Japan in Transformation, 1853-1937
A Level History
https://schoolhistory.co.uk/a-level/
Module includes the following topics:
● PART I: The impact of foreign intrusion on Tokugawa Japan,
1853-1868
● PART II: Westernisation and nationalism in Meiji Japan
1868-1912
● PART III: Foreign relations and overseas expansion
1868-1920
● PART IV: The growth of nationalism in Japan 1920-1937
Important Terms
Learning Objectives
At the end of the lesson, students
should be able to:
❏ Understand the nature of
Japanese expansionism and
imperialism;
❏ Be critical about the impacts of the
Sino-Japanese and
Russo-Japanese Wars on Japan’s
emergence as a military power;
❏ Analyse the significance of
Anglo-Japanese alliance during the
First World War; and
❏ Evaluate American-Japanese
relations.
●
●
●
●
●
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Splendid isolation
Sino-Japanese War
Russo-Japanese War
21 Demands
Treaty of Versailles
Imperialism
Module Content
A.
B.
C.
D.
Population pressure and imperial ambitions; annexation of the Ryukyu Islands 1875
and greater control over Northern territories
Ambitions in Korea; the causes, course and results of the Sino-Japanese War
1894-1895, acquisition of Taiwan; participation in international action in China
The alliance with Britain; relations with Russia and the Russo-Japanese War 1904-1905
Relations with the USA; participation in the First World War; the 21 Demands; the
Siberian expedition; the Treaty of Versailles and resentments; the Washington
Conference.
Content Overview
4
Annexation of the
Ryukyu Islands
Beginning of
the Meiji period
1868
1875
Acquisition of
Taiwan
WWI participation
Sino-Japanese
War
Russo-Japanese
War
Siberian
expedition
1894
1904
1918
1895
1914
5
Population pressure and imperial ambitions; annexation of the Ryukyu
Islands 1875 and greater control over Northern territories
By the end of the 19th century,
Japan’s growing population had
led to a dire need for natural
resources. Japanese historians
Yoshida Shoin and Sato Nobuhiro
wrote that ideas of expansionism
and imperialism to sustain the
population’s demand were rooted
in the Edo period, particularly the
response
to
Western
encroachment. On the other
hand, American historian Marius
Jansen argued that these
sentiments were “overblown
rhetoric”.
Jansen argued that Japanese imperial ambitions began
soon after the Meiji restoration when Saigo Takamori,
dubbed as the last true samurai, laid eyes on Korea in 1873.
Contextual rewind
In 1872, Japan began mandatory military drafting among
all able-bodied men between ages 17 and 35. Regardless of
class, all men were expected to serve in the military for
three years. As a result, the samurai class expressed
resentment. This later led to the decline and extinction of
the samurais. This militarisation and growth of Japanese
nationalism among the members of the new army was an
influential factor in their ideas of expansionism and
imperialism, at least towards its neighbouring countries.
Views about Japanese Imperialism
6
While the majority of Japanese historians viewed the idea and
act of imperialism as a response to Western intimidation and
control, British historian W.G. Beasley categorised Japanese
imperialism into two phases:
1. The period of conformity scopes the first phase which
began with Japanese victory over China in 1895 and
ended with the outbreak of the First World War in 1914.
2. The second phase covers the First and Second World War
(1914-1945) which relies on the idea of co-operative
imperialism.
Fukuzawa Yukichi justified Japanese imperialism in Asia as
jakuniku kyoshoku, translated as ‘survival of the fittest’ under
the Darwinian belief. The establishment of the ‘Great East’
comprising Japan and Korea was proposed by Trui Tokichi in
the 1880s. He believed that this amalgamation could beat the
Western threat.
Contemporary print showing a Japanese sumo
wrestler tossing a Westerner to the ground
7
Prior to being part of Okinawa prefecture, the Ryukyu Islands belonged to the Ryukyu
Kingdom between 1429 and 1879. The ruling Ryukyuan monarchy under the tributary
state of Imperial China (Qing and Ming dynasties) was integrated into the Japanese
nobility after the annexation in 1879.
The Ryukyu Islands are located southwest of Kyushu Island and northeastern
Taiwan. They are bounded by the East China Sea in the west and the Philippine
Sea in the east. The Ryukyu archipelago consists of 55 islands and islets, now
divided into three groups: the Amami island, central Okinawa islands and the
Sakishima islands.
Four years after the Meiji restoration, the government
conferred Shō tai the title of vassal king. The following year,
Japan took over Ryukyu’s foreign
affairs. The
Japanese-Chinese commercial treaty was also ratified. While
new Sino-Japanese relations were established, the last
Ryukyu king asked the Qing intervention to revive his
kingdom’s tributary relations with China. The Qing refused
and the matter was not addressed.
Between 1872 and
1879, Ryukyu Kingdom
was reconfigured as a
feudal domain. By 1879
the annexation of the
islands was declared
by Japan.
8
Ambitions in Korea; the causes, course and results of the Sino-Japanese War
1894-1895, acquisition of Taiwan; participation in international action in China
Considered Japan’s first foreign
war, the first Sino-Japanese
War broke out on 25 July 1894
and ended on 17 April 1895.
The war was fought between
China’s Qing Dynasty and the
Japanese Empire over Joseon
(Korea). In search of new
resources and control over the
East Asian region, Japan eyed
Korea for expansion. At that
time, Russia already controlled
much of Manchuria.
Korea’s coal and iron ore deposits greatly added to its
economic significance and foreign interests. The Joseon
Dynasty was then under the tributary system of the Qing
Dynasty. At that time, Korean politics was divided.
Conservative politicians aimed to maintain its traditional
relations with China, while reformists wanted modernisation
by establishing ties with Western nations and Japan.
On 26 February 1876, the Treaty of Ganghwa was signed
between Japan and Korea. This treaty opened Korea to
Japanese trade, while proclaiming the former’s
independence from China. In 1885, after a failed bloody
coup, the Sino-Japanese Convention of Tientsin was signed.
The treaty stipulated the pull-out of Japanese and Chinese
forces from Korea and prohibition from influencing the
Korean military.
9
Status of combatants
When the war broke out, the Imperial Japanese navy
was modelled after the British Royal (the foremost
naval power in the world at that time). The navy had 1
frigate, 22 torpedo boats, numerous armed cruisers
and warships made by the French, British and
Japanese.
Following the nationwide military conscription based
on the French model in 1873, the government built a
number of military schools and arsenals. By 1886, the
Japanese imperial army went under reform following
the Prussian model. German adviser to the army,
Jakob Meckel, implemented new reforms. By the
1890s, the Japanese army was trained and equipped
according to the Western style. When the
Sino-Japanese War broke out, the army had 120,000
men positioned in 5 divisions.
First Sino-Japanese War, major battles and troop
movements
10
Imperial Japanese Army in 1894-1895
1st Japanese Army
3rd Provincial Division (Nagoya)
5th Provincial Division (Hiroshima)
The modern Chinese military, known as the Beiyang Force
(army and navy), fought largely in the Sino-Japanese War.
Following the Taiping Rebellion, the Qing Dynasty lacked
a united army. The rebellion separated their army into
Manchu, Hui, Mongol and Han. Compared to the
Japanese Imperial army, the Qing had torpedo boats,
gunboats and chartered merchant vessels.
2nd Japanese Army
1st Provincial Division (Tokyo)
2nd Provincial Division (Sendai)
6th Provincial Division (Kumamoto)
In reserve
4th Provincial Division (Osaka)
In 1894, Korean reformist and pro-Japanese activist Kim
Ok-Kyun was assassinated in China; his dismembered
body was publicly displayed in Korea, causing outrage
among the Japanese public. This was one of the
immediate events that led to the First Sino-Japanese
War.
11
Events leading to the war
Despite the
end of the
Amidst Korean and
rebellion, the
The Korean
Chinese
protests,
about
Japanese
government sought
4,000
Japanese
soldiers
forces
Chinese aid in
and
500
marines
arrived
remained in
suppressing the
at
Chumlpo
(Incheon)
Korea
Tonghak Rebellion
1894
June
1
6
Under the Convention of
Tientsin, the Chinese
government informed
Japan about its soldiers
going to Korea
8
11 13 16
The Tonghak
Rebellion
ended
A British-led
mediation
between China
and Japan
failed
Additional
Japanese
soldiers
arrived in
Korea
22
July
Japanese Foreign
Minister Mutsu
Munemitsu and
Chinese ambassador
to Japan Wang Feng
Zhao met to discuss
the status of Korea
3
7
Proposed
reforms in Korea
were rejected by
the conservative
pro-Chinese
Korean
government
A new pro-Japanese
government was
formed after the
seizure of the
Korean Emperor
based in Seoul
19
The Japanese
Joint Fleet was
established
23
12
Significant events of the war
On 25 July 1894, Japanese cruisers Yoshino, Naniwa and Akitsushima patrolling at Asan
defeated the Chinese cruisers Tsi-yuan and Kwang-yi. In reinforcement of the Beiyang fleet,
Kow-shing, a British merchant vessel chartered by the Chinese, and Tsao-kiang, a gunboat, sailed
toward Asan. The cruiser ships were intercepted by Naniwa, led by Captain Togo Heihachiro.
Kow-shing was first captured by the Japanese before it sank. The sinking of the Kow-shing and
Chinese hostilities towards the vessel’s English captain and crew heightened tensions between
Japan and Britain.
On 28 July 1894, the First Japanese Army led by
Major General Oshima Yoshimasa met the Chinese
troops at Seonghwan Station east of Asan an Kongju.
The engagement resulted in about 500 Chinese and
82 Japanese casualties. By 1 August 1894, China and
Japan officially declared war. On 15 September 1894,
the Chinese forces that retreated in Pyongyang along
with about 13,000 additional soldiers were defeated
by the Japanese.
An old wood print of the sinking of the Kow-shing
The devastating Chinese defeat resulted in casualties of 2,000 killed and about 4,000
wounded. By the following day, the Japanese forces entered the city of Pyongyang. On 17
September, the Imperial Japanese Navy destroyed 8 out of 10 Chinese warships positioned at
the mouth of the Yalu River. On 19 October, the Japanese forces targeted Manchuria. They
crossed the Yalu River undetected which led to Chinese retreat. Southern Manchuria was
attacked by the Japanese 5th Provincial Division through the city of Mukden and the 3rd
Provincial Division through the Liaodong Peninsula.
On 21 November 1894, the Japanese
captured the city of Lüshunkou (Port
Arthur) and massacred its population.
This event became known as the Port
Arthur Massacre. By December,
Kaipeng also fell under the Japanese.
The remaining Beiyang Fleet retreated
into Weihaiwei fortifications. The
siege lasted from 20 January until 12
February 1895 before the Chinese
surrendered.
Depiction of the Port Arthur Massacre
13
On 26 March 1895, the Japanese forces captured the Pescadores Islands off the coast of
Taiwan. After three day, under the leadership of Admiral Motonori Kabayama, the Japanese
forces arrived in northern Taiwan and continued the occupation.
On 17 April 1895, the two nations signed the Treaty
of Shimonoseki, which effectively ended the First
Sino-Japanese War. Korea became a Japanese
protectorate until 1910.
Granted by the Treaty of Shimonoseki, Japan gained
control of Korea and territorial claims to Taiwan, the
Liaodong Peninsula and the Penghu Islands. Taiwan
was Japan’s first colony. China also gave Japan
permission to operate in Chinese treaty ports, as
well as an additional 200 million taels of silver in
compensation for war damages. In China, revolts
against the Qing Dynasty began. Western powers
also took advantage of China’s losses to make
further demands of the Chinese administration.
This sudden emergence of Japan as a
superpower agitated European powers
France, Germany and Russia. The three
nations offered 30 million taels of
silver
in
exchange
for
Japan
relinquishing claim to Liaodong
Peninsula, a territory of much interest
to Russia. This European involvement
ignited the Russo-Japanese War that
began in 1904.
Later on, Japan gave up the
Liaodong Peninsula for another 30
million taels.
14
Take a closer look!
15
THE BOXER REBELLION, 1900
One of the impacts of the Sino-Japanese War was the Boxer Rebellion. Between 1899 and 1901,
toward the end of the Qing Dynasty, an uprising in China against imperialist and foreign
influence took place.
Boxer was what foreigners called the
Yihequan (Righteous and Harmonious
Fists), a Chinese secret society that
practised unique boxing exercises
believing that this was the source of
their indestructibility. The group led
an uprising in northern China against
the spread of non-Chinese influences,
such as Western and Japanese. They
killed foreigners and anyone who was
Christian - Chinese or foreigner. They
also destroyed foreign property.
Boxer rebels
The rebellion officially ended
with the signing of the Boxer
Protocol on 7 September
1901. China agreed to pay
more than $330 million in
war reparations to the
foreign nations involved.
Japan was one of those
foreign
powers.
Japan,
together with German and
Russian troops, was heavily
criticised
for
their
ruthlessness in the rebellion.
The Boxer Rebellion, coupled
with their recent victory in
the First Sino-Japanese War,
established Japan as a
dominant power.
16
The alliance with Britain; relations with Russia and the Russo-Japanese War
1904-1905
Japan’s international status rose with the
signing of an alliance between Japan and
Great Britain on 30 January 1902. The
Anglo-Japanese Alliance bound Britain and
Japan to an agreement of assisting one
another in protecting both of their interests in
China and Korea.
The
alliance
served
Japan
in
the
Russo-Japanese War by discouraging Russia’s
ally, France, from participating in the war. The
alliance served the British when Japan entered
World War I on the side of the Allied Forces. It
was renewed in 1905 and 1911 before it was
officially terminated in 1923.
Signed in London by British Foreign Secretary
Lord Lansdowne and Japanese diplomat
Hayashi Tadasu, the alliance ended Britain’s
splendid isolation. The 1902 treaty contained
six articles.
1
Recognition of the independence of
China
and
Korea.
Admissible
intervention in case of aggressive
action.
2
Declaration of neutrality in case either
of the signatory became involved in war
through Article 1.
3
Promise of support if either Japan or
Britain became involved in war with
more than one power.
4
Not to enter into separate agreements
with another power to the prejudice of
the existing alliance.
5
Open communication when any of the
interests affected by the treaty would
be in jeopardy.
6
Five-year effectivity of the treaty and
then at one year’s notice.
Despite the acknowledgement of Japanese
interests in Korea, the treaty did not obligate Britain
to join the Russo-Japanese conflict. In return,
Japan was not obligated to help Britain over India.
17
The Meiji Emperor receiving the Order of the Garter in 1906
As a result of the alliance, the Meiji
Emperor received the Order of the Garter
in 1906. This most senior order of
knighthood was founded by Edward III in
1348.
The Russo-Japanese War
18
Between 1904 and 1905, the Russo-Japanese War between the empires of Russia and Japan
over the control of Manchuria and Korea took place. In addition to land encounters mostly in
northeastern China, the war was also a naval conflict in the waters of the Korean peninsula.
At the time of the war, Russia was a
significant world power, with large
territories in Eastern Europe and
Central Asia. After winning the
Sino-Japanese War, Japan established
its dominant power over Asia. The
Russian Empire, headed by Tsar
Nicholas II, was then at the height of
industrialisation. When the Siberian
shipping centre of Vladivostok was
forced to close, Russia, in need of a
warm-water trading port, set its eye on
the Liaodong and Korean peninsulas.
Meanwhile, the Japanese had been concerned about
Russian influence in Asia since the First
Sino-Japanese War. It was Russia that provided the
Qing Dynasty with military support. Well aware of
Russian aggression, Japan offered a deal giving
Manchuria to Russia, while keeping control of Korea.
Russia declined the proposal and demanded that north
of the 39th parallel of Korea should serve as a neutral
zone. On 8 February 1904, after failed diplomatic
relations, the Russo-Japanese War began at Port
Arthur.
19
Events of the war
Japan declared war
on 8 February. By
the 13th, the
blockade of Port
Arthur began.
1904
February
On 1 May, the Battle of Yalu, the first major
land battle during the war, ended in Japanese
victory. In the same month, the Japanese
Second Army landed on the Liaotung
peninsula and defeated the Russians again.
April
May
On 1 April, Port Arthur’s
land defences were
attacked by the Japanese.
The Russian ships
Petropavlovsk and Pobeda
were heavily damaged.
August
Meanwhile in Russia, the
Moscow Duma demanded
the establishment of an
elected national legislature
on 30 November.
November
The Battle at Liaoyang began
on 25 August and ended on 3
September. The encounter
resulted in 5,537 Japanese
and 3,600 Russian deaths and
18,063 Japanese and 14,301
Russian wounded.
December
On 20 February,
the Battle of
Mukden, the last
land battle during
the war, ended in
Japanese victory.
February
1905
The Japanese Army seized
advantage at Port Arthur. By 2
January, Port Arthur
surrendered.
Mediated by US President Theodore Roosevelt, the Russo-Japanese War ended with the
signing of the Treaty of Portsmouth on 5 September 1905. Russia was represented by Sergei
Witte (Russia) and Baron Komura (Japan).
The treaty turned over Port Arthur to the Japanese, while
retaining the northern half of Sakhalin Island in the Pacific.
The Russians also recognised Japanese authority in
Manchuria and Korea. Japan’s victory was largely a surprise.
It was the first Asian power to defeat a European power in the
modern period. This was a big deal. It practically transformed
the power dynamics in East Asia. Some thought of Japan’s
victory as a challenge, if not a threat, to Western supremacy.
New technology was also introduced in the war, including
improved rifles, machine guns and rapid-firing artillery. These
innovations brought about more casualties, so much so that
Japan and Russia were unprepared for the large numbers.
Non-governmental organisations such as the Red Cross
gained prominence after the Russo-Japanese War.
20
Theodore Roosevelt (centre) with peace
envoys from Russia and Japan at the signing
of the Treaty of Portsmouth, 1905
21
Relations with the USA; participation in the First World War; the 21 Demands;
the Siberian expedition; the Treaty of Versailles and resentments; the Washington
Conference.
Following
the
Treaty
of
Portsmouth mediated by US
President Theodore Roosevelt,
US Secretary of War William
Howard Taft and Prime Minister
Katsura Taro met in Japan. The
meeting
concluded
the
Taft-Katsura Agreement which
acknowledged Japanese rule
over Korea, and American control
over the Philippines. Despite the
agreement,
tensions
still
escalated following Japanese
actions in northeast China and
immigration to the US.
Secretary of War William Howard Taft and
Prime Minister of Japan Count Taro
In 1894, a US-Japanese treaty was
signed which guaranteed equal
rights of Japanese immigrants in
the United States. However, in
1906, Chinese and Japanese
students in San Francisco were
sent to segregated schools.
Japanese control over
Korea lasted until 1910,
while
American
occupation
of
the
Philippines lasted from
1898
(end
of
Spanish-American War)
until 1946 (a year after
the end of the Second
World War). Between
1941 and 1945, the
Philippines
were
occupied
by
the
Japanese.
22
In 1905, Japan forced China to give up its ownership of the South Manchurian Railway. This
act concerned the US over its free enterprise with China. Between 1907 and 1908, the US and
Japan were engaged in exchanges of notes, which became known as the Gentlemen’s
Agreement, that agreed to withdraw the San Francisco Board of Education measure. In return,
the Japanese government would restrict immigration of labourers to the US.
In 1908, another agreement was concluded by the US and Japan. Negotiated by Secretary of
State Elihu Root and Japanese Ambassador Takahira Kogoro, the agreement stipulated the
following:
●
●
●
●
●
Japanese recognition of US territorial
possessions in the Pacific
Limitation of immigration to the US
US Open Door policy in China
Redirection of Japanese emigrants to
Manchuria
US recognition of Japanese control of
Taiwan, the Pescadores and interest in
Manchuria
Drawing depicting the proponents of the Open Door policy
(the United States, Great Britain and Japan) pitted against
those opposed to it (Russia, Germany and France), 1898
Japanese participation in the First World War
23
An ally since 1902, Britain officially asked Japan for help in defeating the Imperial German Navy
positioned in Chinese waters. After Germany’s failure to respond to the Japanese ultimatum,
Japan, in the name of Emperor Taishō, officially declared war on Germany on 23 August 1914.
WWI Alliances
ENTENTE POWERS
CENTRAL POWERS
In 1914, Japan joined the First World War in an alliance with the
Entente Powers (Britain, France, Italy and Russia). Following
Japanese declaration of war on Germany, Austria-Hungary became
an enemy as well when they refused to withdraw cruiser SMS
Kaiserin Elisabeth from Qingdao. By September, Japanese forces
landed in Shandong province of China and captured German
settlement at Qingdao. They soon seized control over the German
island colonies of Mariana, Caroline and Marshall Islands. Between
October and December 1914, Japanese troops were sent to
Petrograd, Paris and Southampton. On 15 January 1915, Japan
presented the 21 Demands to Chinese President Yuan Shikai.
24
21 Demands
On 8 January 1915, the Japanese Empire under Prime Minister Okuma Shigenobu presented a
set of demands to the Chinese government.
The initial list of Japanese secret demands was
drafted by PM Shigenobu and Foreign Minister
Katō Takaaki and reviewed by genrō and Emperor
Taishō. It was divided into five groups:
1
2
The Qing Dynasty was overthrown by
the
Xinhai
Revolution
which
established the new Republic of China
in 1911.
Group 1 (four demands) Confirmation of Japanese seizure of German operations in
Shandong Province. It also expanded Japanese economic influence, particularly over
railways in the province.
Group 2 (seven demands) Japanese extension of leasehold of the South Manchuria
Railway Zone for 99 years. This included economic influence in southern Manchuria
and eastern Inner Mongolia. Politically, it also set Inner Mongolia as a strategic buffer
zone against Russia’s interest over Korea.
3
4
5
Group 3 (two demands)
Japanese acquisition of mining
and metallurgical complex in
Han-Ye-Ping in central China.
On 26 April 1915, upon China’s refusal, Japan revised
the proposal. Japan deleted Group 5 and reduced the
demand to 13. On 25 May 1915, a final treaty was
signed between Japan and China. In addition to
Group
4
(one
demand) Japanese encroachment over Manchuria, Mongolia
Prohibited
China
from and Shandong, the United States expressed its
providing any further coastal concern over Chinese sovereignty and the initial Open
concessions to foreign powers. Door Policy. Despite being a close ally of Japan,
Britain also saw the demands as an act of bullying
and establishment of Japanese protectorate over
Group 5 (seven demands) China.
Hiring of Japanese advisers on
China’s finance and police This appeasement policy was viewed by the Chinese
force. Building of three major as a terrible shame or qichi daru.
railways, Buddhist temples and
schools in China. Total control
of Fujian.
25
26
After Japanese success over the 21 Demands, Germany’s negotiation efforts with Japan
throughout 1915 and 1916 failed. In response to German attempts to negotiate, Russia and
Japan signed an agreement on 3 July 1916, which prohibited both empires from dealing
separate peace treaties with Germany.
By 1 February 1917, the British government agreed to Japanese unrestricted submarine warfare
against German possessions in the South Pacific and Shandong Province. Under PM Terauchi
Masatake, Japan sent cruisers to Cape Town, Malta, the eastern Adriatic and Aegean Sea.
Following American participation in the
war on 6 April 1917, Japan and the US
signed the Lansing-Ishii Agreement of
2 November 1917, which secured the
Open Door Policy in China. In the
succeeding years, the agreement was
proven to be ironic with Japanese
special interests over China. It was
abrogated in April 1923 and was
replaced with the Nine Power Treaty.
Viscount Ishii Kikujirō,
Japanese special envoy, with
United States Secretary of
State Robert Lansing in
Washington, DC, in 1917
Pre-dreadnought HIJMS Aki
27
The Siberian Expedition
Following the Bolshevik Revolution in Russia, the United States and Japan sent troops to Siberia
in 1918. Under Admiral Alexander Kolchak, Japanese and American armies came to the aid of
the White army against the Red army.
The Siberian Expedition or intervention lasted until
1922. On 12 January 1918, the first Japanese troops
arrived in Vladivostok. By mid-1918, Japanese PM
Terauchi agreed to send 12,000 troops to Siberia, all
under their command and not from the international
coalition.
When the Bolshevik Revolution
succeeded, Vladimir Lenin ruled
Russia. In 1918, the Russian Civil War
between the Reds (Bolshevik) and
Whites (Royalists supported by the
Allies) broke out.
Under the command of General Kikuzo Otani, Japan deployed
about 70,000 troops. Within months, the Japanese forces were
able to penetrate Vladivostok, Khabarovsk, Nikolayevsk On-Amur
and Chita. After Allied withdrawal in 1920, Japanese troops stayed
and supported the regime of Ataman Semenov until its collapse in
1922. The formal Japanese withdrawal was signed on 15 May
1925.
Japanese soldiers in Siberia
The Treaty of Versailles
28
The Treaty of Versailles, signed on 28 June 1919, brought an end
to World War I. It granted the right to self-determination to the
nations, and demanded war reparations from the defeated forces.
The peace treaty was negotiated by key players Great Britain, the
United States, France and Italy.
Despite receiving German possessions and territories, Pacific
island groups and an established hold in China, Japan felt like it
was given unequal treatment by the peace treaty. Japan expected
a larger share for neutralising German naval troops in the Pacific
and sending their own naval forces. Japan sensed the lack of racial
equality in the Treaty of Versailles. Japan proposed to include a
clause in the treaty guaranteeing equality regardless of race, but it
ultimately was not approved despite garnering majority support. As
chairman of the League of Nations, US President Woodrow Wilson
imposed unanimity ruling.
Placard for The Evening News announcing
the signing of the Treaty of Versailles
29
As a replacement for the racial Equality
Proposal, Wilson supported Japan’s
demand to keep war-acquired territories
such as Shandong. Japan’s proposal was
supported by France, Italy and Greece and
disapproved by Britain, Australia and the
US. Japan’s dissatisfaction with its
post-World War I spoils redirected its
interests toward territorial expansion and
political dominance in the Pacific. While
this ‘dissatisfaction’ could be viewed as
relative, with nations naturally wanting
more sizeable claims and shares than
what they view as unsatisfactory, Japan’s
experience with the Treaty of Versailles
set the tone for its international affairs in
the years that followed.
Headline about banning Japanese immigration in the US
Historians suggest that opposition on the racial
equality clause was due to migration. In the late 19th
century, Japanese immigration in the US became a
concern. Under the 1907 Gentlemen’s Agreement,
Japan agreed to control their migrants. By 1913,
anti-Japanese sentiment in some states continued
to grow. After Wilson’s death, President Calvin
Coolidge totally banned Japanese immigration
through the Johnson-Reed Act.
30
The Washington Conference
Also known as the Washington Naval Conference, the International Conference on Naval
Limitation was attended by the United States, Britain, Japan and France. The Four-Power Pact
was signed on 13 December 1921, which stipulated all signatories respect for another’s rights
regarding the Pacific islands and East Asia.
In addition to the US, Britain, Japan and France, the
conference, which ended on 6 February 1922, was
attended by representatives from China, Italy, Belgium,
Portugal and the Netherlands. The conference’s
primary aims were the following:
●
●
●
●
Restraint of Japanese naval expansion in the West
Pacific
Limit on Japanese expansion per se
Abrogation of Anglo-Japanese alliance
Continuation of the Open Door Policy in China
Washington Conference 1921-1922
FIVE - POWER TREATY
Signed by the US, Britain,
Japan, France and Italy,
the Five-Power Treaty set a
ratio of warship tonnage
as part of the naval
disarmament programme.
It allowed the US and
Britain
500,000
tons,
Japan 300,000 tons and
Italy and France 175,000
tons
each.
Moreover,
building of capital ships
was
prohibited,
while
scrapping of older ships
was advised.
Despite controlling the tonnage of navy warships, the treaty left31
other classes of ships unrestricted. As a result, new types of
cruiser ships were built.
FOUR - POWER TREATY
In the event of future tensions in East Asia, the US, Britain, Japan
and France signed the Four-Power Treaty. This replaced the 1902
Anglo-Japanese Treaty which lifted both countries’ obligation to
one another in times of conflict.
NINE - POWER TREATY
The Nine-Power Treaty was the final multilateral agreement signed
at the Washington Conference. The treaty was set to respect
China’s territorial integrity, though it recognised Japanese control
of Manchuria. China also agreed not to discriminate any
signatories in doing business there.
32
In addition to the multilateral agreement, a number of bilateral treaties were also signed during
the conference. The outcomes included the following:
●
●
●
●
Shandong Treaty between
Japan and China. This
returned the province to
China.
Japan withdraw its troops
from Siberia.
Japan agreed to share equal
access to cable and radio
facilities on the island of Yap.
The United States secured the
continuation of the Open Door
Policy with China and the
occupation of the Philippines.
Future Japanese expansion in the Pacific
33
Glossary of Terms
SPLENDID
ISOLATION
A
British
diplomatic policy
in
the
19th
century
which
permanent
alliances
practised
between
1895
and 1902. The
Anglo-Japanese
alliance
broke
this policy.
IMPERIALISM
SINO-JAPANESE
WAR
RUSSO-JAPANESE
WAR
21 DEMANDS
An
act
extending
power
dominion
direct
territorial
invasion
acquisition.
A
military
conflict
between
China
and
Japan
in
1894-95 over
the control of
Korea.
A
military
conflict
between the
imperial
powers
of
Russia
and
Japan
over
the control of
Manchuria
and security
of
Japanese-con
trolled Korea.
The initial list
of Japanese
secret
demands to
China. It was
reduced
to
13 before it
was signed
by
the
Chinese
government.
of
or
by
or
TREATY OF
VERSAILLES
The Treaty of
Versailles,
signed on 28
June 1919,
brought
an
end to World
War I.
34
Assessment 1
Given your analysis of the source and
understanding of the historical context,
answer the questions provided.
1.How
significant
was
the
1902
Anglo-Japanese
Agreement
to
both
signatories?
2.Why did this agreement later lead to
US-Japanese tensions?
3. How did the agreement end?
Political cartoon of the
Anglo-Japanese
Alliance printed in
Punch magazine
SOURCE A
35
Assessment 2
How significant are Sources B
and C in studying the nature of
the Treaty of Versailles and its
impact on Japan?
Using your own knowledge of
the historical context, how did
this peacekeeping document
affect Japanese relations with
the United States?
"National aspirations must be respected; peoples may now be
dominated and governed only by their own consent.
'Self-determination' is not a mere phrase. It is an imperative
principle of actions which statesmen will henceforth ignore at
their peril."
- 1919 Treaty of Versailles
SOURCE B
"The equality of nations being a basic principle of the League
of Nations, the High Contracting Parties agree to accord as
soon as possible to all alien nationals of states, members of
the League, equal and just treatment in every respect making
no distinction, either in law or in fact, on account of their race
or nationality."
- Japanese proposal at Versailles, 1919 SOURCE C
36
Assessment 3
Given your understanding and
analysis of the source, answer
the questions provided.
1. What is the message of
the source?
2. Who are the figures
presented?
3. What was the impact of
the Russo-Japanese War
on both empires?
SOURCE D
37
Assessment 4
To what extent do you agree with the effectiveness of the Anglo-Japanese War
(SOURCE A) for the First World War? You may expand your discussion using your
answers in Assessment 1 and additional research about the alliance.
38
Learning Synthesis
Provide a synthesis of what you learnt in this module by answering the questions below.
QUESTIONS
1. What were the reasons behind Japanese imperialism?
2. How significant was the impact of the Meiji Restoration on Japanese expansionism and
military capability?
3. How did the Sino-Japanese and Russo-Japanese Wars position Japan as a world power?
4. How significant was the Anglo-Japanese alliance to both countries?
5. What were the events which led to tensions between Japan and the United States?
6. Describe the Sino-Japanese relations before and after the First World War.
7. How did Japan respond to the Treaty of Versailles?
8. How significant was the Washington Conference to international naval disarmament
attempts?