to be present in the program. Justify your response.
[1]
Alexia finally managed to get the program to work correctly as the program was effectively documented.
(i) Name FOUR features that might be included in the internal documentation of the program. (ii) Describe how any TWO of these features could contribute to Alexia’s understanding of the program.
[4]
c)
d)
[3]
[4]
Translate the following algorithm into a program using a programming language of your choice.
PROMPT topUpAmount
READ topUpAmount
IF topUpAmount >= 100 THEN
topUpAmount = topUpAmount * 1.2
WRITE topUpAmount
[6]
Total 20 marks
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11
The School-Based
Assessment
An important part of the requirements of the syllabus is the School-Based
Assessment (SBA). The SBA requires you to apply the skills you have learnt in a
realistic project. In this chapter we look at some techniques for tackling the SBA
and ensuring you produce a high-scoring project. We then provide you with an
example SBA project which details exactly how to go about producing an SBA
of the highest quality.
By the end of this chapter
you should be able to:
✔✔ Describe the requirements of an SBA.
✔✔ Outline the distribution of marks for components of the SBA.
✔✔ Practise the skills that must be demonstrated in the SBA.
✔✔ Assemble documentation for your SBA.
SBA requirements
The SBA is an important component of the CSEC® Information Technology
examination, contributing up to 25% of the overall total marks. It is designed
to provide students with the opportunity to demonstrate their problem-solving
and programming skills as well as their ability to use office productivity tools
effectively. You are required to accomplish the following:
(i) Use a word processing program to enter text and images into 2 documents
and formatting tools to improve the presentation of the document.
(ii) Use a word processing program or a web page authoring program to create a
simple web page.
(iii) Use a spreadsheet program to create no more than 3 linked worksheets in a
workbook.
(iv) Use a database management program to create no more than 3 related tables
by entering data, performing simple queries and reports.
(v) Develop an algorithm and implement, test and document a program in a
high-level programming language.
The SBA consists of one practical project consisting of these five related components,
prepared and marked by the teacher in accordance with CXC® Guidelines. The
five components will cover the Specific Objectives in Sections 4, 5, 6, 7 and 8.
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Theory
Mark scheme and key
The following is a summary of the mark scheme for assessing SBA assignments.
Your teacher will clearly indicate which of these marks you have achieved when
your assignments are marked.
Assignment 1: Word Processing (20 marks)
Two documents are enough but you should include:
• at least 4 formatting features from: bold, italics, underline, justification (left,
right, centre, full), line spacing, superscript, subscript, font size, font style and
page numbers (4 marks)
• a page layout feature from: margins, page orientation, paper size or text
orientation (2 marks)
• importing and resizing a picture/chart/table (up to 2 marks)
• text split over two or more columns (up to 2 marks)
• a table that has been formatted using colour, shading or borders (up to 2 marks)
• an automatic table of contents using headings. (5 marks)
One document needs to be either:
• an example of a mail merge. You should include: data source, primary document,
insert fields and create the merge (5 marks)
or
• an example of a fillable form. You should include at least three of: option box,
check box, date picker, dropdown list or command button.
(5 marks)
Assignment 2: Web Page Design (10 marks)
One web page is required but you should include:
• well-presented text and pictures (3 marks)
• layout suitable for the intended audience (2 marks)
• information consistent with the intended use (3 marks)
• at least 2 hyperlinks to: another web page, a location on this page, an email
address or a user-created file. (2 marks)
Assignment 3: Spreadsheets (20 marks)
One workbook is required containing two or more linked worksheets and you
should include:
• three different functions, for example: max, min, average or sum (3 marks)
• three different formulas (3 marks)
• use of relative addressing and absolute addressing (2 marks)
• at least 4 formatting features from: currency, decimal places, comma, percentage,
justification (left, right, centre, full), font size, font style, merge cells, wrap text
(4 marks)
• sorting data (1 mark)
• filtering data (2 marks)
• a pivot table (1 mark)
• no more than 2 graphs of different types appropriately labelled (3 marks)
• linking cells in different sheets. (1 mark)
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Assignment 4: Database Management (20 marks)
One database file is required containing three tables, two queries, one calculated
field, one form and one report and you should include:
• at least two tables created and populated using appropriate field names, types
and primary keys (5 marks)
• two tables joined and related (2 marks)
• simple query (1 mark)
• complex query with more than one condition and involving more than one
table (2 marks)
• query with calculated field (2 marks)
• form with appropriate sub-form (2 marks)
• report with sorted records (1 mark)
• report with appropriate fields, grouping, specific title and summary feature.
(5 marks)
Assignment 5: Problem-solving and program implementation
(15 marks)
Develop an algorithm, pseudocode, flowchart, implement as a program, test and
document. Include:
• an algorithm that uses friendly variable names, initialises variable, gets input,
uses loops and decisions (6 marks)
• a trace table using suitable test data (4 marks)
• working program (1 mark)
• program initialising variable and using loops and decisions (3 marks)
• program documentation. (1 mark)
Preparation for the SBA
A good way to develop the skills you will need to complete a high-scoring SBA is to
practise an SBA, working in a small group. We have provided a walk-through of an
example SBA assignment in the second part of this chapter: Caribbean Food and
Drink Festival 2025 Event Management. This example provides step-by-step
instructions on how to complete and submit a typical SBA project.
Some useful tips
Here are some tips to help you gain top marks:
1 Get a full understanding of the project: Make time to sit down quietly
and read through the project carefully. Read through it again and try to
understand fully what is involved in the project. Seek guidance from your
teacher and make notes in your folder.
2
Work in small groups: The syllabus encourages you to work in groups.
Discuss each task in your group. Create your own documents, web page,
spreadsheet, database and program but regularly compare your work with the
others in the group.
3
Stay organised: Keep everything related to your SBA as hard copy in a file
jacket, in a ring binder. Keep your electronic files on the computer as well as a
copy on removable storage media, for example a USB pen drive.
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Theory
4
Know your mark scheme: Use the submission check list from this book
or the syllabus (available from www.cxc-store.com). Ensure that you review
this regularly so you have a good understanding of the skills that are being
assessed.
5
Complete a task and move on: You score marks in the SBA by demonstrating
different skills. When you have completed a task print out all the evidence and
store it safely in your folder. Fill in the submission check list to monitor your
progress and then move on to the next task.
6
Plan: Identify what tasks you must complete, in which order they will be
attempted and when they are due.
7
Beat deadlines: Don’t just try to meet deadlines, beat them! Finally, allocate
a time for completing each task.
8
Follow instructions: Follow all instructions carefully. If you are in doubt,
seek clarification!
9
Keep backups: Ensure that you have a recent backup of your files in case the
unexpected happens. Make personal copies of files on a removable media, for
example a USB pen drive, or send copies to yourself via email each time you
make significant changes. Ensure that you name the files in a manner that lets
you know, at a glance, which is the most recent.
Submitting your SBA
Once you have done all the hard work completing the SBA, make it easy for the
examiner to give you all the marks you deserve by including ALL the evidence in
your final submission. Remember, if your teacher or the examiner can’t see the
evidence you don’t get the marks. Include printouts of documents, worksheets,
source code and screen shots showing your working. The example SBA shows you
all the documents that you will need to submit.
Good Luck!
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Example SBA Assignment
Possibility High School
Empowering and enabling students to attain new heights
CSEC® Information Technology (General Proficiency)
Paper 031 – School-Based Assessment (SBA)
Weighting of Paper: 25%
Background
Food festivals are popular attractions
in many countries worldwide. Food in the
.
Caribbean is influenced by many other cultures; this makes the Caribbean an
increasingly popular destination for any foodie or food travel lover. Over the past
decade, many international travellers have planned their vacations to coincide
with at least one major food festival. Some of the festivals where ‘foodies’ have
enjoyed the cuisine of the region include the Caribbean Food and Wine Festival
(Providenciales), Barbados Food and Wine and Rum Festival (Barbados),
Cayman Cookout (Cayman Islands) and Saborea Puerto Rico: A Culinary
Extravaganza (Puerto Rico). These food and drink festivals have afforded travellers
the opportunity to taste some of the local dishes, as well as versions of international
dishes of the Caribbean.
A major challenge, however, is the absence of proper coordination among the
various territories, resulting in travellers being unable to island hop and experience
multiple food festivals during their Caribbean trip.
Description of the Project
A group of tourism interests in 10 Caribbean islands – Anguilla, Barbados,
Barbuda, Bequia, Nevis, Puerto Rico, St Maarten, Turks and Caicos, Tortola, and
Tobago – has collaborated to plan for the staging of the inaugural Caribbean
Food and Drink Festival from October 10 to November 26, 2025. You are
required to utilise suitable word processing, web design, spreadsheet,
database management as well as programming tools to design and
implement computer-based solutions to the tasks involved in the
event-planning process.
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Word processing assignment
You are required to prepare two documents for dispatch to potential sponsors:
• an event brief that summarises the festival events
• a fillable electronic form for sponsors to complete and return.
Task A
1)
Event Brief
Prepare a four-page event brief that includes:
(i) the need for the event
(ii) a brief geographic profile of each participating island, a well-formatted table containing the draft schedule
of the event dates, and
(iii) a brief description of the two sponsorship packages: Tier 1 (US$50,000) and Tier 2 (US$25,000). The
document should be made ready for presentation by adding a cover page with a table of contents and an
image. Pages should be numbered; use the following to guide your design with headings and sub-headings:
Cover Page
The Need
Table of Contents
Col 1
Country Profiles
Col 2
Schedule of Ten
Events
Country 1
Country 2
Country 3
Country 4
Country 5
Country 6
Country 7
Country 8
Country 9
Country 10
Sponsorship
Tier
Tier 2
Include a footnote on the last page (the Sponsorship page) to indicate that ‘The Sponsorship Expression of
Interest Form is available on the website at www.cfdf2025.biz’.
Ensure that you appropriately utilise the text formatting and page layout features to produce a well-laidout and easy-to-read document.
2) Print out the document, store it in your SBA folder and update your submission check list.
Task B
1)
Fillable Form
Create a fillable form with the title:
Caribbean Food and Drink Festival 2025
Sponsorship Expression of Interest
The form should be clearly laid out and easy to use and should capture the following data:
(i) Name of organisation
(ii) Name, email address and telephone number of the contact person
(iii) Sponsorship
a. Select events being sponsored
b. Sponsorship level – Tier 1 or Tier 2 – for each event selected
(iv) Date of application.
2)
Print out the form document.
3)
Create and print out a screenshot showing the form in Design Mode.
4)
Store the printouts in your SBA folder and update your submission check list.
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Web design assignment
You are required to prepare a single informational web page for tourists who might wish to attend the festival as
well as for potential sponsors.
Task A
1)
Event Website
Create a web page that will contain the following information:
(i) Event logo and title of the event
(ii) A navigation section
(iii)Background to the event
(iv)Hyperlink to the email address of the event office: eventoffice@cfdf2025.biz
(v) Hyperlink to the Sponsorship Expression of Interest Form.
2)
Print out the web page document.
3)
Create and print out a screenshot showing a hyperlink in a web browser.
4)
Store the printout in your SBA folder and update your submission check list.
Spreadsheet assignment
You are required to design a spreadsheet worksheet and enter the data submitted on the Sponsorship Expression
of Interest Form.
On a second worksheet enter your own ‘Location/projected attendance’ data.
On a third worksheet calculate the projected event deficit or surplus. Produce the required charts to support the
presentation of the financial report at the Quarterly Event Planning Meeting.
Suggested values:
• entry fee: $40
• number of sponsors responding ranges from 10 to 20
• proportion of sponsors in each tier (1 and 2) varies between 40 and 60%.
Base data:
Location
Projected attendance
Anguilla
725
Barbados
4,100
Barbuda
600
Bequia
1,780
Nevis
600
Puerto Rico
5,400
St Maarten
3,700
Tobago
1,800
Tortola
1,725
Turks and Caicos
1,125
Table 1 Projected attendance for the events
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Calculations you will need:
• gate receipts per location = projected attendance * entry fee
• total gate receipts = sum(gate receipts per location)
• sponsorship value = (fee for tier)
• total sponsorship = sum(sponsorship value)
• total income = (total sponsorship + total gate receipts)
• venue expenditure = venue expenses (the expenses for each venue are 25% of the entry fee)
• advertising expenditure = $200,000
• administration expenditure = $150,000
• total expenditure = (venue expenditure + advertising expenditure + administration expenditure)
• surplus/deficit = all income from event – all expenses to run event
Task A
Spreadsheet Design and Construction
1)
Create a worksheet (named Sponsorship) that accepts and stores the data provided on the Sponsorship
Expression of Interest Forms organisation, a contact name, email, telephone number, HQ location, number of
events sponsored at Tier 1 and the number of events sponsored at Tier 2.
2)
Insert a column that shows the results of the calculation of the sponsorship value.
3)
Create a formula to sum the total sponsorship.
4)
Create a formula to show the average sponsorship.
5)
Create a formula to show the maximum sponsorship.
6)
Print out the Sponsorship worksheet.
7)
Print out the Sponsorship worksheet showing all formulae.
8)
Create a second worksheet (named Locations) that accepts and stores data like that shown in Table 1.
9)
Insert a column that shows the results of the calculation of the gate receipts per location.
10) Create a formula to sum the total gate receipts.
11) Print out the Locations worksheet.
12) Print out the Locations worksheet showing all formulae.
13) Create a worksheet (named Accounts) that copies (links) the total gate receipts and the total sponsorship
from different worksheets and use a formula to calculate the total income.
14) Enter the data for the expenditures and create a formula to calculate the venue expenses and the
total expenditure.
15) Create a formula to calculate surplus/deficit.
16) Print out the Accounts worksheet.
17) Print out the Accounts worksheet showing all formulae.
18) Store the printouts in your SBA folder and update your submission check list.
Task B
Sorting, Extracting and Summarising Data
1)
Sort the data in the Sponsorship worksheet by the name of the organisation (in ascending order).
2)
Print out the sorted Sponsorship worksheet showing sorting.
3)
In the Sponsorship worksheet extract all sponsors with zero Tier 1 sponsors.
4)
Print out the filtered Sponsorship worksheet.
5)
Summarise the data in the main section of the Sponsorship worksheet into a meaningful pivot table. Column
label is HQ location, Row labels are Name of Organisation and Sum values is Sponsorship value.
6)
Print out the pivot table worksheet.
7)
Store the printouts in your SBA folder and update your submission check list.
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Task C
Presentation of Results
1)
Generate an appropriate bar/column chart that compares the projected attendance for each location.
2)
Print out the bar/column chart.
3)
Generate a pie chart that compares Venue expenditure, Advertising expenditure and Administration
expenditure. Each slice of the chart must be appropriately labelled to show the value data label. Give this chart
the title ‘Expenses’.
4)
Print out the pie chart.
5)
Store the printouts in your SBA folder and update your submission check list.
Database management assignment
You are asked to use a suitable database application to manage data on sponsors and the associated events.
Appropriately named tables must be used to store the data related to sponsors, events and sponsorship deals.
Task A Database Design and Creation
1)
Create a database table, Sponsors, to store the data about sponsors obtained from the Sponsorship Expression
of Interest Forms: unique (three letter) sponsor ID, name of organisation, contact name, email, telephone
number and HQ location. Include a suitable primary key.
2)
Create and print out a screenshot showing the table design and primary key.
3)
Create a suitable form for inputting data and populate the table with data from the Sponsorship Expression of
Interest Form.
4)
Print out the populated Sponsors table.
5)
Design and create a second table, Events, and store data related to the events: unique (number) event ID,
event name, projected attendance per location and event country. Include a suitable primary key.
6)
Create and print out a screenshot showing the table design and primary key.
7)
Populate the table with data from Table 1.
8)
Print out the populated Events table.
9)
Design and create a third table, Sponsorship Deals, and store the following data: unique (number)
sponsorship deal ID, sponsor ID, event ID and tier. Include a suitable primary key.
10) Create and print out a screenshot showing the table design and primary key.
11) Populate the table with suitable data.
12) Print out the populated Sponsorship Deals table.
13) Join/relate the three tables together.
14) Create and print out a screenshot showing the relationships between tables.
15) Store the printouts in your SBA folder and update your submission check list.
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Task B
Queries
Generate the following queries:
1) List of locations with projected attendance is greater than or equal to 2,000. Extra facilities will be needed at
these events.
2)
Create and print out a screenshot showing the query design and criteria.
3)
Print out the result of the query.
4)
It is anticipated that 35% of attendees will be adult females, 25% adult males and the remainder children. Create
a query to show the event, country, sponsoring organisations and the number of females, males and children
projected to attend. Sponsors need this information to manage their stands at the fair.
5)
Create and print out a screenshot showing the query design and calculated fields.
6)
Print out the result of the query.
7)
Store the printouts in your SBA folder and update your submission check list.
Task C Viewing and Reporting
1)
Generate a form and sub-form to view the information about sponsors and the events they have sponsored.
2)
Create and print out a screenshot showing the form and sub-form.
3)
Generate a report based on the following specifications:
• Grouping: sponsorship tier
• Sort order: country name
• Fields: country name, organisation, tier, projected number of females
• Title: ‘Projected Adult Female Attendance at Sponsored Events’.
4)
Print out the report.
5)
Store the printouts in your SBA folder and update your submission check list.
Problem-solving and program implementation assignment
Task A
Algorithm Development
1)
Develop an algorithm to determine the total income for each of the 10 events and the grand total for all events.
The algorithm must loop through all the 10 events and prompt the user to enter the total sponsorship value
and total gate receipts value. The algorithm should output the total value for each event and, if the total value
is greater than or equal to $50,000, output ‘Star Event’. At the end the algorithm should output the grand total
for all events. Document your algorithm using pseudocode OR a flowchart.
2)
Print out the pseudocode algorithm.
3)
Your flowchart document may be neatly hand drawn.
4)
Store the printouts in your SBA folder and update your submission check list.
Task B
Test and Validate Algorithm
1)
Design and execute a trace table that utilises appropriate test data to verify the algorithm is correct.
2)
Your trace table document may be word-processed or neatly hand drawn.
3)
Print out the test data document.
4)
Store the printouts in your SBA folder and update your submission check list.
Task C
Program Implementation
1)
Implement the program using your chosen programming language.
2)
Print out the source code document.
3)
Create and print out a screenshot showing the program operating correctly.
4)
Store the printouts in your SBA folder and update your submission check list.
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Submission check list
Word processing
Marks
1)
At least four formatting features. Two from: bold, italics, underline, justification (centre, right, full), changes in
line spacing, superscript and/or subscript, font style, font size and page numbering.
4
2)
Page layout. Changes in page orientation, paper size or text orientation. Use of header or footer or
footnotes or endnotes.
2
3)
Any two from:
a. Including a graphic or chart resized and positioned on page.
b. Text in multiple columns.
c. Table formatted with borders, shading of cells and colour.
4
4)
Any two from:
a. Auto-generated table of contents with two levels of headings. (5 marks)
b. Mail merge with: data source, primary document, inserted fields and merged document. (5 marks)
c. Fillable form with at least three of: option box, check box, text box, date picker,
drop-down list and command button. (5 marks)
10
Check
Page
Number
Web design
1)
Web page with balance of text and graphics.
3
2)
Suitable layout and content for intended audience.
2
3)
Content consistent with requirements.
3
4)
Any two hyperlinks to: another web page, location within the web page, an email or an online location.
2
Spreadsheets
1)
Correct use of three different functions.
3
2)
Correct use of three different formulae.
3
3)
Use of relative addressing and absolute addressing.
2
4)
Formatting any two from: decimal place, currency, comma or percentage.
2
5)
Justified left, right, centre; font style or font size.
1
6)
Merged cells or wrap text.
1
7)
Data sorted.
1
8)
Simple filter showing criteria.
2
9)
Pivot table.
1
10) Charts showing labels: chart title, data labels, chart axis.
3
11) Linking of cells in different worksheets.
1
Database
1)
Create and populate at least two database tables with appropriate fieldnames, types and primary keys.
5
2)
Show joined (related) tables.
2
3)
Simple query on one table.
1
4)
Complex query on more than one table.
2
5)
Query with at least one calculated field.
2
6)
Appropriate form with sub-form.
2
7)
Evidence of sort.
1
8)
Report showing: title, grouping, summary information and selected fields.
5
Programming
1)
Pseudocode or flowchart using: start/end, user-friendly variable names, initialised variables.
3
2)
Pseudocode or flowchart using: prompt for data, input, loops and decisions.
3
3)
Trace table: identifying variables, appropriate test data, and values changing.
4
4)
Working program.
1
5)
Program: initialises variables, uses loops and decisions.
3
6)
Program documentation.
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Preparing and submitting
You will prepare both hard copy and soft copy documents for submission. Your teacher will guide you.
Task A
Preparing Hard-Copy Documents for Submission
1)
Create and print out a cover page with your candidate number, name of subject and component (CSEC
Information Technology Paper 031) and year of examination.
2)
Create and print out a document listing the programs used to complete the assignments, for example Microsoft
Office 2019 and Free Pascal Compiler. You can also add comments supporting your submission, for example
any limitations in your SBA.
3)
Complete and print out a submission check list or create a table of contents with page numbers (you could use
the example provided above).
4)
Print out a copy of each of the documents specified in the table below. Write the page numbers in pencil at the
bottom of each page.
Word processing
1 Printout of the Event brief document (Event Brief.docx), ensure that it includes:
a. At least four formatting features. The specimen document includes: bold, underline, centre justification, line spacing,
superscript, font size, font style and page numbers. (4 marks)
b. Page layout features. The specimen document includes: narrow margins, paper size set to A4. (2 marks)
c. Importing and resizing a picture/chart/table. The specimen document includes a picture centred. (2 marks)
d. Text split over two or more columns. (2 marks)
e. A table that has been formatted using colour, shading or borders. (2 marks)
f. An automatic table of contents using headings. (5 marks)
2 Printout of fillable electronic form (Sponsorship Form.docx). The specimen form includes: text box, check box and date
picker and the layout is clear. (5 marks)
3 Printout of a screenshot of the fillable form in Design View (Sponsorship Form screenshot.docx).
Web design
4 Printout of the web page document (Caribbean Food Festival.html). The specimen web page uses relevant text and
graphics in an appropriate, well-laid-out way and includes navigation tools and hyperlinks to an email and an online
location. (10 marks)
5 Printout of a screenshot of the web page displayed in web browser showing a hyperlink (web page and hyperlink
screenshot.docx).
Spreadsheet
6 Printout of Sponsorship Deals worksheet (Food.xlsx). The specimen worksheet contains three different functions: SUM,
AVERAGE and MAX (3 marks) and uses relative addressing and absolute addressing. We also include four formatting
features from: currency, justification (left, right), font size and font style. (4 marks)
7 Printout of Sponsorship Deals worksheet showing formula.
8 Printout of Events worksheet showing formula.
9 Printout of Events worksheet (after sort). (1 mark)
10 Printout of Events worksheet (after filter). (1 mark)
11 Printout of the pivot table created from Sponsorship Deals worksheet. (1 mark)
12 Printout of Accounts worksheet showing formulae. Our worksheet contains three different formulae (3 marks) and linking
cells in different sheets. (1 mark)
13 Printout of bar/column chart.
14 Printout of pie chart. Our pie chart includes data labels and a title. (3 marks)
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Database
15 Printout of a screenshot of Design Mode for all three tables, Events, Sponsors and Sponsorship Deals, showing field
names, types and primary keys.
16 Printout of database table listings for all three tables: Events, Sponsors and Sponsorship Deals. (5 marks)
17 Printout of a screenshot showing the relationship between the three tables: Events, Sponsors and Sponsorship Deals.
(2 marks)
18 Printout of the Attendance Greater Than 2000 query result.
19 Printout of a screenshot Design Mode of the query showing the criteria. (1 marks)
20 Printout of the Attendance Breakdown query result.
21 Printout of a screenshot Design Mode of the query showing the complex query and calculated fields. (4 marks)
22 Printout of the Events and Sponsors form with sub-form. (2 marks)
23 Printout of the Projected Adult Female Attendance at Sponsored Events report. This includes: sorted records, appropriate
fields, grouping, specific title and summary feature. (6 marks)
Programming
24 Drawing or printout of the pseudocode or flowchart. The specimen pseudocode or flowchart: uses user-friendly variable
names, initialises variables, gets input, uses loops and decisions. (6 marks)
25 Drawing or printout of the test data and trace table. The specimen trace table uses suitable test data. (4 marks)
26 Printout of a screenshot of the program working. (1 mark)
27 Printout of the source code. Our program includes a loop and decision. (3 marks)
28 Printout of the program documentation. (1 mark)
5)
Arrange your printouts in order and number the pages neatly in pencil at the bottom.
6)
Assemble the documents into a neat presentation.
Task B
Preparing Electronic Files for Submission
1)
Create a folder with a meaningful name that includes your candidate number.
2)
Copy your files you created in Task A into the folder.
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Appendix A
Specimen Paper 01 – General Proficiency
1 hour 15 minutes
1.
2.
3.
1)
2)
This test consists of 60 items. You will have 1 hour and
15 minutes to answer them.
In addition to this test booklet, you should have an
answer sheet.
Each item in this test has four suggested answers lettered
(A), (B), (C), (D). Read each item you are about to answer
and decide which choice is best.
In a computer system, the ________ directs the IPOS cycle
whereas _________ ensures that data and information
are accessible at a later date.
A) storage and memory
B) CPU and memory
C) procedure and storage
D) CPU and storage
Which pairs of the following are likely to have SIMILAR
processing power:
I. desktop computer
II. game console
II. smartphone
IV. tablet
A)
B)
C)
D)
3)
4)
Three storage media – a hard drive, a solid state drive
and a CD – have capacities of 1 TB, 256 GB and 700
MB respectively. Which of the following statements are
NOT true:
A) The hard drive has the smallest capacity.
B) The capacity of the hard drive is twice that of the
solid state drive.
C) The capacity of the solid state drive is larger than
that of the CD-ROM but smaller than that of the
hard drive.
D) The capacity of the solid state drive is more than
100 times larger than the capacity of the CD-ROM.
5)
All of the following are optical discs EXCEPT:
A) Blu-Ray
B) CD
C) DVD
D) ROM
6)
Which of the following types of computer system is
MOST portable:
A) desktop system
B) game console
C) mainframe
D) supercomputer
7)
Which of the following pairs of devices are MOST LIKELY
to be used by immigration personnel at ports of entry to
capture biometric data:
A) digital camera and fingerprint reader
B) document scanner and barcode reader
C) light-pen and graphic pad
D) web camera and fingerprint reader
I, II and III, IV
I, III and II, IV
II, III and III, IV
II, IV and III, IV
What is the name of the component which acts as a
temporary storage place for data, instructions and
information while the computer system is in operation:
A) control unit
B) input device
C) memory
D) storage
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Specimen Paper 01
8)
All the following may be associated with processing a
cheque EXCEPT:
A) barcode reader
B) document scanner
C) MICR
D) OCR
9)
A computer system designed for web browsing is
equipped with a 3 MHz Quad Pro processor, 2 GB
on-board memory upgradeable to 8 GB, and a 16
GB removable memory card. The capacity of the
secondary storage is
A) 16 GB
B) 8 GB
C) 3 MHz
D) 2 GB
10) Which of the following is NOT a type of special-purpose
application software which is used with general-purpose
computers:
A) media player
B) statistical software
C) web browser
D) word processor
11) Which of the following types of interface is MOST
LIKELY to be used in a motor vehicle to control the
entertainment, climate and satellite navigation systems:
A) command driven
B) graphical user
C) menu-driven
D) joystick-controlled
12) Your computer monitor’s power switch is in the ‘on’
position; however, the display is blank. Which of the
following is NOT a likely cause of this problem:
A) The interface cable may be loose.
B) The network adapter is malfunctioning.
C) Monitor may be in sleep/hibernate mode.
D) The monitor controls are improperly adjusted.
13) Cloud storage has some advantages compared with
local storage. Which of the following statements are
NOT true:
A) Cloud storage is generally less expensive than local
storage.
B) Cloud storage offers users more flexibility options
in choosing capacity.
C) Documents stored in the cloud are always accessible
from a local device.
D) Cloud storage offers more data security than data
stored on desktop computers.
14) Which of the following statements are TRUE about
information:
I. It takes the form of numbers only.
II. It may be presented as symbols, pictures and
sounds.
III. When in the form of words or numbers, it must be
presented so that underlying patterns are clear.
IV. It may be produced by counting, sorting and
carrying out mathematical computations on
numeric values.
A) I and IV ONLY
B) II, III and IV ONLY
C) II and III ONLY
D) II and IV ONLY
15) Which of the following statements DOES NOT represent
information:
A) The number is 650.
B) The average number of meals sold last week was
73.
C) The last flights leaving today are 1552, 1500 and
1502.
D) The first flight that departed the Port of Spain
yesterday was the 1552.
The diagram in Figure 1 below refers to Question 16.
Figure 1
CPU
Input devices
Output devices
Device X
16) What is the correct name of the hardware component
labelled ‘Device X’:
A) control unit
B) RAM
C) ROM
D) secondary storage
17) Which statement is UNTRUE about length checks:
A) It is a data validation method.
B) It can be applied to numeric fields only.
C) It is carried out by the computer system.
D) It can be applied to text and numeric fields.
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Appendix A
18) Which of the following statements is UNTRUE about
an attendance register used by a homeroom teacher to
record daily attendance of students:
A) It is human-readable.
B) It is a source document.
C) It is a turnaround document.
D) It contains both data and information.
19) Which of the following statements is NOT TRUE about
computer networks:
A) All activities are governed by protocols.
B) A LAN may include wired media only.
C) A WAN may include both wired and wireless
media.
D) Data uploads may be sent to a remote computer
only.
20) ________ are special-purpose application software that
run on Internet-connected computers and use _______ to
connect with ________.
A) web browsers, FTP, web servers
B) web browsers, HTTP, web servers
C) web servers, FTP, web browsers
D) web servers, HTTP, web browsers
21) Which of the following are TRUE about web
technologies:
I. A website must be written using ONLY HTML.
II. A web page is accessible only on the Internet.
III. A website may consist of a single web page only.
IV. A home page is the default landing page on a
website.
A)
B)
C)
D)
I, II and III only
I, II and IV only
II, III and IV only
III and IV only
22) A website with a ‘last updated’ date more than a year
ago may be an unreliable source of information because
of its:
A) authenticity
B) currency
C) level of bias
D) relevance
Questions 23–25 are based on the following narrative:
Caribbean Network Solutions is a company that
specialises in network design and installation. It has been
contracted by your school to install a Wi-Fi LAN in the
school’s library.
23) Which device should ideally be used as the central
communication point for the network:
A) hub
B) network controller card
C) router
D) modem
24) Which of the following types of cable should ideally be
used to connect the computers to the device named in
Question 23:
A) coaxial
B) fibre optic
C) twisted pair
D) none of the above
25) One of the desktop computers does not have a port
in which to plug the cable referred to in Question 24.
Which of the following components should be added to
the computer to facilitate this connectivity:
A) hub
B) network controller card
C) router
D) wireless access point
26) Which of the following is LEAST LIKELY to affect an
organisation:
A) cyberbullying
B) identity theft
C) phishing attack
D) violation of privacy
27) Which of the following statements are TRUE in relation
to the elements of computer security:
I. An attack exploits a vulnerability.
II. A countermeasure mitigates a threat.
III. A vulnerability reveals the possibility of harm.
A)
B)
C)
D)
I and II ONLY
I and III ONLY
II and III ONLY
I, II and III
28) Which of the following is MOST LIKELY to affect an
individual who repeatedly clicks on hyperlinks without
first checking their source:
A) data theft
B) identity theft
C) phishing attack
D) electronic eavesdropping
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29) Which of the following statements are TRUE about data
validation:
I. It is performed by a human.
II. It is performed by a computer system.
III. It may be implemented using proofreading.
IV. It includes methods such as double entry and data
type check.
A)
B)
C)
D)
I and III ONLY
II and III ONLY
II, III and IV ONLY
II and IV ONLY
30) Accessing records in a file in the same order in which
they were written is an example of what type of file
organisation:
A) direct
B) random
C) sequential
D) serial
31) Which of the following technologies are utilised by
mobile networks as the carrier of their signals:
A) Bluetooth
B) radio
C) satellite
D) Wi-Fi
32) Proprietary data related to a new product design that
is stored on a lost or misplaced company-issued device
such as a laptop or smartphone could lead to which of
the following types of misuse:
I. phishing attack
II. industrial espionage
III. copyright infringement
A)
B)
C)
D)
I and II ONLY
II ONLY
III ONLY
II and III ONLY
33) A set of physical measures designed to prevent
unauthorised access to computing resources by
unauthorised persons may consist of all the following
EXCEPT:
A) backup and recovery procedures
B) biometric systems
C) hardware firewall
D) intrusion detection systems
34) The computer-related professional who will be
responsible for ensuring that routers and switches are
configured and working properly on a day-to-day basis
is MOST LIKELY a:
A) database administrator
B) network administrator
C) network engineer
D) systems administrator
35) The increase in the incidents of plagiarism in education
is MOST LIKELY associated with:
A) e-learning
B) distance teaching
C) collaborative teaching
D) increased access to information
36) Which of the following types of content may be used to
create a word processing document for printing:
I. animated gifs
II. shapes
III. text
IV. videos
A)
B)
C)
D)
II ONLY
II and III ONLY
III ONLY
IV ONLY
37) Which of the following is NOT a source of content for
creating a word processing document:
A) keyboard
B) local storage
C) speech
D) video
38) When planning a website, the _______________ is
LEAST important:
A) intended audience
B) number of hyperlinks
C) layout of the web pages
D) content of each web page
39) All of the following are tasks that are used to develop a
simple web page EXCEPT:
A) inserting text and graphics
B) uploading page to test server
C) creating a home page with hyperlink
D) choosing an appropriate design for the page
40) Which of the following is NOT a target for a hyperlink:
A) a web page
B) an anchor point within a web page
C) an email message
D) a web browser
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Appendix A
41) Which components are necessary to make a website
available on the WWW:
I. web host
II. domain name
III. web browser
IV. web pages
V. website
A)
B)
C)
D)
I, II and III ONLY
I, II and IV ONLY
II, III and V ONLY
IV and V ONLY
42) B5:D9 is best described as a:
A) cell address
B) cell reference
C) formula
D) range
43) What is the new cell address if the set of cells G1:J1 is
merged:
A) G1
B) H1
C) I1
D) J1
44) A primary field is MOST LIKELY used when:
A) creating a pivot table
B) filtering data
C) formatting numeric data
D) sorting data
45) A school maintains a database containing student
information such as their name, date of birth, and daily
attendance data. All the data held in relation to one
student is known as a:
A) field
B) primary key
C) record
D) table
46) Which of the following activities must be done prior to
showing a join between two tables:
I. add a new field
II. establish relationship
III. establish primary key
IV. join all the candidate keys
V. ensure presence of a foreign key
A)
B)
C)
D)
I, and IV ONLY
II and IV ONLY
II, III and V ONLY
III and IV ONLY
47) In order to display a one-to-many join between two
tables, all the following keys MUST be present in the
tables EXCEPT:
A) candidate
B) foreign
C) primary
D) secondary
48) All the steps in problem solving are correctly stated
EXCEPT:
A) define the problem
B) propose some solutions
C) determine the most efficient solution
D) test and validate the solution
49) The divide-and-conquer approach is used to:
A) define a problem
B) validate a solution
C) decompose large problems
D) create solution algorithms
50) All the following statements about problem
decomposition are correct EXCEPT:
A) Significant components are input, process and
output.
B) An IPO chart may be used to delineate the
components.
C) A defining diagram may be used to delineate the
components.
D) Problem decomposition is used at the second step
in problem solving.
Question 51 is based on the following algorithm:
SET pi to 3.14
SET radius, circumference TO 0
READ radius
LET circumference = 2 * pi * radius
51) The identifier pi is an example of a:
A) constant
B) data type
C) string
D) variable
52) Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of an
algorithm:
A) finite number of steps
B) flow of control from start to end
C) precise
D) unambiguous
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Specimen Paper 01
53) When representing algorithms using a flowchart, the
parallelogram may be used to represent:
A) input only
B) output only
C) both input and output
D) a process
54) Which of the following programming languages is NOT
a high-level language:
A) Assembly
B) C
C) Pascal
D) Python
55) Which of the following BEST lists the sequence of steps
required for the complete implementation cycle of a
program:
A) develop algorithm, create source code, translate,
link, execute, test, document, maintain
B) develop algorithm, create source code, link,
translate, test, execute, document, maintain
C) create source code, translate, develop algorithm,
execute, link, test, document, maintain
D) develop algorithm, translate, link, create source
code, execute, test, document, maintain
56) All of the following tools may be used to translate a
high-level program EXCEPT:
A) assembler
B) compiler
C) editor
D) interpreter
58) A program which executes but produces incorrect
output may have which type of error:
I. logic
II. run time
III. syntax
A)
B)
C)
D)
I ONLY
I and II ONLY
II ONLY
III ONLY
59) Which of the following statements would be used to
implement conditional branching in a program:
A) IF value < 0
B) INPUT value
C) PRINT value
D) WHILE value = 0
60) Which of the following controls would be used to
implement a pre-test loop in a program:
A) case
B) FOR
C) REPEAT
D) WHILE
END OF TEST
Number of objectives covered = 44 of 63
Syllabus coverage = 70%
57) Which of the following errors must be corrected before
a program can be executed:
I. logic
II. run time
III. syntax
A)
B)
C)
D)
I and II ONLY
II ONLY
II and III ONLY
III ONLY
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Appendix B
Specimen Paper 02 – General Proficiency
2 hours
1.
Marie wants to travel from Port of Spain, Trinidad, to Castries, Saint Lucia. She saw a special offer being advertised
on social media. She intends to book her ticket online at the airline’s website and will print her boarding pass at
home.
(a) State the name of the computer-related professional that would most likely have:
placed the advertisement on the Internet
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
planned, created, tested and published the website
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
(2 marks)
(b) State TWO tasks usually carried out by ANY ONE of the professionals named in Part (a).
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
(2 marks)
(c) Marie logged on to the airline’s website using a special-purpose software package installed on her computer. Name:
the type of special-purpose software that was likely used
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
the protocol used to transfer the web page from the airline’s server to Marie’s computer
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
(2 marks)
(d) Marie was presented with the electronic form shown in Figure 1. The form included a number of built-in checks to
ensure that all the data submitted is valid.
DEPART
1
2
RETURN DATE
POS
Port of Spain, Trinidad - POS
Enter depart date
ARRIVE
RETURN DATE
SLU
Castries, Saint Lucia - SLU
SUBMIT
!
3
!
4
Date must be in the future.
CANCEL
Figure 1
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Specimen Paper 02
(i) Name the type of checks built into-the form.
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________
(1 mark)
(ii) Name the check that ensures that the fields are not empty when the form is being submitted.
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________
(1 mark)
(iii) A length check was carried out on fields labelled 1 and 2. Explain how this check would work.
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________
(4 marks)
(iv) Marie entered data in fields 1 and 2 as shown and pressed the ‘SUBMIT’ button. She was presented with an error
message. Outline the sequence of processing activities that is MOST LIKELY to have occurred after the command
button was pressed.
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________
(4 marks)
(v) Describe the check that the airline MOST LIKELY carried out on fields 3 and 4.
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________
(4 marks)
Total 20 marks
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Appendix B
2.
The government of St Luago observes cybersecurity awareness month during November each year. Last year, activities
were carried out based on the theme ‘Think before you click’. The goal of the series of activities was to increase
awareness of the dangers of not adopting ‘personal security practices’ when shopping online.
(a) At the opening event, the cybersecurity consultant said that ‘clicking on a link from an unknown source may affect
the device being used and also the person’.
(i)
State ONE way in which a device may be affected.
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________
(ii) State TWO ways in which an individual may be negatively impacted.
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________
(3 marks)
(b) State THREE personal security practices that individuals should follow to help them stay safe online.
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
(3 marks)
(c) During one of the events, the cybersecurity expert set up a network and offered free Wi-Fi access to persons who were
within the specific area. What is the name given to:
(i)
a specific location that provides Internet access via a wireless local area network
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
(ii) the particular type of wireless transmission medium used by Wi-Fi systems.
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
(2 marks)
(d) Each participant at the session was asked to write their full name, email address and telephone number on a sheet of
paper. The organisers of the event intended to create a mailing list in order to keep the participants informed of the
other activities that would take place during the month.
(i)
Complete the table by writing suitable data types and field sizes for each of the fields.
(4 marks)
(ii) In order to ensure that no duplicates are stored in the table, a primary key is required. Suggest the names of two
candidate keys from which a suitable primary key may be selected.
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
(2 marks)
(iii) Name TWO methods that may be used to input the data into the table.
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
(2 marks)
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Specimen Paper 02
(e) Outline how the data in the table may be used as part of a mailing list to send information to the persons listed.
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
(4 marks)
Total 20 marks
3.
Marie booked her ticket online at the airline’s website but was unable to print her
boarding pass at home. She instead downloaded a digital version of the boarding pass
to her smartphone, which she intends to present at the airport. The boarding pass is
shown in Figure 2.
GATE
GATE
H43 FBB1963
MIA
SEAT
55C
IAH
STATUS
On Time
TERM
North
DEPARTS
6.00 PM
CAMPBELL/HOWARD
Figure 2
(a) In addition to her smartphone, name ONE OTHER mobile device that she could download the boarding pass to.
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________
(1 mark)
(b) Figure 2 shows the boarding pass as displayed on the screen of the mobile device.
Name:
(i)
the type of document shown
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________
(1 mark)
(ii) the device that would be used to scan the boarding pass
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________
(1 mark)
(iii) the type of file organisation that is MOST LIKELY used by the application to process the boarding pass
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________
(1 mark)
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Appendix B
(c) Marie has made a spreadsheet that she will use to convert prices from Eastern Caribbean dollars (XCD) to United
States dollars (USD) and then to Trinidad and Tobago dollars (TTD). She has used the exchange rates 1 XCD: 0.37 USD
and 1 USD: 6.75 TTD. The incomplete spreadsheet is shown in Figure 3.
Figure 3
A
1 Exchange Rates >
2
XCD Price
3
10.00
4
11.00
5
12.00
6
13.00
7
14.00
8
15.00
9
16.00
10
17.00
11
18.00
12
13
B
C
0.37
6.75
Equivalent Currency
USD
TTD
3.70
24.98
(i) The label ‘Equivalent Currency’ is spread across multiple columns for effective presentation. State the name of
the formatting feature used to achieve this.
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
(1 mark)
(ii) Write the text for the formula to be inserted in cell B4 to calculate the equivalent currency for USD.
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
(3 marks)
(iii) Marie copied the formula from B4 to B5 and received a ‘#VALUE’ error. Explain what she should do to correct this error.
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
(2 marks)
(d) The algorithm below was developed to perform currency conversions similar to using a high-level programming
language.
Line 1 n = 18
Line 2 xcd_to_usd = 0.37
Line 3 usd_to_ttd = 6.75
Line 4 print (“XCD – USD – TTD”)
Line 5 counter = 1
Line 6 for counter 1 to n do
Line 7 usd = n * xcd_to_usd
Line 8 ttd = usd * usd_to_ttd
Line 9 print (n, usd, ttd)
(i) Explain the purpose of the data item ‘n’ as used at lines 6 and 7.
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
(2 marks)
(ii) How many times will Line 7 be executed? Justify your response.
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
(3 marks)
(iii) Represent the algorithm using a flowchart.
(10 marks)
Total 25 marks
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Specimen Paper 02
4.
Mr Runcie wants to automate the process of producing monthly progress reports for his class of 30 students. He has a
laptop he purchased seven years ago and wants a range of computer-based tools to get the task done.
(a) Mr Runcie intends to use a program written in a high-level language to compute averages.
(i)
Write an algorithm using pseudocode to prompt for the homework score, classwork score and test score for each
student, then calculate and output the average score.
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
(5 marks)
(ii) Extend the algorithm to find the highest average score calculated to a variable named highestAverage and
output this highest average.
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________
(4 marks)
(iii) Name one high-level programming language that he could use to translate the algorithm.
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________
(1 mark)
(b) Mr Runcie wants to use the mail merge feature of a word processor to generate progress reports. He plans on using a
data file he created in a spreadsheet. Outline the process he should follow to get the set of documents for all 30
students ready for printing.
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________
(5 marks)
(c) The teacher is planning on printing the progress reports on a wireless laser printer located in an adjoining room.
He had difficulty connecting to the printer and sought help from a computer-related professional employed at the
school. He was later advised that his laptop did not have a wireless card installed and as such he would need a
network adapter.
(i)
Name the computer-related professional who would be most suitable for connecting the laptop to the printer.
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________
(1 mark)
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Appendix B
(ii) State two roles of the computer-related professional named in Part (c) (i).
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________
(2 marks)
(iii) Explain the role of the network adapter.
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________
(2 marks)
(d) Construct a trace table and use it to determine the result of the following algorithm for input values 2, 4, 6, 8 and 10.
Begin
n = 5
runningTotal = 0
averageScore = 0.0
counter = 0
print “Please enter a score”
read score = int(input)
while score not equal to –1:
runningTotal = runningTotal + score
counter = counter + 1
print “Please enter a score”
averageScore = runningTotal/counter
print averageScore
End
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________
(5 marks)
Total 25 marks
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Glossary
A
computer an electronic device capable of executing a set of
instructions or a ‘program’
absolute addressing prevents a formula, or part of a formula,
from being automatically updated when the formula is
copied or moved
adaptive maintenance implementing new features or
changing the way a particular feature works
algorithm a sequence of instructions which rigorously
defines a solution to a problem
application software the category of software that performs
end user tasks
archiving storing files that are accessed only infrequently
and modified even less frequently, on another storage
device
arithmetic operators represent mathematical computations
such as addition, subtraction, multiplication and division
assembly language uses short words to represent simple
instructions that can easily be translated into machine
code
B
backing storage the computer’s secondary storage: the hard
disk drives and optical drives
backup the copying of files to a separate, removable storage
device so that they can be restored to the original location
if the original data is ever lost or destroyed
binary code a sequence of 1s and 0s
bit a binary digit, taking a value of either 0 or 1
Bluetooth a wireless protocol for exchanging data over short
distances from one device to another
byte a collection of eight bits that is referenced as a single
unit
C
calculated field a field that derives its value by performing a
function on values from other table fields
candidate key a field that is considered a possibility for a
primary field
clipboard a temporary area of memory where applications
can store items for future use
cloud storage a model in which data is stored on remote
servers and can be accessed only via the Internet or cloud
computer misuse Any activity during which a computer
system/network or its data is accessed, modified or deleted
without proper authorisation
computer network a group of computing devices that are
connected together so that they can share data and
resources.
computer security All the activities related to identifying,
assessing and managing vulnerabilities, threats and attacks
on a computer system
computer system a complete computer installation including
hardware, software, users, procedures and data.
condition an expression that includes a relational operator
and the two operands on which it operates
constant an area of storage whose value cannot be change
during processing
cookies a piece of data sent from a website and stored on
the user’s computer by the user’s web browser
copyright a legal right that gives the creator of an original
work exclusive rights over its use and distribution
corrective maintenance fixing program bugs or flaws in the
program
COUNT a function that returns the number of cells that
contain a value or formula in a cell range
COUNTA a function that returns the number of non-blank
cells in a cell range
COUNTIF a function that returns the number of cells in a cell
range that contain a value that meets a condition
CPU the ‘brains’ of the computer, where the program
instructions (calculations) are processed or carried out
cyberbullying a form of bullying or harassment using
computer-based communications
cybercrime any crime perpetrated using computers and
networks
cybersecurity all the activities related to identifying,
assessing and managing the vulnerabilities, threats and
attacks originating from cyberspace
cyberspace any data or resources that can be accessed via a
network or the space where the Internet operates
coaxial cable a single copper core surrounded by a metal
D
shield to reduce interference and all enclosed in a plastic
covering
column and bar charts used for comparing a series of values
command line interface when interaction with a computer is
by means of individual lines of text
common carrier a company that offers communication
services to the general public
compiler a special translator that converts high-level
language into machine code
composite key a combination of fields used to create a
primary key
Dark Net the parts of the Internet that are kept hidden from
the general public and cannot be accessed by standard
search engines
data raw, unprocessed facts about persons, places, things
or events that have been collected through observation or
measurement
data theft the unauthorised copying or removal of data
from the legitimate owner’s computer system
data type specifies what sort of values a variable or constant
can hold
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Glossary
database an organised set of records (data) held in tables
that can be easily managed
debugging the process of finding and removing errors from
computer hardware or software
decompose to break down into a combination of simpler
components
denial-of-service attack a cyber-attack where the intent is to
prevent a service being delivered by the target system
desktop system a computer system small enough to fit on a
desk, but also powerful enough for common business tasks
and inexpensive enough for home ownership
direct access storage media secondary storage where each
file has a specific location or unique address in the storage,
allowing it to be accessed quickly
distributed denial-of-service attack a cyber-attack during
which the target system is flooded with requests that
overload the targeted system
DIV the integer division operator which discards the
fractional part (remainder) of the result
divide-and-conquer approach to repeatedly split a large
problem into a number of smaller sub-problems until a
complete solution is identified
document printed or written, usually paper-based, and used
to collect, store and share data
double entry a data verification method that requires that
the data is entered twice
download a process whereby programs or data are
transferred via communications channels from a computer
and stored on media located at the user’s computer
dry run a practice run, a rehearsal of the process before the
algorithm is implemented as a program
E
electronic eavesdropping the act of electronically intercepting
communications without the knowledge or consent of at
least one of the participants
electronic mail mail or messages transmitted electronically
by computers via a communications channel
embedded devices a special-purpose computer that carries
out a specific (and dedicated) function within a larger
electrical or mechanical system or a combination of both
encryption the process of converting data/information to a
code to prevent unauthorised persons from accessing it
endnote a note at the end of the document, often used for
references
extranet a private computer network where authorised
persons within an organisation and selected partners
outside the organisation can access specific resources
F
fibre optic cable consists of flexible fibres with a glass core;
they carry information using light
file a container in a computer system for storing data,
firewall Monitors a network, blocking dangerous content
such as viruses
flash memory a small electronic device that maintains stored
data without any external power source
flowchart a pictorial way of representing an algorithm using
a set of standard symbols (shapes)
font style the way the characters look
footer content that appears at the bottom of every page
Footnote a portion of text in the footer area of a page
foreign key appears in a table where it doesn’t really belong
but allows two tables to be linked
form a user-friendly interface to a database system
formula an automatic calculation
full justification the extension of each line so that it reaches
both margin
function a standard routine used to perform a mathematical
task
G
general-purpose application software that is used to perform
a wide range of related tasks
general-purpose computer an example of a general-purpose
computer system, which is one that is suitable for
undertaking a wide range of common computing tasks
graphical user interface when interaction with a computer is
by using a pointing device
H
hard copy a permanent printed output from the computer.
hardware the physical parts of the computer system
hardware Interface physical hardware components (input
and output devices) that allow the user to manipulate the
computer
header content that appears at the top of every page
high-level language a machine-independent language
written in a statement that closely resembles English
home page starting page of a website
hosting the act of making a website available on the World
Wide Web
hotspot a physical location where persons may obtain
Internet access, typically using Wi-Fi technology
hub a multiport device that connects many computing
devices together
human-readable document a document that may be read by
a human but may not be in a form that a computer can
automatically accept as input
hyperlink a piece of text or part of a web page or an image
that when selected and clicked with the mouse displays
another web page document (or resource)
Hypertext Mark-Up Language a mark-up language used to
structure text and multimedia documents
Hypertext Transfer Protocol a protocol used to request
and transmit files, especially web pages and web page
components, over the Internet or other computer network
information or programs
File Transfer Protocol the special language two computers use
when copying or moving files between them.
I
identifier the name given to variable or a constant by a
programmer
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Glossary
identity theft the deliberate use of someone else’s identity,
metropolitan area network a computer network in a
usually as a method to gain a financial advantage
IF function a function that performs a logical test and
returns one of two results
information meaningful knowledge derived from raw data
Information Technology the use of computers, storage,
communication and other physical devices to create,
process and exchange all forms of electronic data
infrared part of the electromagnetic radiation spectrum at
wavelengths that fall between visible light and radio waves
at frequencies 300GHz up to 430THz
input data entered into the computer via some form of
input device such as keyboard, mouse, microphone or
scanner
input device any specialised hardware peripheral
component that allows the entry of data and instructions
into a computer
integrated package contains several related programs in one
package
intended audience the main group of persons that a website
is designed to target or appeal to
internal documentation an aid to programmers trying to
understand the source code
internet public, globally accessible, wide area network
providing information and communication facilities
interpreter a translator that converts and executes highlevel language in one step
intranet a private computer network where only authorised
persons within an organisation can access resources
geographic area or region larger than that covered by a
large local area network (LAN)
microwaves part of the electromagnetic radiation spectrum
at frequencies 300MHz to 300GHz
mobile devices computing devices that are small enough to
hold and operate in one’s hand and are easily portable
mobile network a network of communication and
computing devices where the last link is over a mobile
phone network
MOD the integer remainder operator which gives the
fractional part (remainder) of the result
modem an abbreviation for modulator-demodulator, a
device that converts signals from analogue to digital and
vice versa
L
operand a data value, held in a variable that is part of a
label simple text
line graphs used to compare changes over a period of time
local area network a computer network that interconnects
operating system a collection of software that manages
N
network adapter a converter that adapts/extends a USB port
in order for it to function like a NIC or a wireless NIC
network interface card a computer hardware component
installed in a device into which a network cable may be
plugged
O
obscene material material of a sexual nature or material that
offends against society’s morality
one-to-many relationship when one record in the first table
may match many records in the second table
one-to-one relationship when one record in the first table
matches zero or one records in the second table
computers within a limited area such as a home, school,
laboratory or office building
local storage any physical storage device directly connected,
internally or externally, to the computer system hardware
logic error a mistake in the design of the program
logical operators perform AND, NOT and OR actions
low-level language a machine-dependent language written
in machine code or assembly code
M
machine language consists of binary code that a
microprocessor can execute directly
machine-readable document a document that can be read
directly and understood by computer systems
main memory the functional unit of a computer that stores
data and instructions being used by the CPU
mainframe a large-scale, powerful computer with a large
storage capacity and a fast Central Processing Unit (CPU)
malware software designed to disrupt, damage or gain
unauthorised access to a computer system
menu-driven interface when interaction with a computer is
by the user selecting one option from a list of presented
options
condition
computer hardware resources and provides common
services for computer programs
output the displaying, playing, printing or storing of
the information a computer generates as a result of its
processing
output device any device that displays, plays or prints the
results of processing operations or status messages related
to that processing
P
peripheral any hardware device connected to and controlled
by the central processing unit
personal security practices countermeasures used by
individuals to implement computer security and
cybersecurity
phishing the attempt to obtain sensitive information such as
usernames, passwords and credit card details by sending
fraudulent emails
physical security measure any mechanism that reduces
the risks of unauthorised access to a computer system’s
hardware
pie charts used to display the contribution of each part to
the total
pivot chart a graphical presentation of a pivot table
pivot table allows you to summarise complex data in a
worksheet into a neat tabular form
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Glossary
PMT function a function that calculates the payment
secondary storage device retains data permanently, even
required to pay off a loan or investment, over a specified
time period
port a physical docking point by which an external device
can be connected to a computer or other electronic device
primary key a field whose values are unique so they can be
used to identify a particular record
privacy the right of persons to choose freely under what
circumstances and to what extent they will reveal
information about themselves
problem a discrepancy (or difference) between the data we
have and the information we require
problem-solving the process of creating a set of instructions
that, when executed, accept input data and produce
meaningful information
processing performing a series of instructions in order to
convert data into useful information
program a sequence of instructions that a computer can
interpret or execute
proofreading a manual method of verification during which
a data entry clerk visually checks the source document
against data that has already been input by another data
entry clerk
propaganda communication of information of a biased
or misleading nature that is aimed at influencing the
recipient
protocol a set of rules or an agreed way to exchange or
transmit data between devices
pseudocode a language consisting of English-like statements
used to define an algorithm
publishing a website to make it available so it can be viewed
by anyone with an Internet-connected device and a web
browser program
when the device is disconnected or the computer system is
turned off
sequential file access data that is stored in an ordered way or
in sequence
serial file access where the data is stored in the file in the
order in which the data was written to the file
soft copy a temporary form of output, as produced by a
visual display unit or audio output device
software a program (set of instructions) that is executed by
the hardware
software countermeasures a combination of specialised
system software and application software used to protect
computer systems
software interface programs that are used to communicate
with the computer via the hardware
software piracy the unauthorised reproduction, distribution
or use of software products
solution a set of instructions that, if followed in order, will
produce the required information
source document a document that contains data for input
into an information processing system
speakers, headphones, earphones hardware devices that
enable the user to hear sounds as they are generated (soft
copy)
special-purpose application software that is used to perform
narrowly focused tasks
special-purpose computer a computer system which performs
a small range of tasks and contains features uniquely
designed for use in a particular industry or application
spreadsheet a computer program that allows the entry,
automatic calculation and storage of data in the form of
tables
supercomputer designed to carry out single, extremely
complex computing tasks such as climate research,
cryptanalysis (code breaking), etc
switch an intelligent device that routes incoming data
directly to the specific output port that will take the data
toward its intended destination
syntax a set of rules defining the structure of statements in
a programming language
syntax error an error in how the statements in source code
are written in a particular program
system backup a copy of all the files on a computer system
that can be used to restore the whole computer after a
case of hardware failure or data loss
system software the category of software used to operate
and maintain a computer system including the operating
system, utility programs and program language translators
system utility a specialised program that assists in
maintaining and improving the efficiency of a computer
system
R
random access data that can be quickly accessed wherever it
occurs in main memory
real-time system a computer system where response time is
critical
relational operators test the relationship between two values
and always result in true or false
relative addressing allows formulae in a spreadsheet to be
automatically updated if they are copied or moved
reliability the degree or extent to which the content of the
information can be depended on to be accurate
reserved words words in a programming language that have
specific meaning and use
router an intelligent network device that connects two
networks together
run-time error a program error that occurs during program
execution
S
satellite a communication device orbiting in space that
T
relays and amplifies radio telecommunication signals to
and from remote locations
secondary key a field whose values are not unique so a
particular value may identify several records
tab stops allow the layout of words in a document to be
controlled so that the words line up vertically
the IPOS cycle the Input, Process, Output, Store cycle
trace table used to display how the value of variables
change as a dry run is carried out
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Glossary
A
translator converts one language into another
transmission media mechanisms by which computing
devices are connected together
transposition error an error caused by switching the position
of two adjacent characters in a number or text string
turnaround document a printed document that has been
output from a computer system and contains machinereadable objects that will allow the same document to
provide input to a computer system
twisted pair consists of eight copper wires, twisted in pairs
to reduce interference, and enclosed in a plastic covering
typographical error a typing error that affects the text, such
as missing or additional characters
U
Uniform Resource Locators the name of the unique address of
each page on the World Wide Web
upload a process of reading data from a user’s computer
storage and sending it to another computer via
communication channels
user interface the combination of hardware and software
that allows persons and computers to communicate with
each other effectively
V
validation a checking process in a program which is aimed
at finding out if the data is genuine
value numeric data
variable an area of storage whose value can change during
processing
verification a process during which data that has already
VLOOKUP a function that performs a vertical lookup by
searching for a value in the first column of a cell range and
returning the value in the same row in another column
W
web browser a program that allows users to view and
explore information on the World Wide Web
web page layout the positioning and sizing of text and
images on the web page
web server a computer that delivers (serves up) web pages
website theme the use of common elements such as page
layout, navigation hyperlinks, colours and pictures on
every web page
wide area network a computer network in which the
computers connected may be far apart, even in different
countries
Wi-Fi a standard for wireless communication between
computing devices
wired network uses a wired medium such as twisted pair
cable, optical fibre cable or coaxial cable to transfer data
between connected devices
wireless network uses radio waves instead of physical cables
as the transmission medium
word wrap the idea that word processors automatically
move text onto a new line when the current line is full of
characters
World Wide Web a graphical easy-to-use system of interlinked files on the Internet
WYSIWYG a program that allows you to see what the end
result will look like while the interface or document is
being created
been input or captured is checked to ensure that it
matches the data on the source document
visual display unit the main output hardware component of
a computer system that handles the display of soft copy
information that the user sees
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Index
2G-5G wireless standards 76–7, 88
absolute addressing 196–8
adaptive maintenance 291
addition algorithm 258–60
airlines 6, 80, 85
algorithms 252, 253–4
addition 258–60
average 260–3, 266, 300–3, 303–6
concept of 267–8
developing 296, 336
testing 276–9, 336
translating to high-level language 296–322
using flowcharts 270–1
using pseudocodes 268–70
AND operator 274
antivirus 30
application software 29, 30–2
archiving 64, 66, 67
Ariane 5 rocket disaster 291, 292
arithmetic formulae 193–4
arithmetic operators 275
ASCII 295
assembly language 284
assignment statements 296–9
ATMs 8, 21, 36, 74
audio output 28
average algorithm 260–3, 266, 300–3, 303–6
AVERAGE function 186–7
axis labels 213, 214
backups 6, 13, 30, 64
file organisation 67
security measures 115, 116–17
word processing 150–1
bar charts 210–11, 213
barcodes 21, 22, 51
binary chop method 61, 64–5
binary code 284
bit 16
block operations 140–1
Blu-Ray disc 15
Bluetooth 78
BODMAS rule 193–4
books
eBooks 88
in a library 64, 66
Boolean data 267, 295
Boolean operators 274–5
byte 16, 17
Cable & Wireless 81
cables 10, 12, 82, 83, 84
calculated field 242–3
cameras 22
candidate key 226
Caribbean
cybercrime laws 100
Internet providers 81
Caribbean Hurricane Network 5
CD-ROM 15
cell address 184, 194–8
cell phones 76
cell range 184, 198
cells 184, 185
clearing and deleting 186
replicating formulae across 194–9
central processing unit (CPU) 11, 12, 38
character 267, 295
charting operations 182, 210–15
clipboard 140–1
cloud storage 19–20, 94
coaxial cable 82, 84
column charts 210–11, 215
columns, manipulating 199
columns tool 145–6
command line interface 35
comment tool 148–9
common carriers 76, 77
compact disc 15–16
compiled language 286
compiler 288–9, 290
complex problems 253
combining program elements 318–22
composite key 226
computer-aided instruction (CAI) 120
computer games 124
computer misuse 98, 99, 100
impact 98
on governments 103, 112–13
on individuals 103, 104–7
on organisations 103, 108–13
by individuals, organisations and governments 102–3
computer networks 71, 72
different types of 71, 73–82
functions of components 82–7
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Index
A
in journalism 89
see also mobile networks
computer-related professions 119
computer science 3
computer security 98, 99–102
backups 115, 116–17
see also security
computer systems 4
and job security 117–18
major types of 2, 4–9
specification 37–40
troubleshooting 40–1
see also hardware components; software
computers 4
in business 122
in education 88–9, 120–1
and law enforcement 123
in medicine 121
and recreation 124
supercomputers 5, 9
connection devices 82, 85–7
consistency check 59
constants 266–7, 295
syntax for using 316–17
content management systems (CMS) 165
cookies 107
copyright 108, 170
infringement 108–9
corrective maintenance 291
COUNT/COUNTA function 188–9
countermeasures 98, 102, 113–17
personal security 116–17
physical security 102, 114–15
software 115–16
COUNTIF function 188–9
crash detection program 308, 309
CT scan 121
currency 54, 179
cut, copy and paste 140–1
CXC Learning Hub 88
cyberbullying 104
cybercrime 99–100
cybersecurity 98, 99, 100–1
see also security
cyberspace 99
Dark Net 109–10
data 18, 47
collection, storage and sharing 51–2
in a database see database table; databases
IPOS cycle 17–18
personal 107
security 20, 64
sources of 46, 48–50
spreadsheets see spreadsheets
test see test data
vs. information 48
data entry, verification 55–6, 57–8
data labels 213, 214, 215
data storage 51–2
in the file 46, 63
on storage media 46, 64–6
data theft 109–10
data types 224–5, 228, 229, 267
check 59
variables and constants using 295
database management system 223, 224
database table 223, 224
creating 227–30
a query on 239–45
a report from 246
inputting data 230–2
modifying structure 233–4
relationships 234–5
structure 225–7
databases 31, 221–48
assignment 329, 335–6, 339
concept of 221, 222–3
creating 221, 225–35, 335
manipulating data 221, 236–48
terminology 221, 223–5
datasheet view 230–1
DATE function 186–7
debugging 294–5
decision symbol 271–2
decisions 263–5, 269, 270, 296
see also IF-THEN decision; IF-THEN-ELSE decision
decomposing a problem 252, 257–65
denial-of-service attack (DOS attack) 110
design mode 155–7
design view 227, 228, 233, 234
desktop systems 4, 6–7, 9
developer tool 155–7
development environment program 287–8
Dewy Decimal number 64
dictionary 146
Digicel 76, 81
DIR command 35
direct file access 62, 65–6, 67
distributed denial-of-service attack (DDOS attack) 110
DIV operator 275, 314–16
divide-and-conquer approach 252, 255–7
DNA analysis 123
documents 51
importing text 131–2
programs 322–4
types of 50–3
see also word processing
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Index
domain name 92, 177
dot matrix printers 25
double entry 57
download 94
drag-and-drop editing 140–1
dry run 276, 278, 279, 294
DVD-ROM 15–16
e-commerce 89
earphones 28
eBooks 88
editing
photo-editing 31
text 130–1, 167–8
word processing 128, 140–6
education, computers in 88–9, 120–1
electronic access systems 114
electronic calculators 4
electronic eavesdropping 112
email 94, 99
phishing 105–6, 111, 116
email address 94, 175
email message 94
embedded devices 8, 9
encryption 81, 115, 150
endnote 137–9
entity 223, 224
EPOS (electronic point-of-sale) 122
errors
correction 58
data entry 55–6
debugging 294–5
types of 292
external documentation 323–4
extranets 80, 81–2
Facebook 113
facial recognition 123
fibre optic cable 82, 84
field name 228, 229
fields 223, 224–5
calculated 242–3
key 226–7, 233–4
file 61
data storage 46, 63
on storage media 46, 64–6
file access methods 46, 61–2
choosing an appropriate 66–7
random and direct 62, 65–6, 67
serial and sequential 61, 62, 63, 64–5, 67
file organisation 46, 61–6
File Transfer Protocol (FTP) 93, 99
fillable electronic form 154–7, 332
filtering data 204–7
find tool 142–3
fingerprint reader 22, 123
firewall 101, 115
flash memory 14–15, 19
floating point 267, 295
FLOPS (floating point operations per second) 5
FLOW 76, 81
flowcharts 252, 254, 270–2
using high-level language 296–322
flowlines 271
font style 133, 134
footer 137–9
footnote 137–9
FOR loop 296, 299–303
foreign key 227, 233, 234
form wizard 236, 238
format check 59
formatting, word processing 128, 133–9
forms 236–7
fillable electronic 154–7, 332
sub-forms 238–9
formulae 184, 185
absolute addressing 196–8
advanced arithmetic 193–4
move, copy and delete operations 199
relative addressing 195
replicating 182, 194–9
Free Pascal Compiler see Pascal
FREQUENCY function 210
full justification 136, 146
functions 184–5
basic predefined 182, 186–93
see also individual functions
games consoles 8
general-purpose applications 31, 32
general-purpose computer system 6
gigabyte (GB) 14, 15, 16
government, computer misuse and 103, 112–13
grammar tool 147–8
graphic pad and tablet 23
graphical user interface 36–7
hackers 110
hard copy 24, 52
hard disk drives 13, 14, 19, 39
hardware components 2, 10–16
interrelationships 12, 17–18
troubleshooting 40–1
see also input devices; output devices; storage devices
hardware interfaces 33–5
header 137–9
heading tools 135
headphones 28
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Index
A
high-level languages 284–5
creating source code 285–8
using 296–322
see also Pascal; Python
hospitals 79, 121
hosting 177
hotspot 78–9
hubs 85, 86, 88
human-readable documents 51, 52
hyperlinks 91
inserting 161, 172–6
testing 177–8
Hypertext Mark-up Language (HTML) 91, 92, 165
Hypertext Transfer Protocol ( HTTP) 92, 93
identifiers 266, 267
identity theft 104–5, 116
IEEE 802.11 standard 78
IF function 191, 193
IF-THEN decision 263–4, 269, 270, 296, 309–11
IF-THEN-ELSE decision 264, 269, 270, 296, 311–13
images, inserting 132–3, 170–2
importing text 131–2
indentation 261, 286
information 18, 47
from online sources 46, 54–60
sharing of 81
vs. data 48
information and communications technology (ICT) 3, 98,
120–4
information technology (IT) 3, 253
staff 119
infrared 84
inkjet printers 25, 26
input 10, 20
IPOS cycle 17–18
input devices 10, 11, 12, 20–4
light-sensing 21–2
pressure/touch-sensing 21, 23–4
sound-sensing 21, 22–3
specification 39
input/output statements 296–9
input/output symbol 271
insert rows and columns tool 199
integer division 275, 314–16
integers 267, 295
intended audience 163
internal documentation 323
Internet 81–2
access via hotspot 78–9
backbone network 84
cloud storage 19, 94
Dark Net 109–10
email on 94
information from 54
mobile access to 72
protocol 87
router 86
security threats 100
interpreted language 286
interpreter 288–9
intranets 79–80, 81–2
IP (Internet Protocol) 87
iPads 7–8
IPO chart 254
addition algorithm from 258–60
Average algorithm from 260–3, 266, 300–3, 303–6
creating 257–8
using high-level language 296–322
IPOS cycle 17–18
ISPs (Internet service providers) 81
iteration see looping
job security, automation and 117–18
journalism 89
joystick 23, 24
key fields 226–7, 233–4
keyboard 23, 34, 41
kilobyte (KB) 16, 17
L3 cache memory 38
labels 184, 185, 213, 214, 215
laptops 7, 9
laser printers 25
law enforcement 123
length check 59, 60
library, books in a 64, 66
LibreOffice Base 31, 221, 222, 246
LibreOffice Calc 31, 182, 183
LibreOffice Writer 31, 128, 129, 161, 166
light pen 21, 22
light-sensing devices 21–2
line graphs 210, 212
list tools 136–7
local area networks (LANs) 73, 74, 78
local storage 19–20
logic errors 292, 294
logical operators 274–5
looping 260–4, 269–70, 296
syntax for 299–309
low-level languages 284, 288
m-commerce 89
MAC (Media Access Control) 87
machine language 284, 288
machine-readable documents 51, 52, 53
magnetic storage devices 13–14
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Index
magnetic tape 13, 14, 64, 65
mail merge tools 152–4
main memory 38
mainframes 6, 9
malware 111–12, 115
many-to-many relationship 234
MAX function 186–7
measurements 48
media player 31
medicine, computers in 121
megabyte (MB) 16, 17
memory 11, 12, 38
flash memory 14–15, 19
RAM 11, 65, 265
ROM 11, 15–16
memory locations 266
memory sticks/cards 14–15
menu-driven interface 36
metropolitan area networks (MANs) 74
microphones 23
microprocessor 10
Microsoft Access 31, 221
Microsoft Excel 31, 60, 182
Microsoft Word 31, 128, 161, 166, 324
microwave 77, 84
MIN function 186–7
mobile devices 7–8, 9, 82, 85–7
mobile network masts 76
mobile networks 72
basic components 71, 82–7
in commerce 89
different types of 71, 73–81
mobile wireless standards 76–7
MOD operator 275, 314–16
modems 87
mouse 23, 24
music piracy 109
musical instrument digital interface (MIDI) 23, 124
negative testing 293
network adapter 87
network interface cards 87
NOT operator 274
notebooks 7
numeric data, formatting 200–1
obscene material 105
office automation 3
one-to-many relationship 234
one-to-one relationship 234
online banking 66, 67, 89
ATMs 8, 21, 36, 74
extranets 80
online sources, information from 46, 54–60
operand 272
operating systems 29–30, 290
updates 115
optical character recognition (OCR) 22, 55
optical mark recognition (OMR) 22
optical technology 15–16, 19
OR operator 274
organisations
computer misuse and 103, 108–13
computers in 122
output 10, 24
IPOS cycle 17–18
output devices 10, 11, 12, 24–8, 39
audio output 28
printers 25–7, 40
VDUs 27–8
page-management tools 137–9
Pascal 283, 285, 286–7, 289
executing a program 290
using 296–322
password best practices 116
password-protecting a document 150–1
payroll processing 18, 66, 67
peripherals 20
personal data 107
personal security practices 116–17
petabyte (PB) 16
phishing 105–6, 111, 116
photo-editing 31
physical security measures 102, 114–15
pie charts 210, 212
pivot chart 208–9
pivot table 207–9
pixels 27
plagiarism 108
plotters 26
PMT function 185, 191–2, 195
port 12
positive testing 293
presence check 59
pressure-sensing devices 21, 23–4
primary data types 50
primary key 226, 233–4
primary storage 11
print screen (screenshot) 141
printers 25–7, 40
privacy
levels of 79–82
violation of 107
problem-solving 252, 265
assignment 329, 336
decision process 263–5
decomposing it 252, 257–65
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Index
A
divide-and-conquer approach 252, 255–7
IPO chart see IPO chart
outline steps in 253–5
problems
simple and complex 253, 318–22
sub-problems 255–7
troubleshooting hardware 40–1
process symbol 271
processing 10, 17–18
processing speed 38
processor 10, 11, 12, 31
program design 252
see also algorithms
program implementation 283
assignment 329, 336, 339
combining program elements 318–22
declaring variables and constants 295
documenting programs 322–4
sequence of steps 283, 285–91
testing for correctness 291–5
using high-level languages 283, 296–322
programs 18
documenting 322–4
executing 290
maintaining 291
proofreading 57, 58, 147, 178
propaganda 113
protocol 78
pseudocodes 252, 254, 268–70
using high-level language 296–322
publishing a website 161, 166, 177
Python 283, 286–7, 289
using 296–322
QR codes 51, 89
queries, creating and using 239–45, 336
radio-based common carriers 76, 77
random access memory (RAM) 11, 65, 265
random file access 62, 65, 67
range check 59
ransomware 111
Raspberry Pi computer 12
read only memory (ROM) 11, 15–16
real-time system 66–7
reasonableness check 59
records 223, 224
field name and data types 228, 229
relational database management system (RDBMS) 223, 224
relational operators 272–3
relationships 234–5
relative addressing 194–5, 196
reliability, online sources 54–60
REPEAT UNTIL loop 261–2, 269, 270, 296, 303–6
replace tool 142–3
reports, creating and using 245–8
reserved words 288
resolution 25, 27
routers 86–7
rows, manipulating 199
Rubik’s cube 262
Run option 288–9
run-time errors 292, 294
satellite 84–5
secondary key 226
secondary storage 6, 11, 13–16
files on 61
specification 39
security
data 20, 64
levels of privacy 79–82
storage devices 20
see also computer security
security threats 98, 102
countermeasures mitigating 113–17
Internet 100
sequence of instructions 296–9
sequential file access 61, 62, 63, 64–5, 67
serial file access 61, 62, 63, 64, 67
service priority program 318–22
shopping, online 89
simple problems 253
simple service program 310, 311
SimpleAdd program 290, 293, 297–9
smartphones 8, 9, 72
social media 113
soft copy 24
software 2, 29–33
licences 108, 109
malware 111–12, 115
sources of 32–3
touchscreen 36
software countermeasures 115–16
software interfaces 33, 35–7
software piracy 109
solid state drive (SSD) 15, 39
solution 253, 254, 265
sorting data 202–4
sound-sensing devices 21, 22–3
source code
creating 285–8
translating 288–9
using high-level languages 296–322
source documents 50, 52–3
spam 105–6
speakers 28
special-purpose applications 31–2
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Index
special-purpose computer 8
spellcheck tool 147–8
spreadsheets 31, 182, 183
advanced arithmetic formulae 193–4
assignment 328, 333–5, 338
charting operations 182, 210–15
data 182, 334
filtering 204–7
numeric data formatting 200–1
pivot table/chart 207–9
sorting 202–4
opening a program 185–6
predefined functions 182, 186–93
replicating formulae 182, 194–9
rows and columns 199
terminology 182, 184–5
using multiple worksheets 215–17
spyware 111, 112
storage 10, 20
cloud and local 19–20, 94
units of 16
see also data storage; secondary storage
storage devices 10, 11, 12
file storage on 46, 64–6
string 267, 295
stylus 23
sub-forms 238–9
sub-problems 255–7
SUM function 185, 186–7, 198
supercomputers 5, 9
supermarkets 122
switch 86–7
symbols
flowcharts 271–2
relation operators 272
syntax 288
for constants 316–17
for decisions 309–13
for integer division 314–16
for loops 299–309
syntax errors 289, 292, 294
system backup 64
system software 29–30
system utilities 30
test audience 178
test data 276–7, 279, 293
using high-level language 296–322
text-formatting tools 134
text-positioning tools 136–7
thermal printers 26
thesaurus 147
threats see security threats
3D printers 26
titles, charts 213, 214
touch-sensing devices 21, 23–4
touchscreen software 36
trace table 276–9, 294
tracking changes tool 148–9
traffic police 123
transaction processing 6
translator 288–9
transmission media 82, 83–5
transposition errors 55–6
travel arrangements 89
Trojans 111, 112
troubleshooting, hardware problems 40–1
truth table 274
turnaround document 52
twisted pair cable 82, 83
typographical errors 55–6
TAB stops 136
table of contents 62, 151–2
table tools 143–5
see also database table
tablets 7–8, 9
telecommuting 122
telephone directory 63
terabyte (TB) 14, 15, 16–17
terminators 271
weather forecasting 5, 253
web browser 31, 90, 165
HTML and URL 91–2
viewing web pages 168–9
web hosting companies 177
web pages
adding hyperlinks 161
assignment 328, 333, 338
content of 163–4
Uniform Resource Locators (URLs) 91–2
upload 93, 177
USB cable 10, 12
USB flash drive 15
USB ports 12
user interfaces 2, 33–7
validation 56, 59–60, 233
values 184, 185
variables 258, 266–7, 295
VDUs (visual display units) 27–8, 39
verification 55–8
violation of privacy 107
virtual assistants 33–4, 35
viruses 30, 111, 112
VLOOKUP function 189–91
vulnerability 102
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A
creating 161, 165–72
design 31
inserting hyperlinks 161, 172–6
layout 163, 164
number in a website 163
viewing in a web browser 168–9
web server 93
web technologies 71, 90–4
website home page 167, 170
websites
creation 165, 166–7, 171
intended audience 163
interacting with 93
maintenance 179
planning 161, 162–4
publishing 161, 166, 177
reasons for 162, 163
testing 161, 176–9
using a test audience 178
web page content 163–4
web page layout 164
web page numbers in 163
WHILE DO loop 262–3, 269, 270, 296, 307–9
Wi-Fi 72, 75, 78–9, 79
router 86
satellite communication 85
security practices 116
wide area networks (WANs) 74–5
WIMP 36, 37
Windows Access 31, 221
Windows Defender Firewall 101
Windows Excel 31, 60, 182
Windows Word 31, 128, 161, 166
wired network 82, 83–4
wireless network 78–9, 82
local area 8
transmission media 84–5
wireless standards 76–7, 88
word processing
assignment 328, 332, 338
creating a document 128, 129–33
editing 128, 140–6
fillable electronic form 154–7, 332
formatting 128, 133–9
mail merge features 152–4
protecting a document 128, 150–1
review features 128, 146–9
table of contents 151–2
website creation 165, 166–7, 171
word processor 31
word wrap 133
workbooks 184, 186
worksheets 184, 333–4
using multiple 215–17
World Wide Web 54, 90
uploading a website 177
worms 111, 112
wrap text with image 172
WYSISYG editor 166
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