STANDARD 5 AGRICULTURE - Growing of crops and rearing of animals/livestock for the benefit of human beings. BRANCHES OF AGRICULTURE - Animal Science Agronomy Agricultural Economics Agricultural Engineering Soil Science Horticulture THREE SYSTEMS OF AGRICULTURE 1. Arable farming- cultivation of crops 2. Pastoral farming- growing of livestock/ animals 3. Mixed farming- production of both crops and animals/ livestock IMPORTANCE OF AGRICULTURE IN BOTSWANA - It provides food It provides employment It provides income It provides raw materials It provides foreign exchange IMPACT OF HIV/AIDS ON PRODUCTIVITY When able bodied people are mostly affected by HIV/ AIDS; - It reduces the labour force and production. Many children and elderly people are left behind hence this leaves the agricultural activities falling. More time is taken in caring for the sick and attending to funerals than attending to agricultural activities. HIV/ AIDS medication are costly and as such the money that could have been spent in agriculture is used for buying HIV/ AIDS medication. 1 PROBLEMS FACED BY FARMERS PROBLEM SOLUTION Operating costs are high e.g. fuel, salaries for Forming co-operatives workers Bad roads to markets Improving local infrastructure Lack of skilled labour LEA and CEDA to intensify training and mentoring of farmers Stiff competition from neighbouring countries Improve marketing and storage facilities for farmers Lack of perennial rivers and reliable rainfall Build more to capture water during rainy season Incidence of pests and diseases Subsidized prices on chemicals for pests. Extreme temperatures Use of net shading and growing drought resistant crops GOV’T PROGRAMMES AIMED AT ASSISITING FARMERS The government programmes include; - The Citizen Entrepreneurial Development Agency (CEDA) The Young Farmer’s Fund (YFF) The National Master Plan for Arable Agriculture and Dairy Development (NAMPAAD) The Integrated Support Programme for Arable Agriculture Development (ISPAAD) The Local Enterprise Authority (LEA) CAREER OPPORTUNITIES a. Agricultural technical services- they do researches in the field of agriculture e.g agriculture officers or research officers b. Agricultural teaching- they teach students about how to raise animals and grow crops. c. Veterinary services- they are trained to treat animal diseases and injuries. d. Range management- they look after rangeland to provide a sustained production of good quality forage for livestock and wildlife. ENTRY REQUIREMENTS TO AGRICULTURAL INSTITUTIONS CAREER OPPORTUNITY ENTRY REQUIREMENT technical BGCSE Agricultural services Agricultural teaching Veterinary services Range management BGCSE BGCSE JC/ PSLE 2 FARM TOOLS TOOLS: It is small, simple device or object that is used by a person to perform his/ her work more easily. COMMON FARM TOOLS TOOL Handfork Trowel Hoe Spade Watering can Rake USES For cultivation of soil and harvesting root crops Transplanting seedlings Digging the soil, breaking lumps and weeding Weeding, clearing land and digging the soil Splashing water around the plants Clearing and collecting rubbish and leveling the soil IMPLEMENTS: are usually larger and heavier than tools. They need an animal or tractor to do some work e.g. ploughs, harrows, cultivators, weeders and planters. PROPER CARE AND STORAGE OF FARM TOOLS CARING FOR TOOLS, IMPLEMENTS - Clean the tools before they are stored Oil machines and implements regularly to avoid rusting and corrosion Threaded parts of implements and machines should be greased to allow nuts to move easily Check for oil, water and fuel levels regularly in tractors Cover farm implements to be painted regularly to help prevent rust STORING TOOLS, IMPLEMENTS - Tools, implements and machines to be stored properly to avoid accidents Blades of rakes, spades, digging fork, etc to be stored facing down or facing to the wall Tools like sickles and secateurs should always be closed when they are stored Tools to be used for the purpose for which they are designed 3 PROBLEMS CAUSED BY THE USE OF TOOLS, IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINES ON THE ENVIRONMENT PROBLEM Machines pollute the air and soil Machines are heavy and they compact the soil leading to problem of infiltration Farm implements damage the soil structure SOLUTION Service the machines regularly Till the soil to loosen it Use farm implements when the soil is not too dry and too wet Farm implements destroy plants that grows Keep a border of natural vegetation around naturally in the area ploughed field Farm implements carry weeds and diseases Clean farm implements thoroughly before from one farm to the other using them in a new place Farm implements destroy animals that live Avoid burrows and nests of soil animals under the soil TYPES OF BIOTECHNOLOGY Traditional Biotechnology- these are early forms of using living organisms to produce new commodities or modify existing ones. Modern Biotechnology- this is the intentionally changing of genes, cells or living tissues in a predictable manner to come up with new tissue or to generate changes in the genetic makeup of an organism. EFFECTS OF BIOTECHNOLOGY - - They make production of food supply safer for consumers and the environment and less expensive to produce. It produces crops which are less vulnerable to insects, diseases and weeds. They can help to develop crops than can be used to create new materials or energy sources, provide more nutrients, treat diseases or serve as vaccines to prevent diseases. There is potential for genes to move from genetically engineered crops into wild plants. Pests may eventually develop resistance to pest resistant crops They may be a substantial reductions in traditional pesticide use and improved conservation practices USING BIOTECHNOLOGY PROCESS TO PRODUCE PRODUCTS - Malt ( for use in traditional beer making) Cutting stems to produce an individual tree Spraying chemicals on crops Can you think of any other traditional way of producing products? 4 WEATHERING PROCESSES WEATHERING- this is the breaking down of rocks into smaller pieces to form soil. Types of weathering 1. Physical weathering- the breaking down of rocks into smaller pieces without changing the chemical composition of the rock. No change in chemical composition means that there is no change in colour of the original rock. Agents of physical weathering; temperature, water and wind. a. Temperature- when temperature changes, there two processes taking place thus exfoliation and freeze- thaw. During the day the temperatures are high causing the rock to heat up and expand. When temperatures drop at night, the rocks cool and crack. This continuous heating and cooling overtime, causes the rock to break into smaller pieces. b. Water and wind- flowing water across the land carries with itself materials like stones and sand with it. These materials scrape and knock against any hard rocks that the water flows over causing small pieces to break off and overtime soil particles are formed. This also happens when the wind is blowing. 2. Chemical weathering- this is the breaking down of rocks into smaller pieces with a change in chemical composition of the rock. Change in chemical composition means that there is change in colour of the original rock. 5 Agents of chemical weathering; air [oxygen and carbon dioxide] and water. a. Oxidation- this when metal combines with oxygen to form an oxide. Metals in the rock combine with oxygen to form oxides. Red-coloured rocks contain iron oxides [metal] which have been formed by the process of oxidation. b. Carbonation- occurs in limestone. Carbonation is formed when rainwater dissolves the carbon dioxide in air to form a weak acid called carbonic acid. Rainwater + carbon dioxide = Carbonic acid. When rain, containing carbonic acid falls on the rock with a lot of limestone, it will react with limestone to form calcium carbonate. Carbonic acid + limestone = Calcium carbonate All the reaction above causes the rock to be soft and breaks easily. 6 3. Biological weathering- this is the breaking down of rocks through the activities of living organisms. Agents of Biological weathering; plants, animals and human activities. a. Plants- trees with their roots grow in between the cracks of rocks, causing the rock to widen up and break down the rocks. b. Animals- animals which burrow through soil like earthworms, termites, mole rat and yellow mongoose can help form soil. c. Human activities like mining, cultivation, construction of buildings, railways and roads reduce the size of rocks by breaking them up to smaller pieces. 7 SOIL Soil is a medium on which plants grow. It contains: - Rock particles Organic matter Living organisms Air Water Importance of Soil - Provides crops with nutrients Provides plants with water A basis of agricultural production Supports (anchors) plants so as to grow upright and firmly to the ground A habitat (home) for small helpful micro organisms Use for construction work SOIL CONSTITUENTS Humus 5% Water 25% Mineral Particles 45% Air 25% Soil constituents- These are substances that make up soil. 1. Rock particles or mineral matter This is a non-living matter that makes up 45% of the soil volume. The size of the soil particles varies from a diameter of 2mm in gravel to less than 0.002mm in clay soil. 2. Organic matter About 5% of the soil volume consists of organic matter made up of decomposing plants and animal and also living organisms. Soils with dark brown colour indicate that it contains a lot of humus. 8 3. Air This occupies the space between the soil particles. It is made up of 25% soil volume. Air mainly consists of nitrogen, oxygen and carbon dioxide as well as other small gases. Soils with large particles have more air spaces compared to soils with smaller particles. 4. Water Water occupies the space between rock particles making up 25% of soil volume. After heavy rains there will be more water in the soil, while after a dry period there will be much less. SOIL FERTILITY This is the ability of the soil to supply plants with the necessary nutrients (food) for their healthy growth and development. WAYS OF INCREASING SOIL FERTILITY - Soil can therefore be maintained or improved through; Adding fertilisers Practicing crop rotation Liming Mulching Controlling weeds Improving aeration of the soil through cultivation FERTILISERS These are substances that are added to the soil or sprayed on leaves to provide nutrients. ORGANIC AND INORGANIC FERTILIZERS Organic fertilizers are decomposed animal and plant remains. Animal remains include; farm yard manure; kraal manure, chicken manure, pig manure, etc. plant remains include; green and compost. Advantages of organic fertilizers - Easily available and cheap Provide most nutrients needed by plants Prevents leaching from soil Improve soil structure Improve aeration and water-holding capacity of the soil Activates microbes in the soil 9 Disadvantages of organic fertilizers - Require too much labour to collect and apply Need to be applied in large amounts Less concentrated compared to inorganic Take long to dissolve and be ready for use. Inorganic fertilizers (other names are artificial or chemical or commercial fertilizers) are human-made in factories. Advantages of inorganic fertilizers 1. 2. 3. 4. Save time and labour as they are not collected Can be added in correct amounts needed a particular crop Easy to handle and store Quick to dissolve and ready for use plants Disadvantages of inorganic fertilizers 1. Very expensive to buy 2. Require skilled labour to apply 3. They do not improve soil properties like soil structure, water-holding capacity, aeration and activity of microbes. FERTILISER APPPLICATION Basal dressing - This is the application of fertilizer before or at the time of sowing. Top dressing - This is the application of fertilizer after seedlings have emerged. METHODS OF FERTILIZER APPLICATION 1. Broadcasting- fertilizer is spread on the ground by hand or using a mechanical fertilizer spreader. 2. Banding – this is when fertilizer is added to the soil very close to the plant, in furrows along one or both sides of a row of plants or seeds. 3. Foliar application – this is applying soluble fertilizers in solution form to the leaves of plants. 4. Drilling- both seeds and fertiliser are placed in a shallow furrow or drill. 5. Side dressing- fertiliser applied along a row after the plants have emerged above the soil. 10 CROP HUSBANDRY GERMINATION- The process of an embryo within a seed begins to develop into a plant. REQUIREMENTS NEEDED FOR SEED GERMINATION 1. Water- it is needed for dissolving substances in the seed called enzymes which are needed for growth of the embryo. 2. Temperature- optimum or best possible temperature is needed to have good germination. Each type of plant seed has a certain temperature range for it to germinate. 3. Oxygen- for respiration to take place oxygen is needed and this will give the seed energy for germination processes. 4. Seed viability- it is the ability of a seed to germinate and develop into a plant. Seed viability is affected by age of seed, damage by either pests or diseases and the amount of food available in the cotyledons and endosperm. 5. Light- though most crops do not require light for germination, there is some which will not germinate in the absence of light. PLANT GROWTH REQUIREMENTS 1. Water- water occupies 80-90% of the plant mass. It is a solvent dissolving plant nutrients. It is also required for making plant food through the process of photosynthesis. Water transports dissolved food substances made in the leaves during photosynthesis. The process is called translocation. It also helps in cooling the leaves by allowing water vapour and air to move in and out the leaf through stomata. 2. Sunlight- plants use sunlight to make its own food through the process of photosynthesis. Water + Carbon dioxide 𝑠𝑢𝑛𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑏𝑦 𝑐ℎ𝑙𝑜𝑟𝑜𝑝ℎ𝑦𝑙 Carbohydrates + Oxygen 3. Air- it is a mixture of gases. Oxygen is used during respiration. Respiration is the breaking down of stored carbohydrates using oxygen to release Carbon dioxide. Carbohydrates + Oxygen Carbon dioxide + water + energy The carbon dioxide released during respiration is used in photosynthesis or released into the air. 4. Nutrient elements- although plants are able to make their own food, there is need for plants to get nutrients from the soil. Lack of nutrient element will result in deficiency disease. Farmers should make it a point that plants have correct amounts of the different nutrient elements in the soil. 5. Temperature- plants cannot grow below a certain temperature. This is called minimum temperature. Plants can also stop growing above a certain temperature and this is maximum temperature. 11 VEGETABLE CROPS IMPORTANCE OF VEGETABLES - Source of vitamins and fibre e.g vit A, B (complex), C, E, K. Provide proteins Provide oil Source of employment (income) Source of food Provide green feed for livestock Provide raw- materials for industries Provide green manure NUTRITIONAL VALUE OF VEGETABLES - Source of vitamins (A, B-Complex &C, E,K) and fibre Provide proteins Provide oils IMPORTANCE OF VEGETABLES TO HIV/AIDS INFECTED PEOPLE - Contain proteins that are necessary for growth and repairing worn out tissues Rich in carbohydrates which give us energy Vitamins and minerals are required by the body to regulate its metabolic functions. Essential for maintaining proper fluid balance, muscle function and heart muscle function. Helps with digestion and excretion 12 EXOTIC VEGETABLES (Those that are obtained from outside the country) - Spinach Potatoes Onions Carrot Cabbage Rape Choumoulier INDIGENEOUS VEGETABLES (Those that are native/local to the given country) - Amarathus (thepe) Okra (Delele Rothwe Morogo wa dinawa ADVANTAGES OF INDIGENEOUS VEGETABLES - Readily available and cheap Can grow as rain-fed crops, and they are tolerant to drought Resistant to most pests Most are harvested over a long period of time DISADVANTAGES OF INDIGENEOUS VEGETABLES - They can grow well in certain areas They are not easily propagated or grown. ADVANTAGES OF EXOTIC VEGETABLES - Grow well throughout the year with adequate watering Most will survive mild frost DISADVANTAGES OF EXOTIC VEGETABLES - Need extra water even during rainy season Easily attacked by numerous pests Need constant spraying using chemicals to avoid attack by pests and diseases Most are harvested once 13 PROBLEMS FACED BY VEGETABLE GROWERS AND THEIR SOLUTIONS PROBLEM SOLUTION Operating costs are high e.g. fuel, salaries for Forming co-operatives workers Bad roads to markets Improving local infrastructure Lack of skilled labour LEA and CEDA to intensify training and mentoring of farmers Stiff competition from neighbouring countries Improve marketing and storage facilities for farmers Lack of perennial rivers and reliable rainfall Build more to capture water during rainy season Incidence of pests and diseases Subsidised prices on chemicals for pests. Extreme temperatures Use of net shading and growing drought resistant crops Bulkiness and perishability of the products Refridgerate to increases shelf life FACTORS TO CONSIDER WHEN SELECTING A GARDEN SITE 1. Slope of the land Flat or gentle sloping land is most suitable or ideal. 2. Soil type Deep fertile loam soils are often most suitable for crop production than clay or sandy soils. 3. Sources of water supply Water is essential for growing crops. Although most crops get water from the rainfall, this may not be enough and a reliable source of water for irrigation is needed e.g. perennial rivers and boreholes. 4. Shade Large trees shade the crops most of the day. But it should be noted that large trees cause crops not get enough sunshine and this affects their growth rate. 5. Shelter Protect crops from effects of strong winds by growing windbreaks around the field or garden. Winds break down crops, increase evaporation and erode soil. 6. Nearness to markets Anywhere a buyer and seller meet to exchange goods. Having markets near to where production is taking place help fruits and vegetables not to lose quality or go bad. 14 METHODS OF PLANTING • Direct sowing- planting seeds directly into the soil, examples drilling, broadcasting • Indirect sowing- planting seeds in nurseries or seed trays and then transplant them to more permanent plots. SPACING /SEED RATE A student was asked to sow spinach seedlings in her plot measuring 2m x 1m at the rate of 60cm between rows and 20cm between the plants. Calculate the number of rows and number of seedlings in each row and the total population in the plot. DEPTH OF SOWING The depth of sowing is determined by calculating 3-5 times the diameter of each given seed. PRACTICAL SOWING SPINACH VEGETABLE Take the pupils through; a. pre-sowing activities b. Sowing activities c. Post sowing activities FARM CHEMICALS PESTICIDE- a chemical that is used to kill animals or insects that damage plants or crops. HERBICIDE- a substance or preparation for killing plants, especially weeds. PRECAUTION TAKEN WHEN HANDLING FARM CHEMICALS • Ensure anyone using agricultural chemicals is suitably trained to use both the chemical and any equipment required for application. • Only mix the quantity of chemical required for the task at hand. • Follow the manufacturer’s instructions on the label. • Always wear recommended protective clothing such as chemical-resistant gloves, overalls, goggles and appropriate facemasks or respirator. • Avoid exposing non-target animals or plants. • Triple rinse equipment after chemical application and dispose of the rinse water appropriately. 15 PRECAUTION TAKEN WHEN STORING FARM CHEMICALS • Always follow the manufacturer’s instructions for proper storage. • Keep chemicals in their original containers and do not pour into smaller bottles. • Do not remove labels from containers. • Store chemicals in a locked, well-ventilated shed with floors that will contain spills. • Store chemicals and appropriate personal protective equipment in different locations. • Do not store liquid chemicals above solids. • Separate different classes of chemicals to prevent reactions. • Store animal feeds, seeds and fertilisers separately from other chemicals. • Keep a record of the chemicals you buy, store and use. DANGERS OF USING FARM CHEMICALS The effects of chemical exposure depend on the type of chemical and the degree of exposure. If chemicals are swallowed, absorbed through the skin or inhaled as a mist, vapour or dust, some of the immediate effects can include: • poisoning • headache • nausea • vomiting • diarrhoea • pinpoint pupils • dizziness • fine muscle twitching • skin rashes and irritation • chemical burns LONG TERM SIDE EFFECTS OF USING FARM CHEMICALS • increased risk of some cancers • birth defects 16 • diseases of the lungs, liver or kidneys • nervous system disorders 17 STANDARD 6 SOIL PROFILE - This is the vertical arrangement of soil layers as seen in a dug hole. Soil profile differs from one area to another in the following ways; 1. 2. 3. 4. - Soil depth Number of horizons/ layers Characteristics of soil horizons/ layers A horizon; Topsoil The most fertile layer where plants roots are found Dark in colour as it contains a lot of humus and nutrients Valuable for farmers because of its good fertility and soil structure B horizon; Subsoil Less fertile than topsoil Lighter in colour as it has less organic matter and nutrients Fewer micro- organisms in subsoil Less air spaces Less suitable for plant growth as roots cannot penetrate it C horizon; Partly weathered materials Composed of a mixture of partly weathered soil and large pieces of rock Continued weathering of materials will result I topsoil D horizon; Bedrock Base layer of the soil profile where all the layers above have been formed from. (it is the mother of all layers) Water accumulates in the bedrock to form underground pools called water table. This water can be used by trees that have deep roots. 18 SOIL TEXTURE - This is the size of rock particles found in the soil. It is the roughness (coarseness) or smoothness (fineness) of the soil particles as felt by the fingers. Types of soil structure - Coarse textured soils- these are soils which are well aerated and drains easily. Fine textured soils- these are soils which are poorly aerated and do not drain easily. Classification of soil textures Name of particle Gravel Sand Silt Clay rock Diameter in mm 2.0- 20 0.2-2.0 0.002- 0.2 Less than 0.002 Texture Coarse Coarse Fine Fine TYPES OF SOIL - Loam Sand Clay CHARACTERISTICS EACH SOIL TYPE LOAM SOIL - Moderately aerated Has medium sized particles Good water holding capacity Easily cultivated Have moderately sized particles Moderately drained soil Good for plant growth with moderate plant nutrients SAND SOIL - Well aerated Low water holding capacity Not a fertile soil Not good for growing crops Contain less humus Easily eroded Easily cultivated when too wet or too dry 19 - Has big sized soil particles CLAY SOIL - It is dark in colour signifying fertility It has a high water holding capacity Poorly aerated soil Not good for growing crops Not easily eroded Difficult to cultivate when too wet and too dry Has fine particles SUMMARY Particle size Aeration Erosion by wind/ water Water holding capacity Cultivation; wet and dry Workability Drainage Nutrients CLAY LOAM SAND EXPERIMENT: testing soil drainage in different types of soils. Apparatus - Beaker Measuring cylinder Funnel Filter paper Water Soil samples. Take soil samples,place in the filter and put inside the funnel over the measuring cylinder. Pour some 10ml water and leave to drain. The following day meaure the amount of water collected in the measuring cylinders. Make a conclusion, 20 CROP HUSBANDRY FIELD CROPS GROWN IN BOTSWANA FIELD CROPS - this are usually grown in large area of land called field (tshimo) Depend mainly on rainfall (rainfed) They are both food and non-food crops Examples; millet, lucerne, sorghum, maize, groundnuts, watermelons, etc IMPORTANCE OF FIELD CROPS - Source of income Source of food Source of industrial raw materials Source of livestock feed NUTRITIONAL VALUE - Source of proteins Source of carbohydrates IMPORTANCE OF EATING FIELD CROPS TO HIV/ AIDS INFECTED PEOPLE - Contain proteins that are necessary for growth and repairing worn out tissues Rich in carbohydrates which give us energy Vitamins and minerals are required by the body to regulate its metabolic functions. Essential for maintaining proper fluid balance, muscle function and heart muscle function. Helps with digestion and excretion 21 PROBLEMS FACED BY FIELD CROP GROWERS PROBLEM SOLUTION Operating costs are high e.g. fuel, salaries for Forming co-operatives workers Bad roads to markets Improving local infrastructure Lack of skilled labour LEA and CEDA to intensify training and mentoring of farmers Stiff competition from neighbouring countries Improve marketing and storage facilities for farmers Lack of perennial rivers and reliable rainfall Build more to capture water during rainy season Incidence of pests and diseases Subsidised prices on chemicals for pests. Extreme temperatures Use of net shading and growing drought resistant crops Bulkiness and perishability of the products Refridgerate to increases shelf life PRACTICALS- Growing field crops • Calculation of spacing and seed rate A farmer had a 1 ha field to grow maize at the spacing of 90cm between rows and 45cm between plants. Calculate the number of rows and plants. If each maize plant produced 2 cobs, and each cost P5.00 to sell, find income. If the farmer used 10 bags of fertiliser at a cost of P205.00 each and the used 2 bags of P12.5kg seeds that were bought at P25.00 each, calculate the profit. FIELD CROP MANAGEMENT PRACTICALS- Sorghum a. Moisture availability - Sorghum is not usually irrigated and depends on rainfall. - Farmers should make use of rainfall by; i. Planting early to make use of the rains ii. Mulching to reduce evaporation b. Weeds and weeds control Sorghum is usually attacked by the parasitic weed called witchweed (Molelwane or Matebele). Controlling the witchweed will be through; c. Weeding –pulling out the plant by a hand Trap- or catch-cropping- planting a crop which is easily attacked by witchweed. Crop rotation- rotating sorghum with millet or sunflower. Pests and pests control Once we know the history of pest and what type of damage it causes, it will be easier to control it, e.g. aphids, stalkborer, etc. 22 d. Diseases and diseases control Prevention and control of smut (phori), rust, sooty stripe etc e. Harvesting - Harvested when it is fully matured. - Signs of maturity in sorghum are; ➢ Grains harden and dry out ➢ Grains changes colour depending on the variety ➢ Leaves and stems begin to dry out and turn yellow- brown in colour. ➢ During harvesting; cut out sorghum heads with a knife and use a combine harvester under commercial farms. f. Storage - Store grains in sacks or metal tanks or by traditional storage e.g. letlole, sesigo, etc - Stored grains should be added 1% Malathion to control storage weevils. g. Marketing - Sell sorghum grains to Botswana Agricultural Marketing Board (BAMB), it can also be sold for cash to individuals or exchange for other goods. h. Processing of sorghum - It can be processed in milling industries to sorghum meal i. Production records The following activities can be recorded during growing of sorghum; - Time of sowing and emergence Fertilizer application time and type Application of chemicals Number of bags produced after harvesting and bags sold 23 FRUIT TREE PRODUCTION INDIGENEOUS FRUIT TREES- These are trees that are native (local) to the area or country. e.gmorula, raisin bush (moretlwa), snot apple tree (moruja), large sour plum tree (moretloga), wild medlar tree (mmilo), baobab tree (mowana), monkey orange tree (mogorogorwane), etc EXOTIC FRUIT TREES- These are trees that are imported from other countries and have been grown for some particular time, e.g. plum tree, apple tree, pear, orange, lemon, guava, grapes, etc. IMPORTANCE OF FRUITS AND FRUIT TREES 1. 2. - Nutritional value They contain large amounts of carbohydrates, proteins, vitamins and minerals They help in digestion as they contain fibre which is a laxative They add variety of colours, textures and tastes to our food They contain a lot of water as fresh and very little fat Economic importance Source of income Source of foreign exchange Source of raw materials Source of employment They increase the value of land especially areas which are hilly or stony which are not suitable for arable farming Dimensions of planting fruit trees 24 25 ANIMAL HUSBANDRY DOMESTICATED ANIMALS - Cattle Goat Sheep Pig Rabbit Chicken WILD ANIMALS - Gemsbok (Kukama) Springbok (Tshepe) Eland (Phofu) Buffalo (Nare) Red lechwee (Letswee) Kudu (Tholo) Advantages of protecting wild animals - They provide meat and hides, horns, hair, ivory and other products Tourism could develop in areas where there are game animals Development of tourism brings about an improvement in the infrastructure of the area Provision of services to tourists such hotels, tour guides, food and transport, creates jobs for local people and improves standard of living. Game animals eat a variety of grasses than cattle. They are more resistant to local diseases and pests. They cause less trampling and loosening of the soil than cattle. 26 Disadvantages - Slaughtering and processing of wild animals can be difficult to organise and expensive to carry out Marketing of meat and other products may be difficult as the meat is expensive. Poaching of wild animals may occur. DISEASES OF ANIMALS Signs of ill health- cattle/ goat/ sheep - Animal stands by itself and lags behind the herd when moved - Hair stands up, or is not smooth and shiny - Ears drooping, do not flick off flies or twitch - Muzzle dry and hot - No or poor appetite - No chewing the cud when at rest - Teeth grinding - Diarrhea - Drop in milk production COMMON DISEASES OF CATTLE - Foot and mouth disease - Heartwater - Rabies - Anthrax - Botulism - Contagious Bovine Pluropneumonia (CBPP) - Lumpy skin - Pulpy kidney 27 COMMON DISEASES OF POULTRY - Newcastle - Marek’s disease - Fowl pox - Coccidiosis GENERAL DISEASE PREVENTION AND CONTROL MEASURES i. Restrictions - Restrict importation of live animals and animal products from other countries - Restrict movement of animals within the country- dividing the country into different zones ii. Destruction of infected animals iii. Destruction of infected materials e.g. bones, hides etc iv. Disinfection of infected buildings, vehicles and utensils v. Controlling vectors and mechanical carriers - Controlling ticks - Washing hands and disinfecting instruments - Domestic animals from farm to farm, e.g. dogs carrying bones infected PARASITES OF ANIMALS INTERNAL PARASITES - Roundworms (nematodes) - Tapeworms - Liver flukes EXTERNAL PARASITES - Ticks - Tsetseflies - Mosquitoes - Fleas - Mites - lice METHODS OF CONTROLLING PARASITES - regular dipping of animals practising good hygiene avoid overcrowding of animals provision of good feed keep animals in dry pastures 28 USES OF; Cattle - Source of food Source of income Source of employment Provide useful products Chicken - Source of food Source of income Source of employment Provide useful products thus feathers used to stuff pillows Goats/ Sheep - Source of food Source of income Source of employment Provide useful products Easy to keep They hardy- withstand local conditions Multiply quickly Ostriches - Source of food Source of income Source of employment Provide useful products thus feathers used as feather dusters Rabbits - provide fur and skin needed for laboratory purposes kept as pets 29 BREEDS OF ANIMALS ANIMAL Beef cattle Dairy cattle Goat Sheep Broiler chicken Layer chicken BREED - Tswana - Brahman - Charolais - Afrikander - Bonsmara - Tuli - Hereford - Simmental - Fresian Jersey Brown Swiss Ayrshire Guernsey Tswana Boer Kalahari Red Toggenburg Saanen Anglo Nubian British Alpine Angora Tswana Blackhead Persian Dorper Merino Ile de France Damara Karakul Plymouth Cornish Game Light Sussex New Hampshire Rhode Island Red White leghorn Isa brown Hyline Black Australorp 30 STANDARD 7 SOIL SOIL STRUCTURE This is an arrangement of rock particles in the soil or the way that the particles hold together in the soil. It depends on the proportion of sand, silt and clay particles, organic matter and water in the soil. Types of soil structure 1. Single grain - Loose individual grains - No aggregates - Large air spaces Do you still remember which soil has the above properties? 31 2. Crumb - Small rounded aggregates (1-10mm) - Aggregates look like bread crumbs Do you still remember which soil has the above properties? 3. Platy - Large plate-shaped aggregates - Aggregates are closely packed with small air spaces between them. 4. Blocky 5. Prismatic 32 SOIL EROSION This is the removal of soil from one place to another. This is through wind and water. Types of soil erosion a. Water erosion Types of water erosion are: - Splash erosion Sheet erosion Rill erosion Gully erosion 33 b. Wind erosion Agents of soil - something that transport soil from one place to another. Causes of soil erosion – something that results in the soil erosion happening. AGENTS OF SOIL EROSION - Water - Wind WATER a. Running water – the flowing water becomes an agent when it flows fast and takes or carries soil as it moves down a steeply slope or valley. b. Ice- this is when glaciers move across the land and carry soil particles with them. c. Wave action- wave has a lot of energy and as it crashes on the land, they can erode the soil and rocks along the coast. WIND - Strong winds can pick up soil particles and blow them across the land. The action can form some sand dunes. CAUSES OF SOIL EROSION The causes expose the soil and make it loose so that it can easily be eroded away by the agents of soil erosion. a. Removal of vegetation - Removal of plants expose the soil to agents of erosion 34 b. Fire- bush fire destroys the vegetation and also soil organisms are killed. Without soil organisms, it takes a long time for vegetation to grow back. c. Overgrazing- this process removes vegetation. Large numbers of livestock eat all the vegetation leaving the soil bare and their hooves loosen the soil. These makes soil erosion to occur. d. Poor soil structure and texture- sandy soils are easily eroded than clay or loam soils. Single grain soils are more easily eroded than crumb soils. Effects of soil erosion - Removes top soils which more fertile - Make soils to be shallow and be less suitable for plants growth many nutrients will be eroded. - Soil is washed to rivers causing silting up of dams. - Causes ploughing to be more difficult especially when gullies are formed. Soil erosion control measures - Adding organic matter to the soil - Mulching - Afforestation (planting of trees) - Planting of windbreaks - Controlling the stocking rate (number of livestock per hectare) - Contour ploughing (ploughing across slopes) - Contour ridges (bunds) - ridges of soil made to hold the water back. 35 ANIMAL HUSBANDRY ANIMAL PRODUCTION Reasons for housing - Good environmental control as cattle is kept cool during hot weather and warm during cold weather. Control cattle against predators and thieves Prevents animals from going astray Improve control over disease and parasites because animals are under clean environment to live in. Facilitates management activities such as AI, dehorning, castration, vaccination, dipping and isolation of sick animals. Features of a good house- for named animal - Good ventilation The floor not slippery Material able to absorb heat Production management practices - Housing - Provision of water - Feeding and feeding types - Disbudding and dehorning - Identification of animals - Disease prevention and control PROBLEMS ASSOCIATED WITH A FARMER REARING CATTLE Problem Overstocking in communal grazing Difficulty in breeding Straying livestock Special skills needed in running a ranch Outbreak of diseases Cost of feed is high Solution Always keep the required number of animals Paddock grazing areas to separate males from females Fencing of the grazing areas Attend short courses of ranch management Avoid mixing animals with carriers of diseases like buffaloes Government to subsidize on feed costs 36 DISEASES OF CATTLE FOOT AND MOUTH DISEASE Cause: Virus Symptoms - Appearance of blisters on the tongue, dental pad and gums Blisters appear around the hooves (inter-digital space coronet) Temporary loss of appetite Saliva streams from the mouth Deaths in adult cattle are rare but it may cause death in calves because they have not fully developed immunity or resistance. Treatment - No known treatment Control and Prevention - Vaccinate animals regularly (Every 6 months) with FMD vaccine Movement of animals from infected area to one without should be restricted Quarantine animals before moved to other area to give time to detect any cause of disease Restrict importation of animal products from affected areas Slaughter and burn carcass of slaughtered animals HEART WATER Cause: Rickettsia Symptoms - Fever, loss of appetite and may die suddenly Animal looks dull, staggers and moves around in circles Animal show signs of nervousness and restlessness Animal may also experience breathing difficulties Animal press head against hard objects such as tree trunks, walls and poles Animal may fall down and paddle (kick) legs in the air and fail to get up Upon post mortem, there is a lot of fluid in the belly, sac around the heart, in the chest and in the wipe pipe. Treatment Use antibiotics like liquanycin, sulphadimidine nad terramycin. 37 Control and Prevention - Control ticks by dipping, spraying and removing by hand Regular vaccination to be carried out Keep animals away from previously affected Heart water areas. PARASITES OF CATTLE Parasites- organisms that grow, feed and live on or in other organisms. INTERNAL PARASITES - Roundworms (nematodes) - Tapeworms - Liver flukes EXTERNAL PARASITES - Ticks - Tsetseflies - Mosquitoes - Fleas - Mites - lice Internal parasite of beef cattle (lives in the inside body of a host) ROUNDWORMS Life- cycle of Roundworms Mature female roundworm lays eggs inside intestins In the intestine , the male and female roundworm mate and produces eggs after 2-4 weeks From the rumen or stomach the larva moves to intestines and develop fourth stage larva and then into an adult within 3-4 weeks Eggs hatch into first stage larva and released with dung to develop into second stage larva whilst in the dung After developing into third stage, infectious larva is picked together with grass and swallowed 38 Harm caused by the roundworm to cattle - Loss of appetite, weight, weakness and poor growth leading to less meat and milk. Diarrhoea leading to dehydration Feeds on blood causing anaemia (shortage of blood) Causes death Methods of control - Avoid overgrazing and overstocking Deworm cattle (using anthelmintics like piperazine and levamisole) before introducing them to new pastures. Separate young animals (those just been weaned) from older herd Keep cattle in dry pastures LIVER- FLUKES Lifecycle of liver-flukes Animal eats grass infested with larva Liver-fluke produces eggs in the bile duct in the liver Larva leaves snail and settles on grass Eggs passed out with dung larva attaches itself on the snail and reproduces while inside it Each egg hatches into mobile larva which swim around in water looking for water snail 39 Harm caused by liver-flukes to cattle - Causes diarrhoea and weight loss Causes damage to liver Sucks blood leading to anaemia Cattle become weak and unproductive Causes low fertility or reduced pregnancy rates Severe attacks lead to death. Methods of control - Keep cattle away from wet pastures; like swamps, marshy areas or near ponds drain wet areas to control snails as a way of cutting the life-cycle give drugs or medicines which can kill adult flukes, larvae and eggs External parasites of beef cattle (lives on the outside body of the host) 1. TICKS Adult female and male ticks mate while on the same host Eight-legged nymphs develop into adult ticks Six-legged larvae develop into eightlegged nymphs whilst on the same host Female drops to the ground after suckling blood and lays eggs Eggs hatch into six-legged larvae Harm caused by ticks to beef cattle - causes irritation and discomfort causes pain and wounds sucks blood causing anaemia damages teats and ears transmit diseases e.g. heart water, East Coast fever and red water Leads to death. Methods of controlling ticks Use acaricides when dipping, spraying and hand- dressing animals Remove by hand and destroy 40 - Controlled burning of veld to kill ticks - Practice rotational grazing to cut the life-cycle 2. MITES Life-cycle of mite Adult female and male mites mate whilst on the host 2nd stage nymph grows into an adult 1st stage nymph develops into 2nd stage nymph Female mite lays eggs. Eggs hatch into larvae Larva develops into 1st stage nymph Harm caused by mites - Causes irritation and itching Burrows under the skin causing inflammation or thickening of skin Cause diseases such as scab and mange Cattle attacked by mites are restless, eat less, lose weight or grow poorly Sucks blood leading to anaemia Methods of controlling cattle mites - Isolate animals with mites Regular dipping or spraying Practice good hygiene for animals kept in stalls Provide adequate feed for animals to stay in good health Regular inspection of animals for mites Avoid overcrowding animals 41 PROPER RECORD KEEPING 1. Production records- written or recorded information showing what the farm is producing. 2. Financial records- records showing expenses and income in a farm business. MARKETING OF ANIMAL AND ITS PRODUCTS - Sale through auction sale Sale to local butcheries Sale to agents Sale through marketing cooperatives Sale to speculators or those owning feedlots Sale to other farmers and sale by barter (exchange in kind) Direct sale to BMC 42
