CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.0 Introduction
This chapter contains a review of scholastic discourse on the topic of this research, Comparative
Outcome of Traditional and Genre-Based Writing on Final Year Students. It empirically reviews
the features of the two approaches, and scholastic views and also appraises the literature.
2.1 Traditional-based approach and genre-based approach
2.1.1 Traditional based approach
Pongpatchara Kawinkoonlasate (2019) opines that "the traditional approach is mostly teachercentered... is largely determined by the teacher." That means, that when the traditional approach
is employed in students' writings, they are influenced by what the teacher or instructor has laid
down as guidelines that are believed to best suit whatever the students are instructed to write. Their
writings are largely influenced by the teachings of the teacher.
Pongpatchara further quotes Qian (2010) who pointed out that the most influential approach of the
traditional methods of organizing language teaching is that of the 3Ps: presentation, practice, and
production. The first step is generally focused on a single point of grammar, which is presented
explicitly to maximize the chances that the underlying rule will be understood and internalized
which is the development of declarative knowledge. This initial stage would be followed by
practice activities and convert declarative to procedural knowledge. For the production stage, the
learners would want to express their knowledge with themselves to produce their tasks. These
three stages outlined by Qian are guides which students follow while writing their works as they
are in accordance with the requirements.
Naupane Pramila (2017) quoted Steele (1992), who outlined four stages of teaching in the product
approach which is a type of the traditional approach of writing. These stages listed are
familiarization, controlled writing, guided writing, and free writing. In the familiarization stage,
the teacher provides model texts to students to highlight certain features of a particular text. In the
controlled writing stage, the teacher gives students controlled exercises that focus on grammatical
features and related vocabulary. In the third stage, guided writing, the student writes a text that is
similar to the model text. In the final stage, students free write a similar text on their own.
All these outlined by Steele (1992) buttress Nunan (1991) claim that, the traditional approaches
that emphasize the outcome of writing. In this approach, teacher-supplied materials are imitated,
copied, and transformed by the learner. These point to the fact that the students are not given the
free will to to write based on personal expertise or knowledge. Pedagogy is involved as it is teacher
or instructor-centered.
Pramila mentioned another type of traditional approach to writing, which is the process approach.
In discussing this approach, he quotes Badger & White (2000) and Zeng (2005) that, process
writing emphasizes linguistic skills and the steps involved in writing, such as planning, drafting,
revising, and editing rather than linguistic knowledge. Process writing emphasizes both the writing
process together with the writer’s individual, independent creation. As the name suggests, the
process of writing is more important than its social context. This approach posits that writing
requires linguistic skills rather than linguistic knowledge. Therefore, skills such as planning,
drafting, and revising are emphasized.
Furthermore, Naupane quoted Nunan (1991) who opined that, no text can be perfect, but a writer
gets closer to perfection by producing, reflecting on, discussing, and reworking successive drafts
of a text. Feedback through peer reviewing and teacher-student conferences are important aspects
of this approach that help students make improvements in their writing.
In establishing the process approach and drawing out what makes it unique from its traditional
counterpart, the product approach, Naupane claims, "compared to the product approach, the
process approach is more effective because it encourages students to follow their own personal
approach to writing per their needs."
However, Naupane claims, the process approach still shares a similarity with the product approach,
it focuses on the common process of writing for everyone. Abdel Hak (2010), will also reference
the product approach and the process approach in his opinion on the traditional based approach of
writing in his paper, Approaches to Teaching Writing:
He claims the product approach has its origin in the traditions of rhetoric and focuses its study on
model texts to make students aware of the text features. It consists in analyzing the students’
writing to identify and quantify their strengths and weaknesses. It is clear that when such an
approach is adopted it leads to accuracy. It attempts to make the student familiarized with the
conventions of writing through a model before he gets his final draft.
For the product approach, the model text is always taken as the starting point. It is studied and
analysed from all points of view: structures of grammar, content, sentence organisation, and
rhetorical patterns. After manipulating these features, students are given a new topic and invited
to a parallel writing task.
Abdel Hak also referenced R.V. White (1988) who points out that “such a model-based approach
remains popular in EAP for one very good reason – much EAP writing is very product-oriented
since the conventions governing the organization and expression of ideas are very tight.” Thus, the
learner has to become thoroughly familiarized with these conventions and must learn to operate
within them. It would seem to make sense, therefore, to adopt a model-based tradition when
teaching students such conventions.
This suggests that the interest of such an approach like the product approach replicated. The model
then comes first and shows a completed text as well. For White (1988), this means "...the model
does not demonstrate how the original writer arrived at that particular product. In other words, it
does not indicate process.”
However, Abdel Hak states that the advantage of the process approach is that, it supplies learners
with linguistic knowledge. It recognizes and satisfies the students’ needs in terms of rules and
structures.
In stating his claims on the process approach, Abdel Hak makes a reference to the product approach
which is its contrast. He gives a history of the advent of the process appr, stating that, "until the
1970s, most studies of writing were about the written product. During this decade, the focus shifted
from product to process, and the main reason for this change was the new awareness that each
piece of writing had its history and followed its developmental path." This means the process
approach was developed as an improvement on the product approach of writing. It was developed
to create a difference and point out the anomalies in the product approach.
With the rise of the process approach, the central focus is no longer on the finished text, but on the
steps that make up the act of writing. Some of these steps have yet to be identified; the most used
in the literature are setting goals, generating ideas, organising information, selecting appropriate
language, drafting, revising, writing, editing and publishing. At first glance, these steps seem to be
complex activities, but one should always remember that the student must inevitably go through
them to produce a good paragraph. Abdel Hak will claim that most instructional models of the
writing process are based on Hayes and Flower's (1980) original description of the process, which
consists of three sub-processes: planning, translating, and reviewing. The objective of the process
approach is to make the student aware of and gain control over, the cognitive strategies involved
in writing.
He then quotes Murray (1992), who defines the process-oriented approach as "a teaching approach
that focuses on the process a writer engages in when constructing meaning. This teaching approach
concludes with editing as a final stage in text creation, rather than an initial one as in a productoriented approach. The process-oriented approach may include identified stages of the writing
process such as: prewriting, writing and re-writing. Once the rough draft has been created, it is
polished into subsequent drafts with the assistance of peer and teacher conferencing. Final editing
and publication can follow if the author chooses to publish their writing.
The features of the process approach are expatiated in five stages which scholars recognize as
recursive:
i. Prewriting: The writer gathers information and plays with ideas during this stage. The activities
involved may include drawing, talking, thinking, reading, listening to tapes and records, discussion,
role-playing, interviews, problem-solving and decision-making activities, conducting library
research, and so on. ii. Drafting: The writer develops his/her topic on paper during the drafting
stage. The beginning may be painful and difficult, producing false starts and frustration in the
writer. In the process-oriented approach, the focus is on content, not the mechanics of writing. iii.
Revising: During this stage, the writer makes whatever changes he/she feels are necessary.
Revision may involve additions and deletions; changes in syntax, sentence structure, and
organization; and some cases, starting over completely. iv. Editing: Polishing of the draft takes
place in the editing stage. The writer gives attention to mechanics such as spelling, punctuation,
grammar, and handwriting, and may also make minor lexical and syntactic changes. v. Publishing:
Publication refers to the delivery of the writing to its intended audience.
The major aim of the process approach is to train students how to generate ideas for writing, plan
these ideas, take into account the type of audience, draft and redraft to produce a final written paper
that is likely to communicate their ideas. Teachers who use this approach give students time to get
ideas and feedback on the content of what they write in their drafts. In this regard, Raimes (1983)
opines that, “writing becomes a process of discovery for the students as they discover new ideas
and new language forms to express them”
For the process approach, the teacher or instructor is required to give students greater responsibility
for their learning. Students make decisions about genre and choice of topics and collaborate as
they write.
With the process approach, the student needs to realise that what he/she considers as a final product
is just the beginning of the process of writing. As an approach to writing, it places the tasks of
revision on the students through making them read and rewrite.
For the process approach of writing, Sun (2009) quoted Graham Stanley who claimed "the process
approach treats all writing as a creative act which requires time and positive feedback to be done
well. In process writing, the teacher moves away from being someone who sets students a writing
topic and receives the finished product for correction without any intervention in the writing
process itself." Also, Fowler (1989) acknowledges that process writing evolved as a reaction to the
product approach, in that it met the need to match the writing processes inherent in writing in one’s
mother tongue, and consequently allow learners to express themselves better as individuals.
Sun therefore concludes his proposition by saying, "In essence, the process approach to teaching
writing focuses on the writing process rather than the final product."
In his proposition, Sun quotes scholarly views that contrast the process approach with the product
approach in a section titled, Process Approach Versus Product Approach Virtually all current
composition theorists make a distinction between process-oriented and product-oriented writing.
James McCrimmon sees it "as the difference between writing as a way of knowing (process) and
writing as a way of telling( product)." Donald Murray sees it as "the difference between internal
and external revision (revising to clarify meaning for oneself vs. revising to clarify meaning for
the reader." Linda Flower sees it as "the difference between writer-based and reader-based prose."
To conclude the differences between these two, Sun states, "Whereas the product approach focuses
on writing tasks in which the learner imitates, copies and transforms teacher supplied models, the
process approach focuses on the steps involved in creating a piece of work." The primary goal of
product writing is an error-free coherent text. Process writing allows for the fact that no text can
be perfect, but that a writer will get closer to perfection by producing, reflecting on, discussing and
reworking successive drafts of a text. Though these theorists differ in their explanations of the
distinction between process- and product-oriented writing, there is one important point upon which
they all agree: good product depends on good process.
2.1.2 Genre-based approach
Dornbrack (2019) defines the genre-based approach as an approach which identifies writing as a
social activity with particular power relations and social conventions. The approach explicitly
identifies the social and linguistic conventions of different types of texts. In this approach, the
following are included; familiarization, controlled writing, guided writing and free writing.
This is a pointer to the fact that genre-based approach works or is based on what is or will be
socially acceptable, its application involves having the audience or potential reader in mind.
Jacqui further lists the benefits and the steps of this approach in his article:
Benefits
i. Explicitly links reading and writing.
ii. Ensures that writing is a process.
iii. Provides a model for writing.
iv. Scaffolds writing.
v. Makes 'invisible' features explicit to learners.
Step to follow
i. Learners are given model text
ii. Text is read and analysed with the teacher.
iii. Patterns and linguistic features are identified.
iv. Teachers and learners collaboratively construct the genre.
v. Learners in groups use writing frames.
vi. Learners write individual genres.
Ismail Ibrahim Elshirbini Abd-ElFatah Elashri (2013) would on his part quote different scholars
who state their claims on the genre based approach:
Martin (1993) explained that the Genre-based approach is the belief that, to master the written
genres, students need direct instruction; genre forms should therefore be explicitly taught through
the analytic study of models, the learning of genre elements and their sequencing, and the
collaborative then solo production of exemplars. And added that explicit, teacher-directed
pedagogy is particularly important for minority students for, they claim, it is through the explicit
teaching of the socially powerful genres that the powerless and the disadvantaged in society will
gain their rightful access to power. For Martin here, the core of writing and how it can influence
society is the crux of the genre-based approach. Its focus is beyond writing in a vacuum, it
transcends writing and the society within which the writing occurs.
The genre approach is concerned with providing students with explicit knowledge about language.
The methodology applied within the genre approach is referenced to the work of the Russian
psychologist Vygotsky (1934/1978) and the American educational psychologist Bruner (1986). …
Vygotsky in his proposition opines that each learner has two levels of development: a level of
independent performance, and a level of potential performance. The gap between these two levels
Vygotsky called “the zone of proximal development” (ZPD) (Feeze and Joyce 2002: 25-26).
Ismail would cite Hammond (1992, cited in Burns, 2001) who proposed that, “a wheel model of a
teaching learning cycle having three phases: modelling, joint negotiation of text by learners and
teacher, and the independent construction of texts by learners” (p. 202). Modelling, Hammond
noted, is the time when the target genre that students should construct is introduced to the students.
At this stage, discussion focuses on the educational and social function of the genre, and analysis
focuses on the text structure and language.Furthermore, Ismail outlined different theories of the
genre-based approach which different theorists and proponents outlined in their opinion of this
approach:
He cited Flowerdew, and Swales (cited in Hyon, 1996), primarily outlined the genre approach with
spotlights on the formal distinctiveness of genres to help students gain an understanding of the
communicative purposes and linguistic features of texts that they are required to write in their
professional discourses, while these experts paid less attention to the specific roles of content and
their social environments (p. 695). They regarded genres as devices for examining and teaching
the written texts that students needed to master in specific settings like English for academic
purposes and English for professional communication classrooms
Some researchers defined a genre as “systemic functional linguistics that is concerned with the
relationship between language and its functions in social settings” (Hyon, 1996). It means that the
given text can be analyzed with a focus on the specific features of the language.
There is a schematic model of the genre approach which emphasizes how the resources of the
language system can be used to make appropriate meaning choices in diverse contexts. This
syllabus seeks to develop students’ writing proficiency through demonstrating that their writing
skills can be improved if the instructional focus is place on the ways content is structured and the
language is chosen.
In concluding his stand on the genre based approach, Ismail cited proponents such as Kay and
Dudley- Evans (1998) who argued that the genre approach is more effective for learners to advance
their writing skills in a second language than the process approach since the model helps free
students from their severe worries over writing.
2.2 Empirical review
In this section, reviews of the various studies that concern the scope of the study will be carried
out.
Sun (2009) carried out two classroom teaching models in establishing the process-based approach;
the full open process teaching of writing, and close process teaching of writing. They are also
called teaching models with minimal control and maximal control. This two teaching models are
classified in corresponding to students to two different writing levels, including those of good
writing skills, those of average writing skill. Students can also be divided into independent, average
groups according to their different learning strategies. And in consideration of the students’
affective factors, they can be classified of extroversive, and fuzzy types.
Using a minimal control teaching model, he did the following with the first group students with
good writing skill, extroversive type, independent characteristics:
Develop students’ abilities to organize information and construct it into a text.
Develop students’ abilities to revise, redraft and improve their writing. Develop students’ abilities
to construct questions.
During this lesson students went through the process of developing ideas and collecting and
organizing information. Then they use the information to create the first draft of an imaginary
news article. Then, they focused on some key areas of good writing and try to redraft their articles
with these in mind:Procedure.Pre writing tasks.Rationale: This part of the lesson gave students the
opportunity to collect information before writing their report. This should reduce the amount of
creativity needed during the actual writing. Write up the headline of their article, "Mystery
Disappearance of English Woman teacher: Students suspected."
The students were then put in groups or pairs to try to predict the content of the story and what
may have happened to the teacher.
Using maximal control teaching model, he did the following to second group students with average
writing skill and learning strategies , fuzzy characteristics:Develop students’ abilities to organize
information and construct it into a text. Develop students’ abilities to revise, redraft and improve
their writing. Develop students’ abilities to construct questions.
After organizing this model research, Sun opined that, to the lower level students in English, "I
think it is better to combine the process- and product-oriented approach to teaching writing. Of
course, I believe that it is of great importance from the process-oriented approach to perform the
above discussion stages in writing. Next, I tend to introduce a model text. The reading of a model
text, so important in a product-oriented approach to writing, is not so as to subjugate the students’
ideas to their organization, but so as to make students aware that there is a particular way to express
their ideas."In this way, students are given the form in order to enable them to adapt it to carry
their own meaning. Ellis found evidence to suggest that “focusing learners’ attention on forms,
and the meaning they realize the context of communication activities, results in successful
language learning.”
Eventually, he concluded by claiming, Experimental study shows that the two groups of students
who received two different models of teaching writing were all making significant progress in their
writing skill, while the control groups who as a whole class received full open process model of
teaching made less progress in their writing skill except for some good students who scored almost
as high. It is concluded that the process approach to teaching writing can be and is ideally applied
in different teaching models, and when we use the same process approach but different models of
teaching writing to teach the different students, an optimal teaching effect can be realized.
Samsudin (2016) while comparing the process approach with the product approach in teaching
academic writing to first-year undergraduates, posits that;
The process approach as found in the study had encouraged and enlivened the recursiveness of
natural writing and helped the participants to perform better in their writing especially contentwise. This suggests that teachers should encourage their student writers to revise and refine their
ideas even in the stage when they are writing when their final draft so that they can produce a good
academic text. Another way of putting this is teachers should always encourage their students to
develop the best work they can possibly produce. He further stated that, one of the reasons why
the participants performed better in their content, hence, the overall results at the post-test is
because they were taught new ways to thoroughly search for ideas to include in their essays. This
indicates that teachers need to acquaint their students with various means of obtaining information.
Undergraduates need to write comprehensive academic texts within their own disciplines so that
they can obtain better grades in their CGPAs. Thus, there is no better way to start teaching
undergraduates how to write a comprehensive academic text than to teach them how to research
comprehensively for their subject matter. In this way, not only will they accumulate knowledge in
the subject matter, but they will also improve their language skills.
Another reason why the participants did better in terms of content indirectly implies that
undergraduates need to be taught and coached on how to write a thesis statement and topic
sentences as well as how to develop them. Teachers should not only analyze these statements but
guide their development Dina et al (2020), opined in their research on the second year students of
the Social Department of SMAN 05 Bengkulu Tengah, that the effect of genre based approach on
students’ writing ability at the second year students of SMAN 05 Bengkulu Tengah. A suggestion
was proposed for teachers to replace the conventional approach currently applied in learning
writing ability with the use of genre based approach by paying attention to the teaching design and
the use of assistive devices that support the application of these approach, for more effective.Then,
because most students had weaknesses on quality of vocabulary, so it is expected that the students
need to find out ways of improving their ability in writing of vocabulary component such as
sophisticated range, effective word or idiom choice and usage, choosing effective word, sentence
styles and word choice, precise vocabulary usage, and good order of words. For further researchers,
because this learning method cannot yet be generalized to all schools, it is expected that subsequent
researchers will conduct research genre based approach by using different variables, subjects, and
research compositions.
Ismail (2013) also gave out the result of his research on the "The Effect of the Genre-Based
Approach to Teaching Writing on theEFL Al-Azhr Secondary Students' Writing Skills and their
attitudes towards writing." He was able to arrive at a conclusion that;
Instruction in Genre-based approach improves students' performance. This conclusion adds to the
validity of other studies such as that of Moerler (1991), Wells (1992), Cox, Holden & Pickett
(1997), Kapka & Oberman (2001), Buhrke et al (2002) and Ahmed (2003).
Also, Using the Genre-based approach has helped develop a positive relationship between
students' attitudes and their writingperformance.
Furthermore, The change in the writing teacher's role from the traditional role which has been
evaluating the learner's first draft as if it were the final product, and assuming the role of a
consultant, facilitating the learner's step-by-step creation of the piece of writing, is crucial in
helping students write better.
Conclusively, Providing safe, encouraging, non-threatening environment, i.e. creating settings that
motivate students' writing, helps them improve their writing performance. Student-writers need to
feel support and acceptance from the teacher and peers to take the kind of risk involved in the
process of producing good writing. When they feel safe from criticism, they become eager to write
and to share their writing. Therefore, the class becomes a community of writers and students
respond positively to a supportive writing atmosphere.
2.3 Summary of Literature
This section provides a summary of the chapter as it relates to the variables and ideas in the present
study.
An initial concept delved into is the traditional based approach of writing, this approach is
pedagogical in nature. It relies on the teachings of the teacher or the instructor. This approach
confines the students writing to what they learned from the teacher or instructor, it limits the
writing skills of students which translates to it been an old method of teaching writing and writing
itself.
For this type of approach, there are two distinctive types: the product based approach and the
process based approach.
The product based approach emphasizes on the final draft of the students' writing, it tries to ensure
the students following the tenets in order to achieve perfection in their writing, thereby limiting
their skills and also hindering their improvements. The product approach is enmeshed in rhetoric
(Ismail, 2013). It follows laid down guidelines and expects the students' writings to have these
features to the letter.
For the process based approach, its focus is different from its traditional counterpart the product
based approach. The central focus is no longer on the finished text, but on the steps that make up
the act of writing. Steps such as setting goals, generating ideas, organising information, selecting
appropriate language, drafting, revising, writing, editing and publishing.
The process approach believes a writing cannot be perfect, however, following due processes
involved in writing will aid the student in churning out something substantial which will be worthy
of reading. In this case, the writings of the students are supervised by the teacher but without direct
involvement as its aim is to bring out the creativity in the students which is needed to reflect in
their writings.
Just as Sun (2009) suggest, the differences between these two traditional approaches is that,
"whereas the product approach focuses on writing tasks in which the learner imitates, copies and
transforms teacher supplied models, the process approach focuses on the steps involved in creating
a piece of work." The primary goal of product writing is an error-free coherent text. Process writing
allows for the fact that no text can be perfect, but that a writer will get closer to perfection by
producing, reflecting on, discussing and reworking successive drafts of a text. Though these
theorists differ in their explanations of the distinction between process- and product-oriented
writing, there is one important point upon which they all agree: good product depends on good
process.
The genre based approach however, is a contrast to the two aforementioned approaches, it is
modern and focuses on the social impact of the writing and not just the rules and guidelines
required by the writing.
Familiarization, controlled writing, guided writing and free writing are the crux of this approach.
This approach is of the opinion that students should not just be taught the rudiments and guides of
writing, they should be aware of the impacts their writings could have on their society.
Therefore, in order to write what is socially acceptable, the students are required to know the genre
as well as have explicit linguistic knowledge which will tally with the scope of their writings as
their writings won't be in a vacuum.
On this premise, the genre based approach effectively aids the advancement of students' writing
skills especially when they're English as Second Language (ESL) learners in comparison to the
traditional approaches; the product based and process based approaches.
Also, from scholarly researches that have been previously conducted, it was revealed that, each
approach with its features have significant impact on the students with the students who are
exposed to the traditional based approach perform differently depending on the type they are
exposed to. The students exposed to the product based approach are unable to perform
exceptionally well in contrast to those exposed to the process based approach while in overall, the
students exposed to and influenced by the genre based approach have high level of productivity in
their writings as they are able to apply their skills independently in conjunction with the linguistic
and social knowledge they possess.
2.4 Conceptual Model
The model shows the relationship between the two distinct writing approaches of writing. These
approaches are the traditional based approach which include the product based and the process
based approaches and the genre based approach.
Traditional based approach
° Product based approach
Fig. 1. Researchers conceptual model
° Process based approach
Genre based approach
° Linguistic knowledge
° Social conventions
The objective of this model is to present the peculiarities of both approaches of writing and outline their
features. Features outlined are the traditional based approach which include the product based approach
and the process based approach; as well as the genre based approach which is premised on explicit
linguistic knowledge and social conventions.
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