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Understanding-the-Self
Understanding the Self (Eastern Samar State University)
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FIRST EDITION 2021
UNDERSTANDING THE SELF
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Table of Content
Unit 1 DEFINING
THE SELF: LOOKING THROUGH THE DIFFERENT
PERSPECTIVES
CHAPTER 1: Philosophy
1
CHAPTER 2: Sociology and Anthropology
8
CHAPTER 3: Psychology
16
CHAPTER 4: The Self in Eastern Thought
24
Unit 2 UNPACKING
THE SELF: DISCOVERING THE COMPONENTS OF
THE SELF
CHAPTER 1: The Physical and Sexual Self
28
CHAPTER 2: The Material Self
40
CHAPTER 3: The Spiritual Self
43
CHAPTER 4: The Political Self
48
CHAPTER 5: The Digital Self
52
Unit 3 MANAGING
AND CARING FOR THE SELF
CHAPTER 1: Learning to be a Better Student
57
CHAPTER 2: Setting Goals for Success
60
CHAPTER 3: Stress and Mental Health Care
62
References
66
Course Guide
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UNIT 1
DEFINING THE SELF: LOOKING THROUGH THE DIFFERENT PERSPECTIVES
CHAPTER 1: PHILOSOPHY
Introduction
Whenever someone asks the question ―Who are you?‖ we automatically answer with
our name, where we came from, or who our parents are. We attribute this idea of who we
are to the most obvious labels like our name, our accent, and our physical characteristics.
But notice how the perspective shifts when the question is replaced with ―Who am I?‖ It
forces us to go in deep, to ask the question to ourselves and find the answers ourselves as
well. To answer the most essential questions (which are often the most difficult to answer),
we also need to have the courage to confront whatever daunting thoughts we have in our
mind.
Understanding the Self will ask you to do that. It is in the hope that by studying the
different fields of the social sciences you will get a grasp on how you can answer the
existential questions of your being: Who am I? What is the essence of my being? What
makes me, Me?
Learning Outcomes
At the end of the chapter, you will be able to:
 Discuss how the self is represented in the philosophical perspective;
 Evaluate the applicability of the different philosopher‘s view of the self in your
own life; and
 Create your own philosophy of the self.
Lesson 1: What is Philosophy?
From the Greek words philos (meaning love) and sophia (meaning wisdom),
Philosophy seeks to answer the fundamental questions about existence, knowledge, truth,
morality, nature of man, and other aspects of life through the use of rational or logical
thinking (Alata et al., 2018). It provides a platform in which you can explore the depths of
your own insights. Although the ideas in philosophy are by nature ultimate, it does not offer
ultimate answers to the fundamental questions of existence. Instead, philosophy will help
you to open your mind, to ask and provide answers to your own questions.
Furthermore, you have probably heard people say that Philosophy is the mother of all
sciences. This is in part true as most of the sciences branched out from Philosophy.
However, Philosophy in itself is not a science. It provided the foundation for the
development of contemporary sources of knowledge but it does not utilize the scientific
method.
So how does Philosophy view the Self? The answer to this question will depend on
which school of thought will be utilized as a foundation to answering that question. It can be
seen as a part of a duality between the body and soul, a part of the cosmos, a mere
collection of sensations, or a separate entity that is a product of one‘s experience in the
environment. In this chapter, we will see how some of the great Philosophers viewed the
self. Your part at the end of the discussion is to identify which of the philosophies you were
able to relate and create your own philosophy of the Self.
Lesson 2: Ancient Philosophy
Ancient philosophy is philosophy in antiquity, or before the end of the Roman Empire.
It usually refers to ancient Greek philosophy. It can also encompass various other intellectual
traditions, such as Chinese philosophy, Indian philosophy, and Iranian philosophy. Ancient
philosophies are generally deeply rooted in religious traditions. Accordingly, ancient
philosophies have a comprehensive outlook as opposed to modern or contemporary
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philosophies, which tend to have more narrow methodologies and areas of focus (―Ancient
Philosophy,‖ n.d.).
2.1. Socrates and Plato: The Ancient Greek Philosophers
It is said that Philosophy originated in the ancient civilization of Greece.
While the earliest philosophers were mostly concerned about the composition of
the cosmos, Socrates and his student Plato were more concerned about the
nature of man. Socrates was known as the wondering philosopher who would
roam around public places, asking people the most intriguing questions.
Socrates did not claim that he know the answers to all the questions but believes
that he is wiser than most people because he admits that he doesn‘t know. He
held that ignorance stems from the assertion of knowing. Because of his
unconventional method, Socrates became very popular among the young
generation but was detested by the academicians. Eventually, he was accused
Socrates
Source:
https://owlcation.com/humanitie
s/The-Life-and-Times-of-theAncient-Greek-PhilosopherSocrates
of corrupting the minds of the youth and was forced to drink poison. It was
Plato
through his student Plato, who wrote most of Socrates‘ teachings that we are able
to get to know his idea of the Self (Morzinski, 2002).
Socrates believed that the self exists in two parts: one that is tangible,
mortal and constantly changing and one that is believed to be immortal. He also
dons the idea that man is innately good and that evilness stems from not knowing
the Self. If you know that you are ―good‖, it will follow that you will do your best to
avoid ―evil deed‖ because this is not part of your nature. But you may ask, how do
we know ourselves? Socrates proposed the method of introspection as a way to
know who we really are. Through introspection, we examine our actions, our Source:
thoughts, our perceptions. Once we get a grasp of how we process things, this https://www.popularmechani
cs.com/science/a33372667/e
will eventually lead to the knowledge of our own strengths and weaknesses, our arth-cubes-plato-theory/
capabilities and areas of improvement, as well as our way of doing things. Simply put,
Socrates believes that a person who is ―self-aware‖ can maximize his/her potential and use
that potential to do things that are true to his nature – which is good (―Socrates,‖ n.d.;
―Socrates,‖ 2018; ―The Common Good,‖ 2018).
Known as Socrates‘ greatest student, Plato also believes in the dual nature of man,
that is, the self is composed of body and soul (mind). In relation to this, Plato‘s Theory of
Forms asserts that everything that we see in the world of senses (physical world) existed
because of their existence in the world of ideas, where every single matter in the physical
world has a perfect form. Have you asked yourself, how did we know that a square should
be called a square? Where did the ―idea‖ of a square come from? According to Plato, all
―ideas‖ or knowledge existed even before we got our physical form – in the world of ideas.
When we were born, however, and our soul entered our physical body, most of what we
know was forgotten. This is because our soul which is ―perfect, infinite, and eternal‖
inhabited a body that is ―limited, flawed, and corruptible.‖ It is our goal, therefore, is to
rediscover the things that we have ―forgotten‖ through the process of self-awareness (De
Landazuri, 2015).
Plato believed that our soul is
divided into three parts: appetite,
will/spirit, and reason (Meinwald,
2020). Appetite refers to physical
urges such as hunger, thirst, and
sexual desire while the will includes
passion, aggression, and emotions
that we feel. Reason gives us the
faculty to make sound judgments,
make wise choices and understand
Source: https://www.gamerevolution.com/guides/72007-persona-5-a-soul-is-composed-ofappetite-spirit-and
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eternal truths. These three parts interact with each other either in agreement or in conflict.
The will/spirit can either work with reason so we can arrive at self-knowledge or it can be
pulled by appetite making us slaves of the materialistic pleasures of the world. These three
parts clearly play different roles but Plato emphasized that reason should rule to restore the
harmony in our mind. Therefore, achieving harmony through reason is the only way to know
ourselves.
2.2. St. Augustine: The Medieval Philosopher
The Medieval Ages is widely known as the Dark Ages. This
is a period in history when there were little advances in the field of
science. When the Greek civilization flourished and made history
in the advancement of the scientific realm, the medieval period
took history to an opposite direction. When the Roman Empire
fell, kingdoms went to the Church for protection and guidance.
This made the Catholic Church the most powerful element in the
European society. To unite people, the church used faith to
discourage people to think for themselves and instead told to trust Source:
the ways of the Church; literacy was limited to memorizing prayers https://probaway.wordpress.com/2013
/08/28/philosophers-squared-stand the doctrines of the Church; freedom of thought and education augustine-of-hippo/
was barred to favor those in the pedestal.
To combat free thinking and disobedience, the Church destroyed most of the writings
of the ancient civilization. The books of Plato and other Greek philosophers were banned
and anyone seen carrying forbidden books were severely punished. Indeed, the
development of society stood still during this period. With the way that the Church treated
people who displayed interest in the discourse of knowledge, it may be impossible to think
that philosophy and religion could ever be reconciled. One church leader however, proved
that philosophy can be used to understand God and religion can be integrated to the wisdom
of the ancient philosophers.
St. Augustine was a Catholic bishop who was exposed to the teachings of the
ancient Greek philosophers while he was studying to become a priest. The Catholic bishop
soon realized as he was reading that Plato‘s Theory of Forms could be the ―missing link‖ to
finally reconcile the dispute between faith and knowledge. Plato‘s belief in dualism (that is, a
human person has a body and a soul which are separate but are interdependent with each
other), was probably the door that opened for St. Augustine‘s journey to reconciliation.
In his explanation, he likened the world of senses to the material or physical world
where everything is bound to perish. Just like the physical world, our body will eventually
return to dust as it is not eternal - unlike the soul. The soul, which is perfect and immutable
has existed even before the physical body existed – in the hands of God, the only one who is
infinite, perfect and the only source of truth and knowledge. As a clever man, St. Augustine
defended the ideas of Plato as something that does not discredit the teachings of the Church
but instead supports it with logical and reasonable arguments. In Plato‘s philosophy, he
called the source of knowledge and truth as the ―world of ideas‖ and that we can only
achieve our perfect form, or get to know ourselves better, if we reach this world through
reason and logic. St. Augustine used this argument to inject faith in Plato‘s philosophy. St.
Augustine could only think of one entity whose characteristics are the same with the world of
ideas – and that is God: perfect, incorruptible, eternal. Plato, according to him, was not
Christianized that‘s why he could not find the ―correct‖ word to describe the world of ideas.
Thus in knowing the self, the human person can only achieve enlightenment and true
knowledge of the self by seeking God first – the one and only source of truth and genuine
knowledge.
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Lesson 3: Modern Philosophy
The Age of Enlightenment, sometimes called the Age of Reason, refers to the time of
the guiding intellectual movement, called The Enlightenment. It advocated reason as a
means to establishing an authoritative system of aesthetics, ethics, government, and even
religion, which would allow human beings to obtain objective truth about the whole of reality.
Enlightenment thinkers argued that reason could free humankind from superstition and
religious authoritarianism that had brought suffering and death to millions in religious wars.
Also, the wide availability of knowledge was made possible through the production of
encyclopedias, serving the Enlightenment cause of educating the human race (―Age of
Enlightenment,‖ n.d.).
3.1. Rene Descartes: The Rationalist
Try to ponder on these questions: Do you exist? What proof
do you have that you can say that you are truly awake and not just a
part of someone else‘s dream?
These kinds of questions have bothered Rene Descartes a
very long time ago. Like most thinkers of his time, Descartes believe
that truth can only be derived through independent rational thinking
and should not be based on decrees handed down by authority.
He started his arguments by giving the assumption that Source:
https://www.worldhistory.org/Rene_D
human beings are imperfect but has an idea of perfection. For escartes/
something that is flawed and imperfect, it would be incorrect to assume that the idea of
perfection could come from something imperfect. Just as how a chicken could not possibly
produce a dog as an offspring, human beings could not have been the source of perfection.
And yet, there exists in our mind that very same idea. Descartes then concluded that the
source of this idea of perfection is outside the flawed human being. And what other idea fits
to perfection but only the ―idea‖ of God (―Descartes, Rene | Internet Encyclopedia of
Philosophy,‖ n.d.).
Rene Descartes came up with this valid conclusion through his method of doubting.
Contrary to the medieval period, where the things that people in authority are regarded as
truth, Rene Descartes believed that the only way that he can possibly arrive at truths is by
doubting every single idea that he has. If a particular idea cannot be proven through
reasoning and logic, that idea is incorrect or false and should be discarded. In this way, the
only idea that would persist are those that are logical enough. As he proved that the
existence of God is true, he now turns to prove his existence. Yes, he even doubted his own
existence but eventually proved his existence. How did he do this? By asking the questions I
asked above.
He cannot prove that his existence is not something that only exists in someone
else‘s mind. He was also uncertain if he was really awake or was just dreaming. All the
more, he doubted that the environment that he sees is not an illusion. However, he was
certain of one thing. And that is, he was doubting. And because he was doubting, he could
not possibly deny the fact that he was thinking. And because he was thinking, he was aware
that he was thinking, there could only be one explanation for that. And that he was alive, that
he exists. Meaning, the self is a thinking thing.
Descartes, like Plato, believed that man has a separate body and mind. The mind
can independently exist from the body but does not deny the association between the two.
However, the mind (which is governed by the laws of reason) surpasses the physical self
(governed by laws of nature) (―Descartes, Rene | Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy,‖ n.d.).
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3.2. John Locke, David Hume, and Immanuel Kant: The British Empiricists
In the same time that the Rationalists in Europe were emerging, a separate school of
thought was also blooming in England – empiricism. Just like the rationalist, they also
condemned ideas that are baseless and simply handed by authority. However, the
empiricists were more skeptical on the validity of claiming truth by merely thinking and logic.
They believed that an idea can only be true if it can be experienced by our senses.
John Locke believed that the mind is a tabula rasa or blank slate
John Locke
when we are born. He does not subscribe to Plato‘s or Descartes‘
belief of innate ideas. For him, the thoughts and ideas we acquire are
products of our experience in the environment. The self, therefore is
something that is shaped by our conscious experience of the world.
We can only know our identity when we learn from our experience.
Unlike the rationalists, Locke believes that the self is not embedded in
a single entity like the mind. Instead, the self exists in space and time.
Your identity, therefore is integrated in each part of your body. Source:
Particularly, your memory of the experiences that you have had is the https://www.laphamsquarterly.
org/contributors/locke
reason why your identity endures.
David Hume, an empiricist and nihilist took empiricism and the
David Hume
idea of the self into the extreme. ―There is no self‖ according to Hume.
For him, the ―self‖ is nothing more than a bundle of different
perceptions in inconceivable rapid successions in perpetual flux and
movement. If reality or truth lies in sensations experienced by our
sense organs – ear, eyes, mouth, skin and nose – then there would be
an uncountable number of ―self‖ from the moment of birth until a
person‘s last breathe. This is because, a second of conscious
experience, there would be a different experience as second after the Source:
http://www.philosophypages.co
first experience. The previous sensations would no longer be part of m/ph/hume.htm
the conscious experience, but rather, only a part of our memory – which is not an authentic
source of information. If we are to consider the self as the one that exists because of
conscious experience, we would all end up having an infinite number of selves. David Hume
thus insists that there is no such thing as a self, just a collection of experiences. A one
minute video, for example is not really moving image but gives us the illusion of movement
because the images captured by the camera were arranged in very rapid successions that
we can no longer perceive the transitioning from one image to another but instead, perceive
movement.
The philosophy of the self presented by Locke and Hume were Immanuel Kant
not appealing to Immanuel Kant, another empiricist. He contests Hume‘s
idea as he believes that our experience with the world is not
disconnected (simple collection of experiences) but is actually continuous
like a flowing stream of consciousness. Unlike the two previous
empiricists, Kant believes that we have an innate mechanism that helps
organize our experiences that makes it intelligible. This mechanism is
called the a priori concepts, the fundamental organizing rules or
principles built into the architecture of the mind, which categorize,
Source:
organize and synthesize sense data into the familiar fabric of our lives, https://gohighbrow.com/philo
bounded by space and time (Vanzo, 2013) Through the a priori sophy-of-immanuel-kant/
concepts, we are able to organize our experience in the environment and make meaning out
of those experiences. Meaning, we are the ones who construct the self. The self actively
organizes all the sensations and thoughts into a picture that makes sense to each one of us.
Kant believes that the self is not an object located in the consciousness, but rather, it is a
subject, an organizing principle that makes a unified and intelligible experience possible. The
self is a transcendental unifying principle of consciousness.
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3.3. Gilbert Ryle and Paul Churchland: The Physicalists
While the rationalists have been busy examining the duality of human nature, the
physicalists have moved on with the unobservable, the unmeasurable, and the subjective
experience. For the physicalists, there is nothing more to be known than the physical. If you
want to know what a banana is, you have to see the actual object to know what it is. In
short, there is nothing beyond the physical.
Gilbert Ryle
Gilbert Ryle asserts to deny all forms of dichotomy concerning
the nature of man. He rejected altogether the notions about the
unconscious, consciousness, souls, and inner selves because these
things cannot be measured, cannot be directly observed. If we have to
explain a phenomenon, we need to acquire information from measurable
sources, for example, behavior. To know a person, we have to observe
his/her behavior. To know yourself, you have to observe your own
behavior. The self, for Gilbert Ryle, is known through a person‘s
behavior presented to the world. It is a pattern of behavior, the tendency Source:
or disposition for a person to behave in a certain way in certain https://www.philosophybasics
.com/philosophers_ryle.html
circumstances.
Paul Churchland (1981) stands in the materialistic belief that Paul Churchland
nothing but matter exists, for example, the thing you are holding right
now, the thing right beside you or in front of you. Meaning, anything that
can be seen, felt, heard, tasted or smelled exists, nothing beyond what
our senses can experience. With this in mind, can we say that the soul
exists? In Churchland‘s view, it doesn‘t because our senses cannot
directly experience it. But how about the self? He believes that the self
is the brain itself. And our conception of the self is a product of the
chemical processes inside our brain. Our identity, therefore, is directly Source:
http://www.integralworld.net/
influenced by the how our brain works.
lane210.html
Lesson 4: Contemporary Philosophy
Contemporary philosophy goes beyond the mind-body problem and even finds it
unnecessary. They argue that life is more than identifying how the mind and body work but
rather, it is living through life and finding meaning as we live it. We are born without the
innate or predetermined essence (as what the ancient philosophers believe) but we are able
to shape our own destiny and make own choices. Furthermore, the contemporary
philosophers emphasize the importance of free will and our ability to make choices for
ourselves. Life is meaningless, until you give it its own meaning.
4.1. Maurice Merleau-Ponty: The Phenomenologist
Merleau-Ponty is a French philosopher who believed that the
mind and body should not be subjected to a competition because
both the thoughts and ideas in our mind as well as our physical body
comprise the whole person. The mind and the body are so
intertwined that you cannot separate them from one another.
He is a firm believer of phenomenology, the field of study that
emphasizes lived-experiences. Merleau-Ponty considers the self as
the sum of all your experiences in the past or in the present, your Source:
https://literariness.org/2017/05/2
emotions, your thoughts, and your behavior. It is having the ability to 8/key-theories-of-mauriceexperience the world that we live in that makes a human being a merleau-ponty/
person. Without these experiences, we become nothing but mere vessels of our organs. He
asserts that your direct, lived experience is the only source of knowledge about the world.
Furthermore, he stresses that the self is a product of our own human experience. Therefore,
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our identity is created based on how we perceive our experience and how we interpret those
experiences.
To explore more, you may also watch:
Socrates's Concept of the Self by PHILO-notes
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=o0InjgHFpco
Plato's Concept of the Self by PHILO-notes
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bge5EUL89BE
Descartes's Concept of the Self by PHILO-notes
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=B0vVVy4dFuA
Kant's Concept of the Self by PHILO-notes
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=B0vVVy4dFuA
Hume's Concept of the Self by PHILO-notes
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qDhidRr_PWs
Assessment
I.
Read each item carefully and identify whether the statement is true or false. Write TRUE
if the statement is true. If false, replace the underlined word/s with the word/s which will
make the statement true. Write your answers in a ½ sheet of yellow paper.
1. Philosophy is a science that deals with the fundamental questions of life and
existence.
2. Introspection allows a person to examine one‘s self by looking outside of one‘s self.
3. Socrates emphasized the need to observe the cosmos to know the self.
4. Plato believed that the will should be the driving force of one‘s mind.
5. According to St. Augustine, it is only through philosophy that one can know the self.
6. Empiricism supports the idea that knowledge can be acquired through reason and
logic.
7. Locke, Hume and Kant believed that the self is known through reason and logic.
8. Physicalists give importance to the tangible phenomenon and concepts in
understanding the self.
9. Existentialism believes that essence precedes existence.
10. Private thoughts are requirements to the development of the self according to Ryle.
II. In matrix, choose two of your favorite philosophers, specify their most meaningful
philosophical thought about the self and make a personal reflection on how it would
guide you in becoming a better student in the university/ professional in the future. Write
your answer in ½ sheet yellow paper.
PHILOSOPHER/S
MEANINGFUL
PHILOSOPHICAL
THOUGHTS
PERSONAL REFLECTION
As a University
As a Future
Student
Professional
1.
2.
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CHAPTER 2: SOCIOLOGY AND ANTHROPOLOGY
Introduction
Most people would know who Tarzan is – either as an animated series or a movie.
The fictional character is supposed to have lived in the jungle after his parents met an
unfortunate accident. With no parents to take care of him, the gorillas in the jungle sheltered
him and treated him as their own. Until a group of explorers found him, Tarzan didn‘t know
how to be a ―person.‖
Outside of the fictional world, Vietnam recently discovered a real-life Tarzan. Ho Van
Lang, 44 and his father Ho Van Than, 85 fled to the forests of a province in Vietnam after an
American bomb killed his mother and siblings during World War II. For 41 years, Ho Van
Lang had no contact with human civilization except for his ill father. He spoke very little of
the language and didn‘t know the ways of ―men.‖ He is likened to an innocent child who
does not have the moral awareness of what is considered right or wrong (Pavlou, 2018). Ho
Van Lang‘s case begs us the question: does being human automatically equate to being a
person?
Learning outcomes
At the end of the chapter, you will be able to:
 Differentiate the sociological view of the self from the anthropological view of the
self;
 Identify the SOGIE of an individual based on a given scenario; and
 Apply the different concepts of Sikolohiyang Pilipino in your own life.
Lesson 1: What is Sociology and Anthropology?
Have you ever heard your grandparents tell you not to cut your finger nails at night?
How about avoiding taking pictures in groups of three? Were you told not to sing while
cooking or else you‘ll end up #FOREVERALONE? You‘ve probably heard MORE of these
funny superstitions (which most of us still probably practice until now) as you were growing
up. Some of us may think they‘re ridiculous but still end up following in fear of it being true.
Now take this scenario: You are in a foreign country and you tell your foreigner friend
to knock three times whenever he/she says something bad or not to cut his/her hair before
taking an important exam. What do you think will be your friend‘s reaction? Yes, you may
probably sound crazy to them and might be tagged as the weird Asian friend.
From the scenarios above, we can see how our society and culture can affect our
behavior and eventually develop our identity. Sociology and Anthropology are two scientific
fields of study that deals with the elements of society and culture and how they relate to the
human person. Although interrelated, Sociology and Anthropology are not the same.
When we study what makes our species human, we study Anthropology. It looks into
the origin of our species, and the evolution of our existence around the world through time.
An anthropologist will dig fossil remains to understand human evolution; they will examine
material remains of past civilizations and compare it with the present to understand how our
society evolved through time and space.
On the other hand, social organizations, societies, people‘s social lives and culture
are the fields of interest when we study sociology. Sociology wants to know how people
affect other people, how the culture of a certain society affects the behavior of its members
and how different societies are related with one another (Alata et al. 2018).
In close examination, the common feature between the two is culture. By definition,
culture is summed up as the way of life in a certain society. The culture dictates what
acceptable and unacceptable behavior is in a society. Culture also creates social glue that
bonds the people in a community together. It is therefore important that we examine how
the elements of culture shape people‘s behavior in the society. In the succeeding discussion,
we will know how the self develops according to sociology and anthropology as well as look
into the important role it has in our development.
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Lesson 2: Development of the Self
2.1. Sociology and the Development of Self
George Herbert Mead is a sociologist who advanced the idea that the development
of the self is influenced by significant persons in one‘s life. For Mead, the self develops in a
chronological order or stages wherein one has to undergo the first stage before proceeding
to the next stage.
He clarified that very young children were in no way influenced by others. Instead,
they create their own world and do not have the ability to understand other people‘s
perspectives. However, as children grow up, other people‘s opinion about them takes a
central role in the development of the self. Here are Mead‘s developmental stages.
PREPARATORY STAGE
Source:
https://www.fatherly.com/news/babies-imitating-adultfacial-expressions-might-be-a-coincidence/
PLAY STAGE
Source:
https://singlemomontherun.files.wordpress.com/2012/
10/preschlrs-pretend-1600x1200.jpg
GAME STAGE
Source:
https://eventinvalsi.it/en/event/i-dati-invalsi-uno-strumentoper-la-ricerca-e-la-didattica/
First, the child learns to imitate others, usually the primary care givers. There is no
actual interaction since the child only mimics the doer. Important elements in this stage
include symbols such as language, gestures, and objects that form the basis of
communication.
This changes when the child transitions to the Play Stage. This goes beyond
imitation as the relationship between the child and others becomes more social which can be
observed when children start to pretend play as other people. For example you might recall
that when you were a child, you‘ve probably played Bahay-bahayan and you and your
playmates would assume the roles of Nanay, Tatay, Ate, Kuya, etc. During the play stage,
children can already assume the perspective of others making it possible for them to act like
any family member.
The last stage is characterized by the influence of the generalized other, or society
as a whole. Understanding how the society works is no longer just limited to the people who
are closest to them but also considers the people outside of one‘s immediate family. In the
Game Stage, children start to understand that Nanay is not only a mother but she can also
assume other roles. For example, Nanay is mother at home, but she is also Ma’am at work
and Madi when she‘s with her suki buyers. Children are now capable of understanding that
people have multiple roles.
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As children understand the multiple
To explore more, you may also watch:
roles that people have, they also start to
Mead:
Stages of the Self =) by Amirul Hafiz
become aware that other people also have
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DIrrvYCjiSs
opinions about them. And these opinions
are derived from how they behave around
them which in turn, influences their perception of their own self. However, not all
people‘s opinions matter – only those with whom they have important relationships or
significant others (not limited to romantic relations).
Undergoing through the three stages will lead to the development of the ―Me‖ and the
―I‖ self. The Me can be considered as the social self while the I is the response to the social
self. The Me is developed through the perception of the generalized others. The I then
interprets these perceptions and acts accordingly. The I is our individual responses to what
society thinks. For example, society may think that it is necessary for you to take the
program that your significant others chose for you but the evaluation whether you should
follow what they want for you and what you want for yourself is entirely up to you.
Although the I and the Me self may sometimes be conflicting, according to Mead, the
healthy self should be a balance between these two.
2.2. Anthropology’s Conception of the Self
Clifford Geertz, a French anthropologist was one of the best anthropologists of the
th
20 century. He emphasized the importance of studying the cultural context of a certain
behavior to understand it. In his famous wink example, the behavior of winking can mean
different things in different situations.
At certain contexts, winking can mean an
understanding between two people or it could mean nothing but a reflex because of a tic
disorder. For the first circumstance, an observer must know the situation, the context where
the behavior is happening to understand the meaning of the wink. Through this example,
Geertz wanted to emphasize that to understand culture, it is not enough that you study
culture. One must be ―in‖ the culture.
Geertz believed that culture serves as a control mechanism that guides behavior.
Studying culture means looking into the small details of that culture and drawing conclusion
from those details. In the study of anthropology, it is therefore important to understand
culture to understand the people. In understanding the collective, we will be able to
understand our individual behavior, to understand the Self. (Sökefeld, 1999)
.
A Filipino anthropologist, Prospero Covar (2015) acknowledges the importance of
knowing the Filipino culture in understanding the Filipino identity. A person, particularly a
Filipino person has biological givenness but this personhood is only completed through the
immersion in the Filipino culture. You are born as a human being but becoming a person is
a process embedded in culture thus the saying, ―Madaling maging tao, mahirap
magpakatao.‖ It only takes approximately nine
months to be born as a human being, but becoming
a person takes a lifetime of learning.
Covar likened the Filipino identity to a jar – it
has labas, loob, and lalim; the jar is made of clay,
man (in the Biblical sense) is also made from the
earth. Covar used the method of tambalang lapit
(dynamic dualism) to dissect the Filipino identity.
When we use dynamic dualism as a method, this is
ME that is, if there is labas, there is loob; if there is
kaluluwa, there is budhi.
It is in the labas that we witness the Source:
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/307168569_Hinggil_k
reflection of the person‘s experience of culture. ay_Prospero_Covar_Pagkataong_Pilipino_Isang_Teorya_sa_Lali
The loob is a broad concept which needs to be m_ng_Banga
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understood deeply. It is not merely a two-dimensional figure but is like a container that has
depth. The loob, as a container, can contain something. When you put something inside
the containe r, it becomes a vessel – no longer just an empty container. It is therefore
necessary to look at loob not only with labas but also has lalim which gives the loob its
profound meaning.
In the context of the person, one should not merely look into the exterior (labas) of
the individual as this is an incomplete concept of the person. Looking at the interior (loob) of
the person, his thoughts, his feelings and internal systems working inside the body is not
enough to capture the whole personhood. But if one will include depth, the person‘s
convictions, beliefs, and principles
To explore more, you may also watch:
(which are largely influenced by
Module 3 (The Humanities and the Filipino Personhood
culture), we get to perceive the
Pagkatao) by Manuel, Jr. Tana
totality of the human person
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=u2bn7FkgO0U&t=189s
(Navarro, Petras, Ujano-Batangan,
2013).
Lesson 3: The Self in Different Contexts
3.1. The Self as a Product of the Social World
The family plays a significant role in our acquisition of culture. It is through the family
that we first learn to socialize with people. Our family is our first experience of the social
world and the culture embedded in it making it one of the most important elements of
society. Human beings are born vulnerable and needs care and support for a relatively
longer period of time than that of other animals. The acquisition of the learning to adapt to
the society is one of the crucial roles that families play in the life of a person.
In children, the development of healthy self-esteem is largely influenced by family
upbringing. You can recall that Mead discussed the first and second stage of selfdevelopment which is characterized by imitation and role play. Children perceive their family
members as role models and as a reflection of the society that they belong.
The family is where we first learn gender roles or the expected behaviors based on
one‘s biological or perceived sex. For example, young girls are expected to take gentle
personalities while young boys are encouraged to play rough. Pink is attributed to being
feminine and blue, masculine. Because of the rigid belief of these gender roles in our
society, men and women are often limited by the strong belief of these roles. That‘s why
men who cry are seen as weak (even though they are also humans who can feel and
biologically speaking, capable of crying) and women who are outspoken are seen as
dominating (but same thing would merit men as a leader).
From the discussion above, we can immediately see how expectations of the society
based on one‘s gender can affect the shaping of the sex. However, gender should not be
equated to biological sex. It should be emphasized that gender is shaped by a person‘s
experiences in the environment or the way that one perceives our self in relation to the
environment.
In 2019, Gretchen Diaz became a sensational figure when she posted a video of a
mall security personnel calling her out for using the women‘s bathroom (Parsons, 2019). In
2018, Barnett, Nesbit and Sorrentino investigated the relationship of allowing transgender
individuals into restrooms and the number of sexual offenses. The debate over whether
transgender individuals should be allowed to use the public restrooms (including locker
rooms and changing rooms) that correspond to their currently expressed gender rather than
their biological sex has been of recent interest. The study concluded that from a scientific
and evidence-based perspective, there is no current evidence that granting transgender
individuals access to gender-corresponding restrooms results in an increase in sexual
offenses. They added, however, that the arguments for and against legislating access to
public accommodations are not simply answered by science. The basis for differing opinions
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includes
whether
transgender individuals
are mentally ill and
whether there are legal
and
ethics-related
justifications for genderinclusive restrooms.
The
Genderbread
Person
shows
how
diverse
gender is and why we
should start looking at it
as a spectrum of colors
instead of a binary
construct.
A quick guide on Sexual
Orientation, Gender Identity,
Gender Expression and
Sexual Characteristics
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Illustration source: https://twitter.com/kalikhaupd/status/1162337158545301504
3.2. The Self as Embedded in Culture
Culture is dynamic and always changing. The norms or standards of behavior in a
society change through time. During the Pre-colonial Philippines, men and women had a
relatively equal status in society. When we were colonized by the patriarchal culture of
Spain, the role of women in the society became less important. In today‘s society however,
we see how some of the most successful people in diverse industries are women. In the
same manner, we have seen how young generations would adapt to the changes in society
and evolve through the passing of time. Time as an element of the changes in culture is a
widely recognized fact. The evolution of culture is largely dependent on what the members
of the organization values. For example, honor is highly valued in Japan, explaining why
suicide following a scandal is an acceptable option even at modern times. In the Philippines,
family extends to the fourth and even fifth degree because we place a high value in close
family ties.
Language is another aspect that influences the development of the self in the context
of culture. You must know the language to participate in the culture. And to understand
language also means to understand the cultural context. Needless to say therefore, the
Filipino language is a reflection of our cultural identity. Let‘s take for example the statement
―Mahal kita‖ and the English translation, ―I love you‖. In the English language, the subject
and the object of love is separate. We can easily distinguish the I, being the object and the
you, being the subject of love. The Filipino expression of love does not permit this because
the object and the subject of affection are considered as one – kita. Can you see why
conservative Filipinos don‘t approve divorce here in the Philippines?
3.3. Cultural Diversity
The concept of cultural relativism accentuates the idea that understanding the self is
a process that involves knowing one‘s own culture instead of other unfamiliar cultures. It
recognizes the diversity of culture around the world and even within one‘s own country.
Cultural relativism emphasizes that no culture is dominant over the other – only different.
Meaning, the Filipino culture is different from the American culture but no one can say that
the American culture is over and beyond the Filipino culture and vice versa. But we
acknowledge the differences in the two cultures. The most apparent difference between
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Western Culture (for example, American Culture) and Eastern Culture (for example, Filipino
Culture) is the degree to which individual needs and goals are preferred over the needs and
goals of the group. In Individualistic cultures, people are considered "good" if they are
strong, self-reliant, assertive, and independent. This contrasts with Collectivist cultures
where characteristics like being self-sacrificing, dependable, generous, and helpful to others
are of greater importance. Individualistic cultures give importance to autonomy,
independence, self-sufficiency, and uniqueness while in Collectivist cultures, family takes the
central role in shaping the person as a social being. Early on, children in collectivist cultures
are taught that one is part of a greater whole – the society.
Can you see why American youth moves out of their parent‘s house when they reach
18 while the Filipino children stay with their parents even after they have their own family?
3.4. Sikolohiyang Pilipino
Virgilio G. Enriquez, the father of Sikolohiyang Pilipino
envisioned a time when the Filipino identity is understood in the
context of the Filipino culture instead of Western standards of selfknowledge. According to Enriquez (1977), unlike the individualist
culture of Western countries, the Filipino always acts in relation to
―others‖. The heart of Enriquez‘ Sikolohiyang Pilipino is the Filipino
understanding of Kapwa, the selves outside of the self. Kapwa has
two categories: Ibang Tao and Hindi Ibang Tao. Ibang Tao are people
who are considered ―outsider‖ while Hindi Ibang Tao are those who
are ―one-of-us‖. Each category merits a levels of interaction (Pe-pua & Source: https://www.pssp.org.ph/sp2/
Protacio-Marcelino, 2000).
The table below shows the different levels of interaction with Kapwa according to
Enriquez. Interaction with Ibang Tao starts with Pakikitungo, Pakikisalamuha, Pakikilahok,
Pakikibagay, and lastly Pakikisama. In the case of Hindi Ibang Tao, it is iniated through
Pakikipagpalagayang-loob, then Pakikisangkot, and lastly, Pakikipagkaisa.
Ibang Tao
Pakikitungo
Pakikisalamuha
Pakikilahok
Pakikibagay
Pakikisama
Hindi Ibang Tao
Pakikipagpalagayang-loob
Pakikisangkot
Pakikipagkaisa
As a final note, Sikolohiyang Pilipino wants you to understand that the search for
your identity entails not only the journey towards understanding your thoughts and behavior.
You also have to know your beliefs, and values in relation to your own culture. It is only then
that you can have a full understanding of the self.
Assessment
I.
Read the statements for each item. Identify their SOGIE-SC based on how they describe
themselves. Options are found in the table below. Write your answers on the ¼ yellow
paper.
Sexual Orientation
(SO)
Heterosexual
Gay
Lesbian
Bisexual
Asexual
Gender Identity (GI)
Gender Expression (GE)
Cisgender
Transgender
Non-binary trans identity
Feminine
Masculine
Androgynous
Queer
Sexual Characteristics
(SC)
Male
Female
Intersex
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Example:
―Hi! I‘m S. I have a vagina, I love men but I am more comfortable with men‘s clothes.
However, I still believe I‘m a woman.‖
Answer:
SO – Heterosexual
GI – Cisfemale
GE – Masculine
SC – Female
Start here:
1. ―Hi! I‘m E. I am born with a penis, I am attracted to cisfemales, I like to wear
comfortable jeans and shirt for males. I am a man.‖
2. ―Hi, F here. I am born with a vagina, I don‘t feel sexual attraction to anyone, I prefer
jeans and shirt for females. I feel that I am a woman.‖
3. ―K, 23. I have a penis. I have been in a relationship with a gay man, a straight
woman, a bisexual, and another man. I prefer polo shirt and comfortable jeans. I feel
that I am a woman.‖
4. ―I‘m D. I look like a man. I have a vagina. I have a girlfriend. If I was born again, I‘d
like to be born with a penis.‖
5. ―Call me L. I was given a penis. I have a beard and dress according to may SC. I am
both attracted to male and female; I get emotionally attached to males but I find
sexual intercourse with female more satisfying. I know I can be both male and
female, but I see myself as a man.‖
II.
In a 1 whole yellow paper, answer the following questions in not more than 10
sentences.
1. Is your self-concept affected by how others see you?
2. Do you contribute to the development of others‘ positive self-concept?
3. What are the influences of your family in your development as an individual?
4. What social pressures help shape yourself?
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CHAPTER 3: PSYCHOLOGY
Introduction
We may only have one physical body, but it may feel like having several selves all at
once. In our little corner, this might not be bothersome. Nevertheless, to be asked in public,
"Who are you?" could be stressful. This question seems to force us to come up with a
satisfying answer that we might begin to feel unsatisfied after saying it.
Questioning who we are or engaging in self-reflection to figure out and understand
why we behave in a certain way is normal (Weiten et al., 2014) and is beneficial in
increasing self-awareness. This chapter will let you think about you, your thoughts, feelings,
and behavior. The theories in Psychology will help you understand why you feel and behave
that way.
Psychology may focus on the individual and the cognitive functions, but it does not
discount the context and other possible factors that affect the individual. To help us
understand ourselves a bit clearer and somehow ease the pressure of coming up with a
definite answer to who we are, let us look into some of the theories and concepts in
psychology regarding the self.
Learning outcomes
At the end of the chapter, you will be able to:
 Differentiate the different Psychological theories;
 Discuss how different theories in Psychology represent the self; and
 Identify one Psychological theory that has the most influence on you.
Lesson 1: Theories and Concepts in Psychology
Psychology is the science that deals with human behavior and mental processes.
Many people misunderstand psychology as simply mind reading or stating the obvious. As
you read through the module, however, you will soon realize how these notions are
misconceptions. As a field that focuses on the human being, Psychology draw findings
based on empirical data.
The self in psychology pertains to how one creates a schema of his/her person.
Awareness of the self is similar to having a conception of the self. A schema describes a
pattern of thought or behavior that organizes categories of information and the relationships
among them. Self is ―the sense of personal identity and of who we are as individuals‖
(Stangor, Jhangiani &Tarry, 2014).
1.1.
Individual Self: The Biological Foundations of Behavior
The center of all our bodily activities is the
brain. It is composed of billions of specialized
cells called neurons that receive and send the
signal from the central nervous system (brain) to
different parts of the body. These signals or
neural impulses are the messages that are being
carried for the brain to interpret the external
stimulus
coming
from
the environment.
https://www.sciencenewsforstudents.org/article/explainer-what-is-aDepending on the stimulus, a corresponding Source:
neuron
signal will be sent, which will cause certain types
of responses or behavior. Aside from the signals coming from the environment, chemicals in
our brains also affect our responses or behavior. These brain chemicals are called
neurotransmitters (Prasad, Kumar, & Ali, 2020; Passer & Smith, 2007). The following
neurotransmitters are known to have a direct influence on human behavior:
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Source: https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Chemical-Structures-of-Neurotransmitters-Reproduced-from_fig1_323400992
However, this influence does not mean that they are the direct and sole cause of
such behavior. What needs to be understood in this section is that human behavior can also
be explained through the inner workings of the brain (Prasad, Kumar, & Ali, 2020).
Especially in the discussion regarding mental disorders, explaining an imbalance in brain
chemicals will help people understand that having a mental condition does not equate to
being weak or not having faith. In
To explore more, you may also watch:
some instances, vulnerability to
The Chemical Mind: Crash Course Psychology #3
developing mental disorders can be
by CrashCourse
attributed to our genetic disposition
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=W4N-7AlzK7s
and the composition of these
chemicals in our brains.
1.2. Individual Self: Stages of Human Development
There are theories that explain the development of a human being throughout the life
span. The most popular among them are the Psychosexual Stages as proposed by Sigmund
Freud and Erik Erikson's Psychosocial Stages. Both theories believe in the influence of the
unconscious mind in the development of an individual. The two approaches differ in the
number of stages that they have. As Freud believed that childhood experiences primarily
shape the adult personality, his stages are limited only up until the puberty stage. Erikson
expanded this belief to include the later years of life. Furthermore, while Freud emphasized
the sexual drive as the main reason for our behavior, Erikson believed that interpersonal
relationships take the central role in the development of the individual (Knight, 2017). The
following figures summarize the Psychosexual and Psychosocial Stages of Development:
Freud‘s 5 stages of Psychosexual Development
Pleasure center is on the mouth – sucking, biting and
chewing. If oral needs are not met, the person may
develop thumb sucking, fingernail biting or pencil
chewing in childhood and overeating or smoking in
later life.
Satisfaction focuses on the expulsion of bowel and
bladder elimination; coping with demands for control. If
they are trained before they are ready or not trained on
time, it may result to extreme orderliness or messiness
as part of the individual’s personality.
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Pleasure zone is the genitals; dealing with incestuous
sexual feelings towards opposite sex parent. To avoid
punishment to the incest feelings, they adopt the same
sex parent’s characteristics or values.
Dormant sexual feelings. The child acquires new
social values and spends time with same sex peers.
To explore more, you may also watch:
Freud’s 5 Stages of Psychosexual Development
by Sprouts
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mhG-twzaE_g&t=3s
Maturation of sexual interest. Sexual impulses reappear.
If development in earlier stages is successful, it can lead
to marriage, mature sexuality and bearing of children.
Illustration source:
https://sproutsschools.com/psychosexualdevelopment-theory-freud/
Erikson‘s 8 Stages of Psychosocial Development
If needs are dependably met, they develop a sense of trust.
Toddlers learn to exercise will and do things for themselves or
they doubt their abilities.
Pre-schoolers learn to initiate tasks and carry out plans or
they feel guilty about their efforts to be independent.
Children learn the pleasure of doing tasks or they feel
inferior.
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Teenagers work at refining a sense of self by testing roles
and integrating them to form a single identity or they
become confused of who they are.
The middle aged discover a sense of contributing to the
world, usually through the work, or they may feel lack of
purpose.
Illustration source:
https://sproutsschools.com/erikson-psychosocialdevelopment-8-stages/
Young adults struggle to form close relationships and to
gain the capacity for intimate love or they feel socially
isolated.
When reflecting on his/her life, the older adult may feel a
sense of satisfaction or failure.
To explore more, you may also watch:
8 Stages of Development by Erik Erikson by Sprouts
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aYCBdZLCDBQ&t=12s
1.3. Individual Self: The Subjective Being
Freud (1905) believed that the human mind is divided into three levels:
 The conscious mind comprises all those thoughts
that you are aware of.
 The subconscious mind on the other hand are
thoughts that are not currently in present awareness
but could easily be remembered when needed. For
example, you may not be thinking about your
favorite teacher's name while reading but when
someone asks for his/ her name, you will be able to
give them this information easily.
 The unconscious mind resides in the deepest and
the hard to access part of our mind. It nurses our
unwanted memories, deep-seated guilt feelings,
unacceptable thoughts, and desires.
Freud stressed that conscious thoughts are already Source:
filtered with the influence of society's expectations and http://www.loreto.herts.sch.uk/wpcontent/uploads/Psychodynamic-PPT.pdf
are not the accurate representation of the self. If we
want to understand the self, we should not be looking into what we are conscious of, but
instead, look into the dark realm of our unconscious mind because it is where our most
primitive instincts lay (McLeod, 2019; Feist and Feist, 2008).
Just like an iceberg, only a small portion of the mind is exposed to reality. A more
significant portion of it is submerged and is unaware of reality (Mcleod, 2019). Freud (1905)
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further noted that the mind has three provinces and the interaction between these three is
what dictates human behavior. The three provinces of the mind are as follows:
 the id which follows the pleasure principle
 the superego follows the morality principle
 the ego follows the reality principle.
The id, which is totally submerged in the unconscious mind, only considers what it
wants. Although partly aware, the superego is not exempted from the shadows of the
unconscious mind, prompting it to make unreasonable demands often in conflict with id. The
ego, aware of the situation, is the one that makes sense of the situation. It often acts
according to the balance of the id, supergo and reality (Feist & Feist, 2008).
Further, Carl Jung (1921) who was a former colleague of Sigmund Freud, just like
Freud, believed that the unconscious mind should be the center in the study of the self. In
fact, he thought that just as how genes are passed from one generation to another, the term
he called collective unconscious are the ideas or thoughts we have inherited from our
ancestors. In the collective unconscious, we can find the archetypes (Jung, 1921/ 1948).
Anima
(feminine)
Mask that is adopted in
response to the
demands of social
convention
Helps us understand feminine
behavior in males (moods &
feelings)
SELF
Persona
One’s striving
for unity
Helps us understand
masculine behaviour in
females (thinking &
reasoning)
Shadow
(Evil side)
Unpleasant and socially
reprehensible thoughts,
feelings, and actions
Animus
(masculine)
Lesson 2: Me-Self and I-Self: William James
James (1890) identified two understandings of the self, the self as "Me" and the self
as "I." This distinction was initially based on the idea that the "Me" self refers to the self as
an "object of experience" (self as object), and the "I" self reflects the self as a subject of
experience (self as subject). (Woźniak, 2018)
James‘ (1890) categorization of the Me-self and I-self can be seen through the table
below:
ME-SELF
I-SELF
Material Self
(mine, “my arm, my bag”)
- Tangible objects, people, or places that
carry the designation of mine
- Bodily self and extracorporeal self
(beyond the body, e.g., emotional
investment)
Individual Self
(Individual traits, abilities, and possessions)
- Spiritual self and aspects of the material self
(body, possessions, initials)
- Example: I am shy. I am tall.
ME-SELF
I-SELF
Social Self
(ours, e.g., our parents, siblings, romantic
partners)
- How we are regarded and recognized
by others
- Relational
self:
interpersonal
relationships
Relational Self
(Other people with whom we have a personal
relationship)
- Aspects of the social self
- Example: I am my parents‘ child.
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Spiritual Self
(Inner or psychological self, subjective being)
- Self-perceived abilities, attitudes,
emotions, interests, values, motives
Collective Self
(Social roles, social categories, and social group
membership)
- Aspects of the social self
- Example: I am a Filipino
The ―ME‖ can be considered as a separate individual or object a person can refer to
when narrating his/personal experience. Meanwhile the ―I‖ is the one who knows who
he/she is and what he/she has done in his/her own life.
Lesson 3: Real and Ideal Selves
3.1. Tenets of Karen Horney’s Theory (1950)
 Idealized self is created when individuals
feel alienated from self
 An idealized self-image is an extravagantly
positive picture of themselves
 The Real Self can only be achieved through
self-realization
 Incongruence of ideal self and real self
leads to self-hatred
3.2. Carl Rogers’ Theory of Self Concept
Carl Rogers (1959) asserted that selfconcept has three (3) different components:
1. Self-image – how you view yourself influenced
by external factors such as expectations from significant others.
2. Self-esteem or self-worth – is the value you assign to yourself.
3. Ideal-self – is what you desire or expect of the ‗self.‘
He further added that we have two selves: Ideal self and Actual self.
At this point, you already have an idea of your ideal and real self. Looking into your
ideal and real self, how aligned are they? According to Rogers, the congruence or
incongruence between the ideal and real self affects our self-esteem.
Congruence
Self-concept meshes well
with experience (some
incongruence is probably
unavoidable)
Incongruence
Self-concept does not
overlap with experience.
Self-concept
Self-concept
Experience
Actual
experience
When we feel good about ourselves, it is said that there is congruence or alignment
or there is a small gap between our real self and ideal self. When there is congruence, we
feel more confident, satisfied and become self-actualized, leading to a high self-esteem.
There is incongruence if there is misalignment or a big gap between the real and
ideal self. In effect, we become distressed and anxious, leading to a low self-esteem or selfworth and be defensive in our actions.
Experiencing incongruence could happen from time to time. In situations like this, we
need to reflect, evaluate our behavior, and be reminded of our ideal self to put us back on
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track. We have to learn to separate behaviors from the totality of one's being. We may have
misbehaved but it does not mean that we are automatically an entirely bad person.
Lesson 4: Self-Esteem and Self-Efficacy
Self-esteem refers to one‘s overall assessment of one‘s worth as a person (Weiten,
Dunn & Hammer, 2014). People with high self-esteem succeed more, have better
relationships, and are happier than those with low self-esteem (Orth, Robins, & Widaman,
2012). Our self-esteem refers to how much we value ourselves and perceive our worth as a
person.
Self-efficacy is directly correlated with self-esteem. When our performance improves,
our self-esteem improves which lead to congruence. However, an increase in self-esteem
does not always lead to increase self-efficacy most especially if no effort was exerted to
enhance performance. (Frank, Plunkett & Otten, 2010) It is crucial that we continuously
remind ourselves to be motivated and put that motivation into action. Rogers believed that a
fully functioning person is one who is, "in touch with the here and now, his or her subjective
experiences and feelings, continually growing and changing" (McLeod, 2014).
Assessment
I.
Choose the letter of the BEST answer. Write it your answers in a ¼ yellow paper.
1. Baby Lily likes to defecate and present her feces to her parents. According to
Sigmund Freud, she is in what stage of development?
a. Oral
c. Phallic
b. Anal
d. Latency
2. Jude engages in Taekwondo. At first he did not win in competitions so he trained
very hard every day. Later on, he was already winning gold medals in different
competitions. This can be explained by what stage of psychosocial development?
a. Industry vs. Inferiority
b. Intimacy vs. Isolation
c. Ego identity vs. Role Confusion
d. Generativity vs. Stagnation
3. This is one of Carl Jung‘s archetypes that help us understand feminine behavior.
a. Persona
c. Animus
b. Shadow
d. Anima
4. Chris is hungry however he forgot to bring his wallet in the market. He saw a fruit stall
with no one looking after it. Chris rapidly grabbed an apple and run swiftly in order to
escape the scene. According to Freud‘s Theory, Chris followed his ____________.
a. Id
c. Ego
b. Superego
d. Reality
5. It refers to how much we value ourselves and perceive our worth as a person.
a. Self-confidence
c. Self-esteem
b. Self-efficacy
d. Selfishness
6. This is the stage in the psychosexual development where the sexual drives reawaken
but this time is directed towards other individual.
a. Genital
c. Phallic
b. Latency
d. Anal
7. Mila who is 15 years old attended the Organizations‘ Fair held in their school in order
for her to figure out which clubs or organizations she can join and have fun with
during her stay in the school. This is Erikson‘s _______________ stage of
psychosocial development.
a. Industry vs. Inferiority
b. Intimacy vs. Isolation
c. Ego identity vs. Role Confusion
d. Generativity vs. Stagnation
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8. This psychologist theorizes that incongruence between ideal self and real self can
lead to self-hatred.
a. Sigmund Freud
c. Erik Erikson
b. Karen Horney
d. William James
9. Refer to item #2. In Freud‘s psychosexual stages, what stage is Jude in?
a. Oral
c. Latency
b. Anal
d. Phallic
10. Gerald Santos is an accomplished businessman. He likes to conduct outreach
programs in far flung barangays as well as mentor young entrepreneurs. According
to Erikson, Mr. Santos is in the ___________ stage of development.
a. Industry vs. Inferiority
b. Intimacy vs. Isolation
c. Ego identity vs. Role Confusion
d. Generativity vs. Stagnation
11. This psychologist proposed that can be categorized in ―I‖ self and ―Me‖ self.
a. Sigmund Freud
c. Erik Erikson
b. Karen Horney
d. William James
12. At the age of 4, Ben unconsciously gets attracted to his mother and fears that
because of this, his penis might be cut-off. Ben is in what stage of Freud‘s
Psychosexual Development?
a. Phallic
c. Latency
b. Genital
d. Anal
13. These are chemicals in our body that influence our behabvior.
a. Neurons
c. Vitamins
b. Neurotransmitters
d. Minerals
14. In the psychosocial development, trust and mistrust is learned through what activity?
a. Defecating
c. Learning
b. Masturbating
d. Feeding
15. When there is a small gap between your ideal self and real self, you experience
________.
a. Congruence
c. Incongruence
b. Self-esteem
d. Self-efficacy
II.
Make a Tiktok video with maximum 3-minute duration depicting how you personally
experienced ONE of the Psychosocial Stages of Development of Erik Erikson. Make
your presentation a one-man show so you are not allowed to recruit other individuals
to be featured in the video but they can help in the behind the scenes (video
recording and editing).
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CHAPTER 4: THE SELF IN EASTERN THOUGHT
Introduction
Different cultures and varying environment tend to create different perceptions of the
―self‖ and one of the most common distinctions between cultures and people is the Easternvs-Western dichotomy wherein Eastern represents Asia and Western represents Europe and
Northern America. It must be understood that this distinction and the countries included was
politically colored at the time aforementioned concepts were accepted and used in the social
sciences. Furthermore, it must be reiterated that while countries who are geographically
closer to each other may share commonalities, there are also a lot of factors that create
differences. In the Philippines alone, each region may have a similar or varying perception
regarding the ―self‖.
Learning Outcomes
At the end of the chapter, you will be able to:
 Differentiate the concept of self according to western thought against
Eastern/oriental perspectives;
 Explain the concept of self as found in Asian thoughts; and
 Create a representation of the Filipino self.
Lesson 1: The Self in the Eastern Thought
There is no single Eastern philosophy of self. It is often argued that in the East there
is no meaning of self that is independent of a person‘s relations to others. The self is
fundamentally social. The different aspects of self may receive greater or lesser emphasis in
different culture. The Eastern self is connected, changeable, flexible, committed being that is
bound to others. This social-oriented self-view emphasizes interdependence, role-obligation,
moderation and harmony within one‘s social relationships. Eastern social customs,
institutions and the media all combine to foster the relational way of being, emphasizing
roles, statuses and in-group membership. Many Asian cultures advocate priority of collective
welfare over personal interests and reward self-control and diligent role performance. In so
doing, group welfare and social harmony are ensured. Asians frequently exhibit a tendency
to self-criticism and self-effacement which help to cultivate a modest self who is considerate
to others‘ needs and sensitive to social mandates making him a better member of society.
Lesson 1: The Self in Individualistic and Collective Cultures
Culture influences how people behave as well as how the self-concept is
constructed. In an attempt to promote an appreciation for diversity among individuals, it is
important to understand what cross-cultural perspective is. This perspective examines
differences in expressions of the self in individualistic and collectivistic cultures that
represent the Eastern concepts of the self.
Individualism is defined as a situation in which people are concerned with
themselves and close family members only, while collectivism is defined as a situation in
which people feel they belong to larger in-groups or collectives which care for them in
exchange for loyalty and vice versa (Hofstede & Bond, 1984).
Individualism and collectivism are so deeply ingrained in a culture that they mold selfconceptions and identities. According to Markus and Kitayama (1991), most North
Americans and Europeans have an independent view of the self as an entity that is distinct,
autonomous, self-contained and endowed with unique dispositions. Yet in much of Asia,
Africa, and Latin America, people hold an interdependent view of the self as part of a larger
social network that includes their family, co-workers and others to whom they are socially
connected. Consequently, Markus and Kitayama report that Americans are most likely to
express jealousy, pride, and other ―ego-focused‖ emotions that affirm the self as an
autonomous entity.
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Lesson 2: Notions of the Self in Classical Eastern Thoughts
To explore more fully the Eastern conceptions of selfhood and identity, four (4) Asian
traditions are discussed – Hinduism, Buddhism, Confucianism, and Taoism or Daoism.
2.1. HINDUISM
The best place to begin in examining the classical Eastern thoughts is by looking at
Hinduism. Hinduism is a religion, a way of life, a philosophy as well as a social system.
Hinduism centers on the Vedic notion of Atman or soul. The Atman is the true self that lies
at the inner core of man‘s human identity, and it is only this inner core that is identical with
Brahman. The Brahman is essentially the sacred, the Self-God who is the God of the
Cosmos – the Universe. Within each individual there is the Self-God, Brahman.
The Hindu philosophy conceives of three (3) states of existence – 1) Waking (Jagrta)
2) Dream (Swapna), and 3) Deep Dreamless Sleep (Sushupti). These states are based on
another state that forms the unobservable framework – the Turiya. The Turiya has been
variously described as the self that is identical with the larger self. Further, the three states of
existence – Deep Sleep, Dream, and Waking are linked to the three forms of bodies the
Hindus believe in – Causal body (Kaarana), Subtle body (Sukshma), and Gross body
(Sthula) respectively.
2.2. BUDDHISM
Buddhism was founded in India by Gautama Siddharta (563 -483 BCE) better
known as Buddha, a term which means the “Enlightened One”. Buddhism in essence, is
not a religion nor is it a philosophy. It is rather a way of salvation, a way of life. It enables a
person to achieve a sense of detachment from the inherent problems of existence.
The foundation of all Buddhist teaching is the four (4) Noble Truths – 1) Life is
suffering, 2) the cause of suffering is desire, 3) The end of suffering is achieved by
extinguishing the desire. This is the state of Nirvana, meaning ―to extinguish‖, and 4)
Nirvana is achieved by adopting a series of moral attitudes, beliefs, and actions which
Buddha collectively calls the Noble eightfold paths.
Briefly, these are the eight (8) paths:
1. Adopt right views that are free from superstition or delusion.
2. Have right aims that are high and worthy of the intelligent person.
3. Practice right speech which is kind, open, and truthful.
4. Perform right conduct that is peaceful, honest, and pure.
5. Adopt a right livelihood that brings no harm or danger to living things.
6. Put forth the right effort in self-training and self-control.
7. Have right mindfulness insofar as you are fully aware of the present moment
and not preoccupied with hopes or worries.
8. Engage in right concentration which involves proper meditation that leads to
Nirvana.
The Eightfold path endorses many of the values that since childhood a person been
taught to adopt. They are recommendations for one to conduct a normal desire-filled life in a
civilized manner.
2.3. CONFUCIANISM
Confucius (551 – 479 BCE) was born in China‘s Shandong province. His family name
was ―Kung‖ and the name ―Confucius‖ is a Latinized version of ―Kung Fu Tzu‖ which means
Master King.
Confucianism, the teachings of Confucius, has played an important role in forming
Chinese character, behavior, and way of living (Eliot, 2001; Guo, 1995). Its purpose is to
achieve harmony, the most important social value. Confucianism strongly emphasizes
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mercy, social order, and fulfilment of responsibilities. This is achieved by everyone having
well defined roles and acting towards others in a proper way. ―Ren‖ is the central ethical
principle, and is equivalent to the concepts of love, mercy, and humanity. It is best explicated
by Confucius in the Golden Rule: ―Do not do to others what you do not want done to
yourself.‖
Confucianism is humanistic in seeking goodness and happiness not in nature or
beyond nature but in humanity itself. It is pragmatic which believes in the unity of thought
and action. Confucian ideals were brought more ―down to earth‖, made more concrete and
practical, more utility-based and oriented at the welfare of others. A central value in
Confucianism is filial piety wherein the family is the center/core and comes before the
individual. There are five (5) cardinal relations – 1) Ruler and Minister, 2) Father and Son, 3)
Elder and Younger Brother, 4) husband and Wife, and 5) between Friends. With regard to
filial piety, sons, especially the oldest son, have specific obligations toward the family and
are expected to respect and care for parents.
2.4. TAOISM/DAOISM
The founding of Taoism/Daoism is credited to two Chines philosophers, Lao-tzu and
Chuang-tzu. The path of understanding Taoism is accepting oneself. Live life and discern
who you are. The Taoists concept of self is like a deconstructed Western self. Taoism
represents the Chinese counter culture. To them, the good life is the simple life,
spontaneous, in harmony with nature, and unaffected by societal regulations. The Taoist‘s
self is without a center and is not hierarchically organized. It does not seek sovereignty. He
is a selfless person whose mind is likened to a mirror according to Chuang-tzu. By seeing
through the self and others, the person is able ―to mirror things as they are.‖
Taoism teaches a person to live in his heart, to accept life as it is, and following his
breath to find peace. Taoism also teaches a person to drop expectations. The expectations a
person has in his life, the less he will become.
The Tao has three (3) jewels (virtues) that they endear – 1) compassion, kindness,
love (ci), 2) moderation, simplicity, frugality (jian), and 3) humility, and modesty (Bugan wei
tian xia xian).
To explore more, you may also watch:
What Is Hinduism??
by Cogito
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xlBEEuYIWwY
What Is Buddhism?
by Cogito
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lNdgT6VCuu0
Intro to Confucianism
by ReligionForBreakfast
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PG-XUE0CyQk
What Is Taoism?
by Cogito
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=U6hslRjGaww
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Assessment
I.
Identification
Column A
1. This philosophy in essence is not a religion nor
is it a philosophy but rather a way of salvation, a
way of life.
2. It is defined as a situation in which people are
concerned with themselves and close family
members only.
3. ______ strongly emphasizes mercy, social
order, and fulfilment of responsibilities.
4. It is considered a religion, a way of life, a
philosophy as well as a social system.
5. It is a philosophy that states that Nirvana is
achieved by adopting a series of moral
attitudes, beliefs, and actions which Buddha
collectively calls the Noble eightfold paths.
6. This philosophy believes in the Golden Rule:
―Do not do to others what you do not want done
to yourself.‖
7. The path of understanding this philosophy is
accepting oneself.
8. According to _____, the Tao has three virtues
that they endear – 1) compassion, kindness,
love; 2) moderation, simplicity, frugality; and 3)
humility, and modesty.
9. It is defined as a situation in which people feel
they belong to larger in-groups or collectives
which care for them in exchange for loyalty and
vice versa.
10. This philosophy believes that within each
individual there is the Self-God, Brahman.
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
Column B
Hinduism
Buddhism
Confucianism
Taoism/Daoism
Individualism
Collectivism
II. Using a Venn diagram, how would you describe the differences and similarities of
Eastern Thought and Western Philosophy?
Similarities
Eastern
Thought
Western
Thought
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UNIT 2
UNPACKING THE SELF: DISCOVERING THE COMPONENTS OF THE SELF
CHAPTER 1: PHYSICAL AND SEXUAL SELF
Introduction
As observed, people especially generation nowadays are so conscious with the way
they look. Some are already satisfied and happy with who they are and what they have but
then, others are also busy making improvements with their faces and bodies; believing that
they would be more acceptable to the society. This often builds or breaks relationships.
Some people exert too much effort, time and money just to look better to others. Beauty is
sometimes associated with physical attractiveness. This topic will give us a wider view and
understanding of ourselves through the discussion of the development of our physical and
sexual characteristics and behaviour.
Learning Outcomes
At the end of the chapter, you will be able to:
 define physical self;
 discuss the different views of one‘s physical self;
 determine the factors that influence the change of view of one‘s physical self;
 discuss the developmental aspect of the reproductive system;
 describe the erogenous zones;
 explain human sexual behaviour;
 characterize the diversity of sexual behaviour;
 describe sexually transmitted diseases; and
 differentiate natural and artificial methods of contraception.
Lesson 1: Physical Self
There is always a pressure in our society to look good, and to seek a visually better
version of ourselves. We often get so caught up with the ways we can make sure that we
look beautiful and nice, that sometimes, we frown at our natural looks, our dark complexion
perhaps, or even our short stature.
Our physical selves have become so dependent on the judgment of our appearance,
and not with the celebration of it. Physical self refers to the body, a spectacular and
complicated machine which we associate with the surroundings and fellow beings. It is the
tangible element, the concrete aspects of a person that can be observed and examined
directly.
A man is born, he grows, he ages, and then he dies. Growth and development are
ongoing process that begins at conception and continues through the rest of man‘s life.
There are a lot of physical and psychological changes that are part of man‘s maturation and
life. Growth is a physical change. Development is psychological and social changes in an
individual such as behavioural and thinking patterns.
1.1. Factors that Influence Growth and Development
The integrated nature of growth and development is largely maintained by a constant
interaction of different factors. These factors also influence physical performance:
HEREDITY – Heredity and genes certainly play an important role in the transmission of
physical and social characteristics from parents to off-springs. Different characteristics of
growth and development like intelligence, aptitudes, body structure, height, weight, hair, and
eyes are highly influenced by heredity.
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NUTRITION – Growth is directly related to nutrition. The human body requires an adequate
supply of calories for its normal growth and this need of requirements varies with the phase
of development.
ENVIRONMENT – Fresh air, sunlight, and hygienic surroundings help in the proper
development of the body. Pollution is part of the environment. According to studies, air
pollution not only affects the respiratory organs but also has harmful effects on human
growth. Other forms of pollution that can affect growth and development include water
pollution, sound pollution, soil pollution, and mind pollution.
SOCIOECONOMIC – Socioeconomic influence on human growth is also a well-known
factor. Children from different socioeconomic levels vary in average body size at all ages.
The upper level families are always more advanced. The most important reasons behind this
are better nutrition, better facilities, regular meals, and home conditions. Home conditions
reflect the intelligence and personality of parents. Family size also influence growth rate as
in big families with limited income sometimes have children that do not get the proper
nutrition. Hence, the growth is affected.
HEALTH HABITS – Keeping clean through daily bath, washing of hands as often as
needed, brushing the teeth, cleaning nose and ears are commendable health habits. By
keeping the body clean, diseases and body illnesses are minimized. Exercise makes
muscles strong, improves body flexibility, heart, lungs, and other body parts to function
efficiently. Sleep and rest are very helpful health habits. Recreation helps one develop
physically, socially, and mentally.
CULTURAL – Physical growth and development of human beings is definitely affected by
cultural factors. Cultures differ from one ethnic group to another. Racial factors also
influence height, weight, color, features, and body constitution.
LOVE – Love is a very vital factor influencing a person‘s all-around development without
which he develops into a person with criminal tendencies. Children who are loved grow up
with a feeling of security and are more confident of their selves. They also have better selfesteem and higher self-worth.
1.2. Theories of Physical Self
PHYSIOGNOMY – Physiognomy is a practice of assessing a person‘s character or
personality from his outer appearance especially the face. It can also refer to the general
appearance of a person, object, or terrain. Notions of the relationship between a person‘s
outward appearance and inner character are historically ancient. Chinese physiognomy
shows a person how to live his life in alignment with his own natural flow. It can help him find
the life path that gives him joy, attracts relationships that can nurture him and most of all
enables him to feel compassion from himself and others.
Every feature of a person has a message about him. For example, a rounded
forehead, and the intuitive, strong eyebrows, is the warrior. Crow‘s feet, the diagonal lines at
the sides of the eyes, sometimes called the ―joy lines‖ reveal warm and affectionate
personality with an open heart. An angular face may mean having criminal tendency.
Lavater, the principal promoter of physiognomy confirms the ideas of Browne (1605 –
1682) and Della Porta (1535 – 1615) on the possibility of the discernment of inner qualities
from the outer appearance of the face.
Physiognomy also became of use in the field of Criminology. Cesare Lombroso
championed the notion that ―criminality‖ was inherited and that criminals could be identified
by physical attributes such as hawk-like noses, bloodshot eyes, large jaws, forward
projection of jaws, low sloping forehead, and high cheekbones.
Lombroso used the term ―atavism‖ to describe these primitive, ape-like behaviors that
he found in many of those whom he deemed prone to criminality. Lombroso‘s ideologies are
now recognized as pseudo-science. Modern criminology finds many of his teachings
incorrect but he had a great influence over criminology and physiognomy.
MORPHOPSYCHOLOGY – In France, the concept of Morphopsychology was
developed by Louis Corman (1901 – 1995). He argued that the workings of vital forces within
the human body resulted in different facial shapes and body forms. For example, full and
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round body shapes are considered the expression of the instinct of expansion while the
hollow or flat shapes are an expression of self-preservation.
William Herbert Sheldon Jr., an American psychologist created the field of
somatotype and constitutional psychology that tried to correlate body types with behavior,
intelligence, an social hierarchy. In somatotypology, he classified people according to three
(3) body types. These are the endomorphs, mesomorphs, and ectomorphs.
Endomorphs are rounded and soft, said to have a tendency toward a ―viscerotonic‖
personality – one who is relaxed, comfortable and extroverted. Mesomorphs are square
and muscular, said to have a tendency toward ―somotonic‖ personality – active, dynamic,
assertive, and aggressive. Ectomorphs are thin and fine-boned, said to have a tendency
toward ―cerebrotonic‖ personality – introvert, thoughtful inhibited, and sensitive.
Sheldon, later used this classification system to explain delinquent behavior, finding
the deliquents were likely to be high in mesomorphy and low in ectomorphy. He argued that
mesomorphy‘s temperaments as active and aggressive but lacking in sensitivity and
inhibition tended to cause delinquency and criminal bahavior.
1.3. Body Image and Self- Esteem
Body image is both the mental picture a person has of his own body and how he
sees himself when he looks in the mirror. Self-esteem is how he values and respects himself
as a person. Self-esteem affects how that person takes care of himself emotionally,
physically and spiritually. Both body image and self-esteem directly influence one another.
A positive environment where family and friends are supportive of each other and
accept each other‘s appearance is essential to self-esteem and body image. Despite the
strong association of self-esteem and body image, a decline in one‘s body image does not
necessarily produce a corresponding change in self-esteem.
Here are some tips to boost the body image by Jessie‘s Legacy.
1. ACCEPT YOUR BODY
a. Nobody is perfect. Everybody wants to be liked and accepted just as he is. See
your body the way it is. Be a friend to your body.
b. Don’t body - shame yourself. When you make harsh comments about your own
body, it hurts your self-esteem. Be kind. Respect yourself.
c. Build a better habit. Do you have a habit of putting your body down? To break
that bad habit, build a good one in its place.
2. LIKE YOUR BODY
a. Find things to like about your looks. Maybe you like your hair, face, legs, or
your body shape. Tell yourself what you like and why. Let yourself feel good.
b. Focus on what your body can DO. There is more to your body than your looks.
Your body is there for you when you walk, dance, climb, jump for joy or give
someone a hug. Be amazed. Be thankful.
c. Be aware of your body. Do not ignore your body as you go through the day.
Learn to breathe slowly and calmly as you stretch. Be sensitive to the needs of
your body – eat, rest, sleep, exercise. Enjoy the way your body feels.
3. TAKE CAFRE OF YOUR BODY
a. Eat healthy foods. Eating right helps you look your best. It gives you the energy
you need. And it boosts your body image.
b. Get good sleep. Learn how much sleep you need for your age. Get to bed on
time.
c. Keep to a healthy weight. Having a healthy weight is good for you. It helps you
feel good. Do not diet on your own. Talk to you parents or doctor. They can
suggest ways to help you keep to a weight that is right for you.
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1.4. The Importance of Beauty
A common English saying goes, ―Beauty lies on the eyes of the beholder.‖ This
statement is accurate in the sense that what one person considers beautiful is not
necessarily what another may consider beautiful. Confucius made the same observation
about beauty in his statement that ―Everything has beauty, but not everyone can see it.‖ Real
beauty is rarely seen by people. Each person has a different view and perspective of beauty.
The Greek during pre-historic times considered beauty as the quality of being
youthful. According to Plato, beauty is something that cannot be fully defines through the
senses. That is because different objects are observed in different ways by different people.
The modern idea of beauty usually clings to the concept that it involves the shape of a
person‘s physique.
Media affect people‘s perspective of beauty. Advertisements of pills and cosmetics
for ―beauty enhancement‖ flood the market either through television, internet or newspapers.
The media‘s act of brainwashing is similar to a test of contentment on what the Creator had
blessed each person with. Those who are not satisfied with their God-given beauty/looks
inside out, spend an extravagant amount of money to be beautiful. They cannot see
themselves as unique individuals created in the image and likeness of God.
The words of Kahlil Gibran, ―Beauty is not in the face; beauty is a light in the heart,‖
are so true and inspirational to convey great meaning.
Internal and external beauty is both important in society. To be beautiful internally
means to have a kind heart and be understanding. To be beautiful externally is to be
beautiful on the outside such as having a nice body figure and an attractive smile. Internal
beauty is important because beyond looks it is one‘s personality that is noticed. External
beauty is likewise important because it is one‘s attractive figure, beautiful eyes and face that
bring notice to others.
Beauty builds confidence, and confidence amplifies beauty. Beauty might land you
on a job since people tend to hire someone attractive over one who is not, all other factors
being equal. In today‘s world, physical beauty gives the first impression just like the cover of
a book. Definitely one will appreciate the book only after reading it. Inner beauty can never
be underrated. There are many beautiful faces carrying ugly hearts. Looks can attract but
personality will make one fall in love.
Lesson 2: Sexual self
The sexual self refers to the person‘s emotional state and behaviour concerning
various aspects such as:
o development of secondary sex characteristics,
o human reproductive system the erogenous zones of the body,
o the biology of sexual behaviour,
o chemistry of love, lust and attachment
2.1. Human Reproductive System
 the organ system in the human body responsible for reproduction and bearing live
offspring
 a collection of internal and external organs — in both males and females — that work
together for the purpose of procreating
 Important features:
o release of an ovum/ egg at a specific time in the reproductive cycle;
o internal fertilization of the ovum by the spermatozoa or sperm cells;
o transport of the fertilized ovum to the uterus/womb;
o implantation of the blastocyst;
o the early development of the embryo from the fertilized ovum in the wall of the
uterus;
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o
o
formation of the placenta; preservation of the unborn child during the entire
period of gestation; birth of the child and expulsion of the placenta;
suckling and taking care of the child and with an eventual return of the
maternal organs to virtually going back to its original state
Source: https://www.brainkart.com/article/Human-reproductive-system_38014/

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


Development of Male Reproductive System: Embryonic testes – testosterone –
development of the duct system – external genitalia
Development of Female Reproductive System: No testosterone – ovaries – female
ducts – external genitalia
Any interference with the normal pattern of sex hormone production in the embryo
results in bizarre abnormalities.
Male sex chromosome: XY; Female sex chromosome: XX
Abnormal separation of chromosomes during meiosis can lead to congenital defects
of the reproductive system.
• Pseudohermaphrodites - individuals having accessory reproductive
structures that do not ―match‖ their gonads
• Hermaphrodites – rare individuals who possess both ovarian and testicular
tissues
• Cryptorchidism - failure of the testes to make their normal descent; usually
results in sterility in males or puts him at risk for cancer of the testes; 1 sex
chromosome, XO female appears normal but lacks ovaries
• Phimosis – narrowing of the foreskin of the male reproductive organ and
misplaced urethral openings
Puberty – period of life (10-15 y/o) when the reproductive organs grow to their adult
size and become functional under the influence of rising levels of gonadal hormones
(testosterone – males, estrogen - females). This is until old age (males) and
menopause (females). It represents the earliest period of reproductive system
activity.
• Males - enlargement of the testes and scrotum (13 y/o); appearance of pubic,
axillary, and facial hair; growth of male reproductive organ in the next 2 years;
sexual maturation (mature sperm in the semen); embarrassing erections and
frequent nocturnal emissions (―wet dreams‖)
•
Females – budding breasts (11 y/o), 1st menstrual period (menarche) usually
occurs 2 years later; dependable ovulation and fertility – 2 more years
2.2. Human Sexual Behavior
Human Sexual Behavior is any activity—solitary, between two persons, or in a
group—that induces sexual arousal. There are two major determinants of human sexual
activity: the inherited sexual response patterns that have evolved as a means of ensuring
reproduction and that are a part of each individual‘s genetic inheritance, and the degree of
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restraint or other types of influence exerted on individuals by society in the expression of
their sexuality.
2.2.1 Types of Sexual Behavior
It is usually classified according the gender and number of participants such as
follows:
1. Solitary Behavior
- involving one person only, usually through masturbation
- mostly self-gratifcation done in private; generally beginning at or before puberty
- 9/10 males engage in solitary sexual behavior; most frequent among unmarried
people or among adults who are deprived of sociosexual activity
- less frequent or abandoned when sociosexual activity is available;
- Sexual climax in sleep occurs only in humans. Causes are not known. Nocturnal
emissions are for males; sexual climax are for females (when deprived of or abstains
from other sexual activity, external stimuli; accompanied by erotic dreams)
- Most sexual arousal does not lead to sexual activity (mostly caused by attractive
persons and sexual themes)
- Learning to cope with one‘s sexual arousal and to achieve some balance between
suppression can be injurious, and free expression can lead to social difficulties.
2. Sociosexual Behavior
- Involves two or more people
- It involves physical contact such as labeled necking/petting – part of the learning
process;
• Petting varies from hugging, kissing, and generalized caresses of the clothed
body to techniques involving genital stimulation. It may be done for its own
sake as an expression of affection and a source of pleasure, and may occur
as a preliminary to coitus.
• Coitus - the insertion of the male reproductive organ into the female
reproductive organ is viewed by society quite differently depending upon the
marital status of the individuals.
• In the Western society, premarital sex is more likely to be tolerated but not
encouraged. In conservative cultures, such as the Philippines, premarital
sex is frowned upon but the rate of teenage pregnancy has been
increasing through the years.
o Marital coitus is an obligation if individuals intend marriage.
o Extramarital coitus among wives is condemned and if permitted,
under exceptional conditions or with specified persons.
o It is more lenient with males than females.
o Postmarital coitus among separated, divorced, and widowed is
almost always ignored.
- Human beings are not inherently monogamous but have a natural desire for
diversity in their sexuality as in other aspects of life.
- Whether or not a behavior is interpreted by society or the individual as erotic
(capable of engendering sexual response) depends chiefly on the context in
which the behavior occurs.
2.2.2 Physiology of Human Sexual Response
Sexual Response Cycle is the sequence of physical and emotional changes that
occur as a person becomes sexually aroused and participates in sexually stimulating
activities, including intercourse and masturbation. Knowing how your body responds during
each phase of the cycle can enhance your relationship and help you pinpoint the cause of
any sexual problems.
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


Excitement Phase
o increase in pulse, blood pressure and blood supply to the surface of the body
o increased skin temperature, flushing, swelling of all distensible body parts (in
the male reproductive organ and female breasts)
o more rapid breathing, the secretion of genital fluids, expansion of the female
reproductive organ, general increase in muscle tension
Plateau Phase
o brief duration
o Sexual Climax (stimulation is continued; feeling of sudden intense pleasure,
an abrupt increase in pulse rate and blood pressure & spasms of the pelvic
muscles causing contractions in the female and emission of semen by the
male; involuntary vocalization; lasts for a few seconds)
Resolution Phase
o return to a normal or subnormal physiological state
o males and females have the same response sequence
o continued stimulation – additional sexual climax in females
o Females are physically capable of repeated sexual climax w/o the intervening
―rest period‖ required by males.
2.2.3 Sexual Problems
Sexual problems can be classified as physiological, psychological and social in
origin. Any given problem may involve all three categories.
 Physiological Problems
o by-products of other injuries such as:
 diabetes
 heart and vascular (blood vessel) disease
 neurological disorders
 hormonal imbalances
 chronic diseases such as kidney or liver failure, and alcoholism
 drug abuse
o Sexual response includes vaginal infections, retroverted uteri, prostatitis,
adrenal tumors, diabetes, senile changes of the vagina and cardiovascular
problems.
o solved through medication/surgery
 Psychological Problems
o not only a product of socially induced inhibitions, maladaptive attitudes and
ignorance but also of sexual myths. Sources
o of sexual function related to psychological distress are the following:
 work-related stress and anxiety
 concern about sexual performance
 marital or relationship problems
 depression
 feelings of guilt
 concerns about body image
 the effects of a past sexual trauma
 Examples of common sexual dysfunctions:
1. Premature emission of semen is a result of excessive tension in a sexuallydeprived male. The solution is more frequent coitus.
2. Erectile impotence is usually caused by disinterest in sexual partner, fatigue,
distraction because of non-sexual worries and intoxication.
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3.
4.
5.
Ejaculatory impotence is caused by ideas of contamination or traumatic
experiences
Vaginismus is a powerful spasm of the pelvic musculature constricting the
female reproductive organ; can be treated by psychotherapy.
Dyspareunia pertains to painful coitus, fear of not accommodating a male
reproductive organ w/o being painfully stretched.
Lesson 3: Sexually Transmitted Disease
3.1. Facts about STDs (Cruickshank, n.d.)
o The term sexually transmitted disease (STD) is used to refer to a condition passed
from one person to another through sexual contact. You can contract an STD by
having unprotected vaginal, anal, or oral sex with someone who has the STD
o An STD may also be called a sexually transmitted infection (STI) or venereal disease
(VD).
o That doesn‘t mean sex is the only way STDs are transmitted. Depending on the
specific STD, infections may also be transmitted through sharing needles and
breastfeeding.
o It can be caused by bacteria, viruses, or parasites.
o It can be linked by biological interactions.
o It often leads to health complications such as pelvic inflammatory disease, infertility,
tubal/ectopic pregnancy, cervical cancer, perinatal/congenital infections in infants born
to infected mothers.
3.2. Most Common Sexually Transmitted Diseases:
1. Chlamydia
 a common sexually transmitted disease
 It is caused by bacteria called Chlamydia trachomatis.
 It can infect both men and women.
 Women can get chlamydia in the cervix, rectum, or throat.
 Men can get chlamydia in the urethra (inside the penis), rectum, or throat.
2. Gonorrhea
 can infect both men and women
 It can cause infections in the genitals, rectum, and throat.
 It is a very common infection, especially among young people ages 15-24 years
 It is caused by having vaginal, anal, or oral sex with someone who has
gonorrhea.
 A pregnant woman with gonorrhea can give the infection to her baby during
childbirth.
3. Syphilis
 a bacterial infection usually spread by sexual contact.
 The disease starts as a painless sore typically on your genitals, rectum or mouth.
 It spreads from person to person via skin or mucous membrane contact with
these sores.
4. Chancroid
 It is a bacterial sexually transmitted disease (STD) caused by infection with
Haemophilus ducreyi.
 It is characterized by painful necrotizing genital ulcers that may be accompanied
by inguinal lymphadenopathy.
 It is highly contagious but a curable disease.
5. Human Papillomavirus (HPV)
 a viral infection that is passed between people through skin-to-skin contact
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
It has over 100 varieties of HPV, more than 40 of which are passed through
sexual contact and can affect your genitals, mouth, or throat.
6. Herpes Simplex Virus or Genital herpes
 most prevalent
 It is more commonly known as herpes -- is categorized into two types: herpes
type 1 (HSV-1, or oral herpes) and herpes type 2 (HSV-2, or genital herpes)
 Most commonly, herpes type 1 causes sores around the mouth and lips
(sometimes called fever blisters or cold sores). HSV-1 can cause genital herpes,
but most cases of genital herpes are caused by herpes type 1.
 In HSV-2, the infected person may have sores around the genitals or rectum.
Although HSV-2 sores may occur in other locations, these sores usually are
found below the waist.
7. Trichomonas Vaginalis (Vaginitis)
 a parasitic protozoan that infects the urogenital tract of both women and men
worldwide.
 Trichomoniasis, which is caused by T vaginalis, is the most common sexually
transmitted infection (STI) today, with an annual incidence of more than 170
million cases worldwide.
Lesson 4: Natural and Artificial Methods of Contraception
According the WHO (2020), the most popular methods of birth control in order of
most effective to least effective are:
 Female and male sterilization. Sterilization involves a surgical procedure to prevent
pregnancy permanently. These are vasectomy for males and tubal ligation or
occlusion for females.
 Long-acting reversible contraceptives. These provide birth control with a 3- to 10year lifespan. Examples are intrauterine devices and hormonal implants.
 Short-acting hormonal methods. This includes birth control that you take every day
or month like the pill, mini pills, patch, and vaginal ring. There‘s also a shot that your
doctor can administer every 3 months.
 Barrier methods. These are used each time you have sex and
include condoms, diaphragms, sponges, and cervical caps.
 Rhythm method. This natural birth control method is based on ovulation cycle. This
involves abstaining from sex on the days when you‘re most fertile and most likely to
become pregnant.
4.1. Natural Methods
Natural family planning (or "fertility awareness") is a method of contraception where a
woman monitors and records different fertility signals during her menstrual cycle to work out
when she's likely to get pregnant.
1. Abstinence
 abstaining from sexual intercourse
 most effective natural birth control method – 0% fail rate ideally
 most effective way to avoid STDs
 Most people find it difficult to comply so only few use this method.
2. Calendar Method
 A rhythm method
 A family planning method refraining from coitus during the days the woman is
fertile
 According to the menstrual cycle, 3-4 days before or after ovulation, the woman
is likely to conceive.
 The process in calculating for the woman‘s safe days is achieved when the woman
records her menstrual cycle for 6 months.
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3. Basal Body Temperature
 woman‘s temperature at rest
 falls at 0.5 degrees Fahrenheit before and on the day of ovulation
 rises to a full degree because of progesterone and maintains its level throughout the
menstrual cycle – basis for the method
 The woman must take her temperature early every morning before any activity. If
there is a slight decrease and then increase, it‘s a sign that she has ovulated.
4. Cervical Mucus Method
 basis – changes in the cervical mucus during ovulation
 the mucus must be copius, thin and watery (woman is ovulating)
 must exhibit the property of spinnbarkeit – can be stretched at least 1 inch and feels
slippery
 fertile days – mucus is with those features and a day after it
 no coitus allowed
5. Symptothermal Method
 simply a combination of the BBT method and the cervical mucus method
 woman‘s temperature and cervical mucus checked everyday
6. Ovulation Detection
 an over-the-counter kit that can predict ovulation – surge of luteinizing hormone that
happens 12-24 hours before ovulation
 urine specimen of the woman
7. Coitus Interruptus
 one of the oldest methods
 still proceeds with coitus, but the man withdraws the moment he emit semen and
emit it outside the female reproductive organ
 disadvantage – pre-emission fluid that contains a few spermatozoa that may cause
fertilization
4.2. Artificial Methods
Artificial methods include the intentional prevention of conception or impregnation
through the use of various devices, agents, drugs, sexual practices, or surgical procedures.
1. Contraceptives
 pill, oral contraceptives that contain synthetic estrogen and progesterone
 estrogen – suppresses the follicle stimulating hormone, progesterone –
decreases the permeability of the cervical mucus to limit the sperm‘s access to
the ovaries
 The woman should take the 1st pill on the 1st Sunday after the beginning of a
menstrual flow or may start as soon as it‘s prescribed.
2. Transdermal Patch
 has a combination of both estrogen and progesterone in a form of a patch
 for 3 weeks – 1 patch every week on upper outer arm, upper torso, abdomen or
buttocks
 4th week – no patch (menstruation will begin)
 areas where to put the patch – clean, dry, free from any applications, w/o redness
or irritation
3. Vaginal Ring
 releases a combination of estrogen and progesterone
 surrounds the cervix
 inserted vaginally and remains there for 3 weeks
 4th week – it will be removed (menstruation begins)
 The woman becomes fertile as soon as the ring is removed.
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4. Subdermal Implants
 2 rod-like implants embedded under the skin of the woman during her menses/7 th
day of her menstruation
 contains etonogestrel, desogestrel and progestin
 effective for 3-5 years
5. Hormonal Injections
 contains medroxyprogesterone
 inhibits ovulation
 causes changes in the endometrium and the cervical mucus
6. Intrauterine Device (IUD)
 a small, T-shaped object inserted into the uterus via the female reproductive
organ
 prevents fertilization by creating a local sterile inflammatory condition to prevent
implantation
 fitted only by the physician and inserted after the menstrual flow to be sure that
the woman is not pregnant
 contains progesterone
 effective for 5-7 years
7. Chemical Barriers
 spermicides, vaginal gels and creams, glycerin films – death of sperms before
entering the cervix and lowers the pH level of the female reproductive organ
 cannot prevent STDs
 can be bought w/o prescription
8. Diaphragm
 inhibiting the entrance of the sperm into the female reproductive organ
 a circular, rubber disk that fits the cervix and should be placed before coitus
 fitted only by the physician; should be remained in place for 6 hours after coitus
9. Cervical Cap
 made of soft rubber and fitted on the rim of the cervix
 like a thimble with a thin rim, and could stay in place for not more than 48 hours
10. Male Condom
 a latex/synthetic rubber sheath placed on the erect male reproductive organ
before penetration in the female reproductive organ to trap the sperm during the
emission of semen
 can prevent STDs and can be bought over-the-counter w/o fitting needed
 have an ideal fail rate of 2% and a typical fail rate of 15% due to a sheath
breakage or spilling
11. Female Condoms
 latex rubber sheaths specially designed for females and prelubricated with
spermicide
 have an inner ring that covers the cervix and an outer, open ring that is placed
against the opening of female reproductive organ
 disposable and require no prescription
12. Surgical Methods
 males –vasectomy (small incision made on each side of the scrotum, vas
deferens is tied or plugged to block the passage of the sperm)
 females - tubal ligation (occluding the fallopian tubes through cutting or blocking
to inhibit the passage of both the sperm and ova)
 after menstruation and before ovulation - done through a small incision under the
woman‘s umbilicus
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Assessment
I.
Reflective Activity.
1. What part of your body are you most proud of?
2. Explain why it is your favorite body part.
3. Flex/post a picture of that body part on Facebook with your explanation as caption.
II. Essay. Answer the questions below. Limit your answers to 10 sentences for each
question.
a. How is the sexual self connected to the physical self? How are they different?
b. What family planning method do you think is the most appropriate to use for
people of your age? Please elaborate your answer.
c. How would you explain sexuality to a young person without malice and
indecency?
III. Find the correct answer that is described in the statements below by encircling it in the
following grid. Write the corresponding number of the correct answer in the space
provided as illustrated in the example. (Note: Do not write your answer on this module.
Photocopy the grid, write your answer and attach it to your yellow paper)
1
A
H
S
L
C
S
A
V
O
S
P
T
M
H
O
B
A
P
D
V
I
N
A
L
S
G
S
V
A
G
I
N
I
T
I
S
F
Q
Y
B
C
T
I
N
D
P
E
U
V
R
A
N
I
G
G
U
I
C
O
R
E
S
N
H
W
B
L
I
Y
N
M
I
J
T
L
E
D
H
C
U
T
K
I
O
X
R
J
E
S
T
P
U
P
Z
K
T
C
F
E
R
H
Y
T
H
M
Y
G
P
Example:
1. A parasitic protozoan that infects the urogenital tract of both men and
women
Start here:
1. The most effective way to avoid STDs.
2. The period of life when reproductive organs grow to their adult size.
3. A type of sexual behavior that involves self-gratification.
4. A sociosexual behavior that varies from hugging, kissing and generalized
caresses.
5. A common sexual dysfunction.
6. An STD caused by infection with Haemophilus Ducreyi.
7. A method of contraception that is based on the ovulation cycle.
8. An artificial method of contraception.
9. An STD passed through skin to skin contact.
10. Another term for STD
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CHAPTER 2: THE MATERIAL SELF
Introduction
We are living in a world of sale and shopping spree. We are given a wide array of
products to purchase, from a simple set of spoon and fork to owning a restaurant. Almost
everywhere, including the digital space, we can find promotions of product purchase.
Product advertisements are suggestive of making us feel better or look good. Part of us
wants to have that product. What makes us want to have those products are connected with
who we are. What we want to have and already possess is related to our self.
Belk (1988) stated that ―we regard our possessions as parts of ourselves. We are
what we have and what we possess.‖ There is a direct link between self-identity with what
we have and possess. Our wanting to have and possess has a connection with another
aspect of the Self, the Material Self.
Learning Outcomes
At the end of the chapter, you will be able to:
 Explain the association of self and possessions;
 Identify the role of consumer culture to self and identity;
 Determine the causes of materialism;
 Identify the impact of materialism and consumerism on the ―self‘; and
 Appraise one‘s self based on the description of material self.
Lesson 1: Components of the Material Self
The material self according to William James primarily is about our bodies, clothes,
immediately family, and home. We are deeply affected with these things because we have
put much investment of our self to them.
Self
Body
Clothes
Immediate Family
Home




Body. The inner most part of our material self. We are directly attached to this
commodity that we cannot live without. We strive hard to make sure that this body
functions well and good.
Clothes. Clothing is an essential part of the material self. Any time we bring an object
into the surface of our body, the fabric and the style of the clothes we wear bring
sensations to the body, to which directly affect our attitudes and behaviour.
Immediate family. What our families do or become affects us. We place huge
investment to our immediate family when we see them as the nearest replica of our
self.
Home. Home is the earliest nest of our Selfhood. Our experiences inside the home
were recorded and marked on particular parts and things in our home. It is an
extension of self because in it, we can directly connect our self.
The more investment of self is given to the particular thing, the more we identify
ourselves to it. We also had the tendency to collect and possess properties. The collections
in different degree of investment of self become part of the Self. As James (1890) described
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self: ―a man‘s self is the sum total of all what he CAN call his.‖ Possessions then become a
part or an extension of self. The possessions that we dearly have tell something about who
we are, our self-concept, our past, and even our future.
Lesson 2: What is Materialism?
2.1. Nature and Role of Possessions
Material possessions provide several effects on the individual whether it is personal,
intellectual or emotional. Varied motivations agitate the individual to pursue more and amass
more of the money, gadgets, vehicles, jewelry and the like regardless of their realistic needs.
Material possessions are considered as an extension of one‘s personal and social
aspects. For instance, you would sometimes hear people say that a particular dress or
accessory brings out your personality, or how certain possessions are considered as your
family‘s treasure.
Levi-Staruss (1965) also emphasized that possessions do not just have value; they
are not merely economic commodities. They are also vehicles and instruments for realities of
another order. They reflect power, influence, social status, emotions and sympathy.
Take for example this scenario: Two of your classmates lost the same amount of
money, let‘s say for example five hundred pesos. However, one of them was a child of a
wealthy business man and the other was a scholar whose parents were unemployed. Who
do you think between the two lost more? Who do you think would consider the 500-peso bill
as more valuable? Who among the two would gain more sympathy from you and your
classmates?
2.2. The Concept of Self-Gift
The following are the three factors that reveal how self-gifts are reflection of an
individual‘s materialism:
1. Materialism is often associated with self-centeredness. Self-centeredness means
prioritizing the self while showing evident lack of empathy on the plight of others;
2. Materialists define success according to how much wealth and property was
amassed. They usually utilize possessions in self-definition. They have the evident
tendency to define success in terms of the quality and amount of one‘s acquired
fortune.
3. Materialists believe that happiness results from the relationship between buying and
consumption. Self-gift can be a source of intense happiness among materialists. It
provides them with very positive emotions. Self-gift prevents negative emotions such
as depression, emptiness and sadness as it provides therapy to the materialist.
Lesson 3: The Pursuit of Happiness
Can money buy happiness? According to Covert et al (1985) and Levinson (1962)
money cannot buy happiness as it is, but it can definitely buy something that will make
people happy.
Several variables are correlated with the concept of materialism which were deduced
from studies and surveys conducted to determine if the effects of materialism to selfconceptualization. Here are some of the findings of these studies:
1. Respondents to various surveys have indicated that purchases made with the
intention of acquiring life experiences make them happier than purchases made
with the intention of acquiring material possessions (Van Boven, 2005).
2. Materialism impairs individuals' psychological needs satisfaction, and in turn
decreases subjective well-being and increases depression (Wang et al, 2017).
3. Findings indicate that lower-class college students show high materialism
tendencies to compensate for low self-esteem (Li et al, 2018; Jiang et al, 2015;
Nairn et al, 2010).
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4. Materialism and self-concept prove how insecurity motivates people to work so
hard for material possessions as the same wealth becomes their source of
security. Hence the absence of these objects means a great degree of emptiness
and the feeling of deficiency. Celebrity worship, materialism, and compulsive
buying were significantly related to lower self‐concept clarity and to lower levels
of well‐being (Teng et al., 2016; Noguti & Bokeyar, 2014; Reeves et al., 2012;).
5. Materialism and lack of engagement mean a losing one‘s ability to empathize
with others as they become callous to other people‘s needs. Their ability to
accumulate possessions separates them from others who they consider as
inferior. (Kiang et al, 2016)
To explore more, you may also watch:
So the ultimate question is how
The High Price of Materialism
do we really experience happiness about
by New Dream
who we are and what we have in its
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oGab38pKscw
genuine sense?
Assessment
I.
Identify the concept being described in each item. Write your answers in a ¼ sheet
yellow paper.
_______ 1. This is often associated with self-centeredness.
_______ 2. This is something that cannot buy happiness as it is.
_______ 3. The innermost part of our material self.
_______ 4. This reflect power, influence and social status.
_______ 5. This can be a source of intense happiness among materialists
_______ 6. This explains when possessions cease to be a mere non-living thing
________7. This result to happiness when correlated to buying.
________8. This is increased by materialism according to Wang et. al
________9. This is compensated by high materialism tendencies.
________10. This factor, other than materialism, means losing your ability to emphatize.
II. In a long sized bondpaper, create a collage of your treasured possessions that best
represent your material self. You may use symbols or pictures. Then, in a ½ sheet
yellow paper, explain why you treasure each item.
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CHAPTER 3: THE SPIRITUAL SELF
Introduction
Most spiritual people realize we are more than our physical bodies. Many believe we
are a soul that is only abiding in this particular body for a time, but has resided in other
bodies in the past. There are those who believe that we originally came from the spiritual
realm and that we have the potential to return there. Many also believe that what sent us into
this world was a higher part of our beings. We might call this part of our beings the spiritual
self or higher self (Micheals, 2012).
Spiritual self is one of the four constituents of the self-according to William James in
his book The Principles of Psychology (1980). The spiritual self is the inner subjective part of
self. It is the most intimate version of the self because of the satisfaction experience when
one think of one‘s ability to argue and discriminate, of one‘s sensibility and conscience, of
our unconquerable will is more pure than all other sentiments of satisfaction (Frame et al.,
1999).
The ability to use moral sensibility and conscience may be seen through the
expressions of religion, its beliefs and practices. On the same manner, cultural rituals and
ceremonies are some manifestations what people believe in. Moreover, seeking the
meaning of life is a journey that the Spiritual Self is on.
Learning Outcomes
At the end of this chapter, you will be able to:
 Recognize the relationship of the belief in the supernatural and the Filipino
identity;
 Discuss how the belief and practice of religion affect the development of the
self; and
 Explain ways of finding the meaning of life.
Lesson 1: Religion and Spirituality
1.1. Religion
Stein and Stein (2017) characterized religion as a set of cultural beliefs and practices
that includes some or all of the following basic characteristics:
1. A belief in anthropomorphic supernatural being, such as spirit and gods;
2. A focus the sacred supernatural, where sacred refers to a feeling or reverence and
awe;
3. The presence of supernatural power or energy that is found on supernatural beings
as well as physical beings and objects;
4. The performance or ritual activities that involves the manipulation of sacred object to
communicate to supernatural beings and/or to influence or control events;
5. The articulation of worldview and moral codes through narratives and other means;
and
6. Provide the creation and maintenance of social bonds and mechanism of social
control with a community; provides explanation for unknown and a sense of control
for individuals.
On a shorter note, religion is an organized system of ideas about the spiritual or
supernatural realm that is accompanied by rituals. It is through rituals that people attempt to
influence things that they think are beyond their control.
There are three main components of religion that are essential in its practice and
these are the following:
o Symbols of religion are the standards of behaviour, the words, ideas, and
objects that many religions use to communicate with its members. When put
together, these symbols become a system of knowledge.
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o
o
Myths exist to give explanations about how the divine and the supernatural
came to be, what they are and the dictates of how they should be revered.
Rituals involve a sequential order of gestures, words, actions or objects set
by the traditions of a religious community (Penner, 2016). Rites of passage
are specific rituals or ceremonies that help individuals as they transition to the
community or society (Uniko Media Group, 2020).
1.2. Spirituality
It is very tempting to think that religion is the same as spirituality. This misconception
is very common that most people would actually use these two words interchangeably.
Spirituality, while also involves the search for inner peace, it is not centered on any
kind of belief system. In fact, one can be spiritual without having any spiritual values (―What
is Spirituality?‖ n.d.) Unlike religion, spirituality can be an individual journey. It starts with
self-healing and the recognition of one‘s strengths and weakness, coming into terms with
one‘s disturbing thoughts, accepting the self as it is, and eventually transcending beyond
what the physical and the material world requires. With this acceptance, the self becomes
secure and need not to develop defense mechanism. A spiritual journey, Spencer (2012)
stressed, will require a certain level of
To explore more, you may also watch:
commitment to reach progress. It is for
Spirituality Vs. Religion: A Deep Analysis
this reason that meditation and a
by The Curious Minds
prayerful practice is often needed to
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kTUIZck6Ucw
improve in their spiritual journey.
Lesson 2: Filipino Beliefs in the Supernatural
Before the Spaniards came, the Pre-colonial Philippines already have a complex
social structure. Roles were defined, our ancestors know specialized work, religion and the
belief of the supernatural was present. In this notion, it was nothing but propaganda by the
colonizers to call our ancestors as uncivilized and uneducated.
Although most Filipinos at present are Catholics, our pre-colonial history tells us that
our ancestors‘ religious practices were positioned in relation to the natural world. Anitism
(anito) is the belief that nature derives energy from spirits which were separate and distinct
from human beings.
According to Salazar (1999) indigenous beliefs are often characterized as animism.
This was the form of worship before the Spaniards came here although they continue to be
practiced today. Inanimate objects may be worshipped, like trees, plants, sun, sea or it could
also be all of them at the same time. In rural areas, beliefs in different kinds of spirits and
practices are also persistent.
Salazar (1999) in his book, Ang Babaylan sa Kasaysayan ng Pilipnas, narrated how
the Babaylan served as the counter power of the Datu, who led the barangay, and was also
believed to be magical. The spiritual dynamics of the early Filipino society is centered
around the Babaylans as they lead the rituals, heal or cure diseases, predict one‘s future,
discern human intentions and read the forces of nature and weather. Aside from this, the
Babaylan has the role to preserve and pass on to the next generation their own culture.
In addition, Filipinos believe in the afterlife. Some of our customs are influenced by
our belief in various supernatural creatures. In reality, our grandparents made us accept
these concepts in order to inculcate discipline. Some of us deduce that they came up with
these stories to keep us from making too much noise at night, respect our environment, to
keep the forests clean and make our faith in God stronger as we ask Him to keep us safe
from harm in body and in spirit.
The Philippines at present is a Catholic country but our notion about supernatural
and mythical beings is a very prominent part of our lives most specially those Filipinos who
come from the country side. Many Filipinos who live in rural or mountainous areas still
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believe in mythical spirits and monstrous creatures because they are said to be present only
in the country side where there are forests and other uninhabited areas. Most if not all of
these perceptions came from the stories told us by our ancestors which have been passed
on from generation to generation. Although believing in superstition and supernatural beings
conflicts with Catholicism, Filipinos simply cannot ignore the stories because there is always
that curious and freakish view of the unknown (Salazar, 1999).
2.1. The Concept of “Dungan” – Spirit or Soul
In many religious, philosophical and mythological traditions, there is a belief in the
incorporeal essence of a living being called the soul. Soul or psyche (Greek: ―psyÜhē‖, of
―psychein‖, ―to breathe‖) are the mental abilities of a living being: reason, character, feeling,
consciousness, memory, perception, thinking, etc.
From the point of view of the ―babaylan‖, the pre-colonial priestess in the Philippines,
inside the body of a living person dwells the ―dungan‖ (a companion that co-exist). This
―dungan‖ gives life, animation, and sensibilities to a person. It can temporarily leave the body
at will (during sleep). It is dangerous for ―dungan‖ to leave the body when the person is
awake. The body would become like a robot that runs out of battery. One thing that we have
to remember is that the western or widespread idea of the soul is different from the
indigenous concept of the soul. The soul for the latter is a separate entity whereas Alicia
Mago‘s exposition of the dungan – is a life force, an energy, as well as an ethereal entity, a
spirit with a will of its own that resides in the human body and provides the essence of life
(Villan, 2013).
Dungan also refers to willpower, knowledge, and intelligence and even the ability to
influence and dominate others. It is believed that this spirit or soul is present at birth and has
chosen the body where it will reside. It then undergoes the process of adaptation and
making sure that it is perfectly knowledgeable of the world. It also has to be ensured that it is
comfortable and fixed firmly in the host‘s body, otherwise it may be led by other spirits to
depart or even be held captive. If this happens, then the host will get sick or even die. If
somebody gets a sudden surprise, dungan jumps out the body and when the dungan
returns, then the host regains self-control. It can also leave the body when one is asleep
thus allowing oneself to see itself in a dream. The dungan has to make sure that it will be
able to return to the body and that it is safe whenever it travels.
Lesson 3: Finding and Creating Meaning
3.1. Viktor Frankl’s Logotherapy
Victor E. Frankl, a psychiatrist who was imprisoned for three years in a concentration
camp during World War II provides three ways of discovering the meaning of life. His book,
Man‘s Search for Meaning was a reminder of that life which, maybe because of his training –
he was able to provide a scientific (even philosophical) observation and analysis of what
made men exposed to such atrocities and horrors, and survived. As a psychiatrist, he was
able to come up with a psychology on survival that helped him endure his experience and
this he called Logotherapy. At the core this theory is the belief that man‘s primary
motivational force is the search for meaning and the work of the logotherapist centers on
helping the patient find personal meaning in life, however dismal the circumstances maybe.
According to Logotherapy, we can discover this meaning in life in three ways:
1. By creating a work or doing a deed. Whenever we find value in who we are
through the things we do, then we create meaning in our lives.
2. By experiencing something or encountering someone. Finding meaning in life
can also happen when one experiences positive like goodness, truth, beauty
and especially – being loved. Where loves mean that one is accepted for his
uniqueness or that his present and other potentialities are encouraged to the
fulfillment of becoming the best person he can be.
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3. By the attitude we take toward unavoidable suffering. The third emphasizes that even
in suffering, one can find meaning in life where one can turn one‘s predicament into
triumph. Suffering ceases to be suffering at the moment it finds a meaning, such as
the meaning of a sacrifice.
The existential aspect of Frankl‘s psychotherapy maintains that man always has the
ability to choose; no matter the biological or environment forces. An important aspect of
this therapy is known as the ―tragic triad‖, pain, guilt and death.
Assumption of Franklian Psychology (Logotheraphy):
 The human being is an entity consisting of body, mind and spirit.
 Life has meaning under all circumstances, even the most miserable.
 People have a will to meaning.
 People have freedom under all circumstances to activate the will to find
meaning.
 Life has a demand quality to which people must respond if decisions are to be
meaningful.
 The individual is unique.
In essence, all humans are unique with an entity of body, mind and spirit. We all go
through unique situations and are constantly looking to find meaning. We are free to do
these at all times in response to certain demands.
3.3. Frankl’s Sources of Meaning
There are three possible sources of meaning of life based on Frankl‘s work (Popovo,
2017):
1. Purposeful work. Frankl found that the single most important factor in life that allowed
men to survive is ultimately taking the responsibility to find the ―inner hold‖ to future
goals. Fulfilling your ultimate goal becomes the meaning of your life. Thus, meaning
of life is unique to each individual.
2. Courage in the face of Difficulty. Man can preserve a vestige of spiritual freedom, of
independence of mind, even in such terrible conditions of psychic and physical
stress. Everything can be taken from a man but one thing: the last of the human
freedom – to choose one‘s attitude in any given set of circumstances, to choose
one‘s own way.
3. Love. In examining the ―intensification of inner life‖ that helped prisoners stay alive,
he considers the transcendental power of love: ―Love goes very far beyond the
physical person of the beloved‖ Whether or not he is actually present, whether or not
he is still alive at all‖.
Frankl illustrates this with a stirring example of how his feelings for his wife – who
was eventually killed in the campus – gave him a sense of meaning:
“We were at work in a trench…I was again conversing silently with my wife, or perhaps I
was struggling to find the reason for my sufferings, my slow dying. In a last violent protest
against the hopelessness of imminent death, I sensed my spirit piercing through the
enveloping gloom. I felt it transcend that hopeless, meaningless world, and from somewhere
I heard a victorious, “Yes,” in answer to my question of the existence of an ultimate
purpose.”
Frankl contributes to history‘s richest definition of love. Love is the only way to grasp
another human being in the innermost core of his personality. No one can become fully
aware of the very essence of another human being unless he loves him. By his love, he is
enabled to see the essential traits and features in the beloved person and even more, he
sees that which is potential in him, which is not yet actualized but yet ought to be actualized.
Furthermore, by his love, the loving person enables the beloved person to actualize these
potentialities. By making him aware of what he can be and of what he should become, he
makes these potentialities come true.
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Assessment
I.
In not more than 10 sentences, answer each question as briefly as possible. Write
your answer in ½ sheet yellow paper.
1. How does the belief and practice of religion and spirituality affect the
development of the self?
2. How would you find meaning in life despite of what is currently happening now?
II. Write a reflection paper after watching the YouTube video entitled, ―What is the Point
of Spirituality,‖ in the following link: https://youtu.be/xum35-XplNY . Make use of the
following guide questions but do not limit your reflections to these. Write it in 1 whole
yellow paper.
a. Do you agree that spirituality only appeals to adolescent dreamers, the
underemployed and the weak-minded? Why or why not?
b. Was there ever a time when a spiritual moment descended on you? If yes,
at what particular time of the day did this happen? If no, what may be the
reason that you have not experienced a spiritual moment?
c. Would you allow yourself to be sensitive to the joys and pains of others?
d. Can the care and concern for anything at all be called love? Why or why
not?
e. What is the point of spirituality?
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CHAPTER 4: THE POLITICAL SELF
Introduction
“Patriotism means to stand by the country. It does not mean to stand by the president or any
other public official.” -Theodore Roosevelt
As Filipinos, our loyalty must be first and foremost to the Philippines. Everything that
we do, may directly or indirectly affect our respective communities. Politics is an unseen
force in all of our affairs. It may be considered an infamous term for many, but everyone has
a political self because everyone has a nationality and a country to belong to. We are not
created for isolation and we are called to live productive lives that will benefit the greater
good. Mainly, the discussion will center on the significance of political engagement, the
Philippine democratic and political culture, and the role of your political self in affecting the
change that you wish to see in your community.
Learning Outcomes
At the end of the chapter, you will be able to:
 Discuss the essence of the political self;
 Express position on key political issues and the present democratic system; and
 Propose ways to encourage responsible voter participation.
Lesson 1: The Role of Politics
How would you describe your attitude towards politics? Would you say that you have
high hopes in our political systems? Or is it the other way around? Even if you are not a
Political Science major, the discussion on politics is inevitable. So why should you be
interested in politics and governance? Here are the reasons given by Davis (2018):
1. Government and politics impact nearly every aspect of our lives.
2. Having knowledge of politics help make you an informed voter.
3. Politics empowers you to know your rights.
These are only few of the many reasons why we should not neglect the political self.
Even if many people have the tendency to shy away from this topic or to overly engage
without having the correct and enough information—we must have the courage to search for
and proclaim the truth.
Lesson 2: Seeking the Filipino Identity
What does it mean to be a Filipino citizen?
According to the 1987 Philippine constitution, Article IV, Section 1, these are the
citizens of the Philippines:
1. Those who are citizens of the Philippines at the time of the adoption of this
Constitution;
2. Those whose fathers and mothers are citizens of the Philippines;
3. Those born before January 17, 1973, of Filipino mothers, who elect Philippine
citizenship upon reaching the age of majority; and
4. Those who are naturalized in accordance of law.
Such identification as enshrined in the constitution is very helpful but the challenge is
how far and up to what extent do we feel this citizenship? What other factors affect our
sense of identity as Filipinos? Do you think that Filipinos have a strong sense of
Nationalism?
Lesson 3: Democracy – From Theirs to Ours
The inception of democracy was handed down to us by the Americans and we have
been taught to pattern ourselves according to their brand of government. The idea of
democracy did not emerge from our identity but it was forced on us and rigidly shaped us
and our identity according to the definition given by our colonizers, most especially the
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United States. This is not really a good start because we have a kind of political system that
did not grow from the political will of the ordinary people. A true democracy is the rule is
coming from the people, but if the people do not understand it – how can they say that they
are the ones who rule? The problem lies now in the lack of identity between the democratic
beliefs and practices of the Filipinos.
At present, we have been making a movement towards a grassroot concept of
democracy. But this will only be possible if the masses of poor people and uneducated will
find their voice.
3.1. Perception of a Filipino’s Role in a Democratic Setting
The Democracy Agenda Project defined democracy as ―a process, fundamentally, a
way of life, a means of relating with other individuals, groups, and the state, and a collective
process of decision-making in order to attain political liberty, social justice, and equity‖
(Diokno, 1997). From this, we can see that participative democracy was the preferred choice
of democracy over the elite democracy. It entails a more active role in the political decision
making. An example of this would be participation during elections. According to Zialcita
(1997), effective citizenship is one where people know that they can build things, ―people
who come up with ideas and resources; people who are bold; people who are accountable.‖
Another finding of the project was the consensus regarding redistributive democracy.
There is a clamor to have a better redistribution of resources and capabilities, particularly
land, income, and wealth. As long as the presence of the wide economic gap between
people in one republic is present, then the practice of democracy will be difficult and rights
would be more prone to abuse by those who have so much more in terms of the economic
value.
According to Article II, Section 5 of the 1987 Constitution, three things should be
provided by the government before we can enjoy democracy (1) maintenance of peace and
order, (2) protection of life, liberty, and property, and (3) promotion of general welfare. If we
cannot have these three, then we will not be able to reach our full potential and make a clear
definition of our political self. A major part of such a fulfillment is a general consensus among
Filipinos that first, we should be able to participate and be heard in the political process. Our
needs and sentiments through our individual voices or through our elected representatives
should be manifested in the government‘s decision making. Second, there must be
consistency in the principles and policies declared in the constitution and how Filipinos live
their lives. Additionally, there are general agreements on our duties like standing when the
national anthem is being played, awareness of community affairs, and payment of taxes.
Lesson 4: Political culture
Political culture refers to the socially created aspects involving the production,
allocation, and use of decision-making powers among large groups of individuals (Montiel,
2002). It involves both subjective or mental elements (i.e., thoughts and feelings) and
objective aspects or concrete construction (i.e., material symbols, artifacts, and grouprelated practices).
An example of a subjective component of Filipino culture that is activated during
political exercises is when volunteer campaigners carry a widely accepted belief that those
who help in a candidate‘s campaign get rewarded with a job and/or government contracts if
the candidate wins. On the other hand, an example of an objective component of Filipino
political culture would be the practice of local leaders in asking politicians to act as godfather
(ninong) at the wedding of their children. What does this political practice really symbolize?
The local leader‘s family can expect to be given job opportunities and other special politicoeconomic favors by this powerful politician. In turn, the politician can expect the leader‘s
family to help out during the campaign period (Hollsteiner, 1963). Political culture is also
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structure-embedded such that political cultures may differ among those who hold power and
those who are marginalized in society (Montiel, 2002).
4.1. Political and social participation of the Filipinos
Using data from the 2001 National Survey on Filipino Citizenship, Sucgang (2006)
sought to determine the types of political participation among Filipinos. Two types of political
involvement surfaced, namely, political participation as proactive engagement in the public
arena (e.g., running for office, joining political rallies, and street demonstrations) and political
participation as public problem solving (e.g., contacting local and national officials on
problems, community organizing). Other forms of political participation Filipinos engaged in
were also identified, such as volunteering in radio and television shows, discussing and
injecting humor into political issues, and offering prayers with political intentions.
Are you a member of a civic organization like many of the Filipino youth? According
to Yacat (2006), many of these youth organizations are community-based with advocacy as
an important activity (e.g., teenage pregnancy, drug abuse). The youth engage in projects
such as cleanliness campaigns, sportsfests, and other types of competitions (e.g., dance
contest or Battle of the Bands).
4.2. Personality and Leadership
In general, Filipino voters prefer a leader with the following personality traits: morally
upright (marangal), God-fearing, loyal, responsible, intelligent, principled, and trustworthy
(IPC, 2005).
Montiel‘s 1986 study of nontraditional political leadership showed that Filipinos
preferred politicians who were democratic, kept promises, held consistently political views,
were for the masses, did not cheat or lie, and were not sexist.
Macapagal (2013), on the other hand, found that urban poor voters use several
candidate-related variables, such as background, sociopolitical status, promises, popularity,
and behavior in evaluating political candidates.
Carroll (1994) likewise revealed that regardless of socioeconomic status, Filipinos
tend to vote on the basis of personality and not on issues. They tend to decide early on who
to vote for even without knowing the candidates‘ platform.
Lande (1996) noted that voters tend to vote for candidates who are similar to them in
terms of province and language. This shows the importance of having shared identities with
voters and candidates. This is known as identity politics, the formation of political allegiances
on the basis of some demographic similarity, such as sex, race, and religion (Plutzer & Zipp,
1996).
Lesson 5: Developing a Democratic Culture
How can we promote the growth of the culture of democracy? As suggested by
Zialcita (1997), the following values are necessary to establish a democratic culture:
1. Respect for and affirmation of the individual. This entails recognizing that every
individual has basic and constitutional rights. But we always have to remember that
one‘s rights end where another person‘s rights begin.
2. Recognition of the innate dignity of all human beings. Article I of the Universal
Declaration of Human Rights states: ―All human beings are born free and equal in
dignity and rights.‖ Simply by being human, all people deserve respect (Catholic
Social Teaching.org).
3. Concern for the common good. In ordinary political discourse, the ―common good‖
refers to those facilities—whether material, cultural or institutional—that the members
of a community provide to all of its members for common interests.
4. Willingness to listen to others. If we respect the individual, recognize their dignity
and their freedom of expression—then we will be giving time to listen to one another.
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All these imply the need for us to help the anonymous stranger, that is—more than
our individual families—we should also be involved in caring for our nation. Going beyond
ourselves to serve the public good should be a major part of our Political Identity, an identity
closely tied to being a Filipino citizen in heart and mind.
Assessment
I.
Answer the following questions briefly. Limit your answers to 10 sentences per
question. Write you answers in ½ sheet yellow paper.
1. As a Filipino, what is the biggest, most important political issue for you? How will
you attempt to address this issue as an undergraduate student?
2. What is your stand on the current democratic system here in the Philippines? Are
we experiencing too little or too much democracy?
II. Create a 2 to 3-minute TEDtalk style video reflecting your views on the upcoming
2022 elections specifically answering the question: how can you influence others to
remain vigilant and critical during the campaign period, and not sell their votes? Post
your video in your personal Facebook account and use the hashtags
#UnderstandingTheSelf #PoliticalSelf #Halalan2022
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CHAPTER 5: THE DIGITAL SELF
“There is too much negativity in the world. Do your best to make sure you aren't contributing
to it.” -Germany Kent
Introduction
Filipinos continue to reign supreme in terms of social media use globally. A report by
a social media management platform Hootsuite showed Filipinos spend the most time on the
internet and on social media sites. The ―Digital 2019: Global Digital Overview‖ showed
Filipinos spend an average of ten (10) hours, two (2) minutes on the internet via any device,
and spend over four (4) hours on social media daily. The report also said that as of January
2019, there are now 4.39 billion internet users and 3.48 billion social media users worldwide.
Facebook continues to dominate the internet as the top social media platform with
over 2.71 billion users, followed by YouTube with 1.9 billion users, and messaging services
Whatsapp (1.5 billion) and Facebook Messenger with 1.3 billion users.
Kenneth Gergen (1994) writes of the postmodern ―saturated self.‖ We are beset by
many images of self via advertisement, film, TV, celebrity and life-style magazines, and even
Internet chat rooms. We suffer, declares Gergen, from ―multiphrenia‖ (a confusing
multiplicity of selves), hence put on many different masks-of-self when ―performing‖ online.
For example, we can put up different Facebook accounts for different social groups and
purposes, we have a Facebook group for family (usually the most decent), for friends (where
we post whatever we want), for school (curated to please our friends from the academe).
May you find this lesson helpful in finding yourself online, in forming you own digital
self—one that is authentic as you are offline. Also, may it guide you in the smart use of
technologies and applications especially as we enter the ―New Normal‖. Even if people
nowadays rely heavily on technology to survive with their work and studies, we do not need
to succumb to the culture of negativity and toxicity.
Learning Outcomes
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to:
 Examine how your online engagements shape your digital self;
 Discuss how one can cultivate a cohesive virtual self;
 Promote the responsible use of internet; and
 Discuss ways to detect fake news.
Lesson 1: The Development of the Digital Self
The idea of the digital self developed from the original phenomenon of the ‗extended
self‘, pioneered by Russell Belk in 1988. He believed our possessions are a major
contributor to and reflection of our identities. Back in the day, it was external objects (e.g.
clothes, jewelry, car, etc.) that he believed we used and considered as part of ourselves.
Nowadays, however, it is not merely tangible belongings that researchers consider
as part of our extended self. Out digital possessions such as photos, videos, statuses, texts,
and emails are now seen to be significantly important to shaping the self. Think about it,
could you live without your smartphone or laptop?
1.1. Who are digital citizens?
There are many definitions of digital
To explore more, you may also watch:
citizenship. But there is one thing that they
Nine Elements to Digital Citizenship
all have in common: digital citizenship is
by ChanceandSimon
positive, and we should all strive to be
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gYe11RNGt
good digital citizens. The better the digital
ZU
citizens we are, the more empowered we are to maximize opportunities and minimize
risks online.
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What is a good digital citizen? A good digital citizen has a variety of knowledge,
skills, and values that help them be responsible users of ICT, particularly the internet and
mobile technologies.
Source: https://safesitter.org/digital-citizenship/
1.2. Why do we have a Digital Self?
The idea of the Digital Self is an interesting and relatively new topic discussed in
consumer behavior research. Researchers claim that the digital web allows us to try out
different personas that differ from our real-life identities. Here are some of the reasons why
we express ourselves online the way we do:
 Desire to meet the expectation of others: Research shows that over 50% of women
would edit their social media photos to look better and meet the expectations that the
media and magazines have set.
 Desire to boost our self-esteem: people upload photos and statuses online that they
will receive ‗likes‘ and positive feedback, which ultimately help their egos.
 Desire to feel a sense of belongingness: Some of us want to fit in with the crowd and
upload things that are ‗down with the trend‘ - for instance posting contents that are
trending like dance challenges.
 Bigger sense of freedom: Unlike real life, digital platforms allow us to express
ourselves in any way we want to without anyone there to physically judge us.
 Striving to be our ideal selves: Digital Photo Editing Apps allow us to improve our
appearances on photos (through teeth whitening, skin smoothing and body shape
editing). They help consumers present themselves as their ‗ideal‘ self online and
inevitably feel better about themselves.
The digital world has provided us with greater opportunities to express our identity in
any form we want to. But what we all need to remember is: how will we feel if we go so far to
express ourselves differently online that we forget what reality is, or worse, we end up
resenting it?
Lesson 2: Understanding your Online Identity
Your identity is who you are—your characteristics, habits, aspirations, and interests.
One‘s online identity is summed up by the way you behave online: that is, the things you
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spend most of your time doing, the sites you visit, the way you interact with others, and the
things you choose to highlight about yourself. It‘s part of your personal brand.
While a post can be made in a matter of seconds, it can leave a footprint for the
future. The damage caused in the moment can repeat itself many times over, even when
you might have thought the issue had already died. A good digital citizen knows how to
manage their online identity in a way that does not damage their reputation, endanger
themselves. If they don‘t brand themselves wisely, others may view them in a negative light
that could affect their relationships, education, and career options.
2.1. Selective Self-presentation and Impression Management
Impression management refers to the activity of controlling information to steer
others‘ opinion in the service of personal or social goals (Schlenker & Pontari, 2000). A
subtype of impression management is self-presentation. According to Goffman (1959) and
Leary and Kowalski (1995), self-presentation is the ―process of controlling how one is
perceived by other people‖ and is the key to relationship inception and development. To
construct positive images, individuals selectively provide information about them and
carefully cater this information in response to other‘s feedback.
2.2. Fear of Missing Out and Social Media Envy
FOMO, or “fear of missing out,” is defined as "the uneasy and sometimes allconsuming feeling that you're missing out." FOMO refers to the feeling or perception that
others are having more fun, living better lives than you are, and you are missing something.
It involves a deep sense of envy and affects self-esteem. It is often exacerbated by social
media sites like Instagram and Facebook. Social media provides a situation in which you are
comparing your regular life to the highlights of others‘ lives. Therefore, your sense of
―normal‖ becomes skewed, you seem to be doing worse than your peers, and this may lead
you to wonder what you are lacking. Social media envy happens when a person becomes
envious of the lifestyle or aspects of someone else‘s life as seen through the eyes of social
media. Envy as an emotion is so closely associated with the experience of using social
media that it has made FOMO the acronym perhaps most closely associated with it.
People‘s online presence is often a distortion of reality. If we believe the rose tinted
view of other‘s lives, and compare ourselves too seriously with them, this can have a
negative impact on our self-image. We might think we are not successful enough, not smart
enough, or not good looking enough. A low self-esteem can lead to associated problems like
anxiety, depression and eating disorders. The problem is not that we are failures, the
problem is that we are judging ourselves according to an unattainably perfect benchmark.
Here are ways to ward off social media envy:
1. Remember that everything you are looking at is, at some degree, unrealistic—you
only see what others want you to see.
2. Make your life as exciting as you want to and treasure your real-life moments.
3. Transform envy into positive action.
4. Count your blessings. Success and happiness are subjective.
5. Remove what bothers you on social media. Unfollow if necessary.
6. Unplug, unplug, unplug. Practice social media detox from time to time.
2.3. Disinhibition Effect
In face-to-face interactions, we often hold back in things we really want to say or do
for fear of leaving a negative impression. Also, we abide by a set of decorum in such
situations because we are careful not to paint a wrong portrait of who we are. This is called
―impression management‖ coined by Erving Goffman.
But in the cyberspace, this might not be the case. For John Suler (2004), such
restrictions to behavior do not necessarily apply online. Unlike in real-life situations,
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individuals tend to act more intensely and openly in virtual interactions. This phenomenon is
what he calls the online disinhibition effect, or the removal of social inhibitions and/or
restrictions imposed upon people‘s behavior when engaging in the web. He further explains
that there are two main categories of behavior that fall under the abovementioned effect:
benign disinhibition and toxic disinhibition.
Benign disinhibition describes behavior in which people might self-disclose more on
the internet than they would in real life, or go out of their way to help someone or show
kindness. Toxic disinhibition describes behavior that includes rude language, threats, and
visiting places of pornography, crime, and violence on the internet-places the person might
not go to in real life.
One example of Toxic disinhibition is Cyberbullying. Cyberbullying is the use of
electronic communication to bully a person. Examples of cyberbullying include calling
someone mean names online, writing improper, abusive, or hurtful messages, or posting
inappropriate photos of someone that might cause their shame, sadness, embarrassment or
anger. Online behaviors of flaming (deliberately aggressive exchange), impersonation
(usurping an identity to damage someone‘s reputation), trolling (baiting others with
immature, mean comments), cyber stalking (repetitive, unwanted contact), and outing
(revealing someone‘s personal/private information) can be forms of cyberbullying.
Lesson 3: Setting Boundaries Online: Smart Sharing
The following guidelines will help you share information online in a smart way that will
protect yourself and not harm others. Before posting or sharing anything online, consider the
following:
1. What do I look like? (How would I appear to someone who doesn‘t know me?)
2. Is this ink permanent? (How long will this post last?)
3. Am I giving away too much about myself? (Is it even necessary for others to know
this?)
4. Would I want this shared about me? (How would it make me feel?)
5. Does it pass the Billboard test? (If this information were put on a billboard for all to
see, would I still be okay with it?)
3.1. Spotting Red Flags
How does someone know if something seems wrong? Trust your mind and gut
feelings when interacting with a new person online. They can ask themselves critical
questions, like:
 Has this person requested me to keep any information secret?
 Has this person flirted with me, or asked me about anything sexual?
 Has this person asked me about anything private?
 Have I felt pressured by this person to do anything?
 Do I feel untrue to myself when I talk to this person? Do I feel my values are being
broken?
If the answer is yes to any of these questions, that should be considered a ―red flag‖.
You should be wary of interacting with the person further. If there are multiple red flags, you
should stop immediately and consider telling a trusted person about the incident.
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Assessment
I.
Identification.
______ 1. This is summed up by the way you behave online.
______ 2. The process of controlling how one is perceived by others.
______ 3. The perception that others are living better lives than you.
______ 4. The removal of social restrictions while in the internet
______ 5. This includes rude language and threats online
______ 6. An interesting and new topic in consumer behavior research
______ 7. When a stranger asked about anything private online
______ 8. It is left by post that is made in a matter of seconds
______ 9. Activity to control information to steer opinion of others
______ 10. Behavior when people disclose more in the internet than in real life
II. Make a slogan or poster about the responsible use of the internet. Use coloring materials
or digital apps to work on your output. Share it on your Facebook account and use the
hashtags #UnderstandingTheSelf #DigitalSelf #DigitalCitizenship.
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UNIT 3
MANAGINGAND CARING FOR THE SELF
CHAPTER 1: LEARNING TO BE A BETTER STUDENT
Introduction
This is the last unit for this course. It is not enough to be able to define the self and
know its different components but to also we have to learn how to improve the self.
In this chapter, improving yourself entails knowing how the brain works during the
learning process. Learning involves change and changing one‘s behavior that mostly occur
through our daily experience in life. Generally, learning involves acquiring changes in the
present knowledge, skills, habits, behaviors, or tendencies through experience, practice, or
formal education. Therefore, just as Carl Rogers says, ―The only person who is educated is
the one who has learned how to learn and change‖.
Learning Outcomes
At the end of this chapter, you will be able to:
 Describe the learning process;
 Recognize several metacognition and studying techniques; and
 Identify studying techniques that best fits you.
Lesson 1: How Learning Happens in the Human Brain
According
to
neuroscientists, learning new
knowledge and skills everyday
keeps the structures of the
brain changing and increases
its ability to learn. Learning as
defined by behaviorists, it is
the
relatively
permanent
change in behavior as a result
of practice or experiences.
Cognitive psychologists define
learning as a process that lead
to change as a result of
Source: https://www.learnupon.com/blog/what-is-information-processing-theory/
experience. In other words,
learning is the acquisition of knowledge, skills, and attitudes through experience. Stevens
(2014) states that learning that results to a better change happens when the brain allows for
faster, stronger signaling between neurons as the brain gains new skills, but the best way to
speed up those signals is to slowly introduce new information to the head.
Let us look at the model developed by George Miller in the 1950s. It illustrates how
our brain process the information it gets from the environment. The first stage is sensory
memory. It is what we are experiencing
at any given moment. Inputs from the
To explore more, you may also watch:
environment enter our senses and
How Your Brain Processes Information
given meaning (perceived). Then, the
by Academic Success Center at Texas A&M University
information is filtered to our short-term
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wIaoBHY1NUE
memory or also known as our working
The Neuroscience of Learning
memory.
Some
information
are
by Halo Neuroscience
discarded especially when you are not
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_nWMP68DqHE
paying attention to it (decay/forgotten)
and some are encoded in the long-term
memory where we can retrieve it when we need to.
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1.1. Metacognition
Go-Monilla and Ramirez (2018) stated that metacognition is the awareness of one‘s
thinking and the strategies one uses to learn or simply defined as cognition about cognition
or thinking about thinking. According to Villafuerte, et al (2018), one of the amazing wonders
the brain is capable of is learning to learn. Metacognition gives students the ability to control
and direct their learning experience to develop powerful skills that can directly relate to their
academic and career success. It has two aspects (Alata, 2018):
1. Self-appraisal is how well you know your strengths and weaknesses. How vast your
current knowledge is and how well developed your skills are.
2. Self-management is a cognitive process where you plan on how to finish a task
based on what you have or possess in terms of knowledge, skills, abilities and other
characteristics.
Waterloo Student Success office (n.d.) introduced the following skills that can help you in
exercising your metacognition:
1. Knowing your limits – you have to have an honest evaluation of what you know and
what you do not know. Doing this will also look at the limitations in terms of resources
so that you can work with what you have and look for other ways to cope with the
lacking necessities.
2. Modifying your approach – it starts with recognizing the way you are solving a
problem or finishing a task is not working. Example is recognizing the you do not
understand what you are reading so you assess what needs to be done. It can be
having a five-minute break every 20 minutes of reading instead of finishing the
material in one sitting.
3. Skimming – this is browsing a material and looking for keywords, phrases or
sentences. For example, you might want to browse the table of contents first or the
introduction of the chapter to get an idea about the content of the material. This is
done when you are trying to read several materials in limited time frame or if you
want to focus on a certain topic to read about.
4. Rehearsing – this is making a personal interpretation of the things you have learned
and not merely repeatedly talking, writing and/or doing what you have learned. One
way to do it is to imagine yourself being interviewed about your task and as you try to
express what you have learned, you insert personal take on the matter. Just be sure
that the key concepts are still in-line with the source material.
5. Self-test – self-test should not only focus on what you have learned but also how you
learned it. You can create
To explore more, you may also watch:
your own self-test in
Metacognition: The Skill That Promotes Advanced Learning
index cards whether is an
by Peterson's
objective type of test or
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=elZFL4FLVLE
essay questions.
1.2. Study Strategies
Here are popular study strategies and learning techniques based on a metastudy evaluated by Dunslosky et al. (2013):
1. Questioning and explanation. Elaborative interrogation is a complex name for a
simple concept – asking one‘s self why something is the way it is or a particular
concept or fact is true, and providing the answer. Self-explanation refers to a similar
process, through which the explanation might take the form of answering why but
also other questions, as well as relating new information to information which is
already known.
2. Producing summaries of texts. This is likely to involve the reading and
comprehension of text, as well as the ability to identify the most important information
within it and to encapsulate it briefly in one‘s own words. It requires a complex set of
skills that ―it can be an effective learning strategy for learners who are already skilled
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at summarizing.‖ Summarizing may be the first stage of a learning process, with
other techniques such as self-testing, and self-explanation come subsequently for
review purposes. Imagery or ‗keywords mnemonics‘ for both vocabulary learning and
text memorization were found to be constrained to highly visual materials.
3. Highlighting and underlining portion of text. This also includes rereading.
Highlighting tended to work better for students who were more adept at identifying
the crucial-to-be-remembered aspects of a text.
1.3. Becoming a Self-regulated Learner
Zimmerman & Schunk (2001)
defined self-regulated learning (SRL)
as the process in which students
systematically direct their thoughts,
feelings, and actions toward the
Steps to Develop Metacognitive
attainment of their academic goals. It
and Self-Regulated Learning
is a process of taking control of and
Behaviors
evaluating one‘s own learning and
 Set your short-term and long-term
behavior. It is a self-directed process
academic goals in your studies
through which students transform their
 Identify the negative outcomes if you
don‘t achieve your goals as well as
mental abilities into academic skills. It
the positive outcomes when you
is also a cyclical process in which the
achieve them.
student plans for a task, monitors his
 Make a self-help plan to achieve your
or her performance, and reflects on
academic goals. Think and select
strategies to achieve your goals such
the outcome. The cycle is then
as staying focused, avoiding
repeated as the student uses his or
distractions, and developing skills to
her reflections to adjust and prepare
manage your time efficiently.
 Monitor your academic performance
for the next task. Thus students
and progress. Use a chart to monitor
practice their self-regulation learning
your work outcomes. When faced with
by setting goals, selecting and using
difficult tasks, seek social support
when you need it. Look for inspiration
strategies,
monitoring
their
to keep you motivated in achieving
performance, and reflecting on their
your academic goals. When
outcomes. Consequently, the three
confronted with difficulties, always
essential components of self-regulated
think and keep working toward your
goals and the future.
learning are planning, problem solving,
 Reflect on what you have learned and
and
self-evaluation.
Planning
accomplished. Reflection helps you
increases efficiency, control, and
develop your strengths and overcome
your weaknesses.
motivation. Problem solving allows
students to learn to think and look for
solutions when faced with adversities.
Self-evaluation
increases
selfawareness that leads to the better understanding of one‘s own emotions, strengths, and
weaknesses.
To explore more, you may also watch:
Self-Regulated Learning
by Lori Edwards
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3OQsT7w6MBM&t=9s
Assessment
Create maximum of 5 minute vlog on your study habits. How you get
your school work done? Send the video to your instructor.
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CHAPTER 2: SETTING GOALS FOR SUCCESS
Introduction
What do you want to be in the future? 5 years from now, how do you see yourself?
What is your ultimate goal in life? These questions are not unfamiliar to us but have you
really thought about the answers to these questions?
A goal is the object toward which the behavior is directed, usually within a specific
period of time (Go-Monilla & Ramirez, 2018). Goals can be related to one‘s career, health,
relationships, and more. Corpuz et al. (2019) clearly stated that goals serve as impetus in
order for us to work hard and maximize our abilities. Accordingly, our existence is anchored
on the goals we set to achieve. Whenever one goal is achieved, there comes another.
Achieving our goals provides us fulfillment and satisfaction. It empowers us and increases
our self-esteem. It is important, therefore, for us to clearly set our goals based on our skills
and abilities.
This chapter hopes to add to your understanding about setting goals, guide you to
set clear goals and inspire you to gain confidence that you can reach your goals.
Learning outcomes
At the end of this chapter, you will be able to:
 Expound the importance of setting goals;
 Understand Locke‘s Goal Setting Theory; and
 Set your own SMART goal/s.
Lesson 1: Locke’s Goal Setting Theory
Villafuerte et. al. (2018), explained that goal-setting is something most people
recognize as necessary for success. By understanding this theory, you can effectively apply
it to the goals you set. The best way to set goals is to look into the pioneering research of Dr.
Edwin Locke and another researcher who studied the effect of goal setting in the workplace,
Dr. Gary Latham. Locke and Latham (1990) enumerated the five principles of goal setting
namely: clarity, challenge, commitment, feedback, and task complexity.
1. Clarity. Clear goals are measurable and unambiguous. When a goal is clear and
specific, with a definite time set for completion, there is less misunderstanding
about what behaviors will be rewarded.
2. Challenge. One of the most important characteristics of goals is the level of
challenge. People are often motivated by achievement, and they will judge a goal
based on the significance of the anticipated accomplishment. When setting goals,
make each goal a challenge. If an assignment is easy and not viewed as very
important, then the effort may not be impressive.
3. Commitment. Goals must be understood and agreed upon if are to be effective. It
means that goals should be consistent and in line with previous expectations.
The harder the goal, the more commitment is required. If a goal is easy, there is
no need for a lot of commitment to get is done. Working on a difficult assignment
means more likely to encounter challenges that require a deeper source of
inspiration and incentive.
4. Feedback. This provides opportunities to clarify expectations, adjust goal,
difficulty, and gain recognition. It is important to provide benchmark opportunities
or targets, so individuals can determine for themselves how they are doing.
5. Task Complexity. People who work in complicated and demanding roles probably
have a high level of motivation already. However, they can push themselves too
hard if measures are not built into the goal expectations to account for the
complexity of task. It is therefore important to do the following: First, give the
person sufficient time to meet the goal or improve performance. Secondly,
provide enough time for the person to practice or learn what is expected and
required for success.
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Therefore the whole idea of goal setting is to facilitate a person‘s success. It has to
be made sure that the surrounding conditions inspire and allow people to accomplish their
objectives.
Locke (2002) identified four mechanisms that explain how goals affect performance.
1. Goals serve a directive function for they direct attention and effort toward goalrelevant activities and away from goal-irrelevant activities.
2. Goals have an energized function. High goals lead to great effort than low goals.
3. Goals affect persistence.
4. Goals affect action indirectly by leading to the arousal, discovery, and/or use of taskrelevant knowledge and strategies. This lesson lays down the theories that have
been useful in helping people understand their goals and motivations as well as the
needs and challenges that they face in their life journey to success.
1.1 SMART Goals
Source: https://thinkmarketingmagazine.com/how-to-create-smart-goals/
The theory of Locke pave the
way to the goal setting technique
devised by management experts
Kenneth Blanchard and Spencer
Johnson.
To explore more, you may also watch:
A Complete Guide to Goal Setting
by The Art of Improvement
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XpKvs-apvOs
Assessment
In a long bondpaper, make your dream board. 20 years from now, what do
you want to achieve or have in possession? On a separate sheet of yellow
paper, specify how you will achieve that goal.
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CHAPTER 3: STRESS AND MENTAL HEALTH CARE
Introduction
Before moving on to the last lesson for this module, you are encouraged to answer
the questionnaire below. Remember that you are not to write anything on the pages of this
module. Grab a separate sheet of paper and write down your answers. The questions in this
scale ask you about your feelings and thoughts DURING THE LAST MONTH. In each case,
you will be asked to indicate how often you felt or thought a certain way based on the scale
below:
0 = Never
2 = Sometimes
4 = Very Often
1 = Almost Never
3 = Fairly Often
0-4
1.
2.
How often have you been upset because of something that happened
unexpectedly?
How often have you felt that you were unable to control the important things
in your life?
3.
How often have you felt nervous and ―stressed‖?
4.
How often have you felt confident about your ability to handle your personal
problems?
5.
How often have you felt that things were going your way?
6.
How often have you found that you could not cope with all the things that you
had to do?
7.
How often have you been able to control irritations in your life?
8.
How often have you felt that you were on top of things?
9.
How often have you been angered because of things that were outside of
your control?
10. How often have you felt difficulties were piling up so high that you could not
overcome them?
TOTAL
Note: Before adding your total score, reverse score items 4, 5, 8, and 10 where an answer
of 4 is equal to 0, 3=1, 2=2, 1=3, and 0=4. Then, find the average. Any score higher than the
scores below indicates higher level of stress
Scoring:
Based on Sex
Based on Age group
Male: 12.1
18-29: 14.2 45-54: 12.6 65 and older: 12.0
Female: 13.7
30-44: 13.0 55-64: 11.9
The questionnaire you just answered is the Perceived Stress Scale developed by
Sheldon Cohen (1994). From the name itself, it measures your vulnerability to stressful
situations. Not only that, the scale can also be used to know your ability to quit smoking, to
control sugar intake (for people with diabetes), and having more colds (yup, this scale can
do just that).
If you scored low, CONGRATULATIONS! You have managed your daily
inconveniences in the past month very well. If your score was on the average level, you
might need to take it slow and pause for a minute. If you scored high, STOP what you‘re
doing right now. Drop this module and take a breather.
Remember this: SELF-CARE IS A PRIORITY, NOT A LUXURY.
Learning outcomes
At the end of this chapter, you will be able to:
 Understand the biology behind stress;
 Identify one‘s stressors and triggers; and
 Create a personalized self-care routine.
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Lesson 1: What is stress?
In the Philippines, any talk about mental health is discouraged. When someone says
that he/she has been having negative thoughts, people would often respond with,
“It’s all in your mind.”
“Kulang ka lang sa dasal.”
“Wag kang mag inarte.”
“Just think positive!”
“Kulang lang yan sa pansin.”
People have been so used to hearing these words that people eventually thought
that saying them is totally harmless. However, a seemingly harmless remark could turn
someone‘s life upside down. It is for this reason that you should know what mental health
means and how you can help advocate mental health wellness not only for you, but for
others as well.
Stress is any physical or mental reaction to any life event. Its normal to feel stressed.
Not all stress are bad for you. When we feel stress, it stimulates our body to ensure optimal
functioning of our organs and tissues such as the heart and muscles as well as the brain. It
can give burst of energy and focus.
1.1. The Biology of stress
When we experience stress due to a life event, the HPA (Hypothalamus-PituitaryAdrenal) axis is activated. It releases a hormone called cortisol which signals the body for
instant action. But if we experience prolonged stress, too much or too often stress that would
result to high levels of cortisol in the body, our brain is negatively affected. It increases the
activity
level
and
neural
connections in the amygdala, the
To explore more, you may also watch:
brain‘s fear center. The rise in
How stress affects your body - Sharon Horesh Bergquist
cortisol level would also result for
by TED-Ed
hippocampus, the part of the
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=v-t1Z5-oPtU
brain associated with learning, to
How stress affects your brain - Madhumita Murgia
memories and stress control
by TED-Ed
deteriorate. So if this weakens so
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WuyPuH9ojCE&t=58s
does our ability to control our
stress.
1.2. Can you be friends with Stress?
You are to take your final exam in one of your major courses. Aside from studying
for the exam, you are also to submit several requirements in your other courses. At home
you are also given house chores or else your parents won‘t let you rest from their constant
―reminders‖. When you are confronted with several tasks, what physiological reactions do
you notice in your body? How about the way that you think, observe, or take notice of your
environment? How are your mental and physical reactions different from when you are in a
relaxed state?
The situations mentioned above would have probably caused you a lot of stress.
Mental reactions to stress can affect focus, anxiety levels, and your emotions. Physical
reactions to stress include sweating, fast heartbeat, dilated eyes, and even frequent visit to
the comfort room. All of these physical reactions are caused by the chemical released by
your brain called cortisol. Cortisol helps you switch from a relaxed state to a more aroused
or alert state. This helps you to escape dangerous situations or survive the piercing eyes of
your parents when they need you to do
To explore more, you may also watch:
something. Kidding aside, cortisol is a
How to make stress your friend | Kelly McGonigal
chemical that is essential for your alertby TED
state. However, when cortisol level in the
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RcGyVTAoXEU
body is always high, it can cause the blood
vessel in your heart to constrict which can
result to health problems.
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For this reason, most people would try to avoid any stressful situation. But can we
really avoid stress? Unfortunately, we can‘t. However, changing how you view stress can
help you manage your stressors, or anything that can cause stress.
The study conducted by Keller, et al. (2012) revealed the surprising relationship
between our perception of stress and general health. The 8-year study showed that 43% of
those who reported to have experienced high levels of stress and at the same time have
negative perceptions of stress died prematurely than those who have experienced high
levels of stress but have a positive view of stress. The study concluded that the negative
perception of stress is what‘s causing the negative effects on people – not stress.
Lesson 2: What Do Studies Say About Self-Care and Mental Health?
Dekin (2019) defined self-care as providing adequate attention to your own
psychological and emotional wellbeing. While this may be a bit of a vague description, the
truth is, self-care doesn‘t look the same for any two people.
For extraverted people, being around other people in a social setting may meet their
emotional needs. Introverted people may prefer an evening watching a movie with a close
friend or significant other to get their social needs met. Some swear by warm bubble baths,
facial masks, and quiet music, while others want to hit the gym, take a road trip, drink a
coffee, or even take some time to clean their living space thoroughly.
There are practically endless ways to practice self-care and it all boils down to doing
things that you enjoy or need. While many people tend to think of pampering themselves or
indulging in guilty pleasures as self-care, it doesn‘t just end there. Self-care also
encompasses all the things you need to do to remain healthy, reduce stress, and feel as
mentally well as possible. This means that getting a massage is self-care, but so is cleaning
your home to reduce your stress. Enjoying an ice cream on a warm day is self-care. So does
attending therapy sessions to address your emotional needs, trauma, or mental illnesses.
Because self-care is the practice of caring for your physical, emotional, and
psychological wellbeing, it shouldn‘t be surprising to learn that it does, in fact, have an effect
on your mental health. It relies on increased self-awareness, which can benefit people who
are living with a mental illness. Practicing self-awareness can help you to recognize patterns
in your emotions, including events or situations that can trigger you. It can also help you to
recognize what activities or tasks are necessary of your wellbeing, soothe negative
symptoms of a mental illness or stress, or simply bring you pleasure or relaxation.
Many people find it difficult to provide self-care when it is most needed, due to
fatigue, feelings of hopelessness or guilt for indulging in something pleasurable, pain, limited
mobility, and other factors. People are quick to parrot the benefits of self-care for depression,
anxiety, and other mental or physical illnesses, but don‘t recognize the amount of labor selfcare can require, nor the struggles of people who are trying to provide self-care while also
living with their symptoms.
2.1. How to Practice Self-Care
That being said, self-care is an incredibly broad term for the practice you may already
be doing to feel your best or manage symptoms. Self-care doesn‘t need to be elaborate,
expensive, or labor-intensive to be effective—you may not even need to go out of your way
to practice self-care, just learn to observe how your routine affects your mood and
functioning.
Building a list of favorite self-care methods can be especially helpful in identifying
what activities make it easier for you to function, improve your mood, or reduce your stress
levels. Having a written list can help you quickly determine what to do if you should feel that
you‘re in need of a little extra care, as well, which can make it easier to provide self-care
when you‘re feeling low.
Your personal brand of self-care will depend on what works best for you, what you
enjoy, and your energy levels, personality, and other factors. Dekin (2019) proposed some
ideas to help you get started on providing yourself with the attention you deserve.
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
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
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Take a quick mental survey of your body. While breathing deeply, scan your
whole body, releasing tension as you find it. Check your posture and adjust as
necessary. It only takes a few seconds to do but can provide an immediate
change.
Practice healthy sleep habits and listen to your body’s needs. Going to bed
at an earlier time, ensuring that your bedroom is comfortable and quiet, and
practicing good screen-time habits before bed can help you enjoy a more restful
sleep.
Take care of your health needs. Schedule appointments with your doctor for
regular checkups, stay on top of your medications, or any other care you require
to maintain your physical health.
Exercise in some form. It‘s recommended that you get 30 minutes of moderate
exercise daily, but it may not be possible if you are struggling with a mental or
physical illness. Instead, focus on getting the exercise you can get, since even a
short walk to the mailbox is better than doing nothing.
Practice healthy eating habits. Eating regularly can help you to feel better,
even if you can‘t manage a nutrition-packed, home-cooked meal. Eating healthily
is obviously a great form of self-care, but so is simply making sure you eat
something each day.
If a beauty or skincare routine helps you, set aside time to pamper yourself
regularly. You might be surprised at the difference even a little bit of time to
focus on yourself can help.
Set aside time to talk with someone or to engage with your thoughts. Selfawareness is an important part of self-care, so don‘t neglect your emotions!
Here‘s a Self-care Bingo which you can use to check on yourself.
Assessment
In a long bond paper, draw
your top 10 stressors that
you constantly encounter
and the things you do to
cope up or deal with those
stressors.
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COURSE GUIDE
Course: Understanding the Self
Semester: First Semester
School Year: 2021-2022
Class schedule:
Instructor:
Course Description
The course deals with the nature of identity, as well as the factors and forces that affect the
development and maintenance of personal identity. More so, this course is intended to facilitate the
exploration of the issues and concerns regarding self and identity to arrive at a better understanding of
one‟s self. It strives to meet this goal by stressing the integration of the personal with the academic –
contextualizing matters discussed in the classroom and in the everyday experiences of the students -for better learning, generating a new appreciation for the learning process, and developing a more
critical and reflective attitude while enabling them to manage and improve their selves to attain a
better quality of life. This course also includes the mandatory topics on Family Planning and
Population Education.
Course Outline
TOPIC
Unit 1 DEFINING THE SELF: LOOKING THROUGH THE
DIFFERENT PERSPECTIVES
CHAPTER 1: What is Philosophy?
Lesson 1: The Global Economy
Lesson 2: Ancient Philosophy
Lesson 3: Modern Philosophy
Lesson 4: Contemporary Philosophy
CHAPTER 2: Sociology and Anthropology
Lesson 1: What is Sociology and Anthropology?
Lesson 2: Development of the Self
Lesson 3: The Self in Different Context
CHAPTER 3: Psychology
Lesson 1: Theories and Concepts in Psychology
Lesson 2: : Me-Self and I-Self: William James
Lesson 3: Real and Ideal Selves
Lesson 4: Self-Esteem and Self-Efficacy
CHAPTER 4: The Self in Eastern Thought
Lesson 1: The Self in the Eastern Thought
Lesson 2: Notions of the Self in Classical Eastern
Thoughts
Unit 2 UNPACKING THE SELF: DISCOVERING THE
COMPONENTS OF THE SELF
CHAPTER 1: The Physical and Sexual Self
Lesson 1: Physical Self
Lesson 2: Sexual Self
Lesson 3: Sexually Transmitted Diseases
Lesson 4: Natural and Artificial Methods of
Contraception
REFERENCES
Age of Enlightenment.” (n.d.), “Ancient
Philosophy.” (n.d.), Churchland, (1981), De
Landazuri, (2015), “Descartes, Rene |
Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.” (n.d.),
Gaarder & Møller, (2007), Meinwald, (2020),
Morzinski (2002), “Socrates.” (2018),
“Socrates.” (n.d.), “The Common Good.”
(2018), Vanzo, (2013)
Barnett, et al (2018), Covar, P., (2015),
KALikha (2019), Navarro, et al (2013),
Parsons, V., (2019), Pavlou, G. (2018), PePua, R., & Protacio-Marcelino, E. (2000),
Sökefeld, M. (1999)
Frank, et al (2010); Freud, S. (1905);
Horney, K. (1950); James, W. (1890); Jung,
C. G. (1921); Jung, C. G. (1948); Knight, Z.
G. (2017); Mcleod, S. (2014); Orth, et al
(2012); Oyserman, et al (2012); Passer &
Smith, (2007); Prasad, et al (2020); Rogers,
C. R. (1959); Stangor, et al (2014) Weiten,
et al (2014); Woźniak, M. (2018)
Alata, et al (2018); Arslan, F. (2014);
Bharati, S. J. (n.d.). Caslib, et al (2018);
Fadiman, J. & Frager, R. (1999); Ho, D.
(1995); Khalil, A. & Sheikh, S. (2016); Kohn,
L., & LaFargue, M. (1998); Mainali, M. K.
(2020); Nizamie, et al (2013); Saksena, S.
K. (1939
Alata, et al (2018); Caslib, et al (2018);
Contraception Methods - Family Planning.
(n.d.). Cruickshank, H. (n.d.); DiLonardo,
(2019); Frothingham, S. (n.d.); Gebhard, P.
H. (2019); Harrison, R. J. (2020); Rees, P.
(2001); Sexual Dysfunction & Disorders:
Treatment, Symptoms & Diagnosis. (n.d.);
The State of Queensland - Queensland
Health. (2019); World Health Organization:
WHO. (2020); Your Guide to the Sexual
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Response Cycle. (2002); Zimmermann, K.
A. (2018)
Alata et al., 2016; Belk, 1988; Caprariello&
Reis, 2012
CHAPTER 2: The Material Self
Lesson 1: Components of the Material Self
Lesson 2: What is Materialism?
Lesson 3: The pursuit of Happiness
MIDTERM
Alata et al., 2016; Frankl, 1992; Frankl&
CHAPTER 3: The Spiritual Self
Stein, 2005
Lesson 1: Religion and Spirituality
Lesson 2: Filipino beliefs in the Supernatural
Lesson 3: Finding the Creating Meaning
Alata et al., 2016; McCrone&Kiely, 2000
CHAPTER 4: The Political Self
Lesson 1: The Role of Politics
Lesson 2: Seeking the Filipino Identity
Lesson 3: Democracy – From Theirs to Ours
Lesson 4: Political culture
Lesson 5: Developing a Democratic Culture
Alata et al., 2016; Belk, 2013; Caspi, 2010;
CHAPTER 5: The Digital Self
Gibbs, Ellison &Heino, 2006; Gonzales &
Lesson 1: The Development of the Digital Self
Hancock, 2011
Lesson 2: Understanding your Online Identity
Lesson 3: Setting Boundaries Online: Smart Sharing
Alata et al., 2016
Unit 3 MANAGING AND CARING FOR THE SELF
CHAPTER 1: Learning to be a Better Student
Lesson 1: How Learning Happens in the Human Brain
Alata et al., 2016
CHAPTER 2: Setting Goals for Success
Lesson 1: Locke‟s Goal Setting Theory
Alata et al., 2016
CHAPTER 3: Stress and Mental Health Care
Lesson 1: What is stress?
Lesson 2: What Do Studies Say About Self-Care and
Mental Health?
FINALS
Course Requirements
1. Major examinations, quizzes, projects, reaction/reflection papers and other activities that shall
be submitted on the set deadline. Late submission would mean a deduction of points in the
grade for that requirement.
Course Learning Outcomes
Required Output
At the end of the course, the students are
expected:
CLO 1. Discuss the different representations
and conceptualizations of the self from
various disciplinal perspectives;
CLO 2. Compare and contrast how the self has
been represented across different
disciplines and perspectives;
CLO 3. Examine one‟s self against the different
influences, factors and forces that shape
the self;
CLO 4. Demonstrate critical and reflective
thought in analyzing and integrating the
development of one‟s self and identity by
developing a theory of the self;
CLO 5. Explore the different aspects of self and
 Reflection papers
 Reaction papers
 Essays
 Quizzes
 Art activities
 Examinations
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identity;
CLO 6. Understand the theoreticalunderpinnings
on how to manage and care for the
different aspects of the self;
CLO 7. Acquire and hone new skills and
learning for better managing of one‟s self
and behaviors; and
CLO 8. Apply these new skills to one‟s self and
functioning for a better quality of life.
Course Policies
Conduct of Major Examinations/Removal
Examination/Completion/Special
Examination
 Major Examinations will be conducted as
scheduled in the Academic Calendar of the
University.
 As stipulated in the Student Handbook,
conditional and incomplete grades obtained
during the 1st semester must be removed/
complied within one month after the
submission of the Report of Grades.
 Students who are to take a removal
examination or have incomplete grades will
be notified through a text message or
personal message in Facebook messenger.
 A special examination may be given only for
meritorious cases like illness/hospitalization
supported by a medical certificate from the
attending physician or University physician
or fortuitous events like earthquake,
typhoons, fire or death in the immediate
family. A written request has to be submitted
and approved by the Dean before the
instructor concerned gives such special
examination. (Source: Student Handbook)
Grading System
1. There will be two rating periods: Mid-term and
Finals
2. The grade for each rating period shall be
computed as:
50%- Assessments/Activities
50%- Major Examinations
3. Final Average Grade =
(Mid-term Grade + Finals Grade)/2
Class Discipline
 Everyone should maintain respect with
one another.
 All students are expected to behave with
academic honesty. Any form of cheating
will be dealt with accordingly.
 Students should participate actively or
get involved in class discussions and
other assignments/activities.
 Respect the privacy of one another.
Avoid spreading personal information of
your teacher or your classmate without
their permission.
References
Books
 Alata, E., Caslib B., Serafica, J., &Pawilen, R. (2016). Understanding the self. Quezon City, Manila: Rex
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Bookstore, Inc.
Ebooks
 Bandura, A. (1999). Social cognitive theory of personality. New York: Guilford Publications. PDF File.
 Caspi, A. (2010). Self presentation and its perception in online dating websites. Open University of
Israel. PDF file.
 Chaffee, J. (2016). The philosopher’s way (5th edition). New York: Pearson. PDF File.
 Demitrio (1995). Creation Myths among early Filipinos. PDF File.
 Fisher, H. (1994). The nature of romantic love. The Journal of NH Research, 6, 59-64. PDF File.
 Frankl, V. E. (1992). Man’s search for meaning.An introduction to logotherapy (4th edition). Boston,
Massachusetts: Beacon Press 25. PDF File.
 Frankle, R.S. & Stein P.L. (2005). Anthropology of religion, magic and witchcraft. Boston,
Massachusetts: Pearson. PDF File.
 Hornedo, F.H. (1980). Myths and symbols Philippines. Philippine Studies, 28(2), 228-231. PDF File.
 Marsella, A.J., Devos, G. & Hsu, F. (1985). Culture and self (asian and western perspectives). New
York: Tavistock Publications Ltd. PDF File.
 McCrone, D. &Keily, R. (2000). Nationalism and citizenship. Sociology, 4(1), 19-34. UK: BSA
Publications Limited. PDF File.
 Mead, G.H. (1934). Mind, Self and Society from the Standpoint of a Social Behaviorist. PDF file.
 Toren, C. (2011). „Anthropology and Psychology‟. Handbook of the Association of Social
Anthropologists. London, New York: Sage Publications. PDF File.
 Triandis, H.C. (1989). The self and social behaviour in differing cultural contexts. Psychological Review,
96(3) 506-520. PDF File
Articles
 Belk, R.W. (2013). Extended self in a digital world. The Journal of Consumer Research, 40(3), 477-500.
DOI 75.26.233.69
 Belk, R.W. (1988). Possessions and extended self. The Journal of Consumer Research, 15(2), 139-168.
Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/2489522
 Caprariello, P.A. &Heis, H.T. (2012). Todo, to have, or to share? Valuing experiences over material
possessions depends on the involvement of others. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. DOI:
10.1037/a0030953
 Gibbs, J.L., Ellison, N.B. &Heino, R.D. (2006). Self-presentation in online personals: the role of
anticipated future interaction, self-disclosure, and perceived success in internet dating. Communication
Research, 33(2), 152-177. DOI 10.1177/0093650205285368
 Gonzales, A. L. & Hancock, J. T. (2011). Mirror, mirror on my Facebook wall: effects of exposure to
Facebook on self-esteem.Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking, 14(1-2), 79-83. DOI:
10.1089/cyber.2009.0411
 Hasse, C. (2012). Psychological anthropology: a reader on self culture. Mind, Culture, and Activity, 19,
385-387. DOI: 10.1080/10749039.2011.606588
Consultation Schedule:
Instructor’s Contact Information:
Prepared by:
Approved:
Instructor
Program Head
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