CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW 2.0 Introduction This chapter contains a review of scholastic discourse on the topic of this research, Comparative Outcome of Traditional and Genre-Based Writing on Final Year Students. It empirically reviews the features of the two approaches, and scholastic views and also appraises the literature. 2.1 Traditional-based approach and genre-based approach 2.1.1 Traditional based approach Pongpatchara Kawinkoonlasate (2019) opines that "the traditional approach is mostly teachercentered... is largely determined by the teacher." That means, that when the traditional approach is employed in students' writings, they are influenced by what the teacher or instructor has laid down as guidelines that are believed to best suit whatever the students are instructed to write. Their writings are largely influenced by the teachings of the teacher. Pongpatchara further quotes Qian (2010) who pointed out that the most influential approach of the traditional methods of organizing language teaching is that of the 3Ps: presentation, practice, and production. The first step is generally focused on a single point of grammar, which is presented explicitly to maximize the chances that the underlying rule will be understood and internalized which is the development of declarative knowledge. This initial stage would be followed by practice activities and convert declarative to procedural knowledge. For the production stage, the learners would want to express their knowledge with themselves to produce their tasks. These three stages outlined by Qian are guides which students follow while writing their works as they are in accordance with the requirements. Naupane Pramila (2017) quoted Steele (1992), who outlined four stages of teaching in the product approach which is a type of the traditional approach of writing. These stages listed are familiarization, controlled writing, guided writing, and free writing. In the familiarization stage, the teacher provides model texts to students to highlight certain features of a particular text. In the controlled writing stage, the teacher gives students controlled exercises that focus on grammatical features and related vocabulary. In the third stage, guided writing, the student writes a text that is similar to the model text. In the final stage, students free write a similar text on their own. All these outlined by Steele (1992) buttress Nunan (1991) claim that, the traditional approaches that emphasize the outcome of writing. In this approach, teacher-supplied materials are imitated, copied, and transformed by the learner. These point to the fact that the students are not given the free will to to write based on personal expertise or knowledge. Pedagogy is involved as it is teacher or instructor-centered. Pramila mentioned another type of traditional approach to writing, which is the process approach. In discussing this approach, he quotes Badger & White (2000) and Zeng (2005) that, process writing emphasizes linguistic skills and the steps involved in writing, such as planning, drafting, revising, and editing rather than linguistic knowledge. Process writing emphasizes both the writing process together with the writer’s individual, independent creation. As the name suggests, the process of writing is more important than its social context. This approach posits that writing requires linguistic skills rather than linguistic knowledge. Therefore, skills such as planning, drafting, and revising are emphasized. Furthermore, Naupane quoted Nunan (1991) who opined that, no text can be perfect, but a writer gets closer to perfection by producing, reflecting on, discussing, and reworking successive drafts of a text. Feedback through peer reviewing and teacher-student conferences are important aspects of this approach that help students make improvements in their writing. In establishing the process approach and drawing out what makes it unique from its traditional counterpart, the product approach, Naupane claims, "compared to the product approach, the process approach is more effective because it encourages students to follow their own personal approach to writing per their needs." However, Naupane claims, the process approach still shares a similarity with the product approach, it focuses on the common process of writing for everyone. Abdel Hak (2010), will also reference the product approach and the process approach in his opinion on the traditional based approach of writing in his paper, Approaches to Teaching Writing: He claims the product approach has its origin in the traditions of rhetoric and focuses its study on model texts to make students aware of the text features. It consists in analyzing the students’ writing to identify and quantify their strengths and weaknesses. It is clear that when such an approach is adopted it leads to accuracy. It attempts to make the student familiarized with the conventions of writing through a model before he gets his final draft. For the product approach, the model text is always taken as the starting point. It is studied and analysed from all points of view: structures of grammar, content, sentence organisation, and rhetorical patterns. After manipulating these features, students are given a new topic and invited to a parallel writing task. Abdel Hak also referenced R.V. White (1988) who points out that “such a model-based approach remains popular in EAP for one very good reason – much EAP writing is very product-oriented since the conventions governing the organization and expression of ideas are very tight.” Thus, the learner has to become thoroughly familiarized with these conventions and must learn to operate within them. It would seem to make sense, therefore, to adopt a model-based tradition when teaching students such conventions. This suggests that the interest of such an approach like the product approach replicated. The model then comes first and shows a completed text as well. For White (1988), this means "...the model does not demonstrate how the original writer arrived at that particular product. In other words, it does not indicate process.” However, Abdel Hak states that the advantage of the process approach is that, it supplies learners with linguistic knowledge. It recognizes and satisfies the students’ needs in terms of rules and structures. In stating his claims on the process approach, Abdel Hak makes a reference to the product approach which is its contrast. He gives a history of the advent of the process appr, stating that, "until the 1970s, most studies of writing were about the written product. During this decade, the focus shifted from product to process, and the main reason for this change was the new awareness that each piece of writing had its history and followed its developmental path." This means the process approach was developed as an improvement on the product approach of writing. It was developed to create a difference and point out the anomalies in the product approach. With the rise of the process approach, the central focus is no longer on the finished text, but on the steps that make up the act of writing. Some of these steps have yet to be identified; the most used in the literature are setting goals, generating ideas, organising information, selecting appropriate language, drafting, revising, writing, editing and publishing. At first glance, these steps seem to be complex activities, but one should always remember that the student must inevitably go through them to produce a good paragraph. Abdel Hak will claim that most instructional models of the writing process are based on Hayes and Flower's (1980) original description of the process, which consists of three sub-processes: planning, translating, and reviewing. The objective of the process approach is to make the student aware of and gain control over, the cognitive strategies involved in writing. He then quotes Murray (1992), who defines the process-oriented approach as "a teaching approach that focuses on the process a writer engages in when constructing meaning. This teaching approach concludes with editing as a final stage in text creation, rather than an initial one as in a productoriented approach. The process-oriented approach may include identified stages of the writing process such as: prewriting, writing and re-writing. Once the rough draft has been created, it is polished into subsequent drafts with the assistance of peer and teacher conferencing. Final editing and publication can follow if the author chooses to publish their writing. The features of the process approach are expatiated in five stages which scholars recognize as recursive: i. Prewriting: The writer gathers information and plays with ideas during this stage. The activities involved may include drawing, talking, thinking, reading, listening to tapes and records, discussion, role-playing, interviews, problem-solving and decision-making activities, conducting library research, and so on. ii. Drafting: The writer develops his/her topic on paper during the drafting stage. The beginning may be painful and difficult, producing false starts and frustration in the writer. In the process-oriented approach, the focus is on content, not the mechanics of writing. iii. Revising: During this stage, the writer makes whatever changes he/she feels are necessary. Revision may involve additions and deletions; changes in syntax, sentence structure, and organization; and some cases, starting over completely. iv. Editing: Polishing of the draft takes place in the editing stage. The writer gives attention to mechanics such as spelling, punctuation, grammar, and handwriting, and may also make minor lexical and syntactic changes. v. Publishing: Publication refers to the delivery of the writing to its intended audience. The major aim of the process approach is to train students how to generate ideas for writing, plan these ideas, take into account the type of audience, draft and redraft to produce a final written paper that is likely to communicate their ideas. Teachers who use this approach give students time to get ideas and feedback on the content of what they write in their drafts. In this regard, Raimes (1983) opines that, “writing becomes a process of discovery for the students as they discover new ideas and new language forms to express them” For the process approach, the teacher or instructor is required to give students greater responsibility for their learning. Students make decisions about genre and choice of topics and collaborate as they write. With the process approach, the student needs to realise that what he/she considers as a final product is just the beginning of the process of writing. As an approach to writing, it places the tasks of revision on the students through making them read and rewrite. For the process approach of writing, Sun (2009) quoted Graham Stanley who claimed "the process approach treats all writing as a creative act which requires time and positive feedback to be done well. In process writing, the teacher moves away from being someone who sets students a writing topic and receives the finished product for correction without any intervention in the writing process itself." Also, Fowler (1989) acknowledges that process writing evolved as a reaction to the product approach, in that it met the need to match the writing processes inherent in writing in one’s mother tongue, and consequently allow learners to express themselves better as individuals. Sun therefore concludes his proposition by saying, "In essence, the process approach to teaching writing focuses on the writing process rather than the final product." In his proposition, Sun quotes scholarly views that contrast the process approach with the product approach in a section titled, Process Approach Versus Product Approach Virtually all current composition theorists make a distinction between process-oriented and product-oriented writing. James McCrimmon sees it "as the difference between writing as a way of knowing (process) and writing as a way of telling( product)." Donald Murray sees it as "the difference between internal and external revision (revising to clarify meaning for oneself vs. revising to clarify meaning for the reader." Linda Flower sees it as "the difference between writer-based and reader-based prose." To conclude the differences between these two, Sun states, "Whereas the product approach focuses on writing tasks in which the learner imitates, copies and transforms teacher supplied models, the process approach focuses on the steps involved in creating a piece of work." The primary goal of product writing is an error-free coherent text. Process writing allows for the fact that no text can be perfect, but that a writer will get closer to perfection by producing, reflecting on, discussing and reworking successive drafts of a text. Though these theorists differ in their explanations of the distinction between process- and product-oriented writing, there is one important point upon which they all agree: good product depends on good process. 2.1.2 Genre-based approach Dornbrack (2019) defines the genre-based approach as an approach which identifies writing as a social activity with particular power relations and social conventions. The approach explicitly identifies the social and linguistic conventions of different types of texts. In this approach, the following are included; familiarization, controlled writing, guided writing and free writing. This is a pointer to the fact that genre-based approach works or is based on what is or will be socially acceptable, its application involves having the audience or potential reader in mind. Jacqui further lists the benefits and the steps of this approach in his article: Benefits i. Explicitly links reading and writing. ii. Ensures that writing is a process. iii. Provides a model for writing. iv. Scaffolds writing. v. Makes 'invisible' features explicit to learners. Step to follow i. Learners are given model text ii. Text is read and analysed with the teacher. iii. Patterns and linguistic features are identified. iv. Teachers and learners collaboratively construct the genre. v. Learners in groups use writing frames. vi. Learners write individual genres. Ismail Ibrahim Elshirbini Abd-ElFatah Elashri (2013) would on his part quote different scholars who state their claims on the genre based approach: Martin (1993) explained that the Genre-based approach is the belief that, to master the written genres, students need direct instruction; genre forms should therefore be explicitly taught through the analytic study of models, the learning of genre elements and their sequencing, and the collaborative then solo production of exemplars. And added that explicit, teacher-directed pedagogy is particularly important for minority students for, they claim, it is through the explicit teaching of the socially powerful genres that the powerless and the disadvantaged in society will gain their rightful access to power. For Martin here, the core of writing and how it can influence society is the crux of the genre-based approach. Its focus is beyond writing in a vacuum, it transcends writing and the society within which the writing occurs. The genre approach is concerned with providing students with explicit knowledge about language. The methodology applied within the genre approach is referenced to the work of the Russian psychologist Vygotsky (1934/1978) and the American educational psychologist Bruner (1986). … Vygotsky in his proposition opines that each learner has two levels of development: a level of independent performance, and a level of potential performance. The gap between these two levels Vygotsky called “the zone of proximal development” (ZPD) (Feeze and Joyce 2002: 25-26). Ismail would cite Hammond (1992, cited in Burns, 2001) who proposed that, “a wheel model of a teaching learning cycle having three phases: modelling, joint negotiation of text by learners and teacher, and the independent construction of texts by learners” (p. 202). Modelling, Hammond noted, is the time when the target genre that students should construct is introduced to the students. At this stage, discussion focuses on the educational and social function of the genre, and analysis focuses on the text structure and language.Furthermore, Ismail outlined different theories of the genre-based approach which different theorists and proponents outlined in their opinion of this approach: He cited Flowerdew, and Swales (cited in Hyon, 1996), primarily outlined the genre approach with spotlights on the formal distinctiveness of genres to help students gain an understanding of the communicative purposes and linguistic features of texts that they are required to write in their professional discourses, while these experts paid less attention to the specific roles of content and their social environments (p. 695). They regarded genres as devices for examining and teaching the written texts that students needed to master in specific settings like English for academic purposes and English for professional communication classrooms Some researchers defined a genre as “systemic functional linguistics that is concerned with the relationship between language and its functions in social settings” (Hyon, 1996). It means that the given text can be analyzed with a focus on the specific features of the language. There is a schematic model of the genre approach which emphasizes how the resources of the language system can be used to make appropriate meaning choices in diverse contexts. This syllabus seeks to develop students’ writing proficiency through demonstrating that their writing skills can be improved if the instructional focus is place on the ways content is structured and the language is chosen. In concluding his stand on the genre based approach, Ismail cited proponents such as Kay and Dudley- Evans (1998) who argued that the genre approach is more effective for learners to advance their writing skills in a second language than the process approach since the model helps free students from their severe worries over writing. 2.2 Empirical review In this section, reviews of the various studies that concern the scope of the study will be carried out. Sun (2009) carried out two classroom teaching models in establishing the process-based approach; the full open process teaching of writing, and close process teaching of writing. They are also called teaching models with minimal control and maximal control. This two teaching models are classified in corresponding to students to two different writing levels, including those of good writing skills, those of average writing skill. Students can also be divided into independent, average groups according to their different learning strategies. And in consideration of the students’ affective factors, they can be classified of extroversive, and fuzzy types. Using a minimal control teaching model, he did the following with the first group students with good writing skill, extroversive type, independent characteristics: Develop students’ abilities to organize information and construct it into a text. Develop students’ abilities to revise, redraft and improve their writing. Develop students’ abilities to construct questions. During this lesson students went through the process of developing ideas and collecting and organizing information. Then they use the information to create the first draft of an imaginary news article. Then, they focused on some key areas of good writing and try to redraft their articles with these in mind:Procedure.Pre writing tasks.Rationale: This part of the lesson gave students the opportunity to collect information before writing their report. This should reduce the amount of creativity needed during the actual writing. Write up the headline of their article, "Mystery Disappearance of English Woman teacher: Students suspected." The students were then put in groups or pairs to try to predict the content of the story and what may have happened to the teacher. Using maximal control teaching model, he did the following to second group students with average writing skill and learning strategies , fuzzy characteristics:Develop students’ abilities to organize information and construct it into a text. Develop students’ abilities to revise, redraft and improve their writing. Develop students’ abilities to construct questions. After organizing this model research, Sun opined that, to the lower level students in English, "I think it is better to combine the process- and product-oriented approach to teaching writing. Of course, I believe that it is of great importance from the process-oriented approach to perform the above discussion stages in writing. Next, I tend to introduce a model text. The reading of a model text, so important in a product-oriented approach to writing, is not so as to subjugate the students’ ideas to their organization, but so as to make students aware that there is a particular way to express their ideas."In this way, students are given the form in order to enable them to adapt it to carry their own meaning. Ellis found evidence to suggest that “focusing learners’ attention on forms, and the meaning they realize the context of communication activities, results in successful language learning.” Eventually, he concluded by claiming, Experimental study shows that the two groups of students who received two different models of teaching writing were all making significant progress in their writing skill, while the control groups who as a whole class received full open process model of teaching made less progress in their writing skill except for some good students who scored almost as high. It is concluded that the process approach to teaching writing can be and is ideally applied in different teaching models, and when we use the same process approach but different models of teaching writing to teach the different students, an optimal teaching effect can be realized. Samsudin (2016) while comparing the process approach with the product approach in teaching academic writing to first-year undergraduates, posits that; The process approach as found in the study had encouraged and enlivened the recursiveness of natural writing and helped the participants to perform better in their writing especially contentwise. This suggests that teachers should encourage their student writers to revise and refine their ideas even in the stage when they are writing when their final draft so that they can produce a good academic text. Another way of putting this is teachers should always encourage their students to develop the best work they can possibly produce. He further stated that, one of the reasons why the participants performed better in their content, hence, the overall results at the post-test is because they were taught new ways to thoroughly search for ideas to include in their essays. This indicates that teachers need to acquaint their students with various means of obtaining information. Undergraduates need to write comprehensive academic texts within their own disciplines so that they can obtain better grades in their CGPAs. Thus, there is no better way to start teaching undergraduates how to write a comprehensive academic text than to teach them how to research comprehensively for their subject matter. In this way, not only will they accumulate knowledge in the subject matter, but they will also improve their language skills. Another reason why the participants did better in terms of content indirectly implies that undergraduates need to be taught and coached on how to write a thesis statement and topic sentences as well as how to develop them. Teachers should not only analyze these statements but guide their development Dina et al (2020), opined in their research on the second year students of the Social Department of SMAN 05 Bengkulu Tengah, that the effect of genre based approach on students’ writing ability at the second year students of SMAN 05 Bengkulu Tengah. A suggestion was proposed for teachers to replace the conventional approach currently applied in learning writing ability with the use of genre based approach by paying attention to the teaching design and the use of assistive devices that support the application of these approach, for more effective.Then, because most students had weaknesses on quality of vocabulary, so it is expected that the students need to find out ways of improving their ability in writing of vocabulary component such as sophisticated range, effective word or idiom choice and usage, choosing effective word, sentence styles and word choice, precise vocabulary usage, and good order of words. For further researchers, because this learning method cannot yet be generalized to all schools, it is expected that subsequent researchers will conduct research genre based approach by using different variables, subjects, and research compositions. Ismail (2013) also gave out the result of his research on the "The Effect of the Genre-Based Approach to Teaching Writing on theEFL Al-Azhr Secondary Students' Writing Skills and their attitudes towards writing." He was able to arrive at a conclusion that; Instruction in Genre-based approach improves students' performance. This conclusion adds to the validity of other studies such as that of Moerler (1991), Wells (1992), Cox, Holden & Pickett (1997), Kapka & Oberman (2001), Buhrke et al (2002) and Ahmed (2003). Also, Using the Genre-based approach has helped develop a positive relationship between students' attitudes and their writingperformance. Furthermore, The change in the writing teacher's role from the traditional role which has been evaluating the learner's first draft as if it were the final product, and assuming the role of a consultant, facilitating the learner's step-by-step creation of the piece of writing, is crucial in helping students write better. Conclusively, Providing safe, encouraging, non-threatening environment, i.e. creating settings that motivate students' writing, helps them improve their writing performance. Student-writers need to feel support and acceptance from the teacher and peers to take the kind of risk involved in the process of producing good writing. When they feel safe from criticism, they become eager to write and to share their writing. Therefore, the class becomes a community of writers and students respond positively to a supportive writing atmosphere. 2.3 Summary of Literature This section provides a summary of the chapter as it relates to the variables and ideas in the present study. An initial concept delved into is the traditional based approach of writing, this approach is pedagogical in nature. It relies on the teachings of the teacher or the instructor. This approach confines the students writing to what they learned from the teacher or instructor, it limits the writing skills of students which translates to it been an old method of teaching writing and writing itself. For this type of approach, there are two distinctive types: the product based approach and the process based approach. The product based approach emphasizes on the final draft of the students' writing, it tries to ensure the students following the tenets in order to achieve perfection in their writing, thereby limiting their skills and also hindering their improvements. The product approach is enmeshed in rhetoric (Ismail, 2013). It follows laid down guidelines and expects the students' writings to have these features to the letter. For the process based approach, its focus is different from its traditional counterpart the product based approach. The central focus is no longer on the finished text, but on the steps that make up the act of writing. Steps such as setting goals, generating ideas, organising information, selecting appropriate language, drafting, revising, writing, editing and publishing. The process approach believes a writing cannot be perfect, however, following due processes involved in writing will aid the student in churning out something substantial which will be worthy of reading. In this case, the writings of the students are supervised by the teacher but without direct involvement as its aim is to bring out the creativity in the students which is needed to reflect in their writings. Just as Sun (2009) suggest, the differences between these two traditional approaches is that, "whereas the product approach focuses on writing tasks in which the learner imitates, copies and transforms teacher supplied models, the process approach focuses on the steps involved in creating a piece of work." The primary goal of product writing is an error-free coherent text. Process writing allows for the fact that no text can be perfect, but that a writer will get closer to perfection by producing, reflecting on, discussing and reworking successive drafts of a text. Though these theorists differ in their explanations of the distinction between process- and product-oriented writing, there is one important point upon which they all agree: good product depends on good process. The genre based approach however, is a contrast to the two aforementioned approaches, it is modern and focuses on the social impact of the writing and not just the rules and guidelines required by the writing. Familiarization, controlled writing, guided writing and free writing are the crux of this approach. This approach is of the opinion that students should not just be taught the rudiments and guides of writing, they should be aware of the impacts their writings could have on their society. Therefore, in order to write what is socially acceptable, the students are required to know the genre as well as have explicit linguistic knowledge which will tally with the scope of their writings as their writings won't be in a vacuum. On this premise, the genre based approach effectively aids the advancement of students' writing skills especially when they're English as Second Language (ESL) learners in comparison to the traditional approaches; the product based and process based approaches. Also, from scholarly researches that have been previously conducted, it was revealed that, each approach with its features have significant impact on the students with the students who are exposed to the traditional based approach perform differently depending on the type they are exposed to. The students exposed to the product based approach are unable to perform exceptionally well in contrast to those exposed to the process based approach while in overall, the students exposed to and influenced by the genre based approach have high level of productivity in their writings as they are able to apply their skills independently in conjunction with the linguistic and social knowledge they possess. 2.4 Conceptual Model The model shows the relationship between the two distinct writing approaches of writing. These approaches are the traditional based approach which include the product based and the process based approaches and the genre based approach. Traditional based approach ° Product based approach Fig. 1. Researchers conceptual model ° Process based approach Genre based approach ° Linguistic knowledge ° Social conventions The objective of this model is to present the peculiarities of both approaches of writing and outline their features. Features outlined are the traditional based approach which include the product based approach and the process based approach; as well as the genre based approach which is premised on explicit linguistic knowledge and social conventions. REFERENCES Dina, M. M., Safnil, A., Irwan, K. (2020). The effect of genre based approach on students' writing ability of recount text. JOALL Journal of Applied Linguistics and Literature.Universitas Bengkulu, Bengkulu.Dornbrark, J. (2019). Genre based writing. Scribd. https://www.slideshare.net/Jacqui_Dornbrack/genre-based-writing Elashri, I. (2013). 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