Architects' Data: Building Design Reference

Ernst Neufert ARCHITECTS' DATA Second (International) English Edition General editor VincentJones Editorial consultant George Atkinson OBE BAArch) RIBA USA editor Wm Dudley Hunt Jr BScBArch FAIA Editor JohnThackara Deputy editor Richard Miles b Blackwell Science This document L contains 447 pages © 1980by Blackwell Science Ltd Editorial Offices: Osney Mead, Oxford 0X2 OEL 25 John Street, London WC1 N 2BL 23 Ainslie Place, Edinburgh EH3 6AJ 350 Main Street, Maiden MA 02148 5018,USA 54 UniversityStreet, Canton Victoria 3053,Australia 10, rue Casimir Delavigne 75006 Paris, France Other Editorial Offices: Blackwell Wissenschafts-Venlag GmbH Kurfurstendamm57 10707 Berlin, Germany Blackwell Science KK MG Koderimacho Building 7—10 Kodenmacho Nihombashi Chuo-ku, Tokyo 104, Japan All rightsreserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means,electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise,except as permitted by the UK Copyright, Designsand Patents Act 1988, without the prior permission of the publisher. First English language edition published by Crosby Lockwood Staples 1970 Reprinted 1973, 1975,1977, 1978(twIce) Second (International) English Edition first published in Great Britain 1980by Granada Publishing Ltd Reprinted (with minor amendments)1981 Reprinted 1982, 1984 Reissuedin paperback by Collins Professional and Technical Books 1985 Reprinted by BSP Professional Books 1988, 1990, 1991, 1992, 1993, 1994 Reprinted by Blackwell Science 1995, 1996, 1997, 1998 Original German edition published by Friedr. Vieweg & Sohn, Braunschweig, Wiesbaden,as Bauentwurfslehre Printed and bound in Great Britain at the Alden Press Limited, Oxford and Northampton The Blackwell Science logo is a trade markof Blackwell Science Ltd, registered at the United Kingdom Trade Marks Registry DISTRIBUTORS Marston Book Services Ltd P0 Box 269 Abingdon Oxon OX14 4YN (Orders Tel: 01235 465500 Fax: 01235465555) USA Blackwell Science, Inc. Commerce Place 350 Main Street Maiden, MA 021485018 (Orders: Tel: 800 759 6102 781 388 8250 Fax: 781 388 8255) Canada Copp ClarkProfessional 200 Adelaide Street, West, 3rd Floor Toronto, Ontario M5H 1W7 (Orders: Tel: 416 597-1616 800 815-9417 Fax: 416 597-1617) Australia Blackwell Science Pty Ltd 54 University Street Carlton, Victoria 3053 (Orders: Tel: 3 9347 0300 Fax: 393475001) British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data Neufert, Ernst, Architect's data.—2nd (international) English ed. 1. Architectural design: Technical data. I. Title II. Jones, Vincent, Ill Thackara, John IV. Miles, Richard 721'.0212 ISBN 0-632-02339-2 V Contents Flats & apartments ix Contributors x Acknowledgements 89 xi Foreword 90 Access xii Howto use the book 91 Fire precautions xiii Abbreviations 92 Internal planning 94 Point blocks 96 Duplex & triplex sections BASIC DATA Human scale in architecture 99 3 Drawing sheets 100 6 Drawing practice 9 Proportions Dimensions & space requirements Privategarages Gardens 104 Siting & layout 16 Thermal comfort 105 Soil preparation 17 Visual efficiency & acoustics 19 Access & circulation 20 Roadways/parking 25 Lighting 27 Shared accommodation 103 Enclosures 15 Quality of air 18 Pattern & texture/noise 97 Internal access 98 Stepped houses 2 UseofSlunits 11 Building types 106 Pergolas/paths/equipment 108 Trees/shrubs 109 Water 110 Gardens for disabled/rock gardens/roof gardens! floodlighting Daylight 111 Garden structures 33 Sunlight 112 Indoor gardens/roof gardens 113 Water lily & fish pools COMMUNITY 114 Swimming pools Houses 115 Private indoor pools 117 Domestic sauna 38 Design/organisation/orientation 41 Access 44 Standards & regulations Education 45 Relationship to otherbuildings 47 Thehouseplan 118 Schools: principles 119 Early school 55 Kitchens 120 Rural schools 61 Bathrooms 121 Middle age range 66 Public rooms 123 Olderagerange 70 Bedrooms 127 Boarding schools 73 Storage 76 Security/privacy 129 Media centres 77 Privateopen space 78 Adaptable houses 134 Colleges: lecture rooms 79 Underground houses 80 Energy saving houses 139 Drawing studios 82 Housing old people 85 Housing disabled 142 Dining rooms 88 Balconies 145 Libraries 130 Furniture 137 Schools ofart, design, drama,music 140 Student hostels 143 Youth hostels vi Contents Hospitals 149 Health services structure 150 Modular design 151 Means of escape/fire protection Restaurants 202 Planning factors 203 Space allowance 204 Table sizes 153 Design/building configurations 205 Snack bars 154 Ward design 206 Drive-in 156 Nurse working rooms 207 Using minimum space: restaurantcars & self-service 158 Ward design data/geriatric 160 Maternity 161 Paediatric& children Hotels 208 Types 162 Longstay 209 Flowdiagram 164 Psychiatric centres 210 Plan forms 165 Ward upgrading 211 166 Outpatients 212 Frontof house 168 Accident & emergency 213 169 Radiology 215 Administration 171 216 Guest bedrooms Operating Public rooms Kitchens & food stores 173 Intensive care 218 Building services 174 Cardiac surgical/transplant/limb fitting 219 Motels 175 Burns/physical medicine 221 176 Laboratories 224 Public houses Convention hotels 177 Pharmacy/libraries 178 Non-residentstaffchanging Office buildings 179 Offices/supply 225 Building type 180 Housekeeping 226 Definition of office areas 181 Community health care 227 Types of officeshell 228 Core Religion 230 Relationships 182 Churches 231 185 Mosques 232 Services 186 Synagogues 233 lnternalenvironment 187 Crematoria/mortuaries 234 Construction COMMERCE 235 Space standards 236 Special area requirements Shops &stores 188 Situation 189 Movement between floors/service details 191 Windows Means of escape 237 Spaces for meetings 239 Furniture 241 Storage 243 Equipment 192 Fire/boutiques 193 Food shops Banks 195 Chemist/men'swear/shoes/fashion fabrics 245 General/customer services/drive-in 196 Self-service 247 Examples 197 Supermarkets 198 Hypermarkets Vehicleservices 199 Shopping centres& precincts 248 Car parks vii Contents 251 Multi-storey car parks 253 Petrol stations 255 Bus parks 302 Beef cattle housing 303 Pigs: basic data 305 Pigs: management 257 Rail station passengerdetails 306 Pigs: rearing & fattening 307 Sheep: housing Airports 308 Sheep: handling/poultry housing 258 Planningsequence 309 259 Runways/taxiways/ferminals 260 Flow & functions 310 Small domestic animals: doves/rabbits/dogs/small poultry houses 261 Baggage handling/aircraftparking 311 262 Catering/aircraft maintenance/airfreight Poultry: space requirements Kennels/beehouses/ducks/geese 312 Crop storage: grass/straw/hay/potatoes 313 Crop storage: grain 314 Machinery & implement storage INDUSTRY Industrial buildings LEISURE 263 Site selection/site development Sport 315 Stadia: general design 264 Basicbuilding types/selection strategy 266 Factorybuilding types 269 Warehouses 316 Stadia: sightlines/traffic 317 Stadia: terraces/grandstand 273 Site layout 275 Industrial parks 318 Sport centres 320 Sport halls:use of undivided space 276 Building environment 322 Outdoor: pitches 277 Planning for fire control 324 Outdoor: athletics 278 Environmental compartmentation/workplace design 325 Indoor: pitches 280 Hygiene 326 Indoor: pitches/athletics tracks 282 Loading bays 327 Indoor: athletics training 284 Rail-served buildings 328 Indoor: sports needing own space 285 Workshops 288 Workshop equipment space 329 Swimming: indoorpools 333 Swimming: openair pools 289 Workshop examples 290 Workshop design factors 334 Swimming: divingpool dimensions 335 Swimming: slipperbaths/showers 336 Swimming: pool changing rooms Laboratories 338 Sauna planning 291 339 Tennis Classification/planning principles/space requirements 292 Services distribution/disposal systems/storage 293 Special requirements/related spaces/finishes 340 Ski jumping slopes 341 Ski lumping slopes/icerinks 342 Ice rinks/roller skating rinks Farmbuildings 294 Human welfare/cattle: basicdata 343 Golf 295 Cattle: waste production & disposal 346 Marinas 344 Equitation 296 Cattle: straw-bedded pens/cubicles/calf pens 297 Cattle: calf pens/feeding Theatres & Cinemas 298 Cattle: feeding/watering/ventilation/handling 348 Theatre regulation/organisation 299 Cattle handling/milking 349 Sight lines 350 Auditorium 301 Cattle: bull pens/dairy cowhousing viii Contents 351 Seating Lighting 352 Stage tower 353 Multiform 398 354 Cinema techniques/seating/multiple auditoria 400 355 Cloakrooms/projection rooms 356 General layout/lighting systems/heating/ventilation/use Doors &windows General/building lighting/glare 399 Task lighting/light sources/emergency lighting/outdoor Integration of electric lighting & daylighting of 16mm 357 Screen & sound systems 401 Doors: dimensions/fire safety/flow capacity/disabled persons 358 402 Doors: industrial types Drive-in cinemas 403 Windows: coordinatingsizes Museums 404 Windows: positioning/safety & accessfor cleaning 359 Rooms/general layout 405 Windows: basic types/selection check list/ventilation! 360 Lighting 361 Examples COMPONENTS asurement 363 Introduction double glazing 406 Windows: shading devices Corridors stairselevators 407 Walking speeds/corridor capacity/rampsfor disabled! waiting areas 364 Conversion factors 408 Stairs: tread & rise proportions/regulations/fire escape! stairs for disabled 366 Conversion tables 409 Escalatordimensions & traffic capacity/passenger conveyors Materials 382 Building materials physical characteristics 410 Elevator dimensions 411 Elevator traffic capacity/paternosters 412 Elavators for disabled/planning Services 383 Distribution 385 Methods of heating 386 Heating systems 392 Ventilation REFERENCE 393 Thermal insulation 413 Bibliography 395 Sound insulation 429 Index ix Contributors ErnstNeufert Professor Technische Hochschule Darmstadt Ernst Neufert, born in 1900, in 1919 became the first student of architecture at the Bauhaus in Weimar. He left at the end of 1920 for a study tour in southern Europe but before long Gropius called him back as his assistant. In 1924 he became technical director of the Bauhaus officesin Weimar and then manager ofthe Gropiusworkshop during the rebuilding of the Bauhaus in Dessau' and alsotaught in the department ofarchitecture atthe Bauhaus. In 1926 he became professor and director of the department of architectureat the newlyfounded Building Technical College in Weimar and shortly afterwards assistant director of the construction department. In 1930 he moved to Berlin to become head of the department of architecture at Itten, a private school of art, and started to workas a free-lance industrial architect. It was in Berlin that he brought outin 1936 the first edition of Bauentwurfslehre. Following the war he was co-founder and member of the board of directors of the Bund Deutscher Architekten (Federation of German Architects), was appointed professor at Darmstadf Polytechnic and director ofthe Institute forStandardisation (Institut fur Baunormung)and continued toworkalso as free-lance industrial architect. Professor Neufert has lectured in many cities, suchas Graz, Belgrade, Skople, Thessaloniki, Athens, Istanbul, Beirut, Karachi,Rangoon, Hong Kong, inJapan's major citiesand at Neutrain Los Angelesand FLWright inTaliesin West Arizona. He is honorary member of the Real Academica de Ciencias y Artes Barcelona and of the Royal Institute of British Architects, honorary professor and doctor at the University of Lima, Peru. He has been awarded the German Merit Cross with star, as well as various other German and foreign honours Ernst Neufert's other works include Bauordnungslehre (1943) and lndustriebauten (1973). UK contributors USA contributors Peter Ackroyd Dip Arch (Poly)Reg Arch TheSports Council AG Aldersley-Williams MArch(MIT) RIBA Engineering Design Consultants Norman SAllanson Des RCA FSIAD John SBonnington Partnership DerekWArnold ARIBA Nadine Beddington FRIBA FSIAD (assisted by DermotO'Brien FSIAD) Robin G Booth MA MSc Dip Arch RIBA MRTPI John SBonnington Partnership Jan PetrCermák-z-Uhrinova BSc(Hons) TEng(CEI)MIAgrE Scottish Farm Building Investigation Unit J B Collins BSc(Eng) CEng MIEE FCIBS DrFrancis Duffy ARIBA DuffyEley Giffone Worthington JolyonV P Drury MA(Cantab) DipArch RIBA MIMH Jolyon Drury Consultancy Nelson Foley RIBA ChiefArchitect Trust House Forte JA Godfrey ARIBA David Jenkin DuffyEley Giffone Worthington Eva M Jiricna DipI Eng Arch RIBA Louis Soissons Partnership Geraint John DipArch(UCL) RIBA TheSports Council Geoffrey Jones BArch(Lvpl) Olwen C Marlowe ARIBA Dip LD(Dunelm) DipTP(Birm) David LMedd OBEHon DSc ARIBA Department ofEducation & Science Mary B Medd OBE ARIBA Department ofEducation& Science AlanMorgan DipArch RIBA DermotO'Brien FSIAD G J P O'Neill Robert Payne DuffyEleyGiffone Worthington Elizabeth Phillips DipArch RWA ARIBA Dennis Sharp MA AA DipI RIBA Deyan Sudjic BSc DipArch Dr Martin Symes MA Dip Arch(Cantab) AA Planning Dip RIBA Richard E Theakston Dip Arch RIBA JohnSBonnington Partnership PR Tregenza BArch MBdgSc PhD RIBA MCIBS R EVickers DLCCEng MICE British LiftStab Ltd David Whitham MA(Cantab) AA Dipi Peter Frink BArch MScMFA Principal !rink BeuchatArchitects Walter Hart AlA Architect Wm Dudley HuntJr BSc BArch FAIA Margaret K Hunter BAAlA Architect Edgar H Hunter BABArch AlA Architect Robert T Packard BArch AlA Director AlA Documents/Architectural Graphic Standards Division MimiFord Paul BA BSArch Architect Bradford Perkins SeniorVice President & GeneralManager Perkins & WillArchitects 8 x Acknowledgements The Editors and the Publishers acknowledge with sincere thanks the kind help and information provided by many individuals and organisationsduringthe preparation of this work. The Publishers have made everyefforttoestablish and properly acknowledge thecopyright owners ofthe drawings and plans used in this book and wishtoapologiseforany unintentional omissions that may have been made. Should any otner acknowledgements be necessary the publishers will be happy todo so whenthe book is reprinted. Theworksof individual architects are acknowledgedthroughout thetext but particular thanks are also due to: HenryDreyfuss Associates forFig. 2 on page 9; TheArchitecturalPress forFig. 1 onpage19and Figs1 and 2onpage22; SunsetBooks for Fig. 4 on page 77; The Architectural Press for Figs 1-9 on page83, Fig. 1 on page 84, and Fig. 5on page86; SunsetBooks for Figs 5 and 6on page 113 and for Figs 6-11 on page 114; Moriyama and Teshima for Fig. 4on page 146; Ahrends Burton and Koralek for Fig. 2 on page 148; Powell Moya and Partners forFig. 3 on page 150; Watkins Gray Woodgate International (UK) forFig. 1 on page 155; R. Seifert and Partnersfor Fig. 5on page 157; The Nuffield Foundationfor Fig. 1 on page 161; Robert Matthew, Johnson-Marshalland PartnersforFig. 2onpage 161; George TrewDunn Beckles Willson Bowes for Fig. 1 on page 167; Wilson and Wilson for Fig. 2 on page168; Robert Matthew, Johnson-Marshalland PartnersforFig. 2onpage 171; The Oxford Regional HealthAuthority for Fig. 5 onpage172; Donald A. Goldfinch Associates for Fig. 1 on page 175; South East Thames Regional HealthAuthority for Fig. 1 on page 176; The Nuffield Foundationfor Fig. 2 on page 176; MehmetKonuralp for Fig. 3on page 192; Isabe lieHebeyfor Fig. 4 on page 192; The Architectural Press for Fig. 2 on page 198; The National Playing Fields Association for Fig. 1 on page 322 and Figures on pages 323—4; The Architectural Press for Figs. 1, 4and 5 on page346 and forFigs 2-4, 7 and 8 on page 347; Progressive Architecture for Fig. 3on page 361. The following are reproduced by permission ofthe Building Directorate, Scottish Development Department: Fig. 1 on page82, Figs 10and 11 on page83, Fig. 2 on page84 and Figs 1-4and 6-8 on page86; Fig. 1 on page 148 is reprinted fromArchitectural Record September 1976 © 1976, by McGraw-Hill, Inc., with all rights reserved; Fig. 2 onpage155 is reproduced with thepermission of theController of Her Majesty's Stationery Office; Fig. 1 on page 162 is reprinted with permission from the American Health Care Association Journal, Vol. 4, No. 4, July 1978. Copyright © American Health Care Association. All rights reserved; Fig. 3 on page 162 isreproduced courtesy ofArchitects Derek Stowand Partners in association with the Regional Architect, South West Thames Regional Health Authority; Fig. 2onpage164 is reprinted from Architectural Record October 1979 © 1979, by McGraw-Hill, Inc., with all rights reserved; Fig. 3 on page 171 is reproduced courtesy of Cullen Lochhead and Brown in association with the Chief Architect of Western Regional Hospital Board, T.D.W. Astorga, Esq., FRIBA; Fig. 1 onpage174 isreprinted fromArchitectural RecordAugust 1977© 1977, by McGraw-Hill, Inc., withall rights reserved; Fig. 4 onpage180 is reprinted fromArchitectural RecordAugust 1977© 1977, by McGraw-Hill, Inc., withall rights reserved; Fig. 1 on page 201 is reprinted fromArchitectural Record June 1978 © 1978, by McGraw-Hill, Inc., with all rights reserved; Fig. Son page291 is theZoology Extension, EdinburghUniversity and is reproduced by permission of the Designers, the Architecture Research Unit, University of Edinburgh; Fig. 1 on page 361 is reprinted from Architectural Record June 1977 © 1977, byMcGraw-Hill, Inc., with all rights reserved. xi Foreword Architects'Datafirst appeared in English in 1970, nearly thirtyfive years after Ernst Neufert published his rules for building design' — Bauentwurfslehre — based on his lectures at the Building Technical Collegein Weimar. He had arranged in one book for convenient reference during design work, data on the spatial needsof man in his home, his work place and his leisure, and on his animals, toolsand belongings. The book clearly meta need: in 1979 the 30th German edition appeared; it has also been published in Spanish (12 editions), Italian(5), French (5), The sequence of sections has been rearranged. All parts have beenreviewed, revised, brought up to date and in most instances expanded: this edition is twenty-five per cent longer and perhaps seventy-five per cent new in substance. Special attention has been given to new thinking on housing, education, hospitals, industrial construction and farm buildings. The section on sport and leisure has been made far more comprehensive.And throughout the implications of energy conservation, the needs of the elderly and disabled,and defenceagainstfire havebeen stressed. Portuguese(3), Serbocroat(3), and in Russian, Greek andTurkish; but beforethe present, only one edition in English,which came late on the scene. As the first internationaledition to be published the book contains several building types which are not common in some countries. Both British and American contributors liked this. In some instances,suchas shopping precincts,more than asingle building is involved; for these the information given is more general. In others, such as underground houses, prolects aswell as finished buildings have been given as examples, although this is the In the 1960s the book'sinternationalrepute led the Professional Literature Committee of the Royal Institute of British Architects and manyothers to recognise the need for an English language edition; but to convert to imperial measureswas a greatobstacle. Conversion tothemetric system in Britain and the Commonwealth changed this. An English edition becamepossible. It was edited by the late Rudolf Herz who had studied in Berlin and had practised many years as an architect in the United Kingdom. He had no easy task. With so big a book translationalone wasa major undertaking; furthermore much terminology and some practice details had to be modified. At that time, therefore, publishers and editordid not try to bring the whole book up to date;theyconcentrated on getting it out. During the 1970s the need for a new edition thoroughly revised became more pressing: there were new imperatives of energy conservation, economic constraintand changing social needs to affect the design of buildings. More influential still for such a work: the 'information explosion', whose full force will be felt duringthe 1 980s, changing the role of such a design handbook. When he wrote Architects' Data nearly fifty years ago Neutert provided a mixture of abstracted design, principles, hard data and examples. Today there is less need for illustration of construction details. Manufacturers increasingly distribute technical information which can be filed in uniform office systems; and withtelephone lineand videodisplay unit an office can reach vast computerised and regularly revised data banks. To make sense of this mass of information the architect now needs even clearer guidance on the principles and bases of design. Basis ofthe revision Ouraim, therefore, has been to simplify, rearrange and modernise. Requirements or advice contained in regulations,standardsand codes have for the most part been left out: theychange during the life of the book and vary from country to country; moreover for legal and codified data the designer should always look tothe original source. Full references have been given. Informationon construction elements (such as foundation, brickwork, roofs) can easily befoundelsewhere; it has been leftout or reduced to make moreroom for more fundamentalworkon building types. At the beginning 'Basic data' summarises the essentialsof the human scale in architecture and at the end 'Components' brings togethersomenew Europeanplanningguidelines forthespaces needed to install, operate and maintain the oftencomplex services now required in buildings; technical aspects of the internal environment; and practical criteria for such components as windows, doors, stairs and elevators.Thoughtheyare not directly applicable in a non-metric context we felt these pages to be of wide interest in their approach to the presentation of such information. In the body of the bookthe measureof whatto leave out, what to put in or to expand has been: does this help the designerin solving heror his problems of spatial needs? exception. Units of measurement The International System of Units (SI) is used for all units of measurement. A decision on how to apply the system faces architects and engineers when drawing plans. at what point to switch from the basic mm to the derivative m. There appears to be no ruling by authority on this. In Architects' Data it is solved in two ways. All linear measurements in text are given in millimetresup to 9999, standing as herewithout indicator,and from 10 m upwards they are givenin metres with the indicator m. On theotherhand in the many smalldiagramswhich formoneof the book's most useful elements, four figure dimensions would oftenmake for clutter: wherethereisthisdanger, for dimensions above 999 metres are used without the indicator m. There has to be one exception to this rule. In sportinternational dimensions standardsare given: some of theseare still expressed in 'imperial'or US customaryunits. This sectionthereforepresents an unavoidable mixture. To meetthe needsof users in the United States of America, who are mostly still using US customary or 'imperial' units, a set of conversion factors and tables is provided —.p364—81 (with a simplified version on p434). In other appropriate instances the graphicscale may be used (see below). Scales Many of the plans and diagrams in the book do not needscales; their purposeis to expressrelationships or situations. In many others the practical needs of the user are best answered by giving dimensions on the drawing. Scales are used only in relation to plans or diagrams of specific buildings or installations and these are shown graphically in metres and feet. Style This book is not literature; it is a practical manual. The text is telegraphic and predicatory; in this it follows the practice ofErnst Neufert, who wrote in his first edition that his aim had been to 'reduce, schematise, abstractthe elements of design basics so as to make simple imitation difficult and to oblige the user to create form and content out of data'. The size of many of the diagrams makes necessary the use of abbreviations, these are therefore used consistently in all plans and diagrams and in captions, the most common in the text also, the intention being that theyquickly become familiarto the user. Abbreviationsused in the book(—pxiii) are also listed forquickreferenceon p434 which carries the conversion tables and factors. Language is a usual problem in a book intended for users both xii Foreword nt sidesthe Atlantic, to mention othercontinents. Sometimes it is possible to find a neutral alternative expression; at others we have risked annoying everybody occasionally by choosing a word fromone or the other usage: thusthe British have to accept aisle', 'elevator' truck'; North Americans must stomach 'footpath', 'ground floor' for 'first floor' (and 'second' for 'first' . . 'cooker'for 'range' (which has a limited specific meaning in the United Kingdom). Only rarely have we fallen back on using a double expression such as 'trolley (cart)'. NorthAmericanreaders are also asked to accept that British spelling has been used all through. Distantly related is the problem of the rule of the road. Quite a numberof illustrations show access roads, car parking, turning circles and such details. Some have their origin in continental Europe, some in North America, some in the United Kingdom. Rather than try to convertall to one rule we have indicated on each relevantpage whether it refersto elior right handcirculation. Acknowledgements The contributors in the UK and USA who have made this new edition possible are named —pix. Authors, publishers,architects, institutions and public bodies who have allowed the use of copyrightsare listed on the pagefollowing. Warmest thanks to all. Planning and execution of the revisions, changes, new concepts and improvements, while a cooperativeeffort, have been entirely the publishers' responsibility. But theworkwould not have been possible without consultant editor George Atkinson, whose experience, technical knowledgeand practicaloutlook have been invaluable, We are indebted also to Wm Dudley Hunt, whose professionalism and expertise, which are the basisof the respect he already enjoys in the USA, have helped enormously in the completion ofthe book. Lastly we salute and thank Patricia Crowe, whose secretarial skills gave us a clear course through the seas of paper, and deputy editorRichard Miles, whostepped in to see things through in the later stages ofthe work. The formidabletask of drawing or revising the manynew or modified figures fell to Sheena Busby MSAAT and the design and layout of the printed page to Tony Leonard, to both of whom our sincerest thanks. Vincent Jones John Thackara How to use the book Arrangement The contents table —.pv shows the grouping of subjects & sequence ofthe book: frombasicdata for man & his buildings, through man in his community, to buildings for commerce, industry & leisure, to some technical planning data & regulations. It can be used to find the pages referring to a given subject suchas 'shops &stores'. The index —.p429 is a tool for quick reference to a point of detail eg 'access', 'shower', 'wheelchair'. Thebibliography —.p41 3 isdivided into3 parts: athe mainalphabetical (and numbered) list of publications for further reference, & extracted fromthis ba list of the most important regulations&codesofthe UK & USA, c a list of references under subject headings eg 'airports', 'disabled', 'offices','schools'. Abbreviations used—pxiu are also given on p434 together with conversion tables from metric to USA customary or imperial measures Units of measurement: Sl—pl, conversion—p364 & p434. Application Suppose you have to prepare a scheme for a college of further education. Under 'education' inthe contents there are pagereferences for lecture rooms (134), schools of art (137), student hostels (140), dining rooms (142), libraries (145): these together givesome ofthemain components needed. On studying thesepages you will find cross references (indicated—.) to other sections suchas accoustics (18 395), auditorium (350), cinemas (354), fire escape (44 91), kitchens (213), sanitary units (65), seating systems (351), shared accn (99), sighttines (351 ), space standards(44 48), workshops (288) General information on proportions & human measurements is given —.p9—24, on services, heating, lighting, sound ventilation & such components as elevators, stairs, windows —.p383—4l 2. Regulations & codes should be studied before starting any design: —.bibliography fora listof the most important. XIII Abbreviations Abbreviations used intext and diagrams are listed below, gal A ampere ar area gar GP gu AC alternating current accommodation administration architect American National Standards Institute American Society for Testing & Materials average NB: pluralsarenot used inabbreviations accn admin arch ANSI ASTM av h ha hb hr HUD hum Hz B b base bathr bedr balc bldg bldg reg BOCA BRE BS(I) Btu BZ bed bath basement bathroom bedroom balcony building building regulation Building Officials & Code Administrators Building Research Establishment British Standards (Institution) British thermal unit British zonal classification in J joule °K degree Kelvin kitchen or thermal conductivty kilogram kilogram-force kilometre IES IFLA ISO k kg km consult corr CP CSSD cupboard/USA cabinet degreeCelsius centre to centre/USA on centers candela central general stores children Chartered Institute of Building Services Commission internationalede I'Eclairage(International Commission on Illumination) cooker/USA range classroom cloakroom consultation, consulting (room) corridor code ofpractice central sterile supply depot d day or depth ME dayr dB DC deg dept DES DF DHSS dia DoE DPC dayroom decibel directcurrent degree department DepartmentofEducation &Science daylight factor DepartmentofHealth & SocialSecurity diameter Department ofthe Environment damp proofcourse diningroom dressing room domestic service room mm c/c Cd CGS ch CIBS CIE ck classr do di dre DSR E el eqp exam °E fdn FFL FHA fr ft illumination electrical equipment examination degree Fahrenheit foundation finished floorlevel/USA elevation Federal Housing Authority fire resistant foot gram height orhigh hall or hectare (wash) hand basin hour Deptof Housing & UrbanDevelopment humidity hertz InternationalConference ofBuilding Officials Illuminating Engineering Society InternationalFederation ofLibrary Associations InternationalOrganisation for Standardisation (Organisationinternationalede Normalisation) inch ICBO kgf C orcpd gallon garage general practitioner guestroom I Ia lab au lay lib liv lob lx m mdr max mech med MIT mm rn/s mur litre, length, long larder laboratory laundry lavatory ortoilet library living room lobby lux metre maid's room (Orau pair) maximum mechanical medical maintenancefactor minimum Massachusetts Institute ofTechnology millimetre metres persecond music room nur newton National Fire Protection Association nursery off oper OS OSHA office operating Ordnance Survey Occupational Safety & HealthAct P passenger, patient, person, pupil parents room/USA master bedroom physical education power take-off pantry N NFPA pa pe pto ptr R radr RC reg rh RHA RIBA radius radiator reinforced concrete regulation relative humidity Regional Health Authority Royal Institute of British Architects xiv Abbreviations s SBCC sd ser SfB sho sitr SI sk St sto stu second Southern Building Code Congress scullery servery system ofclassification (building literature) shower sitting room Système international dUnités sink seat store (-age) study ter tonne temperature tongued & grooved terrace UDC UF UK USA universal decimal classification utilisation factor United Kingdom United States of America temp T&G USHB USPHS uty United States Hospital Board United States Public Health Service utility room V volt W w watt width wardrobe/USA closet washroom water closet workroom working plane waiting room (orarea) wa washr wc workr wp wr yd yr 0 yard year centre line diameter greater than orequal to equal toor less than BasicData 1 The human scale in architecture 1 LeonardodaVinci: ruleofproportion In the past dimensions based on the human body, and on man's daily activities, provided a natural basis forall unitsof measurement.Common units like the inch — twelfth part of the foot, palm, hand, span, cubit — length of the forearm, eli — outstretched arm, yard — pace are directly related to dimensions of the body. Other units (pole, furlong, mile — pound, stone, bushel etc) have theirbasis in human activities. While trade was largely local and manufacture on a craft basis, local variations in measurements were of limited importance.The growth of science and technology, and the establishment of centralised states, typified in 18th century France, led to a demand for rationalisafion of weights and measures. This the metric system, first adopted in 1790, met. It had ageodetic and decimal base, divorced from human dimensionsand fromthe duodecimal bases of many earlier systems During the 19th and early 20th centuries, the metric system went through several refinements asscientific knowledge about the physical world progressed. Out of these refinementsarose the 'Système International d'Unités'(SI) now almost universallyadopted. Architects' Data isbased onthe use of SI units—.p2 Architectural design remains largely about man and his spatial needs. The aim of Architects'Data is to bring together in convenient form dimensional and spatial planning information relating to most human activities. Thechange to SI which took place in the UK —and many other English-speaking countries — in the 1970s stimulated a fresh look at userrequirements and their dimensional framework. The introductionof SI in the USA during the 1980s will have asimilar effect 2 BasicData Use of SI units The rationalisedmetric system Système InternationaldUnités (SI) isa quantity unit symbol length mass time el current metre kilogram second ampere degreeKelvin candela m kg absolutetemp luminousintensity s A CK cd coherent system, nearly all the quantities needed being derived from only 6 basic and arbitrarily defined units—9(1). note:practicalunit for temp isdegreeCelsius(°C): temp intervalsofKelvin& Celsiusare identical Basic units 1 name symbol orderofmagnitude expression giga mega kilo hecto deca G 10 deci centi milli micro nano k h da d 1000000 1000 100 10 0.1 0.01 0.001 0.000001 0.000000001 102 10 c 10 10 m 10 10 2 2 6 10 n SUPPLEMENTARY& DERIVEDUNITS 1000000000 i0 i0 M MUltiples & sub-multiples of SI units 2 name physicalquantity symbol newton oule N work,energy,quantity J powerorenergyflow watt W = kg m2/s3(orJ/s) pressure,stress pascal coulomb Pa C V of heat rate el charge el potential el capitance el resistance volt frequency magneticflux magneticflux density inductance luminousflux farad ohm hertz weber telsa F henry H urn lx lumen lux illumination ft Hz Wb T From the 6 basic units others have been derived and mostly given special names —C(3). For use in design ofbldg thesefall into 5 groups: space and time —.(4); mechanics and properties of matter —.(5); heat and energy—C(6); acoustics and sound -(7);and illumination—.(8).El units, already well established, are also reproduced—C(3). Some multiples and sub-multipes of basic units in common use also have special names: litre 103m3 tonne 10 kg hectare 10 m2 Conversion factors & tables —.p364—81. Use of SI units—.Bib135 relation tobasicunits = kgrn/S2 = kg m7/s2(orNm) force To avoid using largeorsmall numbers a set ofprefixes hasbeenagreed for general use in the SI system. These are set out—C(2). In selecting prefixesconsideration should be given toorders of magnitudelikelyto be met with in practical situations. To reduce confusion preference should begiven tomultiples and sub-multiples chosenin steps of1000. Those multiples shown in brackets—.(2)are not recommended. name temperature °K degreeKelvin degreeCelsius CC energy megajoule2 (heatisonly one torm kiloioule ofenergy) ioule = kg/rns2(or N/ni2) = As = kg rn2/s3A(orW/A) = A2s4/kg m2 (orAs/V) = kg rn2/s3A2 (orV/A) = cycle/s = kg m2/s2A2(orVs) = kg/s2A(orWb/m2) = kg m2/s2A(Vs/A) = cd sr = cdsr*/rn2(orlrn/rn2) millijoule megawatt kilowatt watt milliwatt k-value U-value newton/rn2 powerorheat flow rate (energy/time) conductivity transmittance vapourpressure vapourresistance (reciprocal of vapourdiffusion) vapourresistivity (reciprocal ot * sr sferadianorsolid anglesubtended at centreofunitradius sphereby unit area ofsurface symbol Mi kJ expression 1 °K (273.15°K) 1000000 J 1000 J J 1 mJ MW kW W mW 0.001 J J 1000000W 1000W 1 W 0.001 W W/mCC W/rn2°C N/m2(1 millibar= 100N/rn2) MN5/g MNs/ m vapourdiffusivityor permeability) DerivedSI units 3 quantity 1 quantity name symbol length kilometre metre millimetre km m mm squarekilometre km2 area volume velocity hectare squaremetre squarecentimetre ha cubic metre litre kilometre/hr metre/second m2 cm2 theabsoluteorKelvinscaleisusedin science andistheofficialSI scale butforall practical purposesCelsiusisused; expression 1000rn lm 2 1 therm 6 Energy,heat &thermalinsulation;technicaldatap16 393—4 0.001 m 1 000000 rn2 frequency m3 1 m3 soundlevel1 decibel dB I 0.001 m3 km/h 0.218m/s reverberation time2 absorption3 second sabin T s rn/s 1 rn/s 1 sound levels recorded usuallyasA-weightedsoundpressure inN/rn2 units: dB(A) 2 reverberation time = 0.16 V/AwhereV is volume of rrn in m3 & Ais totalsoundabsorption unitofabsorption, thesabin, = a x Swherea isthesound absorption coefficientofamaterial, Sitsar I mass tonne I l000000g Structuraldesign Hz cm2 expression 5 hertz (cycle/second) m2 symbol (force/area) symbol 1 name pressureor stress name 1 quantity (mass/acceleration) quantity 10000m2 4 Space&time force approximates to 105.5 MJ kilogram gram milligram kg g mg (1 000 kg) 1000g ig rAcousfics; technicaldata p18 395—7 quantity name symbol luminousintensity luminousflux (flowof light) candela lumen cd illurninance lux lm/m2 0.001 g 1000000 N meganewton MN kilonewton kN 1000N newton N iN (1 lbforce approximates to 4.5 N) Pa 1 N/rn2 Pascal (sometimes expressed as N/mm2) rn (lightfallingon surface) luminance apostilb (light emittedby source) (candela/rn2) 8 Illumination; technicaldata p25—6398—9 cd/rn2 BasicData 3 Drawing sheets LAYOUT& IDENTIFICATION Layout: on every sheetfiling margin, titleand identification panel. Filing margin: at left hand edge 20 wide. Filing punch marks and foldmarks printed as ticksatedges ofsheet(microfilming—.p7). -- Titlepanel: place in bottom right handcorner of sheet toaid reference when prints tiled or folded —(1)(2). Include: job title; drawing title; scale; date of drawing; job number; SfB and UDC reference if appropriate; name of architect. Panel may also give initialsof person drawing, tracing and checking sheet. USA panels—*(3). Revision suffix should be changed each time drawing issued after revision; or list each revision as is USA practice. Printed blank title panels or use of stencils, transfers or rubber stamps save timeand labOur, Information panel: note nature and date of each revision, with architect's initials; start atbottom ofpanel and workupwards Ifgeneral notes included start at top and workdown. Key: on large prolecfs give key diagram showing continuous drawing sheets, with appropriate partblacked inon each relevant drawing. Orientation: showN point on every plan. When practicable all plans should have same orientation, except for site location plan. For this draw N at fop ofsheetto avoid identificationwith official maps Information&title panels in USA a vertical arrangement bhorizontal 3 Al A2 iniormaiion panei iuiiepanei 0 ('I a 90 1 I Typicaltitle panel: vertical b —Is 8 180 2 Typicaltitle panel: horizontal BI AO 4 Basic Data Drawing sheets SIZES & FOLDS Standard sizes A0841 xl 189 Al 594 x 841 A2420x A3 297 x A4210x 594 420 297 These sizes all proportional, leading to simple reduction and enlargement: sheets may easily be folded tor filing and despatch. Relatively small sizes should lead to easier handling in drawing office and on site. Keepnumber ofsizesto mm toease binding and reference. Original drawings and contactcopies should each be ofstandard sizes; therefore avoid trimming sheets to less than A sizes. Folding Printsmay be folded toA4 size quite easily from any large A size. When prints are to be filed necessary to told in such way that punch holespenetrate only 1 layer. Methods offolding —.( 1)and p5. I I —-. —--———.———.- A0 841 ———- x 1189 -— Al 594 x 841 A2 420 x 594 A2 430 x 594 A3 298 x 420 1 Simplefoldingofdrawings BasicData 5 Drawing sheets SIZES & FOLDS A0 841 x 1189 :' 105 IN' //I I'// / >! I I I I Al 594 x 841 = 105— It H> V A2 0) 20 420 x 594 A3 297 x 420 1 Foldingofdrawingsforfiling 0) N- 420 x 594 A2 N- rg i BasicData 6 Drawing practice Designer's principal languageis through drawingand draughtsmanship. Drawingsexpress his intentionsclearly.Theyare internationallyreadable. Supplemented by schedules and specifications of materialsand workmanship they enable quantities of materials needed and prices to be estimated, bids to be drawn up, work to be planned by builder and carriedout on construction site. Drawingsare principal meansbywhich designer'sintentions are discussed with clientand authorities.On basis of architect's drawings designs of specialists (eg structural, mech, el engineer) and work of specialist contractors can be planned and coordinated. parts ofbldg &site typeof information kxation I-i, substructure II!-h.-_ superstructure secondary elements . -thJ-_-- foundation plan 4— finishes In recent years much attention has been given to use of drawings and theircoordination —up7. Draughtsmanhas availablewide range ofinstruments and tools. Since first English edition of Architects' Data unprecedented developments in reprographic techniques and computer seMces 111114__ fixtures 4-— Site graphics. WORKINGDRAWINGS assembly—1 [ L (foundation j details 4— 4— 4— i— 4— 4— Working drawings should convey bulk of technical information about bldg project. Builder needs to know 'shape', 'size'and 'location' ofbldg as whole and of all constitutent parts and must be told 'composition' of materials to be used and assembly and fastening methods (—v Bib 075 081). Grids on plans and key reference planes on elevations improve quality of dimensional information on working drawings; when repeated on details they help to locate them in bldg. Composition best dealt with in bills of quantities or specifications. Drawings and schedules should indicate materials used; graphic symbols may be used for this purpose substructure superstructure secondary elements tinlehes services fixtures site (—eBib142). Theset ofdrawings Two facetsof information used to classify information needed in structuring sets of drawings: first differentiates between location,assembly andcomponent information; second parts ofbldg and site-.-.(1). substructure superstructure secondary elements firushes services fixtures site —u(2) defines purposes oflocation,schedule, assembly and component drawings. Not every type of these drawings will be required for 1 bldg proiect. Some types of drawings and some types of information may be in appropriate circumstances combined. BRE tests favour elemental breakdown of bldg for systematic and convenient arrangement of information. —x(3) shows universal list of elements with codenumbers based on Cl/SfBtable 1 —up8 (—uBib553) (not used in USA). *there will beadditional drawingsdeafing withproject aswhole Arrangementoftheset 1 iocation site&externai Works therewill building be additional iocation drawings deahng with pro(ect as to identify, locate & dimension the Site & externat works toidentify, iocate & dimension parts & spaceswithinbldg & ioshow overaii shapes by plan,eievahon (— —) site,project to locategrids,datums S key substructure superstructure toconvey dimensions forsetting Out togiveotherinformation ofgenerai nature forwhichsmat scale is approriate (eqdoorswings) ground primary secondary substructure eiements eiemenfs orsection reference planes whole (3—) (4—) togiveiocation & setting-out (10) (20) (30) cross-references ioshow cross-references to (it) (2t( (3t) (4t) ground external wails evternal openings external )t2) (22) internal walls (42) (t3( (23) floors (32) internat openings (33) floor openings (34) baiustrades information about 1 eiemerit. or groupofreiated elements eiement: tocolectrepetitive information about elements orproducts which eiement. toshow assembiy ofparts of f element including shape size ofthoseparts toshow an element at its unction withanother element toshow cross-references to other assembly & component drawings floorbeds (t4) )t5) (t6) (24) stairs, ramps (25) internal (43) floor (44) stair (45) suspended ceiling ceitings (36) (46) (351 2 eiement or sub-elements toshow shape, dimensions & assembly (&possibly composition) ofcomponent tobe made away frombldg toshow coinponent parts ofan inSitu assemblywhich cannotbe defined adequately onassembly drawing Typeofdrawing& purpose (5t) (6—) (7—) (8—) (9—) mainly lived loose external elements (60) (70) (80) (90) external works (61) el suppiy (it) el (81) (91) circulation circulation (52) (62) drainage, power waste (72) seating fixed (82) seating loose (92) (53) liquid supply (54) gases supply (73) culinary (83) cutinary (93) (64) (74) communications sanitary (84) sanitary (94) (65) (75) cleaning (851 (95) (76) sto screening (77) special activity (78) (86) (96) sf0 screening (551 (63) hghting space coohng (17) piles (27) roofs (37) roof openings (47) roof (18) (28) frames 138) (48) (581 3 site fittings (66) space transport heating (57) (67) ventitation (261 foundations component (5—) element: occurin variety torecord cross-references to assembly & component drawings assembty (2—) finishes mainly piped (40) (50) schedules, assembly & component drawings schedute (1—) services 156) Elemental breakdown(from Ct/SfBtable 1) (68) security, control cieaning (87) special activity (88) (97) (98) BasicData 7 Drawing practice WORKINGDRAWINGS(cont) Elementcode (stairs) Numbering, titling&coding —(1)shows simple numbering system, (—.BibO8l).Other information, suchas job number, or information relating drawing to particularblock, zoneor rm, best placed inseparate but adjacent block. Sheetnumber Titles should be brief but comprehensive. If drawing shows particular feature of element, this should be stated in title, If detail applies at particular location, thistoo should be stated—.(2). Schedules of components, finishes etc can be used as convenient collecting centres for cross-reference. A(24)2 Assemblydrawings Preparation oftechnical drawings formicrofilming 1 2 (4)(—.Bib128). Title Title Assembly Assembly Stairs Frame Halflanding staircase No 3 Beamsongrid lines A & C Drawings should be on smallest standard sheet size compatible with clarity. Drawing sheets larger than AO' should be avoided. Centring markin form of line should be shown at centre of each of 4 sides at drawing frame —.(3). Since size of copy printed back from microfilm usually different from size oforiginal reference to scale used should bestated on drawing: eg (original scale 1:5). Titling designation nominal size nominal ofsheet borderw xl AU Al A2 A3 A4 554 x 801 400 x 574 long 297x 277x400 longside 420 210x297 10 10 International papersizes Derivation of ISO A series of paper sizes —.(5). drawing frame preferred size orientation* 841 189 20 594 x 841 20 420 x 594 10 * To facilitate automated 3 Microfilming increasingly used for storing record drawings Drawing sizes —=(3) and mm character height for capital letters and numbers Simplenumberingsystem 801 x and folds—.p45. 1149 Scale ratios Introduction of metric reduces number of scale ratios compared with USA traditional scales —(6). horizontal 190x277 vertical metricscales traditionalscales printing on rollstock (expressed asratio) drawingsheetsize Al, A2& A3 drawing number AU, &title dimensions & all other characters mm 5 AU 3.5 & A4 4=10" 3=10" 2=10" 7 A4 Al, A2, A3 fullsize half full size character h 11/2'' = Mm = 10'' /0=10 Al AD B41594 (1:250) (limiteduse) 1'lO 1:20 [1:32] [1:48] 1:50 [1:60] [1:64] [1:96] 1:100 [1:196] 1=200" [1:240] = 10" [1:384) 1" =400" (limited use) [1:8] 1"=lO'O" = 10" 1/16' = 10'' 1/32" (1:25) 1:5 [1:24] 1" = 5'O" characterh forcapital letters&numerals nochange nochange [1:6] = 10'' 1/4''= 10'' 1:2 [1:4] 10" ¾" = 10" is 1:1 [1:2] [1:3] [1:12] [1:16] 1/2'' note: it is stressed that recommendations in thistable aremm; however, whenlowercaselettersare usedthey should beproportioned sothatbody h approx 0.6 times capital letterh [1:11 1=10" = 3/4 2.5 10'' [1:120] [1:128] 1:200 [1:480] 1:500 1" =500" 1" =600" ll89B41 geometricderivationof ISO 'A'senes constant ratio ofsides1: '2 — successivehalving ofsheet sizes lar ofADsheet 1 m) 1" = 1 chain A3j 420 297 [1 1=800" 425 [1:600) [1:720] [1:792] [1:960] 1:1000 total: 24 9 1 (2) 5 ISOAseriesofinternationalpapersizes 6 remarks preferred other Drawingsheet sizes &framesizes application Drawing sheets sizes Metric&traditionalscaleratioscompared 8 BasicData Drawing practice LEVELS REFERENCING General Levelson section& elevation Datum should be prolectedbeyonddrawingwith arrowhead indicating appropriate tine—(1a). Levels record distance of position above or below defined datum. Properlysurveys refer site elevationstodatumestablishedbygovernment on olticial maps. UK temporary bench mark tTBM) USA site bench mark establishes ptane to which atl other tevets related as positive it above' and negative if below Dimensions given in mm, or in USA rormatiy in ft and tenths of ft. in relation to datum Levelson plan On site diawings show existing levels ditterently fromintended levets Existirrg contours showndotted new contoursin solidlines. Spot elevations ahown existingleveL x 58.21 row level Ix 60.251 Exact position towhich level apptiesshould be indicated by 'x [root levels should be clearly indicatedon plans UK Finished Floor Level FFL 60.25 USA Finshed Floor Elevation FFE 60 25 UK practice usessame method as for tevets on plan except that level Classification& coding tn USA practice drawings used to show locations and dimensions ot btdg elements and materials identified in notes bygeneric terminology. Specifications accompanying drawings describe materials and workmanship. Widespread use of standard construction indexing system improved both coordination and reference between drawings and specifications and costestimating and product data StB system of classificationand coding ot btdg componentsand elements (applied in UK as Cl/StB —.Bib553(allows information be coordinated and correlated By means of SfB information contained within different kinds of documents (eg billsof quantity,drawings, specifications,texts,frade literature) can be coordinated and correlated for max benefit of user. StB is facet system of alpha-numericalsymbols forming 3 tables which may be used individually or in combination to indicate concepts and terms required Levels on sectior' arid elevation —l1). These tables list: building elements, components/products, materials; alsop6(3). FFL 107.0OO 01 lfirsifloor) FFL 101.0001 G (ground floor) G-01 mezzanine) TBM 100.000, FFL datum FFL 1O4.OO0 V level 98.000 B-01 (basementl V Eachtype ofcomponent orelement shown ondrawing may be identified by appropriate StB notation eg: Ff2 concrete blocks Gf2 concrete lintels aluminium sections Hh4 hardwood sections Hi3 manholes (52) external walls (211 windows (31) doors (32) radiators (56) Notations may be combined eg: external walls, concrete block (21 (Ff2 windows, aluminium (31)Hh4 doors, hardwood (32)Hi3 Keep number and length of component and element notations to mm compatible with rational system of identificationforeach particular ob. Specific component within any range may be identified by suffix giving nominal sizesforlength, width, height: concreteblock Ff2400mmx 100mm x 200mm - -.- -- i— elevation9753 U elevation secondfloor 6096 1L Alternatively, where principles of modular coordination are applied, such suffix may give nominalsizes forcomponentorelement in multiples of 100mm(M( eg: concrete block Ff2 4M x 1M x 2M 0 C,-, 0-mezzanine elevation3048 firsto I ground - floor eievaiion 00 'I,), varies groundlevel Igrade) _____ I-)—. Nexisting grade elevarion 386r b 1 Levelson section& elevation a UK bUSA Drawing practice references: —Bibtiography entries061 075081 082 095 127 128 135 142 290 322 448463553621 638 BasicData 9 Proportions MAN: THE UNIVERSALSTANDARD 1 Proportions of humanbody Bodyand reach characteristicsotpeople of key importance inarchitectural design: fromearly time artists and scientists have been concerned with dimensions and proportions of human body —.(1). In such dimensional systems human body has been measured in terms ofhand, foot, arm or head. Using data from anthropometrical survey one can plot graphsofmeasurements againsttheirfrequency ofoccurrence forming curvedline —.(2). Normal, or bell-shaped, curve obtained when adult standing heights or other measurementswhich depend on bone structure shownon graph. Curve is symmetrical if measurementsof group normally distributed. People by reason ofage, sex, physique and, possibly, disability show wide range of body and reach dimensions Anthropometry name used for science of measurement of human body and its movements in space. From studies of functional anatomy concept of effective work space has beendeveloped. Architects' Data brings together much of this information. Although for purposes of design usually necessary to use av human dimensions as criteria, should be borne in mind that only half or less of population under consideration may be fully satisfied. In somecircumstances, particularly when designing for young children, elderly or disabled, necessary totake account ofspecial needs, and of variations fromav. In stature adult femalesaverageabout 5% less than adult males and elderly women up to 1O% less. sIandnlg6 7 78 3SD 76 75 2SD—74 1 SD ___________________ mean medrarc& node — mean 68 I SD 6 6€ 65 64 2SD'— Semicurve 62 3SD—61 60 Q 1 2000 3000 4000 5000 Frequencynumbercr1 maies) 60 7000 8000 9000 Frequencydistributioncurveforstanding h USA males 10000 10 Basic Data Proportions Systems ofproportions have been used in design byarchitectsthroughout the centuries. Measurementsof classical bldg show basis of geometrical proportion —.(1). '1 One frequently used proportionalrelationshipbasedon goldensection: relationship M:rn in which minor part m is to major part M as this is to sum of both ie: m:M = M:(Mm)-.(2) RELATIONTO HUMAN SCALE One architect to develop proportional system for use in design was Le Corbusier. His concept Le Modu/or (Bib445)was first publishedin 1948, though he had been evolvingthe ideaofcombininghuman dimensionsin a mathematicalframework for some time previouslyin an attempt to use in his designs a measure related tothe human scale which was universallyapplicable. System uses Golden Section to mark out divisions of human body —(3)(4). First proposal for Le Modulor was based on mans height of 1 720 (approx 5 ft 9 in), giving with outstretched arm —.(3) overall dimension of2160. Later height of6ffDin (orabout 1 830) was adopted, giving overall dimension of 2260 Based on these last dimensions 2 series, red progression and blue progression, were developed —.(6). Each dimension is proportionally larger, or smaller, than its neighbour giving harmonious progression. Using dimensions from the 2 series a series of rectangulargrids can be formed, basedon Golden Section but related tohuman scale. 1 CornerofDoruc templebased ongoldensection 1 I 1 \ \\ I- /2 , M - --\----/: / m \' 4 '1 J j• 4 I The modular mA—M—Am-' 2160 5 Greektemplein plan&elevation based,as in—fl),on golden section dimensions inSI units inmm dimensionsininches roundedto V2" redprogression redprogression 952807 588867 363940 224927 139013 85914 53098 32816 20282 12535 7747 4788 2959 1829 1130 698 432 267 165 102 63 39 24 15 9 6 3 Humanproportions E V2 Rectanglewith sides correspondingtogoldensection 2 a 6 biue progression 1177735 727880 449855 278025 171829 106196 65633 40563 25069 15494 9576 5918 3658 2260 1 397 863 534 330 204 126 blue progression 306 609 1881, 377 1161/2 44½ 233 144 89 27½ 55 17 34 10½ 21 6½ 13 72 4 8 78 48 30 18 11 Explanationsof dimensions&workingofLeCorbusier'smodular Basic Data 11 Man DIMENSIONS& SPACEREQUIREMENTS co Body measurements (I) —.(1 )—(20) showbody measurementsbasedon Europeandata.—(21 )— (26) show further body measurements based on USA data. School children —.p131—32. 1375 F—750— —1 —625—-—f a a '— 625 1—300-I small easychair for sewin' I— — 900—1000 17 I 1250 —1 1V 1500 I 19i 1625 i 201 2000 F—860-— —710— 24 ___ 12 Basic Data Man DIMENSIONS& SPACEREQUIREMENTS Mm dimensions and space requirements of human beings in some common situations,basedon European measurements—.also p1 1 13 14 Space requirements between walls (for moving personsadd h* 13751 4 1 2 i 875 1000 I 4 1150 4 3 1 Q% to w) — I 5 1700 -- 6 - I 2250 7 Space requirements of groups 9 8 Closelypacked Normalspacing 10 Choir 11 12 Withshoulder loads Waitingqueue Step measurements 750- 4 750 —4 750 I- -4 13 14 875 - Marching requirementsof variousbodypostures r f 875—-I—-- 875 -—-4 1250 4-—-- 15 - 625 —4 2000 16 Max/rn Strolling = 6persons 0 H—1 125—1 I— 1000—H 17 18 4— 1125 —H 4_ 4— 875 —4 20 19 —1000 —I 4— 26 27 2125 21 b— 875—I —1000 —4 4—-—- 1750 22 23 24 —---4 Space requirements with stick & umbrella Spacerequirements for hand luggage F—800 —4 25 4-—625--t —4 —875-—1 28 BasicData 13 Man DIMENSIONS& SPACEREQUIREMENTS: ACCESS FORWORKON BUILDINGS min2450 + —- Bodyclearance: prone 1 1000 —4-- 9 Service access: panel t -$ rI(I mm 560 to 600 2 Body clearance: crawl rnin if00 1250 3 Lj Bodyclearance: squat mm -+--900-+- angle 0 W 50—55" 1620—1 570 57—60 1500—1450 63—66' 1370—1320 69—72' 1270—1200 74—55" 1150—1050 300 to350 10 4 recommended forangles 50" to 75" handrails required onboth sides ifrisers not left open orit nosidewalls w 500-600with handrails 600mm between sidewalls Serviceaccess: catwalk 880 900 910 920 950 recommended riser 180—250 tread 75- 150 45 dia max forhandrail Body clearance: stoop 13 Service access: step ladders w# 5 Bodyclearance maintenance reachlevels 900 760 1550 stand el1220 11 Service access. stairs 920 L1_-_600 mm entries for I man 330—450difficult 450—610 fair 61 0—920good 300 inclined 150 vertical wmin800 1100 650dia 7 (800 square preferable) Service access: crawlway ft mm angle R 330 1150 335 1050 340 1000 950 350 850 360 900 850 875° 370 90.00 380 max 800 300 450dia or Service access: hatch Proportions references Bibliography entries 075 081 082 445 W 75.0° 78.0° 80.5° 83,0° optimumrange square 8 generally suitable forvertical movements75—90 ladder frame should extend900aboveplatform w 380mm. 450 desirable 600 mm between sidewalls 150 toe space 12 Service access. ramps provide back guardover 6000h 14 Serviceaccess: rung ladders 14 Basic Data Man WALKINGSPEEDS& FLOW CAPACITY —aIsop407 DIMENSIONS& SPACEREQUIREMENTS NB Europeandata (1)—(7); USA (8)(9) Stairs Relation between riser and going for most normal staircases 2R: 1G = riser (not greater than 190, or tor elderly and ambulant disabled not more than 170: external steps 145 preferred) and G = going (not less than 240, orfor elderly and ambulantdisabled not less than 250: external steps 370 preferred). Av walking speeds on stairs lower than in corridors: generally laster down than up but in dense crowd down may be slower. Number of mis-steps increases as size of tread reduced: more accidents going downstairs than up. Design details -.p86(5) 408/3 where R I— 625 - Corridors& ramps Normalpaceofmale adult on horizontalplane 1 2 On ramp pace reduced: desirableslope 10%—8% 350—400 Factors affecting walking speeds on level footways (in oroutdoors): purpose ofjourney; age and sex; whether single person or in group: air temp(quicker in cold); floorsurface; whether carrying weight; crowd density: flow pattern. Walking speeds vary within crowd; range between highest and lowest speed can be equal to mean value. a 3 Tread&riseproportionrule-ofthumb:going + twicerise = 600 4 Ifstairs narroworcurved distanceof walklinefromouterstring 450—400 Limit of free flow conditions in corridors: approx 0.3 P/rn2; higher densities limit individual's ability walkat natural speed and overtake. At density 1.4 P/rn2 (commonly adopted design max) most people will be walking atless than natural speed and feel some discomfort Short length of slope in level toofway scarcely affects walking speed; 5%). Steeper ramps can reduce similarly for low gradient ramps speed markedly: eg by20% with 10% gradient,40% with 15% gradient. Elderly and disabled (—.p85(2) 87(11)) generally walk more slowly down than up ramp (gradient 8%). Design details —op407. ( Doors With heavy trafficspeed offlow through doors depends on type of user (eg old/young, carrying weight) and on density of traffic each side of door. For heavy 2-waytraffic 2 separateopenings desirable. Design details op401 —2. Elevators Traffic capacity determined by analysisofflowpattern—op410—12 5 If stairswide &straightdistance ofwalk line fromhandrail550 6 W ofstairsallowing2peopleto pass w same as stairs 2030 mm 970 5—15 7 W ofstairsallowing3peopleto meet &pass 8 Stairs:USA dimensions 9 Ramp: USA dimensions Basic Data 15 Man & his buildings Bldg shelter man against unwanted effects of weather, A principal functionof their design is to ensure within bldg environment conducive towell-being and efficiency. Severalphysicalvariablestogether involved in determining whether environment is, or is not, acceptable for 1 or more human activities. There are indices which combine in various ways physical variables which relate to human responses; 3 of these indices relate to: thermal comfort, visual efficiency, acceptable levels of noise—p16 17 18. Quality of air must be acceptable,not containing contaminants whichmay be unpleasantoreven harmful. constituentgas % byvolume nitrogen oxygen 78.08 20.94 0.03 0.95 carbondioxide argon & othergases Compositionofdryatmosphere 1 source contaminants physiological C02,H20,bodyodour combustion(fullyburntfuels) combustion(unburntor partially burntfuels) householdactivities tobaccosmoking C02,H20,S02 C0,CH4, petrolvapour H70,odours GO, odours, irritants 2 Commoncontaminantsofair Qualityofair Fresh air in open country consists largely of nitrogen, oxygen, water vapourand small amounts ofothergases. Amount ofwater vapour in air always changing. Composition ofdry air—(1). Outside air may be polluted by contaminants released from industrial processes, burning of fossil fuelsfor heatingortransportation,dust etc. Indoor air may also be polluted —(2). Rates.at which contaminants produced vary in part according to kinds of activity going on—(3)—(5). Limiting values of common contaminants—(6). Odours, mainly body odourand consequences of tobacco smoking, present special problem: consist oflarge number ofconstituent chemicals in small but variable proportions. Attempts to define and measure odours chemicallyusually unsuccessful.In general tobaccoodour masks body odour. Withnearly all odours effects become rapidly less noticed after few minutes in conthminatedspace. Fresh air supply needed to maintain body odour at satisfactory level depends upon standards of personal hygiene. Different for adults and children —.(7). For tobacco odourconditions, habits and patterns of occupancy vary greatly. Ventilation requirements for offices depend on whether office space small (when may be assumed all occupants smoke) or large open-plan (when on avonly 50% or less will be smokers)—(8). Air quality may be maintained in 3 ways: by controlling production of a contaminant, venting anyresidue toopenair; bydiluting contaminant by bringing in outdoor airthrough windows,ventilatorsetc;byreplacingused and contaminated airmechanically through system ofairconditioning. For exact conditions check relevant codes and standards. contaminant activity C02(l/s/P) resting light work moderatework heavywork very heavy work H20 (water vapour) g/s/P 0.004 0.006—0.013 0.013—0.02 0.02—0.026 0.026—0 032 a 0 30 40 112 a > 40 0. 0. 40 40 to a 3 Ratesofproduction of physiologicalcontaminants activity H20 g/day/household cooking 3000 1000 1000 500 bathing dish washing clotheswashing clothesdrying 4 a 5000(automatic dryersto beventedtooutside) C. a a Ratesof productionofwatervapour(H20)fromhousehold activities C. 0. fuel a a contaminant water vapour(H20) SO2 l/s/kW g/hr/kW l/s/kW CO2 naturalgas kerosene lowpressure gas [co of 5 Rates 0.027 0.034 156 96 — 8.9 x 0.033 130 — 0.8 I/s/cigarettecarbonmonoxide (00) production contaminant methane propane butane acetylene hydrogen petrol(gasoline) 6 occupationdensily m'/P 7 Airsupply rateforodour achildren badults: 1 conditionsregarded as goodby occupants&acceptableto visitors 2intermediate3conditions objectionabletovisitorsbutstill bearablebyoccupants ofcontaminants bycombustion & smoking .? 0.5 0.005 0.0005 30 30 30 302 30 0.1 Co2 ' C) C % a limitingconcentration % toxicity carbondioxide carbonmonoxide sulphurdioxide 10 C., 2 flammability — C o 120—75.0 — 5.0—15.0 2.0—9.5 15—8.5 2.5—8.2 4.0—7.4 1.4—7.6 Limitingvaluesof commoncontaminants ,. 7bodyodour \.' \'\ /[ watervapour \t \ \\ X \ \( \ — tobacco smoke (smalloff) \J(o(n-plan) S E a > 0 8 \ 2 I I 4 6 8 floor space/P: my/P 10 12 Ventilationrequirementsforoff: verticaldottedline shows lowerlimitas definedbyUKOffices&Shops&RailwayPremises Act (assuming ceilinghof 2.7m) 16 BasicData Man & his buildings THERMALCOMFORT Am temp required for thermal comtort depends on occupantsactivity and clothing worn Also depends on speedotairmovement and on hum of air in temperate climates only to a small extentl 0 "or purpose ot specifying comfortable temp 4 levels of activity have been suggested —f t) Also convenient to divide clothing worn into categories according to insulation which it affords, this being specitied in the unit 'do': 1 'do' 0.155 ci" C/W. Exceptforbedctothing modern indoor clothing rarely exceeds insulationvalue 1 do —.(2) o Eo 0 o IS ri terms ofcomtort people atfected almost as much by tempolsurfaces which surround them as by that of air. 1 way ot specitying combined affect of air and surface tempis by use of tempof globethermometer - 13) However, if little ditference in rm between globe and air temp (as happens in well insulated rm) air temp may be adequate measure ot thermal conditions monthly mean outdoor temp 'C Preferredindoortemp:USAtemprange greater. say —50"— +43C;for interpretation—.text 4 Important to distinguish between ventilationrateswhich affect airquality by diluting contaminants and air movement which may aIled thermal comfort. If air movement in rm exceeds about 0.2 m/s, higher rm temp required to provide equivalenl comfort. In normal temperate environrnenl effect of hum on perceived warmth very slight: but it people very hellosduringvery active work or in very warm environment) high hum will aggravate discomfort Air movement overskin will be beneticial Nb particular level of tempwill be satisfactory for everybody. Not only will dress and degree activity vary, but people differ in requirements. L'sually adequate maintaintemp within 2 Cofoptimum. While no importoot general ditterence between temp preterred by men or women, yaung or old, there will bedifferences in part due toclothing and in part toactivity Old people usually less active Children ofsecondary school ade require similar temp to adults. but more tolerant ot variations. Younger children even more tolerant and, being more active, prefer lower temp 1 tudor intluencing clothing people wear is prevailing outdoor temp For sedentary activities, carried out by people in their isual clothing, preferred indoor temp generally lie within bands shown — )4). Band A for bldg where heating,orcooling, plant operating: band B toi free running' bldg iewhere no artificialmeans for heating orcooling used; thermostat seftings USA: C (cooling in summer) D winter. shows baseline thermal comfort chartbased on USA data 0 .0 0 .0 a) (5) Heating systems --.p385--91 ventilation 392 rateof metabolic heat produced. W/m2bodyar activity description sleeping bodyrelaxed, lying down, reclining sitting standing active reading, typing, clerical work little movement (eg serving at counter) whole bodymoving'walking. bedmaking 40 50—60 65—90 90—130 'typical surfacear01 male bodies 1 8rn',female1 6rn Levelsofactivityusualinbldg 1 insulation value: do1 clothing description nude light normal naked orlight underwear summer dress trousers & shirt winterdress,skirt & lumper, 3-piecesuit 1 zero 0.3—0 7 0.8—1.2 dlo—O 155m C/W 2 Categoriesof clothingwornindoors clothing activity sleeping sitting standing active' nude 31 28 29 27 29 26 23 25 light normal 21 18 13 17 estimates subtedt to degreeofuncertainty 3 Comfortablerm tempinstill air: C in globetemp drybulb) C) 5 Baselinethermal comfort chartbased on USA data BasicData 17 Man & his buildings task design illuminance (lux) circulation (foot-candle) 150 13.935 casualworkofshortduration 200' 18.5806 routinework (youngpeople) 3001? 27.8709 routinework eg in ott 5002 46.4515 750? 69 6773 demanding workegindrawing oft fine workegtextileprocessing 1000? 92.9031 1 500:' 139.3546 very fineworkeghandengraving minuteworkeginspectionofveryfineassembly 3500 278 7093 'it area windowlessnext higherlevel recommended 2 where retlectances of surfaces unusually low orerrorsintask have seriousconsequences nexthigherlevel recommended: where taskof shortdurationlowerlevel maybeacceptable 1 Designilluminances forcommontasks'illuminance -.p2526 task max valueof glare index demanding routine 16 19 28 demanding 5 2 0.5 routine casual Mm &circulation DFforcertain Important are quantity of light (illuminance)and glare,also reflectances of surfaces beinglit—.p25—6398.The task,and its relative importance against lighting its background and the whole space, determine Ilumi- nance. Design illuminances, w mean illuminance over mainfenance cycle of lighting system, forcommon tasks —.(1). Visibility oftaskdepends ondirection ofincident light aswellas quantity Harsh shadows, and glare from bright or very bright light source or its reflection, undesirable. Glare can impair vision. But some shadowing helps perception of textures and shapes. Daylighting—*p27—32 Windows in bldg have 2 main visual functions: to let light in during Recommendedmax valuesof glareindex minDF% Artificial lighting Surface reflectances and colour of surfaces affect general brightness and distribution of light in rm, 25 task Visual performance depends on total perception of space: involves quality of lightas well astotal amount. Indices tocoverdifferent aspects of lightinghave been developed. Theydistinguish between artificialand daylighting. Discomfort glare arises when luminaires and other sources of light too bright in contrast with general background. Degree of discomfort indicated by glare index, recommended max values beingdetermined by task: the more demanding thetask the lower thevalue acceptable—(2) routineforshortduration 22 casual circulation VISUAL EFFICIENCY daylight hours and to enable people to see out—or in. Theypermit entry into a bldg of solar energy direct, by absorption and reradiation by atmosphere, and by reflection fromsunlit surfaces.Windowsalso source of heat loss. Choice of window basic to architectural design - .p4O3—6 As source of illuminationdaylight hasmany pleasantdirectionalqualities. Its quantity varies with outside conditions and is specified in terms of DF; ie ratioof infernalto externaldaylightlevels—.p26—7. For lightingtasks mm DF specified, based on percentages of typical working year that required lask illuminance will beexceeded - l3) types of task COLOUR Colour in bldg is both aid to vision and meansbywhich architect creates pleasant, stimulating appearance. Good colouring and good lighting interdependent. Common practice of describing colours byarbitrary namesdeprecated. Several systems for classifying colours. One such, standardised by CIE, based on 3 physical attributes(wavelength, purify, luminance), widelyused in colour lab but less suitable for architectural design than American Munsell system, basedon 'value' (lightness). 'chroma' (saturation ofpigment, or strength(. 'hue'. Munsell 'hue' scale includes 10 major 'hue' regions, each sub-divided —.141(5). Major 'hue' regions denoted by initials, positions in region by numbers eg 7.5RP denotes reddish red-purple hue In UK attribute 'greyness' replacing that of 'value' or lightness. 5 distinct categories used:grey: nearly grey: grey-clear: nearly clear: clear. For use in design of lighting possible to determine fromMunsell value approx equivalent reflection factor independent of hue' or 'chroma' —(6l Hue planes —p18l1). 4 Munsellhue scale stepsinall) 10 namedhue bandswith 10stepsin each (100hue 75PB 501' perfect N 2 4 6 810121416 white white 9 8 ii....._ •IU UUI 7 6 UUU UI• UU III I 3 2 • ._ II 8 7 . - UIUI •••ii 5 iUUIUIUU 4 UI..... 6 ' U.. I 9)5 - N 2 4 6 810121416 perfect - - ••••••• UIIUI >3 2 -. . perfect perfect black N 2 4 68 10121416 black chroma N ._____ 2 4 6 810121416 chroma 5 Vertical '/2-sectionsthroughMunsellsolid at aparticularyellow(5Yl & particularpurple-bluehue (7.5 PB) withneutral axiscommonto both filled rectanglesindicateapproxscopeof colourpatches in Munsell atlas 6 Munsellvalue reflection factor% very light 9—9.5 light middle dark verydark 7—8 5—6 72—84 42—56 20—30 3—4 1—2 6—12 1.5—2 ReflectionfactorequivalentstoMunsell value 18 Basic Data Man & his buildings PATTERN& TEXTURE Many bldg materials have texturedorcolour-patternedfinishes. Patterns large in scale, with clearly distinguishableelements, allow each element to be related to an individual colour. But if pattern small-scale, only dominant or composite colour stands out. As scale reduced, eg by increasing viewing distance,strong contrastsin colourlose effectiveness. Changes in appearance with distance valued characteristic of such natural materials as marbles, grained timber, multi-coloured brickwork. Subtleties of colour and texture, apparent closeto, give way to overall pattern viewed at middle distance. Atstill greater, become fused into 1 composite colour. NOISE & ACOUSTICS High levels ofnoise can leadtodamagetohearing. At lower levels noise interferes withverbal communication.At still lower levels noise may be disturbing orannoying. Acoustic design controls intrusive noise and by choiceof materials, dimensions and shapeofauditorium speechand/or music to be enjoyed. Many noise indices available forpredicting noise effects. Formany bldg I distancebetween talker &listenerm 1 2 4 normalvoicedB(A) raisedvoice 57 62 56 50 44 51 45 39 8 note:for telephoneuselevel 0150dB(A) 55 dB(A) LU,, maygive occasional difficulty 2 and environmental situations equivalent continuous sound level (Leq) expressed in dB(A) is adequate predictor. Exposureto high levels on noise results in hazard to hearing. Upper limit of 90dB(A)Leq has been suggested for8-hourworking day. DiagramofMunsellsolidwith indications of 4hueplanes: —.p17 L Interference with speech communication from intrusive noise depends ondistance between talkerand listener, and onwhether voicenormalor raised —n(2). Degree of annoyance from intrusive noise depends on number of factors, particularly typeof use and task being carried out—.(3). Sound insulation —np395—7 satisfactory: SENSITIVITYTOVIBRATION Frequencies of vibrations encountered in bldg lie mostly in range 5—50 Hz. When frequency exceeds approx 20—30 Hz passes into audible range. Ifenergysufficient, /e above thresholdofaudibility ofsound in air, vibration will be heard as sound. Max intrusivenoiselevelpermittingreliable conversation typeofspace &task noiselevel auditoriarequiringvery goodlistening conditions smallaudiforia,conference & lecture rm bedr & forsleepingorresting smalloff,classr& for listeningto radio largeoff commercial premises, restaurants typing pools, lab, machine rm 20_3D 30_352 30—40 40—45 45—50 50—55 dB(A)L At certain frequencies amplitude small as 1 micron (0.001 mm)can be detected byhuman occupantsthough inaudible.Dependingon frequency and amplitude vibration may be imperceptible or painful —n(4). maxpeaklevel of intrusivenoise: needforspecialistadvice maxprovidedintrusivenoisefairlysteady higherintrusivenoiselevelsmay beaccepted where thereare high levels of machinery in space : \ i \ iii__ 3 Recommendedmax intrusive noiselevels 4 1 100 a) 68 4 i I 6 8 —r—r 2 1 4 I :E N ariperceptibie s., - ..L_L L \I\ ust cieariy _ percepilbie perceptibk. —- 10 annoying ..unpieaSant ' I i LJ .J. 6 r1 8 1 I 4 2 . ." I 8 6 6 4 JJ 103 arrpiitude _________________________________________________________ 4 Humansensitivity:ReiherMeisterscale (verticalvibrations) BasicData 19 Man & his buildings ACCESS & CIRCULATION Space required around for access and circulation of people, prams, wheelchairs, trolleys(carts) etc. Access to bldg or groups of bldg also for private cars, delivery vans, moving vans, trucks etc. Space may be required forparking, shortor long term. Separatespace may be required for parking orsf0 of2-wheel vehicles: bicycles, mopeds, motor cycles. Shared surfaces Usualto separate circulation of pedestrians and powered vehicles, but in certain situations (eg shortculs-de-sac giving access to dwellings, car parks) shared surfaces may be adopted. Their design should be based on: startof shared surface clearly distinguished fromnormal carriagewayby changeintextureor surface orchange in level; number ofvehicles using shared surface should be limited; design should ensure adequatevisibility butdiscouragevehicle speeds; parking spaces clearly marked; provide clear zone free from parked cars to allow vehicles and pedestrians to circulate comfortably; shared surfaces should beadequately litafter dark. Footways To design footways —*(1)—(5) safe, convenient and secure necessary ensurethatthey: provideshortest routes between dwellings and community services; are keptseparate fromheavily trafficked roads; have easiest practicalgradients; are protected from wind and driving rain; are wideenough toavoid needforpedestrianswhen passing to step out intocarriagewayoronplantedareasand, wherenecessary,foroccasional access by emergency vehicles, egambulances. Paths & sidewalks also—.p4385 106 2 Wof800 allowspramsorwheel- chairstopassthroughnarrowest point; 1 800 allowspassingoneither side ofnarrowestpoint W of 1 200 allowsprams& wheelchairsto proceed in comfort & pedestriansto passeachother; wideningto 1 800 at entrances to curtilagesallowsall usersto passin 4 comfort 3 Wof 1350 allowsprams& wheelchairstoproceed& pedestrianstopasseach otherin comfort; wideningto 1800 beyond narrowedpoint allowsall users to passincomfort 5 1 Spaces required forvarious types ofpedestrian movement At entrancestoprivatedrives or parkingspaceswof800 carried throughat footwaylevelenables prams& wheelchairstoavoidramps & droppedkerbs -4- U) C-) ci 20 BasicData Man & his buildings ROADWAYS —.USA standards p21 —accessp41—3 Size and geometric characteristicsofvehicles determine dimensions of roadways, lunctons,turning and parking spaces. Special requirements for bldg serving commerce and industry. Not all types ofvehicles likely to use residential roads. Those which do may not need access to all partsofsite. In addition to private cars 3 types ofvehicle may generally 1 be expected in residentialareas:furniture removalvans; refusecollection vehicles; and fire engines-..(1)—(3)—.p24. Furnitureremovalvan Space required forthesevehicles to move and manoeuvredepends on context within which they operate. For major roads national highway authorities lay down max permitted dimensions, axle loads and turning circles. They recommend road widths, sightlines and other characteristics of major urban and rural roads. On residential roads traffic flows light and sometolerancein dimensions acceptable, egtopreserve existing features. Roadwidths narrowerthan 5500acceptable —(4)—(7). 2 Parking provision conditions adequacy ofroad width. Where roadsgive Refusecollectionvehicle direct access to dwellings and parking spaces roadways likely to be used for casual parking. Where this does not happen widths largely determined byconsiderations of movingtraffic. Narrowedsections may be used to discourage parking where there is danger at pedestrian crossing —.(8) (rare in USA). Allowance must be made for increase in width of larger vehicles at bends and fortheirturning and manoeuvreing—(9). 3 NB diagrams on this page apply for left hand circulation; for USA dimensions and reg—p2l250 Fireengine a 1• Normallymaxwforresidential traffic5500:allowsallvehicles to passone anotherwith overalltolerananceof500forlargestvehicle 4 4000 5 Carriageway 4800allowswidecar&furnitureremovalvantopasseach otherwithoveralltoleranceof500butistoonarrowtoallowfreemovement of largevehicles ... r v...... 4100 ____ ___ 5500 ::X :::.:::.:;:::::::::::::. :•:•:•:•:•:•::•:-:•::•:-:•:•:-:::::S.. 6 At4100 carriagewayistoonarrowforlargevansto passvehicles other than cyclists; carscan passeach otherwith overall toleranceof 500; below thiswcarriagewaytoonarrowto passeach othercomfortably rr:in 7 i In 5500 350 W of 3000mm between passingbaysinsingle-track system 2180 _-8 Parkingshouldbediscouragedat pedestrian crossing 1 720 9 Vehicleturningthrough90 afurniturevan b refusevehicle cfire appliance dprivatecar Basic Data 21 Man and his buildings ROADWAYS In USA roads described as follows: Limited access freeways: 1 000—1 300vehicles/lane/hr (highspeed) 2000 vehicles/lane/hr (slower speed) Arterial highways: 600—800vehicles/lane/hr (open road) 400—500vehicles/lane/hr (withtrafficsignals, parking intersections) Design of roads should include estimating trafficflows and impact of development on adjacent roadways. Large vehicle dimensions —*(1) Garage entrances —.(2) shows dimensions forentrances toprivate garages and gradients for road to garage ramps. —(3)shows recommended dimensions for entrances to pay garages or carparks. Privategarage—pl00—2. NB: diagrams on this pageapply to trafficcirculation on right Collectors: 100—250trips/lane/hr (6206 mm for 2lanes residential) Private roads: 6706 for2 lanes (5486mm) 3962 for 1 lane (3048mm) Note: city busesrequire 6858 road for right angle turnfromright lane. Narrow roadwithpassing bays—.p20notused in USA: occasionallyon private sites.Single lane provided to remote service area (andturning space). Driveways forprivate houses recommended width 3353. Turninglanes frequently used toprevent back up oftraffic at controlled intersections or forslowing down at exits fromfreeways. I w overhang rear(OR) 2.7 2.6 2.4 3.1 school bus 13.7 12.2 12.04 ambulance 6.5 2.1 paramedicvan 5.5 2.0 hearse 6.5 airport limousine trashtruck UPStruck firetruck 6.9 8.6 2.1 1.9 1.6 1.5 1.6 0.9 1.8 2.5 3.0 vehicle intercitybus citybus 1 7.1 9.6 2.4 2.3 2.5 2.0 3.9 Largevehiclesapproxdimensions; exactsizes mayvary straightin— backout 900 in—backout(1 car) 2 Gar entranceswithgradientsforramps 22 Basic Data Man & his buildings PARKING A A A___t_ Basisor layout of vehicle parking spaces in parking bay ranges from 1 800 x 4600to 2400 x 6000. Largerbaydimensions usuallyadopted for open air parking, or where high proportion of larger cars and vans likely use. While 900 parking more economical in space requirement (20—22m2/car)450parking (23—26 m2/car)more convenient—*(1)—(3). Vehiclelengths —*p2024251 Vehicle parking spaces for disabled persons should be wider. For semi-ambulant persons bay widths should be increased to 2700 or better2800; forwheelchair users 3000—3100—op85 166(3). 1 Parallel parking USA parking spaces vary; depending onzoning ordinances—op250. A c B ' A \ 2 450 parking A NB diagrams on this pageapply totrafficcirculation onthe left 4600 2200—2300 5500 2400 mnbldg 5800 inopen 6100—6700 B C A __- D USA mm 18.3 20.0 preferred H 0 E F inbldg 3000 4600 2300 3260 5000 2800 in open 3390 5500 2400 3890 5500 2800—3000 3 90°parking A B inbldg inopen 4600 2300 5500 2400 C D E F 6000 6100—6700 VEHICLETURNINGSPACES a c 4 Full lockforward: afurniturevan bcar c refusevehicle dfireappliance 5 Fulllock reverse: afurniturevan bcar crefusevehicle dfireappliance BasicData 23 Man & his buildings PARKING:VEHICLETURNINGSPACES NB diagramson this pageapply totrafficcirculation on the left Vehiclelengths —*p2024 a b C d C d 1 Hammerhead,Tform: afurniturevan bcar crefusevehicle dfireappliance b a 2 Hammerhead,Vform: afurniturevan a 3 Forwardside turn: afurniturevan bcar C refusevehicle dfire appliance b d b(c Reverseside turn: afurniturevan d bcar crefusevehicle dfireappliance a 4 C bcar crefusevehicle d fireappliance 24 Basic Data Man & his buildings ROADVEHICLES Typicaldimensions 45' 0"intercity bus (USAdimensions) 40' 0"citybus (USA dimensions) 39' 6' schoolbus (USA dimensions) Iii E 1-755÷755--I 311 _ ___ 1) '\USA wheel location —n--fl--- 10973 _______ 1 LiLLLdi I Coachfor49passengers:seating layoutsvaryaccordingto use intended fm5\ r?*M r 11 4216 18'2" (USA) 11 USA wheel location 2 12-seaterminibus/largevan ' 3 I C') Large car <II Cl)io c'J II-'- T 16' 11" (USA) Cl) Li ' USA wheel location 4 Carinmiddle range; USAstandard Cl) II' 6 Man& his references. Minicar buildings --BibIiography entries 086 256 445 557 5 Small(compact)car Basic Data 25 Lighting Lighting inside a bldg must fulfil 2 functions: (a)to illuminatethe interior and itscontents; (b) where there issometask, egreading,performing a delicate movement, walking up or down stairs, to illuminate the task appropriately and to appropriate extent so that visual mechanism can function athigh levelof efficiency. When visual tasks might needtobecarried out anywhere ininterior bldg lighting and task lighting may be provided bysame installation.Where tasks always carried out at some fixed location, eg work points on benches or at desks, less energy may be used by providing necessary task illuminance through bench or desk lights, or localised overhead lightingcombined with lower illuminance from general lighting (but not less than 200 lux) to providethesurroundingvisualenvironment—*(1)(2). (Forstandard techniques and design rules —Bib383 387). A goodcolourrenderinglamps appearance lamptype warm deluxewarm of light sottone27 deluxenatural intermediate U *FH-J1 emphasised: forhomes, restaurants, hotels goodon allcolours, emphasis on red:forshops, particularly food displays including meat reasonably goodon most colours, subduedeepred: 65 100 foroff, dept stores goodonall colours: for graphicA47 60 complieswith BS 950 pt 2 for critical workingraphic natural 70 arts emphasises yellows:for off,dept stores,shops northlight, 65 filament lamps 0 cool Arrangementsof lightsourcesfortask lighting inoff similartoincandescent light and blendwell withit;yellow 65 kolorite, trucolor37 fluorescent tubes 70 white, colour84, plus white E efficacy relative to 'white' lamp colour display, shops, clinical areasinhospitals, museums similartonorthskydaylight, emphasises blues: for blending with daylightbut give 'cold' effectexcept at matching . general illumination : artificial daylight high illuminance complies withBS 950 pt 1: critical colourmatching 5 B high efficacylamps warm white warm 100 blue distorted, red subdued,yellow &green emphasised: ........ 2 Artificiallight intermediate white intermediate daylight 100 90 forfactories similar toabove but less 'warm' red subdued,yellow& greenemphasised: blends acceptably withdaylight Notes 1 othertypes of lamp are madeforspecial purposes, eg decorative colours:forreprography, horticulture, aquaria, ultravioletradiation; 2circuitefficacyof'white' lamp (ieincludingballast) canbe45—65lmIW dependingonwattage; 3propertiesof lamps change inconsequence ofdevelopmentsby manufacturers who should alwaysbeasked for up-to-dateinformation DEFINITIONS Luminousflux: lumen Radiant poweremitted fromsource evaluatedin terms ofitsvisual effect is called luminous flux and measured in lumens. Effectiveness in converting input power (measured in watts) to lumens iscalled the efficacy and expressed in lumen/W. —(3) shows relative efficacy and some differentlamp types. 3 Propertiesoffluorescentlamps givingsubstantially white light Illuminance:lux Amount of luminous flux falling on unit area of surface is called illuminance, measured in lux (1 lumen/m2) (symbolE). Illuminancecannotbe directlyappreciated byeye, which seeseffect ofilluminance in making surface ofobject more or less bright according to magnitude of illuminance and reflecting power ofsurface, ceilings 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 white emulsion paint on plainplastersurface white emulsion paint on acoustic tile white emulsion painton no-finesconcrete white emulsion paint on wood-woolslab Reflectance walls white emulsion painton plain plastersurface; white Some surfaces reflect lightdiffusely, eg blotting paper, some with very little spread(specularly), eg mirror. Most decorated rm surfaces reflect nearly diffuselywith greater or less degree ofgloss, so that brightness depends to some extent on relationship between angle of light and angleofviewing. The higher the reflectances of surfaces in an interior the less the absorption oflight and thelowerthe powertoprovide agiven illuminance. Lightcolouredcurtains drawnoverwindows at night reduce lossof light. 0.8 glazed tiles white asbestos cementsheet;concrete,lightgrey; Portlandcement,smooth 0.3 bricks,fletton 0.25 concrete,lightgrey;Portlandcement,rough (asboard marked) timberpanelling: lightoak,mahogany, gaboon 0.2 timberpanelling: teak, afromosia, medium oak 0.15 brick, blue engineering Reflecting power expressed as reflectance (symbol p), on a scale on which 1 is max value achieved by perfect reflector, 0 value of perfect absorber and 0.2 reflectance of medium grey. Reflectanceof coloured surface related to visual effect of light reflected. For reflectances of sometypical surfaces—(4). 0.4 floors 0.35 0.25 0.2 0. t timber:birch, beech, maple timber: oak timber: iroko, kerning quarrytiles: red,heather brown 4 Approx reflectances of typicalbldgfinishes 26 Basic Data Lighting DEFINITIONS(cont) Colour: Munsell system—*pl 7—18 Munsell system convenient and commonly used way of describing colour of surface in terms of hue (position in colour circle), chroma (paleness or fullness ofcolour) and value. Value correspondsto reflectance, approx given by: reflectance = value (value — 1) 100 (—Bib1 00) Luminance:apostilbor candela/rn2 azi cos46 BZ2 cos3a BZ3 BZ4 BZ5 BZ6 Bz7 BZ8 BZ9 cos2 cos'5 cos( 1+2cos6 2+cos) constant i+sin5 BZ1O sinO Mathematically physical brightness orluminance (symbol L)ofdiffusing surface isproduct of illuminanceand reflectance,sothat L = EP, and ifE is inlux Lisilluminance inapostilb.Alternative unitis candelapersquare metre(cd/m2) whichisSI unit—p2and equal to,rapostilb. Note: calculation of luminance not needed in routine lighting design asstandardmethods(—48ib383387) prescribeilluminance andreflectanceseparately. Maintenance factor (MF) Maintenance factor is proportion (expressed as decimal) ofinitial illuminance towhichilluminancefalls mid-way between cleaningand relamping periods. In design lighting design lumens are used for the lamp, which is av light output through life. MF therefore refers to dirtying of luminaires, rm surfaces and sources only:for interiors and installations maintained in avstate ofcleanliness maybetaken as0.8. Forthosetobe kept in specially clean condition take 0.9; for those which may be allowed tobecome dirtier than avtake 0.7 —nilluminance below. Utilisationfactor (UF) Intensitydistributioncurveswith BritishZonal(BZ)classification 1 roomindex 1.0—1.6 Roomindex(RI) 2.5 4.0 direct &semi-directlighting (BZ1—3,25% upward light) 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.1 0.2 0.3 floorcavityreflectance 2.8 2.4 2.1 2.6 2.3 2.05 2.5 2.2 2.0 E(h)1E8 general diffusedlighting (BZ4—10, 50% upward light) floorcavity reflectance E(h)/Ee 2 0.2 0.3 0.1 0.2 0.3 2.3 2.2 1.9 2.2 2.0 1.8 0.1 UFis proportion (expressed asdecimal) ofluminousflux oflight sources whichfalls on horizontal working plane in an interior: depends on shape of lightdistribution fromluminaires, rm index —-nbelow and reflectances of rm surfaces. Light distribution characterised by shape of intensity distribution with respecttoangle invertical plane fromdownwardvertical. These shapes commonly classified in UK by British Zonal System (BZ no); the 10 shapes and their mathematical descriptions are shown —*(1). Most manufacturers now tabulate UF in their catalogues.Failing thistheycan beestimated byreference totables (—sBib449). 0.1 0.2 0.3 2.1 1.9 1.7 Conversionof scalar illuminance to illuminance on horizontal planefor interiorwith light ceilings& walls RI relates to dimensions of rm: length I, width w, with luminaire height above working plane hm. RI — lxw hm(l + w) ILLUMINANCE—.p25 Where specific visual task exists illuminance is that on plane of task, whether horizontal, vertical or inclined. In places such as foyers and circulation areas 'scalar' illuminance is specified. This is a measure which is independent of direction and is related to illuminance on a horizontal plane inwaywhich takes into account notonly rm shape and luminaire light distribution but, most important,floor reflectance—n(2). Illuminance received fromgiven lighting installation falls during use because there is gradual drop in light output of lamp during its life and luminaire and rm surfaces getdirtier between cleaningperiods. (Shorter these intervals more efficiently el energy is used but more expensive maintenance costbecomes.) Recommendedilluminance (—nBib383) is service' value ieavover period between cleaning; installed illuminance is higher thanthis by the reciprocal ofthe MF. Lighting furtherdetail—-np398—400 Daylighting —*p27—32; sunlight —sp33—7 BasicData 27 Daylight INTRODUCTION Daylightfactor Because of varying intensity of daylight in countries with humid and temperate climates inpractice most useful tobase daylightingdesign on concept ofdaylight factor (DF),defined insimple terms as ratio ofindoor illuminance —p26 (formerly known as illurninance value) to outdoor illuminance and given as percentage.(More exact definition—Bib124). CIE standardovercastsky To provide practical basisfor estimation and measurement of DF in Britain and NW Europe has beenfound convenient to adopt standard overcast sky with sun obscured bycloud. This sky generally known as CIE standard overcast sky and assumed to have uniform luminance —p26(ie physical measure ofbrightness), in azimuthwithzenith lumiRelativeluminancedistribution of CIEstandardovercastskywithav luminancetaken asunity:conventional valueatzenith togive 5000lux illuminanceon horizontal plane—2050 cd/m2:illuminance —.p25 26 1 nance about 3times that near horizon—+(1). Zenith luminancedepends on angular elevation ofsun but conventional value of2050 cd/rn2 was assumed originally, giving unobstructed illuminance of 5000 lux on horizontal plane outdoors. Variation in outdoorilluminance over year Conventional value of 5000lux assumed foroutdoor illuminance from overcast sky usefuldatum for initial calculationsfor daylight adequacy being representative of av conditions over much of day in mid-winter and significant periods in autumn and spring and wet days in summer. Asthis value exceeded forabout 85% oftimegenerally taken ascritical value below which resulting daylight indoors would be considered inadequate. There are instances, however, where necessary to relate indoorilluminance to variationinoutdoorilluminancevalues over specified period, especially in situations where it may be desirable to supplement daylight with artificial light. DF concept particularvalue in this context; for although outdoor illuminance will vary indoor illuminance will change with itand forallpracticalpurposesDF will remainconsistent. Seasonal and daily variations in daylight onhorizontal surface outdoors, averaged foreach month —*(2)(3). For indicationoftotal working hr/yrforwhich indoor illuminanceexceeds specified values in lux for a range of OF and forpercentage of working hourswhen daylight illuminancein lux exceeds specified values, again fora range of DF,—(4)(5). AverageDF Recommendations for adequacy ofdaylight have usuallybeenmade in terms of mm DF. Recent studies have suggested use of av OFas better indication of adequacy of daylight over an interior. For side-lit rm, however, av daylight value on itsown Only general guide and needs to be associated withdiversity index. 3 Illuminanceinluxreceived fromskyonhorizontalsurfaceoutofdoors averagedforeachmonth& plotted against time 2170 1400 1200 0 1000 0 iIIuminafl 100 200 4 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 Workinghr/yrforwhich daylightilluminances onworkingplane(wp) exceedspecifiedvaluesat variousDF luX 5 %ofworkinghrwhendaylightilluminanceonwpexceed specifiedvalues atvariousOF: graphsbasedon 5-dayworkingweek (0900—1700)giving yearlytotal ofapprox2170 hr Basác Data 28 Daylight INTRODUCTION (cont) Diversityofdaylight Diversity of daylight illuminance across rm can be shown as graph on cross section ofrm, slope ofcurve indicatingdegreeofdiversity. Typical gradient of illuminance on centre line of window —s(1). In line with artificial lighting practice diversity ofilluminance can also be expressed numerically asuniformity ratio,egas ratio ofmm toavDF. Thus 2015 a '5 ti 10— 5- minDF uniformity ratio = av DF Thegreaterthe diversity, the lower the uniformity ratio. For relatively simplewindow arrangements and for roof light systems index has meritthat itcan showin general sense whether necessary to supplement daylight with artificial light.With complex window arrangements, however, may bepreferabletoexamine distribution ofdaylight in somedetail. 0.5 03 1 Gradientofilluminance oncentreline of window 036 . . 1278 Distributionof daylight 1 16 1.01 062 7.. 447 1.52 0 72 avOF . T 047 48/20 2.4% appox 1278 47 1.52 0.36 16 I 01 -. 045 0.72 047 FT1 0.62 045 -42mfJ 2 Distributionofdaylight over horizontalplane: forclearness intermediate valueshave beenomitted Further refinement in assessingadequacyof daylightin rmis to calculate illuminance for number of points on regular grid. Contours of equal DF can then be drawn: distribution of daylight over working plane can be checked andareas where daylight is deficient be identified. If required av DF can be estimated by simply averaging values on reference grid. Where reference grid is taken right up to boundaries of rm values on boundary lines should be weighted, ie divide corner values by 4 and remaining boundary line values by2before averagingall values—.(2)(3). Comprehensive set of daylighting aids has beenproduced tor UK by BRE; these give simple check between window size and proportional area of working plane within which specific values of DF equalled or exceeded. Aids thus give broad indication of horizontal distribution of daylight in rm—.(4). CALCULATIONOF DF: GENERAL Methods for predicting daylight Iluminance at design stage range from simpleformulas to sophisticated computer techniques (—Bib076 107 251 368381 397457). Amount of design information required for predicting daylight factors in rm depends on complexity of method of calculation. For initial calculations, where window sizes not yet determined, useful if method of calculation cangive areaofglassrequired to provide particularstandard of daylight. 1.0 0.9 Ii 08 — - 07 - 0.6 a 0.5 — 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 00 3 DistributionofdaylightonhorizontalplaneshownbycontoursofequalDF 4 j 11 / I, / ,/ / / --,, —4 / 2ETI --- — -. n Typicaldaylightingaid 1.0% - - i- e — - --f-— —4 0% smalrmsei B . obstruction wail ra8ect OF % 4 BasicData 29 Daylight CALCULATIONOF OF(cont) Initial estimates: side-litrm Netarea of glazing rough measureofamount ofdaylight admitted to rm. As first approximation, assuming side-litrm of normal proportions with no external obstructions and with surfaceshaving avreflectance 0.4, av DF can be taken as equal about 1/2 of percentage ratio ofglass to floor area. Thus windows on 1 side ofrm with total glass areaapprox 20% of floor area will give av DF about 4%. Under same conditions mm DF will be approx 1/2 av value, le2%. Conversely, to obtain av DE of6% in rm with floorarea 12 rn2will require glazing areaof approx 6 x 12 x 5/100 m2or 3.6 m2. For closer estimate of mm DF in typical side-lit rm —n(1)(2). These graphs give mm DF related to rm depths forvarious rm lengths (parallel towindow wall) and window widths,with correctionsfor angle ofexternal obstruction to mid-height ofwindow. Reflectancesof rm surfacestaken as:ceiling 0.7, walls0.5, floor0.15. Mm DF assumed beon centre line of window wall atpoint600fromrear wall. Window widths (strictly window lengths) actual glassarea widths given as% rm length. Formore than 1 a rmd—' in mullipiesofwindowhaboveciiiievei) (eepressed window widths aggregatedand assumedwindows regularlyspaced along windowwall.(Further details, including bilateral lighting—oBib397.) Av DFcalculations CIE methodofdaylightcalculation: typicalgraphapplicableto side-litr1 unilaterallightingwith noexternalobstructions 1 Av DF over horizontal working plane can be calculatedusing formula put forward —eBlb452 085W CR1+5ft C A(1—R) where w isglassar A is total arof rm surfaces (includingglass) A1 is ar of floor & ofthosepartsofwatls below mid-height of window (excluding window wall) C is function ofdaylight incident onwindow &varies with sky luminance & angleof external obstructions —.(3) R is av reflectance ofall rm surfaces including windows, expressed as decimal 0 R is av reflectance offloor & lower wallsbelow mid-height of window (excluding window wall) is av reflectance of ceiling & upper walls above mid-height of window (excluding window wall) Where window sizenot known glass area required givestipulated avDF canbeworked out frombasic formula restatedas: 0 0 DFav 085 —--+° A1 rmd—. (in muitipiesofwindow, aboveciii) 2 CIE method ofdaylightcalculation: correctionstoDF forangles of obstruction(tobereadwith—.1) coefficientC angle ofobstruction measuredfromcentre ofwindow (degrees abovehorizontal) No obstruction 100 20° 30° 40° 50° 60° 70° 80° 31 25 20 14 10 7 5 3 Variationof coefficientc with angle ofobstruction toberead withformula forav OF—.above & IRCformula —.p30 (A(1 —R) rml mid rmh (m) (m) (m) 3.3 3.3 3.3 3.3 6.6 6.6 6.6 4.5 6.6 3.3 4.5 6.6 3.3 4.5 6.6 9.9 9.9 9.9 4.5 6.6 9.9 4.5 4.5 4.5 39 35 + 5R window h (m) avDF 2.4 2.4 2.4 2.4 2.4 2.4 2.4 2.4 2.4 1.3 1.3 1.3 1.6 2.7 2.7 2.7 window I/mi Iaspercentages 30% 60% 90% 2.8 2.2 4.0 1.2 0.9 1.6 2.2 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.8 1.4 1.0 3.3 5.2 4.0 2.9 1.5 1.5 1.5 2.0 1.5 1.1 3.6 2.8 2.0 5.5 4.3 1.8 1.8 1.8 2.2 4.3 6.1 1.5 3.1 4.5 1.0 2.2 3.1 2.6 1.9 3.1 3.1 Basic assumptions: floor reflectance=0.15,wallreflectance= 0.4, ceiling reflectance=0.7, externalobstruction=20% atmid-hofwindow; no allowancefor dirt on glass but25% correctionfor window frame for3300— 4 6600rm1&15%for9900rml BasicData 30 Daylight CALCULATIONOF DF (cont) Pointby point methods: verticalwindowsinside-lit rm Basic assumption formost point bypoint methods ofdaylight calculatlon adopted in UK is toconsider daylight reaching point in rm as consisting of 3 components: sky component (SC) externally-reflected component (ERC) internally-reflected component (IRC) Howthese3 components operate isshown —v(1). Togive complete DF the 3components are simply addedtogether. Correctionstorother than clearglass, area otwindow obscured by framing and window bars and effectofdirt on glass and rm surfacescanbemadeby applyingcorrection factorsto final figure—vp31(4)(5). SC & EAC 3componentsofDF: SC + ERC+ IRC= DF 1 ratio HID = hotwindowaboveworkingplane.distance Iron, wkldow 0.1 02040.6 0.8 1.0 12 1.4 1.6 1.8 0 01 0204060708091.0 02 01 0.2 0.5 0.8 1.1 14 1.6 18 1.9 0.301 0307 12 1721 242729 0401 04 10 16 22 ai 32 as 38 0.5 01 05 12 19 26 3.3 38 4.2 46 06 01 06 13 22 30 38 4.4 4.9 53 0.70207 152433424854 58 01 2.0 22 2.4 6 as 10 1.1 1.1 11 a.o 1.1 1.2 as 42 5.0° 12 1.2 1.3 1.2 20 2.1 22 22 23 23 24 24 24 25 31 3.2 3.3 3.4 34 3.5 3.6 3.6 3.7 37 40 4.1 43 4.4 4.5 4.5 4.6 47 4.8 4.9 4.8 50 52 53 54 5.5 57 58 5.9 59 5.6 58 6.0 62 63 64 6.6 67 6.8 6.9 62 64 6.6 6.8 70 7.1 73 74 7.6 77 0.60207 16263645525.863 67 7.0 7.3 75 7.6 7.8 80 8.2 83 64 1.0 0.2 0.8 17273848566.267 7.1 7.4 77 79 81 82 6.5 87 8.8 5.0 12020818294050596571 75 7.9 8.1 64 86 8.7 90 92 94 9.6 1.402 09 1931 43 54 6.4 72 78 6.3 87 91 9.3 96 9810.1 10310510.7 68 1.6 a2 09 1.9 32 45 5.7 6.7 758.2 6.7 91 9.5 9.810010210.610911111.6 1.6 0.2 0920334659 70 7885 9.1 9610010.210510.711.1 114 11.7122 P 0 3 1.9 0.2 102433476.07281 88 2.002 1.02.033476.1 7.38290 2.5021.0 2.1 3.34.662 748492 9.5 9.7 9.9 100 104 10.8 11.1 11311.812.0123126 102 10.711.111.4117122124127130 10.511.011.411.712012612.9133137 3.0 0.21.02.13.44.86.275 85 9.3 10.010.711211712.012.412913.313.7142 4.0 0.2 1.0 2.1 3.4 4.9 63 75 86 9.4 10110.611311812.212.513213.514.014.6 6.002 1.0 34 506376869.5 10210.911411912.312613213614.1 149 0.2 1.0 2.1 34 5.0 6.3 76 86 9.5 103 10.911.511912.312.713313.714.215.0 0 a at 0 1? 22 3V 394550 5458 6V 6$ 66 6$ 69' 7 72' 74' 76' 79' 80' For preliminary calculations —v(2) (Bib076). In use table gives data for effective widthofwindow torightor leh ofline (normaltowindow plane) drawn to reference —.(3). SC atany other referencepoint, also effect of external obstruction, can be found by adding or subtracting SC of hypotheticalwindows so that actual window remains.To allowtor reduced luminance of obstructions values of equivalent SC for obscured sections ofwindow aremulitplied by0.8 Other methods of predicting SC and ERCinclude BRE DF protractors, Pilkington dot method, grid methods such asWaldramdiagram.With all theseaids ERCestimated byassuming that proportion of skyobscured by obstruction (as seen trom reference point) has luminance which is somefraction of sky obscured. Unless luminance ot obstruction known usual practice to assume obstruction luminance 'Is av sky luminance. IRC For preliminary estimates mm IRC can beobtained from —.(4)itcertain limitations on size ot rmand reflectancesof rmsurfaces accepted. More comprehensive coverage —vBibO76. Where relatively high accuracy required IRC for side-lit rm can be calculatedusing BRE inter-retlection formula: IRC = aegis oiobsiruckon 2 Sky componentstable (overcastsky) forverticalglazed windows: shortenedversionderived—oBibO76 0.85W — A 1—A (CRi 5Rn,) /o where W isarofglassinwindow A istotal ar ofceiling walls& floorincluding arofglass R isav reflectance of ceiling, walls including glass & floor, expressedas fraction is av reflectance of floor & those parts ot walls above mid-h of window(excluding window wall) Rcw is av reflectance of ceiling & thoseparts of walls above mid-h of window(excluding window wall) C is coefficient with value dependent on angle of obstruction outside Ri window—vp29(3). AC can be obtained by applying conversion factors related to av reflectance of rm surface: av reflectance conversion factor 0.3 0.75 0.4 0.7 0.5 0.8 0.6 0.85 Mm floor reflectance windowar as%ot 3 Exampleofsimplecase: =j =0.7; 0.6 = SCread againstthese ratios 1.5; repeatsection (W2) &add SC,toSC2 to give SCforwholewindow 1.5+ 1.5=3.0; forobstructions treatobscured sectionwindow & x 0.2tocorrectforlowerluminance;angleofobstruction on &WID; fromdrawingff =-= table gives appropriateHIDforobscuredsection reflectance toconvertto floor arof 10m2 to convertto to convertto floor arof90m2 avIRC 20 40 60 80 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.4 1.2 1.0 1.8 1.4 0.9 1.2 wall Conversionfactorstoapplyto —v(4) 13 20% 40% avwafireflectance leociudingwindowl SCforsectionofwindow(W,) is read —o(2) againstratiosHID 5 10% offlooror 2 5 7 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 20% 40% 60% 80% 20% 40% 60% 80% 20% 40% 60% 80% — — — 0.1 0.1 0.1 01 02 02 0.2 04 0.2 05 0.3 06 07 08 0.509 0.5 10 0.3 0.4 0.6 1.1 0.1 02 0.2 04 0.3 0.5 0.4 07 0.6 1.0 0.8 1.4 1.0 1.7 01 01 02 02 03 04 05 05 01 01 02 03 02 04 03 06 05 08 06 02 05 06 09 13 1.1 1.7 08 13 20 12 2.0 00 15 24 14 2.3 10 18 28 162.6 06122031 18 2.9 07 13 22 34 19 3.1 08 14 2.3 37 — 01 0.2 02 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.3 0.6 05 0.5 0.8 12 0.7 1.1 17 0.0 1.5 23 1.1 1.8 28 05 1.3 21 33 09 1.5 24 38 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 10172742 12 1.9 1.3 at 32 30 46 4.9 4 Mm IRC(Bib076)basedon rmof40m2floorarwith htoceiling 3000& windowon1 side;ceilingreflectanceof0.7assumed and20°angle ofexternal obstruction;correctionscan bemadeforother rmsizes& to convertmm IAC toavIRCbyfactorsin-.o(5) Basic Data 31 Daylight CALCULATIONOFOF (cont) M is correction factor fordirt or aging of glazing—*(3) B iscorrection factor forwindow framing, glazing & internalobstructions, eg overhead supports for machinery: where details of framing not known typical value forBis0.75butfigurecould beless infactories with overhead pipework, ducting & structural members1 G is correction factor fortype ofglass other than clear glass g/f isratioof glazing artofloorar Roof lightsystems Spacing, as well as size, of roof lights is important consideration for adequate daylighting: in general DF easier topredict thanforside-litrm but samevariables apply, eg area and position of glazing, shape and size of space to be daylighted, reflectance of interior surfaces. Illuminance on horizontal working plane from correctly spaced roof lights nearerto distribution from overhead artificial lighting installations and usuallysufficient to determine av DF. Coefficient depends on roof light design, shape and size space and reflectances ofceiling, walls and floor. CIE recommendations (—oBib397) include method forestimating av DF forvarious rooflightsystems atearly stage in design, with graphs forflat (l-w)h where I = length of rm, w = widthof rmand h = height above working plane to centre of glazing. To ensure fairlyeven spread of daylight spacing/height ratios should be kept withinlimits shown —*(6). Pointby point methods:roof lightsystems Where necessary to calculate DF at selected reference points with some precision, eg to test daylight distribution, SC and ERC can be obtained byusing BRE protractors. IRCcanbeestimated by using BRE nomogram Ill—+Bib076. Useful formula below with associated tables developed by Pilkington Brothers (Bib543) for prediction ofav DF for rooflightsin range of roof types,including shed, sawtooth and monitors. AvDFon horizontal plane: D= 100.c.M.B.G.(g/f)% where c iscoefficient ofutilisation —*(7)(8) Note: correction factor 8' for largecontinuousinternalobstructions,such asducting, can beworked outon cross section(byproiection)forselectedreferencepoints. vertical windows roof lights reflectance honzontal sloping clean eg 0.9 countryar, outer suburbs dirtyeg 0.7 built-upar, lightindustry 0.6—0.5 verydirty eg heavy industry 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.5—0.4 0.4—0.3 3 Maintenancefactortobe applied tocalculated DF toallow fordirton glass glazingmaterials CIE methodof daylightcalculation: typical graph applicableto skylightsinfiat roofs vertical windows, steeply sloping roof fights slopEng& flatroof fights double single glazing glazing single glazing 1 skhtsin alied roots(20pitthl glass: 4—6clearor6 polished wired 6roughcast 1.0 0.95 wiredcastorpatlemed 0.9 6selectively 0.85 heat-absorbing (palegreen) 6 body-tinted 0.55 heat-absorbing (bronze) 0.9 1.1 0.85 0.8 1.05 1.0 0.7 0.95 0.5 0.6 corrugated resin-bonded glass fibre reinforcedroofingsheets: — 0.9 moderately diffusing 0.75—0.9 — heavily diffusing 2 4 I e 10 12 14 4 roomindex coefficient of utitisation 0.6 .19 .16 .15 .19 .16 .14 .16 .14 .14 0.8 .25 .21 .2 .25 .21 .2 .21 .2 .18 1.0 .3 .26 .25 .29 .26 .24 1.25 .31 .3 0 .25 .24 .21 .27 .31 .29 .26 .27 .26 .24 1.5 .34 .31 .3 .32 .31 .29 .3 .27 .26 2.0 .36 .35 .32 .36 .34 .32 .34 .32 .29 2.5 .39 .38 .35 .38 .36 .34 .35 .32 3.0 .4 .39 .38 .4 .35 .36 .36 .35 .32 4.0 .42 .41 .4 .41 .4 .39 .39 .38 .35 5.0 .44 .42 .41 .42 .41 .4 .4 .39 .36 mt .49 .42 .49 .48 .48 48 .45 .45 .42 .31 reflectance 0.7 walls 0.5 0.3 0.1 0.5 0.3 0.1 0.3 0.1 0 index 0.5 0.3 0 ceiling room 0.9 coefficient ofutilisation .19 .16 .13 .19 .16 .13 .16 .13 .13 Correctionfactorstobeappliedto calculate for typicalglazing materials: forprecisedetailsof proprietarymaterialsconsultmanufacturers; for doubleglazinginnerpaneof clear glassis 1.0 .23 .2 .18 .22 .19 .18 .19 .18 .16 1.25 .26 .23 .2 .24 .23 .2 .22 .2 .19 1.5 .27 .24 .22 .26 .24 .22 23 .22 .2 assumed 2.0 .3 .27 .24 .28 .26 .24 .26 .24 .24 2.5 .32 .3 .27 .31 .28 .27 .28 .27 .26 3.0 .34 31 .3 .32 .31 .28 .3 .28 27 4.0 .35 .34 .32 .34 .32 .31 .32 .31 .3 50 .35 .34 .34 .35 .34 .32 .34 .32 inf .4 .4 .4 .4 .4 .4 0.75—0.9 i S =1.5max Hensweeven dalight 8 ClErecommendsthat monitorwahouldnotbe lessthan S nor more than¾S 6 5 H Maxspacing of sawtoothrooflights& monitors asrecommendedfor—n(7)(8) .31 .39 .39 .38 Coefficientsof utilisation for monitorswith verticalplus slopingglazing 1.0 Correctionfactortobeappliedto DF calculated from—n(1)(2) toallowforavreflectances otherthan 0.2assumedfortables 0.3 .15 .12 .09 .13 .12 .09 .11 .09 .09 correction factor 1.2 0.5 Coefficientsofutilisationforsawtooth roofwith slopingglazing 16 1e% 1.1 0.5 0.3 0.1 0.5 0.3 0.1 03 0.1 0 0.8 CIE methodofdaylightcalculation:typical graph applicableto skylightsinpitchedroofs 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.7 walls 0.6 2 reflectance ceiling 7 avDF av 1W Rm indexas tabulated = and low-pitchedroofs, sawtooth and monitor roofs, from which av DF can beascertained. Typical curves forskylights inflat and 200pitchroofs reproduced —(1)(2). By means ofassociatedtables corrections can be made for various glass transmittances, for dirt on glass and for av surfacereflectances differing from20% (0.2) reflectance assumed for (3)(4)(5). For —+(1 )(2) av DF can be read directgiven glass ar/floor ar ratios, length of bldg and height ofwallsaboveworking plane. locality of interior 32 BasicData Daylight QUALITYOF DAYLIGHT: GLARE location DF is measure of daylight Illumination: subjective aspects also help to determine essential appearanceand character ofinterior, Ofsubjective lightingphenomena glare isone ofmostimportant. 2 distinctiveaspects of glare recognised: disability glare, which impairs ability of people to see objects against glare source without necessarily causing visual discomfort and discomfort glare, which causes visual discomfortwithout necessarily impairing ability of people to see—.p398. Typical example of disability glare: window at end of corridor or top of staircase makes it difficult to see person or object silhouetted against window. Such cases usually resolved by common sense; little to be gained fromcalculation techniques. Degree ofdiscomfort glarecan beassessednumerically and expressed as limiting glare index. (—oBib367 382). Main controlling parameter luminance of skyasseen through window; above lowvalue of window/ floor area ratio (l—2%)size of window not important. Recent studies indicate, forexample, thatifoneassumessky luminanceof 8900cd/rn2 (exceeded foronlyabout 15% ofworking year) predicted glare indexfor rm not exceeding 4000 in height with av surface relectances of 0.4 would be 26. Forsimilar rm with av reflectancesof0.6glareindex would be24. These figures apply toworst conditions, egsingle window facing observer. Forprogressive reductions in sky luminance predictedglare indices would be reduced; egwith sky luminance of 6400cd/m2 glare index would be reduced by 0.5 units and for sky luminance of 1 600 cd/rn2 by as much as 4 units, bearing in mind that incidence of glare would be increased because of higher proportion ofworking hours for assumed lower sky uminace. Conversely,forrm with higher ceilings (le above 4000)glareindex maywell beincreased by 1—2 units. As controlling factor is sky luminance, if values assumed for glare indices are greater than recommended values—.(2)someamelioration likely to be required. Practical ameliorative measures include use of translucent curtains or blinds, louvred or slatted blinds, vertical or horizontal fins and high infernalsurfacereflectances—vp406. Othermeasures include placing windows so that immediate surroundings have high luminance, use of windows on more than 1 wall and detailed design of windows and their immediate surrounds so as to reduce contrast with viewofbrightsky. airport bldg &coach stations receptionar Customs& immigrationha Circulationar, lounges assembly &concert ha foyers, auditoria corr stairs banks counters,typing, accounting,book ar public ar churches body of church pulpit &lectern ar, chancel&choir altar, communion table drawing off general general bldg ar entrance ha & reception ar hospitals reception &wr wards pharmacies libraries reading & referencerm av DF mm % % 0.6 desks 24 2 counters& desks workingplane 24 2 06 06 2 2 06 06 06 workingplane floor 24 2 desks workingplane 5 2 liv (over V2 depthofrm butwith mm arof distribution7m2) 1 bedr (over¾depthof rm butwith mm arof distribution5.5m2) 0.5 k(over 1/2 depthof rm butwith mm ar of distribution4.5m2) 2 dualpurposerm, eg k/livtobe litto more exacting 0.6 5 1 Recommendedmn DF fordwellingsextracted—.Bib107 Daylightreferences.' —'Bibliography entries 047 059 074 076 107 202 251 252 291 367368 375 380381 382 383 397 452 457 527 528 529 567 23 24 workingplane Idaylightglare index to be calculated tor directionof viewof congregation) 21 on desks on table (level dependson emphasisrequiredl 23 23 5 1.5 5 2 5 25 on boards 21 2 06 working plane 24 2 5 06 workingplane Innermostbedhead 1mm value refersto Innermostbedheadl 24 21 21 5 3 workingplane 21- 5 1.5 on tables ladditionalel lighting will be required) verticalplane 23 workingplane 21 1.5 5 23 5 2 desks 23 5 2.5 desks 23 03 working plane desks 21 21 21 21 1.5 benches working plane 5 3.5 workingplane 21 0.6 2.5 workingplane workingplane benches 24 21 lab 2 5 5 swimming pools pool 5 2 pooi surface (careshould be taken to minimiseglare & reflectionsfrom watersurfacel workingplane 23 workingplane (avoidspecular reflections:limit daylightoninternallylit controlsl 20 surroundingar telephone exchanges (manual) general 2 0.5 requirements followingreflectancesare assumed, walls0.4, floor 0 15, ceiling0.7 treads 2 2 2 surgeries DI% limiting daylight glare index 5 5 5 5 wr location positionof measurement 2 shelves (stacksl museums &art galleries general off general typing, business machines,manually operated computers schools &colleges assembly ha classr artrm lab staff rm, commonrm sports ha general surgeries (med & dental) OF (furtherdetail—.Bib202 380382 3831 2 Scheduleof DF &glareindices easels 23 22 23 BasicData 33 Sunlight CRITERIA FORADMISSIONOF SUNLIGHT Standards forUK —BRE (Bib074) —*(Bibl4l) —*DoE Welsh Office (Bib251 252) Standards for USA —Ramsey & Sleeper (Bib549) ForUSA latitudes—*p34—6 1 Altitudeofsunin relationtobldg orobserver (lat51.5°) BlockwithmainaxisrunningN-Shas longshadowscasttosidesofbldg in earlymorning&lateafternooninMar&Sep:smallpermanently shadowed ar toNofblock in midwinter 2 3 Blockwith mainaxisrunning NW-SEshadowpattemvaries between am& pm: relativelysmall permanently shadowedarinmidwinter soaraftftudeat12OO inkjn cmsssection 8hr so'ar altitudeat1200 ________________inMar& Sep 38.5° 151° l2hr 14hr lOhr l6hr H— L[__X1 LlOhr -l2hr 14 hr •N 4 Tallblock withmain axisrunningE-W (favoured wheremainrmfacingS are required)cangive seriousovershadowing ofgroundto NofbldginMar& Sep:comparativelylargearof site closetobldg receivesnosunlightin 5 Where possibleavoidsiting high bldg withdeeprecesses facing Nas comparativelylargearof groundreceivesnosunlightatallinmidwinter midwinter S&N SITING,ORIENTATION&SPACING Nwindow OF BUILDING Check orientation of facades and spacing of bldg inrelation torequired standardof insolation —4p34—6. Some compromise on ideal orientation of facades will be unavoidable on congested sitesorin areas ofmixed development. —*Energyconservation houses—÷p79—81 INSOLATIONOFOUTDOORSPACES 6 E&Wwindowsreceive horizontalsunraysat equinox;theirangleofincidence becomessteeper towardssummersolstice; W = shortestdayofyr, T = equinox,S = longestdayofyr SE& SW 7 N windowsreceiveonly littledirectsunlight round summersolstice; Swindowsreceive sunrayswith lowanglesofincidenceinwinter & steep insummer NE& NW Where possible site largebldg sothat extensive and continuous shadowing of ground round them avoided; otherwise growth ofvegetation will be inhibited. Problemdynamicand seasonal pattern of sunlight and shadow should be examined. For indication of extent ofpossible shadowing from tall bldg during summer and autumn (lat London) —*(2)—(5). ORIENTATIONOF WINDOWS 8 SE & SWwindowsreceivefairamountof sunshineboth summer&winterby lowdeeplypenetratingsunrays 9 NE& NWwindowsreceivenodirectsunlightin winter buteffectivesunlightinspring&autumn Orientation, size and shape of individual windows may require checking ondrawings by reference to sun path diagrams to determine sunlight penetration and effectiveness of required sun controls. Forgeneral indicationof effect of various orientations on sunlight penetration at different times of year (UK) —*(6)—(9). 34 BasicData Sunlight METHODSOF FINDINGSUN EXPOSURES OF BUILDINGS 3ways ofcalculatingposition ofsun relativeto particularplaces,seasons, times ofday: useof models in conjunction with sundial allows visual observation but usefulness limited byobvious practicallimitations; calculations and tabular projections toafford high degree ofexactness; summer solstice but graphic projection preferred by most architects since it allows measurement of bothsun and shade. SUN PATH DIAGRAM 1 () & angle of bearing Diagramshowsaltitude (J3) Sun's position at any date or hour may be determined from sun path diagramwhichcorresponds to latitudeofobservationpoint—*(1 ) showing altitude (a) and angle of bearing ($). Diagramsfor series of N latitudes —(2)—(4) p35(1)—(5). On each diagram altitude angles shown at 100 intervals by concentric circles. Bearing angles shown at 100 intervals by equally spaced radii graduated along outer periphery of diagram. Elliptical curved lines in diagram represent horizontal projections of sun's path, appropriate for 21st day of each month: months labelled in Roman numerals; crossed grid of vertically curved lines, labelled in arabic numerals, indicate hours. Use ofsun path diagram Example: Columbus Ohio at latitude 40°N on 21 Feb at 1400—*p35(2). Find elliptical curvedlines for Feb (ii) and markwhere itcrosses vertical line of 1400 (2): thesetwo lines intersect as sun's position; read altitude fromconcentric circle: 32°; read bearingangle fromouter circumference: 3503Q w Example ofuse ofdiagram forapprox latitude London England—p36. 2 24°Nlatitude 3 28°Nlatitude 4 32°Nlatitude Basic Data 35 Sunlight SUN PATH DIAGRAM(cont) Further examples of sun path diagrams—.(1 )—(5). For method of using diagrams —*p34. C/) C) ci 1 36°Nlatitude 2 40°Nlatitude 3 44Nlatitude 4 48°Nlatitude 5 52N latitude 36 BasicData Sunlight USE OF SUN PATH DIAGRAMWITH BUILDING PLAN C ) Diagram —(1) shows path of sun on shortest day of year at approx latitude London England (51° 50'N); —(2) shows sun position atdetermining daysofyear;—*(3)—(7) showmethod of finding amounts of sun and shadow on bldg. insun from0345—1030 = 6/4 hr 5 Shortlyafter 1100atsummersolstice NEelevation in shade; shortly after 1300SE elevationalso inshade;otherelevationsatcorresponding timesin sun insun from 0954—1800 = 8¼ hr 1 Path ofsunshortestdayofyear (approx 21 Dec)lat510 SON 2 Sun positionatnoonat determiningdaysofyr:distanceof sunfromobserverequalsradius ofsunpath diagramwith dotted path ofsun in plan,which represents planprojectionof correspondinghofsun insun from1435—1800 =3'/4 hr 6 At equinoxNE elevation in shadeshortlyafter1000,SEelevation shortly after 1500 insunfrom 0900—1545 = 6/4hr N elevation pn ofsun insun from0815—0900 = 3/4 hr 3 4 To find amounts ofsun&shadowonbldgatcertaintimeofyear &day (eg equInox1100) azimuthangle(19°)isplottedinplan fromcornerofbldgin question;this shows limitofshadowcast inplan;angleofaltitudeofsun (37.1°)then plottedwherethis line intersects verticalplaneof bldgfurther back; lengthx,found byintersecting line drawn at rightanglestolimit of shadow in planwith plottedangle of altitude, determineshofshadowcast in elevation;plottedtoelevationat distanceafrom internal corner&linkedwith eaves of line ofbldg gives limitofshadowinelevation 7 Atwintersolstice NEelevationreceivessun forbarely1 hr,SEelevationin shadeafter1500 BasicData 37 Sunlight CALCULATIONOF RADIATION Design implications of sun's altitude and bearing affected by actual amount of solar energyfalling on exposed surface of bldg. choice of orientation and selection of appropriatetechnical orpassive devices for shading bldg will require thisthird range ofdata. Graphic calculator —(1) (—Bib549) originates in USA therefore uses Btu/ft2/hrunits. Upper halfof diagramcharts energies falling horizontal plane under clear skyconditions. Radiationlines at 25Btu/ft2/hr intervals. Lowerhalfshows amount ofradiation falling on vertical surface. For use calculator would be drawn to same scale and size as sun path diagram —*p34—6. Superimposed on diagram with correct orientation radiation values can be read directly. PREDICTINGACTUALDURATION OF SUNLIGHT Data on sunlightavailability for any geographical location or climate should, in general, be sought from nearest meteorological station. Probability of sunlight unobscured by cloud or mist can be read off modified stereographic sunpath diagramknown as'sunlightavailability protractor'—(2) (—Bib074). Total number available hours sunlight obtained by adding small figures between hour lines and multiplying total, inthis instance (latitude 51 .5°N) by 30.4 In example—*(3)bysuperimposing house planon protractortotal hours sunlightlikelyin February seem tobe 1.5 x 30.4 = 45. 1 Radiationcalculator: can be usedat anylatitude & anyorientation; is in same scale &projectionassunpath diagrams—p34—6;transfercalculator diagramtotransparentoverlay&superimposeon sunpathdiagramin desiredorientation:radiationvaluescan bereaddirectly solaraltitudeindegrees 510 IS 2025 303 40455060708090 67 123 166 197 218 235 248 258 266 273 283 289 292 294 Btu/1t2/hr magnitudeofsolar radiationdependsfirstof allon sun'saltitude:tabulated valuesindicatedirect radiationenergiesreceived under clear atmosphericconditionsatnormalincidence o Forcomputationof total yearly sunny hours,multiply summatedaveragefigures fromtheprotractor by30.4 (averagedayspermonth) 2 Sunlightavailabilityprotractor 3 Applicationof sunlightavailibilityprotractor (—BibO74) Sunlightreferences: —Bibliography entries074 141 251 252 38 Habitat Design ofhouses OF PERIOD & CONVENTION EXPRESSION - Access Around1500houseor townwas walled in& had heavy gates 1 2 By 1700wall &gate wereonly 3 During 19th centurysecluded housewas built inopensurroundings with low fences 4 6 By 1500therewere heavy doorswith door knocker&barred windowswith bullseyepanes 7 8 In 20th centurycoveredway leadsfromcartoentrancedoor symbolsthroughwhich glimpsesof gardencouldbeobtained In 20th centurythere is no enclosure (especially in USA)& housestands unobtrusively in large communalpark Entrance 5 Around1000log houseshad no windows,lowdoors& highthreshold (lightwas admittedthroughopening inroof) Ataboutl700doorshad attractivebars,clear glass &a bell pull (Georgianwiredtemperedplate glass) whichelectroniceyeslides sidewaysat same timeannouncing visitor Interior slidingpartition verticallysliding window wall 9 Atabout 1500therewere low heavydoors,cellswith sparse daylighting&floors ofshort,wide boards 10 Around1700widefoldingdoors led intosuitesofrrnwith inlaid flooring By 1900sliding doorswere fitted betweenrm, with linoleum, sliding windows &draw curtain 11 Plans privy side entrance unbarredwindowsofplateglass (temperedinUSA):Venetianblinds or rollershuttersprovideprotection againstsun wc & moUntain cellar 12 In 20th centureymm are flexible, with elworkedslidingwalls& low street j__sto ha F! bedr ground nT__.ey wc & washr first floor 13 Timber(Walser)houseofabout 1500was influencedbyenvironment,methodofconstruction &way ofliving (eg smallwindows) maid ogg serv dr garden ci In stone houseof 500 walls occupysamearasmisoas to give protectionagainstenemies& cold 14 Between 1500's and present time science, technology and industry have transformed outlooks, forms and, not least, appearance of our society. House nolongerfortress orcrude shelteragainstclimate; it is, orshould be, abeautiful unobstructive framework forourlives—open to nature but protected fromit. 15 Houseof2000will havelight steelsupports&independent non-load bearingcurtainwalling &partitionswhosecomposition providesprotection againstbad weather&affordssound& heatinsulation: openplanning probable,with nodoors between liv ar, drandha Everyone has different concept; but the creative ability ofthe individual dictates how far he is able to transfer his experience into reality and express it through the material at his disposal. Some clients and their architects are still in the 16th century but a few of each have already arrived in the 20th; if the right centuries meet then a happy marriage between clientand architect is assured. Habitat 39 House organisation SUBDIVISIONOF SPACE, FROM1-ROOMDWELLING TO PALACE dr maid I I parlour maid IsEanthr = cook ma Activities taking place in single rm—1-rm dwellings become progressively subdivided in largerhouses until in palace everyactivity has separate rm specially adapted in shape & position. Lines ofsubdivision also indicatespatialrelationship betweenindividualrm, which makesdiagram helpful tool when establishing programme for houses ofall kinds. 40 Habitat Houses N favourable 7NE garage 2 lake —or river Favourable& unfavourable sitesonhillsides very good 1 N nosunshine coldwinter winds even distributionof daylight Favourablehousepositions garage workrm sto Ia wine cellar heating utility W afternoon Eearly morning &evening sun heatgain in summer; may have coldwinds in winter: double glazing advisable sunmay have heatgain & glarein summer: trees desirable 3 Optimalorientationof individual rm Sbest sideofhouse siteboundary high sun angle in summer deepsun penetrationinwinter meansforshadingglass advisable yard I lineof bldg SE ter optimal position E-W road tine ofbldg a 2 Z I widest possible spacing N 4 Favourablehouseorientation on E-Wroads EXTERNALINFLUENCES ON HOUSE PLAN Siting &orientation Principles of positioning house on plot illustrated diagramatically—(1). For detached house plot on south side of E-W road most favourable, permitting entrance and services to be placed near roadwhile living rm and bedr lieaway fromroad, face sunand have accessto garden. Arrangements on E-W and N-S roads shown indetail —(3)(4). Houses on hillsides should generally be placed towards higher parts of their plots—*(2). Prevailingwinds foreachsitemust beconsideredin planning forcold and heat protection. Wind effects —p7781. Nslopes —*p46. Orientation also —p33—7 5 Favourablehouseorientation onN-Sroads:plotsonEside preferable Rules for siting detached houses also apply to dwellings grouped in pairs or in rows. Some of factors considered on following pages, eg problems of access, which are most extreme in terrace (row) houses, apply to an extent todetached houses because ofbenefits, in road and servicecostsand depth ofgarden,which generallyaccrue fromkeeping plotsnarrow. Safeguarding against obstruction Where neighbouring plotsalready built on, position and plan ofhouse can be adapted to known surroundings; otherwise possibility of future development must be taken into account. Architect has duty avoid undue obstruction ofdaylight over adjoiningland likelytobe developed forhousing —p33. Habitat 41 Houses ACCESS Accesstodwelling 5 basic systems can be distinguished; Houses and footpaths along road with no segregation of vehicular and pedestrian traffic: implies nothrough traffic, no on-street parking—*(1). Road and footpath on opposite sidesof house: implies house design permitting access either side without loss ofprivacy; requires children's play area other than road—*(2). Vehicular access stopped shortof houses: limited by access distance (46 m for most services: 61 m in USA); requires particularly well designed and maintained parking and garaging—(3). Residents'&visitor's parking within boundary ofproperty: noteservice vehicleparkingar 1 Vertical segregation of vehicles and pedestrians: expensive, suits high densityofsteeplysloping sites —(4). Primarily pedestrian access to small groups of houses shared with private cars and light delivery vehicles: requires careful design to enforcelow speeds and restrict useto legitimate access—*(5). Accessroads Access roads tohouses can besubdivided into 2 groups —p42. General access roads: accommodate service vehicles, cars and, depending onlayoutsystem, frontage accessoroccasionalvisitor parking. Design to limit speed atjunction with local distributor road. Minor access roads: designed to allow slowspeed vehicle penetration of pedestrian priority area, serveup to 25 houses, speeds kept low by width, alignment, surface textureand visibility provision, possibly hump or chicane at entrance. May be cul-de-sac with turning at end, short loop, or lead to restricted vehicle/pedestrian mixed courtyard. Garaging the car 3methodsofgaraging orparking carmust also beconsidered; withinor partlywithinhouse, adjoining house, separate from it. First 2 of these will affect house plan—*plOO—1 (—*Bib225). Design standards 2 Residents'parkingpartlywithinboundaryofproperty & partlycommunal 3 All parkingcommunal 4 Parkingaroffcoveredaccess belowpedestrian deck National and local standards for zoning and subdivision reg should guide planner. Road widths and construction, footpaths, frontages, density, housing types usually established by codes and/orlocal reg. 5 Accessarsharedbypedestrians&vehicles I C- '-4 '-4 42 Habitat Houses ACCESS local distributor road general access road minoraccess road Roadhierarchywithinhousingar:examplemakes useof sharedpedestrian/vehicle courtsasminoraccessroads Habitat 43 Houses ACCESS a- Primaryaccess accessto singlehouse A path reducedto single w to avoid occasionalobstructions 1200 '3000long12mapart Footpaths should run asdirectly as possibletomajorattractions(schools, shops, bus stops) away from heavy traffic roads. Should be well lit and overlooked (for security), sheltered and avoid steep gradients. Use ramps rather than steps, or ramps as alternative routes where steps necessary. Critical design widthshould allow prams and wheelchairs to passand clear obstructions. Mm 1 800, but on pedestrian traffic routes generally allow 2400 on open ground, 3000between bldg and fences. Footpaths between road or pedestrian traffic route and small groups of houses can be 1 800, 1200for2 houses (USAmm 1 220), 900 forsingle house —(1 )(2). Max distance from road todoor ofhouse, 46 m. Secondary access Additional footways to serve garden side of houses, garage courts etc canbe 900—1 000 between fences,600 inopen ground—p47(6) 106(22). Plan todiscourage use asthrough routes. SERVICES footpath between solid obstructions 2400 obstructionononesideonly, open ground on other 1 Statutory utilities(eggas, water, el, telephone) should besupplied with details of any proposed housing development at early stage in order to agreeserviceroutes between different interests and avoid later adjustment, which can be both time consuming and costly. In UK they will generally prefer to lay their services within public road, as this gives them certain automatic statutory rights of access; but in segregated layouts or those designed with narrow road widths this may prove inconvenient or uneconomic and alternative routes may need to be agreed. Perhapspreferable:rear-of-blockservicestrips, easilyaccessible and surfaced with materialswhich may readily be removedandreinstated. Television Master aerials for television signal boosting often require licence or permit.Television cables below ground should bekept mm of300from el supply or lighting cables and well away from telephone cables. 1 800 Pedestrianaccess&trafficroutes Recommended depth forlaying television cables: 450. ACCESS FORDISABLED Housing fordisabled —p85—7;internal access —+p86. Spaces needed forwheelchairs —.(3). 1000 p 4a endparkingoverhang a. b 50 sideparkingoverhang 500 '—mm 914—' safetybarrier 1525 C min1525 d —mm 914__ signposts, traffic signals etc walls, copings, parkingmeters etc tamp posts should be sitedat heeloffootpath beyond recommendedclear width a=minclearw 2 Footpaths:mm clear w 3 Mm space I clear w: aforsinglewheelchairbfor2wheelchairsc1525dia dT-shapedspacefor1800 turn 44 Habitat Houses STANDARDS& REGULATIONS a mm space1 least dimension arft2 luwith Obr luwith luwith luwith lbr 2br 3br na na na na na na 160 160 100 120 170 110 120 80 luwith Obr luwith Ir-da Ir-da-sI lr-da-k na 210 250 na na 270 Ir-sI 210 100 na 120 Ir dr br(primary)2 br(secondary) total arbr ohr 100 120 na 120 80 80 200 280 80 80 luwith 4br 180 120 120 80 280 116'' 80 80" 84" 94" 80" b combined space k-da lbr minarft2 luwith luwith 2br 3br luwith 4br 210 na 270 na 120 230 250 na na 300 330 na na 160 140 k. least dimension see note 3 USA mm 2 housing —÷Bib228.) Horizontal controlling dimensions should be, in descending order of preference, asfollows: first: multiples of300 second: multiples of 100 third: multiples of50 upto 300 For house planning tothesedimensions a 300 grid is used. Vertical controlling dimensions more closely defined. Heights of door openings and between floorsdiffer over relatively small ranges. For dimensions forhousing, with preferences for public sector in UK—.(3). Mm rm sizes USA—.(1). Bedrsizes —.70(1 7). Ceiling heights In USA FHA says ceiling heights must be such as not to create an unpleasantsensationand nottorestrictphysicallymovementofoccupants and furnishings. Ceiling heights clear under beamsorother obstructions BUILDINGREGULATIONS Distinct differences in legal intention result in different degrees of controloverhousing design indifferent countries: eg reg in Englandand Wales limited to securing health and safety of occupants and other users; in Scotland designed to secure health, safety and convenience ofoccupants and public atlarge, imposing mm space andeqpstandards (—nBib233); in USAFHA, HUD reg and state and local codes apply. misizes aforseparate rm bforcombinedspaces ft Recommendations forhorizontal and vertical controlling dimensions for housing have beendeveloped in orderto make use of dimensionally coordinated standard components. (Application in UK public sector -*(2). Ir abbreviations: br bedr da diningar dr:diving rm kitchen hying rrnr iu:liningunit na: apphcable 0br iu with no separate bedr ohr otherhabiiable rm 51 sleepingar primarybedrshaH haveatleast1 uninterrupted wailspaceofatleast 10 3mmdimensionsofcombinedrmshall besumofdimensions ofindividualsinglerminvolved exceptforoverlaporcombineduse ofspace fbi Controllingdimensions in habitablerm ha, bathr luminous ceiling sloping ceilings 7 6 7 0 7 0 7 6at leastfor½ rmwith noportion less than 5' 0'' Most houses built for sale in UK by private builders conform to standards set by National House-Building Council (—vBib5l2); in USA generally conform to FHA standard mm sizes and construction as may be required byfinancing: alsoconsult state and local codes. basementswithout habitable spaces 6 Fireescape USA mm 8 In houses of more than (consult codes). ceilingheights 2 storeys fire escape must be considered Essentially single stairway in suchhouse should be separated fromall rmbyfr construction and self-closing frdoors and leadto hallorpassage giving access tooutside air at ground level. This has effect ofprohibiting open planning on ground or intermediate storeys unless alternative escape routes, eg by balcony to adjoining house, provided fromrm on upperstoreys. ROOFZONE __________ nohntiton thidrness but lowerbotifiary lobeplacedtogive sa,nefloortoceiiing heightason lower I I I I— LEVEL 2100 Pref}J_ __ 1ipa lstprefenence250 2ndpreference200 oc300 1000 WiNDOWciLLLEVELS i [ 0— FLOORLEVEL—n_ C w OOR LEVEL (2 dimensionslobe takenfromFFL 3 2— WINDOWHEADLEVELS 1Stpret 2nd DOORHEADLEVEL 3,,,ivn UK verticalcontrollingdimensions 200 Habitat 45 Houses RELATIONSHIPTO OTHERBUILDINGS Daylight& sunlight—*p27—37 Consult relevant reg and codesfor daylighting standards in habitable ml; thesealso provide for protection of residential bldg and undeveloped sites from obstruction of daylight by new development. These provisions normally adopted in England&Walesbyplanningauthority in development control (to some extent mandatoryinScotland).Proposed bldg can betested forboth distancefrom itsown boundary and distance fromother bldg by using permissible height indicators(—Bib251). USA —FHAand city bldg codes. So far as possible rm should receive sunlight at some part of day throughout most of year but this not generally enforced by reg or development control. Angles and direction of sunlight can be established hourly foranytime ofyear at anylatitude:examplesfor at 5105Q N —.p36.Further orientation factors—.p34—6 4046. Visualprivacy Manyplanning authorities seekto prevent overlooking of houses from neighbouring houses oracross road (controlledbybldg reg in Scotland). Rule of thumb distance of 18 m often stated but is restrictive and ineffective sincevisibility affected by types of windows involved and their respective levels and incidence to one another. As with other environmental factors privacy must be considered in relation to competing benefits and in high densitydevelopments it is matter forcareful consideration indesign and layout. Use ofblindside orsingle-aspect house designs willhelp, egon sloping sites or where footpaths passclose to houses; effective screening of private gardens alsoimpomtant—.(1 )(2). However,privacy should notbe achieved at cost of isolation: ideally degree of screening for visual privacyshould bewithincontrol of residents. Privacy from noise Houses built near distributor roads, or main highways best protected from noise nuisance by embankments or other land formation —.(3). Privacy can, however, be improved by use of suitable house plans with rm facing awayfromnoise source (—.Bib240254). Spread offire Bldg reg generally restrict distances between houses built of combustible materials, such astimber, shingles orthatch,and their ownplot boundaries; where non-combustible materials used extent of window and door openings in walls close to boundary might be restricted to prevent spread offire to adloiningproperty by radiation. 75dB(A) \ '/ 8OdB(A) 8Sdb(A) 68dB(A) / I unprotectedsite 75dB(A) BOdB(A) 85dB(A) % \ 68dB(A) I — // f.__? siteprotected bysimple solid barrier 75dB(A) BOdB(A) \ /I 85dB(A) ' // 68dB(A) siteprotectedbyplacing road incutting 1 3 Privacysecuredbyuseofsingleaspecthouses Noise attenuation: shadedarwillbesuitable housetypes fordevelopmentwith conventional privategarden road t road publicpath public path In JL 2 Privacysecuredbyuseof reverse aspect houses: best orientation E-W I0 46 Habitat Houses SITE TOPOGRAPHY Effect of gradient Where slopes moderate, choice of plan affected little by gradient; on steeperslopessomeforms of plan can be used to greater advantage than others.Where houses run parallelto contours use of wider frontage houses minimises needfor underbuilding or excavation. Savings thus made can counterbalance usuallyadverse equation between wide frontage and greaterservicing and development costs.Verysteep sites can, however, present opportunities for imaginative use of split-level plans or entryto upper floors—(1). Houses running across contours, especially in terraces (rows), should employ narrow frontage plans, stepping at each house or pair ofhouses. Northslopes Split level 1 Northslopes aggravate problems ofmaintainingdensity while providing adequate sunlight to each house and garden. Simple solution: reverse usual ruleand place each house at lower endof itsplot, with accesson north side but on severe slopes spacing required might be excessive. Solutionthen might be to employ upside-down' section,'placing living rm on upperfloors where they can enjoysun fromsouthand views in each direction —(2). Houses running across contours canbe particularly advantageous on north slopes, sinceno garden needbe immediately overshadowed by houses and all rmwill get sunlight. i4 Aspect 2 In considering orientation —p4U,access, privacy and effectof gradient there has recurred the concept of aspect, an important characteristic relating house plan toconditions ofits site. 4modelscan bedistinguished —(3); Dual aspect: rm lookout inbothdirections, toaccess and garden sides 'Upsidedown' Single, blind-side, or controlled aspect: rm other than kitchen and servicemi lookout in 1 direction only—usually garden side Reverse aspect: rm on ground storey and upper storeys look out in opposite directions Open aspect: ideal detached or semi-detached condition where rm can look out in3 or 4 directions withoutconstraint. -1 3a Dual aspect 3b Singleaspect 3d Reverseaspect 1' 3c Controlledaspect 3e Open aspect Habitat 47 Houses + HOUSE PLAN: INTERNAL INFLUENCES Determining factors Main internal factors affecting selection of house plan: mode of horizontal circulationwithin house, user requirements, appropriate standards & regulations siteorientation & climate —p334046 HOUSE PLAN:CIRCULATION Circulation within house determined primarily by type of access appropriate toexternal conditionsand layout—.(1):5 modesofhorizontal circulation can bedistinguished; Throughcirculation 2 Circulationthroughha 3 Circulationthroughha&sb 5 Circulationthroughha &liv This —(2) provides circulation fromentry to garden side by-passing all living and working areas. Nosecondary accessto garden side needed. Through circulation suitable for all forms of entry and particularly appropriate where entrypossible fromonlyoneside. Through-storagecirculation In smallterrace (row) houses through circulationthough desirable can require excessive proportion ofwhole ground-storey area. Modification permitscirculation from entryto garden sidethrough hall and sto —(3). This arrangement suitable forall forms ofentry. Through-kitchen circulation Provides circulation fromentry to garden side through hall and kitchen —+(4). Appropriate inlayouts which provide secondaryaccesstogarden side;but can beusedwhere thereis none. Singlecirculation From point of entrygarden can be reached only by passing through living rm —(5). This type plan should only be used in layouts which provide secondaryaccesstogardenside.Secondaryaccesswill normally be necessary only in mid-terrace houses but layout situationscan arise when sitingof other bldg imposessimilar conditions on end-of-terrace, detached and semi-detached houses. I 4 Circulation throughha& k ri4 By-passcirculation Garden side can be reachedoutside house but within property limits eg by path orthroughgarage—.(6). house Throughatrium circulation—*(7) 6 By passcirculation 1 Accesstoproperty afrom bothsides bfromoneside only 7 'Throughatrium'circulationseenin USAsinglefamilydetached house I 48 Habitat Houses HOUSE PLAN: STANDARDS& REGULATIONS User requirements entrances Where house not designed for known client, user requirements can most brieflybe summarised in statementof number of rm (not counting kitchen, bathretc) in house and number of people intended to accommodate. From normative standard of 1P/rm higher standards characterised bygreater degree of specialisation—.p39. Such specialisation hasin past time reachedastonishing lengths — one English Victorian country house said to have contained rm for ironing newspapers: nowadays degree ofsub-division associatedwith palace unlikely to be reached. What does happen isthat houses designed or adapted to meet special needs, whether, eg for musician, orchid enthusiast or disabled housewife, are morespecialised, either by planningor by higher level of servicing, in 1 direction This form of specialisation secured by adaptation: will not generally affect process of plan selection setout here. living ar 5 is there space for required furniture in sensible arrangement? 6 is there sufficient space toseatguests in dining 7 doesliv faceprivate garden? kitchen 8 is there directaccess, on same level, fromk to diningar? 9 isworksurface adequate, freefrominterruption & is'work triangle' (sink—cooker—trig/larder) from compact cross-circulation? 11 has possible useof k byelderly or disabled people been considered? 12 isthere space foradditional eqp, orlarger items, likelyto be used in furniture? 13 has kviewofoutside world—for callers, toddlers' play etc? 10 14 istherespacefor required furniture in sensible arrangements — consider use of singlebeds? 15 can bedr beusedforchild'shomework, entertaining friends bedr Userrequirementcheck Iist—*(1) & hobbies? In absence ofknown clientplans should betested by list of questions about house that might beasked byuser. In any suchanalysisall planswill not meetall requirements satisfactorily; it must be for designer to judge which bathr 16 isbathr convenient for bathing baby? 17 hasuseof bathr byelderlypeople, orinvalids, been considered? 18 is therespace forappropriate bathreqp, hanging towelsetc? sf0& 19 are refusebin &fuel sto accessible, conveniently placed forcollection & delivery? 20 can bicyclesbetaken outside, pram put garden, & garden refuseremoved, withoutpassing throughliving priorities should be achieved (—Bib234). Housing standards Consult reg. Standards for dwellings in public sector in Britain —.(2) based on Parker Morris Committee's report (—.Bib233). Mandatory only for new bldg by local authorities and housing associations these in practice provide qualityplatform against which new housing can be udged. Although mm floor areas stated for various household sizes emphasis functional rather than quantitive. Am layouts and house plansshould be shown to be able to accommodate furniture and domestic activities that theycan beexpected to contain. is protection fromweatherprovided at entrances? 1 2 istherespace in haforreceiving visitors? 3 isthereconvenient sto foroutdoorclothing pram? 4 can metersbe read withoutentering living ar? (NBoutside inUSA) accessibility 1 Userrequirementchecklist N =netspace1 S = generalstospace2 For USA standards consult reg (—.FHA HUD) and state and local codes; mm rm sizes —p44(1). houses 1 storey numberof persons(tebed-spaces) per dwelling 1 2 4 5 6 67 4.5 75.5 4.5 84 4.5 82 4.5 94 4.5 92 5 4.5 92.5 4.5 98 4.5 70 3.5 79 3.5 86.5 3.5 72 3.5 82 3.5 92.5 3.5 S 30 3 44.5 4 57 4 N S 72 (mid-terrace) N S 74.5 4.5 4.5 N S flats N S maisonettes N S 30 2.5 44.5 3 57 3 85 4.5 108 6.5 108 6.5 112 6.5 108 3.5 (67 if balcaccess) Net space is ar01 aM fioors in dweiiing measured tounfinished faces, inciudesarof eachfioortaken up bystairways, bypartitions & byanychimney breasts, fiues&heating apphances& arofany externai wc; exciudes floorarofgenerai stospace (SI, dustbinsto, gar, baic, anypart of rmlessthan 1500 high because ofsiopingceilings& anyporch orcoveredwayopen to air; in singieaccess house—.p47 any space withinsto required forpassage from1 sideofhouse to other, taken as 700wide, shaM beprovided in addition toarintable. Mm 7 m2 N 2 storey (semior end) 3storey 2 3 Generai stospace lobeprovided exciusive of anydustbinsto,fuelstoorpramspacewithin stoar,& risingleaccess house, space within sto requiredfor passage from1 sideofhousetoother; inhouses somestospace may beon upperfioor, separatefrom anylinenstoolWa. but atleast 2.5 ni' shaii be at ground ievei; infiatsandmaisonettes up to 1.5rn' maybe provided outsidedwefing; in some circumstances part of garintegral withoradjoiningdwelling cancounttowards generai stospace —.Bib479 (also gives schedules offurniture to be accommodatedi arfordwellingstoaccommodate varioushouseholdsizes(UKstandards: USA—.p44) Habitat 49 Houses SELECTINGPLANS Classificationofplans From external and internal determining factors set out in previous pages, basic characteristics ofhouse plan can bestated under following heads: levels: 1, 2, 3 storeys orsplit-level aspect: dual, single, reverse or open—*p46 horizontal circulation: through, through-sto, through-kitchen orsingle, core circulation through atrium —p47 numberofrm and size ofhousehold: stated as eg (4 rm, 5person). Thesecharacteristics provide basisforclassification ofall house plans. To themisadded vertical circulationwhen housesofmore than 1 storey considered. Plandevelopment Planselection not initially affected byhousehold size orspecialised user requirements. First three heads of classification (levels, aspect and circulation) narrow choice to number ofplan arrangements at this stage expressed in simplest possible terms —+(1). This example shows how 1-storey house plans basically similar developed to accommodate different household sizes. ONE-STOREYHOUSES ? HousesatDundeeScotland:variationsinsimplebasicplan Arch Baxter Clark &Paul 1 1-storey house givesgreatest planning freedom, only planning determinants being aspect and horizontal circulation. Consequently both simplest and most luxurious houses often planned on 1 storey —(1)(2)(3)(4)p5O--1. Relationshipbetween kitchen and bathrhorizontal:economies in placing them together but savings in cost may not be great when weighed against userconvenience —*p51 (6). 1:r ih1± 2 'Arcon' prefabricatedhouse ArchArcon 4 Largeprivatehouse ArchBiecker 3 Old person'sbungalow I C 50 Habitat Houses PLANS: CLASSIFICATION 1 Houseat WhipsnadeEngland ArchLubetkin&Tecton 10 32 ' 20 64 30m 96 3 HouseinBeverlyHills USA Arch ANeutra 2 Singlefamilydetachedhousebuilt round atriumClevelandOhioUSA Arch HirumABlunden J. Habitat 51 Houses PLANS:CLASSIFICATION I C- ( I 8 lOm 6 1218243011 1 Houseforanartist Arch Rogers 2 Bungalowwith self-containedflat forhouse-keeperorchauffeur Arch Neufert iIv 3 L-shapedhousewith day& night wings ArchKossler& Peter 4 HouseinCaliforniaUSAwithterfacings& bathrbetween bedr Arch Donald d*j 0 I 4 6 8 lOm I I I I 6 12 18 24 308 2 '-4-, 'Iv jT L1IeirJ er 6 II 6 5 Houseforcouplewithoutch: goodrelationship ofter, k &liv Arch Erchmannsdorfer&Kindler American2-storeyhousewith upperfloor entrance (siteis notflat) 1Pm [LF 12 18 24 306 6 Housetosleep6 Arch LHilberseimer N 7 8 ArchE H& M KHunter 52 Habitat Houses MORE THAN ONE STOREY Newplanning determinants introduced: vertical circulation, relationship between kitchen and bathr, which becomes vertical as well as horizontal, and balancing of ground and upper storeyaccn. Verticalcirculation:thestair In all houses of more than 1 storey plan is influenced by position and design of stair. Stair and its location affectconstructional system to be employed: in repetitive house design most important single standardising component. Stairs differin design (straightflightordog-leg) and in position. These, incombination, impose different planning effects. To provide best circulation aim istoarrive onfirststorey as near as possible to middle of house; best choice of position and typeof stair toachieve this related to plan shape—a(1). Kitchen& bathr These comprise most heavily serviced part of house;economy in plumbing and water supply systems and problem ofaccommodating bulky soil and waste stack at lower level eased by placingone above the other—.(4)(5). Ibedri edr C ____________________ ''1 III Dog-legstair hasgreatplanningadvantages& much used intraditionalEnglishhouse;noteinter house how accesstosmall rm& servicescanbe provided at half-landingsaVictorianterhouse Georgianterhouse cGeorgiandetachedhouse 1 b 2 Straightflight at rightanglestohorizontal circulationoftenattractiveinsavingcirculation spacebutdividesplanrigidly:insomeinstances not disadvantage,particularly inblind-side planning acentralstair throughhouse,single aspectplan b centralstairthroughhouse, dualaspectplan Ccentralstairacrosshouse, dual aspectplan Balance of ground & upper storey accn In some house types, designed for both small and large households, total area required for bedr and related accn does not balance living, kitchen and other areas usually placed on groundstorey: this because space allotted for commonuse does not increase proportionally to family size, asdo number and sizes ofbedr. Economic design forsmall houses, sayfor3 or 4 persons, employs 1 V4-storey arrangement, basically of 1-storey construction with open roof truss to enable roof space to be used for bedr. Such roof on 1-storey house can also facilitate future extension of small house. —np78. Opposite problem occurs in 2-storey houses designed formore than 6persons, where house plans can be adapted by providing bedr over pends, linking houses across pedestrian routes 3 Very simple& economicaldesignofterhouse with 'farmhouse'k &bathrongroundfloor upperstorey groundstorey path under pondusedtoturncorner 45 Economyachievedby placing bath over k 6 7 rm Bedrover pendsmeansofprovidingextra Habitat 53 Houses MORETHAN ONE STOREY 1 2 2 'throughha' typeplanswithsolidfuel heating&chimney: note —.(2) how widerfrontagewith straightflightstairon perimeter leadsto long uppersto circulation Arch National Building Agency (UK) 4 HouseatHallandSussexEngland Arch Chermayeff b 3 HousesatMoultonYorkshireEngland: bedrinsulated tromoneanotherby cpd& staircase; note influence ofstairtypeon upperstoreyplan Arch Butterworth ground floor 5 SmallSwedishtypewithshonext to kon groundtloor Arch Swedish ArchitectsCooperative upper floor Largertype with drnextto k& centrestair Arch W Kraatz 6 7 TerhousesinKlampenborgDenmark: appearance of detachedhousesachieved by staggering ArchAJacoben I0 54 Habitat Houses HOUSE PLANS bathr bedr Plan ranges By classifications of type outhned—.p47—9, many agencies providing houses,in both public and private sectors, havecompiled sets of related house designs called plan ranges. Designs comprising plan range have basic constructional features in common, such as staircase type and location, kitchen/bathr relationshipand upperfloor construction. House designs in such range can be varied to meet differing requirements while retaining useful degree of standardisation (1). bedr2 bedr3 First storey plan of 3-bedr wide frontage house has been changed to allow house to be used where controlled aspect —p46required. This possible because critical elements unchanged:ie, inthiscase,plumbing, heating, stair. Use ofsame firststorey plan asofnarrow frontage house, possible, would impose dual aspect conditions on its use in layout. Combined rooms: natural lighting& ventilation Unlessseparately lighted and ventilated required area should be based ontotalareaofcombinedspacesprovideddegreeofopenness,relationship and planning of adjacent space allow adequate natural lighting (—. Bib187). In row-house (ter) plan —.(2)shaded areashould beused in calculating required amounts of natural light and ventilation forcombination dining and living space. Assuming total floor areadining and living rm 41.8m2 mm amount glazed area required would be 41.8 x lO% or 4.18 m2 in living rm exposed wall. Vent sashshould be locatedto providecirculation of air throughout area. Becauseof excessive distance dining areafrom sourceof natural light height ofglazing should be great as possible. J bedri bedr2 r2 bathr Rangeofhousetypesfor 4& 5 personwide & narrowfrontage houses Arch NBA (Scotland) 1 2 Combinedrm: naturallighting & ventilation bedr3 Habitat 55 Houses KITCHENS Kitchens best placed towards NE or NW of house and in small houses should ideally overlook entrance, front door and children's play area. Kitchen relates horizontally to front door (or tradesmen's entrance, if separate), diningrm ormeal space, food sto,scullery and laundry areas, refuse sto or disposal, and outside clothes drying and toddlers' play spaces. It relates vertically to bathr, wc and other areas requiringwater supply and drainage. In large houses functions of kitchen can be spread over several rm (eg laundry, utility, pantry, scullery) combined in household wing separated from rest of house to prevent spreadofnoiseand cooking smells —np49(4). rexck-up unwrapping washing penling addingwater 1 weighing measuring mining keeping lood hot, dishing-ap baking holing hying grilling stacking washing drying disposal Sequenceofactivities Main activities for which kitchen designed: preparation, cooking and serving of meals and cleaning up afterwards. Ancillary activities can include clothes washing, general household mending and cleaning, eating, children's play, studying, hobbies, entertaining and general recreation. WORKINGSEQUENCE Sequence of activities —o(1) relatesto sequence of fitments, worktop — cooker —worktop—sink—worktop, which is basis ofmodern domestic kitchen planning —.(2): should never be broken byfull-height fitments, doors or passageways. Worktriangle Distance user has to walk between sink, cooker and refrigerator or larder critical in kitchen planning. Lines Joiningthese 3 elements form what is known as worktriangle' —o(3). For normal family house combined length of sides of triangle should be between 5500and 6000. Distance between sink and cooker should not exceed 1800; should never becrossedby through circulation. Sinks Sinks require goodnatural light: best placed underwindow; should not normally be more than 2300 from waste stack or external drain. Sinks should be kept away fromcorners —e(4) and there should be plenty of room tostandin front of draining side, though insmall kitchens washing bowl of double sink may be placed towardscorner-.(5). 2 Sequenceoffitments 00 I I Cookers& work tops—*alsop56—8 Cooker should never be placed in front of window but should, where possible, be provided with ventilating hood —e(6). It should not be placed below wall cupboards and gas cooker should be away from doors where draughts might blow out burners. Worktop should be provided on each side; where cooker adjoins corner fitting return of at least400 should be allowed for easy standing and access space. Low level cooker requires space of at least 1200 in front for access —n(6). Adjacent worktops should be at same level as cooker top; ifchange of level required should beatpoint at least 400 fromcooker—o(7). 3 Work triangle(sk —ck — Irig) 4 Singlesk Split level cookers with separatehob and wall oven increasinglypopular. May be 1 or 2 (stacked) aboveworktop height. No perfect location:if in continuous worktop interrupt workflow; it outside worktriangle extra travel. Opendoor may bedanger tochildren. Space forcasual meals to betaken should beallowed at worktop height in working kitchen, and ideally in working partofdining-kitchen. Refrigerator Most difficult of kitchen eqp to place. Important component of work triangle; should adjacent worktop space. Frig door should open away from work area for food access; should not block passageway or hit another doorwhen opening. 5 Doublesk 6 Low-leveloven needsadequate space infront: noteextractorhood over ck Also—p58—9 hardwood pull-out cutting board (drawer below) DINING-KITCHENS—p57 Kitchen may be associated with separate but related dining space to become dining-kitchen. Separation can be achieved by arranging itments toprovide degree ofscreening or bychange inlevel offloor finish (undesirable). Dining area should be planned in same way as small diningrm. I f Kitchen may also beenlarged tocontain dining table and chairs, without separation, toform'farmhouse kitchen': more economical in spacethan either separate kitchen and dining rm ordining-kitchen butoffers less flexibility in use. 1 850 7 Changein level Provideplaceforworking seated,preferablywith pull-out worktophavingdrawer&cutting board above 8 I ci) 56 Habitat Houses noof bedr workcentre 0 mm 1 KITCHENS 2 3 4 Fixtures& work tops frontages 475 381 610 457 610 813 533 610 813 762 533 533 457 610 762 533 610 762 762 frigspace5 work 1 side1 762 762 381 381 914 914 381 381 914 457 mixingworktop 533 762 914 914 1067 sk' worktop,eachside cooker&hobspace236 worktop 1 side4 top 381 Notes. when dishwasher provded610skacceptable where built-in wall oven installed provide 457w worktop alongside cookershall not be located under nor within305ofwindow;wherecpdprovidedabove cooker 762 clearanceshall be providedtobottomofunprotected cpd or61010 bottom ofprotected cpd provide at least229fromedge ofcooker toadlacentcorner cpd and381fromsideollrig toadjacent cornercpd trig space may be 533whenlug provided & door opens withinownw when cooker not provided 762space shall be provided 1 USA standards require kitchen area which provides for efficient food preparation, serving and sto, aswell as utensil sto and cleaning up after meals. Provision of fixtures and workfops —s(1); worktops approx 610 deepand 914 high. Clearance between base cpdfronts in food preparation area mm 1 020 Required worktops may be combined when placed between 2 fixtures: cooker,frlg, sink. Such worktop shall have mm frontage equal to that of largerofworktops being combined. Kitchen sto —up75. —+(2) givesrecommended kitchen sto shelfarea; mm 1/3 required area to be located in base orwall cpd; mm 60% required area to beenclosed by cpd doors. Kitchenlayouts —v(3)—(7) showvarious kitchen plans. Standardsforfixtures&worktops numberofbedr 0 3 2 1 4 m° 2.23 2.79 3.53 4.09 4.65 minshelfar1234 mm drawer ar5 0.37 0.56 0.74 0.93 2.04 wall cpdoverfrig Notes: dishwasher may be counted as037 m2 ofbasecpdsb shall not be counted asrequired shelfar shelf arabove 1880shall be counted as required ar inside corner cpdshall be counted as50% ofshelfar,eacepl where revolving shelves usedactualshelfarmaybe counted drawer arm excess ofrequired armay be counted as shelfarifdrawer atleast 152d Lshapek oo LIN 6 'N 'N 'N A 8F 4 Corr plan k N,' StraightwaIIplan k n / n I 0 0 D , uT 0 0 ..iED °e0 \ - I L li ,,/7 Squareplan kwithdining ar Habitat 57 Houses KITCHENS:EXAMPLES 7163 HH __ 7J rH6 I 1 kwith sewingar & homeoff 1 ptr 2sewing 3cpd 4familydiningoroff 5hob 6sk 7 freezer 8homeofffiles ArchJohn RPeterson 2 3 Gourmetcook's k 1 ptr 2walkintrig 3metal shelves 4choppingblock 5 marbleslab 6sk 7dishwasher S hob 9wallovens 10serving 11 warmingtray 12desk 13 hoodover 14dr Arch Cliff May 4 T rrr Farmk 1 sk 2dishwasher 3waste 4cuttingboard 5hob 6oven 7cpd over Bfamilydining 9frig/freezer lOdrystoshelves 11 hotwater l2drop downironingboard 13 14dryer-washer 15sk 16 17freezers 18cleaning cpd 19 ventilated food sto 20preserves, coatcpd ArchE H& M K Hunter Efficientsmall kopensto or closes offfromdr&ter 1 sk 2 dishwasher 3 ck 4 carrouselcpd 5wallcpd 6trig 7chinacpd 82-way fireplace Arch E H & M K Hunter --- 2642 dr 4115 r liv 1524 - garden entry () r21 H (0 [21 c'J Ill 5 12 liv service entry 1 [iii 110 —— 5 Combination k/uty withgreenhouse 1 sk 2hob 3ovens 4bakingcentre 5trig 6chest freezer 7deskwith booksover 9cpd 10 sewing 11 ironing 12stowall 13lau sk 14washer 15dryer 16greenhousewith sliding glass Arch E H&MK Hunter 6 Homecentre k Lifemagazine house 1 folding doors 2trig 3ovens 4hob 5sk 6dishwasher 7child's trig 8freezer 9washer-dryer 10liftup mixer 11 rotating sto bin 12cpdover 13skylight 14motorisedwoodslat blinds,lowerfromceilingto worktoplevel ArchM K Hunter 7 ksharesfireplacewith liv 1 trig 2 sk 3dishwasher 4ck 5k herb garden 6curtain 7fireplace Scpd Arch EH &M KHunter I 58 Habitat Houses KITCHENS:EQUIPMENT — 1 400 ,.. _ I Correcttoespace 2 Good &bad lighting Hatchbetweenkor ptr&dining arorrm with 2-waysto cpdabove 4 6 7 Self-ventingcooker 3 Space neededforbottomshelf 5 Where noverticalshaft planned,hood&ducttoexternalwall advantageous Outsidewallexhaustfan T'j 1 270 __J 9 Standardcooker762wwith low oven 10 Range 1016w with lowoven 11 ovens 12 Singlewalloven 13 Smallcooker533w with low 14 Microwaveoven 15 Grill toaster Doublewalloven oven T .787h914-_,t 1676 17 Frigwith 0.65 m3 refrigeration & 1.17 m3 freezer Habitat 59 Houses KITCHENS:EQUIPMENT -- bhl Frigwith 0.59 m3 refrigeration & 1 L 2 3 Frig0.25—0.34 m3 0.2m3freezer Chestfreezer0.14—0.7 m3 7 1- I 300 4 Uprightfreezer0.31—0.7 m3 6 Metal & plastics platerack 7 10 Juice extractor 11 El slicer 5 Mincers(meatgrinders) a hand bel —13O— 120 !T T C— 360 -1 F—180—-1 8 Mixer 9 Blender Foodmill I 13 Crockpot 14 Wastemill h .7 // .7 300 flute whitewine /reclwino //sheny I/cocktail hqueur 200 160 150 130 120 100 0 95 75 70 Th 15001 12 Coffeemakers 200 260 300 420 480 -360-I -j-H-I-]-l EH 1- 1000 l-500H 17 Glass orplasticsfood drawers 350 400 460 620 700 ' 19 Woodtrays moat -8001 1000 A wallscale L022o IH 21 kscales Pedal-operatedwastebin TJc\, - ff I-I-l-l-. 50 80 30 I- 16 Glasses 15 ___ 18 Boards 60 Habitat Houses LAUNDRYSPACES b— 1000 1 Hingedironingboard 2 Clothes washing may be done in kitchen, utility rm, bathr (notpopular), back porch, garage or, incombination with wc, in downstairs cloakrm. -+ Space neededforironingseated 1 400 3 Elironingmachine Laundry area needs space for washing machine and drier, for storing cleaning materials and, possibly, for storing dirty washing; may also have to accommodate ironing board or ironing machine and working surface for sorting. Although mobile washing machines available most models, automaticmachinesinparticular,bestplumbed inwith permanent connexions towatersupplyand suitablytrapped waste. Where washing machine not used, orin large houses where much hand washing done, sink 500 x 350 x 250deeprequired and second bowl ortub desirable. Tumbler drier —(12) best placed against outside wall to allow direct extraction of water vapour: removablelinttrap required bysome models. Even where tumbler drier provided rack or line needed for drip-dry clothes. In small houses orflats this can befixedabove bath orshower; otherwise should be in ventilated drying cupboard or over trapped draining tray. Open-air dryingpreferred by many and makes nodemands onenergyresources. Open-airdrying space should be easilyaccessible fromlaundry area and preferably in viewfromkitchen —p77. 4 Howthingsused to be 690690 1 V 1 0 0 -I 5 Twintubwashingmachine(not availableinUSA) 6 Automaticwashingmachine 7 Drier stackedonwasher:right handconnexions 8 Toploadedautomaticwashing machine 457 710 860 E c0 r(0 ± 9 Combination frontloadwashing machine/drier:backconnexions (pullout) 10 Watersoftener = 1100 11 Spindrier (notused in USA) 12 Tumbledrier(musthavespace atrear forventilation) } j. 13 Eliron 24 Ironingboard 15 Sleeveboard 16 Sewingmachine Habitat 61 Houses Best daylight orientation forbathr SE—NW; for ease of installation(gas and waterservices) should be related to other rm requiring services (above or backing on to wc, kitchen, utility rm etc, —.p52: will also minimise noise frompipes); forconvenience should becloseto bedr. BATHROOMS—p62—5 Internal wc and bathr fairlycommon: may be unavoidablewhere economical use floor area important,especiallyin narrowfrontagehousesor in pointblocks. Ventilation essential and must accord with appropriatereg. Showeruses less water than bathtub; often considered more efficient because of its continuous flow; provides convenient alternative to full 2 Mm clearancebetweenb &wall legs 8 45G- \withoutlegs letinto fioor Recommended clearances 1 3 Space requirements for movement(hfrom floor) 1-600 -r 4;; 2O0' § 5 wc withflushingvalve orh-level cistern • 700 600 . I- 900 -j J1O 6 For ease of access, bathtubs sometimes partially sunkinto floor with access to trap fromrm below. Where bathtub parallel to wall distance fromcentre of bath to face ofwallmust be450. Where possible space should be available for at least 1 item of bathr furniture, suchas stool or laundry box. Fittings such as towelrails and toiletroll holders should not obstruct activity spaces. Heated towel rails best fixed 750 above floor level, above height of small child's head. Medicine cabinets should be out of reach of children and fitted with safety lock. Exposed pipes should be fixed to allow sufficient wall clearance forcleaning. Windows above baths can be difficult to open or to clean without standing in bath, common cause ofaccidents: may also limit privacy and cause draughts unless well insulated.Windows behind wash basinscan also be difficult to reach; wall abovewash basin best used for mirror or medicine cabinet. convenience outlets nearwater source; safest locationaspartofsealed light fixture over mirror with remote switching neardoorway. 700 wc underslopingrooforstairway Showers in wall recesses have shower trays ot enamelled cast iron, glazed fireclay or plastics with waterproof tiled walls or waterproof rendering and steamproof paint upto2000: prefabricated shower units in enamelled sheetsteel, aluminium or plastics also available—.p64 65. Fixed showerarmsshould be mounted at 1 900: otherwise adjustable, hand showerwith flexible hose should be used. UK practice does not allow el sockets in bathr other than specially designed shaverpoint, which should be out of reach ofbath; enclosed light fittingswith cord-operated switch preferred. USA practice: no el 1-500—-I 4 length where space limited —*p63. Shower outlet may be fitted over bath where suitable wall or partition available at tap end for fixing, orcombined bath tap and shower fitting with flexible hose may be used. For either bath activity space —.(1) shouldbe at tap end unless permanent shower screens fitted. Single basin swingrail __.47Q .450 900-1000 900 700 600 700 11 12 Heatedtowel rail 13 14 Multi-pointfitting (hb,b& sho) enclosedsho 400 7 / iiii' 8 Bidet—ap63(9) Sho length length_projection 5(10 open sho 80 2 250 90 1000 \ 9 Grabrails 10 15 300 62 Habitat Houses BATHROOMS Equipment Gas water heaterfittedtohot water cylinder 1 cOqrleni5. Movable baths of zinc or enameled mild steel suitable only for infrequently used baths, children's bath —p63(2), hip baths —np63(3) and use withoutmain services. Fixedbaths—'p63(4)—(8) usuallyenameled cast iron, pressed steelor plastics with various qualities ofenamel (fullgloss, acid resistantetc) or fireclay. Free-standing baths —p63(5) usually have taps at toot end: sometimes loined towall along 1 sideto avoid water splashing behind bath. Built-inbaths—op63(6) with extended rim attachedto surroundingwalls & overlapping front: access panel necessary in UK. Avon bathsfor use as built-in units p63(4) have integral front panel; drain & overflow carried tooutside instandpipe ortrapped waste (USA). Space-saving baths p63(7)(8) installedwhere space restricted butdo not necessarily savewater; corner baths —.p63(7). Fireclay baths glazed inside and out beautiful and expensive but uneconomic as slowtowarm up; pleasantfor leisurely bathing, however. Footbaths p63(1O) movable or fixed, usually installed in larger public baths; may be fireclay, earthenwareor enamelledcastiron. Showers —op63(11)(12)base may be cast iron or fireclay (terrazo); should preferably be sunk into floor & provided with tile or enameled sheet steelsurround —also p64. Polyban baths —op63(8) Spanish patent: can be used as hip baths, footbaths, bidets or shower (With flexible shower arm); require little space & savewater(not used in USA). Bidet—op63(9)earthenware orfireclay, many variationsindesign; mixer with anti-scalding device —also p61(7). Basins with back skirting for plastered walls —np63(13); for washable walls—.p63(14) many shapes & sizes, sometimes with separatemouthwashbasin oras double basin —.p63(15)(16);mixers for washing with running water, butwasteful. Squat wc —(8) hygienic but uncomfortable; has either flushing cistern orflushing valve. Wc —n(5)—(7) siphonic more efficient butextravagant inwater &prohibited by some water bye-laws. Low level cisterns flush with little noise; flushing valves more noisy—.(5)(6)but use approx halfasmuch water. Water heaters (gas or el) —.(1)—(4). El sf0 heaters —.(2) use cheap night-time el & can be set toheat up at any time during day. 2 Elstoheaterforkorbathr 10, i3i 0—410 230—300' 190—270 conient 5, 10. 3 Gas water heaterforchimneyor outsidewall 4 Gaswater heat forhb i-'11O-j 5 Wall toiletwith low levelcistern I \ioo / 120 Ii I 170 6 Toilet withbuilt-in cistern T ,aper F,) L -h corkmat x I 670 plan 7 Eqpforwc 8 Squatwc 960 SW =!= — 760o 510 II towel I' I .J L_Jf Bathrwallcpd 10 Lockable medicine cpd 11 grab ,— eieva5onA 9 1 609 1 recess r—l soap grab bar recess soap clothes hook hght 0 Bathr eqp &fittings aplan b elevations ill er eievation B Habitat 63 Houses BATHROOMS I Equipment r-4 w 1500 780_82O50 1600 420 & 1700 I 1800 800 1 Standardmetric bath sizes 2 3 Children'sbath Parallel-sidedcast iron bath 6 Bath for incorporation as built-in unit Hipbath 4 Enamelledcast ironbath 8 Polybanunit 12V castiron 5 1875 700 700 7 EconomyAmericancorner bath (enameledcast iron) Shorterbathsrequiremorewater ——1004 1250 - 2 1500 1700 Shower requiresapprox301 water 1875 I —900- 350— 400 610-680 350-420 1-. recessfor soap& brush 9 +a 13 10 Footbath(maybeincorporated as built-in unit) Bidet a500—700 b400—600 —F-— castiron, steel.fireclay, earthenware,terrazzo,plastics Sho b torincorporation as built-in unit 12 15 Hbwith separate 16 Doublehb 11 Shotray forincorporation as built-in unit a500—700 b400—600 b H Hbwith back skirting a b Hbwithout backskirtingbut incorporatingmixer fitting 14 wash bowl mouth- 64 Habitat Houses BATHROOMS Wc &washrooms Wc with low-level cisterns -700 i I- 1200 1850 KD 750j * -4 2 under high-level windows —(1 )—(3); wc with high level cisterns —(4)—(6): where cistern placed against exteriorwall insulate againstfrost. - Bathrooms: smallest typeofbath may be recessed into bedr wall —*(7)with shower end screened off with glass partition and 3 remainder curtained. COL 1400 ' In general doors should be mm 460wide,should openfull90°and open inwards except in accn for elderly, when should open out- 2200 wards. 5 4 6 Hip-b (loosebowlinfold-up steel frame) Shortb -, Bathrooms 7 1 0 + 1. binbedr,glass sectionat sho end 4- 8 As (7)with dryingspace 1400 -4 9 91 - 1720 I- c1]i 11 j°i 4— 2630 hbQ Wa b j hbi) - 1720 / 15 " bedr 16 , TI II_I -. hb - 18 Doubleusebathr L 6400 4— I bed -4 ter I I— 17 Divided bathr&dre 5004700-4 çciiip OL jo — —4 14 1jdre 12 7315 —4 20 Dividedbathr&dre between 19 Deluxe bathrldre bedr Showers 4- D 4- 900 -, 900 4 cii 21 1600 t1 - -, E1 26 4- 1000 4-800 -4 - 23 Withfold-up hb 22 4- 25 4- 900 2300 -1 24 H I— 2540 —I 27 StandardAmericanb T 3657 -4 highwindow T: 1219sq thagortalb 28 Americansquaretubbathr Habitat 65 Houses PREFABRICATEDSANITARY UNITS Standard layand bathr fittings mostly fairlycostly and taketime to install. As requirements more or less uniform prefabrication preferable: in particular forterrace houses, maisonette housesand large scale blocks of flats, also for modernisation schemes and prefabricated housing. Prefabricateditemscomprise complete plumbing units—.(1)(3), plumbingwalls—(2), complete elementsstoreyorrm high, with pipe mountings and el leads, also items with accessories, flooring and, usually, ceiling —+(4)—(9)(available without ceiling for old housing). Compact elements of fixed dimensions —(1 Q)(11). Also individual elements with variable I wcplumbingelements 2 fl\ U/. Plumbing wall F—1070—H plumbingunit Connexion to 1 -storey central heating system hasproved successful. 2100—1 I 3 ground plan design—*(5)—(9). Construction: mainly sandwichwith wood skeleton and chlpboard,glass aluminium, aluminium, stainless steel, glass fibre reinforced polyester, reinforced concrete floor slabs —n(1O)(11) or new types of plastics. Fittingsand accessories similar materials.Basic essentials: anti-scratch surfacefinish and long service life (no material fatigue). Prefabricated plumbing units mostly for use internally in bldg —.(13)—(16); proper through ventilation therefore necessary: possibly forced ventilation. Suitable forhotels—(14), hospitals,old people's homes—.(13). 4 Plumbingunitonwall Self-containedwcelements& fittings +— 1250 —a 75 75 e—600 50 I— 1435—.1 1 I k S I 1 p—1800— I 2050 ——-----—i I 5 Self-containedwcelement& 6 She elementwith plumbingshaft 11 As 10butwith shoatside 12 Large unitcomprisingk, washr, heater fittings 2285—- I I I 2240 7 Bathr unitwithwashing machine 14 Sho elementinhotel 1400-i I /1 2875 9 13 wcelement in hospital r—..1_——— U1 I 8 Bathr unit Smallbathrunit —...Qt_ 2110 I I 1530 10 Compactunit — I 15 Sho elementinsmall dwelling 16 Prefabricatedbathrwith k partitionwall 66 Habitat Houses PUBLICROOMS Dining rooms 1-450*—900—4 •F550+4504 Position: breakfast area facing E —.(1 1), dining area facing W —v(1 2) (13)(1 5)(l6); directaccess from hall or corridor not necessary but from kitchenor pantry essential. Space requirement: formerly largest rm dining rm has shrunk to bare essentials: very often utilises corner —v(6), kitchen recess —vp55—7 ante-rm or area in living rm —*(4)—(7). Even in large houses dining rm keptmodest—v(8)(9),sometimes with provisionto combine itwith living rm for special occasions —v(10). Doors in rm corners convenient. Mm clearancefromwall depends onmethodofserving (withorwithout 1 2 Space requiredbetweenheadof table &sideboard servant) 4 1700 P— r 0 24 P 200 x IF1LII - .- eg600wand6P= 0.60x 6 = 1040 tii :I11UEB Outside dining spaces (verandas, terraces): should lie on windprotected sunnyside of house in front of dining or living rm (ie in W Europe with prevailing SW windsshould face E or SE). Since E sun shines at low angle roof can project quite prominently. Mm widthwith bench seatalong 1 wall3000: roof projection 2000sufficient. 1800 - Sideboardwith drawersathead to Diaof round table = F oftable 6 Table w. . . 550 to 1100 Seating w/P 550to 700 At head oftableadd . . . 100 to seat w number ofP 3.14 600 3 Size ofdr . . . —1 600 — 5 Mm table spaceinrailway dining carwithtip-up seats4; little morespace requiredindiningrecess with loosechairs5 4 ri H 3000 1— iLJLP b 3300 33 —1 flIfl9. T DftJij breakia1I : 6 7 Formore than 5 Paccesstoall Space-savingarrangementof table withfixed cornerseat& (possibly)small sideboards I— 3200 seats mustbeallowedfor H F- 3300 In Americadiningspaceneark withamplesto cpd&sideboardclose at handoftenconsideredadequate 11 - 12 Diningrecess inliv (withor without curtain)with accesstok, intermediatestage toseparate dr Arch Byrne -4000 -4 3300- Trverk 8 Smallestpossibledrfor6P withoutsideboard; doorin corner 9 Smallest possibledrfor6Pwith roundtable & cornercpd (double Separatedr between k&liv Arch Schwarderer 13 swingdoor to k) preferable 1 550 - —F-— 3900 —4— 14 Drbetweenter& liv (sliding foldingdoors allowcombination) .•.•. :::....: — 1 500 covering ter I sard I ci UQOUG 7450 dr ],7t- un 10 Drfor 12 Pwith sideboard&spaceforservants: maybe enlarged into living rm with space-saving arrangement of sliding foldingdoors ser 15 Dr &livboth openingontoter, ensuringgooddaylight 16 Relationshipofdrto other mi Habitat 67 Houses Guest& children'srooms PUBLICROOMS Livingrooms I- 750 TJ1 h=1100 —4 T 4-600-1 -Uk1øgoo 900 j&h=600 4000 I— 1900 1— -H Comfortablelow easychairs besidetable orstandardlamp 1 4750 4— —1 2 Table in frontoffireplaceoff centreto allowaccesstofire —I 11 Narrow rm forguestsor2 teenagechildren,with joint work table, separateWa, fold-up beds 12 Similarrmtoll withfold-up beds &built-in cpd butwider:can beseparateworktablesoneither side ofwindow teatrofley 10001 § - 3100 4-- 3500 4— Easychairs350 h &table600 h fortaking tea inalcove 3 4500 4— 250 750 4 Seatinggroup withsettee:easy chair 380 h, table 600 h 13 Shortrmwithcpdl500h& fixed beds,primarilyguest rm 3500 +1000 14 Large rmwith bunk bedsin recess,largefreear, & hb& coat hooks neardoor Sewin9 machine 800/450 I 4— 2000 -J __ I 1 1 600 F— 3100 4— —4 5 Seatinggroupwith settee& chairs: chair420 h, table 650h 3400 activity —4 sitting 2 tea 3 aperitifs, etc 4 smoking 5 conversation 6 dancing 6 Seatingarrangementin liv (may also beused forbreakfast): chair 440 h, table700 h Musicrooms 7 playing 8 sewing 9 breakfast 10 eating 11 writing 12 reading 7 Incorrectgrand pianooften drawnbyarchitects: long(bass)side isonleft 8 Grandpiano incorrectly placed: openingtowardswallinsteadof rm 13 music 14 indoorsport internalwall 15 furnitureandeqp specialised rm combined rm settee,lowtable,easy chairs teatrolley, sto ofcrockery etc,seating sto ofglasses, sideboard, liqueurtrolley smokers'table, pipe cpd, tobacco sf0, smokers' requirements fire place, comfortable easychairs, small tables parquet orlinoleum dance floor, 2.5—3.5 m2 per couple children'sfurniture, carpeted floor, toy sto table, sewingmachine, linencpd, baskets breakfast artowards E withter, or between bedr dining ar,sideboard desk,chairs, filing, waste-paper basket shelvesorcpd,easy chairs with headrest piano, cpdforother instruments, musiclib table tennis, billiard table, punchball etc salon ladies rm bar liv smokingrm lounge ballrm children'srm utilityrm breakfast rm dr dr stu lib stu musicrm games rm Livingrm uses Living rm usually multi-purpose; layout and furnishing vary widelywith different uses entailing wide range of possible space requirements 9 Grandpiano wellpositioned in relationtoseatinggroup, wall& circulation,butwindow,heating& externaldoor wouldbeadverse factors Grandpianoagainstinternal wall,away fromwindow&heating, wellrelatedtoseatinggroup&rm; daylightcomingfrombehindplayer 10 —*(15). Therefore necessary define functions in detail before shape, space for furnishing and movement of users can be planned. For liv tables—(5) allow 650 space per person, for easychairs —*(2)(3)866 and diafor roundtables personsx866 3 14 I 68 Habitat Houses PUBLICROOMS Seating nearwindows 0 r 1400/8cc 2350- Work tablescloselyrelatedto 1 window 2 Avoid seatingpeoplewith backs towindow 3 Diagonalarrangementpreferable to 2&requireslessspace On built-in setteebelowwide window,however, severalpeople can sitquitecomfortably 4 Seating away fromwindows 5 Bench seatalso satisfactory between2windowsin lightcoloured corner with suitablecarpet 7 Seatingagainstinteriorwallwith viewthrough picturewindow very relaxing,speciallyinfront offrenchdoors Seatingin middleusually uncomfortablefrom lackof relationshipwith rest ofmi 8 Seating roundfireplace .400 draught I. § 1000 2000 V 9 Ingle-nook Arch Leusinger 10 Seatingarrangedtoavoid draughtfromdoortofireplace Chairswithhigh backs& ears' also protectagainstdraught 11 12 Largergroupsshould follow patternof heatradiation Seating round workdesks 700 970 13 Colleaguesworkingclosely togethershouldfaceeachother; with largewindows&light-coloured walls,daylightfromright istolerable forwriting 14 Visitorsusuallysitin lightatend ofdesk,face of interviewer being in shade a 15 Assistantsmaywork temporarilyonflapat endofdesk 16 Conferencetable unnecessary ifdesktop extensible 17 In small rmvisitorsmaybe 18 As alternativeto17visitormay beseatedbehindhost,who turnson revolving chair:door should bein frontofdesk Correct arrangement of seating greatly enhances comfort of users. Relationship of daylight and artificial lighting important —(1)—(8). Give careful consideration togoodcombination of furniture elements, choice of independent heights and colours, well planned free area, correctly hung doors, kind of floor (direction of boarding) —+(7), carpets —(5)(6)(8)(1 2), treatment ofwallsincluding pictures and sitingofwindows, radiators, fireplace and piano —+p67. Seating area, however, will remain focal point ofrm: everythingelse should be subordinatedto it. seatedagainstinternall wall; small table shouldbeprovided Habitat 69 Houses PUBLIC ROOMS 6900 I— Living rm usedfor general daytime activities; serves mainly asfocus of social activities of family round fireplace, tea or coffee table and for evening leisure activities.Orientation best between E, S and W. Windows —np404 —1 Reception rm (salon): in larger houses often used as music rm or consult/waiting rm near entrance. entrance L.—' seatingar Conservatory (wintergarden): usuallyfacing S accessible from living ordiningrm. Music room: nexttoliving rm; dimensionsdeterminedbysizeofaudience and type and number of instruments; soft lighting from back or side of players. For acoustical reasons rm shape usually square with wood panelling; position ofpiano —ep67. In largerm sound reflecting surfaces ress 1-rmdwellingfor2persons,with differentactivitieswellseparated 1 2 Squareliv with seatingarnear window& fold-upbeds — sidoboard Mur& liv,with needleworktable, fireplace,book-shelves Arch Neufert panelling) toheight ofabout 1 500. 4 Liv/dr cum murwith built-in furniture,suitablefor 10—12persons Arch Neufert munc cxJ underwindow 6800 H- 4500 I—. Study: frequently serves asoffice or workrm. Near entrance and living rm with W or E aspect; fitted with desk, bookshelves, filing system, seating area (deepeasychairs, lowtable, cocktail cabinet). Library: N orientation. 1 000 shelftakes approx 30—40 books. Height between shelves250—300,shelfdepth 220—320.Forapprox, 120—150 books1 m2 of wall. Larger volumes, maps, folders etc in lower, deeper shelves. Height oftop shelfapprox 1 700 from floor—+pl 46. Children's rm: away from living rm but easy supervision essential (from household rm) and preferably with access to garden or safe balcony; on sloping sites may be on lower ground to give garden access. Orientation E-W, low cill (guard rails outside), furniture to children'ssizes.Washable wallfinish(such aslinoleum orplastics-covered 7000 books 3 round players with absorbent surfaces behind audience. 1 H H900-t reading desk I— 'O T stu 8 bode trolley -I- 5 Smallmurwith grand& baby grand pianos& seatingar: avoid placing pianoclose toheatingunitor in directsun - 6 Murforquartets,trios or2grand pianos &audienceof 12(daylight from behindpianists) 3000 -4 4—. 6500 —1 9 Booksto inlong narrowrmwith amplewallspace: reading desk underwindow,small booktrolley near door '°°° -1 T -I- 7 Smallstuwith bookshelves, desk &seatingar 3000 — 8 Largestu withbookshelves, seatingarinfront of writingdesk 11 Work rmwithwholewallfor bookshelves,sewingmachine (underbookshelves),writingdesk, seatingar, chestofdrawers 10 Smallworkrmwith writingdesk nearwindow,bookshelves&seating ar 70 Habitat Houses BEDROOMS Positionof bed Bedmaking requires clear space of at least 400, preferably 700 (USA mm), beside bed. In most small houses, therefore, choice of bed positions restricted by shape and size of bedr; to free as much floor space as possible single beds usuallyplaced along walls and double or twin bedsplaced headto wall. Nevertheless,relation of bed towalls and to rm as a whole can also be important in contributing to feeling of security. While stable, self-reliant person may prefer free-standing bed —(4)lessself-reliantperson mayprefer—.(1)(2)(5) regardlessofamount of space available. Impression of restfulness depends on wall covering and colour, shape of bed, orientation (head towards N), relation to daylight (looking away from window) and relation to door (looking towards door). Relative position of 2 beds also important because where 2 people sleep in 1 rm differentarrangementsmay bedesirable,especiallywhere headpositions concerned, according to relationship between people —(9)—(12) (16). Also differentarrangementsforcouples,depending on personal preference —(13)—(15).Withseparate beds change of direction may be preferable —.(12)(15)(16). Separate beds for couples now common. Current fashion may also favour water bed, though well to bear inmind that, fully loaded, thismay impose floorload of up to2oreven 3 t. — >p J 1 Alongwall 2 Headagainstwall 3 Headnearwall 4 lncentreofrm 5 Cornerofrm 6 Rear wall 7 8 Alcove 9 Friends 10 Sisters 11 14 Twinbeds (2mattresses) 15 Separatebeds 1.5 Recess Brothers 12 Guests - 13 Doublebed (single mattress) 16 Bunk beds a 17 USA bedrsizes(mainbedrmin11.15m2 leastdimension 2845,secondary bedrmm 7.43m leastdimension2438) sizes —.p71 a&bsingle C double d twin; USAbed Habitat 71 Houses Th BEDROOMS Today's reduced flat and house sizes call for most economical use of floor spaceand make built-in cupboards desirable. Best arrangement based uponenclosed wall recesseswith flooring running intocupboard, walls papered or oil painted, and moth-proof doors. Ideal solution: complete cupboard walls between rm—U(7)(11 )(12): sliding, accordion or openout hinged doors. Cupboards on exterior walls must be well insulated and ventilated to avoid condensation —Up74(2); walk-in cupboards/dressing rm also require ventilation —U(13). Cupboards can be located between bedr to reduce sound transmission. w 762 914 0? a, c U' 1 bed I in UK vary according to manufacturer; 1 905 is commonsize; othersizes 1880,1981and2133 69 U) 1524 1829 00 Modernbedr fitmentcombining bedhead, bedsidetables, fitted wa & sto spaceabove 2 child'scotsize usually 1 219 long, 610 wide USA mattresssizes king ao queen 3-quarter twin I 1828 1828 2032 1905 1905 w 1981 1981 1524 1371 990 -1 J note:add 76toeachdimension forframe 9 Double-depthcpd,single& doubledoors(opened) USA water bed sizes king queen single I 2133 2133 2133 w 1828 1524 1219 2500 -Iii0001 10 Double-depthcpd(withdouble doors) & cornercpd formedsimply bydoors;walls& floor of rm continuous Bed, divan& mattresssizes 3260 F- 1— -I 2000 1500 -IF-1500-11750-4 -II- 2000 H 12 Cpd wallwith walk-incpd & Cpd wallwith walk-incpd between2bedr: linencpdopeningto washrwith sho between 2 bedrthat corr;wall thicknesses varyfrom30 to are about4000deep 100 dependingonmaterialsused 11 Elevationofdoublebunk-bed recess&built-in cpd 3 4 Elevation& sectiontoplan 5 showingeconomicaluse of space :r 60 F— 3600 —I I— 3600 500 —.i ,"mirror 13 Walk-in cpdbigenough to serve as dre 5 Bed recessformedby built-in cpd 6 7 3600 - Built-in cpdrelatedtopositionof beds wall withcpd Cpd acrossfullrmw, with window (above) &mirroronsliding door (below) FF- 14 Americanexampleofwindow 3600 —l bedr 11 2001 Linencpd atend of corr,door frame serving2doors 8 15 As14butwith deepcpdonboth sides angledatfrontto avoid obstructingdaylight 16 Loweredceiling &curtainwill combinecpd of 14& 15toformdre 72 Habitat Houses BEDROOMS Rm sizes determined by bed sizes: beds and wardrobes often built in rm accord with standard bed sizes. Window preferably parallel to bed (for reading and view) so that with desirable E orientation bed will stand N—S —.(2)(5)(8)(9)(13)(15) etc. Doors should open without encroaching on sleeping area —4(2)(8)(9) (12)(14)(16)(18) etc. Comfortable access to whole rm of of paramount importance —4(5)(7)(1 1). —*(1)(4)(6)(1 1) and sizes of small — 3000 1 4000 9— —. -4 9 Singlebedr USA bedr sizes —.p44(1)70 Stu/bedralso —p140(1 )—(5) 4— 4000 I— —4 2 —I 10 IDL_Ji °1 T I— 4000 7 —1 5000 4— I— —i 11 Doublebedrwithdoubledepth cpd 3 4500 I- 4 5000 5000 —9 Bed-sittingmi 4000 —i — — 5 1— 4000 5000 4000 —9 13 4000 —.. 23 Main bedrwith pull-outbed —4 9— 18 Main bedrwith doublebed 12 —l — 17 Main bedr i__ I— 4000 6000 —i 24 Main bedrwith dre ar —- T -r § 8 I I 19 25 I 8 1100 F 5000 — 6 Bed-sittingrrnwithdouble-depth cpd a--...--Vi_V]1 — 6000 — —I 14 Doublebedrwithsleeping 4500 I —4 20 recess f 5000 7 —1 I— Bed-sittingrm 21 —T 6 I 4— 8 5000 —.4 Bed-sittingrm withfold-upbed ed 16 Stu-bedrwithsleepingrecess 22 Main bedr-sittingrm —4 27 Separatebedrfor husband & wife — 4— 7000 7000 28 Separatebedrwith walkthroughcpd —i Habitat 73 Houses STORAGEIN HOUSES& FLATS Shape and position of sto space as important as its size. Sto should be provided within easy reach of activities to which related and shape should allow max useofwallareaforshelving —s(1). Stogenerally more useful atground level than on upper storeys. Familyhouse willrequire at least5m2ofgeneral sto, ofwhich at leasthalfshould be on ground floor (USA mm 1.23 m2). General storage Sto rm require ventilation and those providing part of passageway Entrance on longside of sto allowsmax useofshelving 1 2 Allowspaceforpassagewayin through' sto through house should also permitnaturallighting.In suchcasesallowance mustbe madeforloss ofusablespace tocirculationrequirements.—a(2). Garden tools, bicycles etc usually best inexternal stoor,ifwithin house itself,in stowith direct access from outside —*(3). Hats & coats Space required in or off entrance hall for hanging hats and coats and storing outdoorfootwear, preferably in wardrobe or with racks to take hangers —+(3). Additional space may be needed for storing working clothes and eqp —(1 1 )(1 2). Thepram In family houses space required for pram —sp74(4): should be easyto manoeuvre pram indoorssothat itcanbeused ascot(crib) during dayif required. 25 _____ 3 Meters Credit metersshould be capable of being read withoutentering living area of house. Arrangements which can be read by inspector from outside —p74(3) available. Prepayment meters should be easy to reach fromfloor level butgasmeters, especially, should beout ofreach of small children. Space forgasmeters —*p386. biding doors 4 Inlinewa Walk-in wa Linen q 0120 130 I bI ________ 510 80 35 400 Iao 400 40 Separate sto space should be provided for linen and bedding. At least 0.6 m3 required, fitted with slatted shelves. Must be dry and therefore not entered from bathr or kitchen or sited against outside wall (unless insulated). May be combined with suitably ventilated hot water cylinder cupboard (heater closet) but not with 'combination' water unit as condensation might occur. Wardrobes 5 6 Hat&coat rack Umbrellastand 1 Forclothing in particular,ease ofaccess more important than sf0space. Effective depth of built-in cupboard forclotheshanging 600 but deeper cupboards can be more fully utilised byattaching accessories to backs of doors—s(7). As loads not great normal blackboard doors on strong hinges adequate; shelves can be supported by adjustable ladders and brackets. Walk-in cupboards —*p71 (11) take uplittle wallspace, as door of 550 (USA mm 610 preferred 660) will suffice for cupboard of any length; but floor space less efficiently used because of necessary access area. Walk-in cupboards must be ventilated and lighted and may be entered from, and used as access or escape routes between, r adjacent rm. Is! 7 Clothes& linencpdwith doors puttoadditionaluse (fordimensions 8 Dressingchairwith backrestin coat hangershape(copyright: Neufert) 600 ftLLEh. I ' fd8flselTflO8 — Internal stoaccessible fromgardenwithoutpassingthroughliving arof house 11 house house a secbone-t sectiona-b 9Wa Section c-d 10 Built-inwa 12 Gar sto aside b rear b I c) 74 Habitat Houses STORAGE T 1. I— 1000 600 * USAel meteronbrickwall 4 550 +350-i Section Sechon I— 1500,-". 4 700 P4700 ,=.==tJ';= 8 I,6 Built-in doublewa (cheap& 1 2 Walk-in wabetweenbedr 3 5 Externalel metercpd —.also p71 space-saving) Pram 1 200 320 240 hangers I / Ac. 280 350 men's hats 1 150 320 women's hats 7 — -260 350 '0 200 6terrytowels900h 3pairpyjamas handkerctefs x1,x70 12women's handkerchiefs 110 x 80 x 30 6 Dimensions ofclothes stockings ' 10shirts 120 3pairheavy '—'2z./ men'ssocics x80 x 35 3 bath towels lBOh 6 120 480 /5o -i 200.,, 300 500 6 handtowels40h 1 20, A 80, / Habitat 75 Houses Kitchenstorage 600 "1° Space required in or nextto kitchen for storing food and cooking eqp. Stoalso needed forgeneral cleaningand laundering eqp and materials. Dry goods should be enclosed and readily accessible from cooker and sink positions. Floor cabinets best used forstoring heavy or infrequently used articles. Wall cabinets economical in space and provide convenient sto for smaller and frequently used items: should be shallow enough to allow full useof worktops below —(i). 1 Larderventilated to outsideairand protectedby flyproof screendesirable even when space for refrigerator and freezer provided: should not contain heating orhotwaterpipes norreceive direct sunlight. Should be provided with well fitting door, preferably with threshold, to discourage Sectionthroughworktop& sto vermin. Freezer need not necessarily be near kitchen: ifplaced inoutside stooi garage must be locked against theft. Should be served by el power outleton independent circuit. Wine 3 Cloths &towels 4 Space-savingverticalsto of dishes Wine cellars should be clean, dark, dry, well ventilated (but avoid cold draughts) and in quietposition free from vibration and away fromdirect heat. Whitewines best kept at constant tempbetween 6°—8° C and red winesat between 10°—i 2°C. Bottle sto may be in racks or in unglazed clay drainpipes —*(11). Fuel storage Solidfuel requires volume of not less than 1.13 m3forfuel sto. Should beaccessible fromwithin house orfromporch orother shelter. To avoid spread of dust arrange that bags can be tipped from outside without -500-1 LH-I4- 1000 ETh 1-500-4 5 Dish cpdwith drawers II1 -4 1000 -4 H500- 6 Glass orplasticscontainers entering house. In makingprovisionforoilstowellbegenerous—*p386—7.Fuel tanksupto 2000I can generally be located adlacent to houseswithout restriction;if enclosed should beseparated from remainderofbldg and provided with catch pit. Fuel inlet point should be positioned within 30 m of place where delivery tanker can conveniently stop. USA: oil tanks often buried if 21001 orover. Refuse 8 Refuse sf0 should be outside house, easily accessible from kitchen door. Simple, easily cleaned, covered stand required. Carrydistanceto collection vehicle access should notbe more than 46m and ideally less than 25 m. Q0c Eggrack for 100eggs (500 x 500) 7 8 hi Slattedrackforfruit (800 x 420) 13 Lazytongs'rackingtofitavailablecpdspaces(80x BOx 80) 200130 220130 270x 150 30017O I 180 / / 210 / 180 180 Carpei Potatorack 10 Bottlesstored sardinefashion' indeep shelves Q 300 120 depth300 7 oo Bottles storedin drainpipes(64 boffles/ri?) 11 sweeperf iloor pohsher 420 , pyramids 1 ;/o 320 12 Bottlesstored in overlapping 16 Vacuumcleaners .' 4 Mop 9 / 4400 40 I ci) 76 Habitat Houses SECURITY PRIVACY:PUBLIC& PRIVATE SPACES External security best served by good lighting and visibility. Access routes and entrances should never be dark or concealed, however romantic thismightappear, and should ifpossible allow sufficient space toavoid unwanted encounter. Amongmostdifficult problems in housing layout: striking right balance Avoid dense planting round entrances and ground floor windows (or use prickly shrubs!). In small blocks offlats entrance may becontrolled by entryphones —.(1)(2) but this may be inconvenient where many smallchildren. For single people or working couples someprovision needed fordaytime deliveries. Forthievesease ofexitas important asease of entry. Professionalmay be willing to break window to secure access but will be unwilling to rely on thisas his means ofexit Allexternal doors should therefore be fitted with deadlocks and openable windows, ifpossible, befitted with window locks. Free detailed advice, based on expert local knowledge, available from all UK police forces through their crime prevention officers. between need for privacy and need to avoid social isolation. Balance obviously varies according to individual character, temperament and age so no perfectsolution possible but good layout will at leastallow somedegree of individual choice. Designs which opt strongly for either social' or 'private'approach unlikely to satisfy majorityofoccupants. Dwellings opening directly on to busypublic spaces and access decks designed to encourage social contact and neighbourliness may also suffer intolerable intrusion, while screening desgned to provide 'defensible space' may result in roads and footpaths bounded byblank wallsand fences. Eitherapproach likely to lead to feelings of insecurity and dissatisfaction amongst residents. In high density layouts, in particular, user satisfaction likelyto be enhanced, and incidence of vandalism to be reduced, by sub-divison of large anonymous public areas intosmaller spaces related to identifiable groupsofdwellings. For flats,transition between entirely public zone of street and entirely private zone of individual fIat may be by way of both semi-public zone sharedbyall flats inblock (elevator and staircase hall etc, possiblywithsome formof supervised access) and semi-private zone share by 2 or 3 flats withaccess undercontrol ofoccupants —.(3). For houses, public access road may lead to mixed use pedestrian! vehicle court .-.p42, with psychologically restricted entry, related to groupof 20 or so houses and further transition zone provided by front garden toeach individual house. —.alsop77 Gardens—.p103-—14 Bell-push& doormicrophone mustbe in reachof children 1 2 Typicaldimensionsofdoor transmitterwith light button& bells for5floors k Iiv/dr 1bedr :rL fl1dr tcr==ir=i_[I ,jL bedr bedr r-I.b1 down±ffh±[ bedr flfl baI 0 5m 15tt 3 Semi-privateentrancezoneforflats a perspective b plan 4 HawaiiHousingAuthority;2-storeyunitsover flats,solves 3-storeypublic stair requiredfor3 floor flats agroundlevel bsecond level cthird level Arch Akiyama!Kekoolani Habitat 77 Houses PRIVATEOPEN SPACE All family houses require somekind of related open space — whether garden, patio —n(7) or balc—np88 —which is sunny and sheltered from wind. Should ideally be large enough to allow space for clothes drying —s(5)(6), toddler's play,out-door hobbiesand sittingout. Factors affecting location outdoorliving areas—*(3). I, Gardens —p1 03—14 Enclosed garden enhances privacy. Walls,hedges and, to lesser extent, Nface ofhousein shade& immediate foreground overshadowed but longerprospecton to sunlit garden&wallformingsuntrap 1 air20°C; wind 16kph ___________________ air 20°C; wind 16kph trees can providenatural protection fromnoise, wind and dust. Advantage if private garden can open out of liv, providing out-doorextension oflivingspace: but not necessarilybest placed (UK) onSsideof house sinceenclosed garden toN can provide sunlit view, though will need be deepto be effective because ofovershadowingbyhouse itself—n(1). Gardenstructures—pll1 Tents and sheds in gardens do not usually rate as bldg in UK: not considered permanent living access when occupied only bydayand not used for trade or business. Distance fromsite boundary orother bldg should not be less than 1 800. Forframes and greenhouses —spi 11. you feel 20°C a 60steel rods a spaced 32apart 6 25steel flat barlj" x dia 7 weldedcap76 inside air20°C;wind 16kph 0 yoeefeel 24°C b 019pipe F- woodseat 9t4 brick laid dryon25 sand I hand bevelie - benchnut° x ii I angleiron cement compacIeo1OdirodS sub-soil :- : Built-inbarbecues aadjustablegrill canberaisedto305abovebrazieron masonrybase bbarbecuefirepitcombination continuous unitwithgarden seat &patio paving:hard-burnedfirebrick liner; ironpins adjusthof grill Design aAKTobin bCMasonWhitney R Burton LittonJrRobertJ 4 Tetlow Windeffects greatestspan 2400 h 1900 c 425 weight 15kg cord horn 3 Factorsaffectingoutdoorliving arlocations: consultlocalreg 5 Washinglines 7 Patio& deckonwater's edge ArchLawrenceHalprin 6 'Whirligig' clothesdrier I0 ci) 78 Habitat Houses 45, 10 ---—-f——lU8'—4-——l0' -:Th ADAPTABLEHOUSES r Two recent developments in house planning in Britain are intended to extendflexibility in meeting user requirements. 8"——---10B"—- N 'liv WalterSegal'shouses Architect Walter Segal has designed houses using sheet materials in standard panel sizes assembled in timber supporting construction. Column centres 3000—3600 apart give great planning flexibility with acceptable beam depths and accommodate most rm sizes. Bldg are raised above ground, with columns based on concrete pads. Planning readily adaptable and materialscanbe reused —(1)(2). Extendiblehouse hILI Extendible houses intended to permit first-home owners to enlarge their houses as family size increases. Examples illustrated represent 2 approaches, extension of 1-storey house to form patio —(3), and construction of rm in roof—(4). I Self-containedextensiontoexisting houseinSussexEngland 1970: externalwallpanelswhite glazedasbestos sheetoutside, 50woodwool slab core,plasterboard&laminateinside:flatroofoverhangs at eaves; imperial dimensionsretainedtoshow howsizesrelatetosheetmaterials, 2' 0' panel w + 2" joint &tolerance ArchW Segal V elevahon before afterextension extension 8 21' 6" 6"8'6'8'64 or Inthis Scottishdesignhouseisextendedupwards:nonewfoundations brickworkneeded Arch NationalBuildingAgency Edinburgh 4 2 This largerhouseon slopingsite at Ballycummisk Ireland shows great flexibilityofsystem Arch W Segal 3 These 1-storey 1-bedrhousesat ChathamEnglandcanbe extended to provideupto3bedrbutspacerequired maymeanhigh initialsitecosts Arch WCook BoroughArchitect 5 Americandesignforlowcost plywood panelhouse; roofpanels&wallsare built inflat position& hoisted ortippedupintoplace agroundfloor bfirst floor Arch E H&M KHunter Habitat 79 ato dr entrance ha hv Undergroundhouses Growing concern with safeguardinglandscapefromill effects ofintrusive development engenders greater interest in underground building for housing. Application to domestic house of techniques of construction devised for civil engineering or military proiects: costs involved cut by recentrefinements in bldg technology. Energy conservation further factor tending to favour building underground, ifonly in part. Soil provides good insulation layer, keeping heat in during winter, out insummer —ep8O. Underground housing still experimental. Designers must base predictionsfor such details as number of air changes/hr needed to keep up ventilation levelsfor preventing build-up ofcondensation on empirical calculations: not enough built examples see how different forms of excavated construction behave in practice. In UK bId reg framed before underground housing became likely prospect; official approval thereforedependentonindividual negotiation. a F sectionA 12 18 ii sieepingpiaiforrn entrance ter k b 1 Hill tophouseFloridaUSA:sitedforpanoramic viewsbutpartlysunkin groundtoreduceinterferencewith naturalcontours;turfedroofshelprest blendin:upperlevelformssinglespace observatory asection bplan Arch WilliamMorgan 3 HolidayhomeJutlandDenmark: partly underground soasinvisiblefrom landwardsidewith viewsseawardthrough2largeglassdomes;underground componentconcreteshell absections c plan ArchClausBonderup a b 1 2 3m 98 b HouseinPenninesEngland:toavoidintrusion inaesthetically sensitive areapartly underground,partlyhidden behindearthmounds asection b plan Arch ArthurQuarmby 2 4 Twin beachhouses FloridaUSA: underground soas notto interfere with views ofhouseson landside;built inpairsfromshellscast inGunite, cement mixtureusuallyused forswimming pools; lowerhalvescast firstinto excavatedsand then 100thick rootshellbuilt up oversteelreinforcing rods; claimed costs approx1/2 thoseofequivalent conventional structure thanksto layerofearth mm 560 asection bplan ArchWilliam Morgan I 80 Habitat Houses ENERGYSAVINGBY PLANSHAPE Minimumperimeter house Reducing exterior wallarea can save energy. In theory dome or sphere ideal configurationbut haveobvious drawbacks:circularplan has smallest perimeterfor given floor area —.(1), Next best alternative: perfectly square plan of 1-storey house; minimises wall and window area and therefore energyIoss—.(2). Entry locks Enclosed entries, either within perimeter ofhouse—.(3a)oras appendage —(3b),can reduce energy consumption. Size ofentryshould allow access doorsto openindependently. Atriums Windows responsible for 1530Yo total heatingenergy loss from house. Strategic placing reduces loss and maximisessolar gain inwinter. When windows face on toatrium this acts as passive solar collector —.p81 (1). Sun planning In many climates significant energy saving can be obtained by meansof S-facing windows provided with overhangs,computedtorestrictsummer sun, and Nwallsbuffered bysto areas.Sun trap with wind buffers canbe make sure no drain or leak into sitearea from surrounding construction suchas parking lots &septic systems identifyground water levels & seasonal variations in level before deciding location of bldg & excavationdepth assure adequate soil percolation for sunken courtyards & atrium areas; consider installing overflow drains anystructural system can beused, providing designed forproper loads; general rule: 290 kg/rn2 (150 lb/ft2) for grass-covered roofs & 1950 kg/m2 (400 bItt2) where small trees are to be supported; snow & pedestrian loads must be added wall design generally same as anybelow grade (ground level) construction; but insulation needed between earth & exterior wall of structure, allowing ittostoreheat, avoidingcontinuous loss toearth; best currently available material styrofoam (because of closed cell construction); insulation can be reduced in thickness as depth below grade (ground level) increases when banking (berming) earth against existing walls advisable add cement plaster on metal lath between earth & insulation to prevent roots, insects & rodents from reaching existing walls very effective in cold climates —.p81 (2). butyl sheeting good material for waterproofing; also serves as vapour ENERGYSAVING: EARTH to control dampness inside use dehumidificationorcirculating air —alsop79 Check list: gentle S slopesidealfor underground structures: can build into hill & still have benefits of southern exposures avoid low-lying depressions: heavy, cold airwillsettle inthem; increased danger fromfrost & damp earth pipes (ducts buried in earth) may be used for cooling or for pre-warming outside cold air forwinterfreshairsupply 1 Circularfloor plan a o 3 Entry lock: II - barrier examine all local bldg codes, especially in relation to fireexits&ventilation; increased aircirculation eqp may affect energyuse studylighting carefully: important for undergroundstructures determine howthis affects interiorcomfort &energy use 2 b iiii awithin baddedto(USA) standard practicehouse 1-storeysquarefloor plan Habitat 81 Houses ENERGYSAVING: VENTILATION Effective passive approach to cooling: capture prevailing breezes and ventilate house naturally —(3). Ideal orientation for this places face throughwhichbreezes are to enter at oblique angle of 200_700 to wind —(4). Instead of allowing wind pass straight through house this creates turbulence which makes for betterventilation. When wind velocity low internal velocity can beincreased by useof wing walls next towindow to create 'mini pressure zones' there. Casement windows or adiustable shutters can achieve same effect. Place windows where ventilation required with cillsat desired cooling height: egin bedr at mattress level. Window heights also—p4O4. Plant evergreens on Nand Wsidesof house to block coldwinterwinds (2). Use ground shape and any nearby ponds or lakes to improve natural ventilation. On slopingsites (particularlyfacing S) breezes move up hill duringday, down at night. Near bodies of water cooling breezes move fromwaterto land during day, fromland to water at night —.(5). These guidelines may run counter to effective use of orientation to maximise solar gain —p8O. Therefore for any design brief specify whethersolargain ornatural ventilation should have priority. fn general consult local weather bureau foraccurate informafion on solar radiation, solar altitude and bearing, cloud cover, rain and snowfall, direction and strength of prevailing winds. 1 Squareplan with atrium:windowsfaceinwards;atriumcoveredby skylight 2OO 2 I-louseplannedtodealwith climaticconditionsof NW USA: suntrapwith wind buffers Arch FrankLloydWright rnrnrn 4 Orientationfornaturalventilation 5 Influencesofgroundshape&bodiesof wateron naturalventilation 3 Bldg sitedto accept prevailing breezesdraws airquicklythroughportal, ventilatingcourt&drawingcoolingmoisturefrompoolintoair; massing reduces heatgain & providesevening warmth 82 Habitat Housing: old people Strong trend against putting old people in homes unless in need of special care and attention; —÷old people's preferences below. Limiting factor can be land values. In USA most low income housing forelderly has been high rise to allow use of expensive land near shops and recreation possibilities. UK standards envisage 2types housing: self-contained for 1 or2 more active old people—(2) grouped flatlets for less active with some communal amenities and services—(1 )(3)p84(2) a Old people'spreferences Check listofwhatold people want, based on USAexperience: viewfromliving rmwith 1 window lowenough to see outwhen seated exteriorpersonal territory' leoutdoor area forsitting and social contacts 9 1 ? Ô 4m 2ff b (porches, gardens) closeto shops informal home-like scale community outdoorarea within easy walk frequentresting places alongwalks securityand fire alarm systems adequate sto kitchen worktopslowerthan usual separate bedr rather than efficiency design choice ofdining inorin community dining rm Communal amenities Common rm provided for self-contained dwellings may include sitting rm, tvrm, hobbies rmorworkshop. Mm floorspace/P 0.95 m2. Provide near common rm 1 wc and hand basin, tea kitchen or pantry with sink andhot waterheater, space for hatsand coats, cleaningcpdand sto 2 m2. Forgrouped flatlets providewarden's quarters, emergency alarmsystem —(1) connecting each dwelling with warden's, common rm with 1.9 m2/P and ancillary amenities as for self-contained above, laundry rm, telephone for tenants with adjacent seat, cpd for communal cleaning materials 1 m3. Provide access between all accn by enclosed and heated circulation areas and fordirect goods delivery fromdoor todoor; delivery hatches orgrouped lockers acceptable. Housingforelderly at CumbemauldScotland has31 cottages, warden's house&commonrm, each cottagehaving wardencallsystemwithtalk-back; meals providedatdaycentre asite layout b2-personcottage ccommon rm/day centrelayout plan Arch RobertWhiteAssociates 1 2 Privateretirementhousewith adjoining unitforvisitingchildrenUSA Arch EH & M KHunter 3 Low budgethousingforelderly FloridaUSA a typical 1-bedrdwelling bsite layout plan Arch C Randolph Wedding Habitat 83 Housing:old people 1730 reachmax r r shalt mar 1370 1 435 reachmax 1585 0, it ita, 1 Max reachover worktopto shelf &cpd reachtoiward on 850worktop Access: if involves climbing more than 1 storey provide elevator: 2 elevators if more than 4storeys high;access stairs should be enclosed. Stairs —*p86(5)408; ramps—*p87407. Alldwellings should have hail or lobbywithspace forhanging outdoor clothes. Doors —*p401 —2. Doorsto wc and bathr must open outwards and be fittedwith special locks which can beopened fromoutside. in iO E Planningfactors 11 2 Max reachtounobstructed wall cpd Kitchen; worksequence —ep55. Provide working surfaces both sides sinkand cooker. Max height working surfaces 850; max height shelves 1520 —*(1)(2).Cookers specially adapted for safe use by old people. Mm size trig 0.7 m3 (NB do not site underneath worktop). Mm sto capacity 1.7 m3. Safety precautions—*p84. Heating: space heating living areas capable maintainingmm 21°C; for circulation areas in grouped flatlets mm 15.6°C when outside temp sd=59 —1°C. 370 WO4(top sink topmax max850— hh table700 L. w'I E+ 3 hof worktop workingsurface& reachforwardtofittings 4 h+ h& thigh clearancefortable& sittingworktop about rm. Remember indesigning stospace oldpeopletendaccumulate treasured possessions. Guest rm: preferable provide rmforvisitsfromfamily in self-contained dwellings. For grouped flatlets guest rm may be provided; should be placed closeto communal lay. bath nm 1) - El socket outlets: generous provisionof el socket outlets atconvenient positions and levels important; mm (UK) kitchen 4, living area3, bedr 2, hailorlobby 1 bed sitting rm 5. Livingspaces: important provide adequatespace formovement round furniture; consider use of buiit-in units (specially cpd, wa) but take account also of furniture which can afford hand holds when moving 40-50 timberhandrail panelface(itused) mountedunder __________ rail 30mm Bedrinself-contained dwellings follow standarddesign butnote importanceof room tomoveround; built-in wardrobe desirable. Bed sitting rm sometimes ingrouped flatlets, usual in old people's homes —*(10)(1 1). Safetyprecautionsfor old people —*p84 6 Section of brimadaptedforeasy gripping 7- T 255 - 560 5 Aids forgettingin &outofbwith maxhrimfromfloor '\T 7 rim orwatmountedhandles hingeabner 4 900 450 * p 40-Sodia verticalpole SefH / Iourta"—II verticalpote oorannei dram tho grating L seat__ T Mountingofinclinedrailforwc WOhhandspray 8 Bathr plansshowinghandingto suit Pwith disabilityofright orleft leg &positionofpolegrip 9 Sho mi plan — I I_— hb IPd 3600 3600 24OO T 3000 I. 10 Doublermdimensions&data 11 Singlermdimensions&data I -4000 I 84 Habitat Housing: old people Safetyprecautions service entrance Check listof safety precautions based on USA practice: heating system should be designed to avoid burn injury hotwatersystem should hold watertempat43°C orbelow air conditioning should be designed to avoid draughts in sitting or sleepingareas radiant floor heating plus airsystem preferred door bells and alarms should have low pitch: high tones perception deficientin many old people automatic shut-off forall gaseqpto prevent inhalationorexplosion place fire sensor over cooker el cooking preferred forsafety ofoldpeople generousoverall lighting: avoid glareorshadowed areas avoid rough wall surfaces avoid slippery floors; no 'scatter' rugs; wall to wall low pile carpets safest, especially in bedr, butNB strain on heart when vacuum cleaning carpet nothresholds between rm Bathroom,lavatory Relationshipsof elements inplanforhomeforold P — a Bathr large enough for undressing and dressing, if necessary with helper(especially in homes). Handholds: atleast 1 forgetting in and outofbath —ep83(5); atleast 1 at side of wc pedestal —ep83(7). Consider use of pole —vp83(5). Bath rim should beadapted foreasygripping —vp83(6). Bath: low-sided, flat bottom; length limited so that user cannot be completely immersed: max 1 550. Consider seat atrim height for sitting towashlegsand feet. Hand basin: rim between 800 and 850high. Shower —*p83(9): compartment well heated with pegs for clothes on dry side, divided from wet side by shower curtain. Floor non-slip and free fromhazards; if smooth with fall todrain, 1:40traywith upstand to step over, not necessary. Provide secure handhold and wall-mounted seat. Water supply thermostatically controlled to give between 35° and 49°C (UK requirement but—lJSAsafety precautionsabove). Adjustable spray outlet on flexible hose which can be clipped on in different positions. Taps: must be usable by arthritic fingers; tops boldly colour-coded; keep hotandcold in same relationshipthroughout bldg. Wc: seat height 380—p83(7). In 1-P grouped flatlets hand basinshould be provided. • tt 10 15 20m 15 30 45 m 2 _______________ 9 12 ft OLD PEOPLE'SHOMES Main areas residents' rm with related bathr and lay communal rm: egdining, sitting, tv, handicrafts kitchen, service, sto admin, matron, med staff accn, resident and day Relationships —*(1) 4-storey Iayout—v(3) Bedrooms: usually bed sitting rm. Typical layouts single p83(11), double—*p83(10). Furniture Table heights: dining 700; gap between chair seat and underside of tabletop mm 190 —p83(1 1); occasionaltables in common rm not lower than chairseat height. 2 AmenityhousingforelderlyatSQueensferryScotland: 15cottages arrangedround commongardenshaveexternalalarmbellsbut nowarden service asite layout bhouseplans Arch Marshall, MorisonAssociates 3 Easy chairs: not too low for getting out; low enough to keep feet on floor: 400—430; footstools forthose with short legs; seat depth 410— 470; arm rests 230 above seat. Back high enough to support head (consideradjustable pad) angled at28°to vertical. Gap between under seat and floor for heels to draw backwhen getting up. NB too soft seat padding can put strain on tissues Layoutplansof homeforelderlyDorset England a ground plan b 1St &2ndfloors C3rd floor Habitat 85 Housing: disabled Housing forphysically disabledtraditionally in institutionalcentres. Now accepted as preferable provide accn in which disabled can live as members ot general community, with theirfamilies oralone. Particularrequirements tobeborne in mind when designingfor physically disabled divide into those for ambulant disabled wheelchair users Parking for wheelchair users should preferably be under cover and linked to house. Car port particularly convenient: allows unimpeded access. Cross beam should be supplied to take stirrup grip or hoist. If garage provided should preferably be integral with house and give direct access. In this case floor should be laid to fall of at least 1:100 away fromhouse; inUK relaxationfrom bldg reg requirements necessary to provideflushthreshold. Houses designed for ambulant disabled need not differgreatly from thosedesigned forgeneral use; detail and fittings principalconcerns. For wheelchair users particular attention needed to requirements of wheelchair circulation —(1) and to accessibility of fittings from seated position —p86(8). At initial planning stage allow approx 10% more floor area than forsimilar accn in general needs housing —.p87(l)(3)—(5). *1:1525 Choiceofhousetype Wheelchair users should preferablybeaccommodatedin 1-storey houses orgroundfloorflats,though upper storey flatmay besuitable on sloping site where level or ramped exit to place of safety can be provided. 2-storey house acceptable if bathr and at least 1 bedr on ground storey but this arrangement not ideal, particularly where disabled member of familyis housewife. I Turningarrequiredforwheelchair Ambulant disabled may be housed in suitable upper floor flats of 2-storey houses; but seriously disabled, even if ambulant, should not be housed above third storey, max height for normal UK fire service rescue ladders. In bldg more than 1 storey whichhouses disabledelevator location and design of critical importance. Lift doors must have 800 clear opening width. In USAcab must be mm 524 x 1 524 with easyto push controls 1 220or less fromfloor and with raised or indented letters beside them —p412. Escape stairs must have treads not less than 250 and risers not more than 175. Provide space within stairway enclosure on each floor for thosewith limited mobility towait for help. i Kerbrampsshouldwheneverpossiblemakenaturalextension of alignmentoffootpath 2 x .1 In 2-storeyhouses: 1 ground floor rm should be available as bedr and wcshould beprovided atgroundstorey level. Straightflightstairdesirable. Siting & access Housesfor disabled needto be withinreach of shops, children's play spaces, church, pub,surgery. Access by level or rampedapproach, mm width 1200, max slope 1:12,preferably 1:20. Gradients greater than 1:12 needrest areas 1 200long at9000intervals(inUSArest areasalso if ramp turns); thosein excess of 1:20 at 18 m intervals—p87(l1)407. In USAplatforms at doorways as for footpaths—below. 3 Slottedgratingsshould belaid at rightanglestowheelchairtraffic Kerbs should be lowered at crossings and driveways to not more than 25 above roadway; USA practice prefers kerb ramps —.(2). Camber shoufd not exceed 1:100. Slotted gratings should always be laid with barsat right angles todirection of wheelchair traffic —.(3). Footpaths —p1 9 43: where gradients exceed 1:20, or where dropto side more than 600, handrails required 950 high extending mm 300 beyondbeginning and end of ramp or ridge. Railswith smooth surface required for all ramps in USA on at least 1 side, 813 above ramp surface and extending 300 beyond beginning and end, with 1830 straight clearanceatbottom. Avoid loose gravel,cobblesorsells, though materials with distinctive texturecan be helpfuf, particularly to blind or partially sighted, in signalling approach toobstruction orchange in level. Provide continuing common surface not interrupted by steps or suddenchanges in level.Blend with levels ofotherpaths orparkingarea laneswhich may cross. At doorways level platform at least 1 524 x 1 524 ifdoorswings out or915 x 1 524 ifdoor swings in, stretching at least 300 each side of 300 mm 4 Openingwindow hazard 5 Footpathwforwheelchair passing doorway (USA requirement). Main access path to house should be at least1 200 wide and anygarden paths mm 900. Access from front to back garden should preferably by-passhouse —.p47(6), be kept clear of opening windows and similar hazards —*(4) and, in wheelchair housing, provide turning space for chair—(1 )p43(3). Widthneeded for wheelchair passing —.(5). Hazards:where suchhazards as open manholes and access panels of openexcavations occurprotectby barrier mm 2400fromdanger point and markwith sound and sightwarning devices. Car parking: provide near houseaspossible, preferablywithin boundary of property. Ambulant disabled driver requires parkingspace mm 4800 x 2700, wheelchair user mm 4800 x 3000; USA requirement mm 3660extra on each side. In general car park handicapped should be nearest bldgand clearly marked.Disabled should not needtravel behind parkedcars. Garage space needed forwheelchair user—.(6). 6 Gar spaceforwheelchairuser (2800wadequateforambulant disabled) I0 86 Habitat Housing: disabled Common accessareas In flats builtto accommodatedisabled and in other bldg likelytobe used by them in any numbers at least 1 main entrance and any door giving access to emergency exit orexternal space likely to be used bydisabled ____ 1 occupants must have: level or ramped approach flushthreshold clearwidthmm 775 1800 Elevator mustbe accessible to such entrance. Withdoubleleafdoorsdesignsothat only 1 needopen Double leaf doors should be designed so that only 1 leaf need be opened —(1). Automatic sliding doors operated bypressure pad most convenient but expensive. Where revolving doors used normal side hungdoorof suitable widthshould also beprovided. 300 360 r1' Internalplanning =1300 maIbask4t...Ij Forambulantdisabled 900 wide enough forentrancehalls and passages; 500 will also allow enough space foroccasionaluse by wheelchairs. 1500 2 Clearspacebeside doorforease 3 Deliveriesboxbesidefront door, ofaccesstokeyhole;shelfforparcels insideboxdoorlockable mm 900 775 240 J Stairs mix 280 preferred370 maxi preferredmax 145 externalsteps 4 Doorsforwheelchairusers shouldbehungwith hingestowards corner 5 Stairsforambulantdisabled& elderly people y1dr sj IYM -'n 3600 casual diningar 2400 Standardklayoutforambulant disabled 6 7 Similar k—s(6)alteredto suit wheelchairuser: 0oven, H hob, TStrolley sf0unit B broom cpd, WM washingmachine, A frig, AS rotatingsto unit, Ssk i For wheelchair users entrance hail mm 200 wide for depth 1 800, preferably 1 200 throughout. Lobby between 2 sets of doors will need be 1 500 x 1500 clear of obstructions to allow freedom to manoeuvre chair.USA: floor level insidc and outside for 1 524 fromdoorindirection doorswings. Clearspace mm 300 should be provided alongside leadingedgeoffront doorforease ofaccessto keyhole and handle.—x(2):USA 300 each side of door. Shelf 300 x 300 useful both inside and outside to take parcels when opening orclosing door—s(2). Door closures should be suitable for disabled users. Nosharp inclines or abrupt changes oflevel atdoor ciii. If deliveries box provided —*(3) inner door should be lockable. Mat wellsshould be fully recessed —s(2). All internal doors should have mm opening 775. Thresholds should be flush. For wheelchair usersdoors should be hung with hinges toward corner—*(4) or, insmallrm, open out. Lowhanging doorclosures must not obtrude into traffic ways. Floor should be non-slip. Each storey should be on 1 level orconnected by ramp iflevel changes. Stairs & steps —s(5). Avoid abrupt nosing. Handrails813 fromtread at face of riser, 1 extending mm 460 beyond top and bottom step (USA requirement). Ensure adequate lighting without confusing shadows. Withlow hangingceiling lights orsignsallowfree-standingstairclearances 2133fromfloor. Controls & switches for light, heat, ventilation, windows, curtains, fire alarms and others ofessential use should bewithin reach ofwheelchair user.Identification of switches important, specially for blindor partially sighted. Provideraisedorrecessedlettersornumbersfor rm identification at side of door at suitable height. Knurled handle or knob on doors leading to areas dangerous for blind person. Living areas: additional space needed in wheelchair housing to manoeuvre chair inliving rm, kitchen—s(6)(7), bath—.p87(1 )and atleast 1 bedr—p87(4)(5). Living rm windows should bedesigned allow seated person seeout withoutdifficulty. Baywindow very suitable,especially in wheelchairhousing —ep87(6). Kitchen worktops and shelving adjustable in height —s(8). Knee space beneath fitments particularly important in wheelchair housing —s(8). Cooker should preferably have separate oven and hob. Deep sinks difficultfor mostdisabled people: max depth 150. Bathr & wc should be equipped with basic support and grab rails —*p87(7); seat 400 wide should be provided at head of bath. Hand basins bestset into worktops cantilevered from wall; preferred height for use by ambulant disabled 850, by wheelchair users 750. Mirror, towel rails and shelves 1 016 above floor. 8 a b k worktops&sheMngshouldbeadjustableinh Wheelchair usersneedenough space round wc pedestalto permit both frontal and lateral approach, with space for assistance if necessary —ap87(8);doorshould swing out. Dispenser and disposal unitsatside of wcnot directlyabove. Bathr ceiling should besoconstructed toallow for fixing hoistortrack ifnecessary. If bathr planned opendirectly offbedr track can be fitted provide directroute between bed, bath and wc. Soundwarningsignals should beduplicated byvisual for deaf. Habitat 87 Housing: disabled Internalplanning I— Li 2 Withoutwardopeningdoor ambulantdisabled 3 Forwheelchairuser wccompartmentarmust can usenormalwccompartment bebigger 2700 Standardbathrenlargedtoprovidespacefor wheelchairuser 1 4 Single bedrlargeenoughforwheelchairuser 400 1600—1700 ' L I position I ofceiling hoo possible 5 Doublebedr forwheelchairuser 6 Baywindow in liv cangive pleasureto wheelchairuser External detail 45O 35 posihon ofpole possible ofhoist line p possiblepositions ofpole& hoist H 9 Publictelephonesuitableforhandicapped & children;goodlightingimportant; instructionsin braille & pushbuttondials forblind;volume control onheadset LIJJE 10 Drinkingfountainforwheelchairuser;should beoperatedbyhandlever;pavedarroundfountain toprevent mud & puddles plantmaterialsshouldbe located sothatshadowsdo not preventsun frommeltingsnow& iceon ramp surfaces __________ slot forfeetofmobilehoist ortrolley(cart) Spaces&fittingsforbathrforwheelchairuser providemm asof54 lightat atallramp&stair locations —750—t---l°°—i rampwvary accordingtodesign -situations,preferredmm 1-way—9l4minw 2-way—lS3Ominw hoistoreye-hook —I possiblepositionofhoist oreye-hookforstirrupgripetcj shouldextendmm 460 -1fr maograthenl8.33% 300 8 ____ Spaces &fittingsforlayforwheelchairuser 11 Outdoorrampdata:maxgradient1:12—sp407 & beyondtop bottomoframp T1524mm clearspaceatboth top & bottomoframp provideitOhkerbatedgeoframpsurface foruse bysmailwheeledvefridesor wheek*tairsasemergencywheelstops 88 Habitat Houses BALCONIES Wind-protectedprojectingbalc Cornerbalc 1 Balcony desirable extension of living rm, especially forflats. Corner balconies that cannot be overlooked and are protected from wind —e(1) more comfortable than freely projecting balconies which have to beshielded on wind and weather side —n(2). Grouped balconies should be suitably dividedforprivacy. —u(3) orseparated—a(4). Loggias less economic as they createmore exterior wallsurface—u(5). Balconies staggered vertically more difficult to protect fromwind and from being overlooked —n(6); balconiesstaggered in plan well protected and private —.(7)(8). Important considerations include orientation to sun, view, position of neighbouring flatsand bldg and relationshipof living rm, studio, kitchen and (sometimes)bedr. Other factors:appropriatesize, privacy,protection fromstreet noise, shielding from excessive sun, windand rain. Suitable materials forparapets: frosted glass, plastics, asbestoscement, timber slats and steel sheets fixed to supporting structure of solid or tubular steelsections firmly attached to bldg; steel verticals (horizontal can be climbed by children) do not give protection against wind or being overlooked. Draughts created between balcony floors and solid parapets —.(9): betterplace parapet in front of floor—.(1O)or usesolidparapet (nottoo high if 'bath tub' feeling to be avoided) with steelrail at byelaw height, possible room forflowerboxes —.(1 1). Access balconies _-np9O 9697 4 Groupedbalc withseparating sto partitions forfurniture 5 6 Staggeredbaic 3 Groupedbalc with projecting Loggia I 7 8 BaIcsfaggeredin plan&set at angle Staggeredbaic lii //4,4; 70 100 0 9 Parapetabovebalc floorlevel 10 Parapetin frontof balc floor Solidparapet vo ___________ a 11 I roofgarden round 0 square Q rectanguiar Prefabricated balc designed to be pluggedontoapartmentbldgto define&enhanceexteriorspace Arch Kamriitzer 13 Apartmentblocks at Cross Creek VillagePlayadel ReyUSA have round, square&rectangular balc placedtomodulateopenspace betweenbldg Arch Kamnitzer 12 a open(summer) b 14 a largetop-floorapartments atLosAngeles USAhavesimilarbalc to those ofsmallerunits bat apartmentsinHollywood USApenthouse liv includesbalc ar&roofgardenmezzanine Arch Kamnitzer i_ b slopedtodeflect sun (summer) - partialiyenciosed _____________ I intermediate iotaiiyenclosed (winier) ______ sioped toadmit Sun (Winter) 15 a Flexiblebaic created byusingframe of slidingglass doorsset on perpendicularrunners bhingedglass createsbalc adaptableto seasons Arch Kamnitzer Habitat 89 Flats & apartments BUILDINGTYPES Thissectiondiscusses bldg divided horizontallytoprovide separateand self-contained dwellings which need not necessarilybeon 1 flooronly. Types can bedistinguished asfollows. Low-riseor high-rise In UK accepted max height of entrance door to dwelling normally reached by ramp or stairs 4 storeys from ground level or from main entrance to bldg. Beyond that limit elevator access must be provided: bldg containing such flats called high-rise. In practice low-rise flatted bldg often provided with elevators; in public sector housing these required where more than 2 storeys have to beclimbed to any private entrance door. Such bldg, from3to5storeys, oftencalledmedium-rise. Pointblock or slab block In point blockall dwellings share single vertical access system —*(1). Vertical access mustalways include stairway; according to height and layout bldg mightalso have 1 ormore elevators and secondaryescape stairs. Slab blockcontinuous bldg in which dwellings reached by 2 or more separate vertical accesssystems —(2). Maisonettes Separate dwelling in low or high-rise blocks Upperfloor plan of12-storey pointblockat Battersea London England designed1963:balc provide escaperoutes between flats ArchGeorge Trew & Dunn 1 having rm arranged on more than 1 storey known as maisonettes: have been built in UK in 4-storeyblocks —(3), in slab blocks and in combinationwith flats —u(4). Such arrangements can show savingsoverflatsofsimilar accnbecause common access space less. In USA similar 'skip floor' design halves elevator stops in high rise. pñvatebale 2 uppertloorplan Slabblock:9-storeyflatswith balcaccess built1953atPimlico London; in-situ rcconstruction: noteuseofsto Arch Powell &Moya toinsulate bedrfromstairwell rt 3rdfloor a sedoo ri 4 2ndfloor gar floor plans 2 3 4 b 3 Maisonettesin4-storeyblocksinhigh-densitydevelopment in London England;levelsonsite permitaccess atsecond-storey h& demand single aspecthouseplan:notescreening ofstair &escape balcatbedrstorey inupper maisonette Arch YorkeRosenberg Mardall 4 Housingat RuncomCheshireEnglandon5storeys: sectioncomprises 2 x 2-storeymaisonettes, lowerenteredfromgroundlevel&upperfrom second-storeywalkway,&top-storey flat approached bystairsfromgroundor walkway,connectedby ramps&bridgetomainshopping aroftowncentre Arch J Stirling I cr 90 Habitat Flats & apartments: access TYPESOFACCESS Accesscan beclassified asstairway, balcony orcorridor. Stairwayaccess Stairway access, with 2, 3 or 4 flats per landing allows grouping of services and can provide high degree of privacy: standard solution in point blocks. Inslabblocks, however, disadvantageswhere more than 2 flats servedfromeach landing: usually involves back-to-back planning andconsequently some form ofartificial ventilation—(1). Balcony& corridor access Balcony and internal corridor access, usuallyemployed in slab blocks, permitsavings in common access space. Exposureto weather obvious disadvantage ofbalconies, particularlyin high rise, and internal planning constrained by potential lackof privacy on balcony side;window design can modify this constraint.Internal corridorsescapeweatherbutintroduce new problems of sound insulation, lighting and ventilation and require higherstandards of management inuse. Open corridors orroof-streets avoid most of these difficulties. In medium rise development open corridors and sheltered balconiesgivingaccesstosmall flats overlarger dwellings can accommodate wide variety of household sizes at high densities. —(2). Balcony and corridor access have been much used in conjunction with split-level flats and maisonettes. Such arrangements —*p9697. _____ I a Bridgeaccess Forsiteswithsteeporvaried slopes bridge access—÷(3)offers flats with 1 storey at bridge level with 1 or 2 down and up. Stairs and landings covered but notenclosed in all butseverest climates: ifclosed possible byorientation usethemaspassive solar trap. 4 1rm/1P bedr 2 L hi 4rm/5P 1 3 x 2-rm flats/landingachievegooddaylighting&cross-ventilation but extralengthofwall hasto beweighedagainst economyof circulation Arch EGutkind garden 1 b ground +U brid1 I roofstreet 4...1 dr I-n-I first ground a 1 cc C 2 3 Bridgeaccess asection bplan Medium-risehousingat highdensity(618 B-space/ha)at LillingtonStreet London England:each familyhouseenteredatgroundlevelthroughprivate garden;smaller maisonettes & flatshaveaccess fromopencorror roof streets' which bridgebetween blocks &areservedbyelevators a siteplan bfloorplans ctypicalsection Arch Darbourne & Darke Habitat 91 Flats & apartments: access FIRE PRECAUTIONS: PLANNING CRITERIA layout conditions flats & maisonettes enteredfromcorr: no alternativeescape route from each dwelling; a with smoke dispersal iewherecorris ventilated direct to openair b withoutdirectventlationto openairto securesmoke corrhassmoke outletsat each end, &at intervals not exceeding 60m Horizontalescape routes Everystorey containing entrance door to flat or maisonette should be planned to ensure that fire in any 1 dwelling will notobstruct escape of other occupants frombldg. Problem related to type ofaccess. Permissible travel distances in relation to access and plan arrangement given as designer'sguide ie planning criteria not code/legal information —(1). In USA national, state and local codes apply; inspections and approvals usuallyadministered by localauthorityin cooperation withstatedepartments: designers should seekearly review of their proposals. dispersal Protectionof stairways Every stairway serving flat or maisonnettemore than 2 storeys above ground level should be enclosed and separated from remainderofbldg byfr wallsand self-closing frdoors. No dwelling should open directly from such stairway but should be reached through intervening lobby, access balcony orcorridor. Enclosure requirementdoesnot apply tosubsidiary accessstairways serving small groups of dwellings from opencorridors oraccess balconies,subjectto conditons stated in (1)and in p93(l). 1 Traveldistancesinstoreyscontaining flats&maisonettes:table hasnolegal authority but isdesigner'sguideto escape requirementswithin bldgmorethan 2storeys hwhich containflats or maisonettes, based onvariouscodes&reg currentlyapplied inUK (1979);itgives maxtravel distancetostorey exit which musteitherbedooropeningdirect to openairatgroundlevelordoortoprotected stairwayasdescribed—.p931. flats &maisonettes enteredfrom corr:each dwelling hasalternative storeyhas 1 exitonly with, i everyentrance doornot more than4500 tromstairway approach lob,or ii everyentrance dooropening intoventilated lob & not more than4500fromselfclosing frdoortocorr leading directlyto storeyexit everyprivate entrance door opens intocorr withsmoke traveldistanceiron, privateentrancedoor to storeyexit i escape in 1 direction only: notmorethan 15m ii escape in 2 directions: notmorethan 40 m notmorethan 4500 notmorethan 15 m i escape in 1 direction only:notmorethan 40 m outlets ii 1 notmorethan 4fIats per storey,&netfloorarof flats above1st storeynotmore notmorethan4500 2 notmore than 4flats per storey, & netfloor arof flats not more than 15m flats & maisonettes enteredfromopen accessbaic floorofaccess balc not more than 50m flats and maisonettes enteredindirectlyfrom openaccess balc by subsidiaryaccessstairway each flat &maisonette has independent alternative escape route,or subsidiary stairway does not extendmore than 1 storey above orbelowopenaccess balc,&subsidiary stairway servesnoflat at accessbalc level & notmorethan3flats at higherorlowerlevel,&each flat entered& whollycontainedwithin 1 level, & noflat entrance door more than 5000fromhead orfootofsubsidiarystairway, &subsidiary stairway opento accessbalc &permanently ventilated atits head notmore than 5Gm escape route flats enteredfromlob in bldg upto 4storeyswith 1 stairway only escape in 2directions: notmorethan 50m than 380ni above 1st storey notmore than 720m2, &noprivate entrance doormore than than 4500 fromstoreyexit orfromself-closing frdoor across lob, &everysection lob ventilated to openair constructed ascompartment floor 92 Habitat Flats & apartments: internal planning European development Development of flats in Europebetween 1919 and 1939 largely dominated byconcept of mm dwelling. In extremehousingshortagedwellings of small floor area and few internal amenities were used to provide cooking breakiast sql ThHi. high-density housing in inner-city areas —v(1)(2)(3)(4)(5). More generously planned flats used in surburban situations and for middleclassoccupation —v(6)(7)(8)(9). J Standardsforflats & maisonettes Modern flats not regarded as 'second-best' but should provide accn similar to houses forequivalent householdsize. Indeed space standards for flats in public sector in UKslightlymore generous than for houses, recognisingdifficulties ofproviding for internalcirculationand fireescape —p91 93. 5 Convertibleflat inday& night use with fold-awaybeds&screens;ar44) m2 Arch C Finger Ii 6 5-bedrflat insystembldgStora Tuna Sweden ArchYJohnsson •h k iii_:, 4' 7 4&3-mi low-riseflatsatNeubuhlZUrich Switzerland 1931 Arch M E Haefelieta! recess N Igar85e IN Viennese2-rmflatofl92Os;4 fiats/landing Arch F Schuster 1 2 SmallGermanflatwithwcon innerwall;living ar28 m' Arch MãrkischeWohnungsbau J 8 ClassicalGermansuburban flat;4&3-miS aspect flats withgenerous livingar& privatebalc Arch LHilberseirner bedr bedr —1 JE 3 More generous3-mi fiatwithwc &sho 4 9 Moretightlyplannedflats forE-W aspect Arch LHilberseimer Dutch3-mi flat with intemal bathr: compactplanwith separated service Arch H Leppla 10 5-miflatatHighgate London Englandwith bedropeningfrom internal lob (1936):this arrangement wouldnow needsecondaryescape frombedr Arch B Lubetkin I -'H PL 1 lift 2 staircase 3 liv 4 loggia 5k 6rm 7 bathr 8 11 Flatsin high-riseblockBalomockScotland Arch SBunton&Associates rITL heating &water tank 12 Apartment-sizefloor inblockofflats RouenFrance Arch LodsDepondt BeauclairAlexandre Habitat 93 Flats & apartments: internalplanning layout allrmon samelevelas conditkns 1 entrance door 2 allrm on level above entrance door number ofescape routes bedr doors open into entrance ha: no bedr door morethan7SOOfrom entrance door any othercase bedr doors open into passage athead ofstair: no bedr door morethan 7500fromhead ofprivate stair toentrance door 2 anyother case 1 1 plusalternativeescape roatefromeverybedr withdoor more than 7500fromentrance door 1 1 1 plusalternativeescape routefromeverybedr withdoor more than 7500fromhead of private stair anycase 1 plusalternativeescape bectropenfrominnerlob withfrconstruction&selfclosing doorsasrequiredfor private entrance ha an alternativeescape route fromeverybedr opening frominner lob bedron levelabove liv &k;entrance door at privatestairwayseparated fromupperlobbyIrscreen with self-closing frdoor 1 plusalternative escape liv level bedron levelabove liv & entrance door at bedrlevel privatestairwayseparated fromentrance ha by screen with self-closingfrdoor 1 plusalternative escape bedron levelbelow privatestairwayseparated fromlowerlobbyfrscreen with self-closing frdoor 1 plusalternativeescape routefromlower level no bedr door morethan 7500fromentrance door 1 plusalternativeescape routefromupper level alternative private stairwayleadsup ordownto alternative escape route liv & kseparated frombedr 1 plusalternativeescape open plan maisonette 1 allrmon level below route fromeverybedr entrance door bedrnot opening fromentrance ha or landing passage k liv&k;entrance door at liv level bedron levelbelow liv&k;entrance door at fr Ir route fromupper level route fromlower level route fromlevel whichis not entrance level with privateentrance ha & stairwayseparatedfrom otherstoreybyfrwall or screen & self-closing fr door 1 plusalternative escape 2 withprivateentrance ha, but stairwaynot separatedas in 1 plusalternativeescape routefrom every enclosed rrnatentrance level not opening into privateentrance ha, & condition 1 Privacy and fire escape principal determinants of internal planning of flats and maisonettes. Otheruser requirements summarised in Parker Morris standards—*p4448 Bib233. Privacy—*alsop769698 Privacy bestsecured bystairway access where onlyentrance door and possiblydelivery hatch opento landing. In balcony access, bathr, wc andkitchencanbe placed onaccessside,but note difficulty in providing natural light where high windows are below balcony. Sound insulation presents greater difficulties in flats than inhouses,and privacy best secured by planning. Avoid long separating walls to bedr, and avoid bedrbeneath access balconiesor adjoiningelevators, stairs or refuse chutes. Where possible usecupboards (closets) to increase sound insulation of separatingwalls. Fireescape Bedrdoors opening into private entrancehall should wherever possible be nearer toentrance door than living rmorkitchen. Alldoorsother than bathrand wcshould beself-closing and fr;wallsenclosing entrancehall should have ½hr fr. In most other conditions planforalternativeescape routes from bedr above 2storeys. Recommendationsgenerally based on current codes of practice summarised in —n(1) and illustrated — (2)(3)(4). Butnote:always consult appropriatecode. Services—p383—97 bedrlevel byself-closing frdoor DETERMININGFACTORS route fromeveryenclosed rmatentrance level not opening into privateentrance ha, & alternativeescape route fromstorey which is not entrance level Attention should be paid to grouping of services and provision of adequate service ducts, especially where bldg incorporate variety of dwelling sizes and plans not repetitive. Standard location and arrangement of bath, wc and kitchen fittings facilitates design of ducts and service stacks. Internal bathr and wc require mechventilation, either individually or by common ducting. Sharedventilation systems require smoke-stopping byfiredampersand stand-by fanstoensure continuous operation. Checklist forservices in flats water el drainage (+ rain water drainage) gas(not in high-rise) mech ventilation TV/FM radio aerials TV/radio relay telephones main entrance phone & control alternative escape route fromeveryrmon atorey which isnot entrance level anyothertypeof layout 1 plusalternativeescape routefromeverybedr &fromeverylevel which isnotentrance level Escaperoutesfrom flats&maisonettes: as—.p91(1)thisalso has nolegal authoritybutisdesigner'sguidetoescape requirements relatedtointernal planning,baseduponvariouscodes&reg currentlyapplied inUK (1979): wherelocaldifferencesexistthey mightbelessonerous, buttableshould alwaysprovideguidetosafe planning 1 3 In largerflatsdistancebetween furthest bedr& entrance doorsshould not exceed7500unlessalternative escape route provided EPt ec 2 Conventionalsmallflat plan,mostsafelyarranged withliv &kfurthestfrom entrancedoor 4 ienot morethan 1 bedr1 Jindowof Flatwith innerlob,above2storeys, alwaysrequires alternative escape provision I 94 Habitat Flats & apartments POINT BLOCKS Byingenious planning upto 10flats served by 1 vertical access system in some continentaldesigns. Fireescapereg make suchsolutions difficult in Britain, unless flats very small or unless access balconies used, reducing convenience of point blockarrangement. Some point blocks built in Britain —(1)(2)(3)(4). American and continental examples —p95 upper floor plan 1 Point blockatThamesmeadEngland: 12-storey system-built structure provides4 flats on eachstorey ArchGLCArchitectsDept 1 21/2 a layout plan a b Vblockshavebeendevelopedinseveral countries, particularlyinlow-rise formswheretheycan bejoinedtogetherwithoutovershadowing: this example,built in1957atCumbemauldScotland, hasarmsat unequalangles, giving greatervarietyoflayoutarrangements &avoidingclosedcourts atypicalupperfloorplan b layout plan ArchCumbernauld Development Corporation 3 water tanks carriedonliftshaft — flatson 17 storeys 2elevatorsstop alternate storey Tir tJF caTny main entrance level b 2 Point Royal BracknellEngland: one offew Britishpointblockswithmore than 4flats/storey;Split hexagonal plan logicallyaccommodates 6flats & minimisescirculationspace &escapedistances;carspace foreach flatunder circularpodium aupperfloor plan bsection Arch ArupAssociates Low pointblocks or stubblocks',withelevators, canprovidesuitable housingforeldertypeople, asinthis London England 3-storeyblockof shelteredhousing—.p82 Arch YorkeRosenberg Mardall 4 Habitat 95 Flats & apartments POINT BLOCKS liv (bedrl Some American and continental examples, most meetBritish reg. of whichwould not Flats in point blocks generally small, with kitchen and bathr planned as standard unit and often with artificial lighting and ventilation. Point blocks can be planned as 2 blocks of flats connected by vertical access core.This twin plan arrangement improves daylight and sunlight to larger number offlats —(4). Americanapartments; smallserviceflats surrounding 16-storey circulationcore Arch R C Reamer 1 0 I 4 12 8 I 24 12 I 36 16m 0 4811 12 2 Swedishpointblock:fire precautions relyon containing fire inflat whereit originates& preventing smoke penetration bydoubledoorsat flatentrance; escapehatches provided in balcfloors: accepted thatstairway &access landingsmightnotbeusablewhilefire being fought 0 I 4 8 I 4 8 12 12 24 36 24 l6rn 12 I I 4811 36 4 Twin plan: 10flats/floor,escapestairwellprotected buttraveldistances wouldbetoogreatfor UKreg ArchMUller-Rehm, Siegmann 16m I 4811 0 4 I 12 3 5flats/landingBerlinGermany: flats haveno corrbutlargeloggias: liv acts ascirculationar Arch AAalto 5 8 I 24 12 36 16m I 4811 Yblockon Siemenshousing estateMunich Germany Arch Freymuth I cr 96 Habitat Flats & apartments DUPLEX& TRIPLEXSECTIONS Designs for split level flats and rnaisonettes, with access balcony, deck or corridor every second (duplex) or third (triplex) storey, have beendeveloped over many years. While some design problems solved, egvisualprivacy,cross ventilation, others increased, such as sound insulation. —.alsop97(l)t4) plan at corr level Duplex:Russian type verysmallflat with limitedsleepingarbutmore spacious liv: accessbalcserves2storeys; wcoftentrance lob ArchM IGinsberg 1 ,1 a C: 2 Tnplex: earlyFrenchtype; lob opensfromaccess baicwithstairsupor down Arch Pingusson access k!kkkk access balc balc),) 5ra = 5rm,liv above 4rb = 4rm,liv below I iiv4rb j ___ liv 5th bedr be1r I iiv5rb 3 Split levelflats withbalcaccess: entrance, dining ar&kat entrance level, liv 1/2 storey up,bedr ½ down Arch Hirsch escape balc b — luggage sto, etc ffloset 'above' 'deck level' below' escape balc section section 4 Triplex:Mareschal system, withaccessbalceverythirdstorey, Cambridge USA;separateentranceswith private Stairstorlargerflats:allflatshavecross ventilation Arch Koch-Kennedy 5 Wide accessbaic or deck' housing RobinHoodLaneLondon England: 1/2 baypartitionscanbearranged to permitwidevariation ofdwellingsizes: Stairs &blacked-inwallsmustberegarded aspermanent structure; noteescape balc at bedrlevels Arch A &P Smithson Habitat 97 Flats & apartments INTERNALACCESS bedr 1je. 9 F baic - JkI;1: 1 tS'lilc sectionthroughstaircase planotconleseia—b planandercorrc—d planone,cone—i 1 Split levelflats servedfrorn internal correvery thirdstorey: allflats have cross-ventilation —'also p96 Arch Neufert 2 Accessbycentrestairway;each landing serves2 flats:again allflats cross-ventilated Arch Neufert rwa5 EIIIL1 I<jc1kI plans ?• k — t N - sections 3 Narrow-frontage flats Marseilles France through extendedthrough verydeepblockwith pnvate balcon each facade: doubleh liv allowsun &daylight penetration,access bywide internal coneverythirdstorey Arch LeCorbusier C section 4 Centrecorrshortwell lit& ventilated, givingaccess to 1-rrn flatsatcorrlevel& 3-rrnflats by shortstairwaysup or down Arch vanden Broek 98 Habitat Stepped housing Steep slopesinvite stepped form of construction. Rake (storeyheight toterrace depth) must relateto slope: canbe80_400. Mm terracedepth of 3200 facing S will secure privacy while providing full sunlight and view. Gardentroughs at front ofterrace provide someadvantagesof private garden and prevent overlooking —(1). Other arrangements giving increased privacy Gardentroughspreventoverlooking ofter:necessary trough depthx = a(ha— ht) hc a=depth ofter ha = eyeh hc= storeyh hI =troughh 1 2 Teroverhangforextraprivacy 3 In 2-storeyunits upperfloor overhangs Advantages of stepped housing, with privacy and viewat high densities, leadto use in special conditions,even on level sites in bldg oftriangular or slopingsection: can be in combination with different bldg use —(9) or in single aspect situation, to enjoy sea view or exclude motorwayor railway noise—(8). 5 L-shapedflats with protected patios 4 Staggeredfloor plans 9 Section throughconference centre Designed byEGisel 6 Hillsidehousing ArchStucky& MenIi 7 Steppedhouseson levelsite ArchFreySchrdderSchmidt 4p maisonette 2P flat 2Pflat Housingat AlexandraRoadLondon England: alldwellingsenjoysaspect &railwaynoiseexcluded ArchBoroughArchitect London Borough of 8 Camden Habitat 99 Shared housing Needs of 1-person households normally very much like those of 2large singleflat mediumsingle flat small singleflat 1 person. In certain circumstances, however, single people may prefer share. May be provided in formof flats orhouses, usuallyforbetween 4 and 8people, containing 1-bed/sitting rm, bathrand farmhousekitchen orseparate living/dining rm and working kitchen. Houses or flats used for sharing require more parking space than normal housing (at least 1 space/bedspace). Large private garden unlikely to be required though some out-door sitting out space should be provided. Generous provision should be made for sto of bulky objects, sporting gear etc. Particularly advantageous if meters can be read fromoutside —*p74(3) and ifsomeformof external delivery boxcanbe provided for use when occupants out atwork—(5). HousingforsinglepeopleLeicesterEngland: typicalfloorplan ArchDoE firstfloor 2 Variantofpartof—(1) whichprovideslargesharedflat for4people insteadoflarge,medium&small singleflats groundfloor 4 2Victorianterhousesadapted forsharing ArchYork (England) UniversityDesignUnit 1\e4 280 . -v C,) 5 siteplan 3 Bed-sittingaccnwith kcommon rminsmall4 personhouses: notewc separatefrombathr Arch ManningClamp& Partners Externaldeliverybox Housing references: —*Bibliographyreferences 037 038 044047 092 179 227228 233234 235236237238240242245246247248263264299300302363 372458464467511 512519521548558573574624631637650 I0 100 Habitat Houses PRIVATEGARAGES Size Avoid under-dimensioning garages. Clearance between car and side walls should be mm 200—300 with margin in front mm 500. For getting out allow at least door width between carand wall or between cars and never less than 700. For car cleaning,wallsor other cars should be mm 1 200 away. 0 100,5 0.5 1;0 1.5 2;0 2.5 o 3 6 3;0354.04;55;055m 9 12 l 15 Typicalvehicleelevations Garage should becloseto houseentrance, though not necessarilyfront door, with easy access; actual distance from house will vary with size and number of vehicles. On steep slopes with houses above road, garage can be sitedatstreet level (maxdriveway gradient6%) butmust be protected against ground water —.(6). Where house is close to boundary garagecan be setatangle orcombined with next-doorgarage Access driveway should either beconsolidated over its whole width or have concrete wheel-runs —o(9). An apron infrontof garageshould be concreted full-width, 5000—6000 long and drained forcarwashing and to provide occasional off-street parking for another car. Garage floor should be raised 30—50 above washing areaand slope towards it. DJH rt__ L Siting garages Integral garage—eplOl(1)(2) 2.0 2.5 2 Planviews of typicalvehicles dimensions no L B T 1 1 T 2 3 4 5 6 I a 3.0 2.0 40 50 6.0 70 80 O I— L H -1 2 2J h 16 2,2T2.4 3.0 3.0 3.5 2.4125 2.4 3.0128 3.0 40 p]j8 67 4.2 6.1 34 2.2124 2.4 30 F o=regular 7 lb 2.5 USAsizes I H Tentrance — I23 y= 20 20 compact —I H - 3 4 5 H 6 J_ 5 J- I I b Houseonslope,garageon road below 6 Usualsiting 1 Standardgarages ainelevation bplansizesfor: 1 motor cyclewith side-car2—4 cars5&6vans&trucks; usualmaterials forthesedismountable garagesasbestoscementorsteelsheets,flat orcorrugated, &timber 3 7 Boundaryin close proximityto house,sogarageat angle 8 Combinedgarageswhere distancefromboundarynot stipulated I— 1000—1500 J 4 Garage in plan—.(3) I— - I— —4 I— -4 4— 2000 600 —4 __________ 9 Accessdrivewaywheelruns —1 4— 600 - __________ Habitat 101 Houses PRIVATEGARAGES Incorporatedwithin house Garages have been placed in basement,sometimes under conservatory orsimilarannex to house —(1). Should be avoided if possible; should not be used in areas whichhave freezing weather: access slope not morethan20% —(4). Driving up steepramp with motor stillcoldshortens engine life, is noisy and can be difficult. Garage therefore better placed at ground level, driveway having slightfalltowards road. On sloping sites groundflooror terrace may be raised sufficiently to allow basement garage at road level. Direct access to garage fromentrance hall or lobby via self-closing fr door usually permissible: threshold must be 100 mm above garage floor. Otherwise access to garage can be provided under common canopy with entrance door to house. Garage should beaway fromliving rmand bedr, accessiblefromkitchen and side or service entrance. Car washing and driveway should be screened by shrubs and bushes, which will also muffle noise. I9 Carports —.pl 02(6) Doors—*pl02(7)—(10) 4115H —I 1 Garage in basement, various arrangements: wofgarage doors& ramp = 1000;garagedimensions 2800 x 5500—3500x6500 car -4- 2ndstorey Up-and-over doorsor rollershutters now usual: can be operated by el motors with remote control switch or by electronic devices, provide additional head-room for motorcaravans and similar vehicles. Slidingfolding doors require additional width. Hinged doors opening outwards can be blocked by snow. When used should have provisionforfastening in openposition. Folding doors also —*p402 Windows and el lightshould be near carengine, with switches atgarage doorand any other entrance; spark protected socket outlet, well clear of floor, desirable. Heating best situated in front of or under engine, keeping garage above 5°C. Water tap with hose attachment should be near door, in easy reach of washing area, with hose-reel mounted nearby. Garage should be ventilated near floorlevel. Internalfinishes 1ststorey Walls can be fair-faced brick or blockwork, painted, or tiled. Floors usually cement screed, but oil stains hard to remove. Asphalt tiles dissolved byoil; best flooring material oil-proof ceramic tiles. Fortyres, standing on hardwood timber inserts orwoodblock isbest ifcan be kept free from oil. Garage should have floor gulley, and floor should be 150—200 above ground level outside. groundstorey 2 3-storeyhousewith integral gar:canbesiteddirectlybehind pavementas gar & centralporchprovideprivacy; access togardenthroughuty I In basementgar,whereunavoidable, slopenotmore than20% 3 2-storeyterhousewith attachedgarinfront, screeningsemi-private entrancecourt:generallymoreeconomical (&attractive)than 3-storeyhouse withintegralgarage—.(2) but implies lowerdensity' I 'I 102 Habitat Houses PRIVATEGARAGES:BUILDINGREGULATIONS Small garages Fordomestic garages in EnglandWales—uBib65O Small garage definedasonewhich hasfloorarea not more than 40 m2. Such bldg subjecttospecial rules (El5) Where small garage combined with small open carport rules of E19 mustalsobe studied. Sing'egar(for a b—spi 00(3)) 2 Doublegar measurements —.p100 0 ' 250 Detached bldg consisting of small garage,orsmall open carportorboth should be regarded as PG 1 bldg for purposesof Part E (E18). Detached small garagewhichis 2000ormore away from anyboundary must have roof covering complying with El5 (roofs) but need not conform toany other reg in Part E (E16). Detached smallgarage within 2000 of boundary must have roof complying with E17 and any part of external wall within 2000 of boundary must be externally non-combustible. All its internal wall surfaces must beclass spread of flame (El8). Detached small garagewithin 2000ofhouse musthave roofcomplying with E17 and any part of external wall within 2000 of house must be externally non-combustible. All internalwallsurfaces ofgaragemustbe class spread of flame. However, if house wall is itself externally non-combustible and has 1/2 hr frand no unprotected areas within the 2000 distance greater than 0.1 m2or nearerto oneanother than 1 500 requirements on non-combustibility and flame spread do not apply to garage walls(E18). Requirements on class flame spread in E18 (3)(4) do not apply to exposed surface of frame member forming partofwall. Small garage attached toorforming partof housemust have rooftoEl7. If there isfloor overgarage floor must have fr ofat least 1/2 hr. Any wall between house and garage must have at least 1/2 hr fr. Any opening in thatwall between house and garage must have threshold at least 100 above level ofgaragefloorand befitted with self-closing frdoor(1/2 hrfr) to El 1. In all other respects suchgarage must comply with relevant requirements of Part E (El8). petrtrap 0 i_I__i_I J•: 1U-f 10004— ±— C — 400 —•I a 1_1.1_1 —H I— 3 Gar with work bench, 1 car, motor cyclewith sidecar&bicycles I__I F_ I_I.!.! —I 5000—6000 4 Gar with washingar 0 Garage references.—eBibliographyentries 225 276 348 435 636 650 7 Overheaddoor(flyover) 8 Overheaddoor (foldaway) Doublegarusedtoextend1-storeyhousetoscreen patio; lowdensity solution 5 a 6 = orr acn b Examplesof Americancarports wellrelatedtoentrance a Arch-team Gropius bArch HSeidler 9 Overheaddoor,sectional (flyovertrader) 10 Rollershutter Habitat 103 Gardens ENCLOSURES 12 Simplechain-linkfencing:iron postswith wire mesh 1 x 75 1 mt square 1 250 expanded J. 3 Battengate (from inside) Wire nettinggatewith bracing 4 hexagonal 100x 19 boards 125x 100setin concrete undulating Wire netting:usualsize40—55 13 115brickwall (half brick)with supportingpiers 14 Close-boardedfence \ 600-800 uptx2h00 groned concreteorstone ,-. 5 Wrought-ironrailing rectangular 6 Framed,lodged,braced& boardedgates 15 Angle-ironrailing section •ø10 1800 16 Hedge with link-mesh infill — 1 1120 .1. 7 Wrought-ironrailingof 10—15 sections& bars 8 Wrought-irongate between concreteorstone posts 100x100 125 x 19 railsnailed aftemativelytoboth sidesofpost 17 Horizontalboarded(ranchtype)fence -1 x 150 75 mainpost Most timbers used for fencing require some form of protective 4270 87 1< 38 treatment. Particularly important timberposts treatedagainst decay below ground and at least 200 above ground. Concrete plinth helps prolong life of most timber fences. x 87 38 prickpost pointedfordriving I Lt 9 Timberpost& rail (4rail) Design offence and materialsused in itsconstruction should harmonise with surroundings. Showbest side (fair face) of boundary fence outwards with posts visible from within site. On sloping ground fence should follow contours. Extend protective fences against animals 100—200 below ground, especially where hedge planted —(16).Hedges —ep104. 10 Fenceofforestbattens(topof battensweathered) 18 Wire-boundwoodfencing availableinrolls Where termites present inground very desirable use pressuretreated or termite resistant wood egcedar. 104 Habitat Gardens SITING& LAYOUT protection fromnoise& dust: NE(winter) espaliertrait pStreet NIw ter fl _Q,2lJuo was •i protection twall lawn from wind (insummer) shadyar boundarywall - Suitableplantingforhousewalls according to orientation Dec 2 Suitablelayout forsmallgarden protectedfrornwind with vegetablesnearkentrance manure strawberries teiII,eS_r car wash 9W sandpit side - entr Layout Plan landscape simultaneously with design of house so that levels of drives, terracesand entrances are coordinated. Where space permits provide turningarea forvehicles and rrtechanisedeqp. Study position ofsunand prevailingwinds andavoid frostpockets when siting planting areas —n(6). Plant treesand hedges to give protection fromcold N and E winds. Vegetable production: allow 55—75 rn2/Pon best soil available. Humus or sandy loam better than heavier loam, clay or loose sand. Conserve topsoil excavated from areas of paving or building for use fruitbushes elsewhere —api05. water grass •N garden 4 Layoutforsmall sitetogive largest possiblevegetablegarden ! slopeswarmest during May and Sept SW slopeswarmest Oct—Apr SE slopes warmest Jun —Oct Orientation —ap40 7781 Soil • swwig 3 N waterbasin fruittrees — ter Aspect of ground and its angle of slope —v(6)plOS have important bearing on amount ofsun radiation it receives at different seasons: S positionofsun 1 Siting Orientation& relation ofrm&tertogarden crop plaidpoorneattosbdue toshade& rootcompetition *— shelter belt - I relatively J. Enclosuresforgardens Walls: brick or stone (use type which blends with materials used to construct house). Fences: wood or metal (match surroundings)—api 03. Hedges —a(7)(10): clipped foliage (formal) orflowering (informal). Allow sufficient space for ultimatewidth ofhedge when established, 450—1 200. To producethickhedgestagger plants thus: Windbreaks Planting of shelter belts has marked effect on soil temp, giving considerable increase in crop production—(5). increasedcropyield 5 Effectofshelterbeltoncrop production coldairbufids op invalley& createsfrost — plantlower-growingplants on higher partofslope good B good Effect ofslope &exposureonestablishment of plants § -1- 6OO-12t stonesbuiltup in diminishingomjrses Jc eon thin sodsplaced betweenindivdsarl Hedge innorthernGermany 9 grasseventually growsoverStones giving appearance ofturfhedge Stoneusedinconstructionofturf hedge 7 Hedgeh hawthornhedge L600— stones 8 bad 10 Turf hedge il Jf. waler channel Habitat Gardens SOIL PREPARATION Topsoil Top layer of soil must be preserved: provides growing medium for plants. underground ___________________________ I Soil compaction lopsoil malerial unlenor malenal 7 On bldg sites storetopsoil in temporary spoil heaps —e(1). Keep free from weeds. If stored over long period use green manuring. Turn over heapat least onceayear. Spread topsoilafter completion ofearth moving. Allow 600—1 000depth for planting trees, 500 for climbers and wall plants, 300 for shrub beds, 150 forgrassed areas. Fill on gentleslopes Topsoilspoilheap 105 5OO Soil used as fill for hard landscapedareas should be spread in layers 300—400 deepand well compacted—e(3) (notall soilssuitable forthis). Materials of different character should be deposited and compacted separately. Banks Buildingup inlayers 4 Cohesivematerialin corewith slight stepping T/.177777' 8 Deadwattle prevent sliding of fill material —(4). Angle of slope should beconsideredin relationto maintenanceoperations required and topand bottomofbank gently rounded off. Providedrainage at bothtop and bottom of bank sothatsoilonly receivesmoisture falling on its surface. Max gradient for mowing grass 1:3, forplanting 1:2 (or 1: 1 where no maintenance required). Turf laid on banks should be secured with wooden pegs —*(5). On slopes steeper than 1: 1 turfs should bethickerand laid stepped—(6). Use wattle for steep banks where difficult establish plant growth. Distinguish between dead wattle —+(7) and live —e(8). In using live subsequent planting ofshrubs necessary aswillow actsonlyas pioneer. On very steep slopes useretainingwalls—epi06(19)—(20). Crib structures —.(9)and grass-concrete construction—+(10) may also be used. Binding withsteppedturt 7 To prevent soil movement fill along slopes should be placed in layers. Form cuts in existingground surface to create serrated profile to retain fill material —u(2). On higher banks ground profile should be stepped to Live wattle selplantsbetweenbeams atlopofwall sothaIthey cascadeoverface soiltype weight kg/rn3 angle of repose (degrees) loose &dry loose& naturally moist loose& saturated withwater consolidated &dry consolidated & naturally moist loose& dry (av forlight soil) loose& naturally moist loose& saturated with water (av formedsoil) consolidated &dry consolidated & naturally moist mediumcoarse&dry mediumcoarse& wet 1400 1 600 1 800 45 he ernbankrnienl beanis slopeof earth groundlevel loam Cribstructure g ravel sand brokenstone,wet cia 1 900 27—30 42 37 1 500 40—45 1 550 45 2000 20—25 1 800 40 1 850 70 800 2000 dry 1 800 30—45 25—30 35—40 fine& dry fine,naturally moist fine &saturated withwater coarse&dry 1600 30—35 1 800 2000 40 25 1900—2000 35 2000—2200 30—40 1 600 40—50 20—25 . loose& dry loose& verymoist solid & naturally moist(heavier soil) drysand & rubble 11 1 700 35—40 Weights&anglesofreposefor different kindsofsoil 1 2000 2500 1400 70 35 I 106 Habitat Gardens PERGOLAS,PATHS,STEPS& RETAINING WALLS Retaining walls Concrete construction cheaper than stone walling. Good form work detailing essential obtain pleasingappearance.Dry stone wallingsuitable for retaining earth up to 2000high. Brickbacking necessary for higher walls-(1 9)(20). Paths Widthof ramped paths 1 220—1350;length 6000—9000. 1: 12 gradient necessary foreasy negotiation bywheelchairs. For short pedestrian ramps 1:7 acceptable—vp85. Ifstepped, max height ofstep is 125—e(11)—(13). Paths also—*p1943 Steps Insulationoftimberagainstrot Climbersupport 1 Tread width not less than 300. Risers 90—150 high —e(1 4)(15)(17)(18). Detailof finish to end of steps important, especially where set in grass bank. monolithoi graniteor basait I 16 Walkingmore comfortable ifpath longitudinally concave: agood, riseofstepsconcave bbad, rise convex 3 Tt: 4 Pergolaofmonolithstone (commonin Italy &Ticino) Pergolaonbrickpier 18 Stepsof naturalorworked 17 Steps withflagstones stone 70-80 flY 6 Cobbles:expensive ,; •.. but durable hli,ng —soil brokenstone drainage •• 625 -t.e2 :1 19 Concreteretainingwall (w base 1/3 h) 8 Pavedpath bedded & raised(easier keep clean) Pavedpath flush (preventsobstruction oflawn mower) 9 10 20 Drywalling (specialdrainage notnecessary) Th of slabs Spacing = length ofstride: 114 thickness 30 =8386 sideview 19 end view 21 Turf &concretepayersfordrives, fire route round bldg, bank iIli 14 Stepswith post supports 15 Stepswith flagstone&support blocks 22 p3004 eoo path wheelbarrow path Dimensions of paths j!l 2004 1,004400I 3004 orgarden doubieflagstone path 9OO—1 access path 107 Habitat Gardens: equipment 03000 350 x400 290 x490 410 x700 300 x800 2500 1150T 1200 800I 01000-1150 200 1 -5501 2 Metal foot scraper 3 Gardenchair&table(iffolding: top600x 1000, l00thickwhen Sunshade r 700 1800 1500 folded) 400—, 610 i 85o) J tolded1B5th Gardenchairs tOIded80th( 4 2000 5 6 Deckchair Hammock 8 Charcoal&gas portable barbecue 9 11 Gardencarts &wheelbarrow 12 Lawntnmmer Seedspreader 13 Walkingsprinkler 14 Lawnsprinklers C Ii'°j 15 Riding tractor 16 18 Reelmower Leafcollector ) 20 Sprayer 19 Garden tools 21 Hose reels 22 Motortiller 1000-1100 2 (240) 2 1800—2000 '420 23 Tennisracket 24 Toboggan,skis 25 Tricycle I 26 Bicycle 108 Habitat Gardens TREES,SHRUBS Trainedfruit -1 300-500 1200 P I wire canes T 2250 600 •eseaber 2 Pipe espalierframe 1 3 Framefordoubleespalier 4 Woodespalierfence Wall espalier I-41 T T ffrff[; 1-5004-500- 5 1-600-1 6 Uprightcordon 7 Doublecordon Palmettecordon6& 8branch 8 Chandeliercordon Tree planting —espaherwire 1270strap& 400 spacersecuredtotop ot stake&tree stem tree securedwith wire threadedthrough n43ber hoseto protect 4 -ì prevailing wind 5000 —I 9 Horizontalcordon twit, treeshape, stock crowned varieties planting interval standard apple appleon strong EMstock bait 10 Heavystandard 11 On exposedsite 12 Normalsituation appleon weak EMstock standard pear bush pear on pear stock bush pear on quince pear spindleon quince prevailingw*id —8 atandardcherry 1/2 standard cherry on Pmahaleb standard bitter cherry 1/2 standard cherry on Pmahaleb standard & bushplum 13 Onexposed hillside 14 Toformclose 15 Fruitbushes group bush apricot standard walnut hazelnutbush Shrubplanting clay lodredintotop 80-150 replaceescavatedsoil with town:25% spreadout rootsaway fromwall maId, 500 removeanyrubble toensuretree breakup sod: incorporatepeat & grit 16 inpoorsoil peachbush standard apricot ircoryodeecompost 17 Insandysoil drainage 18 Against wall gooseberry, red & white currant black currant gooseberry & currant cordon raspberry & upright blackberry rambling blackberry annual strawberry cultivation perennial strawberry cultivation inhouse garden &small- enclosedsite 10 x 10 6x 6 5x5 Sx 3.5x3.5 8*5 6x6 4.5*4.5 4*4 plant/ha 100 277—400 400—816 156 277 494 planting 8v 8 x 4x4 plant/ha 156 '' 400—625 x 3*3 7*7 625—1120 2.5*2.5 1120*1600 5x5 204 3x3 625—1120 10*10 100 6*6 6x6 277 277 5*5 7x7 5*5 5*5 400 4 v4 204—400 5x5 400 400 4*4 625 7 204—277 5 400 6*6 6x 6 8*8 5*5 156 5 x5 400 2.5 x 2.5 4x 4 70—100 Sx 8 3*3 625 2x2 2000—2500 2* 1.5 2 *2.5 1600 1.5 4444 1 2*0.5 10000 2 *05 2 *4 12*12 4*4 2x 2.5 2v 2 * 1.5 277—400 * 1.5 1250 2 >i 4 0.3*0.3 160000— 111 111 0.3 0.8 *0.3 66666— 41666 * 0.5 *0.3 0.25 0.25 625 1120 2500—3333 2000 6666 10000 * 0.25 0.25 160000— * 0.3 05 * 03 0.6* 0.3 111111 66666— 41666 19 Plantingdistances:affectedbysoil&moistureconditions, manuring, strengthofstock,variety& pruning, consequently greateror lessvariation from 'coefficients'possible;EM = EMailing Habitat 109 Gardens WATERSUPPLY rotaryspnnklerwith diaup to 12.0 Water essential for plant growth. If no mains (municipal) supply available trial holes should bedug to ascertain presence of water in soil. sprinklingcircles musi overtap sprinklerforbeds (arcovereddepends on pressure( reservoirfor handoperation • Shallowwells Sunk directly into water-bearing strata. Yieldlikelyto fall off in dry weather. 0 hand u4 Topreventcontaminationriskwell should be at least 10 m (15 m USA) fromanyseptictank orsewer well 1 2 Hand-operatedpumpdrawsup El-operatedpumpfeedswaterto pressurevesseluntil switchcuts out atapprox4atm; aftersome lossof water pumpstarts upagain at 2atm to7000d,pumpsupto 30m h; output/mm 40—801: forgreaterd largerpumpsneededwith suitably built deep-seatedsuctionvalves 3 Perrot' typesunkensprinkler: dug intolawn &centrallyoperated; coverage8000—10000 at 1.5—3.5 atm; capacity/hr0.5—1.0 m3/valve Reservoirs foamor clay flowerpot ofclayoroak main and constructed with water- tight lining(steining). Wells may be operated by hand —*(1)orelpump—v(2).Well house mustbe insulated, protected from frost and adequately ventilated if below ground. Recommended size: 2100 x 1500approx. Switch and fuse box sited above ground level. Reservoirs 4 Small pools may be constructed invariety ofways, depending upon site conditions and economics —v (4)—(8). 5 Waterproofing withclay, for wateringonly (notsuitablefor paddlingpools):thickclay covered with layers of soil &gravel Inexpensive gardenreservoir, incorporatingfelt, sheetingor continuoussealingwith 3—4layers ofhessianstuck withbitumen;in caseofimpermeablesub-soil pan should bewateredtodiminish pressureonseal •.J \.:.3iayers,,? 6 Reservoirwithclay asseal,lined withstones:suitableforflowerponds rendenng15thick rentorc L •te Overflowshould be incorporated —(1O)—(12); make provision for emptying by either submersible el pump orsiphoning —a(1 2). Bottom of poolshould be sloped tooutlet ifemptying tobe complete. Pool edges need concealing. Paving flags or coping more suitable for formal shaped pools — (7)—(12), and grass—v(4)(5), marsh plants orrocks forinformallayouts, accordingto ultimateeffect desired. consolclatedfoam Paddlingpools 7 8 Swimmingp001ofreinforced Reservoirwith brickbuilt banks concretewithdamp-proofrendering ormembrane;poolshould be emptiedinwintertoavoidfrost damage;also —vpl14 9 Marsh&water plant reservoir, showingvariedcombinationof differentplants: notsuitableforhard water;also—npl 13 Waterlily &fishpools —p113 Emptying Irrigation vent opening it Recommended depth for children foradults; for 200—400,800—1000 swimming pools —api 14. removable air ::::: overflow :::::. outlet 10 Overflow&outletwith plugs Overflow&outlet pipe combined 11 12 Floatingel pump;further emptyingbysimplesiphoning Simplest form consists of series of channels flooded with water —a(13). Drains needed to remove surpluswater—a(13)—(16). Overhead watering bymeans of line or rotary sprinklers more efficient. Rate at which water delivered should be sufficient for soil absorption withoutforming puddles on surface. Drainage — 1n -- — — :: contour lines drain fascine conuiexion ofirrigation pipewith thannel 13 Drainageplan 14 Open ditchwith wattle 15 Coveredwattle ditchwith sand bottom 16 Coveredditchwith flagstones&rubble I 110 Habitat Gardens Gardensfordisabled Heightof raised bed suitable forwheelchair user 600 (must have knee space underneath —v(3)); for ambulant disabled approx 860 —v(4): varies according to individual heightand physicalstate. Forsome elderly and handicapped outdoor gardening difficult; indoor garden can be designedsuit special needs—v(2)p112. Restrict widthof beds to 1200sothat workeasily carried outfromeither side to cover whole area; comfortable total reach forward 750—965. Surround bed with hard paving—v(1). Important provide convenient supplies (eg water), sb and controls whichmake lifting and stooping unnecessary; rolling cart ortrolleycan eliminate muchlifting and carrying. Roofgardensalso —p112 Provide background of screens, walls etcto protect plants fromeffects ofhighwinds. Tofacilitate drainagefinished surfaceofsupporting roofstructureshould be laid tofalls—v(5). Rockgardens Undulating site with SE or SWaspect ideal. Simulate life-size outcrop (not mountain range in miniature) linked by irregular-shaped areas of stonechippings, alpine lawn orgrass. When placing rocks first select 1 or2 specimens, mm 500 kg, for key positions. Build up nucleus of rocks 250—500 kg round them. Place smallerrocks 150—200 kg towards perimeter—v(6)(7). Floodlit landscape features To highlight foliage floodlights mounted on lower branchesof tree and lightbeam projected upwards through foliage —v(9). Iflight-source canbeconcealed floodlights maybepositioned atbase of tree and beam projected verticallytoilluminatefull heightoftree—v(8b). Light source placed somedistance away fromtree where foliage used as illuminated background and details unseen —u(8a). Sculpture may require only singlefloodlight butisenhancedbysubdued lightingin surrounding areato give impression of reflected light. individualrockslaid lifting singhtiybackwardsto aiiowrainwater totnckla overplants rocksgroupedtogethermust havetheirstratarunningin direction&observe sarne naturalmarkings Raisedgardenfordisabledgardener—+(3) 1 a [ 1220 584 stainless drawers [ stainlesssteel planttos r1[5t°JJ b 51 window roll-outbini I 'I 2590 vent stratamusttoiiow that occurnngin quarrybed -- — Positioningofrocks& method ofbedding 6 t3 — — spread25 dia drippingsalter no manureortertiliserlobe incorporatedintopsoil planting 7 coarseshingle - 4.. —50—ltodna formationlevellaidtofails totacilrtatedrainage . Construction of bed ofrockgarden 2 Stand-upgardenplan a &elevation hand,roll-out bin forfetchingsupplies bwith water, supplies,eqp closeat rocksliabletotopple itsettooshallow a —.. wheretheretsan obstruction,eg stream. ffoodftghtpositionedsome 'Uistariceaway -. — —— b 8 afloodlit landscape feature blightsourcebelowtree b oos . on . lowerbranchestoproject beamoflightupwards positionedat pointwherecascadestnkes water &hewn projected upwardssothatftcatches eachdropletofwater - 4 Raisedplantingbed for wheelchairuser 3 trees ____________ Stand-upgardensection shrubs 1= glassftbrequill 9 a alightsourcelocatedwithintree bfloodlighting waterfall •. / •1 600 peat 25 _______________ gravel 5 t topsOit .t ________ 150 254 Roofgardenconstruction Pest1 gravel grass io peatLi1 1 ifI b t light beaniof light positionedparallel todirectionofwater projected jet . . toosoni jet —— gravel 10 afloodlitfountain bunderwater floodlighting submerged beamdirected hilydownwards into pooi Habitat 111 Gardens : T ii 1200-1800. 1 Smalltent in 2sections 2 Largertent in8sectionswith2 end sheets 4 aFree-standingworkcentreasdecorativescreen bworkcentreattached togarorhousewall, closedwith hingedglazed panel; sto bins underpotting 3 Housetent 5 Open shed 6 Open shed withroof &toolsto containingprivy bench "S r. — for ___sc--dOor weather -. protection /\canopy onokung 5000 3750 3750 7 Similar to 6butwithsolid separatetoolsto & parapetsto Enclosedshedtosleep 1 GARDEN STRUCTURES 9 Enclosedshed to sleep3,with separatecookingspace Not usually rated as bldg or considered as permanent living accn unless continually occupied or providespace used for business purposes. fflhing N l50 30011 Compost sto 12 Should not be sited nearer than 1 800 to site boundary or bldg on same site, unless boat-house structure and waterway boundary. USA:check setback requirements in local zoning ordnance. a' '80/80 10 Peat privy(dry) Tents & sheds 1000 1500 1000 2000 Frame Barbecues —p77 107(8) Glasshouses & frames Specifyglasshouses according to type and width. Lengthadapted tosuit conditions. RoofridgesitedN-S.Framesface S. 4)built fromground level and often transferred to another plot aftercropping. Other typesmay be seton dwarf wall. Glass usually680g. Heavierweight 906gorplastics sometimes used. Dutch-light—÷(1 13 Smallgreenhouse 14 Dutchlights 15 Hothouse againstwall Temp ofunheatedglasshousesand frames 5—7°C, heated 12—15°C. Ventilation essential. Specify adequate numberofvents. Hot or cold bed frame lights—*(12) may be setonsliding tracks, completely removable orraisedforventilation. 112 Habitat Gardens INDOORGARDENS Indoor gardens lend adjacent rm spacious feeling: plants freshen air, add hum, provide hobby, educate children. Ideal orientation in most climates for most plants StoSE. Nto NEdaylight should beaugmented by special plant lights. W sun difficult control. Plan artifical lighting not only for plants' welfare but in relation adjoining rm. Studies showcool whitefluorescents provide many characteristicsneeded byplants: also availablespecialised plant lights with greater rangebenefits. Idealheating and coolingforplants verylowvelocity airsystem: othersystems can be adapted. ROOFGARDENS-p88 Consider shade from nearby bldg, wind and smog when choosing location and plantsfor roof garden. Weight ofsoil factor in roof garden design (0.03 m3av soil equals 36kg).Ifquestion of structuralstrengthof roofconsider hydroponic gardening using lightweightholding medium suchasperlite orvermiculite. Desirablesetplants inplanters orhanging baskets ratherthanbedsforease ofplant replacementaswellasweight considerations. Planters may beofwood, pottery or reinforced plastics. Shade tolerantplants could include fuchsias, begonias, hardy ferns, impatiens, azaleas.Smog tolerant plants include ivy, oleander, azaleas, ginkgo, camellia, privet. Wind tolerant plants: holly, ivy, boxwood, euonymus (should be started as small plants tobuildup resistance). Corr gardenplan 1 13 type condensationgutter window stool / glassH slatefloor cill asbestos board 38sawedwoodcap sect,00s 1152c/c radiation _J9re (L. gardenconstructed ?t:z c3r" 28ã : 150stepOsrrs withstaved5Qx lOOsides I \ if gods 1—SlOradius—--f 50 50 topsoil groundlevel brokenbrick 50 20 plywood 5 concrete wall 914 \ vermiculite& gravel Entrygardensection hold,,,g mediums \ galvan isedwashtub asphaltcoaledins,de 305clay potwith fitting stainlessfood strainer forpeastone 8 Methodofcontainerisedhydroponicgardening 2 Sectionthroughcorrgarden Li flnr fixed glass p I..-grill slate So Icopper 6 Entry gardenplan step carpet liv 3 infloor overradr Add-ongardenplan liv fixed glass • • - \ 4 . framing insulati 50 x 150 CIII 100 concretesIab,, 255 concrete p 100 gravel wall 50 concreteblock compactedearth Add-ongardensection 7 Roofdeckoutdoorrm; roof surfaceprotectedfrom foot damage bypreservativestreatedwood floor; design usestypicalapartmenthouse penthouseaspartofplan ArchEH &M KHunter Habitat 113 Gardens WATER LILY, FISHPOOLS -. 1 liiterplate 2 liitertray 36pipefittings 4 pumpfittings 5 underwaterpump . 6 6ppefltfings 7 hosetowaterlajl , 8 cablewith groundwire H hoseconnexiontopump G fiitermat&gravel I —-— — ,-.,_h, 7 0 86 water lev 355 Can be formal or natural in shape. Pre-fabricated pools usually glass fibre or other plastics. Built-inpools reinforced concrete, using rather dry concrete mix 127—152 thick, placed in wooden form or shaped excavation in firm soil linedwith vinylplastics before pouring concrete. Pools must be sitedfor max sun, high enough ensure ground water not enterpool in heavy rain, near watersupply ifnoautomatic supply. Depth waternot less than 355 sothatwaterlilies may be planted in boxes for ease of removal. Provide overflow pipe, removable fordraining. 3 H 2 1 Filtersysteminstalledin pre-fabricated glassfibre pool II I 111)'ImII tog sir wa ovens dEan 4 Natural' poolwith waterfall 5 Smallpool &outdoordiningar next k Arch Stedman&Williams 2 Garden arlargelydevotedto fish & lily pool boiteo.t spilipan todeck _i chemical characteristics chlorine gas lowers pH sterilisingagent: formof chlorinewhich canbefed into waterin continuousdoses, inexpensivebut highlyacid &toxic: needs specialhandling,automaticfeeder. constantalkalineadjustment sodium hypochlorite raises pH sterilisingagent: popularchlorineformwith high chlorine content; dispersesquickly when addedto waterwith no residueto makewater harder;inexpensivebut needs carefulhandlingavoid splash,damageto clothes;tends deterioratestoredtoolong; needsfrequentpH adjustment;dispersesfast in sunlight calcium hypochlorite raises pH sterilisingagent: effectivealgaekiller, speciallyfor treatingclinging algae;inexpensive;storeswell;but dissolves slowly,leavingresidueunlessplacedin basket orbag inwater; can causecloudiness& builds uphardnessinwater iso-cyanurates noeffect onpH sterilisingagents: dissolvecompletely,giving consistent, highresidual; need less acidcompensation than other forms; easy to use but costmorebecause mustbeusedwith conditioner;needspecial kitfor periodic check of conditionlevel bromine lowers pH sterilisingagent: canbeused insemi-automatic distributionsystem but is expensive,corrosive,toxic, difficult handle;less effectivethan chlorine iodine lowerspH sterilisingagent: stable,odour-freebutless activethan bromine;does not causepHfluctuation;easyto use but expensive;can turnwater green;difficult test for residual; lesseffectivethan chlorine sodium bicarbonate raises pH correctsalkalinity: recommendedformakingextensive adjustmentsin alkalinity;long lasting;easyuse; inexpensivebut slower actingthan sodium carbonate sodium carbonate (soda ash) raises pH correctspH: effective,quick acting, storeswell; inexpensivebuthas relativelyshort life inwater;must bepre-mixed sodium bisulphate lowers pH correctsPH: generallyconsideredbest ofdryacids; easier store than liquids; good forsmallpools needing small quanfitiesbut has to be pre-mixedand needs careful handling muriatic acid lowers pH regulatespH&alkalinity:readilyavailable;mostpopular pHadjuster;stores well;needsnopre-mixing but canbe very damagingto pool ifnot used properly;needs careful handlingprevent splashon user; smallamounts can cause significantpHchange '13flow iine frompump %4 d13m wiremost, .1 3 - .-.• _____________________________ '.. -:.. l9drainiine'< - ' Plumbing& pumpingsystems •. - 6 Guidetocommonpoolchemicals I 114 Habitat Gardenswimmingpools Siting Protected from wind, close to rest rm (for use on cool days), withinviewof kitchen (children in sight) and living rm (foroperationofautomatic gate) ie within field of vision. No deciduous treesorshrubs bypool to avoid leavesdropping: provide means of preventing grass etc from falling intowater; possibly raisedcoping (design decision). 2250( smallest1 .bnepool (2swimmingstrokes, —4250—I 1/1.2P( medium-sizepool(3-4 strokes. smallest size 2/4-5P). permittingstartdivehornend 2 Layoutdiagram 1 Poolsizes Size 3 Depth ofwater Width 2250. Length ofswimming strokeapprox 1 500plusbody lengtn: 4strokes = 8000length. Depth of water to chin height, of mother not children. Difference between height of pool and water level —v(3) depends on skimming method adopted. Shape Simple as possible for reasons of cost and water circulation (—abelow: maintenance). Rectangular but with ladder or steps in corner. Circular pool shapealso economicalwith welded steelplateconstruction. Constructionmethods Foil pool basin (foil = sealed outersurface) on Layoutoftechnical installationsforfullyequipped swimmingpool Deckatlevel of pavingconcealsfiltereqp &heaterbelow DesignArmstrong&Sharfman 6 exhaust prpes skimmer prevailing wind sluice -auxiliaryfloor S1JCbOfl pump/outflow supporting structure of masonry, concrete or steel (including above ground) or in excavated pit. Basinsmade of polyesterorglassfibre reinforced plastics, rarely erected on site, normally prefabricated; in general not self-supporting, backfilling of lean concrete necessary. Waterproof concrete basins (on-site concrete double shells, cement-gun concrete single shells, prefabricated concrete components). Surface liningof pool usually ceramic mosaic, less often coated (chlorinated rubber or dyed cement)or cemented plastics sheeting. Pool maintenance Usually kept clean by means of recirculation system —*(4): surface circulation —v(5), with surface water kept clean by effective surface skimmersor preferably sluices. Types offilter: feed:nozzles abovepipes below gravel or sand (bottom filters, some with scavenger blower), diatomaceousearth (surface filter), plastics foam. 5 Simple longitudinalflow with suctionpipes 7 Perimeterfenceatpropertylineprovides safety&background for plant materials,shelter Additional algae control by means ofchemicals (chlorine, chlorine-free alginic agents, copper sulphate). Common pool chemicals —spi 13(6). Water cleaning also—vp337 concretedeck Heating By counter-current device or continuous-flow heater in boilerorsolarcollecting system. This prolongs bathing seasonfor moderateadditional outlay. In some places system using thermal heateconomical. plantingbed 50 deepscupper 8 Scupperkeepschlorinatedwater outof plantingbeds Section showingwater dfor6100 x 12.2 poolwith springboard 9 suIt-priming punlp&rrloto- returnline lioej vacuum titting inlets steps mainsuction line maindrain, 5fli ____________ frnertine) / 10 Plumbingsystemfor sand orpressure diatomaceousearthfilter with linesfrommain drain, skimmer&vacuumconvergingon1 point (notevalves)before entering pump&filter deependfitting flfler IIconcreteslab/ hlter heatrn valve__________________ 1vacUUm returnline heater With skimfilter all linesdrainintoskimmer; water filteredthen drawnintopumpforreturn topool: pump& motorusuallyplaced within 15.0of pool 11 Preferably not onlythrough fencing off pool but by providing pool coverorself-operating alarm signal system (triggered offbywave formation). Protectionagainstfreezing pump&matOr unit on slab va&iurn Safetymeasures forchildren With rigid pools by insertion of edge beams, heating or anti-frost outflow system. Do not emptyinwinter. Open air pools also —vp333 Habitat 115 Private indoor pools water I I 70—j- temp reiativeairh a %t reiativeair hum 60% I 70% temp inuse 2WCI26Cair2RC 3Ci 28'C R R R itiö4 R iti Ii -•- M 2191 193 143 50 —, 67 2 0 M 2941269 218 1631 143 20_LI M 378' 353 10-b0+10+20 M 395 3391 320 temp difference.4Kwater/airnottobe maintainedtorany lengthoftime +30+40 air &watertemp —10 Evaporationlimitincoveredpool; topline: Poolinoperation,bottom line: instate of rest; example: water tempto = 27°C,evaporation limit: in use36mbar (=30°C184% hum), resting28 mbar(=30°C/65% hum) 1 311 36 2471 227 811 89 66 302 123 2 Specificvolumeofevaporation in covered pool(g/m3h)instateof rest (A) &with max use(M) Standard I Watertemp26—27°, airtemp30—31 °/60—70% relativehum;maxairflow 0.25mIs; waterevaporation 16gIm3hr(stateofrest)tomax 204 g/m3hr with pool inuse. Main problem airhum: water evaporates from pool until cD evaporation limit reached —+(1)(2). In state of rest evaporation stops even in low temp range, as saturated 'boundary layer' of water vapour remains overpool: pool should therefore not be 'blown at'with ventilation air. Expensive dehumidify pool house byventilation (though essential, below); with hum at level ofup to70°even small thermal bridge can cause structural damage inveryshorttime. Construction Most common formfully insulated hanger-type bldg suitable for winter use (Km max 0.73); less frequent form, uninsulated 'summer' pool house (can also be ofkindwhichcan be dismantled). Semi-retractable roof and othersliding parts make possible openpool house during fine weather, so can be used as open-air pool (all weather pool); however, this causes problems overthermal bridges. size—+(4); as part ofpool house, in annexes if necessary: wc, sho, spacefor mm 2 deckchairs. Width of pool surround depends on wall surfacearea (heightofsplashing—u(6)); accessiblepassage round pool belowfloor level control leaks,full provision forleads and air ducts. Mm i—2 —l 500 Location Incorrelation with: agarden (ideal 'covered pool'open-air)and shallow ___I 6counter-current system 4 Smallestsize pool surround 400 1250 I- t5O § § heavysplashing torwindowcleaning 1+— 8000 ——-4 625 1000 Standarddimensionsofcovered pool 5 6 2000 Distancefrompoint of origin circulatingair 1 suspended 2 3 4 pool :u5t ceihng I feet-washing troughs: b master bedr (withpabathr perhaps to beused for showering); cliving rm: allocate 10 m2 ofplant rmfor boiler. Auxiliary areas forrest, galley, bar, massage,keep-fitapparatus,sauna —epi 17, hot whirlpool (massageat40°C). Equipment Mech eqp and installations: water treatment with filter plant, steriliser dosing system, splash water trap (approx 3 m3), water softner(from) waterhardness 7°dH), athlete's foot spray (particularly iffloorcarpeted round pool); ventilation system with either fresh air or secondary air —*(7) with ducts in ceiling and in floor, or simple ventilation box and extractor (air flow not too fast, otherwise risk of draught); heating by radiators, convector heaters or warm-air heating, combined with airconditioning, possibly solar collector system. Underfloor heating as extracomfort: only practicable with floor insulation k greater than 0.7 and surfacetempless than 29°C. Energy saving bymeans ofheat pump (cost depends onthat ofcurrent) or heat recovery heat-exchangerinair-conditioningplant, or bycovering pool (rollerblindor covering stage), or by raising airtemp in between use (temp regulation byaquastat). Effective saving of30% total heating requirement. Other installation and eqp: starting block, underwater light (as safety element), reverse current installation, chute, solarium; diving boards require appropriate pool depth, and height of pool house. Sound protection (sound-absorbent roof, noise-dampingwith air-conditioningplant (white sound), protection against structure-borne sound in pool basin itself). Technical specifications In principle only corrosion-proof materials: pot-galvanised (hot dip) steel, corrosion-proof aluminium, no plaster, timber open-pore glazed. Heatinsulation km, max 0.73 kcal/m2hr k. mixing reguiator pump —l 1 mixingchamber 3 heat exchanger 7 Bottom-topventilationwith mech plant forwindowheating rçr circulatingair hash air topool Layoutforheatingplant chamber exchanger condenser water 2 airintake 4 airextractor Layoutofventilationplant standardi standard Iexhaust Ilair w 122 177 244 323 330 427 533 regulator I3 mixing heat 9 8 2 airintake 4 aireutractor 10 Airstructurewithaircompressor, pliantmulti-layeredcanopy&airlock 1 stress-reliefdesign 2cablesystem 3skylight topviewshowing doublecable system 4anchorsystem 5lightingsystem 6 HVACsystems 7 inflation systems 8airlock 9revolving doors 10emergency doors 11 transparent plasticswindows mm 12.2 177 244 323 330 33.0 1280 max hal centre 550 61 800 88 1100 100 1450 122 1620 12.2 2620 15.2 2620 20.0 116 Habitat Private indoor pools Poolbasinsmainly reinforced concrete, in separatelayers. Expansion iointsnot necessary with lengths under12 m. Important: ground-water equalising valveessential to prevent damagetobasin. Lining: ceramic, glass mosaic orpaint onsingle layer ofwaterproofconcrete orpolyester, pvc film mm 1.5 thick assealing. Include in design skimmer orpreferably overflowgully,bottominlet, counter-current system, underwater floodlight, and build in with sealing flanges. Plastics pool basins, because of below level floor access surround, only possible in exceptional circumstances orwithspecial structural reinforcement. Floorlining:ceramic material orstone (must slope forwatertorun oft): recently also water permeablecarpet(so savingneedfor sound-absorbent covering). Provide forkeeping outwaterfromunderneath liningand for sprays against athlete's foot. Floor heating pleasant addition but not essential. Walls: surface lining material must be damp-resistant and unaffected bysplashing. Airconditioning essential. Hotelswimming pools: basinof60m2normally sufficient.Exceptions: irregular periodsof use, wintersports hotels. Important: generous rest area, deck chairs, holiday atmosphere, bar, keep-fit apparatus,sauna, direct communication between hotel rm and pool bldg (elevator or separate staircase); not many changing cubicles needed but clothes lockerswith samelocks ashotelbedr. Bath attendant usually required. Extension of use throughout summer bymeans ofadditionalopen-air pooland connectingchannelforswimmers (sun bathing lawns). 1 Poolrooted over with alurniniurn framedacrylic plastIcs dome Indoor pools also —p329—32;changing rm —÷p335—6 mm recommend arratio 25 mardeckar(ratio) ir (arofpool) 2.0 0 15 10 0.5 I 0 93 1á6 279 372 465 558 6O arofpool in') 73 86 99 ld2t) 1 15 4 Ratio ofdeckspacetopoolarea forindoor&outdoorpools 2 Woodframedpool enclosure with hatcentrefordiving 5 Layoutforcovered pool 3 asupportingframeworkofdoublemetal archesspans18—36 m risingto 7.4—12.3 m; pliantmulti-layeredcanopyprovidestension-stressed structure b squaredomed structurewithsupportingframework of4 metal1/2-arch sections arranged6.0—25.0 rn/side;canopyoftension-stressed pliantmuttilayeredmembrane Habitat 117 Saunas Sauna more than body bath: formany also method ofmental cleansing. In Finland 1 sauna/6 P; used 1/week. Bathing process: alternate applicationof hot and coldair, sweating in dry hot air, hot clean gusts of water vapour at 5—7 minute intervals by pouring on 1/4 Iwater. Can besupplementedwfth intermediateapplication of cold water, followed by massageand rest. Construction: usually blocks ortimber: good heat insulationnecessary for enclosingwalls since heat difference between inside and outside canoftenbe more than 1000in winter. 1300 Saunawith lobby1,changingrrn2,bathr3,benches 4—op338(4—7),water tank 5, bathstove 6 1 Bathing area small as possible, 16 m2 2500 high. Dark wooden liningtoreduceheatradiation onceiling and walls orsolid woodenwalls of softwood,except forstove area. Plankbeds of lattice (air circulation) atvarious heights forcomfortable sitting and lying, topbed approx 1 000 below ceiling. Plank beds demountable forcleaning, floors of gripping material, no wood frames. Smokesauna: layeredstones heated tohigh tempbywood fire, smoke beingsparingly drawn offthrough opendoor. When stones glowing fire removed, remaining smoke driven off by waterand door closed. After short time sauna 'ripe' for bathing. Good smell of smoked wood and reliable vapour quality. 50% traditional Finnishsaunasbuiltthisway. Fumigating sauna:after heating with smoke removal, 'heated inwards' when stove bricks heated to about 500°C. Combustible gases burn out completely withoutcausing soot. Stove doors then closed even if still flames ingrate. Temp quickly risesby 10—20°C. Lastcarbon fogremoved before bathing by quickly opening door etcand ladle ofwatersplashed over stones. 2 Saunawith lobbybetweenbathr1—6,& changing mi7 Chimney sauna: brickstove clad in jacket of stone ortin sheet which guides smoke and gases to chimney. Heating by tire door to bathr or lobby. When stones hotfiredoor closed and upperairflap instove jacket openedwhen required to let out hotairor pour water on stones. City sauna: with special el heater; heat regulation ofel heated stones with pressbutton. Tenip: at ceiling 95°Cdropping by 60°Cdown tofloor. Relativehumidity: 5% or10% at90°or80°C: 100—120°C also possible ifsufficiently low airhum.Sweat thenevaporates immediately. Shower orwaterrm: where possible separated forinitial washing and watercooling, 11/2—twice sizeof sauna area, withoutwood if possible. Hip bath worthwhile 1000x 1000, 1100deep. Air bath: for breathing in cool freshair to balance hot air, cooling of body. Protect against peeping. Shower, spray and cold water basin desirable. If noopenairbath possible, then wellventilated area. Changing: openrm orcabins, twice as many asvisitors at peak times (public sauna) —p338. Rest rm: rest benches functional area. 3 Largersaunawithlobby1,changingmi2, bathrplatform3, withstove4,& massagemiwithwater boiler5 massagebench6, water basin7 _______________________________________________________ Saunawith bathr 1, massage&washr2, changingrrn3, veranda 4, wood sto 5, cpd 6, bath stove 7, waterboiler8, &watersupply9 4 for half guests in sauna area, remote from Massagerm: allow for30 persons, 2 massagepoints (public sauna). Detailsconstruction & eqp public sauna—+p338 Garden references: .—oBibliography entries 002 021 032066 087 155 161166167 171 263 264320376410411 430 431 466482550562 563 Z 118 Community Schools PRINCIPLES —— Since each countryhas its own tradition of school provision, governed byeducationaland economiccircumstances,notpossiblegive universally applicable data forschool design. Informationgiven largely derived from experience in England and Wales, but presented so faras possible in terms ofwidelyapplicable principles. These apply both to new schools and toadaptationofexisting ones, to industrialand totraditionalmethods ofconstruction. water climbing steps seats 4frotectiorr protection In last generation school planning hasevolved in response tochanging teaching methods and school organisation. Curricula have become increasingly diversified to meet needs of individual pupils; whole educational process more active and interrelated between its many aspects. Classrm and independent special subject rm no longer sole ingredients school design, particularly for younger and middle age ranges. Ageranges forwhich schoolsdesigned vary widely indifferentcountries: compulsory schooling may start at5,6or7years,and end at12upto 16 years, with correspondingly different interpretations of pre-school, primaryand secondary stages. These can usefully be studied in 3 age ranges: younger, approx 3—8years; middle, approx 8—13 years; older, approx13—18 years. Regulations I For UK DES reg (—vBib2l3) lay down mm standardsfor playing fields, Planningingredients: underfives 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 tablework:eq usingmateiisls& ob$ctanotmakingmuchmess ring:eqbaneplay,camping,shops, hospitals music:eqeaploringsoundsindledusty,singing&dancingtogether messy:eq usingclay,water,sand quietwork:eq lookingatbooks, writing,resting.storyteting moving:eq climbing,swinging,p.inpng, rolling construction:eq buildingwithblocks,small& largescale, undertakings such as engines,boats,houses [F5I unila0 screen: itablework eqtableslorsitling' andstandinground localsto&display 2 acting le eaplsy[J. tr frolleYtey traycart - 5 quiet eq benchseats easycltair -' v?s - :t fJscmen she8 n— bench boaea eq screens local 'properties'clothestrolley 3 music indhoduals large trolls'1' &smellgroups e'Ling wcekaurtscea-' to b1 tables work fightbenches sk easels local sto sand/watertrolley 2 benchC genemL-,.10 service localsto ri 48 bert, ' - bin bed n Schoolfurniture—vpl 19130—3 Boarding schools—+pl 27—8 YOUNGERAGE RANGE: NURSERYLEVEL For pupils of pre-school age, in nursery schools and kindergartens, learning process combines work and play. For main ingredients ot planning, bothforindoorsand outdoors (which should beconnected by covered areas to provide shade and shelter) —v(1). 6 movingclimbing rostra eq display lowdisplayshelves lowcpd booktroeey sites, sanitaryfittings and prescribeprovisionofsuitableaccnforchanging rm, do, lavatories, meals, med, staff. Reg are supplemented byadvisory publications. In USA referto state and local codes. ct5jlow nO rostm cpd °bo Cfl\ stacking trolleys sand/cubes waler trolley 0 eq clearspace hieght suspensionfront ceiling 1r L., — iF ' 8 7 7 construction eqlocallowsto rostra&cubes bldgblocks 3 -t toveranda Activityzones: youngerchildren lose 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 sandpit high low ladder house stO cupressus mound 10 swing 11 12 13 14 15 3 Nurseryunitonsite ofassociatedprimaryschool,built in 1972for60th from3—5years with2qualifiedteachers&3assistants: 30fulltime, 30 morningsonly,30aftemoons(iegoonroll);play ar,carpeted/tiled, opento verandaleadingtowalled playcourtwithviewsoutbutenclosed forsafety shoe frame weepingash pots roses t6 boat 17 coveredar 18 roses 19 up 20 cotoneaster 21 tltorn 22 radioetc 23sk 24 tym 25 pets 26 roses 27 tlaps 28 waler 29 screen 30 logs 31 20P 32 raisedarsto under 33 paints 34 send 35 tolding house 36 send 37 38 39 40 tlaps 20P books rootlight 41 staff 42 torsythia 43 mbbish 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 shed piano milk coats display hatch St sty 52 med 53 music 54 tOPhandicapped 55 56 57 my willow birds Community j ingredientsof localcentres Schools NURSERYLEVEL Workandplayofveryyoung children can be divided roughly intoabout 7 categories —(2). Indoors definition of zones mainly byarrangement of furniture, but appropriate surfaces important eg for messy work (clay, water etc) and for quiet work. Height also important for moving and climbing. Pre-school accnmay be found as unit of school —e(3) or as sharedar outdoors schoolsite i L schoolbldg schoolneighbourhood horsebase 119 separate nursery school —t.(4). EARLYSCHOOL In earliest years of compulsory school definition of spaces probably reliesmoreon architecturalplanning: can beconsidered in3categories: F 00000 L— 7'i1 parhcularbays I general work ar garden [_c:? y grass ar LJ B hardplayar enclosed — EE I - Ohht& coveredwork ar adventure&discovery ingredients of localcentres, shared areasindoors,sharedareasoutdoors. Design ofoutside as place forworkand play continues important —+(1). Working groupsvary considerablyin size and may change fromhour to hour as pattern ofworkchanges. Ingredients of 'local centres' can beassembled into centres ofvarying sizes and types according size and age range of school —e(2): homebase, space forallpupils forwhom 1 teacher responsibletobetogether, not necessarily attables and chairs; enclosed rmforquietconcentration or noisyactivitysuchas music-making; particular bays where special eqp, egsink or cooker, can be installed and independent projects can be pursued with continuity bysmall groups; general workarea, uncommitted space in which furniture can be arranged respond different needs; covered workarea, toextend rangeofworkbyprovidingsheltered transition between inside and outside. Change fromstandard classr planning to planning in terms of centres can be seen in adaptationofolderschool —e(3)(4) and onedesigned on new principles —api20(1 ab). Youngerage rangear01work [H IHiI E ULEJT II UL;1! FE1 L[1I1 1 Hj rEl r1JflLEJflLfl HjII1 orginplan1931 23 2 Diagrammaticexamplesoflocal centreseach for2teachersworking incollaboration:Hhomebase, P particularbay,Ggeneralwork, Eenclosedrm, Vcoveredworkar 45678 classr boys 0 5m 0 1 2 homebase smallgroup rm Sb 3 cot 4 bin blocks 6 up 7 costs 8 plants 9 cpd 10 books 5 11 racks 12 sto 13 vinylfloor 14 trays 23 24 15 16 25 26 27 28 29 30 rostra SI t7 homebase2. smallgrouprm 18 19 20 shelves ck sand 2t birisunder 22 bookdisplay pe store displayon corrugated 31 5 10 15 20 m 16 32, 48 168 1 girls plants displayshelves picture models rug recordplayer& cabinet recordplxyer& speaker 32 pampasgrass 33 displayof bottlesetc 34 climbingIrarne 35 displayof gardentools& 36 37 38 39 40 plants piano 64 ft 3 Conversionin 1976of 1931 schoolbuilt tostandard classrplanning; as reorganisedthere are 3centresfor60P&teachers,with corrfurnishedas additionalwork,reference&displayspace; ha&drshownhatchedareshared byall,nursery unitadded drums xylophone screen Detailof centreBfrom (3); furniture&fixtureshavebeenarranged give adaptedbldg greaterflexiblity 4 120 Community Schools in primary schooldesign —*(2):inclusion of nursery unitas integral part of design yetwith degree ofindependence; contribution of money (and RURALSCHOOLS therefore space) fromsources outside education service (here about 1/3 of total cost) so as to offer wider social service, both forschool and for adultcommunity, than could be provided independently. Modemisationofruralschools hasreceivedwidespreadattentionbecause manyofsmallest have fallen behind standards oftheirnewer suburban counterparts, being economically hard to sustain. For2 general trends —'Bib2l5 AREAS NET 8560Cm2 3.56m2/Pat24OP 4.53rn2/Pat189P 163.62rn2 3—Syr 2.73m2fPat60 p WORKING 612.66m2(72%otnet area) 2.55rn2/Pat24OP 5—7yr 324rn2/Pat189P 5—7yr 3—Syr key 1 centre C 2 mc 3 cia 4 base2 5 6 7 8 9 10 it 12 13 14 15 16 17 stO k ha base3 basel head books stall cafe centreB narsery LIlY centreA 140.0Cm2 230rn2/Pat6CR analysisofar teathrig 72.3% —.. Ia2.55 m2/Pat240P teacttingsto 1.9 Psto&aan 5.7 k 7.4 amiki ersetc circulation totalar 10 F 301t 6.9 1 42 100.0% 5 sk 5 sb 7 do key 16 is3.56rn2/Pat24OP a 2 3 4 aeranda practical 8 9 wc 10 base k grouprm 11 12 13 14 court ha lb books cate stall 16 sty 16 17 18 19 20 birchtrees homebase2 homebase1 ptr meetingrm parm toplaygarden cherrytrees las & sho head I a Diagram b planofinfants & nursery schoolopenedin 1979for240 P 5—7years with nurseryunitfor60; 3 centres, A& Beachforupto70 Pwith2 teachers,Cforupto 100 Pwith3teachers; hatchedarsharedby allPof5—7 9 key 1 2 In aWelshcountrydisrict5schoolswithinradiusabout2.51cm,withtotal newschoolforl2ochof3—11years,with enrolment99P,replacedl9l6byl 2local centreseachforupto50 P&2teachers&nurseryunit; outside: pre-schoolgarden,play ar,footballpitch& illuminated hard-surfaced games arforyouthclubs &adults 2 3 4 5 6 mc& cia homebase3 harnebase4 ha aerasda tanksseer sb t torn 9 3015 7 8 9 sb sk sharedrm 10 cleresiory 11 12 13 14 15 toplayground ramp bins k med 2t 22 23 24 lo Community 121 Schools MIDDLEAGERANGE In middle age range, as curriculum becomes more diversified, workin local centres increasinglysupplemented byworkinofher spacesshared by everyone, indoors and outdoors, where scopeof workcan develop and deepen—v(1). Designs forsuchdivision ofworkshown by2 schools —*(2)(3)(4),each of which has centres grouped round common areas (hatched). 64.6% P H H - H H i v HI FJJ 10 H/E fllV"I cj 100.0% 1e4.07m'/Pat400P [ paved 6 1 ,graaaplayar supplementary by flahared by4centrea 8m Lcentmj A 6. court .,i 24 ft I ,j1'arsharedby .c jfickn14j . centresA&B I planotcenste 17574rn2 1 79m2/Pat loop tA 'In 1 i r' nh JIJt bane3 ba baae2 Middleage rangeschoolwith4centres& arofcommonuse (hafched); more detailedplan of centrearisshown drama&pe teaching teachingsIn dining P HH4 [ // < hardplayar , t 1[Jfl rurelscience ODC)C' badstudies Diagramofarofworkrormiddleage range schools Palo& san admin circulation totalar analysisofar ar/P(at420P) 5.8n91 atm2 . b5OW1is I 'It 24 [ U] schoolnieghbourttood •! ft red. Es _6 l2,l8 supplementary crafts& science sapplementary manic H homebsae P particolarbay 0 generalworkar E oaedmt v coveredwodran 5OOlb1d tlP3Pm 326496 c hollersetc circulation total ares achoolsite L 'ii keyplan centred centre 0 ..,. re2.63m2/Pet400P admun sharedar outdoors sharedar indoors local centre teaching teachingsIn Palo&san netar-j worldngar totalar 2438 n,2( t3tOm2 shared year 1 cettr netar . workingar I s— studioworlrehop 3 4 Diagramoforganisation&furnishedplan of schoolfor420 Pof9—13yearsopenedwith 4 centresforapprox105P, supervised by3teachers (otherteachersbeing also involvedintheir work) 122 Community Schools MIDDLEAGE RANGE Local centresnotalways planned asdetined spaces. Another practiceis toprovideflexibility bymeans ofuniform spacesub-divisible byscreens and panels, rather than variety of spaces fordifferent kinds ofworkand grouping of pupils. These 2 approaches, to flexibility and to variety, represent2 distinct trends in current school planning. —e(i) shows shared working areas designed intermsofrmforspecific subiects (as in conventional secondary school) and therefore do not imply integrated curriculum as implied in shared areas described —xp121(3)(4). —n(2) shows middle range associated with olderrange schooling insecondary school enlarged to comprehensive —eblock plan. 'Lowerschool' and 'upper school' share some areas such as pe, large scale music and drama, and dining. blockplan extensionforlowerschool 0 30 60 9Gm 98 187 2955 analysis star ar/P(of360P( 762m2 0 shared work 4.18w2 5315% oftotal tolalar 10 20 3Cm 32 66 986 /'t'/ shared wow ar workingar totalar 2972 In2 159Gm2 42—43% shared 241 m2med— &dental totalar j workingar _ Lj27 23 IfLa_J _l t—--''?( h5_ 26 )-?. fi-t 0 6 12m 19 3911 plant 2 stageupperpart 3 gymspperpart 4 centre 120p7—9year 282.12m2,235 m2/P, 20P6—7year434t -n2. 2.17 m2/P 5 hlms 6 studentcoanol rm 7 510 8 lib 9 sIx 10 panels 11 12 13 14 do & wc11—13 year centre 120P9—11 year 28058 m2. 2.34 m'/P do & wc7—9year lb clo&wc6—7year clo&wcg—llyear changing& shu stage tO gym 19 k 20 humecralts 21 wuod/metal/cluy 16 17 22 23 24 2b 26 27 28 29 30 r L med dental admin wsrkrm staff — : E mssic mum entrance 28 books resources — — — /— 1k30 29 29 32 head secretary off 32 meetingrm 33 sb & uheltnr 31 Norwegianschoolwith3localcentressub-dividedfordifferentacttvities by screens& panels 1 Existing secondaryschool In NottlnghamshlreEngland extended in 1971 to becomecomprehensivebyadding'lowerschool'(block plan)designedwith4 centres(key plan)&sharedworkar; dining, pe & other arge school activities sharedwith 'upperschool' 2 '- - i_i-c N 1 . - 23 0 science crafts centre 120P2ndyear centre9oP2ndyear tope, dining& upper school e med 7 head 8 qsietrm 1 2 3 4 ft 9 centrel2oPlstyear ID cenlrn9oPlstyear 3 6 9 9 19 29 it12 dr swimmingpool 13 sk 14 ck lb 16 17 18 19 20 21 homecrahs workshcrpcrahu projects prep sb biology gids 12w 39h 22 23 24 28 26 27 boys projectsincentre greenhouse court staff ueranda 28 lrsiieysIcarlul 29 sb bays 30 bookcases 31 qsietrm 32 audio-xisaalaids Community 123 Schools OLDER AGE RANGE Designing for older age range more complex and less certain: educational policies at thisstage increasinglyaffected by political attitudes, exam policies and demands ot higher education and of adult society generally. Because of large numbers in schools and diversity and choices within curriculum, social organisation has to be considered more specifically within complicated pattern of time-tabling and accn. —n(1) attempts bring into focus 3 essential elements: numbers, work and socialorganisation, taking asexample 1 specific enrolment of 1 035 pupils aged 11—18 years, with annual entry of 180 pupils and 135 students of 16—18 staying on after mm school leaving age. Characteristic principle affecfing planning ot schools for this olderage range: work areas likely to be shared byall or most pupils, who move from 1 partof school to anofher according to their particularcourses of work. Number of subjects and relative provision madeforeach depend on objectives of individual schools: some have predominance of academic provision, othersof provision for scientific and engineering work, and so on. But many schools hope achieve certain balance, with wide range ofchoices—.x(2): usually common curriculum in loweryears; preparation for examinations in middle years; diversification into many differentcourses inlast few. —x(3) presents organisation of3schools, with 7years age span horizontally, and numbers, work and social organisation vertically. Different stages also reflected in social organisation:in examples 1 and 3 some accn for workand forsocial bases exclusively forfirst and second year pupils; someplanned mainly for third toseventh yearpupils; and some (eg library)tobeshared by wholeschool. In example2 (largest enrolment) organisation, and consequently planning, divides school into3separate entities, except for workshop crafts and pe for whichaccnshared by everyone. workar shared by all examples:grouping ofworkar associationxl cioselyreiatedsubjects religiouseducation history geography art&crafts maths sciences hornecralts workshopcrafts lib diversilying curricuia languages homecrafts music engiish reiigious education ianguages sociuistudies drama music religious education drama english 1 530P11—l8yrs workshopcrafts subiectsgroupedin centresotmixedinterest sciences arts &crafts science art& crafts homecrafts books& study pa science art&crafts maths sports gym theatre drama enghnll music art& crafts maths subjects grouped & modified in many differentways 1 2 Older age range: schoolorganisation years = 360P ti—l3yr - 1 ining —J— reteduc history geography MOP 13—16yr I I =lOOP 16—18yr Ssociaibases 1 dining = = commonSn snacks 1 numbers -J sociai history geography lib engiish homecratts iariguages sciences ii Ill workshopcrafts maths I music dining 567 1 sociaibase dining 560P 15—.lByr I sociaibase dining I numbers -J social -J F languages homecrafts 21 music drama 4 english sciences 5 maths arilcrafts ll 720P 5socialbases dining I I 617 240P 16—l8yr 13—lSyr maths articralt workshop crafts ye sorsal II ' music enghsh english sciences numbers ii— study iariguages enghsh repeal wc -J dub reieduc history maths geography history draTia repeat pie 3 Older range: examples ofschoolorgartisation socialbasel geography drama example1 480P 11—13yr history I 1 OOP11—l8yr 1 400P 11—lByr IJ 2 i__-L4 mleduc geography Sb art& crafts maths sociai base = 720P 13—l5yr engiish ianguages booksS study economics reiigious educatrsr commerce books&study years history WI english 720P 11—l3yr socialstudies Olderage: rangeofchoices rei educ study reteduc years books& study study ' study 211 drama art&crafts workshop sciences crafts maths wCrk 1 hornecrafts sciences artJcraftu lib& pubhC Sb PC 2000P 11—l8yi example2 1440P11—l8yr example3 124 Community Schools OLDER AGE RANGE —.(1 )(2) illustrate diagrammaticgrouping ofsubjects in centres ofmixed interests —p123(2)(3). 15-18 yrclub(1st) k,Sr. youth (ground) - drama,music english art& craft csf' hb & admun(ground) adminstaff, teachers centre(1 science homeeconorniuca art& craft tawerschool )11—l3yr) 5t)i11 [] english& languages )grcund) humanites (1st) ha &pe physics, maths& Li WdmShO) crafts 0 2040 60 80 m (1 3 9 6 1 61126 ft 9 m 27 ft MixedcentreforhumanitiesinBerkshireEnglandcomprehensive schoolfor2l2Pof13—18years,designedto provideworkingarfor allPinthis groupforhistory, geography, religion &philosophy, economic&socialsciences; alsoprovisionforsome to workonEnglish,mathematics & commercial subjects 1 orchestrami mur mur 6practicerm 0 3 6 9 18 2'7 sf0 sharedlistening stu 13.0 13.37 327 2 CentreinsameBerkshireEngland schoolformusic,drama, art&lightcrafts, needlework &associated studiesin English,with practicerm,listeningbooths&otherarforindividual work;designed forabout158Pto workthereat1 time &for80of16—18years to have social basethere Community 125 Schools may retain sense ofidentityin largecommunity. —(i)(2) showsolution with school in 8 independent blocks, 7 of which (Ic excluding largest, namely sports hall) planned as street community'. These, with 1 and 2 floors, linked byagated wall and by sharing similar bldg materials but retain independence byshape, size and detail. OLDER AGE RANGE to this problem 1 aim in design of most schoolsforolderage range mitigate institutional influences of size by finding ways in whichindividual and small group 1\ 4%J geog$ -ra ' I / cIass/'5g .c'bUs\ parking visual • tib ,Iaudio/ hardplayc. pitch 7I k 0 30 60 90 120 m 90180270360 ft - social sportsha hardplay pitch '?% c;/ I - . tSetTDndart fZ7 fi1/ / 'ami analysisofar spodsha teaching 65.2% teachingsto 5.8 34 dining k Psto&san 7.5 6.2 admin ie7.2m/pal6OOP 23 heating 1.3 circulation 6.3 totalar 100.0% chemistry -mar sem'tutor thology languages social ssocia)/ classr do void jd / 9 30 16 f0 27 36 m maths I / 90 1205 1 &2 High schoolinLancashire Englandopened1978for600 Pfrom 11—16years: designedbygrouping subjectstolessenpressureofsize on individual& smallgroup 126 Community Schools SYSTEMBUILDING analysisofar teaching 63.0% sf0 2.9 33 airing k 27 teing Psto&san 7.1 athrin 6.1 circufation 12.9 totalar 1000% or 9_ ft ie7.9 ma/Patggp 120 —xBib200 REGIONALINSTITUTIONS —13 I22 4- design/scienCe 11 '—' 30 tower school 540P 11—l3yr 28 — J 2 1 l39 JI I 85 Industrialsystems used buildmany schools: best offer sufficientflexibility in both plan and section meeteducational needsalltypesschools, with qualitythat rates them first class permanent bldg. —s(1)(2) show school huilt using such system (CLASP), also used —upl2O(1)(2).Financial contribution from non-educational sources made possible extended provision forsportavailable both toschool andtocommunity —epi 20(2). .,,,,,,,,, 37 Increasing diversity educational needs in 16—19 year age range encourages development separateinstitutions serve several schools in region.Some sited in association with 11—16 yearschool; somewith college of further education —.y(3); some independent. At St Austell England —v(3) provision ofpeavailable in nearby borough sports centre. 6th form college and nearby college of further education share some teaching accn for linked courses. Generous provision for individual study both in library and elsewhere; this, together with small rm for seminars and tutorial work, of considerable importance for this age group. TTs I_-._l L_.musichal5balwo 0 5 1015m 01530458 . j38 J key 1 sports,pe school& 2 3 4 5 6 community theatre admin fib design! science liberal studies 7 music school sto 12 activities space 13 up 14 squash 15 sportsha 16 gyro, 11 badminton 17 18 19 20 meters el lau fuel 8 lowerschool 21 boilers 9 warden 22 foyer 10 teachers centre 23 changing 24 yard 25 k 26 off 27 pottery 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 39 40 optics preparation 41 seminar 42 lectures engineenng 43 stu crafts 44 classr kiln 45 history head 46 practical scalpture 47 lounge prolects 48 gallery 49 dr forge metal 50 needlework wood advanced science 38 general science 51 fabrics 52 social 53 void 54 homecrafts 55 technical 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 drawing med mothercare textiles painting printing languages english houserrn do 65 staff 66 careers adenn 10.6% drcutafion kdchen 12.2% 05% P less,coats,-. 67 libwork rm 68 geography ajEn°ar n 21 28 ng 234 8 1415 21 30 9 6 12m 20 40ff 3 St AustellEngland6thformcollege,opened 1973for460 P 16—19years, hasdept forhumanities(including drama),music,science& mathematics, socialstudies,&art&designcentre,allrelatedto ha,dramastudio, lib&social centre key privatestu gallery 3 4 5 1 2 In this NottinghamshireEnglandschoolbuiltonanindustrial system lowerschool(blockplanonly) isfor540Pof11—13years,mainschoolopened 1973for990 Pof13—18years;centralcoreforadmin,dining, theatre, libleads to3main 2-floor blocks; arts, crafts&sciences (design/science separate 1-floor bldg) lib careers seminar social studies 6 geography 7 geology 8 9 10 11 12 history control restrm deputyhead gallery 13 prolection 14 privatestu 15 religious 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 education 28 ha 29 off 30 head 31 headseminar 32 33 dept balance rm 34 lab 35 work rio 36 staff common 37 tel rm 38 wc computer divisionrm preparation chemistry mathematics boilers designoff timber art&design do el seminaroff english 39 40 tutorials humanities 41 languages 42 seminars& headsof dept 43 forge 44 studio 45 wOod 46 textiles 47 metal 48 pottery 49 science prolects 50 51 52 53 54 lecturerm ha drarnastudio optics science preparation 55 biology 56 physics 57 students socialar 58 music 59 tutor 60 k Community 127 Boarding schools Size varies from50 to over 1 000 boarding pupils. Proportionof day to boarding pupilsalso varies; many schools take only boarders.Few new boarding schools built recently but many extended, with new uses found forexistingbldg.Asschool will be home' for two-thirds year aim for homely and relaxing ambience, allowing pupils develop own personalities and community spirit. SITE LAYOUT Requirementsdiffer according to various factors: size of school, age groups to be provided for, integration or separation of living quarters fromother school bldg, location,climate,inclusionof day pupils,education programme to beprovided. Design easy, quickaccess between bldg (in hostile climates protected); living, dining, recreationalareasclose together. In larger schoolsseparate living quarters preferred, with communal dining. Integratedaccn more suited to small schoolswith niulti-use rm. Urban sites generally call for higher densities and multi-storey bldg, sharing amenities with community and using town services. On ruralsite school usually has to be self-sufficient, onlyclassr and living quarters being multi-storey. Boarding schoolswith many daypupils have living quarters integrated with other bldg. Larger schools require and canafford more and better provision for recreation, hobbies and cultural pursuits. 6m2, preferably9m2; USA mm 8.4 m2,preferred 10.2 m2. Beds should not be arranged in tiers. Sto for each pupil's personal belongings and clothes beside each bed. Spaces to be adequately ventilated. Stu/bedr—*p140. Sanitary To bedispersed throughout bldg, accessible fromsleeping quarters. 1 sho orbuGP(50%baths) 1 hb/3 Pup to 60pupils then 1 hb/4 Pfornext 40 and 1 hb/each further 5: space 1 m2/P 1 wc/5 P Ifday pupils'lay nearby requirements may be reduced. USA:fordetails referapplicable codes and standards. Sick rooms In small schoolsplaced near matron next togeneral sleeping quarters. In large schools can be in separate bldg with doctors and nurses quarters and dental suite. Provide separately forboysand girls.1 sick rm/20 P. Allow 7.4 ma/bed with 1 800 between any 2 beds. Provide adequate rm ventilation. Provide adequate separate sanitary accn for sick rm; separate isolation rm where pupils exceed 40; sufficient accn for nursing staff. USA: for details refer applicablecodes and standards. Staff ACCOMMODATION Sleeping Preferable face E; separate rm for each sex over age 8; preferred same age groupto each dormitory. Open dormitory more usual in preparatory and juniorschools (not in 5 m for first 2 beds, 4.2 m2 each USA), uncommon in senior. additional bed; 900 between beds. 6—12 beds normal but up to20 can be accepted. Dormitory cubicles each to have window 5 m. a Separatebedroom Degree of supervision of pupils by staff depends on system adopted. Many schools divide pupils into houses, each with resident house master (often married), junior teacher(s) and matron; ancillary staff sometimes also accommodated.Some staff live inseparate quarters. Married teachers need living rm and bedr each 18 m2, 3—4 smaller rm and kitchen each 11 m2, larder, wc, bathr, sto. Total each approx 80 m2. Larger areas normal in USA. Junior teachers needstudy 12 m2 neartodayrmspace, bedr 10m2near topupils' sleeping accn, preferably bathr and sto. b 894 el I staff C)jl c c) (81 0.1 9 I CarmelCollegeWallingfordEngland:120pupilsaged13—18,integrated accnagroundfloor plan, bsite plan hockey hockeypitch ____ _____ ,—----- 9 120m iàooooo it Arch HancockHawkes N 128 Community Boarding schools 9 ACCOMMODATION(cont) Day room 2,5 50 7,5100 8 160240 320 than 2.3 m2/P, preferably 4.5 m2. Should consist of common rm, library—spi29, hobbies rm, quiet rm, games rm, radioand tv rm. Provide Dining Centralised dining normal: 1, 2 or 3 sittings, depending on school policy. Space can be sub-divided to be more intimate and to Identify groups of pupils. In small schools spacecan be used forschoolassembly, concerts, drama productions. Allow 1 m2/P and adequate airspace. Kitchen Allow0.5 m2/P withcafeteria servery, unitserveries forgroupsofpupils or mobile serveries totables. b Ancillary Adequate sto for pupils' luggage, bedding, clothes and eqp; laundry, ironing rm, airing rm, sewing rm. Recreation Depends on size of school and nearnessto sports grounds, baths etc. Provide access to grassed areas for ball games, swimming pool, gymnasium, running track etc; suitable space and eqp for drama, art, music, films,lectures, crafts, religious worship. Services Provide adequate and suitable air space and heat orcool and ventilate according to climate. Services may be centralised or individual to bldg —vp383—97. '-- a 4; .j b stu I domiitOry bedr 1/ ! m ft RiverThames servorboarding matron bedr dr stu bedr stu' I bedr head H I prefect stu Stu bedr I dormitory C junior boarders senerrboarders UULI HEJ CharterhouseSchoolGodalming England: separateaccnfor462 pupilsin7houseseachwith house master& familylivingin asite plan bdining block (7drround centralk) Chouseground &firstfloor plans d housesection; 1 dr 2wash-up 3k 4lob 5lay 6off 7gas meters 8bins 9 refrigeration 10saladpreparation 11 lift 12 potwash l3staffdr l4sto l5pooI l6towerblock l7house7 l8house6 19 housemaster'sk 20housemaster'sdr 21 housemaster'sliv 22 housemaster'sstu 23lift 24 servicear 25stairwell 26commonrm 27 monitors'common rm 28 entrance ha 29hobbies rm 30bedr 31 bathr 32 liv 33k 34bedr 35tearm 36 bootrm 37gamesrm 38gar 39boys' lay 40 hobbiesrm 41 ter 42 day nursery 43 bedr 44stu/bedr 45bedr 46 press 47elevator 48stairwell 49flat roof 50washr 51 washr Arch SirGilesScottSon & Partner E J]IU1I11ffl _________________ servery IJiliLJJEI 1 Jfl1 I4 boys k r-'-1 LstodrylJ _i_ sto meati &hshl _L J J— goods peparason 1m iiiiIOJt--' ]fltuckshop l men staff coveredway staffrm staff itchenstaffI 2 StPaulsSchool London England: 700pupils,60junior& 122senior boardingpupilsin separateaccn aaxonometricview bseniorboarding housefirstfloor plan cdining/kblock plan: 500seatsserve 1200 2-courselunchesin3-queuecafeteriasystem Arch Fielden &Mawson Community 129 Schools MEDIA CENTRES —• Lb 1 r]rno7LI -[arts 1 = {1 industrial -I at Growth in useof instructional materialsotherthan thoseoftraditional lib coupledwith new emphasis on individual study has promoted concept of media or resource centre. Such aids as microfilm, audio cassettes and film needviewing rm and study carrels wired for special technical eqp.Addedto libservicespace needs become larger; staffing and work areas needed give effective support forclassr teaching needs. Student use suggests variety working and study options. Mutli-purpose spaces equippedwith movable or stacking chairs. Such centres include many of following: chairsof several types, including cushions or carpet risers tables carrels, manywired foreqp—.p177(3) staffdesks &chairs special furniture: circulationdesk, files, stocabinets,display, photocopy reading, browsing, listening, viewing openaccess materials & stacks smallgroup listening & viewing conference areas groupworkprojects & instruction admin &workspace = sociIr I -r l—sciene F •ii:i::Jti I==/' 0011 I— zjooo ___ I I ,J1_, • eqpsto maintenance & repair dark rm professional collection forteaching staff magazine & newspaper sto including microfilm In larger schoolsystems radioand tvstudios and computerisedlearning resources may be included in centre. In some systems material may be distributed toseveral schools from 1 audio-visual sto centre. N 1 Sincesuchcentres designed inresponse studentinput, localcommunity needs and state guidelines variety of solutions found. Typical plan Middle schoolWestfieldUSAwith mediacentre Arch McGuire &Shook relationships toteaching areas indicated—(1 )—(3). Corp T . — . E kindergarten I 0 6 12m 20 40ft § . I . . -1 P I : T' ____r 1 ii . T1 . ] I I l1rl11 multi-purpose . . . I r L min— . I servlce chdd cJU .1 = 1 L] i 4 # speech dr . -I iangJa I . . . . activity media centre k ElementaryschoolTampaFloridaUSA:mediacentrenearlanguagedept Arch Rowe HolmesAssociates 3 1 Elementaryschoolon2floorsNeolaIowaUSAhasresourcecentreateachlevel ArchDanaLarsonRoubal& Associates I FH* TEE 130 Community Schools somefeatureswhichlimit useoftables FURNITURE proportionoftop Generalfactors preventsneat grouping railpresents sdtingplace — atendoftable Furniture governed bytype otteaching torwhich provided and bysize ot pupils. In recentyears learning and teaching involved greater variety ot group sizes and wider range ot activities. More mobility in schools and closerassociation ot book workand practicalwork; both theseattect design and distribution ot turniture. —*(1) shows common features whichinhibit flexible useoftables and featureswhich encourageefficient grouping and versatile use. Where tables required strictly for formal reading and writing work—v(2) gives relevant data; but increasingly these proportions giving way to double square shown for grouping purposes —v(1). Modern UK furniture range will consist of sitting and standing height working surfaces in closeassociation and of many forms of mobile sto and display. (—nBlbl97207 208). rç bevellededges preventflatbutt 5t0& legframe restrictsflsrigto 1sideoftable spacingoflegs lessdianw ofchair sanefeatureswfticfiallow maxuse oftables —n clearance for 2chaim II betweenlegs '\,,clearancefor tchair ü II betweenlegs In USAtypical worksurface heights foreducational usevary from560— 790, although lower tables used for very young. Recommended work depth variesfrom330 for youngest children to 460 for 15 year olds or older. Width ofwork area varies from530 for youngest children to 760 for 15 yearoldsorolder—e(3). sane eaarnples oftablegroups e 1rrD trapezoidal 3basicshapes dimensionedto groupfor generalwork n \2iY Ihil Sto underworksurface not recommended unless atsideofknee space orworksurface increased indepth. Toespace mm 610 torolderchildren, who needvarying work heights depending on task: typing tables 670, work tables 735, sewing tables 790. Work height for handicapped in wheelchairs mustbe adaptedtotheir needs—up86. Standing worksurfaces for school age children should vary from520— 915atage 15. Older childrenmayfind range 860—965 desirabledepending on height and task to be done. Sinks set lower, high counters higher EJEIJ (1015—1120). conddionsintioingtrials desirable J sodc 100% 1Th4 1067 single double esercise % 120 *514 610 trapezoidal 100% 610 610*610* 1220 book satisfied 762 ii 1524 sizet 260—520 squaretable rectangular tables 'ff0' 55: t 14 I 15241530 hail round table '60 120 tablefr 560.565,610,635,660, 675,740& 762 availablewith adlustable legsrange 56010762in 25 increments 100% tOO% single double % 300 300/520 satished " size dc ' 130 100% 100% double cingle 480 of: subiects "7 yr size2 '65' 3 USAtable sizes a 2 3 m mean stature shoulder 'jj 10 L L2. 7 6 1280 ...JfIt......J %satished 340—580 size 3 '65' $erf 130 D 100% 100% single double 620 380-640 b % satistied size 4 140 r70 - 100% 100% single double 620— 420—700 2 UKtable plansizes % satisfied bze 5 USAchairs &desks astacker bdoubleentrystudy ctabletarmchair dliftlidtable &chair eclassrunit fdeskwith chair gclassrtypingtable 4 Iidesk jstudy carrels Community 131 Schools FURNITURE Staturedata & distribution offurniture sizes Mobilityofpupilsin schools and high degree to whichworkingaccn shared make increasingly impracticalassign chair and table tosingle pupil. Furnitureshared bymany:each chairand related tablesize must therefore be designed suitmax stature range rather than for individual pupils. This in principle means simultaneous satisfaction of 7 fitting criteria shown —'(1), with clearance between top ofchair seat and underside of table top. A B C D E Though stodecreasinglyprovidedatwork place, if sited at any sifting working plane adequate leg room can only be ensuredifzonesindicated for ISOsizes 1—5—s(2) free fromobstruction. F 3 UK view is that distribution of furniture should be basedon pupils' stature ratherthan onpupils' ages—'(3). Conversion ofstature to agefor UK school population in 1971 —'Bib207. Revised British standard specifications forpupils' chairs shod feetflat onfloor clearancebetween backoflegs& front edge of seat nopress at frontofseat between seating surface & thighs clearancebetween thigh &undersideof table forfreedom of movement elbows approxlevel withtabletop whenupperarmvertical firmsupportforbackinlumber region &below shoulderblades adequateclearance betweenback rest&seat to ensurefree movement of buttocks G A P adoptmanysitting posturesbutassessmentofgood fitis simultaneoussatisfactionof above 7criteria 1 Fitof Pto chair &table: UKdata and tables (—'Bib134) comply with ISO standards (—'Bib407),sizes ofwhich havetherefore beenshown. size 1 size2 ISO standards do notapply in USA: viewheld thatstudentsizesvary somuch1 rm may need more than 1 chair/table height. Dimensions based on USA research (—vBibS49)—v(4). IT cv IIHS Jr. HS 4th 2nd tow reach legh reach eye reach distreach radite level ages ldgh reach A 2085 15 1915 1765 1880 12 1705 1545 1645 9 1510 1345 1505 7 a anceco E 815 1440 1374 1313 660 610 570 1215 1160 665 735 685 635 705 630 560 665 620 565 1320 1250 1185 600 555 510 1100 1040 890 605 555 510 600 550 485 1175 1120 1040 535 495 435 975 925 880 550 1080 1015 960 500 445 395 890 850 815 970 915 865 430 385 345 815 770 720 730 1370 545 510 1245 1330 1210 1085 485 500 485 425 495 445 480 435 390 KOG 5 upto ages hat hH work topJ work ahe9 15 760 915 480 685 795 420 9 7 5 1675 1485 1320 1220 1090 635 695 380 585 635 485 ages seat h seatto back- back- restO resthP 405 370 150 175 445 145 160 420 9 325 135 140 355 7 290 130 330 5 265 130 120 125 305 12 15 12 hO N hb dK - table hL F 370 355 570 330 445 250 into armrestseatw spacing A mm 380 370 330 305 280 size 3 seat IM 550 590 525 480 0 sizes 1108 340 300 300 400 2 Mm 3 StaturesofUKschoolpopulation 4 USAdimensionsrelevanttoschooltumiture;HS=high school KDA = Kindergarten leg clearancezones:UKdata 275 basic tablew 5 760 710 610 610 535 armrest I 132 Community Schools FURNITURE max reach(for96%ofagerange) 3—5 yr Dimensional data: sizesof pupils & stature teve 1155 eye sittinghi eye lend 885 \ 68O ()j77s so Dimensional data derived fromanthropometric survey of UK school age populatIon in 1971 by Furniture Industry Research Association—n(1) Sittingplanes those proposed in ISO Standard (—rBib4O7). Figures refer to ISO stzes 1—5. 1825 780 610 iso size I 155o—fI 165 145 standing working 1245 size furniture poptiteus taneJ I 10—t2yr etbowS 5-8yr max reach((or96%ofagerange) iso size ethowS 180 an 150 size 2 manreach(for96% ofagerange) 8—10 yr elbow h s iso195 155 maxreach)for96% ofagerange) stature I eyeievet—, t 525 9—11 yr ii 425---*1 440 eye tenet -isittingh 1025 I 11 135 't005 so size 3 elbowI 210 l- l60 mze_ 410± an poptiteus — Ii 14511245 1850_ 750J standing wing plane UK dimensionsforpupils'furniture max reach(for96%ofagerange) 133 Community Schools FURNITURE Storageofpupils' belongings Inschoolsforyounger children with less movement about school trays and individual containers at workplace suitable. Coats and small bags can be hungon pegslocally. But greatermovement of pupils in middle and olderage ranges encourages widespread use ofvarious kindsof bags in which books can be carried from1 place ofworkto another.Central provision of lockers therefore of decreasing value sincetheir dimensions and their location likelyto beinconvenient. Provisionofpegs and racks forbags associatedwitheach workspace becoming more convenient and more secure. Forthisdimensionaldata given—(1)(2) relevant. Data prepared by Furniture Industry Research Association as part of survey of sto of pupils' personal belongings. In USA lockers —*(3) still standard for older children, ifonlyfor security. In-rm stoprovided for children up to 12 years old. Basket racks also used —n(4). Schools references —+Bibliography entries134 191192193194195 196197198199200201 202203204205207 208209210211 212213214215265267275 314446451 476 484 526530 575581 607652 _ w 1 1—l6yeazs 150 20, 250 34,.350450450 h 50 150.20, 250 weigft(kg) 20,250 w 16—18yealx 1 350 distitution otbagtype li 230—610 II 230or305 II 305—460 40,450 weight(kg) Size,weight&distributionofpupils'bags 3 USA lockers a1-tier b3-tier c6-tier dcombinationunits max 1605 = 5 305baskets max x230baskets x 14806 min965=3x305baskets m1n740= 3x23obasketj 23000 330 305 ioderbasket mld calllengthcoats (forcoats hungfromhoodsallowance of200-300 shouldbe made) 2 Lengthsofpupils' coats basketrack only5%ofcoatswill be longerthan shown 4 Basketrack;canbesinglerow(d305—335) or back-to-back 134 Community Colleges I2 key concourse cocr 3 courtyard 4 lecturetheatre 1 5 projectionrm 6 plantrm 7 etevator 8 lecturetheatre2 9 soundproduction& vision 10 upperstudio 11 lecturetheatre3 12 lecturetheatre4 LECTURE ROOMS& THEATRES Utilisaflon oflecturerm and theatres traditionally lowin relationtospace requirements and capital cost; therefore consider designing flexibility to accommodate various functions. Such spaces could suit lectures, stage productions, demonstrations and cinema. Large theatre could be divisible toaccommodatedifferent audience sizes; similarly,with retractable seating system —spi 35, largelecture rm can be convertedintoassembly hall orgymnasium.Number andextentofsuchactivitieswillalso determine needforadjoining ancillary spaces suchas preparationrm, proiector rm, workshops, changing rm, studios and sto. Ifpolicytohirelecture theatre tooutside organisations during vacations I Lecture hacomplexpre-clinicalsciences bldg Southampton University England Arch John SBonningtonPartnership consider improved space standards and environmental conditions to satisfy more sophisticated requirements of business world. Mm ar/P: 0.46 m2 (based on moveable seats, armless 450 centre to centre) 0.6 m2 (fixed seats witharmsat500 centre to centre) Basic shape Shape of lecture theatre becomes more important as size and volume increase. Square flexible but fan shape preferred for larger theatres whereplan formrelates to adequate sightlines foraudio-visual presentations, cinema etc —vp136. Consider rear projection —v(3); tv data pl36(l)—(3). Small capacity lecture rm up to approx 80 persons quite satisfactory with flat floor: larger halls require either rampedfloor (max 1: 10) orstepped floor,dependent uponachievingadequate sightlines. Uniform change of eye level should beachieved ateach seat row, mm being60and median 125. Theatre auditorium —vp35O a ;c:::- g. L b 2 Physicslecturetheatrewithdoublewallingtoreducesound&vibration TechnicalUniversityDarmstadt Germany aplan bsection Rearprojectionofimages forlectureha: notsoclearasfrontprojectionforlargehabutmoreconvenientfor lecturer &allowshigherlight level inhafornote-taking 3 Community 135 Colleges LECTUREROOMS: SEATING SEATINGARRANGEMENTS Seating types Relate to function of hail ortheatre: Categories: individual chairs capable of being linked together in rows, stacked and stored away, with or without arms,with orwithout writing tablets fixedseating ofvarious degrees ofcomfort with orwithout tip-up seats, with orwithoutarms—(1)—(3) retractableseating systems capableoffolding down onto tiered staging (which usually includes aisles), whole arrangement being retractable and storedin relatively small area flat auditorium floor capableof being used for otherpurposes —*(4). Flexible seating —p351 Lecture: audience should be able to see and hear lecturer. Where Seating mm dimensions Backto backdistance between rows ofseats (withtip-up seats) Width ofseats, linked, without arms Width ofseats with arms Unobstructed vertical space between seats 750 460 500 300 chalkboard or screens needed desirable viewing requirements affect seating plan. Increasing trend towards audience participation: implies students should be close as possible to lecturer. Can be achieved by U-shaped seating arrangementwhich reduces numberofrowsrequired and also givesaving in total area. Cinema: criteria forgoodviewing: max horizontal viewing angle max vertical viewing angle critical angle of projector max viewing distance mm viewing distance 30° 35° 12° 6 x wof screen 2 x wofscreen Demonstration:will usually require steeply raked floortoensure good viewing totop ofdemonstration benches. Relativecos ofsuch auditoria with heavily serviced demonstration benches, preparation rm and like should be compared with costs of normal lecture rm equipped with closedcircuit tv—*p136(1)—(3). Seating canbe set round demonstration area insemi-circular formation ifno requirement for chalkboardsorscreens, as with anatomydemonstration theatres. Sightlines —*pl36349 Cinemas —p354—8 840 min—f In 25Oi1 2 5 Sectionthroughorthodox lecture theatre hof screen Fixed seatingwithtip-up seats& writing shelf 6w 6 Preferredviewingdistancesforcinemaprojection 3 Fixedseatingwith tip-upseats& retractable shelving 4 Basicprincipleofrectractable seating 7 Lecturetheatrewithdemonstration table (surgical clinic) 136 Community Colleges LECTURE ROOMS: FIREREGULATIONS Design of lecture rm ortheatre must conform tosafety reg, in particular fire and means ofescape. Number ofseats permissible inanyrow—.(4) dependent uponcleardistance apart of rows (back to backdimension a mm seatway (measured between perpendiculars) E A), resultantclearsection (dimensionEmeasuredbetweenperpendiculars) anddistance ofseats fromgangway (0 = w ofseat). 300 330 360 390 420 In turn clearwidthof gangwaysand number within hall must be related to numberof persons to be accommodated. max distanceof max number of 500 wide seats/row seat from gangway (500seats) F gangway gangway both sides 1 side 3000 3500 4000 4500 5000 7 8 9 14 16 18 20 22 10 11 ACOUSTICS—*pl 8395—7 Just as Important hear distinctly as see clearly; lecture hall must be tE acoustically isolated from other noise sources. No internal acoustic treatment should benecessary forrmless than300 m2 butas size and volume increasesshapeof hallbecomes increasingly important. Design of ceiling as reflector of sound from original source important factor in achieving even distribution throughout hall. Design of wall surfaces and finishes alsoimportant consideration ineitherreflecting or absorbing sound according to theirrelationship to stage ordais. sizeof tvtube seat row spacing 425 475 520 570 595 1 900 1 300 1 550 650 675 425 450 850 562 575 620 350 375 462 475 520 875 962 hoftv imagein relationtosizeoftube &seat rowspacing size of Ivtube seatrow spacing 425 475 520 570 595 900 1 300 1 550 1650 1700 2125 2150 2400 1250 1300 1625 1650 1825 1125 1150 1459 1475 1625 d 2 Mm viewing distancefromtvtube I I I /, ,, — /, ,/ \ —— numberofP accommodatedon each tierorfloor 200 300 400 S. — ,.. 500 av24m2 \ 750 1000 —— — Shape& squarefrontageofviewing arfor520 receiver mm number ofexits1 2 2 2 2 3 4 mm w 10502 1200 1350 1500 1500 1500 1 plus 1 additional exit of not lessthan 1 500 for each extra250 P orpartthereof 2wouldnot normallyapplyto exit corrorstaircases serving auditoriumof theatre t ' 3 4 a distanceofseatsfromgangways bplanofseating withoutarms Cseatingwith backs& arms dpartofauditorium 5 Exit requirements Community 137 Colleges SCHOOLSOFART, DESIGN, DRAMA& MUSIC Scope and intensity ofstudy in specialistart, design and drama subjects vary from college to college. Facultieslikely include selection of: drawing &painting: fine art ceramics sculpture industrial design: engineering furniture & interiordesign theatre & television design graphics & related visual arts including photography silver&jewelry textile design both print &weave stained glass drama music key 1 scuplture 2 artgaflery 3 groupmusic 4 pool 5 office 6 toye 7 painting 8&9 music 10 worlshop 11 greenrrn 12513 chorus 14 stagelift 15 dressingrm 16 sculpturestudio 17 switchm, 18 bars 19 do Schedule ofaccn foreachwillgenerally include design studio, workand practice rm, technical workshops and admin off. Communal lecture theatre or assembly hall usable also as exhibition centre oftenrequired but display areas for both 2 and 3 dimensional work should also be provided throughout college. 20&21 toilets 22 storear Designstudios GardnerCentreforthe ArtsUniversityofSussex England ArchJohn S BonningtonPartnership, formerly SirBasilSpenceBonnington&Collins 1 Should be next to appropriateworkrorworkshop; consider exclusion of noiseand dust. Stospace forplan sheets,wardrobes orclotheslockers, referencebooksand models should be included together with eqp for copying drawings and documents, although suchmay be certtralised. Goodlightingessential, both naturaland artificial. Drawing studios —p139 Fine art studios passage assistance Studiosfor painting and sculpture require largeareas; must have good natural daylight with high level windows, equal floor area, with N orE aspect. to at least 25—33%Of Rooflights may provide ancillary light; all windows should be fitted with someform ofdaylight control. All surfaces should bedurable and easy to clean. Workshops I— 4000—5000 Siting will depend on type of work being done. Light workallied with graphics, silverand jewelry, photography and fashion may beplaced on higherfloor;metal,woodand plastics workshops where largemachines maybe installed best sitedon ground orbasement level. —i 2 Tiersinlifestudio:seat ar/student0.65 m2 Good workshop layout must conformtoworkflow and safety-+p1 38(1 )(2). Provideamplespace round machinesandforgangwaystoallownecessary movement without incursion on work space. Non-slip floor finishes should bespecified; workshop technician should beable survey whole area frompartially glazed off. 1• If each studentprovided with sets of toolsspace for individual lockers needed in workshop area. I— Workshop eqp spaces —*p288 Practicerooms 900—1200 1000—1300 May be for individual study or group practice. Should be well insulated against passage ofsound fromone to another. Stores Methods of storing wide range of goods and materials needed support each activity should be closely studied, asshould areas required house completed works before exhibition ordisposal. All sto should be sited next to appropriate workshop; consider proper conditions of heat and humidity where these may be detrimental to materials being stored if not held within reasonable limits, eg timber, clay, plaster. Special racking needed for paintings and large canvasses; timberand timber-based board materials, plastics sheets, metal sections, rolls of textiles,glassand paper. Allsuchsto will require element of control and security. Ancillary accommodation Will include offforteaching staff, common rm, lay andpossibly showers. 5 Sequenceofoperations: claymodelling &pottery 138 Community Colleges SCHOOLSOF ART,DESIGN, DRAMA& MUSIC brazinghearth sk bench 'wall n122n 1370P] -a 915— -y 1830 bench ______ benchl [ ELi metallathe LI drill :'ifl U sb I-Fit1 forge grinder 41220111 1220 [5 soldering bench L I + fromdrawing rm cpd fools circular saw {J #jj-j [1 ['. U woodlathe eqp chalkboard&display 4 1 370 9 4 19 32 2pm 64ft Layoutforcombinedwood&metalshop eqp _________ Clearancesforlayoutof metalshops 1 metalwork translucentrootedar woodwork 0 rindstone 3 6 lafhefftfl arleft blank o ggcm2 £ operating position 41-run out 2 Workingspacesround woodwork machinery Fi 3 I 2134 / painting studio 3 Variousforms of sto racking 5 Arts centrelayoutforcollege drawing rm 9 12m Community 139 Colleges DRAWINGSTUDIOS Reterence may not be confined to intormation contained on drawings; ottenneedhave comprehensive set reference books or manualsclose at hand for draughtsman: may be housed communally or at each work station. Space requirements related totype of drawing and allied work, itany, to be undertaken —(1). Further category of drawing studio that allied to workshops where tull-sized setting-out drawings (USAshop drawings) (or workshop'rods') prepared. Usually allied to construction industry, in particular joinery shops; such drawings prepared on rolls of paper set down at long benches. Draughtsmen workstanding up at drafting surtace which is horizontal and 900 fromFFL. Original drawingsstored in roll form rather than sheet asin other studios, torwhich housing maybeeither horizontal (plan chests with drawers) orvertical (plan file cabinets). Layout ofany studio therefore conditioned bytypeofworkbeing undertaken and type ofsupervision required. In all studios good lighting essential,both daylight and artiticial;windows should have N to Easpect. Ifthis notpossible windows should be fitted with blinds to screen directsunlight and prevent glare. Ancillary areas may include printing and reprographiceqp; this may be housed in studio or, it sophisticated or large scale, sited in separate area. Archive sf0 tor original drawings which may have to be kept tor indefinite period should be properly conditioned tor sf0 of paper and housings must be fire and flood proot. Present trend increased use of computerprocesses tor production of working drawings; use at such eqp may influence spatial requirements offuturedrawing studios. Work station sizes in part conditioned by eqp needed to accommodate drawing format to be adopted. Except in USA most offices committedto 'A' series of international paper sizes: smaller formats obtained by halving larger dimensions in each instance—*p3—5. For most industrial, engineering and design consultants drawing requirements can be accommodated by AD format; drawing boards and drafting machines sizedaccordingly. Simplest form of work station: drawing board, eqp trolley (cart) and draughtsman's stool; where dratting workrequiresreterence contained on other drawings either reference tables or vertical screens may be used carry this information. Screens have advantage of keeping floor area needed tomm butat expense ofcontrolled supervision. Reterence tables, which may also provide plan chest drawing sf0 below work surface, either to side ofdraughstmanin parallelwith drawingboard orat right angles to it. Further possibility available with 'back reference' where reference table also support for drawing board behind. Where drafting function only part ofjob requirement and adminworkalso to be done reference area may double as off deskor, if space allows, desk may formadditional element within workstation. t. 920 1 —-. 300 ,92O 300÷ 460k 920 90 1300 1300 1300 1 -t i--- _______ 1300 utihsation4.2 m2/P F utiiiisation5.01 m2/P utilisation6.03m2/P utilisation5.01 m2/P utihsation6.03 m2/P I13001300 ¶ screenwith pin board ji*atLofl42m/P — 1300 ———'———— 9 )300300q1300 920 1 920 I utilisation5 1 m2/P -1 300 ______ ---. 90 1300 920V ¶ - L F ... .: reference table under drawing board 18 j__ ——J 300 920 920 utilisation 4.23 m2/P 90__________ utiisation 5.9 m2/P trolley drawingboard - LI utiiisation 3.45rn/P reference table chair 1 Variousplanningarrangements I 210 1 750 2 Drawingsbestkept intrcabinets 3 Steelchest forplans 4 Drawingtable: standardsizes 1000 x 1500&1250x 2000;h 2050(USA941 x 1092—1067x 2390; h 940) Typicalsmall photocopying machineused in drawingofffor reproducingplans 5 140 Community Colleges Hostel (USA dormitories) bldg usuallyfinanced by universityorcollege fromown funds, government grants orloans,openmarket loans: annual income raised has to cover interest, amortisation, running and main- STUDENT HOSTELS: PLANNING FACTORS L_Ii I Singlestu/bedrwithhb: 10m2 2 Singlestu/bedr: longershape providesmore economicaluse of space 4 4 2700 3 Single stu/bedrwithouthb 4 2-studentunit, also usedfor conferences 1 B 2desk 3wa4 bathr tenance costs. Some governments make grants to subsidise annual income. This canbe supplementedbylettingforconferences,educational courses, holidayvisitors.In somecountries educationalestablishments and studentunions have formed businesses provide off bldg for letting sothat income can subsidise hostels. Size ofhostel rmand amenities to be provided therefore depend on usesbldg can be puttoand on annual income obtained. Single students generally need accn for 30—33 week/year. Married usually for 50—52 weeks. Accnshould caterfor children outside play spaceand be placed near shopping and social services and amenities. Trend to house students in range of accn for all categories; many students prefer small independent units sharing some variety ofaccnto institutional residential communities. Forsocial and admin reasons first year students usually placed in halls of residence with staff rm, area kitchen, laundry and ironing rm, toilets, sto etc, meals being taken in dining centre. Dining rm—.p142 Halls with shared diningand social services normally planned as large number of study bedr with central bathr and small kitchen: may also be rm orflatforstaff member provide supervision. In recent residential bldg provision made forstudents prepare and take allmeals independently in ownsocial groups. Smallgroupsupto4 students needbeself-selected; groupof6—8socially largeenough divide intosub-groups without being too big share cooking eqp successfully; 12ormore donotformcohesive group: shared kitchen with dining rm used forother activities could lead toproblems. Conference use requires mm washbasin in each rm with goodaccess car parking, lecture and dining rm: alternative accn forfew students in residence during vacations and sto for possessions needed. Independent housing or hostel units favoured by final year and postgraduate; can be in purpose-built groups, located in urban community orconverted houses. Shared accn also —p99 ACCOMMODATIONREQUIREMENTS 5 Doublestu/bedr 1 divanB 2curtain 3deskwith drawerunit 4easychair 5 heatingconvector 6book shelfover 7table with bookshelves8built-in wa ji liR' stu/bedr 7 dOue siu/bedr hb Typicalcompositeaccess(corr accesssimilarbutcontinuous betweenstaircase):noteposition ofdr/kar& sharedwashr&toilet 6 1-bed/studyspace 9—15 m2; 2-bed/study space 13—19 m2 (unpopular with UK students; liked in USA); self-catering unittotal area 16—20 m2: areas may be slightly reduced in family' flats to allow more room for Typicalstaircaseaccess stul Stu/ SIU/ stui Stu/Stu/ dJ ' rbedrbedr s,o wcCpd skrbedrbjbedr ________ stu/ FtL?rrT bedr Irr-' ty lI1-ILll WCW sk sho stul bedr JfstuI stu/Istu/ siu/sStU/ ebedrbedbedr drbedbedr 8 Corr access round service core;e = elevator amenity space. Rm to befurnished with bed/divan, deskand chair, shelves and hanging for clothes 0.8—1 m2, open adlustable shelving and pin board, easy chair, small table, bedside table, mirror, bin, rm lightand desk/bed lamp, 2 power points, rm heater, carpet, dense curtains/blinds. If wash basin included providetowel rail, mirror, cupboard or shelf, shaver point. Rm showersand wc sometimes included on individual orshared basis. Some rm should be larger toprovide forentertainingand meetings. Provide proportion of rmsuitable forphysically handicapped. Married student accn should comply with normal housing space standards —p4448: somewill have families Provide background heating supplemented by rm heater controlled by occupant. Ensure goodsound insulation, especially round service pipes. Shared accn —.p99 Sanitary wc/6 students; 1 bath/6students, or 1 shower/12 students (preferably 50% baths); 1 washbasin/3 students if not provided in rm. Space standard 1.2—1.6 m2 USA:checkapplicable codesand standardsforthese details. Prefabricated sanitary units—.p65 Hot waterheating local or centralised. 1 r 10 Typicalamenityar i -r Community 141 Colleges STUDENTHOSTELS:ACCOMMODATION (cont) Amenityspace Dining kitchens not intended forCull meal service with utility space allow 1.2—1.6 m2/student.WithCull meal service allow 1.7—2 m2/student (less for more than 6 students). Where hostel close to other university bldg and communal service used, dining kitchen may be only shared social space. Cooking and dining areas should be separated with dining rm located where all students pass it. Newaccnmore likely provide self-catering. Eqpself-catering shared by 6: cooker and refrigerator, single bowl double-drainer sink, 2000— 3000 worktop with cupboards under and over (include individual food lockers), refuse with capacity 1 day's use. Provide eqp for washing, drying and ironing for each groupof rm. NB: above not normal practice in USA. Residences on campus use communal amenities; where accn some distance fromother university bldg allow withinhostel m2/student: large common rm lib/reading rm indoorgames hobby rm 0.9—1.2 0.4—1.8 0.2—0.4 0.2—0.4 Within theseareas also coffee bar/shop, ante-rm/coffee lounge, place for debates and society meetings, television, music practice, lay for visitors asappropriate in accordancewith local reg. Offices Large residences away from campus need some off with approx areas (m2): warden/supervisor 20, secretary/archives 20, management committee/consult mi 30, housekeeper* 9, cleaner's changing rm* 9 porter* (next toentrance) 9, students' union 20. * also needed when residence on campus. Staff 03 6m 9 18 ft I StudentresidenceGuildford England asecond,first&groundfloor plansoftypical unit bsectionsAA&BB croofplanofcourt Arch RobertMaguire& Keith Murray __________________________________________________________ Design tosuitsingle, married and marriedwith familycategories. Some accnwithin residence provides supervision. Separateaccnin housesor flats most economical. Wardenneeds (m2)67—93; single academicstaff and housekeeper each 56—67; single supervisory staff 46—56; single domestic staff asfor students. Ancillary Allow baggage sto 0.3 m2/student. Provide adequate central sto for household and cleaning eqp, linen, furniture and refuse; on each floor sto for cleaners and eqp with sink and watersupply. Provide laundry chuteif appropriate. Circulation areas and ducts account for 2—5.7 m2/student. Ensure passages adequate for trolleys (carts) and carrying suitcases. Provide entrance hall supervised by porter with space for notices, telephone kiosks and milk and mail delivery. Bell system orloudspeaker willserve to transmit messages inconjunction with sometelephone points. Finishes Materials should be durable, hard and needlittle maintenance. Layout&building form 036m 9 18 ft 2 HaIlofresidencenextcampus Southampton England typicalfloor plan ArchJ SBonningtonPartnership a Single row arrangement: widthof bldg 5500, rm 3500, corridor 1500; doublerow arrangement: width 10 m, 2 rm each 3500, corridor 2000; triple row arrangement: width14000,2rm each 3500,2 corridors each 1 500 with artificially lit and ventilated centre blockforwashr etc.Typeof access available: bystairs to rm, by stairs and shortcorridors, bystairs to central corridors. Adequate means ofescape in case of fire must be provided —*p44 91. With 4 floorsand more elevators required: more economical build up to3storeys. Car parking: mm ratio 1 space/3 students; sto for bicycles and motor cyclesalso. Site footpaths away fromground floor windows and maintainprivacy. 2 WJ_LLJL'.U IFTTrTTTTrf.-4 b 010, ______Om 326496 ft __________________________________________________________ 3 QuincyHouseHarvardUniversityUSAprovidesintegrated communalservices asecondfloorplan 1 singlebedr 24-man duplex suiteliv, bedraboveorbelow 3tutorliv 4stu 5bedr b firstfloorplan 1 k 2servery 3dr 4janitor 54-bedrsuites 6liv 7bedr 8listening rm 9workr 10 3-bedrunit 11 reading nn cground floorplan 1 lowerlob 2grillrrn 3seniorcommons4juniorcommons 5tutorialcentre 6superintendent 7service&gar 8entrance lob 9 house off 10tutor suite 11 guest suite ArchShepleyBulfinchRichardson &Abbot 142 Community Colleges REFECTORIES/DININGHALLS Can be provided in separate bldg within hostel (dormitory), within community activities bldg or as separate bldg. Space requirements depend on type ofservice(self-service fromcounter, self-service from disheson table,waiter service) and seating arrangement but generally allow 1.2 m2/student, allowing for number ofsittings. Longtables with benches —(1) preferable (not USA) to small with chairs: cheaper, durable, space-saving, easyclean and clear. Width ofseat 600; width oftable600—(preferably)700. Space for cross passages: (500 x 1050/3 seats = 0.18 m2); add extraspace forside passagesand space in front of servery (service) and entrance. Benches should stand 80—100away fromthis table;need be only300 wide and 400—450high (easy tostepover). Benches nearwall 400 wide, including 120 distancefromwalltogive access.More convenient enterfrom side but thismeans 4 students on wall bench. For more elaborate furnishing —(2); where chairs and more comfortable tablesdesireddimensions are: widthofseat 650; widthoftable 700—800.Space required (access frombehind —hatched portion): 650 x 1150 = 0.75 m2. Share of cross passages (550 x 1150)/3 = 0.21 m2. Floor area/student with appropriate extra space as above: 1.1—1.2m2. Ifspacealongwallbehind chairs used asmain passagewidthincreased to 800. Tables with seats at either end —(3) uneconomical, spoil communal feeling and equality among students. Space needed fortables in corners (—hatching): 5900 x 2550)/12 = 1.25 m2. Space/student required Seating also —p202—4; snack bars —p205 206 Circulation ofdiners should be1-wayonly: can beachieved bycorrect disposition oftablesand sitingof columns atcorners oftables toavoid waste ofseating space —*(4). Kitchen, servery(service) and stoarea between 40—50%of refectory; food preparation 20% ofkitchen. Servery areaforcafeteria service upto 20% kitchen area. Desirable design on 1 level with convenient stores delivery:avoid staircases and elevators if possible. Kitchen should be big enough for work in uninterrupted sequence withoutopposing traffic flows fromstotoservery. Stoatstart of circulation followed by food preparation tables, sinks and eqp including area for pastry making, thence to cookers, ovens and boilers, then to warm cupboards and servery. Provide pot-wash nearto cooking area. Off for chief chef should be positioned to provide supervision of stores and deliverypoints and alsowhole kitchen area. Crockery should bestored in serveryarea and after use go by trolleys (carts), dishwashers and drying cabinets backtoservery. Good ventilating system required to draw air from dining areas and kitchen and avoiding flow ofairfromkitchen to dining area. Restaurant kitchens —'p213--.Bib217 Sanitary (USA: check applicable codesand standards):depending on location and proximity to other bldg should be provided next to dining rm; if alreadyavailable nearby suggested provision: 1 wc/100 males, plus 1/250 males, 1 urinal/25 males; 2 wc/100female plus 1/100; 1 washbasin/50P. Finishes: materials should be durable and require little maintenance. 4501 40O1 ________ ILl ?It' L______J [TT ________ I 30)1 3600 1 with allpassages and appropriate extraspace asabove: 1.2—1 .3 m2. ;ood Colleges references; —Bibliographyentries039040041 063096097113114147168176 200217226261 377413437441 446472476485526556569581 612629630652 2400—f Longtableswith freestandingbenches 500 12300 - l5ool u5 2 Longtableswith chairs 450 150—200,. Jo[ 3650 •.. 450 ,-..___t 50200o70 .1 3 Tablewith chairsatend goodarrangement of supportswithout loss of space fordining halls 4400—4600 4 Space savingarrangementof supports 5 Integratedrefectory services St Catherine CollegeCambridgeEngland ArchArrte Jacobsen Community 143 Youth hostels Oftenconversions ofexisting bldg both because ofshortage ofmoney and because often in aesthetically sensitive surroundings; therefore Youth Hostels Association (YHA) reluctant lay down definitive plans for arm2 place Comment typical hostels. Nevertheless specifications and requirements particular and detailed, specially sincetightening offire reg —a(1). In UK DES has also requirements for hostels forwhich itprovides funds: more onerous on questions ofspace. entrance hall off/reception/shop 14 drying rm 14 Bed spaces luggage rm 14 3.1 m2 floor ar/Pin dormitories 1 wc/1O bed spaces 1 hb/6 bed spaces 1 b orsho/20bedspaces common rm dining rm member's k warden's k For purpose ofcomputing floorarea DES disallows any partoffloorover whichceilings less than 2100high. 11 18.5—23 46.5 16 16—23 9.3 Ia Wash-up 11 wardenssitr 14 YHA has lower standards, depending on grade of hostel: simple or standard. Simple (need not have resident warden) mm 2.04 m2/bed space; standard (must have resident warden living within curtilage of hostel at all times when open to members) for dormitories mm 2.32 m2/bed space, recommended 2.78m2.Asdouble bunksnormally used thismeans6.31 m2/bunk if DES standardsto be met. bedr Warden,s wardens2nd bedr warden's 3rd bedr 7.5 wardens bathr 3.25 dormitories 158—167 wc washing accn Dormitories YHA, ruling body for hostels in England and Wales (Scottish YHA has similarstandards), lays down allhostels must haveseparatedormitories formenandwomen, with separate access. Layoutofdormitories should be suchthatcan beusedbyeither sexasbookings demand: meansthat either sex must be able to reach appropriate lavatory. Most compact solution blockof intercommunicating rm with appropriate door locked between sexes. YHAaimstoswitch to arrangementin many continental hostels with4-beddormitories,with sanitaryaccnreachedfrom common corridor, motel style. DES pressing for degree of privacy in washing arrangements for women, satisfied by arranging washbasins in own cubicle with curtain at entrance. 1 airing cpd blanket sto cycle sto 3.75 28 with bench & shoe rack hatchto entranceha, reasonablyclose to warden'sk preferablyaccessiblefromentranceha withoutpassingthrough principalrm: with racks orhangersheated ifcombinedwith drying rm, laundries& wc 14—1 8.5 m2 each or0.7—0.9 m2/P with directaccess aspossibleto dr ifpossible with hatch&door combined fordirect serviceto dr: skinkpreferred to separatesd; accessto dustbtns each with 1 or2 sk; tablespace fordirty crockery; easy accessfromdr; if possiblereasonableaccess to warden's kforreturn of crockery layout ofthese will depend usually upon balanceof convenience,privacy, as ect ,e3.16/P forhosfellersnotlessthan 5,forwarden1 foreach sex 1 washrmwith b(separated bypartitions)orsho, 1 footbath,basins to DES standards forwarden's use warmed forabout30cycles, preferablyin racks: 1 machine/305 note: floor arintendedasrtiin desirablebutinalterationsmuchwill depend on existing bldg YHA scheduleofaccnfor50-B hostel 1 Hosteller'samenities As hostels closed during day arriving members need luggage rm to leave gear withouthaving access to rest of hostel; may be combined with drying rm, where hostellers take off outer clothing before booking in at reception desk. Toallowto cookown meals members' kitchen provided inall hostels, in addition to kitchen of wardenwhowill also cookforhostellers. Members' kitchens have combined double cooking rings and burners and grill units, fuelled bypropane gaswhere mains services notavailable.Locker space also required, and also washing up space, in addition to that intended forthosehostellers whotake warden's meals who are required towashup. dustbins solidtuel cycles r wardens blanket dryingrm Ihotwater boilerl bathr L .1 , wadens bedr a , drysto reception ofl&shop 2 Imen s - wardens k I dOnniitorylleSl I mess waslrn, I common/ - dui, dormitoryliesi , I wardens worishop ' entranceha 11 Warden'squarters Hostels with more than 40beds usuallyadministeredbymarriedcouples, possibly with children whowill needliving quarters. Largest hostels will have assistant wardens, provided with own sitting rm, staff dining rm, kitchens and recreation rm. Sb gar& lightingplant & tuei it . ro' ' doflTiitorylieS) womens membersk I wash-up Schematiclayoutfor 1-storeyyouth hostel In larger hostels chief warden's quarters should be in form of selfcontained house orflat, with 3 bedr, bathr, kitchen, dining rm and sitting rm. In these circumstances hostellers' accn should never be over or underwarden's. Fire safety YHA increasingly concerned with applicationofmore stringent standards of fire safetyto both new and existing hostels. Sources of danger have beenidentified asprimarily: interference with stoves orheaters,particularly indrying rm; el orgas faults; smoking; misuse ofcooking stoves in members' kitchens. Provisionof meansofescape inoldbldg difficult. Fr required for protected staircases difficult provide in bldg with timber floors. In smaller hostels, akin to domestic houses, distancestravelled on fire escape routes not normally long enough to contravene reg. Generally 18 m traveldistancetoplace ofsafety considered max where floors timber, or 30 m where non-combustible. Mm of 2 staircases normally required, in such positions that no person on anyfloor has to go furtherthan max travel distance to reach staircasesorotherpoint of accessto place ofsafety. 3 YouthhostelconvertedfromexistinghousebyYHA: a ground floor b 1st floor J 144 Community Youth hostels GERMANSTANDARDS Small hostelwithdormitory 30—50 beds Standard size40—i 00beds Large 100—250beds Very large 250—600beds Optimum 120—180 beds,with 400 upper limit. Relate number ot beds to av numbervisitors; design sleeping lager to cope with peak holiday demand. a Siting: open, sheltered from wind, main rm facing SE,S. Spacerequirement: forstandard hostel: indormitory 2.2—2.8 m2/bed; for 2-tier bunks 1 8—2.0 m2; 1—2 large rm with 20—30 beds, orsmaller with 4—12 beds; 8-bedrm much valued. Also rm forsick and accidents d 1—2 beds. Av occupation approx 40% girls 6O% boys; sexes either on separate floorsor segregated by partitions: some rm arrangedto meetdifferent balance upto 50/50.Av rm height 2800, not less than 2500. Dormitoryfloorarea 1.5 m2/bed. Plankbeds: single tier 1.2—1.5 m2/bed, 2-tier 1.1 m2/bed. Common rm 1.0—i.5 m2/bed. Meeting/discussion rm sound-proofed and located away fromotherday rm. Wallspreferred wood lined, with rucksack stands and tip-up benches. 8600 — 3800 —f- -——t T __________ ______ 3800 — r..s—..-. __________ ______ ______ ______ ________ \v C, ot o. 0 10 I — F— 4750 5000 crockery washed by users Larder next kitchen, long narrow and cool —I —H 0 C, f00 00 — 2800 J 0 U, —4 Typicalsleepingrm; mm ar between skirtings,4-bed 16 m2 (1 bed 4m'), 8-bed 16m2(1 bed 2 m2), 10-bed30m2 (1 bed3m2), 20-bed30m2 (1 bed 1.5m2);inlargedormitories32 beds32.7m'(1 bed 1.02m2) 2 Kitchens: Both visitors' and warden's kitchens nearentrance,preferably with light from2 sides. Visitors' kitchen fitted for self-catering; in smaller hostels can be in common rm, otherwise separated, also apart from warden's kitchen. Generous provision of cooking eqp; 100-I boiler and sk. Rambler's kitchen big enough for group eat and also sit in winter. Warden's kitchen: glass door or window allows supervision of coming and going; food hatch tocommon rm. Equippeddouble sk, lowslop sk, 600 deep dresser under windows, lockable draw for money, power pointsfor kitchen appliances; if gas-fitted, low rings for large pans. Sk and crockery cupboards next food hatch and apart frommain kitchen: Warden's quarters: mm 3 rm each approx 16 m2 including kitchen, whichmay beon same floor or separate, in which case onground floor nextto reception and with sitting rm, upstairs being 1—2bedr next girls' sectionand bathr. Assistants 7 m2/P Entrance sheltered from wind or with porch; convenient approach, sheltercanopy, easyforwarden watch over. Focusofhostel hall and day rm, divided into noisy (workrm, table tennis, games, dancing), normal (common rm, dining rm), quiet (writing, reading, discussion, office, sleeping):noise control by separation ondifferent floors. Washrooms: area 0.35—0.4 m2/bed; 1 washbasin/4—6beds; 1 footbath/15 beds, 1 shower/20—40beds. Showers can be in basement, betternext bedr. Ground floorwashr for arrivals. Lavatories: 0.3—0.35 m2/bed; 1 wc/i urinal/8—iO boys; 1 wc/6—8 girls: lower proportion in larger hostels Laundry ifpossible related bathr, showers and heating; in large hostels machines and spin driers. Ancillaryrooms: sto for packs, bicycles, sports gear; drying rm; shoe cleaning; utility rmforhostel eqp, first-aid box; dark rm in larger hostels; warden'sworkshop. Construction: suiting environment; resistant rough treatment; stone and timbermainly, mm plaster. 3 Large hostel inGermany ArchLauterbach Community 145 Libraries INTRODUCTION allocation percentageof total ar Essential that close rapport be established between librarian and architect; for largest schemes libraryconsultant should beemployed. adultlending 27 (up to 40 in small units) Types Community: primarily lending books to adults and children and with general reference section. Current trend in UK towards larger central libraries with branch satellites; rural areasoftenserved by mobile units. Specialised: primarily used for reference,with small loan section. Nationaluniversity: used forreferenceand research;continuallygrowing collections. See alsoschoolmedia centres —*pl29, hospital libraries—*pl77. Increasing literacy and leisure timeplus information explosion' make it important to plan for max flexibility and for future expansion. New techniques arechanging methods ofcontrol/indexing/retrieval. PATTERN 3 main elements, materials, readers, staff, are related in varying ways depending on organisation policy: eg community, school and hospital libraries require predominantly 'open access', ie readers have direct access to books; catalogue a necessaryadjunct.At times largenumbers of people circulate among spread-out shelving unitsand are attractedto browse. Larger libraries including universities and colleges concentrate sto in 'open stack' and put readingspacesnearbyratherthan amongstshelving. Formal arrangement ofthisoften used in USA. Alternative 'closed acess'allows no contactbetween readersand books except through staff via catalogue. This method used for major sto in national, largecity and county referencecollections, forrare and valuable booksand as 'back-up'sto in any library: 'closed stack'. Specialised/large libraries may have separate subject dept each with enquiryservice; catalogue should remain centralised unless computer based. Reference and loan section catalogues may bedivided. reference children circulation/ services! ancillaries 20 13 (maxar 150m2) 40 (about halfforstaff rm) in small librarieschildren's % arshould increase & reference decrease Adult lending population served 3000 5000 10000 20000 40000 60000 60000 80000 100000 total vol 4000 4000 6000 12000 24000 24000 36000 44000 50000 floorarin m2 100 100 100 180 360 360 540 660 750 open access accn; 15 m2/ l000vol(butminar 100 m2);includes local circulation, catalogues,staff counters, informalseats tor browsing at 1/1000 population,some display eqp Children Floor ar 75—100 m2 for populations up to 10000, and 100—105 m2 for 10000to 20000people. Basis as for adults (seeabove); but does not include space for study/talks/storyhours'. Separate entrance sometimesprovided:but control becomes difficult. Reference Allow 10 m2!1000 vol as less need for generous circulation. 1 study space of2.32 m2/1000population,with somedegree ofprivacytoavoid distraction; these figures willcoveranystaff desks required. None of the adult, children or reference figures include provision for periodicals, sf0 ofaudio-visual materials. SPACE STANDARDS Appreciable differences to be found among national and international authorities. Following generally basedon IFLA standards: Communitylibraries population served allowance per 1 000 population '10000 to 20000 42 m2total floorar 20000to 35000 35000to 65000 65000to 100000 over 100000 1 39 35 31 28 Figuresbasedonsurveys, butcan beuseful check; include all general but not indirect services (meeting rrn, lecture&exhibition spacesl 2 Relationships Smallbranch lib,WorcesterEngland, 98m2 5500 vol ArchTLewis 146 Community Libraries ENTRANCE vision. Function: to register new readers, issue and receive loan books, deal with reservations and fines. In small librariesalsohandles reader's enquiries—(1 )—(3). P4,, 'I <'1'I ,,' TuII CONTROLAREA Close to or within sightof bldg entrance, and with space to absorb congestion at peak hours, but located toallow max visibility for super- out returned Community libraries should clearly declare bldg function, and be welcoming. Lobby should reduce entryof noise/draughts. Provide visual stimulation here. Adequate control needed to prevent high losses of booksetc throughexit: some have had to use turnstiles or electronic detectors. Remember needs of disabled people (ramps/elevator! escalator —.p85—7 407 408 412). Should lead to control/guide area —*below, with display en route. I I 1'ir, Small lib, staffof1; snag: cross circulation 1 I returned boOks GUIDE AREA Islandcontrol,1 staff at off-peak; snag: separationfromotherstaffar 2 out I Card index/book sheaves/computerprint-out books, located near control orenquiry, en route toalldeptserved, also closetocatalogueworkarea. If card index, allow say 12 m2 covering 36000vol. )1r1 // TJ ENQUIRYDESK ' II I I I (i__i Near catalogue guide and bibliographies.Can help to share supervision with control. MATERIALS 3 Large lib,canadjoinotherstaff work ar; snag: mm 2staff alltimes Books are, and will continue to be, primary material.Space may also be required for: newspapersand periodicals,discs, tapes and musicscores, microfilms, maps and pictures; there may be more to add in future: flexibility of layout necessary. Shelvingunits Most widely usedtype is metal shelving, individually adjustable, single sided (along walls) and double sided (island). Unit height 2000 (loan area), 1 500 (children's area), 2300 (bookstack areas). Shelf depth 200—300 (children's books), 200 (fiction, literature, history, politics, economics, law), 300 (scientific, technical,med). Width of unit generally 900 in UK and USA. Main routes in open access' areas 1 800 clear width, and minorroutes 1 200. Bookstacks Optimum length ofshelving 6 units(5400) to max 8 units(7200) but 4 units(3600)whereaccessible onlyfrom1 end. Centres ofislands where openstack' are 1 280—1 520 (gives about 164 vol/rn2); where 'closed stack' centres are 1 060—1 280 (gives 200—215 vol/rn2). Choice between these limits depends on selection of shelf depthsand aisle widths. Derivations from stack centre figures will give choice of economic structural grid dimensions atcentres of5400,6000,6850,7310,7620, 7750and 8350. Sub-divisions ofthesefigures will relate-windows,roof lights, fixedelements, ventilation and lighting. Optimum column sizes should be contained within 450 x 450 less finishes and tolerances, clear ceiling height approx 2400. Load-bearing stackunits nolonger favoured. Multi-floor 'closed stacks' inhibit flexibility and require book hoistwith staff captive on each floor. Large area stackmore flexible; max horizontal distancefrombookshelf toexit or book elevator approx 33m: may need mech conveyors. Variation for 'closed stack' sto: compact moveable shelving, of which most common is 'right angle roller' type. Saves 5O% of floor space compared with static unitsbut expensiveand creates extrafloorloading. Space saving of 40% if aisles in static shelving were reduced from900 to 550 wide. Consider dividing into fr compartments of about 450 m2. Use tempor smoke detectors, not sprinkler system (causesmore damagethan fire). Reading/study Work table of 900 x 600/reader who should sit facing low screen possiblywith built-in light. Student should have 2.32 m2 (which includes circulation space), screened on 3 sides(open carrel); research worker 4 MetropolitanTorontolib, largestpublicinCanada,housesover 1.25 million books, one thirdondisplay; spaceforover800readersto studymostly in arwith some naturallight key services 1 information 2gailery 3 synthesis 4eritendedhoursreading 5metroinformation 6newspapers7snacics 8rneeflng 9sto 10 audiovisualservices 11 generalreference& information centre l2circuiation 13 himstack l4graphics lsbibhographicaicentre16 senidEng&receiving 3.0m2 ormore screened on 4 sides (enclosed carrel).Aimgivesufficient privacy for mental concentration yet open enough to know if space occupied and not misused. Lockable cupboardswhere books reserved there for periods. In community librariestrend away from formal reading rmtowards small scattered alcoves and nooks. In university libraries either large reading rm separated from books stacks or, more commonly in UK, reading areas round perimeter of stack areas, with further seatingwithin stacks. Community 147 Libraries WORKAREAS Unpacking and despatch, accessions and cataloguing, binding and repairs, photocopying and typing Offices Staff rest rm, lockers, lavatories Mobile lending service: weather protected off loading,vehicle garaging, sto for book stock ANCILLARIES Studyrmfor reference materials Typing/photocpy rm Projection for slides, cine film, microfilm Exhibition space, chairsf0, rm forgroup meetings Theatre (film, lecture, music) Junioractivityareas, groupprojects, story telling Cloakrooms Lavatories (locate toavoid use by general public) Telephones FLEXIBILITY Larger the library greater the need for freedom of futurechange with interchangeability of major stack areas, reading areas, staffareas. Fixed elements (lavatories,staircases,major services etc) should begrouped. Best if floors can carry stack loadinganywhere. Consider future expansion and possible effect on primary bldg. Partitionsshould beremovable. In medium and small community libraries some flexibility desirable (avoid built-in' fittings); but designer should beware lack of acoustic separation and loss of identify forareas of different function and mood. Consider changes oflevel. FINISHES& SERVICES Carpet general floor areas except stack and work areas; carpet or resilient flooring staff side of control; carpet all steps and stairs in quiet areas; sound absorbent ceilings toallareas. Palecolour floor in stack to reflectlight tobookson lowest shelves. Book spines highly decorative: forwallsand columns consider naturalwood/fabric/quiet paint colours. Underfloor coil orducted warm air heating; at least3airchanges/hr. For older books and manuscripts hum controlled to 55%. In reading areas give temp of 20—22°C,USA: 18°C winter 26°C summer; but lending dept can belowerasmost people wear outdoor clothes (add local heat in controland otherworkareas). In larger bldg provide air conditioning at outset; or at least plan for futureinstallation, especiallyforrare orvaluable collections (contents of libraries often cost more than bldg itself). Air conditioning standard in USA.Avoidentryofdirectsunlight; minimise solar heatgain (unlesscan be used for heating). Lighting by fluorescent tubesgenerally butadditional tungsten lighting to indicate changes of function/environment and to add sparkle and interest. Emergency lighting also required —Bib1 12. Artificial lighting en lux—°p225: control/enquiry600lx, reading tables400 Ix in lending, but 600 lx in reference, book stacks 100 Ix on vertical surfaces, cataloguing and workrrn 400 Ix. Shelfunitsin lending areas needspecial measures:consider illuminated canopy projecting about 500 from top of unit with sockets served by underfloor ductdistribution. Mm DF—p1 727—9 10% with reflectanceof 80% (wallsand ceilings)and 30% (floors and furniture). 1 Citybranchlib, DurhamEngland,496 m2 17000vol ArchA W Gelson 2 Universitylib en USA Arch Curtis& Davis 148 Community Libraries EXAMPLES a r key 1 entrance 2 cIa 3 wc 4 elevator 5 photocopy 6 catalogue 7 issuedesk 8 carrels 9 seminars 10 reference inquiries 11 courtyard 12 cataloguing 13 subject inquiries 14 off 15 librarian 16 deputy librsrian 17 despatch 18 machine rrn 19 stsffrm 20 bookstacks 21 escape fromfloor above 22 escape stair if I p. ft,, = ct 4+4P == 23void ite 13 —42 jfl 1sLllhI1LJ ...HTr\.l 0 10 20 30 m do ro don PolytechniclibPortsmouth England provides sto formorethan 320000 volumes&3000currentjournalsonopenaccesswith reading accnfor500 students asecond floor bfirstfloor cgroundfloor Arch AhrendsBurton & Koralek 2 NathanMarshPuseylibCambridgeMassachusetts USA, an undergroundsub-dMsionwhichaddsover8000m2 to HarvardCollege lib, appearsfromoutsideasslantinggrass-covered embankment; lawn, trees, shrubsgrowinstone-rimmedearthplatform whichformsroof alevel 1 blevel 2 clevel3 ArchHughStubbins &Associates 1 Libraries references —*Bibliographyentries 065 073314 323 353 399 437 455471 472 474 476622625641 652 Community 149 Hospitals HEALTH SERVICESSTRUCTURE Role and relationship to clientof architect in designing for health care services affected by nationaldifferences in healthcare structure: wholly state organised, provided by private resources or organisations or community, or mixed. In UK, though some hospitals, homes and clinics practice) still private, by far greater part, forming (and local family bulk of medicoarchitectural practice, now crown property administered by National Health Service (NHS). Under direction Dept ofHealth & Social Service (DHSS) or Scottish Home & Health Deptservice organised into 3tiers; regional, area and healthdistricts. Broad planning,design and construction new bldg falls to regional authorities (RHA: in Scotland area health boards) while health districts (HD) serving 100000—500000population have immediate control individual hospitals, clinics and health centres (HC). NHS in England to be restructured 1982to only 2 tiers: existing RHAs and new DistrictHealth Authorities (DHA). Traditionally in USA health care industry much more varied with health services provided by private, educationaland religious sources, community, state and federal bodies. More recently position modified by National Health Planning & Resources Development Act 1974 which greatly increased influence of federal agencies, providing for national guidelines for health planning and for setting up in each state Health Service Areas and Health System Agencies: asresult architects's client more likelybe state agency than individualinstitution. Despitethesedifferences, and with variations of emphasis, structure of health services inindustrialcountries essentiallysimilar. Majorelements: Ambulant patient care: exemplified by group practice or medical officebldg, local orcommunity clinics, health centres (HC), forming first contact between medical care and patient. Small hospitals: range from10—15 beds (UK 'cottage hospitals') upto 100beds,offering basic inpatient services. In UKmost private hospitals fall within this class. Community hospitals (UK District General Hospitals(DGH)): mediumsizedto largewith 200—600 inpatientbeds and most orallmajordiagnostic In USA broad range of material, less organised, available. Sources: Robert Wood Johnson Foundation(Princeton NJ), sponsors studies on ambulatory care; Assistant Secretary for Health, Dept of Health & Human Services (WashingtonDC) for enquiries on all aspects ofhealth services planning; Kellog Foundation (Battle Creek Mich); American Hospital Association (Chicago Ill) has extensive reference services; National Technical Information Services (Springfield Va). PLANNING& DESIGN Hospitals an amalgam of components, some simple, some extremely complex: each has time scale whichcovers useful design life, iebefore it needs eithermajor alterationsorreplacement. Bycarefulplanning and design components with similar characteristicscan begrouped together so as to be adjacent to both thosethey serveand thosewith similar structural and service characteristicsand lifespans. Largeor medium hospital complex includes not only patient accnand medical/technical installations but large admin section —p179—80, electro-mech plant and engineeringservices, laboratoriesand pharmacy —p1 76 177, library p177, industrial installations for food services and laundry—p180, supply, service and disposal (sometimes in separate complex), lecturehalls, staff hostels and restaurants,carparks. Hospital essentiallydivided into2 main units: inpatientcare and outpatient care; further essential units; diagnosis and treatment, admin; frequent additional unit: education and research. In early planning relationship between thesesignificant; diagnosis and treatment appearsas linking function—(1)(2). Ideally these would all occuron 1 plane; however muchsite and other organisational factors impose multi-storey design easeof lateral movement remains prime consideration. Before designer puts pen to paperbrief must be prepared explaining operational policies ofhospital, with description ofactivities tobecarried out and resources required to do this efficiently. Successful design relies on effective and detailed brief: preparation must be joint venture between hospital usersand architect with hisdesign team. and treatment specialties. Also provide some teaching for med, nursingand para-medstaff.Also providespecialistsupport forHC—4p181. Tertiary or teaching hospitals: usually have 600—1 000 beds, house not only all basic services but sophisticated specialties. Most provide teaching formed students, nursingand para-medstaffand post-graduate training and research. Longstay: for elderly, chronically sick, children, psychiatric patients and some otherspecial purposes p158 162—3 164. In relation to all these, continuing change of emphasis; general trend now shorter stay in hospitals, increase in specialist dept and services, greaterstress on outpatienttreatmentandambulantcare,anddevelopment ofsuchlocal services as health centres and clinics. In manydeveloping countries pattern and orderofpriority different, with greater stress on provisionoflocal unitsforessentialpreventivemedicine campaigns and techniques. Building regulations Whereas in UK nationalbldg reg apply tonewand upgraded healthbldg inUSAfederal, state and local codesand standardsmust beconsulted. 1 Hospitalsectors: diagram of relationships INFORMATIONSOURCES In UK DHSS provides design information on specific areas, services and eqp: published as DesignGuides; BuildingNotes (HBN), Equipment Notes (HEN) and Technical Memoranda (HTM); tendency now to provide more comprehensive and detailed information on Activity Data Sheets (ADB). Known as 'Red Pack', as yet incomplete, ADB sheets contained in 8 volumes divided into categories: 'A' describe activity space and list eqp required, together with appropriate physical and environmental standards; 'B' contain diagrams of individual pieces of eqp. 'A' sheets offer choice: decision rests with planningteam. Sheets not computerised, have tobe collated manually. Other material is available fromsuch sources as King EdwardVII Fund for Hospitals in London, Nuffield Foundation, and SHHD and Central Services Agency (CSA); former Scottish Hospital Centre (SHC) produced small practical information sheets based on full-sized mockups of hospital rm. RHA, Welsh Technical Service and DHSS(NI) also produce guidance material. 2 Hospitalsectorsdiagramimposed onoutlineofNewYorkUSA Hospital: d&t = diagnosis&treatment 150 Community Hospita/s MODULARDESIGN •SS... Both in USA and UK pressure to contain costs encourages use of modular systems design —(1 )—(4). DHHS in UK sponsored range of standard designs for whole hospital: 'Harness'method Range of dept based on common design module of 15 m selected as required to meetoperational needs and grouped in correctfunctional relationship to Harnesszone'of communicationsand services. 'Nucleus' Evolved from Harness, Nucleus provides initial 300-bed serviced unit withinphased development. Typical harness'developmentplanforDGH 1 'Best buy' Standard hospital design providing complete packagefor600-bed DGH. TIME SCALES FORHOSPITALPLANNING Multi-professional project teams make lengthy briefing, feasibility and sketchdesign stages inevitable; inception of project tocommissioning can take 10—20 years: as resultmany new hospitals considered by users outdated. To shorten pre-contract stage as much as possible architect should produce carefully preparedtime-scale networks and have theseagreed byteam before workstarted. Once bldg handed over users should be given complete commissioning manual containing description of how bldg intended be used. Instructions should be given for use and maintenance; where possible full manufacturers' information should be included. Manual should be compiled asworkproceeds; this cando much toaccelerateprogramme and reducecriticisms made by users. 2 a& bTypicalDGH:York England DistrictHospital 800-B Arch Uewellyn-DaviesWeeksForestier-Walker &Bor +YRHA rn LJJJ 1 El ground floor phase 1 (nucleus) 754 16 6 3 Typical'nucleus' DGH:MaidstoneEnglandDistrictHospital Arch Powell,Moya &partners+ SETRHA 2 3: 1 main entrance 2 industrial residentstaff 6geriatricdayP 7 physical med 8psychiatric dayP 9mortuary 10k 11 residences12 parking l3wards l4acbi,in 15x-ray 16outpatients 17operatingtheatres 18isolation Key to 1 3 A & E 4 pharmacy5 non- 4 aDiagramof 16modularunitswithairducts&el/mechserviceshafts for ArmstrongHospital Kittaning PaUSA b 1 modular unitwith el/rnechservice shaft Community 6 sub-compartments exit I 750m2 I I I 0 Ii ff1 II 750m2 I 0 1 Hospitals MEANS OF ESCAPE, FIRE PROTECTION, HAZARDOUS MATERIALS exit 750m2 I II Compartments&sub-compartments ments; system makes possiblemovepatientsshortdistances,ifnecessary in beds,to section sealed offbyfire door from smoke orfire in adjoining section. f - ' Most bldg reg contain clauses on mm allowable distances between adjacent bldg and type ofconstruction acceptable to resist fire for given periodsoftime; some statedistances andconditions forescaperoutes. Up to 2 hours needed evacuate 600 patients from 2-storey, 4 hours from 11-storey bldg: exhausting exercise for rescuers. All health bldg whichcontain high proportionof bedfast,disabledand confused patients should below rise, preferably withpatients restrictedto ground and first floors. High rise bldg should be confined to sites where no other solution possible. Because of theirspecial problems health bldg in UK nowhave own more stringent fire safety measuresbasedonfrcompart- 2 compartments 1 151 protected route 32m 1 32m = ,-= =-, dual direction 0 — single direction s— d in m L64 —— Design guidance on size offire compartments and sub-compartments, togetherwith max acceptable lengthsofescaperoutes in wards, operatingtheatres, lab etc,canbefound inofficial literature(—Bib216218219). As general guidefollowing apply: Are compartments—.(1)(2)(3)(4) UK reg (USA —p152): 1-storey bldg must notexceed 3000 m2 Multi-storey bldg mustnot exceed 2000m2 Horizontal distance toalternative routes must notexceed 64 m Horizontal distance in single direction to exit must not exceed 15 m Travel distance within escape stairway must not exceed 45 m along going Pposition Firesub-compartments (patient areas) 2 l wards 3 m others 1 m I handrail 3 Floor area must not exceed 750m2 Horizontal distance toalternative routes must notexceed 32 m Horizontal distance tosingle directional exit must notexceed 15 m Max occupancy 40patients Traveldistancesforwards T Hazardous materials Some eqp and substances used in examining, diagnosing and treating patients radioactive, explosive or highly inflammable.Take everycare checkthatwhere thesesubstances used design,construction, detailing and service installationscomply with specific statutes and reg. doors to openin Onfiresafelyandhazardousmaterialsconsult official publications andhealth authority concernedbefore makingany decisions. j 950mm1 j '1 95omin'T' protectedlo tostoreys above18m Escapestair dimensions 45m max travel ' .</iistancealong 2 m clear -- -- 726 4 1 i Verticaltravel distanceon escapestairs dl:fordouble carbanks •Ild2:forsinglecarbank Belevators dl = 5/2—3 x liftcardepth d2=3/2 x lift car depth 6 forO—25P for26—60P too Lfor61_2o0P 800 - Bed elevators&P elevators sao Jfor2oi+P& perlOOP Tdoloors — 5 Size ofescapedoors u jI ! Pelevators d3 =determinedbytrafficpeak I 7 2670 cardeptti Bedelevator:detail I 'I' 1' dlord2 152 Community Hospita/s MEANS OF ESCAPE (cont) Typical USA requirements given —(1)—(4). For each design project necessary consult details of relevant state and local codes. Traveldistancetoexits *these distancesorarmayvary indifferentbldg codes &canfrequentlybe 1 lengthenedin bldgequippedwithautomaticfireextinguishingsystems 2 Corrwalls:corrshall beseparatedfromallotherarbypartitionswhich shall extendfull Ii fromfloortounderside ofrooforfloor slab above;vision panels incorrwallspermittedwithwire glass:sizeofpanels limited unless wholebldg protectedbyautomaticextinguishingsystem; interiorstud partitionsmust befirestoppedtopreventfirespreadboth horizontally & vertically 4 Subdivisionoffloors:floorsusedforsleepingortreatmentofmorethan50 patientsmust besub-dMdedbysmokepartitions andshall bedividedinto compartmentsnotmorethan2090m2 inar;maxIorwofcompartments 45.7 m*; corr doorsinsmokepartititions shallbeoppositeswinging pair;doorsshall havewire glass vision panels; ductswhich penetrate smokebarriersshall mustbefirestoppedto preventfirespreadbothhorizontally&vertically have dampers *these distancesorarmayvary indifferent bldg codes; traveldistancescan frequentlybelengthened in bldgequippedwithautomaticfireextinguishing systems —corrmust provide access to at least 2 exits largerrm morethan 92m2* require 2exits notmore than 9000* 3 Arrangementofexits:allpatientsleepingrmshallhaveexit doorleading directlytoexit corrwhich shallbeat least2440 win hospitals;rmlargerthan 93 shall haveat least2remoteexits; exitcorrshall leadtoatleast2 m exits;deadend corrshall notexceed9000 *approved these distancesorarmayvary indifferentbldgcodes; traveldistancescan frequentlybelengthenedinbldg equippedwithautomaticfire extinguishing systems 5 Typesoffire detectorsaphotoelectricrespond tovisiblesmoke,workon obstructionprinciple(risingsmoke tendsobscurelightbeam&soundsalarm) bthermalrespond toheat energy cinfra-redrespond toflame dionisation respondtoinvisiblecombustion products Community 153 Hospitals DESIGN/BUILDINGCONFIGURATIONS -. ii;) heating&cooling Ideal hospital design combines clear and simple traffic configuration with ability expand bed units and service base in future, growth and change withinhospital structure being continuous. Beds do not always increase in same ratio as service programmes but each must contain masterplan ofdirection. Bldg donotoccupymajorpart hospitalgrounds; parking (1 I/2_2car/B)and multiple entrycreate larger land use. ;7 Broadlyhospital bldg made up of2parts: base and bedconfigurations. Baseconcepts Base services fall into 2 categories: ancillary services orientated to patient care and service dept suchas sto, laundry,dietary, housekeeping. These 2elements canbecombined in 1 basestructureorbeindependent. Different fire-rated enclosures may determine approach. Bed concepts Design should meet nursing concept of optimum organisation and staffing. B/staffing team usually 20—30 patients. Mix of private and semi-private rm also contributes to bed design. Mm USA Health Dept standards alsohave controlling effect. Specialty and intensive care units have lower bed ratio; long term may containmore than 30 beds. Modular nature of bed design may conflict with structure of base. Concept of using long span trusses as mech-el route between hospital floorshas developed. Question of additional initial cost as against life of bldg flexibility mustbe considered foreach project. By USA standards correct ratio beds to base for community hospital approx37—46m2/B fornursing unitsand 46—56 m2/B forbase. Teaching hospital may range up to 140 m2/B, with university programmes and children'shospitals high as 185 m2/B. datprncessirig .i auxiiiary N 0 100 200ft 30 6o m personneil "'-'J LI \J (I.. nursingunits diagnostic& treatmentservices (includingciincs,etc) [J [j admit,& pubiican supportservices Relationshipsbetweenmajordept at proposedmedicalcentreTucson USA Arch Perkins& Will 1 0 7 14 21 28m 25 50 75 lOOft 2 Master planTempleUniversityHospital PhiladelphiaUSA Arch Perkins&Will 3 Relationshipsbetweenpatientcare &support services&betweenbldg &site 154 Community Hospitals WARD DESIGN: GENERAL Outlooks on ward sizes subjectrapid change. Main recent trend away fromclassical ward types(eg 'Nightingale': 12-Bopenward withnurses desk at 1 end; 'Rigs': 24-B with nursing rm outside ward, beds set in clusters); preference nowfor2—4 B. Despite this strong preference still controversial: very small wards giveprivacy and in theory more personal attention but can also be lonely, less often visited; ie society and staff supervision possibly better in larger ward. Patients need audio and visual privacy during med visits. Background noise and bed curtains provide some in large ward but lights disturb at night; small wards peaceful for resting patient butdo notprovide audio-privacy. In USAmostcodesnow give max 4-B/rmand design standards usually followed maintain mixof2-Band 1-B. In UK small rm also common; but wardsmay consist ofmixofdifferent size rm—acute wards below. Avstayinhospital foracute med orsurgery hasfallen, eg: major surgery 10—12 days, minor2—3 days, max 6 weeks (mainly orthopedic). Wards forthesepurposes therefore designed formax efficiencyofstaffworking. Forphysically and mentally handicappedand elderly —'longstay' —ward design moredomestic and social —pl58 162 163. Key problem ofdesign for efficient ward system: relationship of nurse workingrmtopatientrm.Basic concept—3(1). WARD DESIGN:ACUTE Acute wards contain 24—30 beds; where possible should be linked togetherto form admin unit of 2 or 4 wards, whichalso enables such serviceasdayareas,doctors rm, disposal rm, stoetcbeshared between 2 wards; but check against fire reg before design decision made. Possible breakdown of bed areasfor28-bed mixed sex wards include: 3 x 8-B rm + 4 x 1-B rm 4 x 6-B rm + 4 x 1-B rm 2x 12-Brm+4x1-Brm Mostacutemed and surgical wards can be mixed-sex, argumentbeing that itincreases bed occupancy. 1-B wards needed maintainoccupancy atmax of85% orabove: 1-Balso required for patientsliable toinfection, orto infect others, thoseseriously ill or dying and thoselikelyto disturb others. Mixed-sex ward may not be acceptable to all users: check before designing onthis basis. Walking distance: keep walking distancesshortas possible for nurses and ambulant patient. Maxdistance frombed towc12mand fromnurse workingrmto furthest bedapprox 20 m. Observation: continuous observation of patient by staff essential part of nursingcare:during day achieved mainly in course ofwalking from 1 duty to another, at nightfromnurses station.Good design aim: 50% of beds to be visiblefrom nurses station. Patients gain confidence from seeing staff at work, dead-leg wards not popular forthis reason; if staff have no duty perform less likelyvisit ward. Control: patients, particularlychildren, adolescents and confused, need to be controlled; dayr must not be too isolated from rest of ward. Mixed-sexwards have own control problems. Staff need to control visitorsandcheckthat theydo not overtire patients. Noise: problem in large open areas; telephones and other eland mech eqp can be noisier than acceptable. Design for40—45 dB by day and 35—40dB at night inmulti-B wards; 1-B wards should be35—40 dBatall times. Courtyard designs can create problems of noise fromadjacent windowstodifferent rm. Daylight &glarewindows —p4O3—6 should notcause glare—p32 398 in bedfastpatients' eyes; beds should be parallelto windows unless brise-soleil, external or between-glass blinds or similar devices fitted. Windows design important:confused patientsmay try getout; allopening lightsshould have device restricting accessible opening to 100. Ventilation: mech ventilation often noisyand unsatisfactory, full airconditioning expensive install and run. Normal sites away from air or trafficnoiseshould relyonnatural ventilation; 3 beds deepfromwindow max before mech ventilation required. Central work rm require mech ventilation and sufferfromheat build-up insummer. Nurse call systems, closed circuit television (CCTV): Devices of various gradesofsophistication; all liable to abuseorfailure. Seriously ill patients cannot operate call systems therefore unwise rely on these rather than personal observation; acceptable asauxiliary system. ACUTEWARD: SUGGESTED AREAS 1-Brm I® r• • I_ option nursing sub-station A control access&egress to unit B access&visualobsefvationtoP C Convenientaccesstosupport activities 1 Diagramofnursing/Prmrelationship I :• B lOOm2 multi-Bbay (per B) dayr (perB) 9.3—10.0 m2 0.75m2 lockersetc (per B) 0.5—1.0 m2 nurse station clean utility dirtyutility& sluice 10.2—18.0 m2 14.0—16.0 m2 treatmentrm 14.0—16.0 m2 assisted bathr sistersrm doctorsrm bathr washing & sho compartment wc with handrinse basin 10.25—12.0 m2 7.0—9.0 m2 7.0—9.0m2 ptr ward k flowerbay cleaner sto (inclargeeqp) interview rm & overnightstay circulation ar 4.0—10.0m2 7.0m2 2.75 m2 2.0—3.0m2 4.0—6.0m2 20.0 m2 2.0—2.5m2 5.0—8.0m2 12.0—20.0m2 excluding wc& sho depending on amount of day space provided in wards orasseparateday space: separate 10.0 m2 extra space forlockers etc depending on position ofdrug, linenbaysetc ifseparatear = 9 + 7m m depending onsto provided forambulant patients forambulant P max for wheelchair P beverage &snack point only for ward k service mm may be shared with another ward 10.0—12.0 m2 25%—40% depends onward layout Community 155 Hospitals BASICWARD TYPES Linearward—(1) In past wardsdesigned on linear form: large single space, 20—30 beds supported by nurse working rm at one end, sluices and wc at other, quite often largework table middle of ward. Main ward or wards and majority of spaces naturally lit and ventilated. Observation of patients good; patients had little or nochance offeeling neglected. Background noise problem butto someextent this gave greater privacy than in4-or 6-Bwards. Since 1950's different shapes have been used (also modifications oflinearasat Guy's HospitalLondon). Deep wardor race track—(2) 1 Guy's HospitalLondon typicalwardfloor,2 x 27 B ArchWatkinsGray International centre Design concept developed in late 1950's, complete contrast to linear: patients share nothing larger than 4-bed ward. Observation goodso long asenough nurses tomove round ward. Racetrack design prevents dead-legs where patients could feel neglected. Background noise reduced but as resultaudio-privacy for consultations not so goodas in largelinear. Wards placed on outside walls, naturally litand ventilated; nurse working rm form central core, need artificial light and mech ventilation. Courtyardplan—(3)(4) Courtyard plan (harness, nucleus —pi50) attempts reduce internal working rm and providegoodpatient observation. Success of this type depends on amount ofdaylight available and degree ofprivacy obtainable. All wardshave somedaylight but some mech ventilation may be necessary. Falkirk ward;experimental, resulting fromstudiescarriedout bySHHD; built mid-i950's,2 x 30B; first& second floors 2 4 Typical 'nucleus'ward,2 x 28B 0 5 10 15 15 30 45 20m 60 ft -v hr 14 11 H I L1J2 ___ iEJ L Sm 9 20ft 5 Typical nursingfloor (48-B)AnneArundelGeneralHospital Annapolis USA Arch Metcalf&Associates 10 3 Typical'harness'ward; 72-Bunitwith 3staffbases 1 wc 2sho 34-B 4 5-B 5b 6treatment 7basecleanutility 8dirtyutility 9sister 101-B 11 day/dining 12 3-B l3sto 14visitors 15supplies 156 Community Hospita/s NURSEWORKINGROOMS p156—7 show layout, dimensions and eqp required for main nurse working rm in standard ward. Variationsin size and shape ofrm may be dictated byward plan, butworkpattern and critical clearworking spaces round beds and othereqpshould be maintained. 800mm 7200 (6-BI T 4800 (4-B) I for4-Bwaid 1 4-or6-B ward, 8.4m2&8m2/B: optimumprivacy,eachP having wallon one side; Bparalleltowindowto reduceglare;curtainsgive eachBvisual privacybutcentreBhasless;max 3-B depthbeforeartificiallighting& ventilationrequired I4 Dirtyutilityrm, 14m°,equippedfordisposablebedpans: ifnon-disposable used washerreplaces destructor,nodisposable sto needed 1 rackfor bedpancradles 2slop sk&drainer 3bedpandestructor 4spacefor disposablebedpan box 5disposal bag 6hbunit 7spacefordisposable bedpan &urinal boxes 8spacefordisposal bags 9wastedisposalbag 10urinetest cabinet 11 sk&worktop,cpd under 12sanichair dangerous drugs a [thj slidingdoor external LJ- Dbctier :f::f:f:.:.J Dtha 1 ce = 1 observation externalwet railfor 1-BwardssuitableforPliabletoinfection ortoinfectothers: a13m2with sho &wc, also suitableforotherPneedingspecialattention 12.34m2 with we, orcouldbewithoutweforbedfastPdying, needing specialattentionor likelytodisturbothers;NB 1-Bwardsforsenouslyillmustbeclosetonurses b Sb with drainers paper towels disposalbin T- L:I • 3 .—, b 1 window J el : T;ine poene MJ'3 5400 5 Cleanutilityorpreparationrm, 24.3m2; small dressing trolleys(carts) 2560 T replacetraditionalfixedworktops,considered superfluous;linenstoredon adjustableshelving&toppedupto agreed level; no linentrolleyrequiredfor clean linen c,,l 3 Id1! positionofdisposalaradjoining Iii 3200 station E[i I I 450x450 L 2 i depenserwithdrawer towel & scheduin Smallward pantry,5.5m:forbeverages & snacks only 6 Medicinetrolley (cart)chainedto wallwhennotin use Community 157 Hospitals NURSEWORKINGROOMS 2x900 leaves rnanoeuvnngfrom straighf corrthroughdoorway 1 Doors&screensinwardcorr r - -L I I -i . I_ solidorgiazed panelsifrequired sohdorglazed panelsifrequired t —— jIeoo j I 700 900 2= 500 4 Mm corrwfor manoeuvring B - T 900 double-leaf single-leaf 2 Standarddoor sizes forhospitals: wherehigh/lowB used standard 2050 doorsIi enoughtoallowthroughBwith balkan beams;mm doorwfor wheelchair800, preferred900 clock nursecall indicalor fire alarmbell Princess Grace Hospital London Small 136-bed hospital for private patients, majority from overseas. Visiting consultants and surgeons diagnose and treat patients; permanently employed nursesand support staff.Added needtoattractpatients by providing 1-B wards of domestic character and comfortable proportions (17 m2)with integral bathr, but as with NHS hospitals, prime importance to design best possible environment for diagnosing and treating patients. 9 3 Fittingsinward corr 5 5 P 3b 1 5 m 6Toft PrincessGraceHospital22-Bwardunit: privatehospital Arch RSeifert & Partners 158 Community Hospitals 2 types;forassessment ofelderly, for long term care. For assessment patients normally housed in adaptation of standard acute ward withinDGH, because accesstofulldiagnostic and treatment DATA FOR DESIGNINGWARDS:GERIATRIC services needed. For long-term patients (assessed and found to be in needoflong-term care) aim to provide homely environment in which basic nursing care can take place;emphasis on earlyambulationand rehabilitation—vpl 62. Oftenin separate bldg on hospital campus, within easyreach ofdiagnostic and treatmentservices. curtainrail curtainon3 sidesofbed ht Dedhead 1700 In UK shortage ofgeriatric beds partially overcome byupgrading some wards inolderhospitals (upgradingwards—vpl 65). Fordetailsofgeriatric bedhead bectiesdunit thermometer oo 14801 1000min — med gas outlets - bathrandwc—vp163. 1300 Bboilers 700h v——i I ingsFunc I B 2x200 w 4-500- 1A ti 95Owide 1? 200 01.I 1650 dotheshooh B —B Phclst980X880 2050+550forbedstripper shelf a 1 1100 towefraji Multi-Bward: eqp & fittingsinBar D 1500 .hb c--i_papertoweldispenser suapdispenser 4 grabriel - 100 geriatricb —— 685 • j: 230clearanceundertap C Ba hr 1300 I I I 854 clotheshook 865 i7tlsforchildrenor 1300LT#J__ — —- duct 190v60 : — papersack —— — 1100 adjustable light Staff hb unit inwards, nurseworkingaretc shed bedpanred unnetestcanet 1111111 3 -i med x330 bedpanwasher gases2400 'T 1650 diet l 1800 1200 droppedfrontsuitableforwtteelchanP 5 Shoar 7 x-rayviewer noticeboard 6 receiver notetakuigdesk 300 4lousIooe 80 x300 1 1300 IllOOforseated 1000 viewer Dirtyulilityar 6 Pwa unit (notstandard) 7 Nursesstation syringedispenser B Cleanutilityorpreparationar(dda= Dangerous Drugs Acts) I grabrid I1 nursecalletc 1 1549 Community 159 Hospitals DATA FOR DESIGNINGWARDS(cont) 580 350.. typicalbedside lockers 3 KingsFundB:2080x910x380—810h high/low B withpull-Outbedstripper / I _______ IL '. '4 t 4 Orthopedicfractureframe: B maybemovedthroughdoors x558+230space overbedtableforhigh/low B completewith frame Clinimaticdisposablebedpandestructor: dryweight110 kgmax capacity 1351 Childrenscot: 1 370 x 760 x 610 + 69ohsides 5 drip stand attachment DHSSstandard controlled drug cpd 1 Typicalward eqp 6 7 Typicalincubator Bassinetteforinfants 2 Geriatricassessment ward (upgradedNightingaleward);one problemofelderlyistoremain continent:exampleshowshow walking distancefromfurthestB reducedfrom30m to8m &dayarfor rehabilitation,dining &quiet pursuitsprovided;B reduced from 28to22&wc increasedfrom4to8; dayar2.252P 11-B2multiB rm 3disposal 5b (freestanding) 6preparationrm 7hb 8sluice 9wc 10k 11 staff clo/wc&hb 12 specialbathr/cleansingar l4eqpsto l5dayar l6quietar 17dining ar 18 nursesstation 19 DSR 22linen sto 23wheelchair sto 24sanichairsto 26sister 27staff rm 29 switchgear! calorifiersetc 31 Pclothingsto 33 lecturerm 38sho 39special couch 42doctor 44stainless steel skwith layingshelf 45lalptr 46free-standingbidet/wc 10 3 20 60 3Dm 90ft 160 Community Hospitals MATERNITY DV1F Units normally attached to DGH or community hospital. Allow 0.5 B/ 1 000 total population; 75bedscater for2700deliveries/year, 100 beds for 3600 and 125 for 4500. Maternity clinics include ante-natal, postnatal, baby follow-up and family planning. Most units require normal backup for reception, admin, including records, and provision for education. In USAtrend toset delivery suitealongside surgery suiteor L risi I Combinedfirststage&deliveryrm, 14.46m2 1 caps&masks 2baby cot 3tray 4trolley(cart) 5singlebowlstand 6scrub—uphb 7sack&stand 8heatingpanel 9obstetricB 10chair 11 slidingdoor 12writingshelf 13 bedsidelocker 14 timeelapseclock 15oxygen suction, child 16sto rack 17dispensers 18curtain 19 coathook 20spotlight21 drip poleon wallhook 22wallthermometer 23clock 24observationpanel 25sphygniomanometer 26oxygensuction, mother 27bedhead panel 28cup& flask 29overbedtray 30towel rail 31 footstool 32 analgesia trolley 33 overbedlight 1 integrate with it. Deliverysuite includes: theatre, abnormal and normal delivery rm and assessment area. For 125 beds allow 17 normal first stage delivery rm, 10 observation beds, 4 abnormal delivery rm and 1 operating theatre. Obstetric theatre suite: theatre (28 m2)with full mech ventilation, hum and coolingcontrol and antistatic flooring, oxygen and nitrous oxide and 2 vacuum points for mother, vacuum and oxygen for baby; scruband gowningareas (9.5 ml, anaesthetic rm (16.5 m2),recovery bedsfor 2 patients (25 ml and clean utility (8.5 ml. All delivery rm require pleasant daylit environment with privacy (blinds to windows), good lighting for suturing, sound attenuation, anti-static precautions, med gas, oxygen and vacuum outlets, and mech ventilation with hum and cooling installations. Abnormal delivery rm (24 m2 plus scrubarea 1 .5 m2). Normal delivery rm (15 ml: 2 of these should be quiet with blackout eqp. Combined first stage/delivery rm —+(1) enables patient stay in 1 place throughout labour, herfirstmove being topost-natalward afternormal recovery period: provide 1 oftheserm to 5 post-natalbeds. Assessment area: 20% beds should be in 1-bedwards (13 m2)with oxygen outletat bedhead, remaining 80% in multi-bed bays (9.5 m2/ bed) with oxygen outletto each pair of beds. Ancillary accn: sto, milk kitchen (14 ml and flyingsquad sto (7.5 ml — whichmay be in accident &emergency dept(A&E). 30-cotspecial care baby unit (SCBU) attached tothis number ofbeds requires 22 multi-cot bays (4 m2/cot), 7 single-cot rm (5.5 ml and 1 special-cot rm ((7.5 ml; 20 cots considered mm size for viable unit. Entrance to SCBU must include gowning and handwash areas for visitors, and changing accn for staff: female, 11—14 m2 male 7.5 m2. Bedsitting rm for mothers with sho and wc—(2). 25 L1716 Mother&child rm, 16.32m2 1 wa 2visitorchair 3window(curtainsor blind) 4mother's bedlamp 5cantilevertable 6drawerunitunder 7mother'sB8curtaintrack gchild'scot looverbedceilinglight 11 twin socketoutlet 12oxygen&suction 13locker 14childchair 15toybox 16wastesack 17hb 18toweldispenser 19towel rail 20shelves 21 wc 22baby bath 23mirror 24glazedpanel (withblindorcurtains) 25sliding door 26sho 2 1365m2 w__ _____ 2671712 21 9 9 18 16 1 96 9 10 20 64 30 96 4pm 1286 3 Obstetricdept Easthourne EnglandDGH: Adelivery suite Bmatemityward 1 wr 2seminar 3staff changing: afemale bmale 4dayr 5first stage rm 6multi-purpose 7wc 8b 9 lab 10 abnormaldelivery 11 trolley(cart) &wheelchairs 12 ovemightstay 13dirty utility l4exam l5ptr l6doctor 17 nursesstation 18chargenurse 19 cleansupply 20anaesthetic510 21 dirtyutility 22transferar 234-B 241-B 256-cot 26assistedb 27dirtylinen 286incubators29k 30 centralmilk k 31 demonstration 32 obstetrictutor 33nurseadmin 34 reception 35sb 36mobile x-ray 37 1-B toxaemia Arch SETRHA Community 161 Hospitals PAEDIATRIC& CHILDRENSWARDS o 1 20-Bchildrensward Arch NuffleldFoundation 3 6 9 12 ,1 ,1rn 9 18 27 36 ft division forarchitectural studies 3 Diagnosiscentreforschoolagechildren,convertedfromoutmodedarof olderhospitalinJerseyCityUSA; existingcourtyard used asplay rrn & receptionar;sequenceofrmprovidesboth range ofhealthtests&educational programme Arch HillierGroup a WestMiddlesexHospital b 2 West MiddlesexHospital England apaediatric/infantsward bpaediatric/children'sward A4-B/4-cot ward Al 4-B —staff B 1-B/i-cot ward Cwash/wc Dbathr Enursesstation Fcleanutility Gtreatmentrm H dirty utility/sluice Idisposallift Jptr Ktrolley(cart)bay Lsto M 2-B/mother& babyrm Ml clinicalmi—staff Nsistersrm 0doctorsrm Pconsult rm 0secretariesoff A playground P1 milkk 01 mothers si R1 relativesrm Sstaffdo clinicalrm Uelevators Vpaternosterelevators & stairs Wplay ar Xcleanersrm Yclassr Zadmission rm Arch Robert I MatthewJohnson-Marshall Both wards—(2a,b) adaptedfrom standard,partof5-storey high system bldg. Paediatric/children's ward—(2b)contains2 x 4-Bwards, 6 x 1-B wards, 2 with wc and bath attached, and 3 x 2-B wards which can be used eitherfor mother and child orfor2 patients. Classr forchildren in hospital for several weeks but fit enough attend classes, eg child with brokenlimb.Away fromward, areawith adjacenttoysto where boisterous childrenencouraged play. Protected openair play area also provided. Paediatric/infants' ward —+(2a) has 8 x 1-cotwards each fitted with babybath and 4mother and baby rmeach capableoftaking full-size bed and child's bed ifnecessary. Playspace provided togetherwith protected open air area. Milk kitchen provides for heated baby feeds and baby bottlewashing: dailythroughput 240 x 0.25 I milk, of which two-thirds kept under refrigeration; extrasto required to keep milk over public holidayperiods. 162 Community Hospita/s LONG STAYWARDS Long staywards forelderly and infirm mustbesited near publictransport for easyvisitingby relatives, often elderly themselves: need accessto diagnostic and treatment services, sowherever possible should be built on samedevelopment as DGH (community hospital) or be grouped togetherto beable tosupport own services. Patients could easilybecome institutionalised in wrong environment: Mentally handicapped often also physically handicapped may also be noisy, aggressive, overactive and selfdestructive. Particularlyimportant that furnishings besoft, spongeable and durable forthese patients, and that ceilings have sound absorbent finish. Importantprovide variety ofspaces for social meetings betweenpatients andvisitorsandbetween patients, and forsmall group chats orgames or largergroupactivities (corralcoves, small separate rm). Dining arrangements also important forproviding social and domestic atmosphere. 1 accent on self-help and rehabilitationin setting aslikehome environment as possible withoutimpairing quality of nursing care. Patients require sleeping areas whichcan identify as own, and must have ready access to personal belongings. Wc and washing places must be near to both sleeping and dayareas. Design ofdayareas should allow patientsfollow therapeutic routine enabling themcare for themselves and if possible return home to receive necessary community care either atday centre orbydomiciliary visits. Clear marking of rm, corr, elevators essential; colour coding helps Psychiatric wards —p164 Longstay patients highlydependenton staffin cases of emergency: vital fire escaperoutes be easily identified, fire stopdoors have automatic doorclosersconnectedalarmsystem and fabrics andfinishesfr. Elevatorlevel coding system usingcolours& numbers;helpfultoP with sensorydefects; raisednumeralsaid near-sightedorblind Nowfew completely bedfast patients needing bedpans and bed baths during day: majority will be taken to wc and bathr even if incapable of attending tothemselves —*pl63(2)—(7). Becauseincontinenceprevalent extrawc required aidtraining (maxdistance fromfurthest bed orcorner ofday area: 10m). Where space limited omit treatment rmand replace by cleansing rm with bath or wc each with thermostatically controlled sho handset —*pl63(2). Wc,sluices and cleansingrmmust have efficient mech extractventilation. Small utility rm with washing machine and clothesdrier needed forpatients' clothes. Provide extrasto space for wheelchairs, walking aids and sanichairs, and for greatersupply of linen, incontinence pads and, where used, disposable bedpans and urinals.Cpdalso requiredforpatients' suitcases and clothesnot in current use, and foroccupationaltherapy eqp. All floorfinishesshould be soft, non-slip and washable: plastics flooring with welded joints suitable for wc, bathr and all nurse working areas. Carpetsmay be used in wards and dayr where number of incontinent patients limited. Patients can be confused and if allowed go outside more easilycontrolled in courtyards than in open hospital grounds. All doors wide enough for wheelchairs —*p86; fire stop doors should be held in openposition byautomatic fail-safe devices foreasymovement of patients in wheelchairs or using walking aids. Termgeriatric —p158 generally used to describe those over 65 years who developseveral med problems at once and who may also suffer impaired mobility and be incontinent. 2 3 GenatricDay Hospital WaltononThamesEngland: 35 Ponbasisof5-day week;includesPassessment, med,para-rned,nursingprocedures, occupational&physiotherapy, traininginaids fordisabled&domestic routines 1 mainentrance 2reception 3do 4 interview 5speech, dentist, optician, 6 hair,chiropodist 7 sto 8off 9 individual therapy; physiotherapy 4 HostelaccnforP returning to hospital forrehabilitation courses(amputees &other physicallyhandicappedP) 1 group dayr 2fireescape stair 3 bathr 4sh 5wc 6wheelchairbay 7ptr 8sto 9doctorsrm 10sister duties 10grouptherapy;physical exercisesar 11 occupational therapy dr l2court l3dr l4dr&wr l5wr 16k&servery l7dailylMngunitbedr 18rest 19b 20assistedb 21 treatment22dirtyutility 23 consult/exam 24staff rest 25boilers&tanks Arch Derek Stow& Partners Mentallyhandicappedunit,planoftypical villa,CraigPhadngHospital InvernessScotland 1 sister 2visitors 3 Pdo 4sto 5domestic service rm 66-B 74-B 81-B 9wc l0bathr 11 staffwc l2preparation l3linen l4uty l5disposal l6hobbies l7dutyrm 18TV lgdayspace 2Odr 21k 4ft 11 dr 12duty mi 13nursesstation 14 preparation 15treatmentrm 16assistedbathr 17dirtyutility rm 18sluice rm 19staffwc 20wr 21 reception 22off 23porter 24 domestic servicerm 251-B 26 large 1-B 274-B Community 163 Hospitals: long stay LIBERTONHOSPITAL—*(1) Geriatric hospital in grounds of existing hospital; has both in and day patients with total 184 beds mainly in 24-B units. Day patients can be examined in 1 of 2 consult/exam rm and have midday meal in dr; share physiotherapy, occupationaltherapy, dental and hairdressing services withinpatients. Wards contain dining areaand 3 separatedayspaces, 1 forexercising and 2 for sitting in. Wardblock 50 4-storeyward block: 3 floors48 beds each, 1 of40 beds on first floor used for hemiplegic patients. 48-B floorsdivided into 2 x 24 nursing units, each comprising 3 x 6-B bays, 1 x 4-B bay, 2 x 1-B. Bedside fittings include nurse call, radio and tvcontrols, bed light and curtains. Each 24-Bunithas2 bathr, 4wc,clean preparationrm, dirty disposal rm, shares exercise/drfor ambulant patients, and 2 small dayr. Each floor I!:J!iJ H-i 83Vij 56 entrance has ward kitchen, med officer's rm and sister's rm. j• 0 Groundfloor Entrance hall with reception counter and general waiting area. Lift hall with nursingand admin offices, hairdressing rm, porter and shop. a 63 5 10 1 b 16 32 - 6J 66 15 2am I 48 64 1 It LibertonHospitalScotland afirstfloor geriatricinpatients bgroundfloor geriatricday P 49commonrm 50physiotherapy 51 dentist 52chiropody 53MD clinic 54therapist 55almoner 56wr 57hairdressing 58 darkrm 59consult/exam 60seminarinterview rm 61 medstaff 62lounge 63canteen 64dining ar 65servery 66trolley(cart)wash 67potwash 69cold sto 70reception 71 porter 72admin &nursingstaff 73generaloff 74shop 82bathr 83occuptional therapy 84wardar 85treatment 86exercise& dayr 87doctor 88sluice 1 Occupational and physiotherapy, med social worker, dentist and chiropodist share patient waiting area. Day patients and dr for midday meals served from kitchen which also provides staff meals in small canteen. Consult/exam rm separatedfromtherapeutic/social areas. EQUIPMENT cutacle partition imperviouswall tinish sho curtains sho handset Tc!_ t floorchannel -, L1 Ddspos11 hoolrs' ' ptatform 1 980x550 ___ -, fl — hand spray hooha I laid to ) i.—L YntSt1 shj curtain I trotley sanichairs (cart) rlIr I Li trolley 3200 , T1• 1300 , 1300 (Th I I 5 b& platform elevator I Tl Incontinentbathr &wc,8.6m2+ 7m2; may beplannedasseparateunits; requiredinwardscaringforelderly& handicapped wherepolicyofearly ambulationcoupledwith needto extendnursingcaretonon-bedfast P; bothb &wcequippedwith low-pressureshohandsetto easeproblem ofcleaning incontinentP; goodventilationrequired:allowfor6airchanges/hr at peak times 2 It t 3 Assistedwc afornonwheelchairP requiring assistance of 2nurses b forwheelchairP requiringassistanceof 2nurses U0 1 a 4 Mobilebelevator 'astern 1800 Di door I ducttor 2170 6 Elevatingb 7 Fibreglasssittingb: dryweight52kg; avb 1251 4—1800---4250 1710 b 880 tagh 164 Community Hospitals PSYCHIATRICCENTRES a Present trend away fromisolated sitesforpsychiatrichospitals in favour ofplaces allowing easy accessfordaypatientsand visitors and enabling inpatients maintainclosetieswith theircommunity. Community involvement often encouraged in USA both by making appropriate parts of centre available to public, eg gymnasium, children's play rm or craft studio, andby incorporating suchamenitiesasartgallery or public lib. Association with med centredesirable but important psychologically psychiatric centre maintain own identity and character. Environment contributes essentially to therapeutic process. Centre should be noninstitutionalaspossible consistentwith type of patient,need forsecurity, protection from self-injury and vandalism; range from 'open door' to forensicinstitution for criminally insane. Great size to be avoided; patients should be grouped into units(max 30 P), smallenough facilitate development of community spirit(atmospherenearercollege dormitory than hospital). Where climate allows common practice provide residential units inform ofcottages in landscapedgrounds. Evenwhere restricted site imposes compact bldg formessential individual units be identifiableasseparate entities. Bedrshould afford opportunity retreat and privacy: if 2-B, plan so that each patient hasclearly defined individual area. b Conversely design and furnishing of public areas should encourage sociability, supplementingformal treatmentwith therapeuticallybeneficial, informal patient/patient and patient/staffmeetings. Placenurse/security stations so that staff engaged in routine activities can observe patients casually. Unobstructive nature of suchsurveillance important psychologically in alleviating persecution complex. Hierarchical arrangement of staff and patients in group therapy rm inhibitspatient involvement. Square orcircular seating space affording mm distraction, with circular seatingarrangement, probably ideal. Mentally disturbed persons commonly showsymptoms disorientation with regard to time and space. Views and contacts with outdoors and living plants aid patient's comprehension oftime and season; directand clearlydefinedcirculation patterns, supported by such aidsas graphics and colour coding, inculcate sense of security. Colour playsimportant role in therapeutic process: egyellowand orange help dispel lethargy amonggeriatric patients. Hospitalpsychiatricunits Similarconsiderations apply psychiatric unitswithin general hospitals. Since patients generally ambulatory,day rm and therapeutic activity rm assumespecial significance. Although exigencies of hospital planning seldom allow direct access outdoorareasatgroundlevel from psychiatric unit sunnyoutdoor roofterrace should formintegral part, particularlyfor geriatric patients. 2 1 C 2 CapitalDistrictPsychiatricCenterAlbanyNewYork USAaccommodates 400inpatientsin 16residentialunitseachofwhichalso serves25day patients:upper of2superimposed unitsset backfromlowercreatesoutdoor terwhile lowerhasdirect accessto landscapedsite;treatment,educational, recreational,admin,research &servicedept housedin4-storeychevronshaped structure,joined toresidential unitsbysky-lighted,brick-paved, indoormall which hascolourfulbanners, informal seating groups,beauty& barbershop, chapel, music&gamesrm, laundromat; planat mall level 1 geriatric unit 2adult unit 3pediatricunits 4psychiatric outpatientclinics 5consult 6volunteers 7dining 8admissions9medrecords 10emergencyclinics 11 business 12free-standingcolour-codedstairsin mall each serve4residential units,supplemented byelevatorsfor handicapped ArchToddWheeler& Perkins &Will Partnership. Hospitalformentallydisturbedpatientsfounded 1844in Providence RI USA, whichhasbeenupgradedandexpanded, stands inbeautifulgroundsby Seekonkriver afirstlevel bsecond level cthird level key 1 lob 2admin 3admission&testing 4emergency 5med records 6activitytherapy 7dayhospital 8 interiorcourtyard 9inpatientunits 10food services&cafeteria 11 existing 12intensivetreatmentunit 13interiorgardenbelow 14professional off 15 diagnostic/treatment Arch HillierGroup 2 Community 165 Hospitals WARD UPGRADING Although wards have always been designed for care of sick those built before 1940were often intended forbedfastpatients.Sincethen advance in technical nursing has allowed quicker throughput of patients most of whom fully ambulant for 2/3 of stay; thus demand increased for nurse working rmand patient dayareas, washing and sanitary services. Older wards, structurally sound but ill equipped for present day standards, therefore suitable for upgrading, particularly those with useful lifeof at least 15 years. Moreover, taking factors below into account, can be worthconsidering upgrading bldg scheduled tolast only 5 years. existing 900900 Lt I nT1 üü u 9 no Factors Number of patients to be cared for under sub-standard conditions if ward not upgraded, eq28-bed ward with 80% occupancy and 5-day av stay has throughput of approx 1 600 P/yr and 8100in 5 years Number of nurses to be trained in sub-standard accn, eq28-bed ward with 6 students on duty during day and 2 at night for 6-weekperiod equals 70students/year or350 in 5years Proximifyto ancillary supporting accn Change of usefromacute folong stay wards Amount of money available 3 existing Reallocation &divisionofspaces, noextension to existingward:existing 29-B, upgraded25-B 2small sanitary annexeadded:existing 29-B, upgraded28-B 3corr& groupof nurseworkingrm&wcadded:existing 26-B, upgraded30-B 4extension addedtolongwallof ward: existing 31-B, upgraded28-B 52wardsjoined withcoreotnurseworkingrrn:existing 29-B each, upgraded52-Btotal 1 9 ..LL.J _____ onEEur, cc tom ão ft _JJJL.Li_ifl00009000009900 runjnuoaonuugu5y Key to ward plans C orC'd —cpd Con—consultrm D—dutyrm Disp— disposalrca Dr—doctorsrm DR—dayr DSR—domestic servicerm E or Equ —eqpsto flflowerrm I—incinerator k—kitchen L—linensto Lab— laboratory&testcm NS—nursesstation OP—outpatientswr PC—Pclothes lockers Prep—preparationrm Rec—receptionist S—sisterscm Sec— SI —sluice St —sto Staff—staffwc T—treatmentan t—trolley secretary (cart)tx—telephone V—verandah W —waitingarforvisitors existing 5 15 extension courtysrd $ I Is 4 existing EILLsJ II U U U UU U UU U U U Equ stsff ? i iptm spgrsded •I• JilhhiLk aH ielevsto U.1U rninw nuu Ut UIU .UTII .UIU existing .c.,ci.ict.. dsr go]. 00 U. fl staff 9 9 1 lp 3ff upgrsded 5 OR upgraded 166 Community Hospitals 0 Standarddhnics special clinics ante-natal generai med generalsurgery fracture dermatology Orthopaedrc gynaecology psychiatric opiliahiokigy ant dental radioragnosbc endoscopymi chiropody mainwaiting reonrds operatingtheatresuite aadsimetry aççrbance sri forprosthetics receptionarof physiotherapy reception V' diagnosis&V'treatment plasterrm ENTRANCESFOR NON-AMBULANT CASUALTIES & OUTPATIENTS All patient entrances must be suitable for those disabled or in wheel- I I I laboratories nesmhospdalL ! Ward at malioperatingtheatres OUTPATIENTS I Relationshipofclinics to other hospitalfunctions beacon+aerial_______ clearancebr drivingander clearincefor reversingunder a EiJ1 fI I :3600 ,6oOO uofoading 2 Ambulancecritical dimensions, 3 Carparkingspacefor awheelchair P bambulantdisabledP standardLondon England ambulance:turning circle14.17m, turning clearancecircle 15.25m barriersdowntotal length hospitalstreet insate 1 ElIllIlIllIflhllIll shelteredparkingdesirable hospitalstreet actuator — . lIllllllFFtFJ % qi; U I oubade AL 9 required After consultation patients may be sent directly or by appointment for furtherdiagnosis and/ortreatment to unitswithin OPD, eg plaster rm, physiotherapy, operating theatre or endoscopy rm. Endoscopy rm — p167(2) requires accnavailable forpatients under sedation and perhaps ante-rm forpre-medicationand holding(NBfibre-opticcoldlightsources must not be used in conjunction with inflammable anaestheticgases). Units may servewhole hospital;theatres and ancillary rmmay be partof sFediafo Clinics which can use standard accn: general med, general surgery, dermatology, gynaecology, paediatrics, ante-natal, fracture, orthopaedic, psychiatry. Clinics which require special accn: opthalmology, ear, nose & throat, dental. Clinics should have own reception pointand waiting area 36 m2 (based on 1.4 m2/P). I j j canopy Outpatients dept (OPD) provide consultation, investigation, diagnosis and treatmentfor patients who require little or no recovery services afterwards and are not admitted toacutewards. Most patients referred attend session at specific clinic byappointment: receiveinitial diagnosis and treatment, eg injections. Sessions approx 3 hr long (10per week) and held 0900—1 200 & 1400—1 700. Each doctor may use either 2 combinedconsult/exam rmor1 consult with adjacent exam rm—n(5)(7) p168(3) during 1 session. Am useapprox 9sessions/week: formula for numberof rm required: rmsessions/week = number of rm main hospital theatre suite. :1I ssnJMMMM10 chair —*p86and must provide dirt control zone. Doors to A& E—÷pl 68 must allow accident trolleys —*pl66(11) easy entry. In A & E and to lesser extent OPD standard practice to provide automatic opening doors—*(4). Although thesecan beexpensive and unreliableusefulness outweighs disadvantages in areas where wheeled access required. Two main types:both actuated bypressure mats orelectronic devices. Some manufacturerssupplyoutwardopening swing operatedmechanism tooverridenormal operation inemergency. Design area between 2 sets of doors to take trolley pushed by staff member, without obstructionfrom door swings etc (2700 clear), Integrate 3 dirt controlzonesinto design. Provide canopy or recess doorway to shelterdoors. If ambulance required to back up to door allow 3200 to underside of canopy—(2). canopy eL._._\_ canopy cL__N_ 4 AutomaticdoorstoP entranceslayouts: Aforsetof900swingdoors with safetybarrierbetweeneachdirectionoftrafficflow; Bforset of sliding doors with parkingspace fordoorsinopenposition:max recommended size foreach leaf900 C3cleaningzonesfordirtcontrol:externalzone should haveopengrid typemattingsuitableforwheelchairuser,intermediate, mattingwithbuilt-in scraperaction, inner,non-slipdustcontrolmatting 13 .1 flU 7 R17 ri 6 OPD FalkirkScotlandRoyal Infirmary 1 wr 2porter 3trolleys 4prams 5hearingaid 6wc 7consult 8do 9staff 10sto 11 audio 12treatment 13 preparation 14disposal 15CSSDsto 16eqpsto 17optician 18eye 19workr 20 dental 21 off 22dark mi 23orthoptist24ECG 25studio 26technician Arch Wilson&Wilson& Scottish Development Dept wall a w 13 Ii 15 waitb 5 Exam&treatmentrm 10.4m2, forambulantorwheelchairP 1 sliding door 2wastesack 3toweldispenser 4sk 5trolley 6dispenserwithdrawer 7sheMng 8writingsurface 9swivelstool lox-rayviewer 11 wheeledcouch fl® 16 l2chair l3examlamp l4twin 13-amppoint 15emergencycallbutton 16light switch 17x-rayfilm rack 18coat hooks 7 Combinedconsult/examrm, 15.48m2 1 chair 2couch 3 scales 4steps 5hooks 6couch-cover dispenser 7 disposal 8exam lamp 9wpb 10desk 11 hb 12worktop, sto under 13eqptrolley(cart) 14curtain 15sphygomanorneter bracket 16writingshelf 2 14 Community 167 Hospitals:out patients 5 0 16 —'I. 1 f 10 15 I 35 I 20 25 6 809 I 45 L7NEPLI 21 1 11 IT I_,ti. 21 — 1600 rn 4[Th1h11Tfl1 bEEI 14 9 6 7 Wheelchairlay, 2.56 m2 —'162 Ante-natalclinicAberdeenScotland MaternityHospital 1 prams 1 key 1 basinwith shelf 2papertowels 3waste 4wc 5toiletpaper 6mirror 7 hook(s) 8sk 9gulley 10P trolley 2children 3Pwc 4sister 5exam 6lecturerm&mothercraft7tutor 8study rm 9consult 10staffwcfemale 11 lecturerm 12do 13elevators 14work ar 15staff wcmale 16typists 17healthvisitor 18nurse 19 reception 20urinetesting 21 waitingar Arch George Trew Dunn& Partners LL. wallB 11 6 J4-U-1 (cart) 11 hose point 12disposal 13 sack holders 14trolley 15stapler 14 wallC 1516 Cleansingrm, 13.4m2 (3)(5)—(8) room layoutssuitable other depts &wards 1700 12 II I I 171 II I II I I wallA T1 __j25fl A 9I I I I I I • ro 24 m 4 4 iS ttis 13 9 2 Endoscopyrm—.pl66, 17.28m2 1 sk 2worktop 3wallcpdforfibre optics 4trolley(cart) 5anaesthetic trolley 6stool 7intravenousdripstand 8 linenholder 9kick-aboutbucket 10 adjustable lamp 11 writingsurface 12 9 with drawers 12surgeonsbasin 13warninglight 14shelfwithlight 1510w pressuresuction 16 highpressuresuction 17triplex-rayviewer 18 pin board 19telephone 20coat hook 21 shelvesforpresettrays 22towel dispenser 23cpd 24drawers 25shelving 26alimentarytrolley 27 bin 28Ptrolley 29DDAcpd hooksbrmachinetools cleaningmachines dryerI(( )LJLJU buckets undersk ED 0 1 2 ___ 3 4 I iS 5 Im i5n [1 2lbottles 'shelues ±LJ1 trolleys under 1 3000 3 1'Sft Plasterremovalrm,22.3 m2servesOPD&A&E [ looker i 1 T Domesticservicerrn, 7.5m2 4 213 Suction unit 10 Plasterapplicationrm, 33.5 m2, servesOPD& A& E notsuitablefor general anaesthesiabecausemorethan 1 Pspace key 1 oven ontrolley 2doublex-rayviewer 3sto shelves 4plinth 5 chair 6plaster-sawmounting 7clotheshook& mirror 8trolley 9curtain lOsk& drainerwith plastertrap 11 steps 12ceiling hook 13 plastercastdisposal 14waste 15sk&drainer 16plasterdust extractor 17wallhook(s) §IrH -.i"L 1400 2150 5 Clinette& urinetestrm, 2.7m2 + 6.45m2 1 urinespecimenscollector 2 reagentstore 3worktop, sto under 4 slophopper&drainer 5disposal 6 basin 7hatch 8shelf 9handrinse 11 Tiltingaccidenttrolley 168 Community Hospita/s ACCIDENT& EMERGENCY Accident & emergency dept(A&E) provide 24-hr365-day/year service for accidents and med emergencies occurring in home, at work, at sports ortravelling. Patientsnormallytakento DGH(community hospital) with A&E resources. Deptprovides resuscitation, reception and first stageexam; patients can then be discharged, sent to another part of hospital for further investigation and treatment, admitted as inpatients, orsentbyambulance to hospital containing regional specialty,eg burns unit, neurosurgery —p173--5. Patients dead on arrival taken to small rm near entrance before beingremoved to hospital mortuary. For dept close to potential sources of accidents (airports, motorways) extra provision for resuscitation needed. A&E need to be on good access roads with drive-in entrances for ambulances, sheltered fromwind and rain by covered ways and battle walls. Entrances should have 2 sets of automatic fail-safe doors to prevent draughts, with enough space to manoeuver stretchers and trolleys—4p166(4). Deptmust havedirectaccess forpatients on trolleys to all parts of hospital, particularly radiology .—pl69 170, plaster rm —*pl67(9)(lO), surgical (OPD) —pl7l 172 and short stay wards. Resuscitation rm must befullyequipped with med gases andbe close to entrances. Doctors, often on duty for long periods, require comfortable duty rm. Relativesofpatients needaccessto publictelephone. Interview rm required by doctors for interviewing relatives and by police for interviewing witnesses. Generous sto required for stretchers, blankets and trolleys. Forbenefit of patients,relativesand escorts, whomay bein severe state ofshock, allwaiting spaces as wellas clinicalareas should be heated tomm 21°C. Full snackbar can be provided ifshared byOPD —*pl66. Patientswho return for further dressings or treatment given appointments outside morning and evening rush hour for casualties so can use same accn. Exam and treatment rm preferable to cubicles for patients requiring audioand visualprivacy (can undress and be seen in comfort); casualty doctorwill worksetof rm. Cubicles suitable for small cuts and abrasions which do not require patient to undress. Separate provision may be requested for cleansing patients and dealing with infected wounds. Peak periodsfor both A&E and Casualty dept invariablycoincide with weekends and public holidays: essential that sufficient stores and nursing eqp be available either by providing extra sf0 at point-of-use or by giving staff access tocentral sto during holidays and off-peak periods. 11 _....J 15 1 5 16 5 10 32 4 ,2 _______ 15 5 C) 16 14 r2o f J2OJ1] 10 15 2Dm 32 48 646 A& E FalkirkScotland Royal Infirmary 1 ambulance2ambulantP 3prams 4eqp 5trolleys 6treatment 7interview 8sister 9duty 10wc 2 11 totheatres 12disposal 13 preparation 14to sharedx-ray 16exam 17resuscitation 18reception 19plaster 20sto Arch Wilson& Wilson Patients come withoutappointment and may have to wait sometime before being examined and treated; provide generous waiting space, with beverage point and at least 4 wc, 2 suitable for wheelchair users p167(6). 9 ij I 112.L13 ——J CASUALTYDEPARTMENT Casualty dept provide 24-hr365-day/year service forcasual attenders and patientsreferred byGPfor immediate examinationand treatment; generally linked to A&E; can share some nurse working rm and staff services. But combined only for convenience: specific functions very different. Patients arrive on foot or by car, usually accompanied by relativeorescort.Casualtydept should haveseparateentrance,preferably with double setofautomatic fail-safe doors —pl66(4). I 15 16 1 12 20m B 645 L.J LJi aI)B T 15visitors 21 do 17 S ________________ 13A I 15 Lis wall A 3 Exam &treatmentrm orbay, 10.15m2, designedto allowfortrolley exchangesystem;P onemergencytrolleycan takeplaceoftrolleyinrm 1 sliding door 2wastesack 3towel dispenser 4sk 5trolley (cart) 6dispenserwithdrawer 7shelving 8writingsurface 9swivelstool 10x-ray viewer 11 emergency trolley 12 chair 13trolley 14exam lamp 15twin 13-amppoint 16emergencycallswitch 17light switch 18x-rayfilm rack 19coat hooks j A&EEastboumeEnglandOGH 1 ambulanceentrance 2casualty entrance 3trolleys,wheelchairs4porter 5flying squad 6trolleys 7staft do 8rest rm 9 1-B 10nursesstation 11 cleansupply 12dutydoctor 1 l3cleaner l4reception l5doctorsstation 26chargenurse l7wc 18assistedb 196-B 20interview 21 dirtyutility 22resuscitation ar 23 disposalrm 24k 25surgeonschanging 26sto 27dayr 28pchanging male 29Pchangingfemale 30doctor 31 nurseadmin 32 housekeeper 33anaestheticmi 34 minoroperating 35crutchsto 36plastermi 37ear,nose &throat (ENT), eyes, noisychildren 38 septictreatment 39trealmentar 40fracture&orthopaedic clinic 41 waiting 42clinic reception43P lay 44 appliance fitting 45canopyover Arch SETRHA 4 Resuscitation rm, 24.36m2 1worktop 2suctionunit 3 stool 4trolley (cart) 5surgeonssk 6linensack 7wastesack 8worktopwith sk 9writing surface,shelvesover 10mobilex-ray 11 anaesthetictrolley 12drip stand 13oxygensuctiongas Community 169 Hospitals RADIOLOGYDEPARTMENTS —p170 X-ray or radiology has 3 major sub-divisions: diagnostic, which may include ultra-sonics, fluoroscopy etc; radiation; nuclear medicine. Depending onadmin patternoronphysical/functional relationshipswith otherdept thesemay bearranged contiguously orseparately. Diagnosticradiology Provides internal images of patient either on film (radiography) or on cathode ray tube(CR1—fluoroscopy). Must beprovided foroutpatients and inpatients both forroutine examinationsand foremergencies. Dept therefore has relationship to OPD, medical, intensive careand surgical units. Separation ofinpatient, typically ontrolley, stretcher orwheelchair,from outpatient in street clothes and often bloody, should be maintainedlong as possible, certainly through entrance, reception and waiting: if dept largeenough alsothrough radiographic procedureand exit. Arrange x-ray procedure rm sothatpatient's travel path does not cross that of radiology technician until they meet in procedure rm. Easy trolley/stretcheraccesstox-raytable essential.Plan dept sothattechnician traveltime kept mm particularly between rm and filmprocessing. Diagramofrelationships between radiology &other deptinrepresentative USAhospital 1 Simplex-rays tolocate fracturesorposition ofcathetertake lessthan 10 minutes; more complex or intermittent procedures involving barium swallowsor radio-opaque injections may take up to 3 hr to complete while patientwaits in or near dept. Design forfollowing requirements: separate rm for ultrasonography and for thermography; bench with drinking water, bottle-trapped sink with sto cpd over exclusively for bariumpreparations and wcfor patients whohave had barium enemas both next to 2 x-ray rm; rm and viewing bay to process and check accuracy offilms (normallycompletedwithin 15minutesof being taken): automatic plumbed-in processors needspecial drainage; forward waiting area on basis of 1.3 m2/P plus 1.02 for relative or escort; extra screenedspace for 2 patients' trolleys; 2 wc suitable for patient in wheelchairs —+pl 67(6). Each x-ray rm must be screened from other parts of bldg either by barium plaster orbylead sheeting, both very dense heavy materials.All glazingshould be in lead glass. X-ray eqp heavy and requires ceiling heights between 3100 and 4000, extra moveable structural beams suspended fromceiling will be required. Design floorsand ceilings to takeextraheavyloads. Entrancedoors tox-rayrmshould be 1 400wide in 2 leaves 900 + 500. In addition to above mentioned areas support spaces for film sorting, film reading by radiologistsandfiling necessary,also spacesfortranscribing reports, sto foreqp and supplies, admin off and oftenconference rm. 2 EasthoumeEngland DGHx-raydept 1 lavage&disposal 2wc 3sto 4cleansupply 5 recovery 6x-rayrrnspecial 7x-raymibarium 8 bed holding 9waiting lox-raymigeneral purpose 11 dark rm 12sorting& viewing 13x-raymiA& E 14cleaner 15 reporting rm 16film sto X-raybeam carriesinherentdangertoliving cells: propershielding of all procedure rmessentIal; must bedesigned and supervised by raditlonspecialist. In UK complywIth Code of Practice for Protection ofPersonsexposedtolonisingRadiation. 17disposal 18superintendentradiographer 19staffrm Eg 131211 I 1312 11 13 1100 1 [ [a [II p 7200 1700 4 Radiodiagnosticmi/changingcubicles, 28.8 m2 1 transformer2eqp trolley 3 chestx-ray 4steps 5buckytable 6safety screen 7controlunit 8cassettehatch 9 clock 10stounit 11 bench seat 12shelf&mirror 13hooks 5000 3 Diagnosticx-raymidesignedbyAmericanHealthFacilities/Medical PlanningAssociatesMalibuUSA 1 dispenserunit 2step-onwaste receptacle 3surgical/instrument dressing cabinet 4apron &gloverack 5to daylightprocessingar 6intercom 7leadglass vision panel 8partition 2100 h 9x-raycontrolunit 10ceilingtube mount 11 generator 12tube carriage 133-size film dispenser 14 radiographic tablewithtomographic attachment 15fluorescentlight fixtureswallmounted 16footstool with handrail 17 side chair 18warninglight 19tolay 20 mirror 21 corr 3500 closed I *15004 5 I open 5 Viewing&processing rm,open&closedlayouts 1 tanks&water nstallation 2cassettehatch(from radiodiagnostic rm) 3 darkrm 4processor 5sorting&viewing 170 Community Hospita/s RADIOLOGYDEPARTMENTS (cont) Radiationtherapy Technique whereby radiation used reduce or eliminate carcinogenic cells: generated either bynatural source suchasradioactivecobalt orby man-made as in linear accelerator. Because of massive quantities of radiation used extremely heavy shielding required contain it: so heavy thatsomereg require thisdeptbe placed atground level. Whole unit constructed ofdense concrete:walls, ceiling,floor pitthickest (approx 1 200) within 3600arc ofeqp, remainderapprox 600. Design all steelwork, conduit, piping to prevent radiationleakage.Viewing porthole double-skinned with highly corrosive fluid infill (zincbromide solution); door locks controlled fromconsole in adjoining rm. Procedure rmwiththeir shielding mazes must be largeenough accommodate eqp plus access forpatienton stretcher/trolley.Spaces required forpatient receptionand waiting, examination,treatmentplanning,mould making forshielding needed for patient during treatment, off and work spaceforstaff. Offand lab space also needed forphysicist forcalibration and radiation safetyofeqp. Patients taken into rm containing eqp and so positioned that all 3 sources of radiation converge on diseased partof body; attendant then retiresto control rm fromwhich patient can beobserved through heavy lead glass porthole or by tv. Procedure can be very frightening for patient: ventilation, temp and general environment control of utmost importance. Pastoral photomural or fresco on wallsand ceiling within viewofpatient during treatment,together with falsewindow with pastoral view' opposite entrance, will help alleviate fears. Nuclearmedicine 2 Buckytable: rm h required with floor/ceilingtubestand mm 3000max 4000 Diagnostic procedure involving ingestion by or injection into patient of radioactive materials whichthen traced by scanning eqp. Am used for scanning require some shielding; must be large enough accommodate eqp, patient on stretcher/trolley, console and technician. In contrast to diagnostic ortherapy procedure rm level ofradiationlowenough allow 2 or more patients scanned simultaneouslyin same space. Support spaces include reception and waiting, off, sto, well shielded 'hotlab' beside procedure rmfor sto and preparationof radioactive materials. CATscanning Relatively new method of non-invasive imaging of internal organs; although diagnosticprocedure,often in separatesuitewith own procedure rm, control rm, computer eqp space and support areas. NB new diagnostic procedures continually developed; design shouldallowaddition of mi/services when needed. 600concrete 400concrete 1JJE[ L1—light1 I duct under dttlaii p6Inccobaitund 290001 800x500 3 CobattunitforradiotherapyPembury England ArchSEThamesRHR 5 X-ray film cabinet;willhold approx 10000envelopes(360 kg), 26000 x-ray films(1040 kg):total floor loading1 728 kg/rn2 6 Standardx-rayfilm very heavy (155 kg/rnrun): max unsupported w ofshelf900; eachradiodiagnostic rm producesapprox625envelopes/ month QJ -t 4 Typical cyclotron 7 Transformer:weight380 kg 8 Radiodiagnostic controlunit Community 171 Hospitals OPERATINGTHEATRES Surgical and delivery suites increasingly considered centresto which patients broughtforprocedures too complex for handling in physician's off ortreatment area. Unlike traditionalsuite with different rmfordifferent services (eg, ENT, orthopedic) suites now collection of multi-purpose rm. In largeinstitutions more than 1 suitelikelybe provided, based on usage: short (1—3 hr) procedures, such as ambulatory, frequently separated from general, av length (2—4 hr) and very long (6—8 hr) procedures. Delivery suites,formerly completelyseparatedfrom surgical, todaycommonly alongside orintegrated. Typicalfloor ofsurgical&specialservicesbldg Massachusetts General HospitalUSA Arch PerryDeanStahl&Rogers 1 Designelements Consider patient flow: entrance, control, holding pre-anaesthesia, operating, recovery. Consider staff: control, clean-up. Consider eqp, particularlyinstrumentsand other goodswhich must besterilisedbetween each use: done locally (within suite) or centrally (for hospital)? Let volumes guide. Consider sharing: like types ofprocedure rmcanshare supplies, cleaning etc. Consider testing functions: 'quick' lab tests, x-rayetc: howwill theybe done? Space needs Space suites need per inpatient bed varies greatly, depending on whether ambulatory surgery offered, whether hospital has teaching programmeand other suchfactors: generally28—46 m2foreachoperating theatre.Space forcirculation,nursingand medicalstaffand non-functional bldg elements such as air-conditioning eqp usually high ratio in this setting, perhaps 80% above individual rm needs. Ifreprocessinggoods donewithinsuite 28—37 m2/operating theatre or delivery rm must be added. Locker rm, showers and rest rm for staff should be provided based on numberstaff expected. Circulation Crucial to design of high technology operating and delivery suites; 2 JH p 0 123m 5 lOft 2 St JosephHospital TacomaUSAhasellipticoperrmarranged round centralcontrolrm Arch Bertrand GoldbergAssociates ? 1P Cleanliness Also critical in operating/delivery suite. All materials,surfaces, joints etc must be easilycleanable and durable for repeated washings: sealed joints to prevent infection. Anti-static materials should be used where patients likelybe connected anaestheticmachines. Check requirements with technical literature. 3p 6 6 171615141312 1110 18ft 3 Stobliill opertheatresuite:8standardtheatres withclean&dirtycorr 1 consultanaesthetistoff 2anaesthetistsecretary's off 3dutyanaesthetist 4studentlecturerm 5wc 6malechanging 7femalechanging 8 9cleaner 10 workshop 11 theatresuperintendent 12receptionarporter l3dirty utility l4transfer l5cleanutility l6recoveryar l7darkrm 18 nursesrestrm 19 surgeonsrest rm 20techniciansrest rm 21 teak 22eqpsto 23theatresister 24 lab 25endoscopy 26calorifiers 27 refrigeration plant 28preparationrm 29opertheatre 30exit lob 31 anaestheticrm 32scrub-upar 33monitorrm 34plastermi 35plaster sto 36disposalbay 37disposallob 38elgear 39med gases 40 stairto air-conditioningplant 41 TSSU 42staff restrm Arch Cullen Lochhead & Brown basictypes: single corridorand double corridor or 'racetrack'. Single has 1 corridorleading to all operating/delivery rm, used for patients, staff and eqp: sterility maintained in each user of corridor and within theatreitself; each rm preceded by scrub-up ar and has provision for sterilisation withinitorbetween 2 rm. 'Racetrack'arranges rmin 'circular' fashion with outside corridor orrm for staff and eqp, presumed sterile; locker rm 'bridge' corridors; staff and eqp leave with patient; staff 'bridged'backthrough locker rm and showers. Corridor forPtrolleys 2: 45mw; others1.5mw. I I 1; 4 Vedestasystemmodularoper theatreusesbasicstandard octagonalto formseriesofunitsforuseinnew hospitalsorforupgrading; 10sizes available,arfrom23.22m2 —436 m2 1 domesticstaffchange 2disposal 3sluice 4inspection/sto 5generators/batteries6air-conditioning 7emergencycorr 8theatre 9sterilemi 10P in 11 Pout 12surgeons nursesorderlies in 13surgeonsnursesorderliesout 14sterilesupply 15soiled instruments/disposal 16cleanedinstruments 17access to services 18 sterilesupply 19 anaesthetic rm 20exit 21 gowning 22scrub-up 23med gas 24instrument sto 25nursestaffrm 26surgeon staff rm 27 orderliesstaff rm 28recovery 29mobile eqp 30transfer 31 sister 32change—NBservicingoflightingeqp completed outside theatre 172 Community Hospita/s OPERATINGTHEATRES(cont) 11 biii 13j16 ________ r&nl 0 5 10 iBm 16 32 488 OpertheatresuitesNinewellsHospital Dundee Scotland, designedfor teaching servicecorr 2opertheatre 3x-ray 4TSSIJ 5accesscor 6femalesurgeons 7malesurgeons 9 nurses 10students 11 anaesthetic dept l2surgeonsrest l3sto l4nursesrest l5nurseworkrm l6lecture rm 17junior staff 18 recoveryward 19receptionward 20seniorstaff Arch RobertMatthewJohnsonMarshall 1 I 1 isolatedpower 6700 panel 2gas&el servicepanel 3anaesthetiststable 4monitor 5anaesthetistsstool 6anaesthesiagas machine 7x-rayfilm illuminatorsexplosion proof 8kickbucket gsurgeonsstool 10deep canily surgicalilluminator 11 eleciro-surgical and l2doubtebasin 13 mayostand 14 singlepanel lsmobdetvcamera& recorder 16 ceiling 11 118 5 Nut!ield OrthopaedicCentreOxford England: 1 conventional theatre, 2 clean-airglassenclosures'withfilteredair&special suitswith airintake& exhaustforstaff 1 ramp 2 1-B intensive care ar 3barriernursing 4cleaner 5ste 6cleanutility 7dirtyutility 8nursesstation 9fireexit 106-B intensive care 11office 12seminar/restrm 13staff 14lockerrm 15visitors 16from wards 17waiting 18B park 19changingrm asurgeons borderties c nurses 20 rest rm anurses borderlies csurgeons21 theatresister 22 plasterrm 23transferzone 24orderliesbay 25linen 26monitor eqp station 27 operdept 28exit bay 29anaesthetic rm 30opertheatre 31 gown/scrub-up 32forwardholding 33 switchrm 34sterilisers 35 batteryrm 36servicear 37med gas 38plant rm 39loadingdock 40 issu 41 preparation42scrub-up 43operrm 44disposalbay 45dark rm 46 mobilex-ray gas& elservice 17 instrumenttable 18 casecart/trolley 18 aub-stedlisation 20 con 21 scrub-up ar OesignAxnencan HealthFacililies/ MedicalPlanning Associates 2 Generaloper rm ? I t 1 6 Typical opertable in standard Sm 1ft 3 Anaestheticrrn,exit mi,scrub-uprm, sterilesto: eloutletpointsin anaesthetic&exit tobesparkless&hoseproof, insterilesto&exit hoseproof only 1 sterilemi 2oper theatre 3table 4B 5 hb 6sterilesto 7scrub-up rm 8anaestheticmi 9anaesthetictrolley 10anaesthetic machine llservicepoints l2exitrm l3gowning Opertheatre,36.10m2; alleloutletpointsinanaesthetic rm&theatreto be sparkless&hoseproof 1 controlpanel 2dressingtrolley/cart 3 instrument trolley 4basinstand 5table 6kickbasin 7stool 8swab stand 9anaestheticmachine 10anaesthetic trolley position: willtilt inboth directions; also designedtake variousattachments; small wheelsused putvery high rolling loadsonfloor weightapprox230 kg, mm h approx700, maxh approx1 040 7 Suspendedoperatinglamp weight8kg 8 4: Adjustableceiling mounted exam lamp, weight4.5kg 10 Mobilesuctionunit:this type also availablewithoutcastorsorpull 4 9 Anaestheticmachine handle;unitsforconnexiontopiped systemsdo not havelowerpartof controlbox Community 173 Hospitals:special units INTENSIVECARE Hospitalscontain 2 basictypesbed accn: 'hotel' for patientsnotneeding continuous directvisual supervision or life-sustainingeqp; 'critical' (UK intensive) for patients whose survival depends on constant attention and/or complex life-support eqp. Proportion of critical to hotel and of numberoftypesof special care units increasing. Special unitsincludecardiac, spinal injury, burn,transplant, respiratory, neurosurgical, limb fitting, physical medicine. Usuallyformpartoflarger hospitals (regional specialties in UK);verylarge hospitals may have all ofthem. Design considerations Will patientbeconscious,requireprivacy,toilet,constantnursingattention? Will location or configuration of unit help or hinder patient's recovery? Can staff see all patientseasily?Is ratiopatients/staffstation appropriate? Can staff get help quickly? Can they reach services (medications, uty etc) and support (lab testsetc) quicklyand easily? Can they examine patient easily? What about infection control? Can specialeqp be brought quickly bedside in emergency? Can monitors, pumps, screens be easilyread bystaff?Can eqpbe stored handilywhen not in use? Bed unit basicspace module: numberbeds related to unit, decided by usage or projected usage: 6—7 usual max. Unit must be sized for bed (larger and larger as new features added orstructured), eqp (respirators, pumps, monitors),people(manyasneeded duringresuscitation): common today11—15 m2/unit. Access fromentrance to bed unitand between critical. Spaces required include: nurse/physician for supervising monitors, charting, consult; support formedication station,uty; special use,egtreatment, procedure, x-ray, based on patient plus staff/eqp 11—15 m2; amenitiessuchas rest rm, locker, wc. Keepdistance from control station or viewpoint to patient small so that eqp can be read and patient actually seen. Bed unitmay be enclosed in rm (eg coronary care, where patient conscious, or where infection control or separation patient fromnoise necessary)or open (egfor max visibility and quickaccess where patient unconscious). Staff changing arrangementssimilar those foroperatingtheatres;visitors if allowed, may be required change shoes, wear gowns and masks. 910203Gm 3264966 N Punit intensivecare pavilionLongIslandJewish-HillsideMedicalCare CenterUSA 1 2 Masterplan Temple UniversityHospital Philadelphia USAshowing relationshipbetweenspecialtyunits Arch Perkins & Will NEUROSURGERY Because oflengthofeach operationand itsexactingnatureneurosurgery units rely heavily on support services. Ratio of population to beds 1:100000. 2 theatres shown —(3) serve 60beds. Theatresegg-shaped to promote smooth flow fully conditioned air (21 changes/hr). Heatfiltered theatre lamps set in ceiling and 1 wall. Monitoring eqp and viewinggallery in mezzanine with viewing ports in domed ceiling. Each theatre equipped with5-panel x-rayviewing box, oxygen, nitrous oxide, suction, nitrogen for pneumatic tools, electro-encephalograph (EEC) connexions, and CC1Vfortransmission ofencephalographrecordings. Anti-staticflooring and flashproof el outlets required. X-ray rm attached to theatres heavilyequipped for cranialand spinalradiography.Separate lab forelectro-encephalographyand specialeye exam.Supportmeasures includephysiotherapy with hydrotherapy pool. Wards attached to neurologicaltheatres: mixed sex20beds (4 x 4-B, 4 x 1-B). Early ambulation of patients in need ofobservation reflected in size of day and sun rm; patients encouraged to have visitors who can help return normal life by using theseand adjacentflowerbay. SPINAL INJURY Care foryoung people, who suffer fromparalysisasresult ofaccidents, eg motorcycle. Require 100%care: nearlyalways doubly incontinent; because of shockto system can beaggressivetowardsstaff and visitors. Occupational therapy, physiotherapy and study form vital part of rehabilitation. Patients may take months recover; care can be divided into 3 stages: patients bedfast: can only be moved for bathing and treatmentin horizontal position; patients spend partofwaking hours in wheelchair: therefore more mobile (after this stage some patients go home and return forstage 3); patients begin move round on crutches or with walking aids. Stages 1 and 2 require 20—24 beds, stage 3 28—32 beds. Provide approx 20% beds in 1-Bwards and remainderin 4- or6-B. Beds wider than normal(1 000); allow mm bed centres of 3500. Provisionof nurse working rm similar to that for physical/mental handicapped units, —*pl 62—163. 0 5 I 16 3 10 I 32 IS I 48 20 I 64 25 Im 80 $1 NeurosurgicalopertheatresWesternGeneralHospital Edinburgh Scotland elevator 7med staff 12k 17domestic service 19eqpsto 21 sterilisingannexe 25stafftoilets 26wr 29secretaries 30staff conferencemi 31 plasterrm 32eyerm 33dept/theatresister 34 EEG 35x-rayrm 36dark/work rm 37theatreha 38scrub-upar 39changing rm 40anaestheticrni 41 opertheatres 42 preparation rrn 43scientific observation 44stairtoviewing gallery 45stairtotheatreEEG 55engineeringplant I 174 Community Hospitals: special units CARDIACSURGICAL of care: intensive therapy and intermediate care. Patients vulnerable infection: 2out of6018 beds should be in isolated bayswith full height walls. Patients most vulnerable at immediate post-operative stagewhen intransit and not attached to electricallyoperated ventilators or monitors. Intensive care units must therefore be close to operating theatres. 2 stages Example illustrated —*(2) also shows area to be upgradedascoronary care unit. Requires bio-chemistry lab; some research and staff areas can be shared. Provide for relatives overnight stay close to but not in unit. TRANSPLANT Relationshipbetweencardiacsurgeryunit,intensivecare,coronarycare, nursing rm at St VincentMedicalCenterLosAngeles USA Arch Daniel MannJohnson&Mendenhall 1 5 10 I 16 11m 48 LIMB FITTINGCENTRE Considered advisable hold clinics in DGH (community hospital) save patients, oftenelderly and diabetic, from having travel long distances. All patients require rehabilitation for everyday living; walking training should be provided for, either in centre orwithin wheelchair distance. If centreprovides early post-operative walking training hostel type beds may be required in or closeto it. Patientscometo centre for consult, assessment,stumpcastingand limb fitting,and retumforstumpdressings, limb adjustments and walking training. Provide workshops for making limbs: if modular limbs mainly assembly process. Cosmetic covers made on vacuum-forming machines fromhighly inflammable material; special sto required for this and for paint. Forworkshops and sf0 areas referto factory legislation. 15 I 32 For replacing damaged or diseased organs (usually kidneys) by direct transplant fromdonor: needpaired operating theatres, one for donor, one recipient. Patients nursed in 1-B wards in carefully controlled environment (liable both toinfection and to infect others). When donors not available kidneys may be obtained fromcold storebank (may hold othersurgical spares required fortransplant surgery suchasskin, eyes, bonemarrow, boneand blood). (1 2 CardiacsurgicalunitStobhillEnglandGeneralHospital; conversionof existingward tosurgical unit 1 oftforregistrars/research fellow 2k 3 sister 4wclsho 5womensward 6domesticservicerm 7eqpsto 8isolation B 9corr2000w 10intensivecare B 11 preparation rm 12nursesstation 13disposal 14sluice 15mensward 16wc/sho 17treatmentbathr 18day rm 19dining ar ArchEPhillips mirci lJ a 5 9 1 10 2 b 8ft ((°O 5k0 6 05 ii H k 0007 L 3 Nutfieldtransplantation surgeryunitWesternGeneralHospital Edinburgh Scotland;mechventilationto asepticar, 1-B wards, cleancorr,auxiliaryrrn, twin oper theatres, (designedforclose controlofairmovement pattern& pressunsationtomm infiltration) 1 changing 2k 3sterilesupply 4anaesthetic 5recipienttheatre 6scrub-up 7donortheatre 8decontamination9P mi 10lab 11 Pbathr 12 disposal 13eqpsto 14elevator 15entranceha/waitingar 16conference rm 17secretary 18director Arch PeterWomersley 3 E] 0 5 16 10 2 15m 4ft iol 2 F—----- 4 I0 Jc — 17 12 1i i ip 1'6 32 24 Ft 1,5 4 64(1 4 Limbfitting centre 1 consultrrn 2prosthetist 3prosthetist off 4plasterrm 5fIttingrm 6rectifying 7toilets 8treatment 9domestic service rm 10staff/seminarrm 11 medsocialworker 12walkway 13entryP/staff/ ambulance 14entryplant/largematerials 15entrygoods/materials 16wait 17workshop 18 sto service ArchEPhillips 5 Limb centreconsultrm afor4suites bfor2suites layouts cconsultfitting rm dwalk, fittingrrn, plasterrm 1 walkway 2plasterrm 3fitting rm 4consultrm 5wc 6wr 7entrance 8admin 9courtyard 10from OPD 11 windowwall 12longmirror 13walkingrails 14 plaster chair 15 Pwheelchair 16sk 17hb 18desk 19chair 20couch ArchE Phillips Community 175 Hospitals:special units BURN UNITS PHYSICALMEDICINE Seriouslyburntpatients arrive byambulance; nursed onspecial beds in Provides med,domestic and oftenindustrial rehabilitationtofit patients, either return workor for active domestic life. Provide for inpatients as well as outpatients: mm population forviable unit150000. Accn related to type of population to be served; activities include physiotherapy, remedial gymnastics, hydrotherapy, occupationaltherapy, heavy and light workshops, consult and clinical resources, together withprovision for speech therapists, disablement resettlement officers and social workers. Because most attenders disabled accn should be on ground floorwith carparkingcloseby (3000 wide baysallow disabledmanoeuvre wheelchair fromcar)—p166(3). Specialprovision children uptoage 10, usually within children's ward. Some patients attend for half or whole day, othersfor 1 session/day; may be need for hostel accn for those who have totravellong distance. carefully controlled environment. Patients liable to infections which prevent acceptance of skin grafts. Each has 1-bed ward with scrub-up and gowning lobby for staff and wc and hb for patient. Visitors not allowed enterward:viewpatientthrough fixedobservation window. Unit hasown theatre suite fortreatment and skin grafting. Gymnasium should be 10 x 20 x 7.6 m h (forball games) withbay 1 500 deepoff one side forstacking apparatus,and changing rm and wc(1.5 m2/P). Physiotherapy also involves individual treatment cubicles, walking and otherexerciseareas,waxtreatment rm(highfire risk) and splint rm,withoffices,interview rmand linensto. Partoftreatmentarea should have suspended below ceiling, at approx 2000above floor, reinforced metal grid forconnectingslings and pulleys necessarytosupport patient's paralysed limb during treatment ortraining. Hydrotherapy pool —*(3) requires changing accn with clothes lockers and sho, including 1 for wheelchair users, recovery areas with couch (1 700 x 2200deep), utility area fordrying costumes and gowns, and possiblywashing machine and drier. Provide apparatus bayfor floats, cradles etc. 0 I 10 I 32 20 30 I I 64 I 66 40 II 126 50m I I 160ff Occupational therapy workshops must complyfactory regs. t850 Bums unitQueenVictoriaHospital EGrinstead England 1 wr 21-B with wc 3nursesstation 4cleanutility 5k 6 sto 7weighing rm 8 clinical lab 9doctoroff 10visitorswc 11 sistersoff 13visitorsha&corr 14relativesrrn & wc 15 ambulancebay 16resuscitation 17assessment 18admission rm 19 staffdo 20surgeonsscrub 21 anaesthetic rm 22 opertheatre 23sluice 24treatmentrm 25theatrecorr 26nursingcorr 27rest rm 28dirty utility 29med gases 30airlock 31 disposalcorr 32interviewrm 33entrancetoplant rmunder 34courtyard Arch DonaldGoldfinch& 1 ±800 t550 oo drain hooks r lockers trolley! wheelchairchanging sho recoveryj lockers Partners 111111! sho I QD staff Deptofphysicalmed SouthernGeneralHospital Govan Scotland 1 plant rm 2heavyworkshop 3timbersto 4 lightworkshop 5eqp sto 6duty rm 7utility rm 8finishedarticlessto 9bathr 10bedr 11 k 12senior occupationaltherapist 13femalestaffchanging 14 malestaffchanging 15hydrotherapypool 16gymsto 17apparatusgym 18Pchanging 19activetreatmentrm 20apparatussto 21 preparationbay 22linensto 23 paraffinwax rm 24femalestudentschanging 25femalestaffchanging 26male studentschanging 27studentscommonrm 28staffrm 29 passive treatmentmale 30passivetreatmentfemale 31 interview rm 32 reception/ records 33waitingspace 34 trolley(cart)/wheelchair bay 35consultmi 36med officer 37principal'soff 38uppergym 39 tank ml Arch Keppie Henderson&Partners c baseJ 2 electric hoist if necessary c 71 U ifnecessary-.._.-' 3 staff apparatus Hydrotherapypool 4 Physiotherapy&rehabilitation, 51.6m2 1 coathooks 3wall bars 4hb 5wheelchair 6papertoweldispenser 7benchseat 11 disposal bin 13fixedbicycle 15parallelbars 16exercise steps 17mobile mirror 18 mat 19clock 20adjustableshelving 21 wall hooks 22stool 23trolley (cart)/matsto box 176 Community Hospita/s PATHOLOGYLABORATORY, POSTMORTEM ROOMS Pathogens classified in UK in 4 categories: A, B, B2 and C Category A extremelyhazardous: includes lassa feverand smallpox. Specimens assoon asidentified must besealed intospecialcontainers and sentto regional lab assigned forpurpose. Category Bincludebrucella spp, hepatitisB, m tuberculosis: all workon thesemust becarried outin exhaustprotective cabinets.Lab should not be less than 18 m2, must have lockable door with glazed observation panel and also contain handbasin with bi-flow wrist operative taps, papertoweldispenser and bin near door. Other eqp includes frig, deep freeze,stofordisposable gloves, tissues, encasingjars etc, rowofpegs near door forprotective clothing. Discardedspecimens must besentfor autoclaving. Waste drainage frommostoftheseareasrequired to be in separate runs. Categories B2and C donot requirespecial accnbutadvisabledesign all lab tocategory B standard. Provision forchanging vital tosafety ofstaff: each lab mustcontainpegs forlab coats and each unitmust store6setsprotective clothing including bootsforeach staff member. Discarded clothing must be put in receptaclé for autoclaving. Each workr, off and reception area must have handbasin near exit. Staff lockers for outer clothing and personal belongingsmust bein separate cloakroom. Staff visiting wards mustwear separate lab coats forthisand thesemust bestored away fromlab. Iftea and snacks notavailable nearby, rest rmwhere thesecan be mademust be provided. Reception area must have bench with impervious disinfection proof finish and handbasin set as in lab (above), with racks for delivered specimens and steforspare racksetc. Specificarea,notwithin reception orlab, must be provided for patients sent to give blood samples. Note: pathology lab must not be designed withoutreferenceto pathologist incharge. Laboratorybenches 6—- a U $9oj. I b 4200 900 structuralceiling servicesceilingntc!_i_ f900- I 00 fixed benches I I I U C 6450—4 4 I II CIII Spfle 49 2 a'Nuffield', 24.8 m,fixedbencheswithfixedservicespinesalong partitions:hasbeencriticised forinflexibility b 'Darwin',standard1 200 x 600tables associatedwith 150 x 2400movable servicespine: services& drainhaveflexibleconnexionsto ceiling &floor points c Edinburgh', 24.5 rn2 providesfreebenches& fixedservicespinessupplied fromverticalducts: givesgreaterflexibilityoflayout Arch Nuffield Foundation, Lab Investigation Unit, EdinburghUniversityARU 1200.005 150 — 2000 II; 3 Typical benchwith rig&built-in 4 service Fumecpd 46O420 _________________ _________________ 6 : 7 Manestywaterstill small size:output 1.11/ hr,weight 13.5kg Deioniser 5 Autoclave 2 -n 1 Pathologydept EastboumeEnglandDGH 1 escape stair 2fireexit 3films 4laboff 5pathologist 6 hb& particle mixing 7 coagulation & electrophoresis8ante-natal 9grouping 10pathologist 11 manual & special 12sto 13packing 14centrifuge 15blood bank 16 reception 17wc 18wr 19exam 20 clerical 21 chieftechnicianoff 22sterilising 23outfItpreparationrm 24stacking 25mechsection 26balance rm 27chromatography&toxicology 28 chemical sto 29disposal 30workshop 31 microbiology lab 32mediapreparation 33printrm 34darkrm35studio 36records 37med photographer 38wc afemale bmale 39staff rrn 4ofluorescentmicroscopy 41 coldrm 42hotrm43 histologysto 44pathologist off 45serology lab 46cytology lab 47Specinien cutting 48histology lab 49 staining&sections 50pathologygassto 51 recovery&wr 52wash-up Arch SETRHA mortuary cleani postrnorlernml 6 9 6 12 18 Sm booth 24ff Mortuary&post mortem rm: locate loading baywherenotvisiblefrom main P orvisitorar;viewing rm notclinicalincharacter;hospitalchapel sometimesusedforthis purpose; goodventilation needed topostmortem as infectedspecimenshandled 8 177 Community Hospitals PHARMACY T345666 : PharmacyEastboumeEngland DGH 1 staffentrance 2 issue ar 3dispensary 4wash-upar 5bulkpreparation ar 6 dangerous drugs& poisonssto 7bulk sto 8chargeable empties 9inflammable liquids 10incinerator 11 goodsentrance 12do afemale b male 13 asepticrm 14sterilepreparationrm 15qualitycontrol 16sterilising mi 17staffrm 18deputypharmacist 19chiefpharmacist20general off 21 reception lob Arch SETRHA 1 LIBRARY 2typesof hospital lib, professionalformed and nursing staff, lending for patients; libraries also—api 29 145—8. Professional normally attached educational areas; medand nursing lib traditionally separate. Both requirebookstacks (16 books/rn) with space for browsing, work tables and, if requested, study carrels —a(3) and securitybarriers at entrance and exit. Area140 m2for general hospital with post-graduate med training and similar space for nurse training school lib. Hospital without these activities will require approx 46 m2 for each profession. Patients' lib will serveboth ambulantand bedfast and openfor limited periodsduring day. 600-bed hospital may have 5000booksinarea 65 m2. Provide bookstacks (26 books/rn), chairs and tables usable by elderly and disabled —a(4)(5). Bedfast patients served at bedside from book trolley (cart) —a(6). Adjustable shelving needed take large print books. Permissible floor loading in theseareas should be checked as bookscan weigh up to 30 kg/rn run of5 shelf stacks. All ib need small workr(10m2)and book sf0with shelving (5m. Many large hospitals manufacturepharmaceuticalsaswell asdispensing them. Some hospitals serve satellite hospitals, health centres, clinics and individual outpatients: check policies before starting design. Because goods delivered can be bulky and heavy main loading dock should beused;but because can beinflammable,explosive, corrosive, fragile, require special environmentforsto: if (UK) DangerousDrug Act (DDA) drugs, poisons, or other poisons liable to misuse, must be delivered tospecially designed protected areawith accessforauthorised persons only; ODA drugs must be transported in locked containersat all times. Stoareas should providefloorsto forlargeitems, adjustableshelving for smaller items (300 for normal, 100 for small). Inflammable sto may contain items fromother dept: must be isolated from main bldg (refer to current legislation controlling design and use). Cool sto fordrugs must be kept remote from any heat source, including sun; thesesto often within security sto: should be internal with controlled access (refer current legislation for design and use). Bulk sto: divide into liquid and dry powder areas; allow for storing heavy items on floor; pallet and fork-lift systems suitable for some items; allow ample room for manoeuvring fork-lift. Preparation areas include large floor-mounted mixers and steamheated pans for manufacture; small lab may be required for quality control. Required also: machine to reduce items to unit packs; sterile area to prepare and package material for autoclaving, which requires inspection, labellingand sf0areas.Installautoclaves(largefloormounted machines) againstwallsso can be maintainedfromoutside sterile area. Stillsformanufacturing distilled water requirepiped connexion tosterile preparation area. All sterile areas require special dust-free finishes complywithstringent requirements of med inspectorate.Wash-up area requiressink, washing eqp, drying cabinets and shelving for clean and returned containers. 2100 r pinboard cassetterecorder ,/ aiiow680unobstnicledh toundersideiffor extrachair t ifrequired wfreefohair users 3 Studycarrel,providedformed&nursingstaff; alsosuitableforPstudying forexam T' ;:! 10 iLLIAL1 2000 4 General lib: recommended mm spacebetweenbookstacks 5 General lib: informallayoutof table &chairs allowsforwheelchairs 1000 -t Dispensing and messenger service areawith ante-rm foremptiesshould have counter and security sto forpharmacy boxes awaiting distribution. Hospitals which dispense toindividualoutpatientsneed separatecounter and waiting area forthis. 450 rurr tjiI Ii 1' iij •1 • P III!I tII!I II liii!: 6 2x3u68201 oxygenmanitoid 213i Lib trolley (cart)fortaking round wards 5amp spareoxygen switchfuse cyiinders heavy tab manitoid 2spareNO .,,u a m cylinders 200diacyhnders at255C/conmanifold at230c/consparesracks controlunit b 2 a Manifoldrmforsmall hospital bcombinedmanifold&sto rm;gases normallysto:oxygen,nitrousoxide, nitrous oxide/oxygen,compressed air— mustnotbeput withhydrogenoracetylene;sto must beon ground level for accessfordeliveryvehiclesfromopenair, notfromcor; singlestorey, noncombustible,1 hrfrmm, 2brickwallsorequivalent; sto normally takes manifolds&racksforsparecylinders; typicalautomatic manifold with2duty& 2reservecylinders:1630 x 6lodeep:1 extracylindereachsidegives5lo extraI;2 x manifold—3600 .con,mons 1.__ ganges 0 102030m 32 64966 7 LayoutofteachingcentreKnightCampusUniversityofRhode Island USA 178 Community Hospita/s avnumberofstaff on duty atany 1 time approx 20% oftotal employed. If NON-RESIDENTSTAFFCHANGING hoursworked bypart-time staff reduced, egto 30 hr/week, percentages of staff on dutyslightlylower. As proportion of part-time staff tofull-timeincreases percentageoftotal staff on dutyatany1 time tendsto decrease. In allinstancesestimate of staffonduty %oftotalstaff full-timestaffonly 1 full-time: 2 part-time 1 full-time: 4 part-time 1 full-time: 10 part-time 19 18 17.5 17 12lX0 basis ofallocation i locker300 x 550 x 1800 ii locker200 x 550 x 1 800 b d S N 0.43 I 0.5 I T I I & LJ_L_IL mirror brushup ar -6olockers Changingrm aforcompletechangeusinghanging basketsforclo sto—n(2),ar/P 0.48 m2, ar/Pwith personallocker0.55 m2; bforstaffrequired tochangedowntounderclothes; locker300 x 500 x 1800; 1 changingspace:8sto lockers; cforstaffrequiredtoremove outdoorclothing;locker200 x 550 x 1 800; 1 changingspace:5sto lockers I 25.92 6150 4500 II I 0.41 III [liii!! -- 5 Layoutfor150 personallockers nearuser's work station tEIIL I . F I I ! I I u - 6 Bulk sto for384 sets cleanunfiform EJI ILII] L. LIIIII ILIII LIII IIIJ I' LIII 23.23 4 3 Ancillaryaccnprovidedonpeakusefigures (peakuseby36staff) S II!IHThHHIHI NI 2sho Lockerforstaffrequiredto changedowntounderclothes egnurses l2dlangU)gspaces _J__1__L_J 4 0.55 0.34 2592 9 I brusliup a 0.48 chemical disposal bin comfortable seating & lowtables mirrors C 0.84 0.63 femalestaff 3 wcwith hb 2separatehb 2sho informalarrangement of tlIiiiLliLt IiIIIIIIIIIIiiiI11111 Mliii II11111111 liii[11111 11111111 I arrii waitingar (peakuse by20 staff) I I- acnn provided 2wcwith hb 3urinals 5separate hb ii. 0.72 Spacerequiredbyeachemployeeforstoring & changingclothes:only immediatecirculationar included;entrances&maincorrvalyaccording to location &numberof staffinvolved malestaff } II Ii.i41j.UIIL]tft LLLL[IIIIJ II 2 1 1 liii III II I 111111 11111111 IlJ 0.81 ia withsmall permanently allocated lockersadjacent hangingbasketsallocated on permanentbasis:sto ofbaskets behindcounter,changing separateoradjacent i singletierhangingbaskets ii 2-tire hangingbaskets hanging basketsallocated on temporarybasis:sf0 of baskets behindcounter,changing separateoradjacent i singletier hanging basket ia with small permanently allocated lockersadjoining ii 2-tier hanging baskets ha with small permanently allocated lockersadjacent liii 12000 b lockersallocated ontemporary basis,changing&sto combined i locker300 x 550 x 1800 .4ljlockers.- I. a lockersallocated onpermanent basis,changing&sto combined c .'i_i_L_L1 U) approxtotal -- bench S Max percentageofstaffonduty at any 1 time 1 - IliIIiIi[iIWiiIHI]]iiIiilIiW 3600 7 Bulk sto forsupply&disposalbagsfrom au: 10—12disposalbagscater approx300staff/week 10 Lockerforstaff requiredto removeoutdoorclothingonly obstruction oflockerdoors byseatedperson 8 lockerdoors Clearancesforlockers Smallpersonallockersnear user's workstation 11 clearancesmustallowfor 12 Hangingbasket:loadedweighs about8kg Community 179 Hospitals codeno spaces totalar OFFICES 65 1 65 11 1 11 As in other industries and services demand for admin space grows alarmingly. Can bethought ofashaving2components,1 which processes untar space m2 business off; clerks business off: manager staff lockers staff lounge credit/collections oft creditmanager credit/collections; off accounting off: comptroller accounting off; secretary accounting off; accountants accounting off; payroll accounting/audit; conference cashier; office 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 3 1 3 7 9 7 1 1 9 11 1 7 9 9 15 9 1 7 3 28 1 9 15 9 information and 1 which usesit. Processors: such deptasmedrecords, data processing, accounting; users: suchdeptashospital admin, med staff, financial control.Admissions combine both. Space requirement for each component different: for processing dept factors:volumeand typeof information and eqp used orprojected tobe used:inputchanging rapidly asdata processing advances;foruser dept peopledetermine spaces. Individual office spaces similar commercial offices —3235—8. People formprime design consideration:adminworkersgenerally spend alldayattheirposts; pleasantenvironmentaccordinglyimportant. Patient and med staff interface crucial. Privacy of interviews,particularly about thingsmedand/orfinancial must be considered. Typical space allocationsfor hospital offices in USA —e(1). 7 7 1 11 1 1 netarfotal 181 90 271 grossing factor (50%) grossartotal Offspaceallocations 1 goods + receiving &shipping perishables special items lambulant P care surgery! divisions IP dept delivery I emergency todIetary to maintenance orpharmacy central general sto ,1\ + bulkfoods todietary * from US deptH to requisitioning dept to alldept admin eqp to rinted form ,, Supply receiving & ismantlina (c'1 linen to alldepl supplies neweqP centralsterile CGS tolau linens . 3 leaning allitems ssembling packs sterilising toring distributing CSSDfunctionalrelationships volatile liquids0 pharmacy separatesf0 I 2 CGSallocations number ofBserved commodity 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000 9000 10000 Sf0Sr dry provisions coldsto provisions staff uniforms Pclothing cleaning materials hardware&crockery bedding & linen printing & stationery dressings (excCSSD) CSSD dressings med&surgical sundries disposables disposablebedpans &urinals es-localauthority items total sto ar non-Sb ar basic totalar recommended total stoar 90 25 125 35 45 5 20 25 15 95 65 10 25 35 20 130 45 20 145 50 80 190 70 105 15 40 55 35 195 215 85 120 25 155 170 60 95 10 40 50 30 175 270 45 60 40 220 245 95 140 15 50 70 45 245 60 25 70 30 80 35 85 35 95 40 105 40 115 45 125 60 50 75 65 95 85 110 125 110 145 95 130 160 145 180 160 195 180 60 75 100 110 130 155 175 185 210 65 620 370 105 125 140 160 180 200 835 1030 1185 1330 1525 1710 1895 390 425 465 475 490 520 555 990 1225 1455 1650 1805 2015 2230 2450 90 215 2085 565 2650 1050 1310 1560 1770 1940 2170 2400 2640 2860 10 35 45 15 105 155 20 55 75 55 275 295 120 170 20 60 85 60 300 50 4 DHI-1Sguide to planning centralsf0:requiredsto ar in m2 withworkingh between6000 &6500&sto upto5palletsh permanent use bedpans &urinals SUPPLY STORES& DISPOSAL Nearly all goods, except sometimes pharmaceuticals and oftenfood, received and disposed centrally. UK daily av weight goods handled in 600 B hospital 3000 kg, waste produced 1 200 kg. Considerations relating to central general stores (CGS). Function: receiving sto, distribution of goods, supplies and movable eqp; inventory control. Main planning options: useofdisposables orreusables?Systems for materials handling, conveying and transport; remote sto possibilities. Key space: service courtforvehicles, sizedforseparateaccessto bldg entrypointsforvarious types service traffic—e(2). Receiving dockwith levellers. Warehouse: special/secure stoareas. Main design issues: separation of incoming goods from outgoing material(supplies,eqp,perishables,trash,refuse,soiledgoods); separate receiptand handling offoodstuffs; internally segregatedstoand control ofgoods (central supply sto(CSS), pharmacy,engineering); special sf0 requirements: med gases, volatile liquids. Items classified as fragile, or needing light, moisture or dust control, needspecial arrangements. Items withhigh security risk (eg radioactive material, dangerous drugs, inflammable gases, volatile material) must be stored in accordance with legislation and reg. Guide to UK areas required —(4). Sto areas at point-of-use must allow for extraspace required during public holidayperiodswhen portering staff not available.Usual holiday (UK):72-hrperiod 4or5times/year—*(5). Conveying methods vary fromhand-pushed trolleys (carts) toautomatic conveyor systems; UK experiencesuggestsautomatedsystem, needing trainedmaintenanceengineers, cannot be justified onsavings expected in labour costs: suchsystems vulnerable to mech failure or industrial action. CENTRALSTERILESUPPLY Whathappens: centralised receipt, cleaning, packing,sterilisation, sto and distribution ofreusable supplies (UKcentral sterilised supplydepot (CSSD)). Special sterileprocessing of goods used inpatient care dept, particularly surgery, obstetrics, emergency. Functional relationships Main planning options: closeness of relationship to other materials handling functions: CGS, Iau against traditional ties to certain users: surgery, obstetrics. Means of conveyance for sterile goods (dedicated orgeneral usesystems). Key spaces: decontamination, sterile processing preparation, stoand issue. Main design issues: strictseparationofdirt and cleanworkareas, use ofsteriliserbank to formseparation; location ofsterilisation function for surgical instruments. loadw cen clearw 1200 1100 1400 1300 1100 1000 900 750 600 450 300 24hr 48hr 72hr 90) 800 600 + 5Storequirementsatpoint-of-useover72-hrholidayperiodfordisposable &permanentuse items: disposableitemsincrease spacerequired 6 wofload carriedrelatedtowof corronsf0 ar 7 Reach&space requirements for avwomancollectingsto 180 Community Hospita/s HOUSEKEEPING What happens:regular,thorough cleaningallparts hospitalwith special emphasis on infection control in patient care areas and with respect related materials flow; refuse disposal. Option: linen handling. Relationships diagram—v(1). Main planning options: determine effecton workload ofcleanliness standard desired, extent ofair-conditioning/airfiltration,ease ofcleaning and maintaining interiorfinishes. Manual or mech means ofconveying trash(eg pneumatic tube system)? Manner and meansoftrashdisposal (—±lau/linen services). Key spaces: housekeeping materials sto (ie maids/janitors cpd, eqp sto); stafftraining area/admin. Main design issues: size and distribution of cpd; centralisation of eqp/materials sto. LAUNDRY/LINENSERVICE What happens: dirty linen collected at points of use, conveyed to centralised sorting stations; washed,extracted, dried, mended, ironed, stored. Clean linen distributed user dept according quantity and time schedules, Ifoutside commercialserviceused linencounted andweighed when sentand received; dirtycollection and clean distribution functions remain unaffected. Main planning options:linen load: operating policies on linen use depend upondisposalsagainstreusables—epi 79(5).Dirty linen collection DIETARYSERVICES Most space-consuming ofall service elements. What happens:meal service toseveralhospital populations:inpatients, staff, ambulant patients, visitors. Procurement, diet planning, food preparation, distribution to inpatients by transport means, others by serving line and diningrm; dishwashing and cleaningof dirty returns. Main planning options: form ofdistribution: bulk transportfromcentral kitchentolocal stations in patient unitsagainstcentralised tray make-up Key spaces: central kitchen: receiving and sto, preparation, cooking, dish-washing, scullery, waste, trash and garbage disposal. Dining (for staff, visitors, ambulant patients); service line, table seating; local distribution stations; nursing floor kitchens or pantries. Maindesign issues:meansofdistribution of inpatient meals.—uFunctional relationships food services—v(3). In UKtrend towards tray service fromkitchen asopposed bulksupplies to ward—v(5): patients can choose menu day before. Food may travel several km before reaching destination: insulated trays and plates on heated carts/trolleys essential. Diet kitchen provides both med and ethnicdiets. Machinery noise and vibration can be disturbing, particularly potato peelers, food mixers and central wash-up machinery.All ventilatorsand grilles removable and washable. Floors and walls: impervious easy clean finish; floorsnon-slip; floordrains must have grease traps. system: handlingand accumulation at points of use, meansofconveyance to sortingstation, infection control, volume of cart/trolley traffic, overall cleanliness. Clean linen distribution: cart/trolley system to user dept, sf0system in units. Inventorycontrol: preventingwasteful use,excessive wear, lossfrompilfering. Key spaces: dirty collection and holding: hamper packing,chutes and vestibules. Lau: area, shape and height forefficient handlingof material and for employee comfort. Clean linen distribution and sto: cart/trolley parking, shelf-cabinet sf0. Main designissues: degree of decentralisationin bed unitsof nurse workareas and supplies/linen sto. Pneumaticsystem expense against general cleanliness in patientunits and corridors.Functionalrelationships 9 ..—.-—------.mainflowsofsb & food staff foodhom dayiarder 2crockerywashed 3centraiwash-up 4diningcrockerysin Sserviceeiovator towards 6eqpsto 7cartJtroiiey8diningservery 9staffdr 10conveyorDeft 11 wardservery l2barderraii l3dietk l4dietoff l5ia l6refusesto l7stuilrm l8sio lgteabar20chefoff 21 cio afemate bmaie 22 maink 23vegetabiepreparation24 vegetabiesin 25day ia 26 dry goodssto 27 plantrm 28fish preparation29 mealpreparation30 pastrypreparation 31 pot wash 32domesticsupervisor 33 corr 34 meatfresh 35 caienngofficer 36 ramp Arch Oxford 1 scrapingbench At-IA 5 2 Lau/linenservicerelationships Kitchen area Wycombe DGHEngland,serves650meals/sitting; individualfood platesprepared forPon conveyor belt;tilledtray takenby trolley to wardsby lift; usedtrays& crockery washedcentrally 4 Housekeepingrelationships Hennepincounty food preparation service typIcalgaflery 3 Foodservicerelationships cartreceiving HennepinCountyMedical CenterMinneapolisUSAhas automateddeliveryservices includingmonorail-styletrack& chain conveyornetworkwith moving lockers&containersforcarrying files, allkinds ofmaterials,medicine &food,deliveredfrom separate food preparationbldg Arch Medical FacilitiesAssociates—General Community 181 Hospitals 5 10 15 30 O 15 4 20 25m oh 75ft ClydebankScotlandHC groundfloorwith wingsforlocal healthauthority, hospitalservices&GP,some amenities being shared 1 consult 2 interview 3 disposal 4waiting 5drugs 6wc 7treatment 8 lob 9test 10typist 11 sterilesto 12sto 13telephone 14switchboard 15secretary 16records&reception 17 entrance 18play centre 1 COMMUNITYHEALTHCARE Community health care inUK, alongside general practitioner (GP), now principally provided by health centre (HO). In USA 'free-standing' ambulatory unitsfall into several categories, in addition to physician's office, generally with twofold aim providing preventative medicine and making available health care atlower cost than involved in full hospital treatment. Each such unit starts with programme worked out meet marketneeds within service area, community or region. Various types unit include Health MaintenanceOrganization (HMO), founded some 40 years ago asalternative insuranceprogrammeforindustrialworkers, primary care centres in rural areas tor emergency exam and treatment (include pre-hospital beds), community healthand social centres usually founded by local or regional government. Each of these may contain some, all or more services than UK HC. Larger ones often attached hospitals. HC primary activities: consult, exam and minor treatment backed by med records, reception, waiting and sto areas. Basic amenities must include: pram and carparking, wcforpatientsand staff, changingareas, rest rm with kitchenette forstaff. Secondary activities forlargeHC may include diagnostic and treatment services — physiotherapy, chiropody, dentistry, radio diagnosis and pharmacy — and health clinics for education and assessment, off for health visitors,domiciliary nurses, social workers etc. Viable size for HC consulting resources for not less than 6 GP, but as vital to place HO near population served may be smaller and less well equippedin rural areas. On basis 1 GP has approx 2500 patients, centre for 6 GP will serve population of 15000 and for 12 GP 30000. Assume health visitor can coverapprox3500 and district nurse 2500people. Sitesmust be near public transport routes; access fromroads and car parks must be designed for wheelchair—p19 43 166 and pram users. lp 9 15 3b 15m 455 2 CrieffScotlandHC 1 consult 2dirtyuty 3urinetest 4wr 5healthvisitor 6telephone 7k 8staff 9boiler 10disposal 11 do 12toilets 13reception 14 treatment 15entrance Entrancesshould be protected from rain and prevailing winds and have covered and well supervised pram park.Allow forprotecteddisposalarea forwaste: check with local authorityor health authorityhow tobecollected. Large centres may requireseparatestaff and service entrance; patients entrance may need canopyhigh enough take ambulance—p166(2).HO groundsshould beattractivebutsimply landscaped formm maintenance. Manyrm in HO serve same purpose as equivalent rm in OPD: same layoutcan be used with minor adaptations. Main difference: HO do not deal with suchlarge numbers of patients; nor do they deal with acute med and surgical cases needing sophisticated diagnosticand treatment eqp. Rm which can easily be adapted for HO are set out —+p166—7; most importantare: wheelchairwcp167(6),disposalrm, p167(8),dinette & urine test rm, p167(5), ambulance dimensions, p166(2), automatic doors, p166(4), disabled patients car parking, pl66(3). Waiting Provide general waiting area. Small forward waiting areas required for each group of consult rm. Assuming appointmentsystem, allow 7.0 n? waiting areaforeach suite. Seatingshould becomfortableand informal. 3200 3 Dentalsuite,2-man practice; dentalchair(165—200 kg),dentalunit (51 kg) needfirm fixingtofloor;services required: water,waste,gas, el, compressedair 1 hb 2couch 3curtain 4armchairs 5recoveryrm 6steriliser 7aspirator 8sk 9disposal 10dental chair 11 smalldental surgery 12worktop 13dentaleqpcabinet 14operating lamp 15cartltrolley 16 anaestheticcart/trolley 17desk 18largedentalsurgery 19 gasoutlet 20benchwith benchpin 21 wastehole bin below 22dustextract 23duckboard 24 dentalworkshop 25filing 26 DDAcpd 27dentalunit Med records Med records in 2 sizes: standard 175 x 125, new A4 in folders 310 x 240. Sto may bein shelves, filing cabinetsorrotaryfilingunits. Including access these methods require floor space 1 .5—2.0 m2/1000 records. Shelves cheap butoffer nosecurity; cabinetsexpensive butsecure and adaptable;rotary notsecureand expensive.Allow for increaseinnumbers of records. Dental clinic —(3) Dental clinicfor2-man practice consists of 2 surgeries (1 large enough for principal surgery), recovery rm with couch and basin for postanaesthesia patients, dental workshop and waiting area plus normal central records and reception area. Allow 9.5 m2 waiting area for 2 surgeries. Surgeries should have NEaspect if daylight needed buttrend towardstheatre-type operating lamps and more mobile eqp. Obscured glazingrequired for windows. Chiropodyroom—(4) Should be on ground floor oraccessible by elevator. 4 Hospital references: —*Bibliographyentries 013014017020022023024025054 218219 220262 294 296 303 315 336 337 341 349354 362 419 420 421 478 Chiropodyrm,11.0m2 525547551 559560576577578647 182 Commerce Churches celebrant's chair highaltar communion CflOi,tl sidealtar hafor orchestra vestry sacristyflC sacnsty dom i_tp1p1t I pulpit & hafor baptistryIf' 4N towers altar communicant choir t sarcophagus DesignforBerlinerDom (Lutheran)GermanyArchSchinkel 1 2 Typical Roman Catholicchurch layout entrance font ladychapel —i high with lantern over pressionaI door 4 St Paul Bow Common (Anglican) LondonEnglandArch R Maguire and Russian), Reformed,RomanCatholic,separationbetween Orthodox and Roman dating fromearliest history of Christianity, break between Reformed and RomanCatholic from 16th century. In Roman Catholic churches emphasis now placed onmass in common tongue; altar usually raised. Reformed order of service depends on whether 'high', 'low' or 'free'. Some likeness between forms of Roman Catholic, High Anglican and High Presbyterian (Scotland and USA). Free followCalvinist and Lutheran origins with emphasis on preaching and communion carried out round 'Lord's Table', usuallycentrallyplaced with nearbypulpiteither behind table orto left hand side. Baptists need large heated water tank usually under removable floor for inititiation by total immersion. Fonts used almost universally for initiation into main groups and dedication into others. Many newer religious sects have idiosyncratic requirements related to special forms and musical performances. In USA Protestantchurches have approx70million members, Roman Catholic 50million, Orthodox4million. Churches throughout world now have strong community concern; planning often relates to weekday uses; keyword flexibility. Ancillary accn, according to programme, may incorporate, eg coffee rrn, counselling rm, meeting rm, radio station. Car parking must be taken into account. Centralised planpopular;but ritualistic, processionaland oblong forms also used. However, importance ofpriest, pastororleader should not belost; liturgical functions carried outbyindividualchurches of great importance in design. More recently new factors have emerged, among them security of church property, adequate acoustic design (for music and voice) and provision fordisabled. high sacristy communicants altar sacristy wc 9 side tar congregationa chapel font pul GENERALARRANGEMENT Main divisions ofChristian churches today: Orthodox (principallyGreek erPU2 5 Circular Protestant church Roman Catholicchurch Cologne-RietilGermany Arch D Bôhm 6 0 EssenGermanyArch Bartning 'Iss,y - — communion — — pulpit. pulpit • UI II Lrr sacrlstry- 7 CorpusChnsti(RomanCatholic) churchAachenGermany Arch A Schwarz "-i' —altar stage chapel J 10 OrthodoxchurchofSt SavaMcKeesport USA ArchPekruhn wc k(tea) 8 Church&parishha(Reformed) 1-lanweilerGermany Arch R Kruger ¶ii --4— - 2 --f---FllI—i11 — 9 Notre Damedu Raincy(RomanCatholic)ParisFranceArch A Perret key 1 sanctuary 2nave 3pulpit 4baptislry 5secondaryaltars 6confessional 11 StMichaelHatfieldHyde (Anglican) WelwynGarden City England Arch Clarke HallScorer& Bright key 1 entrance 2chapel 3vestly 4pulpit&lectern 5baptistry 6altarwith baldachino Community 183 Churches seatw= 500-550 hathook — eso INTERIORS,FURNISHINGS a = 850—950 b = 50—140 a = 800—900 Seating Seatw= 500—550 In some churches provision for worshippers to kneel not necessary —(1); inotherssimple hassock or kneeler incorporated in bench—(2). Most important measurement for benches with kneelers: distance of outside edgeof kneeler, when foldeddown, fromperpendiculardropped fromarm rest: approx 175—200. I 350 i50fJt 160 Area/seat required: withoutkneeling rail 0.4—0.5 m2—(1); with kneeling rail0.43—0.52m2—(2). _________________ heating I 2 Seatingwithout kneerail Aisles Seatingwith knee rail Dimensions —*(3)—(6). Cold radiation from external walls makes side aisles advantageous. Centralaisle useful for processionalentryand exit in larger churches. In UK aisle should be provided for every 8—10 persons length of bench (benches more than 10 persons long need aisle ateach end— in USA more than 7persons). Including aisles allow 0.63—1.0 m2/P. For standing allow 0.25—0.35m2; on crowded occasionswall space and rear aisles may be used. Width of exitdoors and stairs should complywithregforplaces ofassembly—*p401. _____ T' _________ I2__ T J._________ 4 5 Pulpit _____ Requirements vary from church to church —(7)(8)(10). Usually raised with steps; but growing practice also place on level of sanctuary or raised 1 step. In RomanCatholicchurches pulpit nowlikelybe replaced by2 ambos or reading desks, 1 ateach side. In 'free' churches pulpit of central importance. In all churches essential preacher be visible to whole congregation. 6 Altars—(9) _________ _____ __________________________________________________________ 3—6 Aisle ___________________________ __________________________ Roman Catholic and some Anglican churches have sacrament houseor tabernacle (small decorated cupboardwith lockabledoors, bolteddown and immovable: —*cataloguesof church furnishers): may be in side chapel oron plinth behind main altar,some2000away. Separate side chapel sometimes desired. pulpit) 4t lectern altar Sacristy Font pulpit font centrelineof aisle _________________________ 7 Pulpit&attarinsame axis centre lineofaisle _________________________ Pulpitsidewaystoaltar 8 — 9 Altar tableforsmall reformed churches In Reformed churches altar usually placed close rear wall; may have passage at back. Many Roman Catholic and someAnglican churches now have altar in centre ofsanctuary: priest orcelebrant stands behind to face congregation forpurpose of worship. Used for baptism; often symbolically placed in or near entry of church, though in Protestant churches in USA sometimes placed conveniently for baptism to formpartof main service. May be 1 or2 steps lower than, and separate from, main body of church (baptistry —p182(2)(9)(1 1)), with room for up to 30 people to stand during baptism. For Baptist churches immersion tank—p182. Confessional boxes Best placed in aisles: separate compartments for priestand penitent —*(13).Construction mustbesound proof. 10 Pulpit(microphoneshave madesoundingboardunnecessary) 550 550 11 Lectern 12 Font 13 Confessional box 550 184 Community Churches GALLERIES,ORGAN Galleries viewovershoulder &head Increase seating capacity for same area; also improve acoustics if suitable distance from pulpit: common in Reformed churches. Have tiered seating so that congregation at back may see and hear better. Convenient positions: opposite altar wall (for organ and choir) or sidewaysopposite pulpit. Height of gallery determined by necessary free sightofcongregation beneath itin relationto altar and pulpit. Stairs and exits from galleries must comply with reg for assembly halls. RequirementlP 0.7—1.0 m2inclusive ofgangways—(1). viewover shoulder 100—140 Galleryseatingtiered,riserswith lighting:must be possibleseealtar oratleastpulpit over headsof occupantsofsecondrowinfront 1 Choir galleries 2 Smallorgan (Walckertype)with 15stopsforchurchha&smaller churches 1300—1600 Infrontoforgan —*(5) have 100—150 high steps (increasingfronttorear) and are 1 000—1 200wide.Ifdesirable choiron loose chairs arranged in semi-circle infrontofconductor; if necessaryorgan console canalsobe in front ofconductor with orchestra seats built upbehind toachieve unity between organ, orchestra and choir. Next to conductor's desk and organ console largecupboard for musicsheets; outsidegallery suitable cloakrm forchoirmembers. Organs 3 Chamberorgan (Walcker-Jahn) with about275 pipesforha organ I 4 Organwith manualclosedby rollershutter I: / \ \\Lorganist I steps (Or choir V,organconsole conductor 120h orchestra 5 Organ &choir: organconsolein frontofconductor,organdivided '.W organist stepsforchoir rgan 120 h harmonium conductor console 6 Organ& choirwith harnionium & organ placedtoeach side, otherwiseas5 7 SectionthroughVuoksenniskachurchImatraFinland withgallery& organ Arch Aalto 1J ft 8 Each voice needs width of 2000—3000 and 250 depth. Each voice weighs 200kg therefore 10-stoporgan needsarea (if 3000—4000)hof10 (3 x 250) = 7.5 and weighs 10 x 200 = 2000kg,therefore approx 300 kg/m2. But organ specialists ask for 750 kg/m2. Height determined by length of pipes. Largest: 32 ftopenvoicepipe 11 m high with sounding board; is passed through several storeys or may be bent. Determining factor: 8ftpipe, 3000high with sounding board. Therefore storey height for smaller churches may be 3000—4000, for larger churches 4000—5000. Organ may be divided —*(5). Bellows best in separate rm if possible. Organ builder should be consulted at planning stage, also regarding appearanceofvisual pipes. m main organbellows I music do'— I sheets j±4rgan :j: Specialist should be called in for organ installation (acoustic specialist also important). Size oforgan (number of voices and stops) notsimply relative to sizeof church asvolume variable, butgenerally: smaller churches 200—300m3/voice medium churches 300—400m3/voice largerchurches 400—500m3/voice Romancatholicparishchurchwith organ &choirgalleryat Wend Arch Schwarz In USAorgansoftenelectronic. Community 185 Mosques m,hr6b wall ::;::::: : i i:::.:j L±L © • uL;: li awt flJL. ,4:::::::: entrance 1 Simple mosquearrangement: Tlemcen Mosqueofal-Mansur 2 Friday MosqueIsfahan: 8th—I 7th centuriesAD 1303—1306 AD - - I.. ' - court 1•I..i I.. m ______ 32 64 tt gateways 3 Mosqueof az-ZãhirBaybars: 1266—9 AD 4 Mosque&courtSehzade MehmetIstanbul: 16th centuryArch Sinãn • 5 dorne53mh mrhrab Holy mosque at Mecca, most holy sanctuary of Islam, to which all mosques should preferably face (arrows in illustrations),houses ka'bah. Ka'bah stands inhugecourtyard surrounded byarcaded precinct which formspattern for many subsequent examples. However, mosques vary extensivey throughout Islam from square village hall types to great historical examples in Egypt, Syria, Spain, Iran, Turkeyand India. Few purpose builtexamples in W: many sects, with varying needs, adapt or rent existingbldg for Friday prayers and for the twoid celebrations,for Islamic newyearand end of Ramadan. 3 main types oftraditional mosque: early open plan, usuallyto befound arcades, colonnades and courtyards incorporating areas of water — most important for ablutions but also for cooling. These elements often used symbolically in designs and heavily ornamented or planned as landscape features round mosques. Main architectural feature mihrab basic to allmosques: setinwallfacingMecca (k/b/a wall),oftenemphasised bywindows orby dome above. Monumentalgrandeur ofmosque came largely through need to enclose activities in harsher northern climates but also related to advances in vault construction in 11th and 12th centuries AD; thus domed mihrab area was enlarged by single vault prayer hall or 4 vaultiwansor //wans arranged symmetrically around court. Tendency usethispatternwithopenorclosed courts according to climate. Minaret 'Call to prayer' toweroften attached to mosque: name derives from 'lighthouse'. After introduction of loudspeakers little used for calling. Types varyfromnoneto cylindrical needle minarets inglazed tile with 1 I-+4 0 lOm Early mosques characterised by wide and shallow shape —÷(1 )(2) to enable ranked formation ofbelievers face mihrab wall.(Mihrab itself is niche resembling door: highly decorated featurein laterexamples.) in desertregions; central court, patterned after Mohammed's house at Medina; opencourt, with 4vaulted halls (iwans) 1 oneach side ofcourt. Mosque bldg have followed climatic needs for shade through use of domedarc,vermihrb .•... Mosque place of prayer forMuslims: not necessarilybldg. Term derives from masjid, meaning prostration. Prayer as community act not mentioned in Quran but derives from prophet Mohammed's Friday communal meetings. Friday sermon (khutba) set piece, made fromtop of stairs (minbar), oftenincorporated as feature. Suleymaniyecomplexincluding mosque Istanbul; covers6000Cm2 & includesnumerousancillarybldg Arch Sinän high gallery, common in Iran; typewith 2—3 galleriescapped with wood conesand based on polygonal plan in Turkey; often 2—6 minarets per mosque in somecountries, depending on size. Segregation Male worshippers only in most mosques although gallery for women oftenfound. Some sects, eg Ishmailis,fully integrated. Ablutions Requirement ofthefaith; modern western examples—e(7) include these with other toiletarrangements in partof bldg nextto nearby congregation hall. Planning Because of ranked formation allow 680—1 250/standing P incongrega- tion hall. Carpets and other floor coverings required as faithful are barefoot: sto space forshoesrequired. Axial layout common butopen courtyard forprayers useless inWclimates. Decoration Accepted generallyshould be non-representational although notdecreed. This rigidly observed tradition, however, allows free use of calligraphic devices from Quran which forms valuablecounterpart to plain surfaces and basic architectural forms. b,ns sunke garden 0 5 10 15 21) •244 makkarl rn It Londoncentralmosque agroundfloor b lowergroundfloor Arch Gibberd& Partners 6 _____________________ 186 Community Synagogues No formal architectural precedent forsynagogues (literally 'assembly); tend to followarchitectural styleof country in which built. Dual function ofplace ofworship and of social orcommunity meetings tendsdemand complex of bldg. 3 divisions of Jewry all require space for prayers; conservative and reform Jews use choir and organ butorthodox Jews donot use instrumental music. Liturgical furniture consists of: ark, focal pointgenerally at E containing scrolls; paroches, curtain-typecovering; candelabrumtoright;pulpit for rabbi and cantor. Furniture mounted on berna, raised platform at centre (orthodox) orendof hail (conservative,reform). I : 12 Second commandment proscribes 'making of graven images, so ornamentation floral or geometric. - 9 . 0 2 3b 3pm do 3 Beth Israel Synagogue&schoolOmahaUSA:seats650 insanctuary & extra 800in congregational assemblyha;courtyardprovides additional multiuseflexibility 1 congregational h 2synagogue 3rostrum 4stage 5k 6sto &uty 7foyer Bcantor 9rabbi 100ff 11 chapel l2court l3classrrn Arch Kivett&Myers 12 .7Ii 76 9 8 L6 2 9 1 1 0 5 45 Om .3 don 4 14' ic 1 0 KTISynagogueNewYork:accommodates upto 1000;noteflexiblespace forsocial andlor religioususe 1 socialha 2sanctuary 3k 4entrancefoyer Arch PhilipJohnson 1 2 JewishCentreWestOrangeUSA:allweeksocial, religious&educational use; chapelseats250—350; multi-purposerm upto750onhighholy days Arch David BrodyJuster&Wisnuewski 21 4 23 10 20 p 4 5 mft odo9o1o TempleBethElUSA:normalseating1000canbeextendedto 1600;bldg includesprovisionforreligiouseducation, lib& dramaticpresentations 1 temple 2retiringrm 3chair sto 4classr 5supply&mimeograph rm 6off 7coveredentrance 8vestibule 9lob lotemplegarden 11 pool 12chapel 13socialha 14socialgarden 15ante-mi 16rabbioff 17women 18men 19 lib 20stage 21 k 22 dressing rm 23driveway Arch Percival Goodman 5 Planofmain floor ParkSynagogue&community centreCleveland USA Arch Erich Mendelsohn Community 187 Mortuariesand crematoria MORTUARIES 1 3l0—, 350 Dead kept in cellsseparated by partitions (usually sheetmetal, sometimes plants) —v(3). In larger mortuariesgangwayforbearers separated from visitor's —(3b), from which relatives may see dead through airtight glass panes before funeral service. Protruding piers between cells preventinconvenience to different groupsof mourners —s(3b). Usual dimensionsof cells: 450—600 780—900 , Urn &coffin 1 2200x 3500 750—1100 2500 x 3750 3000 x 3500 2 I C'J i visitors bearers .1 :. visitors I CJ huH LLIL!LLIL a :. I I 2°to 12°C; if it fell below mm figure frost could expand corpses. This temp range maintained by central heating, air conditioning and, specially in summer, ventilation. Floorsmutbeimpervious, smooth and easyto cleanse; walls best lime washed (frequent renewal advisable). Larger mortuaries also need rm for guard and bearers 15—26 m2 inclusive oftoilets and lavatories.Stand for hearses also needed. Tempin mortuary: wneededbybearers ... 1 bearers 8 visitors Mm In city morturaries special rm may be set aside for unidentified bodies with sto for their clothing, next to which locate post-mortem rm and surgery—s(6). bearers (::..:.:::.i 250O CREMATORIA Furnace room 3 Mortuarylayouts [acnn wreaths T wreaths j,_,Ob,,j proiestani priest rails catholic priest coffin chapel — Plan ofinstallationwithfurnace belowchapel 4 — 5 Furnacerm behindchapelwith interveninglob Should beeitheron lowerfloorwith liftforcoffins —n(4)orbehindchapel, separated from it by lobby —v(5)(6). Horizontal transport with handoperated winches easiest, hydraulic lifts being necessary for vertical movement. Lobby door orfloor trap designed to shut slowly as coffin disappears through opening. In furnace rm coffin taken from transport carriage and transferred to chamotte grating infurnace. Cremation performed byspecial coke, elor gas-fired furnace consuming 45 kW per cremation. Height of 2-storey furnace 4300. Cremation completely dust freeand odourless by means of900—1 000°C dry air; no flames reachdeceased. Furnacepre-heated for2—3hrand cremation itself lasts 1—1 1/4 hrafter which ashesgathered in iron boxforsto in urn. Cremation supervised through peep-holes. Chapel Cremation installations should ifpossible lie atrear ofcemetery chapel, whichserves all denominations. Sizeof chapel varies: must be at least 100 seats and 100standing places; also 1—2rm forrelatives(which may be addedto chapel rm) and such ancillary rm as may prove necessary Administration Conveniently close by chapel should be admin rm: 1 for director, 2—3 offices,coffin sto, flats forcemetery keeper and boilermanetc; nursery can be located nearby, with greenhouse —+pl 11, rm for gardener and landscape architect, worker's rm, stoforeqp and seeds, and toilets. Urns & gravestones Oftenlimitedin size by cemetery reg —(1); wall niches in columbaria usually 380—400wide and deep, and 500—600 high. I drive 6 Layoutofmortuarywithcrematorium andancillarymiforlargecemetery Religious buildings references —Bibliography entries 005 070 072 160 184 311 312478579 620 188 Commerce Shops & stores SITUATION each floor stockrm controller/buyer Prominent sites in population centres served by convenient public and private transport. Carparking standards in UK, 3.5—5.25 car spaces per lOOm2grossretail area(3—4changesday). In USA max 150 cars/acre. Access admindirectors personel accounts advertising 1 Pedestrians, vehicles and delivery traffic should be kept separate; shopping centre best restricted to pedestrians, short connexions (covered to protectfromsun and rain) linking parking area and shops. Bus stops or underground railwaystations may be adjacenttoshopping centrewith direct access. Max distance between shopper's car orbus stop or station and principal shops should be 201 m and should be withininnerdistribution road system. taffaccn canteen lockers training rest rm lecture rm medical care Plananalysisofrm& routesofcustomers &goods Spaceallocation—*(l) Large stores may have lecture and demonstration rm, restaurants, cafes, kindergartens, banks, post office, travel agencies, cinema and garden area.Small shops often grouped in shoppingcentre —*pl 99—201. Design begins with allocating space to units, conforming to tire and other reg, followed by subdivision into sales areas, internal service areas, jointservices etc. Sales areas Should be immediately above one another and asnear entranceflooras possible. Basement betterfor selling than additional upper storey, so stock rm and staff rm best located on upper storeys, with offices on highestfloor. Storeyheights 2 Free standingmodularsheMng units makeupmajorpartoffurniture in modemestablishments mainpassage For largeunits, 4000—5000;forsmall units, 3000dependenton services (UK practice). Unnecessary floor to floor heights deter customers and are tiring to staff. Shop units do not rely on natural lightbut on artificial lightingwith mechventilation. Structuralgrid i200N mainpassage EBEB1 § E 3 Aisles Recommended mm aisle width: 1 980, subsidiary aisles 990. Counter heights generally 920. Systemmodulesvary accordingto type ofshelving and bracketing used. 3 J13 —. Column dimensions and centres determine lay-out of fittings. Recommended structural grid: large units, between 7300and 9000width on frontage and 9150depth; small unitsbetween 5300and 6000width on frontage, 18to 36m depth front to back. mainpassage 20i- 40 +266 420-1 Ft I Functionaldisplaystandsfor differenttypes of merchandisewith units running betweenequalcolumn centres f144 . 100 4 Arrangementof furnitureunits 5 Sectionthroughshopsalesfloor withaislewwhichhaveprovedpractical inuseforpersonalservice 14 T LJ1 II 110 LI; flH _____ 11I1 - 20 —iii 41 j Commerce 189 Shops & stores k::m; cable duct L<j from MOVEMENTBETWEEN FLOORS groundfloor salesar fl Number and widths of staircases —xp408 Bib5Ol 628 and exits prescribed by reg. In UK number of staircases relatedto travel distances, widths of staircasesand exits relatedtooccupancy,eg UK practice calculates loadas follows: ordinary consumer goods 1.9 m2 gross floor area/P; specialised shops 7 m2grossfloorarea/P. 11 1rl.dispiay diy9w4 trmii upperfloor window basement Separateexitsfrom basement& upperfloors instair well 1 2 Emergencystairsin multi-storey bldg r 3 4 Unimpededexit fromstairs 5°5 122 N -.. 30.5 Max distancefromenclosed inUK staircase iii 41111111111111111111 lllllllllllll IIIII 5 Back-to-backarrangement of elevators 6 Combination of elevators & escalators - Ancillaryrm onmezzanine level Should be in groupsvisible fromentrance; in large stores in centre of bldg not more than 50 m fromanypart ofsales floor.May be arrangedin groupsback to back or incombination with escalators —x(5)(6). Escalators—*p409 Essential when mm of approx 2000 P/hr must be transported; should run in successive series (return flights) toall sales floors, both directions. Best placed in centreof floorvisible from all entrances: pitch 30In UK may need tobeenclosed tocomply with fire reg;normally open in USA. Refreshment rm oftenon top floor with kitchen and hoist tosto. 2200 7 Elevators—xp4l 0—2 In USAelevators onlyused forcarrying goods; notcommon in new dept stores: nearly all have escalator bands, parallelorscissor. 2200 .1 Different reg governmulti-storey stores and shops, and 1-storey small shops. Except for 1-storeyunits UK reg require shop bldg to be divided into compartments notexceeding 7080m3—xtire reg. This prevents use of very largestaircases, makes use of escalators difficult and restricts features suchas open wellsbetween more than 2floors—n( 1)—(4), In USA determine total occupancy, consult national and local codes: bldg classified by use and fire ratings; open floor areas subject to sprinkler systems, fire curtains, specified exits etc. Most customers use escalators; elevators availableforexpress service. Numbers of customers to be transported fromground floor estimated fromdensity x storey area x number of storeys (8O% on escalators, 20% elevators); this figure must be divided by capacity of transport chosen to give number of elevators and escalators required. Ancillary rm 8 Goods deliveryinparkingbays Wc,telephone booths, staff cloakrmand lavatoriescommonly placed on mezzanine floor —u(7); oftenplaced in basement in USA, alsobargains —(10). Goodsdelivery NocTNNJNJ sales 5000 luxurygoods NfNJNJNJNJ salesservice 5000 clothes 2500 fast sellinglines 5000 bargains ---I9 Separated from customer circulation, frequently in goods yard or by delivery ramps. Delivery may be made to goods sto connected to general sf0, perhaps with automatic conveyors. If delivery difficult in busy street, parking bays recommended —u(8). Circulation through receiving rm, sto rm etc, to selling positions —r(10). Refuse and waste has to be handled from dept back to despatch through waste disposal dailynecessities. restaurant,demonstrations 2500 Intermediate stockrm floors which take floor structure (in USA stockdeliveredfromgroundfloor or area. 10 Favourablearrangementof goodsforefficientsellingon sales floor basement) backwardsliding downward withhatch frombasement sliding II><IDI2. — 3000 11 —F- 3000 —4— Singledisplaywindow 3000 — [:i 1 12 4— 1 °°. I 1000 -4 i— L__J t6o0 i.— 12 Continuousdisplaywindow with movablecpdunits 1000 — 5000 - •. 'iHT! services cpd —.— —4 5000 13 Accessfrom behindcolumns I ......... —-4 14 .- s accessgangway 5000 Withaccessgangway cpd —4—- 190 Commerce Shops & stores -- SERVICEDETAILS 5000 —-1 Back-upstock Either on 1 floor,preferably top salesfloor,or on each floor in separate backstock rm areaoron low mezzanine floors—pl89(9). 2000 Goodstransport hoist, chute, roller conveyor, conveyor belt, ramp conveyor, spiral chute, fork-lift,palleted trolley. By trolley (cart), goods 500500 — I— 3400 Displaywindowextendedby havingshop entrancebehindit & staircaseto upperfloors set back: internalw of shopmm 2600 1 500 5650 Displaywindows—(1)—(8) — 2 Very deepshopsoftenpermit extensivedisplaywindows, impressiveeven ifshopitself quite small = Separate fromcustomers,ifnecessaryinconjunctionwith goodsdelivery; own stairs to cloakr, whichshould be 0.4—0.5 m2/P.Staff rm preferably on top floor. Shouldbeatmm rate of1 for25females, 1 forevery 25 males upto 100 and 1 for every40thereafter; however, ratio of 1:15 recommended,with washbasins prorata. Staff should beprovided with drinking water, rest rm, lockerrm, drying arrangementsforoutdoor clothes, control oftemp, ventilation and lighting, seating (UKreg). 2300 6250 ] —- ---H Building regulations 6001er tI3500 Staff entrance Staff wc -H -- Interchangeable fitments usual in dept stores. In designing window spaceimportant give easyaccess to display, with mm loss of display spaceat back—p1 89(13)191(1 )—(4). 3000 —i--- 3000 — 3 Deepshops mayhavewide vestibuleswith displaywindowsat anglestoentrance,attracting customersawayfromstreettraffic 4 5 Fornarrowfrontagerecess entrancetoprovidelargerdisplay area&anglesofviewthroughoffsets 6 Byslantingentirewindowar& Centraldoorssuitableforshops 6000—6200wide; countersmay beinstalledonboth sides;shouldbe cash!wrapneardoor havingdoorsinsameline, ideaof(5) isdevelopedtoitslogicalconclusion Consultreg on construction, eqp and finishes ofshopsand stores. In UK: openings inwall must beof appropriatefrconstruction and comply with appropriate bldg reg. Division floorsmust be of approved fr construction with all vertical communication between floorscut off. Floor heights usually governed bygeneral bldg height limits laid down byreg. Sales areas should be mm 3000 high. B Properlyplacedfittingsallow customerstomove fromentranceto sales counter,cashdesk,issuing counter&exit withoutreverse circulation 9 Noseparationbetween customer&sales staff:wholermat disposalofcustomer(self-service) i4 dispay'ndow 7 Automaticinstallation foropening&closingdoors(1-leafdoorwith 2-way passage,entrance&exit coupled):aphoto-elcell &light barrier; b contactmat / 10 Shopforindividual consult, fitting tables,egfortryingon spectaclesin optician 11 Flowershop with largewindow &display ar: rearofshopfor arrangingflowers Commerce 191 LJ narrow deep frontage window dressing ar ______ max windowat frontage j narrow flat frontage [XI Shops & stores iDJ wide frontage yj wide frontage SERVICE DETAILS Stock & despatch rooms Sto and workshops to be separated from sales areas by fr walls and floors(UK reg), thesetobe treated as separate sto areasand to comply with restrictions on compartment size. Entrance&exits Inbldg ofover 1 500 m2usable floor areaallyards should have entrances entranceto separate offover ____________island showcase max display door access __________________ [din Li El maxcustomeraccess withshowcases Shopfront layoutvariations: deepwindowplanssuitableforfashion, furnitureetc,shallowforjewellery,books,stationeryetc 1 and exits sited as far apart as possible. Entrances and passages: mm heightand widthclearance 3700on level ground—WK reg: access for fire appliances. Turning circleforappliance 17 m. Roadsto take laden weightof 10.1 t. Distance of any point from entrance max 25 m. On ground floor exitsand main aisles for customerstobe 1070wide forfirst 200 people, additional 152 foreach additional 30 people. Where 2 exits required each opening tobe wide enough for full number ofoccupants. Exit doorsto openoutwards: nosliding doors —Bib1 17 601. Amounts and type ofglazing controlled by reg. Stairs—*p408 Preferably on outside walls with direct exit to open air or through entrance hall etc (UK reg). From each part of upper floor mm 2 stairs, withindistance of 30.5 m. Rm in vicinity of 1 staircase only must be no furtherawaythan 15m. Width for first 200 people 1070; additional 152 for each additional 30 people. Rise/going 125—250 mm (UK reg). Stairs to basements enter directfromopenairorseparated fromstairsto other floors by lobbies. shallowest natural Iighy. beam 'a' from(2) L..E 2 Insufficientday orartificial lightingreflectslighterbldgopposite orviewer 3 Reflection reduced substantially ifstronglightstrikes backon display aboveeyelevel of viewer All rmforstaff and customers must haveemergency lighting independent ofmain lighting. Forcirculationareas, stairs,exits etcspecialemergencylitdirection signs. WINDOWS Shopwindow'simpact determines itsvalue. Almost useless: dazzling, reflecting panes, deepdarkwindows near bright pavements: goods for sale can only beseen with effort —(1 )(2). Shopwindows now rely forimpact on artificial light. Sun blinds necessary to protect goods on all aspects except N facing. Fascia totake sign:integral to shop front and relativeto sun blind. Cold Condensation and ice on frosty windows can be avoided for windows connected with shop bywarm aircirculationoverwholearea,if necessary by ventilator; forenclosed casesventilation slotsin shop frontwindows required. Provision may beneeded forfreshair intake intoslip through louvres or mechintake over shop window or overdoors. 4 Typicalshop frontcomponents I :•::•::::•:•:-:•:•::•:•:•:•:::•:.:-.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:•: WIOdOWS above stock cpd I F ' a 0 worlishopfor small alterations chang T1T{][ 5 Bldg with side wing&backyard (typicallayoutofrentedaccninGerman cities) suitableforshops:goodsforpassingtradeongroundfloor,on upper floorworkshopsforalteration,fittingrm, stock rmetc; in basementdo,wc& ancillaryrmforstaff a groundfloor bupperfloor b 192 Commerce Shops & stores Fire -ii!— a 1 solid glass I very good Ip Impactsiting: amaxfrontage&display; excellent Special fire precaution installations:smoke detectors,automatic warning systems, sprinklers. Compartment size —p189 can be doubled where sprinklers supplied. Temperature & ventilation 16°C mm after first hour ofoccupancy (UK requirement). Ventilation by extract/intake tans orair-conditioning in larger units. Necessarydesign for heat build-up from artificial lighting and occupancy loading. bgoodimpact; ceffectsofsiting Shoplayout Aswith display shop itselfshould be easy to take in at glance. Space for customerand sales staff depends on commodity and number of customers; aim atsmooth quick procedure.Big store organisationsdevelop systemplanning to suittheirparticular requirements. Locationof shops Varies according to type of business: determined by custom, eg convenience shopping and consumer durables.Trade of smaller unitswill be affected by location of deptstores, variety stores and supermarkets which act as magnets. These larger units should be sited to draw shoppers past as many shops as possible. Shops should besituated for max impact related to trade potential and should be seen fromas many angles as possible. Shape offrontage, shop sign (integral component) and protection from weather should draw customers. Corner shops 30% more valuable than shops in row. Each type of shop has its individual shop window shape (shoe shopsneeddifferent displaysfrom butchers and jewellers). Deptstores usually have flat frontages. Sizesof window vary with local conditions even in new bldg. Size and design ofdisplay windows and height ofstall-riser related to goods displayed, eg jewellery orfurniture —p191(4). Boutiques Examples of 2 different concepts —n(3)(4) groundfloor first floor 2 Typicalshop layout (fish, fruit & vegetable sb) key 1 entrance 2 cashdesk key 1 entrance toboutigue 2 entrancehatoapartments 3 displayplatforms 4 bItingml 5 sb cabins 3 showcase 4 dispiay cubes 5 ciothesracks 6 dispiay shelves 7 charrgingrm 8 mirror 9 stokiosks ek 7 wc 8 cash counter 3 Boutique Istanbul Turkey: exampleoftroglodyticillusionist interior; reflectingceiling makeshappeargreater,visitorleft guessing aboutshop's extent Arch Mehmet Konuralp 4 BoutiqueChampsElysee Paris France: reflecting glass sets goodsoff againstcomplexbackground; artificiallightingdirectseyetomost rewarding points Arch IsabelleHebey Commerce 193 Shops & stores BREAD & CAKE SHOPS—(1)—(4) I- staff tlcursto I-. SS breadsto ftn bakery Circulationfor bakery: shopwellventilated, possiblewith steamextractor 1 if 2 Plan of small bakery: breadsto withgood connexiontobakery,shop &despatch Generation ago small bakeriesproducedapprox 85% of household requirements of bread and pastries,factory bakeries remaining15%: these percentages now more or less transposed in UK. Sales in personal service shops mainly over counter, which may containrefrigerateddisplay. Freshly bakedgoodsrequiregood aircirculation. FRUIT & VEGETABLESHOPS—*(6)—(9) Fresh vegetables should be stored cool butnot refrigerated: potatoes indark rm, carrots & root vegetables in sand, fruit in dark rm at temp 1—5°C & 85—95%hum. Deepfreezersfordeep frozensupplies. Walls tiled or washable. Sale often from delivery containers (baskets, crates, boxes) —e(7)(8). Dirt traps below sto racks —s(8). Fruit & vegetable shops usefully combined with flower shops. woodengrille zinctrough 3 Salescounterwith screen:bread compartments—u(4) vary with loafsize 4 Shelf arrangement:breadonslatted shelves S. (air circulation)withtins belowto catchflour t staff c> IlltlllllM I aration prep- I cellar intake — 1 spices \ _l 5 Circulationforgreengrocery: smallstockas mostgoodsdelivereddaily 6 8 9 Counterwith standsforboxes&wire baskets, drip pan &dirttrap 490( I I H 55d I Planoffruit &vegetableshop: rmwith machinesfor cutting &preparingvegetables 7 Typicalboxesforfruit &vegetables Pavementsales fromtrolleys(carts) or in frontof shopwith attractive display 194 Commerce Shops & stores FISHMONGERS —(1 )—(3) =: r' intake; os coldi Fish need cool sto (often marble) for display, cold rm for overnight sto and deep freeze cabinets in shop for deep frozen products. Smoked fish must be stored quite dry in contrast tofreshfish. peparation sto _______ ______ Shop must be well equipped with ventilation devices. Wallsand floors washable. New UK reg mayrequire glazed shop fronts. _____________ u1T Arrangements forreceiving largedeliveriesand forrefusedisposal. Ifdesired, aquarium for eye appeal—÷(2). 't,=z-_ ——-7 1 Circulationforfishmonger 2 Seafood specialtyshopwithoutallied sales BUTCHERS—(6)—(10) Work procedure: 1 delivery, 2 cutting up, 3 manufacturing, 4 refrigeration, 5 selling. Preferably on 1 level, if possible with rail and wheel carriagesaspig halves and beef quarters heavy: 75—100 kg. Manufacture and cold rm 1.5—2 times size ofshop. Walls: tiles, mosaic etc, washable. cr'] intake.__]— —[game [:sta1_ _________ chiihngrm —f _________ F: prsparasorsJ_ —i deepfreeze.] f 3 Fish counterwith coolingcompartment &drain 4 Table tops: marble, glass, ceramic. Circulationforpoultry& gameshop GAME&POULTRY—.(4) Often together with fish. Similarin requirements. Workr with plucking machineand game scraper. Poultryabsorbs smells so must bestoredseparatelyfrom fish in shopand cold rm Table tops and walls washable: marble, tiles, mosaic, plastics. Spacious refrigerated compartment or show cases. 6 Counterwith marbleortilefacing 5 Butchers counterwith chopping block 7 Stairs deplay tocellar Ij co" meat counter 8 Circulationforbutcher's 9 __jII 1 pickling Hooks & railsforhangingmeat [9 n,achines ______ _____ oithngup J_ — - — -- — J worI<space stake Large butcher'sshop wdesececepassage 10 Counter in butchers shop—.also (5) Commerce 195 Shops & stores CHEMIST—(1) Frequently self-service except for prescription counter. Will include other merchandise, egphotographic eqp, cosmetics.Mm requirements for accn and fitments usually laid down in special chemists' manuals. Dispensary (with reg-type double-locked cupboards for poisons and narcotics) subdivided according to activities. Prescription counter and customers' section ofshopprovided with seats forwaiting. Dispensary ofparamount importance;must allow undisturbedworkwith goodview over drug shelves; must be well ventilated with tr ceilings, acid-resistant table tops and floor coveringsand washablewall surfaces. Ancillary rm and workrm ? twicesize ot dispensary.Med supply basement must not be connected with other basement rm; spirits, ether, phosphorus etcmustbe kept in secure recessesorin cellars with steel doors. Planofchemistshop 1 adiustable chair Night dispensary may serve as office in daytime; alternatively night counter may be provided in recess with illuminated sign and night bell. services MENSWEAR& FASHIONSHOPS—*(4) For self-selection clothes displayed in free stands or wall racks; for personal service in glass-fronted and hanging cabinets with special curtain 3 2 Space-savingarrangement round servicecore in hairdresser Standardshampoounitwith backwash for beautyparlours& displays. Arrangement must be flexible, with movableeqp and fitting rm 1500 x 2000. hairdressers SHOE SHOPS—i.(7)--(9) aJIllhJftEIfl bfl2V Medium size shop, personal service: 8000—16000pairs; polish, stockings, socks, tights also available. Allow 1 footrest/2 seats, 1 stool/2 footrests for salesassistanfs —*(9). Carpeting desirable; low level and wall mirrors should be provided. More convenient ifstockand sales on same floor. Forward open sfock or hidden stock at rear. Adequate forward open stockpreferable for quickservice but selt-service shops followgeneral pattern, with specialdisplay racking. FASHIONFABRICS—*(5)(6) 4 Organisationof atailor'sshop 5 Arrangementsforstoofcloth: ashelfsame waslotbale bobliquestaggeredsystem(for shop) c pairedshelves,eachof bale w Often sold in conjunction with ready-to-wear clothes, lingerie, fashion accessories, wovengoods, haberdashery.Merchandise required to be attractively arrangedwith lighting toshowtrue colours—np25 398. Shelves not higher than 2200 so that they may be reached without steps; optimum height 500—1 500. Surfaces smooth so that material slides easily and does not catch. Counters for standing customers 850—950high, forseated customers 550—700; counter width700—850. Forready-to-wear clothesdept provide changingcubicles 1100 x 1150 and fitting rm—*(10)(11). 36O—i Jt a 6 Displaycounterwith shelfabove for materials men 330 180 110 women 300 160 100 children 300 160 9 90 Combinedfoot-rest&assistant'sseat r4-r-—1 473—-664- _ JLNLli NH I—i 473—1—864-J---1 7 Organisationofshoeshop 8 Shoe shop 10 Typicalfitting rm L—1 524—1 11 Betterdressesfitting mi 196 Commerce Shops & stores SELF-SERVICE customer lEle Self-service stores mostly forfood shops, drug stores and increasingly for other types of convenience goods. Staff mainly for advice, assistance, checking out, replenishing, possibly for quick service ofmeat and preparation rm coldsto delivery waste stock goods lift dairy foods. All goods prepacked and clearly displayed and ticketed (exceptsometimes fresh foods). Proportion ofancillary accn mayvary between 60% sales 40'/ ancillary and 48% sales52% ancillary.Width of aisles 2200—2500. Entrancevia basket stands ortrolleys(carts); exit via checkout points. Replenishing byassistants. Wall shelving up to reaching height (top shelf 1 650, bottom shelf300 above floor level) .—(8)(9). Free-standing sales display suitable —*(4). Checkout points —(5)(6) laid outto suit frontage ofunitwith counter top forpurchases, cashregister, wrapping space with paperbags, spacefor parking basket ortrolley. Surveillance point essential. staff restrm staff toilets &do unpacking .-Hoff 1 i Circulationforself-serviceshops in flout out 2 Number of checkout points varies with unit scale and is related to turnover/m2, as controlled bytrading policy —4(2)(3). For each 100 m2 shop area: 50—100 baskets and 10 trolleys (carts). For each 200 m2 shop area: 50—200 baskets and 30 trolleys (carts). flOut o out Typicalself-serviceshoplayoutsshowingcheckout pointsrelatedto frontagew basket stand — ____ display counter display cash rack ister r ___ I sndardw 1600-1 0 N j1 800—H baslcetsheff 1194 6001 1194 600p 1194 991 991 500 991 T 0 N C., checkouts — Planofcash deskwithmm dimensions —minw 6 checkouts 7 Stackablebasket&trolley(cart) customers basket packingar shopfront 3 pelmet with ticketing & lighting Layoutofcheckoutpointsshowingdimensions —900-1 400— ventilation' — dirttraP\ 1-600--I 4 Salesdisplaywithstacking compartments&concealedlighting Sectionthroughsmallcashdesk 4—864 Wall shelvesforbottles I— 9 Wall shelvesforfruit,vegetables & unpackedgoods I—762——---l I 10 Self-selectionunit: Ivaries; specialmerchandiseneedsspecial inserts 12 Free-standinghangingrack; hangingrack 11525 11 Backfixturewith shelvesonly 13 Millinerytable Commerce 197 Shops & stores SUPERMARKETS:EXAMPLES [ 30 sto ar oilheating 1 2 air-conditioning plant 3 airshaft 4 refrigerating plant 5 coldstofats 6 deepfreezing 7 coldsto meat 8 minced meat 9 ante-mi 10 meat 11 coldmeats 12 fish 13 deepfreeze 14 coffee 15 fats 1 16 vegetables 17 twit 18 checkout 19 flowers I 15I15I1516I16j16j17I 20 trolleys (carts) [;1 21 wr 22 changing rm,women 23 changing ml, men 24 wcwomen 25 wcmen 26 fruit&vegetablepreparation 27 fruit&vegetablecooling 28 empties 29 bottle reception 30 heatingoiltank C 171 ____ 20[ 1 13 111111 customer self-servicear 1IIiIIIIIlIl !!lh1!IIIIII1III rwtEJ Germansupermarket Arch PeterNeufert —— - 4800 55.12 2 Swisssupermarket 0 O II c) =0 II II 0 0 II II II I II 260 4800 3 Cross-sectionof(2) groundfloor carpark II II II ii _____ II 4800 I 4800 —4 4 Siteplan of (2) t 4800 198 Commerce Shops & stores HYPERMARKETS Basically single volume transfer shed, grossarea 10000—50000m2: 1 trader under 1 roof, using self-service methods to sell max range of convenience and durable merchandise at low prices; goods delivered directfrom manufacturersto largeon-site warehousing areas. upper partof durables warehouse Location Out oftown on perimeter of city, townor district centre. Mm catchment area 80000 population; 25 minutes driving time out of town; 10—15 minutes frominnerzone:siting related to road patterntoallow this. Carparking roofover 5.25 cars/100 m2 gross area (av shopping trip 1 hour). Provision for trolley (cart) collecting. Separate provision for service vehicles and refusecollection (perhaps with incineration or compaction). Discount petrol and tyre service forcustomers only. Planning Up to 50% gross area for warehousing, cold sto, food preparation, offices and staff. Main sales on1 floor,mezzaninecould houserestaurant, hairdressing, offices, toilets, staff accn and some warehousing. Staff numbers related to sales area: say 3 staff to 350 m2 sales, with shift working. Warehousing & ancillary accn mezzanine Stowill be open 24hr/dayforrestocking outofhours,cleaning,servicing etc. Deliveries and restocking using mech aids, eg forklift transfer in warehouse to palleted trucks forrestocking shelves; warehouse racking may be high (groceries) orlow (textiles). Large food preparation areas needed forfreshfoods, butchery,baking, preferablyvisiblebycustomers. Sales area Self-service principles apply generally—p196. Aisles must bedesigned for palleted trucks, with 1 800—3500between racking. Construction For flexibility wide spans and max column spacing (say 8 m x 12 m). Firstfloor must be designed for heavy loading if used forwarehousing. Compartmentation of warehouse areas essential: controlling factor in design may be insurance requirements. Waivers may be needed to allow max opensalesarea. Service Air-conditioning, high intensity artificial lighting, throughout. Cold sto refrigerator. Services —vp383—97 Floors must be hard wear, easily cleaned tiles. Fireregulations Consultreg. Subject todistance ofbldg fromboundary, frand compartmentregdo notapply inUKto 1-storey hypermarkets: meansofescape provisions mustbe approvedbylocal authority.In2-storey areasnormal compartmentation reg do apply, subject to possible relaxation by appropriate authority. Sprinkler essential. groundfloor I Diagrammaticplanoftypical hypermarket 181.5 key 1 battery,caraccessories I adm&oftover —1 softdñnks.winesetc 2 groceries 3 pharmacy & cosmetics 4 dairy 5 fruit &vegetables 6 children'sclothing 7 clothing 8 householdgoods 9 fancygoods 10 shoes 11 elgoods 12 fumiture 13 fire-fighting& sprinkler installation 14 etsub-station 15 butchery preparation 16 cookedmeats 17 fruit& vegetablepreparation 18 balieraapastryshop 19 changingnn 20 lay 21 boutique 22 aftersales service 23 furriiturerepairworkaliop 2 Layoutoftypicalhypermarketwithapprox20000m2 selling space Commerce 199 Shopping centres & precincts Increasing trend in Europe and USA during 1970s plan large retail complexes in innercity areas. Despite their large size restricted space forms primary design factor. High site rentsoftenmeanthesecomplexes incorporate office space; also sometimes residential flats and condominiums but less frequently. Aswith convention hotels —p221—3 large internal spaces allow separation of interior circulationof public fromthat of service and store personnel. Traffic patterns which maximise retail display and access to retail unitsgenerally mechanism by which high rent unitslet. 2 Bullock'sSouthCoastPlazaCostaMesaCaliforniaUSA a second floor bfirstfloor c groundfloor Arch WeltonBecket&Associates 200 Commerce Shopping centres& precincts EXAMPLES a : liii II • I marshft7d&cO b tlLlord&taylor —. Lk :::::: - ________ • - ____________ T tmh18co 2 Water TowerPlaceChicagoUSA agroundfloor bmezzanine floor cfirstfloor dsecondfloor Consultarch WarrenPlatnerAssociates Arch LoeblSchlossman Bennett& Dart * lord &taylor _________________ Commerce 201 Shopping precincts & centres EXAMPLES b a C d streetlevel 1 CiticorpCenterNewYorkUSA asection btypical mid-risetowerfloor cconcourselevel dstreetlevel Arch Hugh Stubbins Shops aridstores: —Bibliography entries 116 117306340341369 374 450477552 601 202 Commerce Restaurants 1 PLANNINGFACTORS wall 200 ei S a waD 0 900 4. 2300 U 4o I I a 50 -S. squaretables:diagonallayout local density0.92 squaretables,squarelayout localdensity1.4 circulartables:diagonallayout local density0.82 +—36s0---$-500 2350M I _____ 4j largeboothinrecess local density0.86 itseating10 people orl.1itnnly2peoplesitonbenchseat banquetteboothseating localdensity0.8 counterservice localdensity1.26 dimensionsA& Bincreasedwhere2 waitersemployed Layoutarrangements 1 4diners 750 Restaurants should be planned sothat variety otseating arrangements can be achieved, eg tables tor2 and 4 and placing together oftables to provide 6, 8 and 10 places. Consider also banquette or booth seating —u(3)(6); but theseshould be supplemented by normal tables to give flexibility. —*(1) shows typical table and counter layouts and local densities. Columns best situated near group of tables or at corners ot table. Provideacoustic lobby toservice doors between restaurantand kitchen. Accessforguests should beplanned sothat notconfusedwithservice. it 1person 2diners +700+ +450+900 + tt+ 2persons Ttaso 2 guide: : 1 waiter/waitress per 12—16 covers restricted menu : 1 waiter/waitress per8—12 covers typical menu a Ia carte &deluxe : 1 waiter/waitress per4—8covers Aislew + 3 1650-1900 1 Typical banquetteseating I I DLI H 111 DO DO 28seals 22m2 DODD Service aisles —'(2) not less than 900—1 350 if to be used by both trolleys(carts) and guests. Waiterstations should be located so as not to disturb guests: number will vary according to standard of service but following may be used as fl _ Ambience an important tactor in restaurant design: decoration, lighting should be integral part. Large regular spaces should be broken up into smaller more intimate areas, if necessary by means of screens of various heights or decorative features. Changes of level not usually favoured by caterers butacceptable providing they make positive contribution to design, donot involve morethan 2or3steps and main partof restaurant on same level as kitchen. Where changes of level occur seating areas should be protected bybalustrades.Cash deskmay beat entrance or by service doors or within kitchen area depending on cashing system operated bymanagement. Provide head waiter stand in a Ia carte or de luxe restaurants. Hard wearing floor service in area around service doors. Traditional and specialty restaurants frequently have aperitif bar associated with them tor waiting customers and drinks before meal. Such bar should be planned sothatheadwaiter cantake orders and call forward customers whentablesready. Dance floor in restaurant: allow 1.0—3.5 m2/couple. D k::::::1[yffffIi 5600 layoutforpartof restaurant: local densityexcludingmaincirculation & wafterstations& serviceareas 4 Mm 5 'Staadtler'table to seat4:with flapsextendedseats6 6 Banquetteseatingbooth:table must bemovedtogainaccessortop may bemovable Commerce 203 Restaurants SPACEALLOWANCES (EXCLUDINGCOOKINGAREAS) Snack barservice Usually restricted tolightmeals, served atcounter ortaken bycustomer to table. Food normally cooked withincounter area but back-up preparation, wash-up and sto required. 1.50—2.20 m2IP including counter and cooking. Cafeservice 0.83 m2/P: limitedmenu, usually family type of business, designed on traditional lines with kitchen separate from dining rm. Food may be collected bywaitress fromsmall service counter orhatch tokitchen. Self-servicecafeteria 1.4—1.7 m2/P, long self-set-vicecounter, provide good circulationspace. Space for clearing trolleys (carts) required. Self-service counters —p206(2). 0 1 2 3 4rn Coffeeshopservice—*(3) 1'2ft 1 1.2—1.4 m2/P, usually waitress service, oftenfromforward cooking area withcounterwhichmay be decorativelyscreened. Main preparationand wash-up at rear. Counter servicesometimes included. Specialtyrestaurant Traditionalrestaurant: 110 seats Space requirements vary widely. Display cooking, grill, dance floor, special decor effects may be required. Bar may be included within restaurant. Traditionalrestaurant—(1) 1.3—1.9 m2/P according to type of business. Should have space for display table, flambé work, generous seatingand spacing oftables. Carvingtablerestaurant—*(2) 1.6 m2/P including space for carving table. Display table with hot and cold positions for self-service of Joints, vegetables and sweets. Preparation, cooking and wash-up donein main kitchen. 01 I 2 2345678 I I I 12 servioe I 1'S Restaurantseating124with self-servicecarvingtable W =waiterstation 012345678 I I 12 I I I 15 18 21 24 rn ii I I rn iI 1 24 ft 204 Commerce Restaurants Table sizes vary according to typeofrestaurant; mm forcafeterias etc:2 persons 600 x 600, 4 persons 600 x 1100. Diagrams show tables for goodstandard of restaurant. TABLE SIZES r 110, preferably 150—200 600, preferably 65O750 I I-— 380—f-—-- 800 —f-- 450 —+— —!--— 550 850 -H— —i—— 750 —H lottable/P I T knee h600 man woman 4 4 II 00 2 II 1Jj waiter 6 for TiI- 1450 ii P 12 8 iU\JU - - 6 2050 — — 8 ci[ 2700 H I35° - :2500j -1 avdia of circular 3300 12 10 5 dining tables for 16 U '000 0000 .n0,0Ip \IIU average Iof tables with chairs at eitherend getting eating sitting down 14 12 10 P Commerce 205 Restaurants SNACKBARS 1 250 C.) Barstool 1 service — F. 2 Bar stools:normaldistance diners --4-1300-- fl4500-4-i + 2100 500 rT2 1r' I --I-- 4 I _.I .C. service diners normal — 2700 1300 -I 30 stoolh -7501- 1200 -f.75Q.4 500 r1 od mediumh Wt.:.Tui ,- hstool High densityarrangementwithsmall tables T 0 _____________ 00 _________ 700 T r Cli Typical U format with 12 seats mm length 600/P = 7200. This length may beserved by 1 waiterifmeals pre-cooked; ifmeals and drinks have to beprepared atcounter further1—2waiters necessary—(7)(8)(9). Areas required Per seat 1480—2150 Ratio ofservicearea to total area25—50% Netkitchenarea 15—25% 24.0 -fX1 Kitchen& wash-up se;ice! shi Preferably at same level as restaurant,kitchen area divided into: servery area ofcooking, frying, grilling and preparationofsoups and vegetables cold buffet (meat, salads, fruits, fish,sweets and desserts) wash-up area —*Bib2l 7 ShortU-formatcounters I—. customers. Counters with stools less economical ofspace than closely spaced tables but ensure speedy service and quickturnover. Avsitting time20minutes: 3 occupants/hr compared with perhaps 1/hrin normal restaurant. Format C LongU-formatcounter J Refrigeratedshowcase Situation In centres of cities where accn expensive must be max turnover of °9P229P!JjJ lllll'.. 6 5 Widertableswith more space 15.0 7 3 Mediumh bar stool Other requirements 20.0 —4 IT service ar U) C\J Toilets for customers, staff toilets, staff cloakrm, small office, food sto including refrigerator and deep freeze, liquor sf0, boiler rm, airconditioning plant if required. For scale of sanitary fittings —*reg. Public cloakrm not normally required forthistype of restaurant,hdtand coat stands or coat rack on wall sufficient. In large snack bars separate entrance and exitsdesirable. Cashier near exit. CC) C'J. tray slide rail 50 *—750 + 9 PairedU-formatcounters 10 1150 Self-servicecafeteriaservice 750 206 Commerce Restaurants Drive-in restaurants supply food and drinks DRIVE-IN& SELF-SERVICERESTAURANTS direct to cars so that guests may eat without leaving vehicles. For access and serving pro- 3 6 9 O 16 vide canopies and covered ways; dining hall should be separate, with parking space close to drive-inservice. 1 waiter can serve 6cars. 12 15 18 21m 7 36 45 4 ft Self-service advantageous for snack barsand to overcome staff shortages. Smooth-running system (entrance-trays-counter-cashier-dr-exit) more important than comfortable atmosphere because diner's stay much shorter than in ordinary restaurant. 1 Drive-in restaurantCalifornia ArchLauter 1 backfittings& hatchesfran,k I / / // il 'i , IIi.i111 9 :1 J J•1• U.U1. I fl trayslide =Sat 9.0—11.0 2 Typicalself-servicecounter toserverangeof 2/3 choicesto80/90customersin 10minutes 22 J 1 21 1icf1,c fiat 13 ter 14 restaurant 2 coldsto 3 day sto 4chel 5 wash-up 6 bakery 7 meat preparations 8 sk 9 coldbuffet l5ha 9 16 newspapers 17 beerbar 18 maincold5*0 19 deepfreezerm 20 chiP no 6 12 15 18 21 18 27 36 45 4 3 1 2 trays coldbuffet 3 beverages 4 hotmeals 10 hotmeatpreparation 21 preparatiOn 22 wodishop 11 wafter'sgangway 12 café 23garbagebins 24 carport S cheese& desserts 6 cashier 7 refrigerator 8 beverages(cpd) 2 9 iCe 10 hotcpd 11 streetsalescounter 3 Self-servicerestaurantParis ArchPrunier Restaurant references —*Bibliography entries 016 043 045 049 096 4 Restaurantonmainhighway:restrm &layon lowerfloor,wheretheycanalsoserve motel Arch Neufert 097147153156176217226243282319341 439441 442477583 Commerce207 Restaurantcars: using minimum space 10.7 —1 UUF I LJf1c1DflcTTj1flLtJflODr1L1flflcIjoflc1___)I 1 Tram restaurantcarofRhinelandRailCompany 1.49 550-'- 950 3 550—480'- 480 70 Space needed for dining services in long-distance trams and motor coaches —s(1)(2) modest compared with train dining cars—s(9). DimensioningofGerman dining cars result ofmany years experience; present systemafter numerous design changes. Diagonallyplaced tables tried out in recent years found unsatisfactory and not illustrated here. Kitchen arrangementsrepresentmax useofavailablespace; this applies both to width of doors and service hatches and to refrigeration units, whichare exceptionally large—(8). All disheshave to be washed up in kitchen between 2 meal services (main and snack lunch). Service in dining car made easier because number ofcustomers limited to number ofplaces—s(8). + -1550 3100 -I- + 1651) ± 3430 1327 H I Detailsof1; diningtablesonly halfaswideasinrestaurantcars:noserving pantry; kitchenlocated almost in middle of vehiclewherespringingmost effectiveto lessenjolting 9 3 4 SectionA-A—u(8) - Groundplan of Germanrestaurant car—.(6)(1O) 4 Section B-B—.(8) biing b 1485 615 Cf)d hratirig air-conditioning 1740 0 1015 1600° for railwaystaff corr fulng e[] tcpd conductorsseat 5 6 SectionC-C-.(8) Transversesection—u(1O) 12 Sleepingcargroundplandetail —u(13) 7 Section D-D—*(B) 1650 1— ksy 1 provisions 2 ck 3 switctrcpd 4 refuse bins 5 trig 9 sideboard - 13 warrningcpd 6 staffconipartment 14 deepfreezer 10 trig 7 foldingseat 11 preparation 15 k 8 door 12 sk 16 sk 8 Ground planofkitcheninGerman restaurant car: section(3)—(5)(7) tr 15 'Comet' articulatedtrain double compartment 13 Crosssection—.(12) 208 Commerce Hotels C) 2 Location is one of most important factors for commercial success. Depending on market orientationhotels should generallybe conspicuous and sitednear main road ormotorway intersections,airports,commercial and business centres or resorts. CD Site C) Following points should be considered: height and plot ratio requirements, ease of access, adequacy forparking either on ground or within bldg, viewsand aspect, relationshipto adloining bldg, levels. 0 2 CD conventionhotelwith largeconference rm, night club,shopping citycentrehotel motorhotel resorthotel low-mediumtariff hotelwith private bathr but mm catering hostels: singlerm & mm service Types Marketorientation will dictate type of hotel. Construction of new hotels of less than 70—80 bedrhardly viable unless they can be run on family m2/mi gross type 1 55—65 45—55 35—45 40—55 20—30 18—20 Grossar/miforvarioushoteltypes basis. Citycentre: includeluxury, convention and citytourist hotels. Charac- section tensed by high plotratio, high riseconstruction,frequently largefunction accn, inclusion of shops—.p222or offices —*p223 in development to improve viability. Motor hotels: cater mainly for people en route by car or motoring locally, therefore sited at important road junctions and on outskirts of cities. Land cheaper therefore sites fairly large allowing large car park and low or medium rise construction. Generally contain all usual hotel services but on modest scale. No rm service. residential bedr corr,elevators, stairs service ar Airporthotels: similar planningto motor hotels butcatering specifically for airtravellers therefore require all night receptionand possibly some totalresidential public &servicear: frontofhouse lob &circulationincluding P international companies. reception,do, reservations off, nightcatering. Sometimes have convention services forconvenienceof intake at weekly orfortnightly intervals. Restaurantshould accommodate all guest. at 1 sitting. Require spacious lounges, games rm, bars, possiblyalso swimming pool, beachand sports installations.Conference rm can also be included encourage off-season business. Motels: .—p219220 Convention hotels: —*p221 —3 Condominium:development involvingjoint ownershipwhere individual owner has full benefit of rm, suite, villaforown useorletting butshares costscommon to whole development which may include all usual hotel 24 3.2 0.6 26.5 9.3 0.7 27.8 36.5 0.4 0.3 0.5 0.4 1.1 coffeeshop bar 1 includingcounter, sto bar2includingcounter, sto lounge toilets functionrm pre-functionar furnituresto privatedining/meetingrm 0.6 0.8 0.5 0.5 0.4 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.3 0.3 1.1 1.3 — 0.5 0.2 0.9 0.2 0.1 0.4 — stO workshops& maintenance Iau, linensto etc staffcanteen,lockers,toilets 8.2 7.8 3.8 0.9 0.8 0.3 2.5 0.9 1.0 1.1 0.3 0.8 0.5 0.4 0.7 offfor personnel, accounts, control,housekeeper etc circulation,serviceelevators etc total backof house separation of guestand service areas: no cross circulation; distinction between frontand backofhouse tobare mm of reception,office, breakfastrm, bar and supportingservices. m2/rm switchboard, luggage admin restaurant k&ksto Diagram—p209 shows typical relationshipofpartsofmedium size hotel. Points ofprinciple tonoteare: serviceand finishes; de luxe hotels have larger service areas, more service elevatorsetc; ineconomy hotelsthese areasreduced,sometimes m2/rm totalfrontofhouse public &servicear:backofhouse Functionalrelationships Space allocation& standards —.(1)guidetogrossar/rmfor varioustypes of hotel. (2) shows space allocation for 2 typical contrasting hotels: figures assume mosteconomical layout. Quality of hotel mainly dependent on 500bedr citycentrehotel 1.8 shops services. all catering outlets ifpossible beon same level askitchens: ifnot, main restaurant directlyrelated to kitchen; other restaurantsand banqueting rm should have service rm connected by elevators and stairs main kitchenwhere bulkcooking is undertaken organisation ofbackof house such that staff and goods are separatefar as possible and control can be maintainedoverboth. b 200 bedr motorhotel 1.6 elevators Resort hotels: at seaside or mountainresorts orspas. Usually planned to cater for package holidays with reception arrangements for large a total boiler houses,plant rm &car parking excluded 2 Space allocations 0.9 7.9 7.0 43.5 51.7 Commerce 209 Hotels service entrance guest entrance Flowdiagramoftypicalhotel 210 Commerce Hotels or variations of these arrangements would have to be PLAN FORMS combinations adopted. Bedroomaccommodation A Compact arrangements: bedrblockoverwide spans. B Bedrblockadjacent topublic rm block: considered to beeconomical because optimum structure and services can bedesigned foreach part. Suitable formotorhotel development on large site. C Open layout with public rm and service blockcompletely separate from bedr which may be in groups scattered about large site. Suitable for motel and resort type hotels where plenty of land available and As bedr formsgreater proportionofhotel constructionkeytoeconomical design largely in layout of bedr block. —*(1) shows some possible Double-loaded block (A) capable of development into L U courtyard plan; requires only2stairs; considered most economical layout. Double-loaded Tshaped block(B)capablebeingdeveloped intocross; also economical but 3stairs required. Single-loaded block (C) capableof being developed into L U or courtyard plan: not economical solution but may be desirable, perhaps combined with A take advantage of site conditions; ifdeveloped form centrecourtyard can beused provide atrium effect. Square block (D) with central core containing all vertical services, maids' rooms etc, compact and useful for small sites where tower development may be required. Y plan (E) requires 3 staircases and has more complicated structure than straight blocks; structural system may cause problems in public areas. Triarc(F) similar to E but more space taken up by circulation; concave curveresults in bedr wideratbathr end providing opportunity forlarger bathr and dressing area. Circular (G) requires careful handlingavoid awkward and inward facing rm; notcapable ofextension. Circular with centralcore (H), similarto D; also requirescareful handling avoid awkward rm. Convex curves inGand H result in bedr narrower at bathr end, causing cramped space forbathr. development of bedr block superimposed on podium. Suitable forhigh risedevelopmenton city site. Problemsarise frombedr services having topassthrough public rmand fromprobableneed carry landscape conditions dictate. VERTICALCIRCULATION Hotels of more than 2 storeys should be provided with passenger and service elevators (—(3) —p41O—2). Except in small hotels all elevators should be duplicated provide efficient service and standby in case of breakdownor repair. Numberand speedofelevatorswill depend on height and populationof bldg and for largeinstallations should bebasedontraffic studyby specialist. Service hoists ordumb waiters notadvised owing need have 1 person each end: bettermake service elevators largeenough take trolley(cart) plus personnel. If possible plan all elevators in 1 bank or towerwith service elevators opening to kitchen area and passenger elevators opening directly to guestlobby. Separatebaggage elevators not required except in de luxe hotels; but may be desirable to have 1 elevator available for manual controliflargeamount baggagehandled. In high bldg much depends on qualityand speed of elevator services as regards both guest elevators and serviceelevators: not wiseto skimp this aspect. In addition goods elevators may berequired inbackareas: should be of large capacity and of sturdy, easily cleanedconstruction. Relationshipofbedroom blockto publicroomareas Many ways in which bedr block mayberelatedtopublic rm and circulation but can be illustrated by 3basic arrangementsshown —.(2). Likely that A B 1: service circulation & services A J L guests service -.1 C B servKe c .vemflcal circulation bedr Dsemvice 1 Plan formsforbedraccn 2 Relationship of bedrtopublicmi 3 Typical verticalcirculationcore for500bedr hotel Commerce 211 Hotels PUBLICROOMS Restaurants In medium and large hotelscommon to provide more than 1 restaurant give customer choice menu and price. Cheaper restaurant usually coffee shop or cafeteria: more expensive a Ia carte. Large hotels may have additional specialist restaurants.In certainsituations,eg citycentre hotels, cheaper restaurantmay beaccessiblefromboth hotel and street to attract non-residential business. Seating capacitiesrestaurantsvary accordingsize hotel, amount potential outside business, location in relation other restaurants, duration stay guests, amount breakfast rm service to be provided. In resortand other suitable locations provision should be made serve meals in open air either by extension of 1 restaurant or by separate service. FurtherdetaIls—up202—7;kitchens—vp213 Bars Cocktail or aperitif bar (if required) should be planned as comfortable others. Service of drinks, tea and coffee should be provided from dispense orfrommain kitchen. Separateresidents lounges notnormally required. Recreation rooms Card rm, table tennis, billiard rm etc should be considered for resort hotels. Functionrooms Multi-purpose rm for meetings, banquets, balls, parties, exhibitions valuable asset. Design considerations include: separate access if rm large; divisible by movable partitions; separate access for guests and servicedesirable; audio-visual eqptobeprovided. Large span required precludes this rm being planned beneath bedr block except on costly city sites. Space allowances: i.i—1.3m2/P banquet style seating 0.9—1.1 m2/P meetings: table groups theatre style seating 0.5—0.6 rn2/P intermediary waiting area between hotel lobby and main restaurant; Other requirementsforfunctionrm: ante-rm, preferably approx 1/3rdarea offunction rm, with dispense bar Main bar will provide chiefdrink service of hotel. May have external entrance to encourage non-resident business. Fairly long bar counter supported by bar sto with ice making machine and bottle cooler should be provided: section may berequired for service ofsimple meals. furniture store0.5 m2/seat easily accessible fromfunction rm servicemay be by waiter: long bar counter may not berequired. Possible otherbars: rooftop,pooi side,beach, club areas. cloakrm and toilets (depending on proximity of hotel toilets): provision of wc and urinals as for public areas—vp212 unless music and dancing licence required, in which case should be as for concert halls, theatres etc —vBib36i 604. All bars capable of being shut securelyduring non-opening hourseither bygrill or shutterat bar counter orbyclosing rm. Former has advantage rm can be used aslounge when bar closed. Should be possible service Movable partitions should be full height and fold completely away into pockets. AvdB reductionof45—50 sould be achievedthrough partitions and between function rmand kitchen. bars without passingthrough publicrm. Barsshould comply with licensing laws. Space allowance forbars excluding counter: cocktail lounge (comfortable) 1.8—2.0 m2/P general bar (some standing &on stools) 1.3—i.7m2/P In large function rm consider separate access for heavy exhibits. Allow 510 kg/m2 floor loading. Meetingrooms In addition some meeting rm, preferably associatedwith main function rm, may be required. May vary in size; should all be capable being serviced fromeither main kitchen orpantry. Lounges Reasonable provision should be made for people waiting and relaxing either in relation to lobby or circulation areas or to revenue-earning areas suchas bars. More lounge space required in resort hotels than Fireprecautions Alternativeexitroutes must beprovidedforall publicrm. Travel distances toexits,flameresistance ofmaterials,fire and smoke resistantcompartmentationmust be in accordancewith regulations —up216408. service elevator ptr elevator S freight elevator Ia banquetrm 600seats — L_ I Spacerequiredforbanqueting for37allowing forservice - 2 a Si Space requiredin dr for14 allowing for service:2.0m2/cover ,— a E l4 royal bar bar pre-functionlob do 1600 people I I a a n -.—.t- - —- vest • o II I r---1 Banquetingseating at tablesfor 10: typical arrangements forlarge banquets:1.2 m2/cover 3 4 5 10 15 20m r: r : 0 0 =a 0 ___ vestibule 1 royal salon I standing E banquetfoyer 8500 Idre stairto I__________________ t5 30 45 605 of suite forlargehotel Example banquet vestibule S a projection booth 212 Commerce Hotels FRONT OF HOUSE Entrance Arrange drive-insocars can pull off road and with space forwaiting cars and taxis: waitingspace for coachessometimes needed. Providecanopy. In exposed positions provide draught lobby or revolving doors (require pass doors for fire escape and baggage). Where traffic heavy with guests carrying own bags automatic doors. Separate door to baggage rm in high class hotels. Special provision for baggage handling for hotelsexpecting people in largegroups. Receptionarea Reception desk —v(1) near and visible from entrance with porter, receptionist, cashier close by. In largehotels separatedeskfor porter (mainly supervising baggagehandling). Hall porter's desk Lengthof counter arranged so porter can go freely into entrance hall. Depending on size of hotel should be fitted with alphabeticalguestlist, Reception& porter'sdeskfor400-bedr hotel: receptionists, porters, cashiersnotnormallyseated,therefore worktop heightforstanding 1 backelevationofdesk message waiting indicator, working shelf, drawers. Site key rack —x(3) with slots for keys and letters corresponding with number of bedr in easyreach receptionists. Am behind forshorttermstosmall items, post box and slot. Receptionist'sdesk—v(1) Fitted with sloping rack not visible by guests for rm states (usually manual card system but may beelectronic in largehotels), worktop and countertop for guests registration,section at normal height forclerical work, shelving, cupboards. Provide alphabetical list. Behind reception desk reservations office with direct access for receptionists: should have wall space forcharts and telex(ifany). Cashier'sdesk—v(2) In small-medium size hotels may be partreception desk. In largehotels normally partitioned-off section ofmain reception deskwith small office at rear for chief cashier. Desk office for: 1 or 2 cash registers, bill tray spaces alongside registers,lockablecashdrawers, shelvesand drawers, guestsafe deposit boxes—n(4),deposit boxes for staff floats,telephone meterdisplay board, airtube system terminal ifrequired, safe. Telephone switchboard—(2) Often placed near reception counter so receptionists can operate at off-peaktimes. Otherwise in separate rm, possibly with hatch to public lobby and public telephones nearby. Fire alarm panel: at reception deskorsomeotherpointwhere all night attendance. Typical counter lengths fordifferent sizes hotel: counter length noofrm 50 3000 100 4500 200 7500 400 10.5 Hotellobby Consider supplying in or nearlobby: housetelephone, publictelephones, television security monitors, clocks and calendars, news teleprinters, information desk, travel agents, airline and car hire desks, kiosks and shops, lounge and waitingareas,guest secretarialand businessservices, public toilets. 2 key Typicalcashdeskfor400-bedrhotel 1 safetydepositboxes 2 key & messagerack 3 rmstatusrack 4 roiaryaiphabeticaiindex 5 currencyinformation 6 cash register 7 cashier 8 reception 9 concierge 10 switchboard 11 frontoff manager 12 fihng 13 telephoneswitches 14 ielephonemeters 15 tapestry& decorativeclock 16 pagingrecievercharger 17 flreaiarmpanei 18 reservabonsoff 19 safe 20 chief cashier 21 clock 22 advancereservationsrack 23 tapedmusic& pagingeqp riomiai teieptione fs servicestationteiephone d drawer cd cash drawer shelf cpd — t 4 Typicalbankofsafety depositboxes: varioussizes should be provided Cloakroom&toilets In small—mediumhotels where noteconomicalemploycloakrmattendant space may provided for coats and bags under eye of porter or receptionist. Otherwise provide cloakrm formain lobby, restaurants,function rm: sited discreetly, if possible together for ease of supervision. Plan cloakrm for large function rm so asensure easyflow and quickissue of coats. Provide recessed area atleast1200in front ofcounters to avoid encroachment on main circulation. Counter lengths: generally 1 000/ 100 P. Publictoilets:number ofwc, urinals,wash basins usuallydetermined by local reg. Forwomen'stoilets vanity top, mirrors, good lighting. 1 wcfor eachsex fordisabled persons. swilcfl reservations Cf0 & bags key rack panei U telephone work Fm cash top rack register &work top 5 Typical frontofffor120-bedrhotel Commerce 213 Hotels KITCHENS& FOOD STORES Should be planned on one level ifpossibleto serve allcatering outlets. If not possible main kitchen should be on level with main restaurantwith preparation and stoon differentlevel. Foreconomy 1 wash-up desirable. Banqueting and any otherfood service area not next to kitchen should belinked byservice elevators (preferablynothoists) and stairs and have own forward service eqp. Kitchen, cold rm and food sto area should be planned to be locked offfromstaff when not in use. In large hotels food and drink sto should be under control ofstoreman. Approxspace allowances forkitchen planning including food sto, cold rm, wash-up,chef'soffice: main restaurant kitchen area 1.4m2 x no of covers 0.2 m2 x no ofcovers banquet kitchen &servicearea coffee shopkitchen 0.3 m2 x no ofcovers separate independent coffee shop0.45 m2 x no ofcovers Increase or reduce theseallowancesaccording whether fully traditional orconvenience foodoperation envisaged. 1 Allowapprox500/c extraforstaff toilets, changing rm, canteen and other sto (see below). k&food sto flowdiagram Specification notes for kitchen areas: floors non-slip tiles, draining to gulleys with wide radius coved skirtings; sloping floors to have gradient not more than 1:20. Recessed area at restaurant doors for ribbed rubber matting or other non-slip cleanable material. Plinths re- L=1L1 +—--+ 1350k surface. Corners protected. False ceilings offr tiles with access panels to inspection covers, fire dampers etc. Openable windows to have fly convenientfor heavyItems max reach f.... quired for some eqp. Grease traps outside kitchen if possible. Gas, waterand plumbing supplies to be run towithin 1 000ofappliance: final connexion by specialist. Walls in kitchen tiled up to 1 800. In sto walls fairfaced or plastered and painted. Dwarf walls tiled with inclined top screens. Where mech make-up air provided windows non-openable except forcleaning. Doors to havevision panels and metal kick platesor automaticopening devices. . Main cooking eqp should be eitherin island or againstwall with extract canopies extending about 250over. Extractvelocity usually 7.7 to 10.2 m/s. Should preferably have vertical sidesextending to ceiling. Height tounderside 2150. 1•5o 2 Mm spacesbetweeneqptoallow forcirculation convenientfor heavyitems Limitinghforsto shelving 3 -t6Th--- 8O I A cleanlinenracks B table C 0 4 A C B tubs extractor D washer E table 5 t 0 D A tumbler C dryers washers Non-ironIau for120 bedrhotel Sizesof kitchen sto will depend on type of hotel, location,frequency of deliveries, type of food, ie whether convenience food. Cold rm temp: deepfreeze—20°C, chill rm2to 3°C. max reach press& board shakeOuttable H four rollironer J soiledlinenur I foldingtable F G La ufor200 bedr hotel Other stores Furniture sto with adjacent workshop, paint shop etc: 0.2—0.3 depending on amount in house maintenance m2/rm Cleaning materials: 0.2—0.4m2/rm Glass, silver, china: 0.1 m2/rm Liquor:0.2 m2/rm, divided into areasforbeer and mineral bottles, kegs, redwines14—16°C, whitewine 10—12°C and spirits Empties: closetoloading dock Refuse:planning will depend on method ofsto and collectionsiebinsor compactor. Allow space for vehicle backup to receptacles. Providefor washing down refusearea, bins etc. In warm climatesprovide refrigerated refusesto. Linen: area depends on type of hotel. Typically 0.4m2/rm: may be less if inhouse laundry provided. Shelves at least 600 wide open lathed. Allowspace forsorting and worktable for repairs. All above areas for 200 bedr hotels, do not necessarily increase or reducepro rata according to number of bedr. crockerycpd Laundry For 200 bedr hotel space ofapprox 140 m2 required excluding linen sto, steam boiler, chemicals sto, office. Ifnon-iron linen used space can be reduced to 40—59 m2. Ventilation ratio should be 15—20 air changes/hr with separate extraction for steameqp and dry cleaning. Servicebay communication 6 Standswithopenshelvesfor goods 7 Waiter's servery& sk Should be arranged in such way that incoming goods can be kept separate fromoutgoing refuse and preferably with separateentrance for staff all undersupervision ofcontrol office. Vehicles back upto loading dock. Providewashdown, weighing scales,staff clock-in. Allow sufficient heightand turningspace for large vehicles. Columns and corners to be protected fromdamage byvehicles. 214 Commerce Hotels KITCHENS& STORES meals/day 2 Totalstorequirementsforconventional kbasedon numberofmeals prepared/day staffar wash-up Sr serveryar cookin9ar preparationar 25 stoar 55 meals/day 1 Kitchenlayout of largeroadsiderestaurantCaliforniaUSA 3 Arrequiredforsto k,servery&staffarusingconventional methodsoffood preparation 4 Exampleofktoserve4restaurants: coffeeshop 120covers; mainrestaurant100covers; specialtyrestaurant 100 covers;staffdr80covers; mainfood sto inbasement, alsoservice&ktofunctionrm Commerce 215 Hotels ADMINISTRATION hotels office accn may be limited to general office behind reception desk, manager's office and chef's or control office at rear. Larger hotelswill require all or some offollowing: At front of house associated with reception: reservations office, front office manager, chiefcashier, sales manager,secretary. General admin (preferably nearreceptionbutcanbeelsewhere): general manager, 2 or 3 assistant managers, secretanes, chief accountant, accounts' dept,duplicating rm, archives. In small At back of house: control office at service bay, storeman, personnel office,secretary and clerk, waiting rm, chief engineer, security officer, chef (within kitchen), housekeeper, training rm. Space allowance for offices (UK): 0.3—0.4 m2/rm orin accordancewith statute(Bib346347). Staffaccommodation In large hotels provide staff canteen for approx 1/3rd staff with own kitchen. Canteen should beaccessiblewithout staff havingtogothrough kitchen. Senior staff diningrm may be required. In small hotels senior staffmay use restaurantand junior staffdining rm may be supplied from main Kitchen. Provisionofstafftoilets—Bib341480. 1 full height locker for each member of staff should be provided: space allowance0.36m2/P excluding bench space: 1/2 height lockersmay be used for certain grades of staff. Assume equal number male and female staff unless otherwise informed. Lockers: Staff sleeping accn depends on location and management policy. Manager's flatmay be required. Technicalareas Maintenance engineer's workshop and sf0 required adjacent plant rm. May include, according to size of hotel, furniture sto, engineering eqp sto,carpenters shop, paint shop, printingdept. Allunder chiefengineer's eye. Accessfor replacement of heavy plant to be allowed for. Space also required forel sub-station and switch rm. 1 Servicear&staff accnforlargehotel Exampleofadminoffforlargehotel: except forfrontdesk,reservations& cashierthese may also besitedelsewhere, egonmezzanine 2 216 Commerce Hotels GUEST BEDROOMS Bedroomcorridors& stairs Bedroom sizes —(1) In medium tariff hotels 2-B rm typically approx 15—17 m2. High tariff hotelsmay have rm upto28 m2, excluding lobby and bathr butincluding Corridorsnot over-long; may be 1 200—2000wide according type of hotel. Corridorflowcapacity—vp407. Wherewidth lessthan 2000consider modulating corridor by recessing bedr doors. Ceiling void often used to house engineering services: heighttoceiling notless than 2250. Direction signsand numbering of doors to be clear and well lit. Protect corners from damage. El socket outlets at 12 m intervals. Provide emergency lighting. Carpet floor for quietness. Space forshoecleaning machines, drink dispensers and ice machines may be required in corridors or lobbies. sitting area. American sizebed: twin990 x 1 900;double 1 370 x 2030; queen size 1520 x 2100; king size 1830wide. Most hotelorganisations buildbedrsized totake twin or double beds in order provide flexbiIity and avoid built-in obsolescence as standards raised in future. Some rm may have fold-away beds so that they may also be usedassitting rm or small meeting rm—.(2).Murphy beds fold verticalclosedwith wall panel. Fireprecautions—(4) Follow national and local fire codes. Floor to ceiling height 2500 (mm 2300)with lower ceiling of2000over entryto allow for mechanical services. Except at resort hotels balconies not usually favoured because ofcostand maintenanceproblems. Doors to bedr tobeself-closing with mm halfhourfr. Partitionsseparating guest rm from corridors to have 1 hour resistance unless automatic sprinklers installed. Mm fire ratings for separation of exits such as staircases normally: bldg up to 3 storeys 1 hour, 4 storeys or more 2 hours. by hoteliers Proportion of rm (approx 20%)with communicatingdoors. Should be2 doors, preferably with rubberor neoprene gaskets to reduce sound transference. Sound transmission between bedr and between bedr and corridors should beminimised bydBreductionof45—50. Where external noise fromheavytraffic oraircraft provide double glazing for reduction 40—42avdB. In UK self-closing smoke stop doors should be provided every 18 m in corridors and at all exit staircases. Max travel distances to exit stairs shown in diagram. Linings to corridors and stairsshould have class Aor B rating forsurface flamespread. All exit stairs must be at least 1 050 wide, be of fr construction in fire protected enclosure having 2 hour rating. Access must be through vestibulefittedwithself-closing doors at least 1000wide. Lockeddoors should beprovided with panic boltsorbreak glass system. For greaterprivacy and sound insulation additionaldoor may be placed between entrylobbyand bedr. Privatebathrooms Bathr normally contain wc, washbasin orvanity unit with mirror over, bath with shower. Insomedeluxe hotels and in most SEuropean and S American hotelsbidetnecessary. Showers in placeofbaths savelittle in cost or space, therefore not often provided. Shower compartment in addition to bath sometimes provided in de luxe hotels, as also separate orscreened off wc. Floor service Bathr should be carefullyplanned in relationto plumbing and ventilation ducts. Theseshould be located in relation structure and ease ofaccess formaintenance. clean linen racks and rubbish sacks. Depending on class of hotel and rm servicesystempantry may alsobe required: should contain shelves for setting out breakfasttrays, sinks and worktop, refrigerator, ice maker, boiler, toaster, space for trolleys. There are arguments for and against linenand rubbish chutes. Need should bechecked with operator. Every floorshould also have sto space for cots, extra beds and spare tv sets. Numberof rm perfloorshould ideally be related to number of rmwhich can beserviced by 1 maid: willdepend on class of hotel, productivity of staff and size ofrm, butwill comewithin the rangeof 12—18 rmpermaid. Maids' rm should becentrallylocated and close to serviceelevators.These should contain space forservicetrolleys(carts),soiled linen hampers, Following additional features should be included: glazed tiling round bath tub (at least), grab handles for bath shower and bath, shower curtain and rail, soap tray, removable bath panel foraccess toplumbing, shower, mixervalve preferably thermostatically controlled, adequate towel racks in accordance withclass ofhotel, good shelfspace if vanity top not provided, el shaver connexion, bath mat and non-slip surface to bath/shower, toilet roll holder, clothes hooks. Other items to be considered: tissue dispenser, bottleopener, hook for shoe duster, waste basket, sanitary bin, stool. Good lighting over mirroressential. 1 bed size rm ar x 2000 1500x2000 1000 x 2000 8.75 m2 1 000 single bed double bed twin beds accesspanels 12.5m2 13.5m2 Basic mm rrnsizes (excluding lob &bathr) [!61 In hotels where maids cannot get from bedr to staff toilets without passing throughpublicrm, eginmotorhotels and motels, provision may be madeforstafftoilets andchangingrmIn bedrblock. biT corr corr access 144 328 42h 3 single double access Typicalarrangementsof bathr&ducts: access panels toductsshouldbet/2 hrfr; ductsshould have firestopsbetweenfloors;sizesvary with heightofbldg; 'a'isbestforaccesstoductbut b & 'c' providemorespaceforvanitytop maxtam trolleys(Carts) under worktop L_] serviceelevatorlob spaceforrabbisf tray& china sacks sk shelves over - desk/work boiler ..._—..—— I ptr II I hampers LJL IL toaster cleanerssk soiled linen ± trig maidstrolley cart)park maxl8m 5 Typicalservicearfor50—60 mi/floor; note: aprovisionofptrdependsonclassofhotel and rm servicearrangements in k blocal linensb orcpdmay berequireddependingon method of control cfloorsto forbeds,cots notshown ij1ffli 1Jbedr b sometimes communicating toiletonly doors 2 a basicbed requirements barrangement of sittingrrnbetweenbedrprovidesmaxflexibilityfor suites;suitescanalso beformedat corners ofbldg orwherestandardisationofstructuralgrid not possible;luxurysuitesmayalso beplannedas penthouseorvillasin grounds maa allowabletraveldistancefrom 4 stage 2escape;no furtherthan 18m dimensionshouldexceedSm 3 inmuftl-rrttsuites anyassocIated privatecorrshouldnot eaceed 7.5m inlength 5 dead endportionofany escapecon mostremotecornerofrmtodoorway 2 inmulti-rn,suitesno singlecross-ire 4 Fire:max traveldistances allowedfromexitdoorofmito entranceofprotectedroute should notexceed7.6m Commerce 217 Hotels GUESTBEDROOMS 1 Guest bedrdiagrams Diagrams —(1 )(2) showconfigurations for bedr and bathr. Most new hotelsplanned with private bathr attached to bedr; examples without private bathr therefore not included. a Typical twin bedr in common use: 3600 rm width optimum for economy/comfort; wardrobe in lobby b Similarbut reduced in depth for single or double bed c Narrow frontage scheme againstbathr d Width of rm increased allow possibility of dressing area & walk-in closet e Bathr placed between bedr allow one bathr have natural light Layout provides for separate wc compartment with bidet if required; angled window can be applied to any of theseschemes & allows for extrasitting area &directional view g Luxury bedr withvanity unitseparated frombathr h Staggering wardrobes in partition wall can savespace -rubbish 4 Chambermaid'strolley(cart) C 2 adressingtable unit bnighttable &bedhead with wallhungtelephoneto leave table clear:table maybesplayedtoalloweasymovement of bed ccombineddressingtable, luggagerack&tvunit; may becantilevered for ease ofcleaningbutifsomustbefirmly anchored totakePsitting;upstand should beprovidedatbackof fitmenttopreventdirtmarksonwall;luggage rackmaybereplacedbyteamakingunit; lights shouldbeplaced toilluminate worktop& both sidesofface evenly 3 Typicalcombinedunitwa: where hangingspaceonly allow 500 rail/P; some luxuryhotelshavewalk-in closets&dressingrm 5 Linen trolley (cart)with removal fabric 218 Commerce Hotels BUILDINGSERVICES —(1) shows salient features of bldg services design (—p383—97) but following additional points should be noted: Emergency electrical supply Centralheating Ifair-conditioning (normal USA) not adopted bedr should be heated by radiators with individual controls designed for quickresponse. Public rm, particularly restaurants, should be provided with controlled mech ventilation tobalance kitchen extract. Bars should have extract fans. Certain essential services must be maintained in event of failure of mains supply. Generator willbe required maintainfollowing: fire exit and emergency lights, approx 20% of public area lighting, cold rm and refrigerators, fire pumps, cash registers, fire alarm indicator systems, telephone communications, sumpand sewage pumps. Bathroomventilation Firealarm systems Lighting Following essential: manualbreak-glass contacts and automatic smoke or heat detectors with audible warning throughout bldg; automatic recessed hose reelsthroughout, hoses to becapableof reaching every bedr; external fire hydrants; portable fire extinguishers at strategic locations; asbestos blankets in kitchen; fire dampers. Airconditioning Central system generally preferred to individual rm units. Should be capable of being controlled by guests in bedr. Public areas must be zonecontrolledto copewith peak loads and foreconomy when certain areas not in use. Good maintenanceaccess toallunitsessential. Generally extract system should be ducted tofans on roofwith individual bathr connected to main riser by shuntducts to minimise sound transmission between bathr. Bedr lighting systems to be arranged so that at least 1 main light switched from door and bedhead. More elaborate switching arrangements maybeadopted according totype ofhotel. Fluorescentlighting in bathr to be of quick start' type. Each bedr or pair of bedr to have consumerunitwith isolating switches. Corridor lighting should be time switched sothat sections canbeturned offatcertainperiodsforeconomy. Public rm should be switched in zones and special consideration given to decorative effects. Main switches should be located where public cannotreach them. Shaversockets Thereshould be dual voltage (single voltage USA) shaver sockets in all private bathr and male public toilets. I 114 coldwater sto 140 I/guest screen plant onroofmust be well insulated bathr extracts •separate flues foreach boiler zone forservices airhandling plant sited to minimise nuisance 1000 zone for o 3 9 6 18 I9 27 12m I LEEJ— sto 3611 boilers: at least2 each capable of 2/3 total heating load water softener probably required I Section showingsalientfeaturesof bldg services design for hotel Commerce 219 Motels Location 6250 On major highways, often near largetoxins, excursion centres and holiday resorts, and convenient for supplies (water, el, gas, fresh foodand laundry). Restaurant, petrol and garage services need not be connected to motel but should be available nearby. Self-service restaurant —p205 206. Sited so thatpassing headlights do not sweep bldg: avoid hilly terrain because of noise of vehicles braking and changing gear. Approach Take into consideration stopping distance of cars: 100 kph— 150m. Entrance: leads to reception (short stop), then to parking area (carport or garage) near as possible to rm. Exit through reception (control and return of keys). Size Unitopen to 1 side only;3different layouts Arch Polivnick 1 Motels generally 1-storeyand spreadout since land relatively cheap. 2 Unitwith daylightfrom 2sides (difficultto control) Arch Roberto If run by couple withouthelp10—i2unitspracticable; 1 helper required for every additional 10 rm. If affected by seasons,divide motel intosmaller groupsof 4—8rm with stop-cocks forwater, el, gas etc. Single bldg cost more than terrace housing. If trucksto be excluded construct low canopy over passage atreception. 3 Carportsbetweengroupsof3or 6units Arch Duncan 4 Unitswith coveredcarportsas3but in fours ArchTibbals-Gramley-Masson b 5 Layoutofmotel withparkingarforeach block&restaurantas independentestablishment ArchFried 3 6 2 1!D 2D 410 18 m 6ft Motorhotel RevereMassachusetts USA aunitsinblocksof 12with accesstoparkingatendeach bldg bcatering &adminbldg provides for entertaining,dining,conferring Arch Salsberg &Le Blanc 6 220 Commerce Motels Staggeredlayoutofresidential unitswith reception&caretaker's flat Arch Williams 1 2 2 doublermwith lob(forcold Provide large central rm for all guests, with recesses for writingand reading, card tables, radio, television, souvenir shopsetc. season)and cabin (forch)whichcan beused separatelyorwitheitherrm Telephone boxes should have provision for sitting and writing, and have maps, directories etc available as mostly used for long-distance calls. Roomsize forcity hotel:approx 4000 x 4000 upto 5000 x 5000,withbathrand ifnecessary Large than kitchenette, even if only 1 bed. Provide inter-communicating doors between unitssothat suites may beformed. Since90% guests stay only 1 night cupboards and chests unnecessary: provide large coat racks on wall instead, where belongings hang visibly,soless likelytobeleft behind. Ancillary rooms 1 centrallysituated linenrm with 5 sets linen/B (1 being used, 3in sto, 1 in laundry). Cleaner's rm accomodates trolley (cart) with compartments forclean and dirty linen, soap, bath salts, toiletpaper, vacuum cleaner, broom,floorpolish etc. If possible direct access from rm to car park. Efficient drainage ofapproaches, parkingareas and paths, as guests enter rm straight from outside. Entrancewith b/wc, betweencarpark& guest rmforsoundinsulation Arch Hombostel 3 4 Staggeredlayoutwith approach from 1 side only Arch Thompson Play areas some distance away to avoid disturbingresting guests. restaurant resdeflta units approachfroni fillingstation hrhway Layoutof3 with restaurant Arch Hornbostel 6 Establishment withefficiententrance &exit control Commerce 221 Convention hotels m2 595 280 restaurant parlour&cafe 400 185 370 200 175 93 520 185 75 375 520 390 ballrm 425 185 space foyerspace Planning and design concept which absorbed large proportion of hotel investment in USA during 1970s, often as part of efforts regenerate innercity areas. Basic characteristic:large amount ofspaceavailable for convention business activities such as meetings, exhibitions,seminars. Conventions entail dense traffic:400-rmhotel can have population 800 ormoreat height ofconvention orconference. occupancy meeting banquet 800 600 400 3750 5785 5.40 758 7148 4660 Flexibility 300 2900 880 3580 740 5390 meetingrm: 00 P of space essential —v(1)(2). Spaces for eating capable of beingserved independentlyatall times butkitchens should utilise same 70 7930 parking) central supplies (eg water,gas, drainage). Staff servicing guests orworking behind public spaces should notcross or impedepublic areas —v(2). In addition to segregation of personnel, main public and meeting areas require large outside halls for security, check-in by conference organisers, provision of coffee, literature and exhibition stalls etc. Large numbers involved make necessarycontrol oftraffic inand between main convention spaces. Use of atrium as unifying design concept —p223(1) groups ballrm, meeting rm, exhibition spaces, shops, bars, restaurantson 4 levels. Service functions ofoffices, laundry,sto, loading thus contiguous with space they serve but out of sight; segregation of vehiclesalso obtained. Conferences and conventions generate need for bedr with space and eqp for daytime business meetings. Small kitchen, tables, easy chairs, adequate lighting required —vp222(ld). (Rm thus equipped termed suites insomehotel chains.) 58 520 432 1010 employee employee telephone lockers dr a linen lau I) LL.,... I I L I ' above •!. banquet meetings d : : ptr ;i1ç. foyer ballrm I StO\ 1sto b entrance PhoenixofAtlantaHotelUSA abreakdownof publicar(totalof2058 guestrm) b mainlob floor c lowerlob floor Arch AlanLapidus key imainlob 2loblounge 3regetration4admin6shops&agencies 1 7checkrrn 8restaurant 9coffee shop 10 news stand 11 bar/cocktail lounge I2discotheque l4grandballrm l7meetingrrn 2Oreceivingk 21 maink 22k 25rrn service 31 rnech 34 snackbar 35main entrance 36convention foyer 37 reception & control 38 openlightwell 40 convention entrance 0 6 12 1,8 24 m o 40 t0 ao ft Smallconventionhotel(400rm) asecondfloor bmainfloor:showing segregationofhotel &convention business vehicletraffic& tightcontrolof service& personneltraffic inside 2 222 Commerce Convention hotels EXAMPLES 9 a 6 12m 20 40 ft summitrestaurant hoteiguestfloors ofttower C iuflior balirmIeve ballrTn veI -podiumbael _—otttower Wnmediate level Streetlevel I, --.,--- a 01.53m 5 lOft Hyatt RegencyHotelHoustonTexasUSA bfirstfloor ctypicalguest rmfloor dexamplesofbedr suitesshowingprovision of meetingspace;note possibleuseof dividingwalls to createsmallerrm Arch JVIII 1 a lob floor 2 RenaissanceCenterDetroitUSA:convention center & 1400 mi hotelwith 2650m2 ha, 13 restaurants,offspace, commercial retail space &rentableflats(orcondominium) asection b streetlevel plan ArchJohn Portman d 9 9 9 12m 10 20 30 40ft Commerce 223 Convention hotels EXAMPLES E Jcrc. ? r pool°° : ___PIaZa__1 fastfood' r restaurant ew IL 036912 dr U'.• /5\ I: I bac I bei<' ow b m 10203040ft b 9 121824m 204b600 ft 2 BonaventureHotelLosAngelesUSA:atriumdesign incorporating 4cylindricaltowers&central tower a retailfloor blobfloor ArchJohn Portman Hyatt HotelBostonUSA:atriumdesign with addedfeatureoforientation over riverproviding viewfrom publicspaces&guestrm aground floor btypical guest rmfloor ArchJohn Portman 1 Hotel references: —Bibliography entries 001 011 043 049 050 147 176217223226243 255 272 273 274 319 324 341 346 347 363 377 439440 441 442 477 480583645 224 Commerce Public houses English pubsfamous associal institutionsthroughout world; very difficult create afresh. Being increasingly copied as special attractions in large European and Americantowns. (Evenprefab pubs availableforexport.) Few moderndesigns have satisfactorilycaught right atmosphere; many originals have been brutally altered, often first to so-called modern design, then back again to spurious Edwardian. Constant feature of successful pubs seems to be breaking up of space into small intimate rm whichnevertheless retain feeling of bustle all round. Traditionalway dothis centralservery with bars radiatinground. Good pub hassomething oftheatre about it: good taste should be used sparingly; brashness and vulgarityhave place in interior fittings. Regulations b Apartfromstatutes, for purposeof firesafety UK pubs mainly controlled underliquorlicensing law. Applicants opening pub must apply to local magistrates for licence. Must also notify fire authority,whichhas power inspectpremises on questions of adequacy offire separation, between such areas as kitchens and bars, and means of escape. Fire authority inspectorhas power objectgranting oflicence ifdissatisfied. For pubs catering for less than 50 people 1 exit generally considered enough when pub 1 -storey. Elaborateformula,takes into accounttravel distances, door widths and numbers of people, to calculate number of exits needed for pubs serving more than 50people. Unless pubs employ more than 20 little affected by (UK) Shops & OfficesAct; but ifpartsof larger structures full rigour ofbldg reg apply; could dictate, eg, provision of sprinklers at base of multi-storey block. Finishes on wallsand ceilings also controlled by reg to prevent flame spread. Lord HighAdmiralLondon England: entirely modern pubwhichrecreates atmosphereoftraditionalEnglishdesign,containedwithinlargescale housingscheme;bars separated, varyingindesign &comfort: aground floor bsection Arch Darbourne & Drake 1 Amenities Scale, siting, quality, cleanliness of lavatories most important aspect of successful pub; can be decisive in keeping or losing customers; particularly important when renovating old pubs. Most pubs nowalsoprovide some snack bar service thoughnot usually with stooPs —p205; provisionof heatingand cooking eqp suitablefor bar counterimportant. Quick restaurant service for lunch time trade now common in town pubs, necessitating some kitchen and food preparation area. Do not forgetprovision for pub games, generally darts, dominoes but somehighly Pocalised. For modern cellar techniques and installationsconsult clientand/or (in UK) Brewers' Society. 2 Groundfloor plan TheFanciersNorthampton England; bright&breezy workingmen's club;colourfuluseofmaterials, stripedglass panels & curvedcorners Arch Roscoe MilnePartnership first floor plan 1st floor plan Foxhillsgolfclub Chertsey England Arch BuildingDesignAssociates 3 b 4 MarkhamArms ChelseaEngland; sympathetic conversion of existing Victorianpub; originalbowfrontremains;addition hasbeentackedonat back; geometryof bow repeatedin built-in seating; a ground floor b section Arch RoderickGradidge Commerce 225 Office buildings BUILDINGTYPE Office bldg either custom builtto meet particularsetof requirements or speculatively toattract largest possible range oftenants.This distinction has led towidedifferences in bldgform. In theory should be no difference at all because same fundamental principle applies to all office design: organisations change far more rapidly than bldg. Distinction managed bydistinguishing between design for4scales oftime: Shell last at least50 years: must be designed to meetwide variety of organisational needs —.(1). visual and acoustic separation and decoration now frequently achieved by furniture. Second, becoming increasingly difficult distinguish office function from allied activities such aslab, industrialprocesses,education Services become obsolete as office technology changes and must be replaced at least every15 years —.(2). Scenery: fitting out of office interiors to meetprecise organisational needs; sceneryneedlast onlyso long aslease, usually5—7years—o(3). Sets: positioning and repositioning scenery elements such as desks, chairs, screensand partitions to meet immediateorganisationalneeds perhaps evenevery3 or 4 months—*(4). 2 fundamental developments in office bldg in recentyears. First, significance oflong termshell diminishing as shorttermscenery,particularly primarily involves handling information and making decisions based upon information. This definition hides enormous variations in size of officeorganisations, office technology and styles of management. furniture, absorbs more and more functions. Carrying services, 1 OFFICE FUNCTION Most employees in advanced economies workin offices. Office work Range includes multi-nationals which employ thousands of people in only 1 of many bldg to 1-man enterprises. Much office worksedentary but offices also include spaces for machinery, canteens, meetings, filing, libraries and other ancillary activities whichcantake up 1/3 ofspace needed byorganisation—e(6). Office organisations changing rapidly and in every respect. Extreme care should be taken toavoid building obsolescence into new bldg. iHi Shell r- 1' 1' 1' 1' -I 2 Shell &services asconstructed 5 after15years after45years after30 years Relativecost comparisonof shell, services & scenery over 45years anciIiay workplace 3 Scenery primary circulation,coreetc I I 1 I_j I I I I I I 1 4 6 Comparisonofspace requirements in4bldgshowingvarious Sets relationshipsofworkplace/ancillary needs I 226 Commerce Office buildings DEFINITIONSOF OFFICE AREAS—(1) a a Efficiency of office bldg usually measured in terms of ratio of usable office area to grossarea of bldg. Real estate definitions vary but basic unitsalways same: (a — ead,oftfloor thicknessofexternalwalls columns staircases lifts lax ducts •• •S •• S S •S plantrm circulationwithincore publiccorr privatecorr internal walls required for bldgpurposes—not influenced S byspacease— internal walls tenant's own subdivision floor recephon oft space/deskar wtelddg bldgplantrm bldg reception coveredparking sf0forwholebuilding eginbasement *t •S • •• •• S •• S •• ia5 fl,e , B S S S S I• S option S S S 5 S S S S •S • •S S Workplace area (oruseablearea): spacesin which possible forpeople to workatdesks;includes secondary circulation, Primarycirculation: circulationessential toprovide accessand means ofescape to workplace areas, Special areas: space which cannot be used for office workers but is dedicated to particularfunction, egarchives, restaurant. Core:space needed forsupport of bldg, eglifts, stairs, ducts, lavatories, Gross outside area (GOA): —a(2a)(2b) sum of all constituent office areas including core,structure and perimeter walls, Netusable area(NUA): —x(2c)(2d) what remains when core,structure S •S • S •• S iienclosed) (if • S • S optionifsingleletting subjecttoseparaterentalcalculation ,- ,5d enclosed) S S S S S S * •* t t * • * Upartiallyincluded S whollyincluded Definitions of termsusedtodescribeofficear:precisedefinition sometimesdifficultbecause of differentusages, variations in bldgdesign (eg slab &centrecore), differencebetween letting floors,partsof floors& wholebldg 1 and perimeterwalls subtracted fromGOA. Core in multi-storey office bldg should occupy no more than 20% of GOA—4(2e). Obviouslysmallercore more efficientbldg—xp228—9. Primary circulation usually takes up between 10 and 15% of net usable area. Special areas vary enormously depending uponfunction ofoffice organisation —v(3). NB in multi-tenantedbldg primary circulationsometimes excluded from 'rentable' area. Special areas should be convertible to workplace area. Not all work place areaequallyvaluable. Common design faults—x(4)whichresult in insufficient use ofspace: columns too closeto perimeter walls wasteful modules dominant columns fixingprimary circulation routes space ofwrong depth provision of services onlyat perimeter 2 a forplanningpurposesgrossfloor aristotalof bldg measuredfrom outside edgeofexterior walls b forcost purposesgrossfloor artotalof bldg measuredfrom insideexternalwalls C NIJA:UKpracticeexcludesallcorr between tenancies d NUA:USApracticeexcludesonly circulationincore e bldgcore:example has major& minorcore a DE. C in -0 L±L d wasteful module e intrusionot structureintowork place badlypositioned radiators IJ /I7\ pesmeterserocesonly wastedspacearoundcolamns ,1 oft toodeep / ,.--——' \ "—....— / -' 11wrongdepth space— '.\ difticubto adover ( —pnmaty 3 Analysisof space usein4 projects showingvaryingspace requirements 4 circulat: fixed bycolamns Commondesign faults \\ entranceto/ Commerce 227 Office buildings Positions of primary circulation: fixed? does it serveto 1 side or 2 (single ordoubleloadedcorridors)? TYPESOF OFFICESHELL 3 factors determineshape offloorofofficebldg —s(1): Depth of space: depth of any work place area measured Position of core: placed centrally, orat 1 end, ordetached. between perimeter orcoreand primary circulation. 11111111111110 for3—5open plan workplaces II 11 3 major bands ofofficespace depths can beidentified —*(2): narrow, 4000—6000: suitable for single office rm or for 2—3 open plan workplaces medium, 6000—8000: suitable forenclosures larger than single rm or oflspace cellular open structured deep, 8000 + : more than 5openplanworkplaces deep These depths can be combined in various ways and together with position of core and circulation generate wide range of office shell configurations —*(3). CELLULARISATION 1 Greatest test of office bldg capacity to accomodate various kinds of organisation: degree to which can be divided upintormofvarious sizes. Not all organisations require large number of small rm and not all can use high proportion ofopenplan space successfully. In life of organisation demand forcellular and openspaces will fluctuate. Consequently capacity of office bldg shell to provide range of rm arrangements must be measured. Should be remembered that small rm not just required for individual office but increasingly for other functions, eg noisy or confidential machines such asterminal printers ortelexes. Capacitycan be measured by number of rm of various sizes which can be provided in given shell —s(4): this can be matched with demands of typical organ isations for rmofvarious sizes _a(5). Determinantsof shape shallowspace 4000-6000 X2000) /) I-Ii = integralcore shell rne&urnd6000-8 000 detachedcore I 1K2000 \/ I \'__/I IN_JI / () \ ( '\} (- ,iN K— —- deepspace6000+ / /__ \\ - __/ \ (/ /I 0 ___ rn X2000 ' ) :_) / f \_// ______ 0 \_/ 4 Shell array 2 Spaced o indivkiualenclosed rrn O groupsharedenclosedrm 0 open shallowspace lOO%fl 100% mediumspace Ill Ill III 11111111111 I 67% 67% :: 33% 33% 100% deepspace Ill I f111 3 5 Capacityof3shells, showing max amounts of individual Spaced and differentways of organisingspace cellulansation 228 Commerce Officebuildings CORE Office bldgcore—.(1)(2) p229(l )(4) must providetor: Elevators: number and size depend upon population ot bldg, number of floors, and required waitingtime. Elevatorsshould begrouped sothat availability ofanyelevator in bank on anyfloorcan be easily observed. In tall bldg elevatorsusuallygroupedtoserve 10ormore tloors—.p410—12 Ducts: vertical ducts required forheating, telephone,electrics, drainage andwatersupply; alsoin air-conditioned bldg forairmovement. Provide on generous scale, particularly for increasingly important electrics and telecommunications, In large multi-storied air-conditioned bldg allow for. vertical air movement el © telecommunications & telephone drainage watersupply Services p383—97 Lavatories:Proportion men and women on each floor may change: desirable that male and female wc be adjacent so that replanning possible using sameducts—(3). Cleaners' cupboards: oneach floorof multi-storey office bldg provide cleaners' cupboard (mm 2m2)containing sto and slop-hopper. Stairs: width of stairs determined by reg on means of escape and in particularby numbersofstaffto be providedfor—.p407—9 © AmericanExpress BankingCorporation London England Arch DuffyEleyGuffone 1 Worthington SW ElectricityBoardBristolEngland Arch SWEB PropertySection 2 ii nals male 9 female 3 Groupinglavatoryprovision toallowfor changingproportionsofmen&women Commerce 229 Office buildings CORES: EXAMPLES DobsonHouseKillingworth NewTown England Arch Faulkner-Brown Hendy NatkinsonStonor 1 2 Deptof Environment LondonEngland Arch PropertyServicesAgency / / / \ /) 3 GreaterLondonCouncilislandblockLondon England Arch GLC ArchitectsDept 4 EuropaHouseStockportEngland Arch John Caytten&Partners 230 Commerce Office buildings /7/77/"C I, _ RELATIONSHIPS Office bldg can be designed provide best relationship between parts of organisation;travel distancesboth horizontaland verticalcan be reduced; visual links between component parts can magnify sense of close relationship. Other bldg forms can be used toachieve preciseopposite: max autonomy of component parts—(1). INTERFACEWITH OUTSIDEWORLD 1 Ideally office bldg, whether speculative or custom built for 1 user, designed with 1 entrance so that contact with outside world controlled for security, to present unitedface to visitors, and tomake finding one's way inside bldg obvious as possible —+(2). However, different policy which allows for more than 1 entrance can be adopted if organisation does not value security so highly and wants to allow tree access to several internal functions —(3). Another condition when major user wants sublet space. Proportion of sublet space may change: could cause severe design problems.Third problem:when officebldg designed to be lettoverylargenumber ofsmall users and easypublic accesstoall partsof bldg becomes a malor objective. Connexions 2 3 Organisation'sinterfacewithoutsideworldreflectedinhow approached& degreeofpenetration allowed topublic / 4 Typesofaccess:depending on typeoforganisation, boundary shown betweenvisitor&companyar may fade &2spacesbecome1 Commerce 231 Office buildings MEANS OF ESCAPE Means of escape important determinant ofoffice bldg shell.In bldg over 2 storey travel distance from any point on office floor to escape stair strictly regulated (30 m). Alternative means of escape on each floor usually demanded. Design ofaccessfrombldg tostreet controlled. Reg also affect scenery planning: eg rm may not openoff rm. Each space must have direct access to means of escape —*p(1)—(3) —p91 — Bib346 347. 1 Altemativeescaperouteswith limitedtraveldistancemustbeavailable fromfiretoprotectedzone 2 Traveldistancefrom anypointonground&firstfloor to protected zone mustnotexceed30.5 m 3 In some bldgover 18.3 m hsomestaircasesshould beconstructedas fire-fightingstaircases,withsmokeoutlets, vents& frself-closing doors 232 Commerce Office buildings OFFICE SERVICES Demand for services in offices increasing. Each work place must be next to outlets for power and telephone. Coaxial cable access for 1 Perimeterservicing 2 Floor grid 3 False floor servicing 4 False ceiling servicing terminals frequently required: with increasing automation and telecommunications will become common seeworkstations with 6 oreven 8wiresofvarious kinds. Already some organisations provide 1 terminal for every 2 work stations. Precise need for connexions cannot be predicted: essential provide grid to whicheach workstation can have easy access without dangerous, trailing wires. Such grid can be provided infollowing ways: distribution at perimeter and through partitions distribution throughfloor grid (usually 1 800—2000centres) distribution throughfalsefloors(height should be 50—500) distribution fromceiling (NBproblem with safety) distribution throughfin walls (points at desktop height) 5 f Distributionthrough inwalls Commerce 233 Office buildings INTERNALENVIRONMENT A Quality of internal environment become major consideration: rising energycostsmainly responsible, leadingto reconsidering design of: C medium, 14 m deep, mech ventilated D deep, 50 m deep, mech ventilated ventilation (natural— mechanical—air-conditioned) lighting (highgeneral levels—tasklighting) heating (single source — optionalsource) —.(1)tor difference in energy use before and atter energy crisis (c1974). Environmental system should allow for: Adaptability: servicing systems may beexpected tohave liteotapprox 15years. System should be adaptableto varying degrees ofcellularisation and screening asoccupant changes possible changes in tuel sources changing expectations and standards Control:individuals may be able control their immediate environment according to nature of work: providing some control over lighting and ventilation can help. Acceptable level ot lighting and ventilation in 1 location must not create glare or draughts in another. Solution must recognise no 2 people equally comfortablein single environment. Management& maintenance: environmentalsystems shouldbesimple, maintenance tree, easyto change. Depending on size, bldg manager! supervisorwill probably be needed, ideally appointedduring construction and betore commissioning Economicfuelconsumption:flexibilityto adaptto alternativeeconomic tuel sourcesin future. —.(2) for comparison of energy use in 4 generic bldg: shallow, l2mdeep,naturallyventilated B shallow, 12 m deep, mech ventilated Each bldg form has same gross floor area, construction and amoint of glazing, with vertical dimensions adjustedto suit each. Requirements for heating each plan form shown separately. Can be seen that relatively little difference in energy consumed with respect to variations in form, increased energy going into lighting as depth of space increases, compensatingtor reduction ot energy tor mech plant because of more compact shapeof bldg. Each plan formtested tor2different overall lighting levels: 400 lux, 700 lux. Can be seen lighting and fanpower canaccount for approx 70% of energyconsumed. If prime oblective conserve energy attention must be paid to reducing artificial lighting requirements by: providing mm overall lighting level of 400 luxforoffice work reducing lighting further and introducing task lighting making greatest useof naturaldaylight and providing localisedswitching Fanenergyusemay be reduced byattention to design ofmech systems and byusing low pressures and velocities for distribution of air. Any economic environmental system must be designed for specitic bldg toensureenergy usage kept low aspossible. However, first2 questions any user must ask are: whatoffice plan formis required? does this form orits location make air-conditioning necessary? beforeenergy crisis 0 0 N- high overall illumination levels (1000 lux) mm task lighting complexcentralised control mm externalglazing heat recovery highthermalcapcity excessheatsto singleenergysource deepplanbldg afterenergycrisis loweroverall illumination E levels task lighting moreindividual control moreexternal glazing heatrecovery lowerthermal capacity excess heatsto possibility ot additional energysources variety of bldg torms Changingenergyusebefore& afterenergycrisis 1 Em a NB 10.76Ix = 1 foot-candle 2 Energyuse in4 genericbldg 0 0 0 0 N- ii 234 Commerce Office buildings OFFICE CONSTRUCTION 3 critical constructional elements affect office layout: partitions, ceiling, window module. 2 basic choices: complete modular integration and its opposite, avoiding precise modules—.(1). Test of any office planning: how well range of small rm sizes can be accommodated. Small rm usually found in following approx sizes: 15 m2, 20 m2, 25 m2, 30 m2 (smallest size USA: 7.4 m2). Single rm depth should not exceed 6000 otherwise unusable space created towards backofeach rrn. Acceptable rm proportions should not exceed ratio of 1:1.5. Thusif strictmodular grid thought necessary, 1 500mm feasible grid —(2)(USA 1220—1524). Ceiling grid can affect single rm design in similar way. Single most critical dimension: standard size 2400; USA 1 220, 1 830, 2440). of fluorescent tubes (1 200, 1 800, Wide variety of possible types of ceiling: lightfittingssetin ceiling diagonal patterns movable fittings waffle grids largecoffers All can be made compatible withplanning small rm. Discipline of ceiling grid relaxed when task lighting used because fewer lights needed in ceiling. 1.2mgrid 5m whole bldg grid: structure services ceiling partitions 30m2 24m2 .5 m grid 5m 18m2 12m2 ___________ 22.5m2 30m2 15m2 modular Integration 1.8 m grid _______________ _______ noceiling grid perimeter or floorservices 5m 36m2 27m2 18m2 partitions can fitagainst walls&ceiling as required within solid wallzones 1 2.4mgnd _____________ Non-modular&modularintegration 5m 24m2 36m2 12m2 2 Rangeof rmsizes at constant5000depthwith variouswindowgrid modules I1HHH 3 Nogrid, smoothfinish,exposed concreteslab ordirect finish ceiling,surfacemountedlight fittings 6 2-waygridded suspendedceilingwith recessedlight fittings IIHIIHHHI 4 Nogrid, smoothfinish,suspended ceiling, 5 Lineargrid, drysuspendedceiling, continuous 7 8 surface mountedlight fittings 2-way small structuralwafflegrid 1-directionaliecessed light fittings Largecoffer/baygrid Commerce 235 Office buildings SPACESTANDARDS workplaceare Am sizes determined by space standards which allocate area knownanciiiary (egcomputer) popsiatron and enclosure todifferent levels ofstaff. Manycompanies usesuch standards 10%aiiowanceforanciiiary but widevariation in: numberof levels ofstaff at which level enclosure required nettasabie allocation ofspace to levels Thesefactors, and even greater degree of variation in ancillary needs, make extremely difficultpredict amount of space/head whichshould be +primarycircuiation used to calculate roughly amount of space needed to accommodate given number ofstaff. Certainly 10 m2NUA!head very low; 25 m2/head high. Any figure in between could be relevant to given organisation. nettrentabie 1 UK statutory mm of workplacearea excluding anyancillary approx 4 m. (No statutory mm USA.) +aiiowanceforcore,stairs,Uty,corr,iobetc gross CALCULATINGSPACEREQUIREMENTS Office area requirements calculated in 2parallelways: people space (le individual space standard x numbers)+ allowancefor immediateancillary + factor(usually15%) forprimarycirculation; non-people space, eg machine rm, libraries, which depend more on eqp than on staff numbersfortheir area should be calculatedby informed estimatesbasedonexistinggood practice or comparable examples: again factor must beaddedfor primarycirculation. Methodofcalculating spacerequirements forwholebldg; adjustments should be madeforsharedcommon spacesinmulti-tenanted bldg 3 a' + daie a E department comments .L ° a + a aworkplace 1 manager 2perSonai assistant CALCULATINGRELATIONSHIPS 3secretary 4 5 6 To prepare stacking plans te relating 1 department to another in an existing bldg. or even to work out configuration of new office bldg. interconnexions between parts of organisationcan be studied by more totai workpiace bancillary 1 tiieS 2iib 3 or less detailed surveys of communications. totalancifary totairequirement 4 Exampletabulation sheetusedforrecording existingspacerequirements &future predictions 5 Stackingplan example HE. 2 Comparativespace standards in4 companies 6 Interrelationships 236 Commerce Office buildings ventilation loading servicing access * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * ** ** * computer lib meeting presentation k restaurant 1 Requirementsofspecialar 11111 receç,on II IUIThU tIIIIII SPECIALAREAS Offices contain largenumber of special areaswhich may need: ventilation(orair-conditioning)—p392 superior floorloading to beplaced away fromwindows incentre ofbldg special servicing even toextent ot suspended floors greater height than normal office dimensions special access topublic or goods cnmssoeares resteroi p41Øfl;. companies board1 UU recephOn desk 1Bn1 data + O 2 Examplesshowingdifferentstyles of reception 3 identical controlted environment Computerrot Commerce 237 Office buildings SPACES FOR MEETINGS also —p238 typeofspace number ofP typical space required type ofuse provision ofeqp shortdiscussions brieting 1 2visitor's chairs atwork station location perP provision atworkplace meeting atdesk 2—3 m2 2 0—275 subordinates, personal interviews or C 0 meeting ur 1.5—2.5 C cOo 0 working discussions with members otntsff or visitors conference table &chuirn; related eqp pinboard, chalk board working sessions between members within group otpersonnel from outside involvedwith some prolect. may last severalhr conference table & chairs withsome screening from surrounding workstations; related eqp: tipchartn, pin up space, chalkboard; provision otpermanent notice board orchart board foruseotgroup tocuted ingrouparudtucent toprimary circulation, to limitdisturbance of individuals interviewing personnel or salesrepresentatives; discussions withmembers olpublic shortperiods of use up to ¾ hr aural & visual privacy required clone to mum entrance & deptwith malor usage; may require waiting uradtacent ifused frequently slides, overheadprolector, flipcharts,dimmer lightn, good ventilation; sto for drinks, audio-visualeqp ease ofaccess toatt dept easily serviced with refreshments; access for outside visitors without going through workar; costs arclone by vending machines,stand-up counters, lowtables & easy chairs; diuplayboard; screeningfromworkar adlscent todo, wc &rest rm; equally accessible to allpersonnel on each floor provision forgroupof workplaces meeting ur 6—6 t 5—2.5 provision foraltmembers of staff interview rm 2—3 t.5—2 0 8—t2 t.5—20 meetings withoutside visitors orinternatpolicy making & planning meetings 2—3 hrmeetings 12—t8 225—4.0 primarily used brrefreshment breaks, but may also be urwhere general notices, scheduling channetc can be displayed;may become importantpoint forenchange ofinformation & ideas;aned throughout dayforutortperiods infrequent meetings: involvement ofallstaff formal board meetings; signing ofcontracts; managementmeetings; business lunches & entertaining: 2—3 hr meetings rm k 0UU0 cu rent ar assembly ar 100—150 bourdrm 16—24 1 5—2.0 conference rm 15—20 t 5—2.0 lecture rm 50—100 1= I OL ITJD DUO K°°00 1 I 04 located in screened urif in planned open off environment presentation; working discussions with outside visitors large conferences, presentations, lectures & training sessions Typesof meetingplaces,characteristics & requirements formal layout; audio-visual eqp:good ventilstion essential; telephone eetension; space & eqpfor stenographer audio-visualeqp; dimmer lights&black out; uto for eqp & furniture, allow satficient spacefor alternative layouts closed circuit tvsystem, control rmfor prolector, lighting, curluins,tv& audio systems, stospace forfurniture display systems may use cafeteris or recreation npsce anterm (forrefreshments & leaving coats) attached; easyaccess forretreshmentn: 2visits easyaccess forvisitors adlacent ar foraudience to assemble beforemeeting; several entrances 238 Commerce Office buildings SPACES FOR MEETINGS space allocation expressed supportspaces also —.p237 avof all av of off I av of off using 'Kew' furniture other general' off drawing off % % % % 3 4 5 2 3 4 4 6 6 2 4 — — meetingsi5aces sto refreshment/rest do generalservices Percentage of space allocated in 1 openplan offformeetingaras percentageof total net ar as% of total netar 3 2 7 7 circulation 18 total supportspaces 31 15 34 av of 2 2 19 8 15 29 31 headquarters accn for engineering organisation Ipopulat ion 1 2001 manufacluring admin organisalion populat ion400) headquarters accnfor clerical organisalion Ipopulation 1400) consultancy organisafion )populafion80) 2 Meetingarprovisionfordifferent typesoforganisation 1 per 1200 1 per 1200 1 per60 1 per200 none none 1 per 15 1 per 10 office stall office staff office Stall 1 per40 oflicestall 1 per 12 office staff 1 per 80 1 per 45 office staff office staff none 1 per18 officestaff 1 per 26 office stall 1 per400 1 per55' office stall officestall 1 per 280 office stall 1 per230' officeslaff 1 per 1 400 officestaff none I per 16 officeslaff 1 per 20 office slut) none none 1 per80 none none officestaff clficestaff none office slatf oiliceStat) officestaff office staff apporlioned toseparale companieson each floor informal situation probabledifference in status between parties .9 .9• 3 involved interview orbriefwith subordinate 48m 4.0.formal interview —2.7rn-4 ! -.-—3m-— —3m-—i- j—3m----4- 1 4-245m+ T± UU I E in) U L_J4 L J i! I L L UU -it 'E L J4- • I • 1 LJ L1 I I •l • -it I UflU I IE lU L]U • aijI 1_____j 1'4' •l—l II l,IaIl f •I I U... . IUI!UlI: • I •fE -+- U______ U l • III $fl , •na UI II lSII•l lUll1 •UIa I I I I I •i U U I L SLJUII • L • J$_ E Ut I L U -J • ________ • ______ • U... ______ 7,2m • 1 •.1II•m UIIUIE a Uf I •I I. .1 .. I • U I_____ • • ______•lI -L__UUa I I • • -t-f••'U • U • •••••••... .1 • 1 1+ I E Meetingtable space requirements 5 J L!Jt L 4—31ni—-j I . 1 -4—3.1 m—4- 4—3.lm--4 I) I lll '. I • I &4 &2J. • .• : •••• 1'T 1 3.1m 4-31m -- IU .IE •flUIE I. IU l 4—3.5m--—4- +-365m-+ a. • -t • -1-4- . L _il 'U.. I -1+ If a Ill rajit: 0• iuOu II • iE1u1 I • -4-2 2m-4 3 lecture i'm 100—150P seating arrangement & condition informal situation with both parties working on equal basis 1 2 t per 120 1 per 280 office staff 1 per80 conference i'm 22—28P meeting irs meeting rm 12-16P 16—20P meeting rrn ounge/ meeting atat meeting ar workplace restar serving group 6—BP ofworkplaces •• •• •• • .• •U U • UU•U• UUUU U o U Commerce 239 Office buildings OFFICE FURNITURE Once simply element in workstationsforclerical staff and managers office furniture has become more specific and also means of controlling use ofspace, eg: screens to separate linking unitsto allow workplaces to be ganged in various ways services carried byfurniture use ofvertical surfaces for sto use ofsto tosub-divide fin walls 1 Typicalclericalworkstation 3 Supervisor'sworkstation 4 2 These developments have beenbasis formany proprietary furniture systems. Many types of layout possible but principal controlling factor density. Densities in openoffice planning at 8 m2lhead, 12 m2 and 16 m2—.p240(3)—(5) give someidea of range of possibilities. Secretarialworkstation 6 Gangedworkstations:screened (carrel) 7 Free standing enclosed Gangedworkstations:open 5 Free standing furniture 240 Commerce Office buildings OFFICE FURNITURE 1 Furnitureused to controlspace: finwalls 2 Furniture usedtocarry services 3 Officelayout8rr/head 4 Officelayout12 rri/head 5 Office layout 16r1/head Commerce 241 Office buildings STORAGE Filing cabinets still predominant method of storing office paper: but manyother possibilities, including suspended and lateral filing, which can be considerably more efficient in space use—*(1). Microfilm—p7 can be used to reduce bulk of paper held in offices: may not always be acceptable substitute because of: rft complexity ofinformation stored frequency of retrieval hanging files cost legal requirements to keep original copy Drawer type filing cabinet still predominant type of sto unit but not always mostefficient in space use —(3). Spacerequirements box files: ledgers onshelves Deeper the cabinets, wider the passage required between them. High shelves not easily serviced: time saved because access easier to vertical sto. Hanging files utilise wall area87% more efficiently than box files —*p242(1). Filesmay have betransportedby conveyor;desks in filing rm should have shelves for sorting; provision ofsmall tables and chairs on castors for convenience ofclerks desirable. Registry (document entry) should be centrally situated. Since clear height of 2100 only required, 3 storeys of registry could be fitted into equivalent of 2 normal office storeys. Dryrm essential. Deep registries more economical. Provide writing on reference surfaces next tostacks. Trolleys may be needed for moving files. Moveable registries make possible 20%greater utilisationofspaceby doing awaywith intermediate passages—*p242(3)(4). Layoutsnotstandardisedbutadaptedtodifferent needs, such as archives, lib, sto. Paperstovery heavy; can createacute floor loading problems. shelves hanging planhanging Space required and capacity of 3 types of filing system compared —*(3)(4).USA dimensions filing cabinets, lockers, sto cabinets—*(5)(6) p242(6). 900' 480' 1 65; Filing 600 4 3O0' 500 7Q() Comparisonofcapacityoffiling systems a ii,,, ,rlIIIIrIIup,,Ili,ln, b P!II!I!fl!!! iI,j(I 1 c , i,,i TI d I,,,J,, i,,,, 5 USAstandardclearances forfilingcabinets apassage drawersclosed only bpassagedrawersopen ccabinetsfaceto face passage drawers closedonly d cabinetsfaceto facepassagedrawersopen 3100 3100 2 Ff M44Tht Exampleofrelationships with registryin insurance firm deskh counterh extrah standardh 4-drawerfiling lateral filing open cabinet theoretical capacity (linearm) 2.4 2.0 capacity in use (linearm) capacity/unitar (linearrn/rn2) 2.7 cabinet shelving unit plan 4.5 4.5 5.5 5.4 5.4 6.0 :::::::::: :::.::.::::t 3 Comparisonof space requirements of filing systems - i drawers extended / plan Er o.j__ rj.r:::::: :::::::::: -71 1-+—686-'l--660.4-6864-71 762 6 FilingcabinetdimensionsUSA 1- 762 t 242 Commerce Office buildings STORAGE 3rowsoffiles 6rowsoftiles ;ii 1i41f —1T——-r——T-T I i1Lt;;Ii11 11 11T1Tm—T—i [. 0 Wall space comparison betweensuspended& boxfiles ofsamecapacity 1 4 Movableregistry(document entry) vertical &suspended tilingin folders, pigeonholes65/78/200 flatfilingin library filingin loose-leaf index in rollbinder on open front cpd shelves 35/200 40/125/220 10000tiles Continuous cpd/cabinet floorarmcI operalion but exclside passages approx 2mm thickwithout holders, approx 25 sheets 11 5 T ml UH L — II I I II II = 2 1 lockers plan 2 [ I = 1300 a Largedocumentchest: section& plan 3 <ITTi a EJ EJ U officespace saved 3 Comparisonof space required formovable &ordinary registry 2 3 524 1830 762 914 1067 305 229 to 610 229 to 457 305 381 305 to 533 305 381 305 381 1 — H W — D — 1 :.::::.:.:.::.:ID UUU U U UUEIIEJ 36m2 lockerdimensions - plan ir 1 825m 5.92 rn- twi w rri HI (0 2.4 m - Proportionof gangwayspace totiling cabinetspace w Co 11 Ow 7.25 ni cabinetdimensions stocabinets 6 gl4maxfor 1 drawer H W D C Locker&sto cabinetdimensionsUSA 762 1067 1676 1981 457 610 914 457 559 610 457 max tor2drawers Commerce 243 Office buildings OFFICE EQUIPMENT Office eqp increasing rapidly in complexity and scope as information technology develops. Use of office automation growing rapidly and expected be single most important use of information technology in longterm. power telephone supply connexions eltypewriter telex word processor copier terminal telecopier micro-computer microfilmviewer telephone vendingmachine video/tv monitor 1 . . . . . . e . . . heat noise water extract . . . . e . . . . . . . . supply . . . . . . . . . . 5 Telex . h = 500 w= 500 d= 600 Basic requirementsofofficeeqp incurrentuse 6 Microfilmviewer h = 1200 w= 1700 2 Elgolfball typewriter d= 680 h=350 w=600 d = 450 7 3 Large(15 collator)copier Smallphotocopier h = 125 w =550 d = 375 4 Telecopier 8 Wordprocessorwith hardcopyonly;visual display unit(VDU)commonly used in addition 244 Commerce Office buildings OFFICE EQUIPMENT(cont) distribution frame I I I I rectifier unit N 4 Small(4line) telephoneswitchboard battery h maintenance workbench 1, 1 I" 4000 Privateautomaticbranchexchange(PABX) rmrequirements 5 Mediumsized telephoneswitchboard (20 linesPABX) h = 950 w=600 d = 360 2 Terminals Small vending machine h= 1850 w= 780 d= 650 printerh= 150+w = 400÷d= 380-I- 7 3 Large treestandingvendingmachine Microcomputer Office buildings references —*Bibliographyentries 069 177178222241 249 257 259260 341 346347363 364 366 374 389 429 465 479480540 541 542 545 554 564 565 566 570 580 592 601 614 Commerce 245 Banks ecu " bankingha eflirance partition commussionaire securitiesdept bankingha ( writingdesk deposiiboxes desk. iedger clerk I cashcounier 2 Customer'sroutesin major Europeanbanks 1 siairstostrongrm '--- partitinri ieadin9tosirOng en 4$]iob Routestostrongrm Different design requirements according to whether private bank with primarily mercantile interests, major bank, savings bank, mortgage bank; but ingeneral banks places where money paid in orwithdrawn by customers. Procedures needbe transactedquickly, securely, simply as possible. Mech conveyance and similar systems notnecessary orworth while except for really large institutions. Route followed by customer: from street outside through lobby into banking hall, sometimes fitted withbench seats or chairs forwaiting and writing desks forcustomers, andvarious positions forpaying in, drawing out, security, savings and (in Europe) giro transactions,or 'uniqueue' Desks for accounts and book-keeping (check on state of drawer's account) usually behind cash counter—.(1). Other offices serving customers, eg manager, credit dept, auditing dept, usually next to banking hall with separate ante-rm, or on upper floor—.(3). Route to deposit boxes (often in basement): frombanking hall through partition into passage, usually past securities dept and safe custody deptdown stairs to protective grille in front of lobby leadingtostrong rm, where customers' deposit boxes and strong rm door; sizes ofboxes: for stafisideentrance lpersonl000xl500uptol500xl500,for2persons2000xl500 Larger institutions normally have separate bank strong rm next to customers' strong rm, while safe custody dept has offices in front of entrance to this, with separate staircaseto banking hall or special cash elevators —.(3). Basement reached by separatestaircasecomprises cloakrm,sto space. heating plant, plant for operating elevators and pneumatic despatch tubes, elecfromech communications eqp and so on, as well as registry and elevator for documents. In mortgage banks must be possible for all mortgage business be completed conveniently onground floor. 3 Relationshipsofrm inbig bank —. a directors — — world savings \ [ u un parkinglot i,/ 'z Li LIII 0 machine rm L clock tower 0 I 10 20 30m 326498 ft sf0 [ 'I b 9 \, ', ? è ' 12 6 18 24ff bankingrmN couporbooths I _entrance conference teller counter C 1entobelow 4 WorldSavings& LoanAssociation SantaCruzUSA; main banking rm extendsupwardsthrough2 storeys litby skylights &clerestorywindows asite plan b groundfloor cfirstfloor Arch EsherickHomseyDodge &Davis p 5 TannersNationalBankWoburn USA:conversion of originallysquare rectangularbldg byadditionof2 corners enclosing respectively staircase& off a lowerlevel b main level Arch Architectural Resources 246 Commerce Banks Strong rm doors and armoured doors pivot gently on steel hinges withoutdropping; canwithstand anyattackand fitted with unpierceable, indestructible steel plates, with fire-proof and non-melting reinforcing, with additionalfireproof, non-melting and unpierceablecompound casting. Total thickness approx 270—300. No keyhole: elaborate locking device (eg miracle lock, remote-control lock) and el-operated alarm system, whichsounds atslightest vibration ofdoor. Cashier positions —(2)—(6) nowadaysin Europe usually completely 250 thick. protected with bullet-proof reinforced glass, 4 panes Similar protection oversunken drawers. Alarm system operated byfoot or knee.Underneath counter normally standardtype steel cabinets. Exceptions still exist,particularly in USA, in bankswishing foster informal 'non-authoritarian' image. In USA many banks still retainteller positions either behind grilleoreven open. 1 Strong rmwith innerdaytimedoor Customers Customers EJ ET1 bankstaft rufL lo bankstaff (0 3 As—(2)with desks 2 Parallelcounter arrangement r(01-r Intercommunications system now more usually by means of televisioninstead ofby pneumatictubes, belt conveyors etc. Drive-in banks: to save time customers do not go into bank butdrive up to cash point—(8). No parking problems: cash points can be incorporated in bank bldg —(10)(11), separate islands —.(12)(13),orbelow pavement level, with shaft by kerb containing reflecting mirror, loudspeaker and cashconveyance device —.(9). Each cash point can serve up to 250 customers/day. (Eachtransactiontakes approx 60 seconds.) Not all banking transactions can be at drive-upcashier's desk: even where this system operates normal banking ha also needed for lengthierbusiness. NB diagrams this page apply totrafficcirculation on right 10 II 5OO 4 Sawtoothcounter arrangement with desksatsides ii f! çi Ei;i ci T_ 10 Drive-upcashpoints H-L 5 Germancashdesksas in big Berlin banks 6 Swedishtype cashdesk 11 microphone a-b bullet 12.0 .1 --L]1--i-{ :: Cash points incorporated inbankbldg 28.0 8.0 I 7 Drive-upcash point,noparking 12 Twin cashpointsasislandto easetraffic 8 Drive-upcashpoint inkiosk 9 Cash point belowpavement with shaft forcustomerservice 3parkingplacesneededfor uninterrupted&smoothservice (Snorkelbank) 13 Cash points as—(7)(8)forthroughtraffic Commerce 247 Banks EXAMPLES 9 1.5 a 3m loft Bancocli NapolibranchNewYork USA;interiorplan conversion of1070m ground flooroffspace in offtower block Arch SkidmoreOwings& Merrill 1 key 1 conference 2reception 3lob 4elevator 5toilet 6lunch rm 7do 8lockers 9refuse 10 planting bed 11 tellercounter 12 strong rm 13 safedeposit desk&booths 14chequewriter l5fountain l6newaccountslldistrict manager 18coveredentrance 6m 5101520tt b 2 WorldSavings&LoanAssociatesSantaAna USA afirstfloor bgroundfloor ArchKamnitzerCotton Vreeland a m 10 20ft 4 unid Albany SavingsBank: smallbranchbank NewYork USA agroundfloor b firstfloor Arch Feibes&Schmitt 3 FederalReserveBankBostonUSA, arrangementof aexecutiveoff32ndfloor bexecutivedining &meetingrm 31stfloor Arch Hugh Stubbins Banks references: —*Bibliograhpyentries 007 249 254 374 477 248 Commerce Vehicle services CAR PARKS 0 a c,J I With growth in motor transport separation of moving and stationary trafficessential. Results of traffic research suggest different parking layouts on basis of local conditions: Population: desirable parking area in mid-town = 0.5_lob of population ofwhole built-uparea. 2 Parkinglane alongside footway c'i+ Parkinglane eitherside road divide Number of cars: 1 parking space on towncentre for every 5—8 cars kept in built-uparea. Visitingtraffic:parking space for 7—9% of vehicles regularvisitors to town centre. - Parking space needed (including drive in) 20—25 m2/car. Parking areas within roadway limits Kerb space requirementsfor longitudinal parking—a(1)—(3)(7)(8). LL 4 Double parkinglane down 3 Parkinglane downmiddle of roadway middleofroadway Parking lanes: oblique or right angle parking lanes for various road widths —a(4)(5)(6). Parked vehicles must not restrict visionof moving vehiclesatcorners; therefore gap betweenendofparking lane and bldg line 6000; 10000 preferred —a(1)—(4). Avoid rightangle parking (dangerous for passing traffic). Safety strips 500 wide recommended between parking lanes and moving traffic. ---------* ± 00 roadway + 0.05 parkinglane + 0.16 footway - 3.0 o5r roadway NB diagrams on this page apply to trafficdrivingon right:data based on Germanpractice 2.32.3' relationto streetedge 5.0 parking bays footway edge of premises 5 43cars/i00m 9 Parkinglanesformotorcars Rightangledalignment a 3.5 3.0 \\\\N Ipumps footway 6 Obliquealignment — 14 cars/i00m 7.0 7.0 —— 1DL 7 -- 5.0 -- 5.0 - LDLcD - 4.75 -l--- 4.75- I :içf Segregatedapproach& departure L 10cars + 9spaces Ii - 500 — 5.5 —' 59.5 500 5.5 —— 5.5 - 1— 500 IT!! r1 11111111 [1 1 s— L b H footway Enclosedparkingspaces a neighbourhood garage barrangement for narrowsite c road at anglegiveseconomical useofspace fordifferentcar sizes, savesapprox 10% floor ar 10 8 lit 1111111111 Settingdown: continuousapproach &departure (eg theatres, taxis) Commerce 249 Vehicle services CAR PARKS USAstandards —op250 Off streetparking In permanent car parks, lanes and baysshould be clearly marked with safetystrips for pedestrians —(10)(13). Enclosed parking spaces also —*p248(10). Spacerequirements —(8)—(15) Space/car withdriving lanes but without main access and exit: ± 7.5 44— 10.0 1 7.5 800 14 44- 5.5 -s- 7.5 1-5,5-44 800 600 2 45°parkingforbuses 1 3 Truckwith trailer Smallbuses 90° parking approx20m2 45° parking approx23 m2: usuallypreferred forease of parking. Parking bays—(8)—(10) Space/car (medium—large) 5000x 1 800. Forcarparkslargerthan 800 m2 provide20% baysfor larger cars (6000 x 2100) if park attended. Provision for motor cycles, bicycles,disabledaccordingto localrequirements. 4.0 Truck & bus parking Fixed bay sizes advisable because vehicle size varies greatly. For truckswith trailers provide for parking without reversing —.(1)—(6). For articulated lorries reversing usual. — 12.0 4 -4-———- 12.0 ± 5 300 parkingfortrucks withtrailers 16 0—22.0 -4- 15.0—20.0 7 + i —4-- 12.0 NB diagrams on this page apply to traffic driving on right: data based onGerman practice —4 90°parkingfortrucks 4—15.5-—.4 oc: 6.0 -'4- 6.0 -, I — — — 12.0 —4 90°parkingfortruckswithtrailers 35.0 -'o 6.0 145.04-5.0 For long distance traffic provide yards at town approacheswith driver accn, workshops, filling stations etc. —1 90°parkingfortruckswithtrailers 4-150—20.0 6 —4— 20.0 i T2.3 — 12.3 I I — 4— 125 —t— 8,25 —° soo 500 500 4435,4- 8.0 —443.544—6.0 —4 1— 12.5 —' soc soo 45,0-ir-4.5ii- 5.04 44,5443,544- 8.0 500500 —443,544-4,51 ' .° 3.0 ,0 — :— '44 — -carsize ¶ jjj_ parking I - bay b a 8 90°parkingformedium& small cars a &verysmall cars b 390 ' 500 500 soo sco 13.54'--10.25—143.544-—10.25-—143.5°-6.0 -II 9 Wider baysfornarrowdriving lanes 500 43.544-- 8.0 26.5 soo 500 —443544—- 500 8.0 —44354 10 45°parking 11 45°parkingforcarsa, vansb _____ 21.5 2.5 45 2.5 M 2.5 12 45° parkingfor largecars, 13 45° parkingformediumcars, reversing reversing 14 450 drive-throughparkingfor 15 45°drive-throughparkingfor mediumtosmall cars(no reversing) largecars (no reversing) 250 Commerce Vehicle services PARKING:USA STANDARDS public road a [ — lL1_L'[I II H-H I III 2.43 dayparkeruse standarduse & Lse 2.74 3.05 Ill!II —(2)givesUSArecommended (—aBib513) parkinglayouts, stall widths and parking dimensions for 2 most typical car sizes. Recommended smallcar dimensions be used only in car parks designed forsmall cars orwith entrance controls which admit onlysmall cars; putting small cars into standard car layout not recommended: standard dimensions will take all normal passenger vehicles. Withlarge car dimensions parking easier, quicker: recommended for elderly, high turnover, luxury. With parking angle 600 or less may be necessary increase bay width by 75—162to give room for users walking toand from parked cars. Always consultlocal zoning reg. 3.35 I I Turning dimensions I I of private with public roads. 'U' drive --a(3) illustrates procedure for designating any drive configuration given vehicle's dimensions —vp2l(1) and turning radii. Tangent (T) dimensions approx mm only: may vary with driver's ability and speed. —v(1) shows USA dimensions at intersection I luxury elderly supermarket& camperuse Ihandicappeduse nunrequirements=1 or2/100stallsorasspecifiedbylocal,state,ortedemallaw;place convenienttodestination Roadways —vp2l NB: diagrams onthis page apply totrafficcirculation on right b doubleloadedwail to sungle loaded waNtowafi (with burquers) dqubleloadedwall toltiwfttlsawtooth concretekerbi wali(withounhinuous concretekemb) C l 0$bayor edgeo$walk doubleloaded ittoltiortt towalk edgei dangle of park SW 2743 w 450 1 2 3 4 2896 1 2 3 4 9.75 15.03 14.12 13.61 50° 550 600 9.98 10.36 10.77 15.54 14.88 14.17 9.75 9.96 14.99 14.33 13.61 15.39 14.68 13.97 16.2 15.65 14.94 10.36 15.8 15.19 14.48 16.91 16.41 15.7 10.67 16.31 15.7 15.19 65° 70° 75° 80° 85° 900 11.43 17.63 17.07 16.46 11.23 16.87 16.43 16.0 12.09 18.29 17.88 17.37 11.84 17.68 17.37 16.99 12.8 18.85 18.59 18.19 12.65 18.44 18.19 17.9 13.51 19.61 14.07 19.74 19.66 19.56 14.02 19.66 19.58 19.46 14.63 20.12 20.12 20.12 14.63 20.09 20.09 20.09 19.2 18.9 13.31 19.1 18.9 18.74 NOTE' IIangles greaterthan70°have aisle w for2-way travel 2 Parking a recommended stallw b layouts Cparking dimensions vehicle R Ri T small car compactcar 6.05 6.55 6.83 7.01 16.76 16.3 13.26 3.28 3.61 3.84 3.84 10.06 3.7 3.05 4.57 3.3 4.57 3.4 4.57 3.66 9.14 6.86 10.1 9.14 9.1 4 7.62 standard car largecar intercitybus* citybus school bus ambulance 9.14 7.92 5.72 D 6.86 5.92 4.04 C 0.15 0.18 0.2 0.23 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 * headroom= 4.62 Lb small F A B Ra Rb La Lb 15.52 46.71° 273.42° 9.75 large 26.59 35.58° 251.15° 11.58 7.95 30.48 15.24 18.8 55.27 66.8 NOTE Rvaiues brvehicles intended to usethesecuis-desacshould not exceedRb. 3 a'U'drive diagram withtable ofturningdimensions bcul-de-sacwithtable ofdimensions& angles; largevehiclel—np21(1) Commerce 251 Vehicle services:multi-storeycar parks DESIGN GEOMETRY 'Standard designcar'—*(l) UK 95% of all new vehicle registrations: USA large car dimensions column 2: A 5500 2030 G 4750 1800 1700 500 2900 900 1100 H J 13000 14000 6550 7010 K 100 w B h C dooropening clearance D E F wheel base (worst cases) turningcircle (dia) kerb wall ground clearance 1630 3250 890 1350 1 220 Recommended parking dimensions (90° layout) —*(2) stall I stall w standard shortstay long stay disabled persons roadway w 1-way 2-way standard bmw headroom (mm clearance) 1 L 5500 2400 2750 2600 2750 3050 2300 2500 3000 N 6000 6950 15500 2050 P Recommended rampdesign upto 1 500rise Standardcardesign' 4750 M 2130 in 7 USA: ramp1< 19.8 m in 10 max slope 1 in 7 1 morethan 1 500rise used forparking 9150 10700 20100 1 in2O 1 > 19.8 m ramp I max slope 1 in9 L N L :1 gradients, max, on helical ramps: upto 3000rise morethan 3000 rise in 10 in 12 1 1 w, mm, straight ramp, noturning: between kerbs clearance, kerb to structure w, mm, curved ramp, turningtraffic: 1-way 2-way central kerb, 2-way 3000 4000 300 75 3650 5200 9150 150 7000 500 turningcircle, outerkerb radius: recommended 12000 mm clearance kerb, to structure 2 Recommendedparkingdimensions 9000 6600 6600 600 46O Useofangled parking layout—.(3) parking angle bin w mm 900 15500 80° 15400 70° 15300 45° 13700 av ar/vehicle USA rn2 m2 24.0 25.0 27.0 34.0 27.0 27.9 28.0 35.3 Most efficient parking angle 90°; lesser parking angles not normally used in UK. CAR PARK ARRANGEMENT 2 parallel bins normally used provide circulation arrangement with 1- way trafficflowshaving upwardand downward routes separated;makes possible best traffic capacity. Dynamic capacity reduced if2-waytraffic flows or mixedupwards and downwards circulation used. Cul-de-sac driveways undesirable: should not exceed 6stalls in length. Economy achieved byusing longestpracticable bin lengths. Downward route should be shortexpedite exit; upwards route devised give best possible search pattern for vacant stalls. 3 Typicalcarpark arrangement(NBlefthandcirculation) 252 Commerce Vehicle services: multi-storey car parks Barriercapacity 2 barrier typesavailable:rising arm orrising kerb,having recommended DESIGNGEOMETRY(cont) Split level layout—*(1) capacities: Arrangement widely adopted. 2 bins soarranged thatadjacent parking levels separatedbyhalfstorey height. Shortinterconnecting ramps used between levels. Warped slab layout—x(2) entrybarrier exitbarrier groupA groupB 400vehicles/hr 250vehicles/hr 400vehicles/hr LIGHTING Parking levelsconstructed with uninterrupted horizontal external edge: steady transition of gradientsconstructedgiveinternal interconnexionof parking levels. Compared with splitlevel layout need forramps ateither endof bldg eliminated, gradients reduced. Parking ramplayout—*(3) Parking level constructed as long ramp: has significant effect on elevational appearance; to keep to acceptablegradients long bldg required. When necessary exit can be speeded up by adopting external helical ramp. Flat slab layout—*(4) External ramp usedto interconnect level parking areas. Mean serviceillumination forpublic should be (Ix): parking areas driveways ramps roof entrance & exit 20 50 70 20 150 FIRE PROTECTION& SAFETY USA: check applicable codes and standards. Structuralfire resistance Construction of non-combustible materials with structural fr 1 hr. In specified restricted circumstances requirement for structural fr may be waived for bldg less than 15.2 m high. VEHICLECONTROL Feecollection GroupAdriverpayment: Means of escape All parking spaces within 45.7 m of escape stairway having fixedor variable charge payedon exit Adequate alternative meansof escape. GroupBpedestrian payment: fixedor variable charge by purchaseoftokenorticket hr fr. Fireprecautions Adequate fire brigade access, dry rising main, fire points plus any specificrequirements of local fireofficer. season ticket pay & display ticket highwater372.5 a 1 221 2.21 ___________________ 2.2! iowwater37O.55 _____________________ 2 emergencyexit 3 NB right handcirculation 4 FIatslablayout 5 Underlake carpark Geneva Switzerland asection b siteplan c plan offirstfloor DesignCZschokke Commerce 253 Vehicle services:petrol stations Self-service station nowdominating influence on design,as result partly of high labour costs, partly of availability of new electronic pumping systems with memories for storing pump information at control counter. In UK self-service basis adopted by oil company petrol station networks: approx 75% of petrol sold in UK through self-service. Practice spreading rapidly in continental Europe. Proportion lower in USA but growing; motorway and inter-state stations increasingly self-service operations. Whether self-service or mannedpetrol stations usuallynow include shops or selling areas exposing customers to wide range of goods as they pay forpetrol. DESIGN& LAYOUT Basic principles same whether forselforattended service. Preliminary Tradingarea: detail study will establish needfor site. Road pattern: whether single, dual or three lane roadway will determineease of entryinto site. Traffic flow: number of vehicles passing site per hour per day to be established. Vehicle roadspeed:will influence frequency of customers visiting site. From these factors estimate number of vehicles/hr/day calling at site and ofexpected peak periods forwhich site will have toprovide. Basic Initialcommunication:visibility; pole signvisible atleast 300 m before siteentrance —*p254(2). 1 Typical startinggate' layout allows2 carsto enteratsametime Visibility:pricesign readable 100 mbefore siteentrance. In and out: easysteering on to site and space for cars to line up while waiting for place at pump; easy steering away from pump with no blocking ofexit and goodvisibility fordriving out onto road —*p254(3). Site traffic: 1-way flowonlyon site. Pumps: thinkin terms offilling positions —(1)(2)p254(4): consider filling at peak periods, usually 2/day, morning and evening; note that car is at pump site before starting filling for 4.5 minutes, and actual filling for 1.5minutes; memory system atcontrol counter imperativeto allow forquickrelease ofpump; capacity of1-hosepump with allgrades offuelavailableapprox 3201/hr. Pre-payment:consider whether volume of cars at peak periods or at night warrant money acceptor or card acceptor unitsto relieve control counter operator. Shop: commonly 20—40 m2depending on retailing activity envisaged. Control counterareaadditional 4.5m2: sited to supervise refuelling area and shop activity. Air, water: site away from pumps with adequate parking spaces according to size ofstation. Other services: should be kept separate from petrol filling area, eg dervfilling, carwash, sale of liquefied petrol gases. NB diagrams on this pageapply totrafficdriving onleft 2 Typicalechelonlayoutsuitsnarrowersite 254 Commerce Vehicle services:petrol stations SITE ESSENTIALS 8000 Accommodation:shop and control counter,office,toilet(s), sto, perhaps staffarea—p253(1 )(2). Petrol sto: underground steeltanks cased in sulphate-resisting concrete 1:2:4 mix. Consult local codeforthickness ofconcrete surround. Tanksizes (UK) vary 13000—360001,in 45601 increments. Discharging must Supplytanker: easyroute todischarge pad on site. not obstruct cars. In case of emergency tankers should be able drive directfromsite. Lighting required for night deliveries. Canopy: required to coverallfilling positions with approx 3500projection beyond pumps on both sides: height above filling area 3850. On lightingfor night time retailingconsultcodes; in UKzone2type (vapour proof) if fittedtocanopy ceiling; zone 1 type (flame proof) if fitted within 750ofpumpsightglass; USA requirements similar. Levels: avoid variation ri level beyond 1:80 on filling area and tanker discharging pad. Hioo1-8ooo Forecourtlayoutofpumpsiteswith preferred dimensions Drainage: consultcodes; in UK from all areas within 4250 of petrol source (ie pumps, tanks) ventsto be taken to 3-chamber petrol interceptorbefore processing to main foulsewer. Site size: dependent on number of filling points and future marketing needs; preferred sizes—(4)p253(l)(2). NB diagrams on this pageapply totrafficdrivingon left site I boundary,1 •l3000---imin — —'7/ sight ilne I. 50 40—70mph road min6l.0- outa 40—70 mphroad 2 Areasofvision: I mainpole 2canopyfaciasigns 3secondarysigns NBhigherroad speedsreducemotorist'sangleof vision 3 I.—mln61 Entry&exit sightlines 4 Typicalfoursquarelayoutsuits deepersite Commerce 255 1— 12 0 —4—-—--- 200 —- -' 1 i—1I}[] Li 32.0/trucktrain ii FORMSOFPLATFORM — 12.0 —1 r1T3Ji5500 110 Vehicle services: bus stations 1.... - Buses increasingly taking over from trains, demand ever increasing attention in relation urban traffic. Need take corners especially wide: turning spread needs special watchfulness—*p256(1). Bus parks large and small an essential partof traffic planning. Forms of platform—*(1)— (18). Bus stops should be under cover —+(19)(20). Consult bus companies ondimensions. Town centre squares should be designed or adapted serve as bus stationsaccording natureofrequirements—np256(1O)—(12). 1 wayin Parkingarlayout parallel to directionofarrival 500 i8 500 scratchkerb linemarker 350k 8000 F0 ' 8000 8000 r,s 5000 500 End ramps and convenient boarding steps of300—400—e(1O)—(11) and forloading baggage tofloor level. Service rm needed in connexion with bus stations —np256(1O)—(14). Provide space for temporary car parking —ep256(9). Keep in mind possibilitiesofextension—ep256(8). NB diagrams on this page apply to driving on the right (German data) 500 2 Parkingplacesofvehicleswith trailersorcoaches 3 Obliquely(45)todirectionof arrivalforcoaches ----l I > ri - I 36.0 12 Platformalignmentwith passinglane 500 14.0 3.6 parking —IL_______ L --4 24.0—36.0— 10 14 13 Withoutpassinglane Rightanglestodirection ofarrival forcoaches 14 Obliqueplatformalignment 5 Forvehicleswith trailersor coaches 8.0 / 3500 4 / 3030 2 3500 4Otn]40[1 -28.0 —F-16.0---4 6 Obliquelyiodirectionofarrival 7 Platformalignmentparallelwith directionofarrival -- 1_ 16 Departureatright 15 Longplatforms with passinglanes angles;arrivalat obliqueangle 17 Departureat obliqueangle -3030: 1.5j 0 24.0 i6.5 65— r20 ri'iiith 1111111 1.51 jJ- - 14.0 Longplatformat45todirection ofarrival 8 . 0"\ggage\ 9 At right anglesto direction of arrival 18 Positionatrightanglesto directionofarrival ' iii Lii ±0.0 J glasswindscreen 2250 ,sathkt 5400, _________ 55° +300—400 3000 10 Standardverticalinterlocking layout (USA) 11 Radiallayoutproviding more rm infront (USA) 19 Shelterforunilateralloading platform !1EE 4000— 20 Forloadingboth sides — 256 Commerce Vehicle services: bus stations TRAFFIC ORGANISATION NB diagramson this page applytotraffic drivingonthe right (German data) —30.0————— "- - reintorcedl— ,R1=7.0 surtace ( Ku) rein- • 3,5 1 60f 42,0 /, 2Ttñ a=7.5 3.5 4.0 '7.0 Roadwideningatrightangletum 6 2 3 Turningcircuit 4 Smallturn-round Platformoutside turningloop station Semicircular platformiype platformoutside loopwith noP crossingover withoutpassing writrpasiving lane relationtolineofarrival paralle at4& at90 lane relationioline otamnal 32 leachparhisgplace)rrr) b o b roadway 24 plattorsiw)m) 3 3 Semicircular platforminsideloop accessibleonly by crossingroad no ofloadingporrts a coacses 2 2 2 2—3 1 1 1 1—2 2—3 1—2 2—3 1—2 138 170 189 293 296 313 bvehicleswith trailers arviplatform& arrival fl vehicles withtrailers 8 ni 12 tU 3.5 35 35 warrivalspur irs) 4.0 80 8.0 r a ar weachparking place(ml arwith roadwayirs2) avehiclewdhtrailer bcoach 24 a a a 22 § 3b 14 35 14 parking spar (m2) a coaches 24 12 a parking ophors e 24 36— 36— 36— 60 60 60 3 35— as— 30— 40 4.0 4.0 24 plattormllrnl 7 5Platfomiinsideturningloop 276 340 378 439 444 470 Space requirementsforplatform ar 176 68 135 178 89 182 140 91 9 Space requirementsforparkingplaces town rightofway centre sales605k V 0 -A- 11121314151 6 -'-'it '•-,,ftV' ®.;r-i mainroad 1 =supervisors 2= restrm 1 drivers wc 2rusrringrepairs 3petrolstation 4eqp 5supervisor 6maltcollection& deliverypoint 3 = petrolstation 10 Largetransitstationwith parkingar Large transitstationwith separate departure &arrivalplatforms 11 1 departurePentrance 2 amealP esit 3 vestrbule 4 baggagedespatck 5 arrival Pentrance 6 baggagein arrival 7 departurePexit 8 baggageoff 9 baggage deposa mainroad 10 managersoff 11 off 12 intormatron &airtidrets 13 an Groundfloor KLM busstation Arch Brook&Bakerna 13 1 fromparking 12 Transitstationwith separatearrival &departure platformspositioned obliquely,parkingarinseparatelocation wcrnes 2 wcwomen 3 nursery 4 do 5k 6 canteenstaff 7 drivers'rm 8 metercpdsto 9 registry 10 pumps 14 BasementKLM Commerce 257 Rail stations PASSENGERDETAILS HiH 2200 Tempbooking hall 12°C 1/5 surface area Daylighting - 1100 ' 60O H 1 to 4 Space taken upby people Ticketofffrom 1 500 x 2000upwards Typeofsurface: rough, hard sintered clay orgranitictiles Walling up to 1 750 high with impact-resistant lining: tiles, hard plaster, boards Baggage deposit: doors for baggagetrucks 1 900—2300wide: alldoors preferably steel to withstand heaviest demands. Opening at deposit counterupto 1 200high; sliding window or protected bygrille. Baggage despatch cabin 2000 x 2250 Arrangements for storing bicycles verysimple and space saving: hung up neatly by front wheel —(12)(13) Easy to hang up if first raised on rear wheel, then liftedup with knee behind saddle fN f/I iooc iooo-4 —1000+1000-4-1000-4- 6 Cabintrunk 1 30 I turntable 850nomiat h train 14 Bookingoffsection—.(16) scheduta 7 At train schedulestand 8 Luggagetruck 15 Baggageoffsection—.(17) dmphragm lT \j __ 3750 1500 10 Baggagestand 1500 11 -— 16 SectionA-A 1350 T I— 1100+ H 1500 3700 Bicyclestands r1 17 Section B-B —1 Baggagerack 500500i 530 T 11 1 100 530 ticketmachine * T ±1 100—I H j tt 1-600 -600- Abreaststaggered 1 18 aStraightbarrier boblique barrier Vehicle seivicesreferences: —aBibliography entries 086 225 276308348424435513555567 636650 258 Commerce Airports -airport boundary approachlight system Primefunctionprovidepassenger airtransport. During short history has had respond tremendous growth and technological change. Should be plannedand developedprogressively meetchanges and newdemands —(1). future ,_/runway crash/tire structural expansion rescue serviceroad PRELIMINARYWORK Planning and design of airport should evolve according to sequence: preliminary study; examine indetail whatexists and identifyconstraints physical: land boundaries,topography, geology access: airside and landside environment: noise, pollution, landscaping resources: finance, labour, materials assess economic, demographic characteristics of population: gauge impact onairport; forecast traffic demands 5—10 and 20 yearsin future, showing annual and day, peak month, peak hr trafficforpassenger boardingandaircraft movements—(4)(5) developmaster plan forwhole airport develop plans for each component airside/ landside: cross overtaxiway serviceroad runway Airport layoutfor parallel runwaysystem 1 airside: runways,taxiways —*(3) landside: runLay 140.0 216.0 152.0 237.7 259.0 Passengerterminal& aprondistancesfromrunway centreline forvarious bldgh; 1:7 = imaginary surfacecannotbe penetratedbystationaryobjects(aircraft atgates)orfixedobjects(bldg) 2 passenger terminal with apron (1)(2) —*p260(1) ground transport air freightterminal with apron —*p262(3) aircraftmaintenance with apron —p262(l) aircraftcatering —*p262(2) other components: car rental, hotel, motel, offices surface access:road systems,fixedguideways Reg standards, 394395396. single apron taxilane spacing forDC-10/L-1O111B767 118.9withlimited B-747 positions spacing forall B-747 positions 131.0 290.0—305.0 combinationpier/satellite dual apron taxilanes 8-747positions at satellite note dimensions will vary for each airport 3 1 Runways&taxiways 2000 3.6 O H phaseIll 284 1600 .514CC phasel visitors IfTfJ[fJTIf .I- 0.7 yr 4 0 • '\ ,- /' '% 2OC. hr 020406081012141618202224 5 Planning&projectdesignschedule: start planning4yrinadvance forecastupdate: 1 start design &working drawings 2revise3defer ' passengers total 5 Derivepatternav/day peakmonthdepartingP and visitorsfromsurveys;preparesimilargraphs forarrivingPand visitors,groundtraffic etc: major data fordetermining sizeofbuildingar mm criteria —8ib391 392 393 Commerce 259 Airports AIRSIDE ________________ :— ±::: _________________ ill b +-.—.--.—.—-.4 ______ ______ _______ ._.!1L_÷ :"7 Runwayconfigurations(airportboundaries notshown) acloselyplaced parallelrunwaysforsmalltomediumvolumes: parallel access road system limitsexpansion bintersectingrunwaysformediumtolargevolumes: terminalexpansionlimitedwithintriangularar cparallel runwayswith simultaneousaircraftoperating1 280m spacingforlargevolumes: expansion capabilitiesalong axis (crossovertaxiwaysnotshown) 1 Runways&taxiways—*(1) Length ofrunway depends on prevailingweather, topography, altitude, temp, environmental restrictions, aircraft type and weight expected operate fromairport. Orientation of runway in direction of prevailing wind. Modern aircraft canusually land and take offwith crosswind upto20knots. Light aircraft seriously affected by wind: if airport to be heavily used by this type additional runway may bejustified. Utilisation: aim should be for airport be usable by all aircraft for mm 97% oftime. Single runway can handle up to 50 movement/hr (1 movement = 1 landing ortake off), depending on mix ofaircraft, when operating under instrument flightrules(IFR).2 parallelrunways 1 310 m apart canaccept upto 70aircraft movements(USA reg) under IFR. Number ofmovements higher undervisual flight rules (VFR). Where large and small aircraft operate to same airport specific separations required in air, atlanding, take off and taxiing because trailing vortices from large aircraft will reducecapacity. Taxiwaysystems should bedesigned allow aircraft clear runway soon as possible and provide shortest route betweeen runway and parking ______ ILinner taxiway r—i I lane : aprons. Layout & design of runways and taxiways: essential consultexpert advice. I _<. ___j_ar&tParkmn -I_-satellite LANDSIDE Passenger terminalconcepts -- ——— ___________ -- _________ -- - — _______________ sateilite &terminal —serviceroad _________—concourse connecting I — _____________________________ — terminal units terminal ierminairoadsystem 2 Aircraftgate configuration and way aircraft gates connected with one anotherand with main terminal dominantfeatures ofterminal concepts, of which 4 can be distinguished. Concepts nearly always occur in variations andcombinations. SateIlite—(2):aircraft parked in cluster surroundingstructureconnected with main terminal bypassengercorridor orconcoursepositioned below, on orabove ground level. Satellite structure cantake severalgeometrical shapes. Satellite —-- —-. -— - —] "—inner taxiway ———aircraft manoeuvnnglane — )_j)._ I J_L_. aprontaxilane aircraftparkinglimit line concoursepier .44 +1 + - ——-concourseconnectingunits ____________ terminal _________________________ Pier—(3): aircraft parked in line ateitherside of structure. Passenger corridororconcourse attached to main terminal. (In both theseconcepts passengerticket,inbound andoutboundbaggage handling usuallyceritralisedin mainterminalbutvariationsand exceptions occur.) Linear—(4):aircraftparked in single line at structure,passengercorridor connecting functional elements ofterminal. Formerlywith aircraftparked in line on apron functions centralised in small terminal. In past 10—15 yearslinearconcept developed provide passenger handling functions and ground transport forindividualaircraftpositions.In sucharrangement terminal functions decentralised. Transporter—*(5):aircraft positions placed at distance fromterminal; passengers carried byvehicles betweenterminal and aircraft. Passenger handling centralised in main terminal. —-—terminalroadsystem 3 Pier — -. —.- —--— -- —-- ,taxiwayoraircraft —---—---— 4+ I innertaxiway - manoeuvring lane C_aircraftparkinglimitline l—aircratt manoeuvringlane I L_aircraftparking I—flightline —groundhandling I L_light line terminal 1 1 - CODO —terminal roadsystem 00 transporters(busesetc) —'--terminai terminal road system 4 Linear 5 Transporter 260 Commerce Airports FLOW& FUNCTIONS Flow of aircraft, passengers, baggage and vehicles can be shown in compositeandsingle diagrams, used toidentifysequence of functions for preparation of schemes in plan and cross section —*(1). Series of diagrams can be developed asgraphic model to identify effect ofchange in events, testdifferentarrangement offunctions orsub-functions. Flowinterminal complex takes place in 3major areas: apron: area between runway/taxiway system and terminal; serves aircraft flow toand fromgates and flow ofaircraft ground handling eqp. terminal: area between aircraftgate positions and vehicularkerb; serves flow of passengers and baggage. ground transport:area located between terminal and points ofaccess at airport boundaries; serves 2 flows, ie passenger vehicles, service vehicles. Flow of passengers & baggage Both domestic and international can be divided into 3 categories each requiring sequence of operations as below (based on USA practice): outward (originating) passengersarrive atterminal byground transport forwhichmajor operations: kerbside baggage check in for passengerswithtickets —n(2) ticketprocessing at counters with baggage check-in —(2)(3a) outbound baggage —n(3b) security check—*(2) passport control forinternational flights ticketcontrol ataircraft gates; passenger waiting rm—*(4) aircraft boarding stairs, loading bridge etc—*p261 (4) inward(terminating) and transfer passengersarrive at terminal by aircraft; major operations: aircraftdisembarking (stairs, loading bridge etc) immigration control (international) customs control (international) baggage claim ground transport transferpassengersfrom1 flightto another; inter-line from1 airline to anotheror intra-line on same airline; baggagehandled byairline except for passengers transferring from international to domestic flight who must claim baggage and pass through immigration and customs inspection. Outward and inward passenger traffic generates visitor traffic. Visitor/P ratios vary byairport;need be establishedas partofquantifyingpassenger flowduringpre-determined times ofday. Transfer passengers seldom metbypeople at point oftransfer. Through passengers continuing on same aircraft domestically rarely disembark except, eg, occasionally fortelephone calls. Secondaryflow—p262 Airfreightflow between freight terminal and aircraftpassenger terminal/ apron. Mailflow between mail depot and passenger terminal/apron. Catering flowbetween catering serviceand passengerterminal/apron. Fuel flow between fuel depot and passenger terminal aircraft apron: takes place increasingly by pipeline (hydrant fuelling), eliminating large fuel trucksand requiring onlyhydrant pump vehicles on apron. 19 8—22.9 tL é98 tr co 79855-6.1t DG minute telephones Clast Dbaggagedrop sign;tobagclaimterminal& groundtransportation 4 Pwr at aircraftgates,capacityfor200 seat aircraft,80% loadfactor,boarding10—15minutes before scheduleddeparturetime:grossar 180m2 excludingfirestairs,net150 m2 —b ———, 2 Schem ticdiagramofdepartureleveloflarge terminal: 1 countercheck-in ()security check a Diagramof2levelterminal asecondlevel 1 carparking, kerbsidebaggage check,ticket lob 2 securitycheck 3Pwrwithticket andbaggageprocessing capability 4parkingatgate positions bgroundlevel 1 carparking 5outwardsbaggage make-up 6baggageclaim 7off,groundhandling 3 Airportflow diagramsbasedon USA procedures adeparture barrival: brokenboxes indicate internationaltrafficfunctions 1 b operation Commerce 261 Airports Baggage handling jirculation rn a • U baggage trolleys canbearranged perpendicularor parallel to belt 2. circulation 2 _____________ 7 - 52-6. 7.9 Baggagemake-up/outward(outbound) —.p360(3b) Aircraft parking 1 Baggageclaim/inward(inbound)—p26O(3b) ___________ ________ 9.1 ground level gatecheck 3 Terminals iL — Aircraftparking I ticket lob parkinggroundlevel kerb L.concourse Lbaggageclaim boarding landing outward baggage a DC-b structural gar b 4 I L claim ar space for ground transport systems present & future Terminalcrosssections asmall 1-level blarge2-level : aircraft& boarding deviceshownperpendicular toconcourse DC-9 262 Commerce Airports SECONDARYSERVICES UHIIIHIIIIIIHIIIIU carparking flIHIIIH HHIIIHIIfl _________ 1lIlIIIIIIIIIIlIiJ flIIIIIHIHIHIIIHIn =-.—-—. —.— ticp -—.— —_ —_ 150 —i-i: runway 1 Aircraftmaintenance 2 Cateringbldg FREIGHT Freight carried byairline operating both passenger & airfreightaircraft consistsmainly ofinbound & outbound flow —v(3). Freight also transferred from 1 aircraft to another. Handling takes place inside & outside bldg. Procedure varies; to large degree depends on type & volume of freight handled: size, percent loose, percent containerised; type ofaircraft in use: single deck, double deck, side door loading, nose loading, tailloading, combinations. Such factors influence degree of mechanisation required. —v(3) shows 1 B-747position, nose-in, push-out, side door loading by trailers, & 1 B-707position, side door loading mechanised. trailer& staging ernployeeT] parking I preferably+ acrossroad 3= arfor future freight expansion4 trucks/cars dmery/PICk-Updocks 4— each a lane 0 =0= 0 0=0 =00 0 == 0 0 ry'TrT 3 dockhapproa 1170 clearS vanes 4.22 Smallterminals 544—610 largeterminals clearhvanes Airfreight Airportsreferences: —vBibliographyentries 048 067 165 186341 370 391 392 393 394 395 396653 Outbound flow —a(3) 1 loose freightdelivered at truck docks & processed through bldg; 2 containers delivered at truck dock', processed & loaded outside bldg by mech systems; 3 percentage of all freightcarriedon passenger aircraft (as high as 70%) & dispatched from freight terminal by truck,cart ortrolleytoair passenger terminal to be loaded at gate position. Industry 263 Industrial buildings SITE SELECTION DEVELOPMENTOPTIONS Assess area requirements fromclient'sbrief forfactory orwarehouse, including: expansion potential parking: visitors, employees, trucks external sto area landscaping road, railway orbarge access Checknational and local legislation,zoning ordinancesand codes for: permitted sitedensities useofpublic utilities suchas (forprocess and personnel consumption) water, power, gas, effluentdisposal accesson public and private roads foremployees, goods vehicles and trucks Rehabilitate existing site/bldg Infill + rehabilitate (including in townsites) Newbldg on existing site (including phased redevelopment) Newbldg on newsite Each will be defined by: Zoningordinances, reg USA Suitability of site size/shape; boundaries Suitability of bldg size/type/shape (as briefed) Geology Topography Public utilities Statutory permissions Access forindustrial vehicles and workpeople's cars Rail or water access Airport proximity to site Labour resources ofarea Finance: development costs or subsidies, operating costs including taxes/tax relief, loan interests Assess environmental impact of heavy industry, light manufacturing andwarehousing onsurrounding community; in USA fileenvironmental impact statement withauthority. Consider: noise:machinery and vehicles (particularly at night) vibration light (external circulation, marshalling,shipping and sf0areas at night) fumeand dust pollution effluentintowaterways orground water hazards of possible explosion orradiation exposure Investigate assistance for development finance from central government (Assisted Development Areas in UK) and local authorities, city development corporations (State Development Commissions USA) etc. SITE DEVELOPMENT Building plot ratio & sitecoverage Plot ratio of 1: 1 should be regarded as max on all sites inclusive of industrial and ancillary office bldg. Site coverage should not exceed 75% of site at ground level. Likely that site coverage ofapprox 50—60% can be achieved. Site area forplot ratio calculationpurposes excludes anypart of adjoining streets (except where theseto be closed). Car&truckparking Typical car parking requirements for industrial accn (check local standards): UK USA m2 spaces 4 a total employees on max shift x 85% lessthan 92.9 lessthan 232.26 5 (15%absent x percent whoarrive by lessthan 371.61 6 car) dividedby avcar occupancy = lessthan 510.96 7 parking spaces required b 1 space forevery2 employeesduring lessthan 656.32 8 shift of max employment & 1 foreach lessthan 789.67 9 truckto be stopped simultaneoulsy lessthan 929.92 10 lessthan 1 021.92 11 lessthan 1114.83 12 Lorry parking requirements will depend on needsofparticularusers and local reg. — stage 2 F' Li factory V//47/I -_J :_ Locatefactories&warehousesonsite to allow expansion, preferably in2 directions:considervehicleaccessduringphased expansion 1 'Nursery'unitdevelopmentsshould alsoallowforexpansion butwith urbaninfill sitesthis may haveto beatexpense ofyard ar 2 264 Industry Industrial buildings BASICBUILDINGTYPESELECTION AREAS FORSOME INDUSTRIALOCCUPANCIES Factoriesand warehouse bldg types only economicallyand operationally interchangeable where structural frame has column spans that will not conflict with spacing of pallet racking, clear height permitting use of modern mech handling eqp, roof structure that can accept loading of production and environmental services. This normally only economic forsmallscale bldg orwhere companyhasmixed stoand manufacturing useson site likelyto change. For feasibility studies before detailed brief (program) from user these areas can be used asapproximatebldg areas. Keyfactors in buildingtypeselection Factories —p266—8: operationalflexibility for rapidresponseto changingproductiondemands: clearheight column spacing,roofand floorloading,roofconstruction for services routing fortype of manufacturingprocess involved energy and environmental control: natural or artificial light; environmental needs of/from process: good working conditions forlabour durabilityand firecontrol: selectionofmaterialsforstructureand envelope related to fire riskand anycorrosive effects fromprocess resale potential promotional value for user company Warehouses —p269—72: structure commensurate with sto demands: structuralspans tosuit rack spacing and height and floor strengthto allow more than 1 arrangement energy and environmental control: to keep stored products in good condition: insulation and cooling in somecases, ventilation in others; good working conditions for labour (eg avoiding loadingdocks tacing into prevailing wind) fire control:compartmentationtominimise fire spreadassessed against hindrance to stoand handling and cost ofsprinklers Selection strategy Single ormulti-storey development modern production and stotechniques make full use of bldg cubewith inherent multi-level characteristics multi-storey development (or conversion) can be efficient for lightand high technology industry, particularly where landcostlyin urban areas: consider personnel circulation and escape, national and local reg, fire control, goodscirculation and process, services routing and trucks and private vehicle access and parking, particularly in dense developments consider cost and environment impact a 4 — .7,7,,r,/7,,,///z,//' Manufacturingindustries Av 28 m2/P; range 22—33(33m2/P under 664.5 m2) anodising sheetmetal work polishing furniture manufacture shop fitting manufacture clothing textile (made up) Distributivetrades av8Om2/P builders merchants timbersupply books & magazines machine spares electrical goods & spares antiques/furntiture upholstery/textile Average area/worker clothing research & development electrical components & assembly surgical instruments/appliances, scientific instruments miscellaneous manufacture(eqplastics products, musical instruments) leatherwork metal goods, cutlery, jewellery, forging, small tools made uptextiles (egbags) packaging, stationery, printing pottery& glassblowing motorrepairs, reprographic services joinery, furnishing upholstery, shop fitting, timbergoods m2 11 13 17.5 19.25 23.5 24.0 24.25 28.75 32.5 36.75 45.5 46.75 Typicalarea distribution production sto off amenities 0 60—70% (decreasesas size increases) 20% & less (increasesassize increases) 10—15% (increasesassize decreases) 5—9% (increasesassizeincreases) Distribution I4i o b 0 00 00 builders engineering contractors (eqmachine tool movers) appliance repairs instrument repairs reprographic services printers machine tool repairs Manufacturing 00 o 15 m2!P (smallest) to30 m2 medium size el repairs Includes circulation space —ir4-01 Serviceindustries Key: 1 verticalservicesrisers 2goods elevator 3access&escapestairs(check local reg formaxdistances) 4 plantar Multi-storeydevelopmentor conversioncanprovideefficient accnforlight &hightechnology industry,particularlywhere differencesbetween production, lab &adminhardtodefine:example shows potentiallydivisiblespace 1 sf0 off 80% + 10—20% (greater need in some types ofdistribution) amenities 0—5% Industry 265 Industrial buildings 0 0 i: : 0 :[: : 0 Building shape inplan. Selection ofplan shapeis function of: demands of production or sf0 system C') climate, size, shape, topographyand geology ofsite location ofutilities expansion potential ofprocess in relation to site _-*p273(l)(2) p4 ground level p SELECTIONSTRATEGY •____ Some production processes can demand long, narrow bldg: intensive line production methods, eqmetal rolling, papermanufacture factories using overhead gantry cranes, eq heavy engineering high-bay automated warehouses: function ofeqpmovement efficiency multi-storey development, flatted workshops for natural light and ventilation Majority ofother industrialusescan beefficiently installed in rectangular plan with proportions 1:1—1:4, typically 1:2/2:3. Modern mass production methods capitalise on mech handling techniques no longer literally interpreting line production'. - production Increasing demand forbldg which will notrestrict location ofproduction, stoand admintoclearly definedareas, butwhich permit rapidreallocation withinbldg envelope. Structural bay sizes suited to process and location of access equal shape in importance. level IDENTIFICATIONOF BUILDING REQUIREMENT N1N. 2 I I I I I I —— Key: 1 groundlevel: goodsin,despafch,parking 2 production level 3 intermediate process plantlevel 4principal environmentalplantlevel 1 Mulfi-storeyfactorieseconomic forprocess-based industries (eq food, pharmaceuticals,tobacco)wheregravitycanbeusedinprocess andenergy beconservedbycompactplanning Factories: should be designed to serve variety of useswithin their life: frequent problem inefficient factory stock through structural obsolescence — insufficient services support capacity of roof structure, insufficient headroom, shortspans. should not be considered merely as weather-proof envelopes round production process. Formand dispositionoftheir structurefundamentally influences essential freedom to optimise production layout and route services equally freely to serve that or any future production layouts withoutdemanding long periods ofdown time foralteration. Selection of structure is key factor in providing efficient and flexible operation. There is range of structural types that have proved efficient and adaptable. Buttechnological innovation mayadd to these types, eq stressed skin construction requiring only minimal frame support for envelope. Assess roof structure for: servicecarrying ability in each direction and easyaccess for relocation abilityto accept point loads and flexible location for materials handling eqp, eq overhead hoists, conveyors natural lighting: consider glareand insolation/heat loss durability and maintenance: performancein fire and need forcleaning/ repainting, particularly in clean areas Industrial bldg designed to be closely matched to initial process or layout can prove as inflexible and costly tooperate inlong termasthose designed to minimise capital cost (to exclusion of consideration of operating costs and operational flexibility). 2 Mass production does not usually demandlong narrowbldg, ie formal- isationof flow diagram:typicallyprocess is loopedbetween common vehicle access& sf0 zone a ± 4 [Z1 [Thi Key: 1 offar 2labar 3amenity Z2 :::7:. 7 I I L±_L1 !H! JW L J ar 4 production ar 5testing & inspection 6wet servicecore 7expansion 3 r In light & hightechnologyindustry production research &adminarare becomingless & lessdistinct: deptwillneedtoexpandorcontractfreely --'-i- _o-- 4 Factorystructuresmusthavespanswideenoughinbothdirections to allow user optimiseproduction layout: traditional batchproduction linesof similarmachines,a, may needtobereorganisedintointegrated cell' to exploitmodernmech handling techniques, b 266 Industry Industrial buildings FACTORYBUILDING TYPES Separate bldg types can be identified as most efficient in meeting operational demands ofcertain methods of production. Spans, type of structure, clear height, roof and floor loadings function ofhow product manufactured or stored rather than what product is. Industrial bldg should be designed to serve broad range of useswithinthat general production sector. Basictypesto be identified are: Lightduty 2 Impliessmall scale (also —p285—90workshops). Industrialbldg where operational demands of production or sto process place few demands on structural frame or floor. Interchangeable between light production and distribution duties. Typically up to 1 860 m2. Light metal work, packaging, clothing, consumer durable repairs, small printers. Distribution of el goods, builders' components, sub-depots for local retail distribution. Mediumduty Principally batch production orsto duties where process and supporting services implysomedemands on design of bldg structure, shape and floor, allowing potential flexibility of production and sto layout. Sto and production bldg types not interchangeableunless roofstructuredesigned with production services support capacity. — Light dutyindustrialbldg mainlyforsto purposes:portalframedstructure typically4.5mtoeaves;spans mm 9m,typical12m;roofloading0.35kN/m2 (no hoisting);floor loading 16kN/m2 3 Mainly light production: trussedframe;eavesh &spansas—.(2); roof structuralloading(services)0.5kN/m2(up to 2thoistloadsdistributed! structuralbay) 4 Typicalprocessflowdiagramfortraditionalbatch production organis.tion, eg engineering components ru L . .-i - - n. .- , V 5 Typicalprocessflow diagram forhigh technology industry, eg electronics material 1 Lifi Mediumduty industrial bldg: 6.5m preferred eaves h(toallow mezzanine),mm 5.5m;spanstypically12m x 18m; roofstructuralloading: to accept point loads2 monorailhoistlbayorupto5 tsuspendedcraneloads distributedover bay; floor loading 25kN/m2forstackedsto t Industry 267 Industrial buildings FACTORYBUILDINGTYPES(cont) C (I) Heavyduty Designed to accept large scale batch or mass production systems, which have intensive demands for overhead productionand environmental service and materials handling, and dense floor layoutswith some heavy production machinery and inter-process sf0 areas. May need high bldg to exploit multi-revel ability of materials-handling eqp. In heavy engineering sector somespecial types to exploit heavy lift overhead gantry cranes. 1 Heavy duty industrial bldg: 7m mm general purposeeaves h, 9m forracked, sto &overhead handlingsystems a; 12m forbulkprocessing plant b;spanstypically 12 m x 18 m butcan be lessforheavyroofloadings(9m x 12m)orgreater forlighterloads(20 m); roofstructural loading: 5 pointloads& lOt beamloadsdistributedoverbay; heavierloadsneedgantrycranes&additional structure; floor loading:15—30kN/m2withsome specialbases forheavymachinetools possibleparallel sub-assemWy process may be multiple subassembly stages 2 Typicalprocessflow diagram fortraditional massproductionline: modern developments tend tosplit assemblyfunctionsoffline into teams 268 Industry Industrialbuildings FACTORYBUILDINGTYPES(cont) structuraltype Hightechnology 2 1 Demanding high quality process and/or personnel environment. Small hght duty S CST S S in roof zone; can also be requirement for under floor servicing. High content of bulk handling; powders, liquids, gases. Interchangeability mediumduty S or large scale: similar design demands. Provisionfor intensive services between production, lab and admin areas: rapid change demand with technological innovation and volatile markets. 0 possibleseparate secatdary processsto secondaryprocess(maybeondifferentsite) STRUCTURALSELECTION Check nationaland local (state) reg forconstruction and performancein fire relating to required occupancy andwith client's insurancecompany: thiswill affect materials choice —sp277. SERVICINGSTANDARDS; STATUTORY REQU IREMENTS Forgeneral servicing standards in industrial bldg —up383—397. • S S S S S heavyduty S S O(b)cS S S hightechnidogy S S CS smallscale S CST generalpurpose S • CS •S S CS .S 3 appropnatestnicture appropriateslnicturein notedcaseonly A aluminium C concrete S steel T timber a multi-divisiblespaces b withoverheadgantry cranesonly C widespans on irregularsite S (a)AS S)c)AS S AS S CST • •• CS 6 5 S AS 0(b)CS C largeplant, 10—15kN/m2forhighlabouruseassembly 4 S AS S 1 Typicalprocessflow diagram forprocess-based industry, eg petroctientical,rubber 2 High technologyindustrial bldg: mayrequire undercroft for bulkprocess access& servicesrouting; 7m preferred mm eaveshover process plant a&forpalletisedsto b; 4mmm forhightechnology assembly environment C;roof structura'loadingsupto 1.2 kN/m2, distributed,forservices, hoistloads upto5tdistributedperbayforplantremoval; floor loadings 15—20kN/m2 for 3 CST S termerhate . • 4 S CS S(c)AS Factorystructuraltypes Structuraltypes: asingleaxis solid beam,long span purlins b singleaxiscastellabeam,long spanpurlins:forservicerouting cportalframe forusewhereservice loadingminimalorgantrycraneage: typical pitch6°, rooflightsbuilt into pitchorridge d flat orcambered truss, 1 or2axes emonitorroof, evenlydistributedlight,singleaxis spaceframe: forverywide spans; wherecolumnscannotbeat equal spacing;wherehighdegreeof servicingfreedomrequired Industry 269 Industrial buildings WAREHOUSES Warehouse bldg selection depends on scale and type ofsto operation. Different methods of sto unit loads imply various levels of efficiency in filling bldg volume and accessibility to load. Equally these decisions affectselection of mech handling eqp —vp278(4)(5). Warehousing operation usually involves bulk sto and order selection functions. Thesetendhave dissimilarstoand materialshandlingdemands except when small scale installations: typically high dense sto for bulk stockto exploithandling techniques with lower 'active stock' areas for orderpicking. Typical proportion divides warehouse: 1/3 high bayarea, 2/3 lower area for order picking and assembly and loading bay zones —v(1), ie can combine 2 of bldg types described below. Because of densityof stock bulk sto area may not needto expand so rapidly as processing zones. Key: ahigh bay palietsb efficientmechhandling blow bayar:Order picking&load assembly cloadingbay I Typicalproportionsofhigh& lowbayarfordistribution warehouse WAREHOUSEBUILDING TYPES I, I? L U I _in1 U check-of1/ sort [ check-off! sod [ bulkstock I activestock! orderpicking [ U [er Small scale —vp266lightdutyfactory and —vp268(3) entries 1 & 2. General purpose Forfork-lift,reach truckand narrow aisle stackeroperation. Bldg acts as weather-proof envelope to sto operation. Importantthat spans, height, floorstrengthallow forflexible installationofsto methods —ep272 types 3—6, 7a & 8a; also—ep266 medium dutyfactory types and —*p272(1 0). Intermediate high bay Independent bldg structure for intermediate height narrow aisle sto systems. Up to 14 m bldg height (12 m sto height). Allows variationsin sto layout and possibility of other later uses; also —p267 heavy duty factory. U assembly U k-outloadirigi despatch 2 Typicalstoflow diagram: repository, componentsb foradjoiningproduction process 3 Typicalsto flow diagram: egcold sto,steel stockholding repository, 4 Generalpurposewarehouse,typicallyfor7500 stackh: 8000to eaves; spans 12—18m; floor loading25kN/m2mm NBconsideralsoflat roof 5 Intermediatehigh baywarehouse, typically14mto eaves:spans 11.1—20.5 m depending onaislewand pallet size; floor loadings50 kN/m2 distributedloads ci c C,) 270 Industry Industrialbuildings WAREHOUSES High bay -.p271(1l—13) Integral rack structure: for sto heights to 30 m to exploit automated handling techniques —o(2). Economic land cost high, labour cost high, expansion potential limited. Sto rackingforms bldg structure, with root and wall cladding attached to it. Very strong floor and foundations required so poor ground can preclude concept. S r supphersgoods U 3 Wheresf0arlimited&throughputspeednottoppriorityintense useof volumecanbemadewith mobile racking; double-sidedrackingmounted on rail-bornecarriers: racksnestfacetoface, only 1 aisleopeningat time; imposeshighfloor loadings f + + 1- -1-— 4 Blockstacking3—4palletsh: aislemoves through stackto providefirst-in, first-out rotation; aislewrelatedto type of fork-liftused—'p271 1 Typicalsto flow diagramfordistribution warehouse, eg retailfood distribution f ii iii Hi ii IIi[IIHU a 7zzfr2 a' lii I 1( 1: [Cflbfl 5 Forbulkpalletstoin long aislesstockshouldbearranged innotional arso [—snj that fastestthroughputstock closest toassemblyar: noterackorientation at 900to assemblyzone — BB'1 __s 2b — — . p p7 — 2 High baywarehouse, bldgstructure • [3 _ . 0 0 0 — integral with palletracking; h 30m; floor loadingscan bemorethan 60kN/m2distributed loadassently 6 Fororderpickingdiversestockrackingarranged parallelwith load assemblyzone with rackardevotedto stockwithvariousthroughputspeeds, fastest nearestassemblyzone: reduces slowmoving pickingmachinery blockingmovementofothers Industry 271 Industrial buildings WAREHOUSES C Fork-lift dimensions In design for best use of sto space note interaction between aisle spaces and fork-liftdimensions: decision on stacking may decide size and make of fork-lift, choice of fork-lift may decide stacking. Relevant details for somefork-lifttypes and pallet sizes —(1 )—(6). / type offork-lift Counter-balanceforkliftcapacity 3000kg: stackingaisle90°with 1220 squarepallet3670; intersecting aisle (dotted) 2000;Iwithoutpallet3150, w1100 1 counter-balanced fork-lift:load capacity 2500kgat 610 load centre I withoutpallet wwithout pallet h: mastlowered weightwithoutload wheel loadsladen1: front(drive) rear(steer) 90°stackingaisle (1 200 pallet) turn-out aisle (1 200 pallet) (dotted)—(1) /'\l_____ ./ \- / / // 1 /•/ dimensions weight kg 3246 1118 2286 4500 6000 750 3480 2000 fordistributedrollingloadsdividebywheelcontact ar, available from trade literature 4 Counter-balancedfork-liftdimenskns&weights: palletsizesUSA 1220 x 1220, 1220 x 1 830; somepalletshavesides1220h typeoffork-lift dimensions weight kg extendingmastreachfork-lift:loadcapacity 2040kgat 610 load centre Iwithoutpallet wwithoutpallet h: mast lowered weightwithoutload wheel loadsladen1: front (mast extended) rear(mastextended 90°stacking aisle(1200 pallet) turn-out aisle(1200 pallet) (dotted)—.(2) 2 Reachfork-liftcapacity1 500kg, palletcarriedwithin wheelbase;stacking aisle 90°with 1 220 squarepallet2400;intersecting aisle (dotted) 1 900; Iwithoutpallet 1 600, w 990 1 1 930 990 2667 2722 4282 481 2362 1 905 fordistributedrollingloadsdividebywheelcontactar, available fromtrade literature 5 Extendingmastreachfork-liftdimensions&weights type offork-lift dimensions weight kg poweredP-controlled palletfork-lift:load capacity 1815kg Iwithout pallet w withoutpallet h: mastlowered wwithout load wheelloads 90°stacking aisle (1200 pallet) turn-out aisle (1200 pallet) (dotted) —(3) / \ 3 PoweredP-controlledpalletfork-lift: stackingaisle90°with 1220square pallet1 750; intersecting aisle(dotted)1 500;Iwithoutpallet1 820,w787 6 1 854 762 notapplicable notapplicable 1 752 1 498 PoweredP-controlledpalletfork-liftdimensions&weight 372 (I) 272 Industry Industrialbuildings WAREHOUSES Storageefficiencywith varioushandling methods Takingtypical stacking areas 33m x 33 m, volume efficiencyassessment includes 1 repositioning aisleat end of rack runs; pallet size: 1200x 1000 x 200 tall—*(1 )—(9); figures in column 2of (10) relate to numbers ofpicture captions. USA pallet sizes —*(11) and p27l(4). Fork-liftinblockstack:3SOOaisle;3600stackh (4.5m bldgh dotted) 1 LE ±E E E Fork-liftin palletracking: 3500aisle;7500 stack h 2 3 Reachfork-liftinblock stack: 2600aisle;3600 stack h (4500 bldg h dotted) 4 Reachfork-liftin palletracking: 2600aisle; j uflu 7500stackh F_______________________ 5 9 Reachfork-liftindrive-inracking, drivesinto stack betweenframes:7500stack h typeof sto eqp access sto increase stack pallets volume h stored efficiency overfork-lift equivalent % Reachfork-liftindoubledeepracking, has extendingfork attachment: 2600aisle 6 Automatedfixedpath stackercrane: 1 400 aisle; 24 m stackh; integralrackstructure fork-lift: bldg h Smto undersideofstructure 2 beam pallet reachfork-lift: bldg h8m to undersideof structure narrowaisle stacker: 1452 1 200 24 20 poor 100 3 blockstack2 4 beam pallet 3 1 584 28 poor 9 racking Sdrive-in racking 6doubledeep racking 7a beam pallet racking3 beampallet racking4 8a double deep racking3 5 5 1400 35 58 100 17 2400 blockstack1 racking lb 7 Narrowaisle stacker,movesparallel with rack: astackh7soo bstackhdottedlo.5m % 3 5 1 laat out 5 2400 49 50 5 1800 46 100 50 7 2520 46 46 110 5 2400 59 50 7 3360 60 50 32 100 8bdoubledeep racking4 automatedhigh bay stacker 9beampallet crane,rail guided:bldg racking ft 24 m toundersideof roofstructure(can be istin 15 5400 30m+) 'volumeefficiencyincreases iflowerbldg used (4500 mm) 2 volume efficiencyincreases iflowerbldg used bldg fttounderside roofstructure 8000 bldg hto underside of roof 8 Narrowaislestackerin doubledeepracking, l600aisle: astackh7soo bstackhdotted 10.5 m structure11 m assectionof longeraisle: typically 100m+ 10 Stoefficiencywith various handling methods Whenusingpallets1220 x 1 830(frequent inUSA)preferred aislew3600;4270run of rack accommodates3pallets1220 x 1220or2 pallets1220 x 1 830 11 Industry 273 Industrial buildings key: 1 off 2goods inwards 3rackedbulkpallet sto 4order pickingar 5order &despatchassemblyar 6repackaging& processingar 7expansion SITE LAYOUT Site layout for factories and warehouses determined by: shape and size ofbldg expansion potential services running through site, eg gas mains, powercables topography: affecting accessforheavy vehicles andbuilding economics (cut and fill) energy conservation: exposure to prevailing and storm winds ground conditions and drainage, eg avoiding pilingor potential flood areas surrounding neighbourhood: keeping noisy external plant and loading baysfromresidential area vehicle (road and rail) manoeuvring and marshalling area in relation to loading bays —p282—3. Economics 1 Option 1: lowrise 'conventional'sto; minimalsite works Comparing alternative site layouts will usually resultin trade-offbetween conflicting factors. Exampleshows alternativesforsiting distribution warehouse: important cost factor involves expansion potential and linked mech handling eqp investment decision First option —+(1) minimises excavation by exploiting fall of land to provide raised loading dockat infeed: distribution vehicles were to be side loaded fromground level. But goods inwardsloading bay would face prevailing wind, energycost, and circulationround site required, needing relocation in event ofexpansion. Secondoption—(2)accepts some excavation forraised dock: in leeand exploits fallof site to sink part of high bay stacking area for less environmental intrusion and increased handling efficiency. Revised axis of bulk sf0 area allows much increased expansion potential without affecting operation of existing installation.This combined with improved sto and handling economics more than offset any increase in capital costof construction. Planning grids 2 Option2:narrowaisle highbaysto:trade-off= costofsiteworksagainst increasedoperational flexibility& lowerenergyloss To coordinate building's structure,services and circulation in formulating siting and expansion strategy and to integratetheseelements during bldg design, discipline their disposition by employing planning grid. 3 Tocoordinatestructure,services& movement indevelopmentstrategyworktomastergrid;note 3-dimensionalimplications 274 Industry Industrial buildings LAYOUTOF MULTIPLEUNITDEVELOPMENTS & ESTATES Small scale nursery' and 'seedbed' units: meetneedto integrategroup of units into existing urban or rural community. Illustrations —(1)(2) show small 'seedbed'group combined with landscaped open space and 'nursery'unitswith expansion capacitywith grouped goods access. Speculative developments forrental: built in variousforms ofterrace to allow flexible space allocation. Note: sufficientheavy goods vehicle manoeuvring and parking area (see also loading bays) car parking for workpeople and visitors (check local standards) off and amenity accn: either integral within volume of bldg (where site area restricted) or as attached block (where developer requires max rental fromproduction/sto area) mixture ofsizesofunit in estatecan beachieved byvariable location of cross walls in terrace or by providing 2 or more groups of bldg of increasing size: decision depends on scale Trade mart concept may be used to revitalise urban areas: divisible space undercommon roofallowing high degree of planning flexibility. // //// 41V 3 key: 1 yard 2 public 12 39 24rn 785 —i: wt key: 1 goods vehicle parking/loading 2cross open space routes 3atrium pedestrian route 4retail use 5service use 6craft use 7lightproduction 'Nursery'& 'seedbed'industrial unitscanbe integrated intorural community,bringreliefto crowded innercity 1 9 'Trade mart' typedevelopment, attractiveinnercitypossibility mixinglight industrial,craft & retailuserstostimulate workingcommunity: common envelopeprovidesmulti-divisiblespace 3 key: 1 'nursery' units; rental 2mediumsized divisibleunits: rental 3largerdivisibleunits: rental 4purpose-built units(lease-back) 5yard/loadingar 6carparking(grouped) 7 landscapedopen space tOrn 14 ft 2 Typicalmixed useindustrial estate with rangeof unitsizes forrentaleachhavingexpansionoptions(by extendingintoadjoiningunit):openspace & grouped, shieldedparking& yardsforeachproperty;landscaping improveswhatcan tooeasily bedesolateenvironment Industry Industrial 275 buildings ci INDUSTRIALPARKS C') railroad spur sewagetreatment plant ' \\-it - / ,/-' 1 —:- 2 ) // "\ —'- — - — / I t /'I 1)1/I hillwaterS diversion channel & lakeoutlet Siteplan EarthCityindustrial parkSt LouisUSA:developmentinflood plain of Missouririver necessitated systemofdrainage lakes&diversion channel,with leveebetweenEarthCity&river IndustrialAirparkSpiritWestSt LouisUSAhasaccessfromairportto individual sites in park through taxiwayeasement& also fromChicago-Rock Island railroad 3 276 Industry Industrial buildings BUILDINGENVIRONMENT Rising energy and labour costs make bldg environment increasingly important contributor to operating costs and productivity. Factors to be considered in providing goodconditions atworkplace include: dust and fumeextraction ventilation in hotweather heating in cold weather natural and artificial lighting noise control As rough guide 5 I/sIP: conventional air change rate of 1—1.5 air changes/hr may resultin more than 50 times this requirement,wasting much energy. Heating 19°C 16°C 13°C light requirementIx engineeringmachineshops manualwork benchwork carefulbenchwork precisionwork 200 300 500 1 000 engineeringinspection&testing mediumdetail fine detail minutedetail sheet metal benchwork stamping,pressing spot welding,general precisionwelds assembly mediumdetail small detail very finedetail storesissue counter Ventilation sedentary work active (bench) work very active work place 66°F 59°F 57°F For many companies with processes involving heat, energy can be recovered and waste heat transferred to contribute to work place requirements: considerable cost savings possible. Warehouses with refrigerated orchilled areas can also benefit, heat being recovered from the chiller's compressors to warm areas where people work. paint shops paintdips Heating and ventilation demandsalso function ofstandardof insulation and quantity of glazing provided. In UK factory and warehouse bldg mustbeinsulated to0.7 W/m2 °C, with single glazing limited to 20% of roof area and 15% of wall area. These areas still high for energy conservation: 1O%ofwalland roofareausuallyconsidered appropriate. warehousing loading bays palletpicking order pickingsmallitems packingstations Natural lighting Demand for natural roof lighting influences selection of roof structure. 1 1 Escaping noise also troublesome outside bldg: place external plant awayfrom direct lines with surrounding users; screen and suppress source. 300 500 1 000 150 200 300 500 maxexposuretime hr 102 105 108 111 Noisecontrol Reduce noisebefore reaches workplace byabsorption (walls, roofsand pendant absorbers) and/or bymodifying backgroundnoise. Reduce noise effectbyisolating workers in noise reducing enclosures. 500 1 0001 1 5001 300 Artificiallighting:typicalrequirements 85 87 90 93 96 99 —.p398—400;—*(1) Reduce vibration at source by mounting machineryon resilient pads or special foundations. 10001 also needstask lighting soundpressurelevel dBA Artificial lighting Reduce noise at source bydesign ofeqp, screening and enclosure. 750 500 500 spraying colourmatching Compared with the insulated roofwithoutanyopenings 20% permitted glazing will increase both heat loss by4 times and ventilation demand through insolation: in highly serviced environmentsuncomfortableglare canresultfrompipe runs crossing bright roof lights.Outdoor illuminance varies from 5000—25000 lux fromovercast to sunshine conditions in temperate climates: therefore 3% DF will provide equivalent of 150— 750 lux at work place; 10% roofglazing will result in av DF about 5%. Flank glazing must alsobe carefullydesigned toavoid glare, particularly athigh level. Natural lighting inwarehousescan bepositivedisadvantage, sunlight raising tempand causing package fade. Noisemajor pollution and limit on working efficiency: noise damageto hearing, humansensitivity tovibration —p18; max levels inworkplace 500 1 000 1 500 24 16 8 4 2 1 minutes 30 15 71/2 33/4 continuouslevelsover 85dBA should be avoided 2 Maxexposuretonoise Industry 277 Industrial buildings PLANNINGFORFIRECONTROL BUILDINGREGULATIONS Designing factory orwarehouse to meet potentialfire hazard involves: measures to limit spread of fire within and outside bldg by compartmentation, detection devices, sprinklers and choice of materials for structure and cladding providing readily accessible and identifiable means of escape with alternative route in everysituation providing ventilation in roof to reduce heat and smoke build-up to prevent fire 'leap-frogging' underroof cladding and enablefire service rapidly vent smoke: typically 1 vent per structural bay, with curtains of non-inflammable material forming smoke reservoirs in roof space extinguishing fire or at leastcontrolling seat of fire until brigade can extinguish it, by means of sprinklers, high expansion foam or gas drenching Firedesign decisions involve consultation with: user: compartmentation may significantly affect layout of process or warehouse fire chief/officer: local reg and practice, particularly on fire appliance access, water supply and means ofescape user's insurance company: predominant influence on fire control in USA. Insurance company can demand compartmentationon basis of calculated maximum forseeable loss' (MFL fire wall). Reduced compartmentation can be negotiated against designing roof structure of greater fr and installation of sprinkler system. Insurance companies usually allow 50% premium reduction for sprinkler system. UK bldg reg relating to compartmentation for fire control and cubic capacity of bldg, covering eg rules for measurement, periods of fr for elements ofstructure —Bib116590592593594601. In USA areas, construction types, egress or exits, compartmentation and all matters concerning fire safety and fire control are regulated by bldg code administered by city or municipal inspection dept (—*Bib027 505 509 510). Matters concerning fire insurance ratings of hazard and bldg covered bystandards ofNational Board of FireUnderwriters. Statutorycontrols On national or state basis. In UK controls affect max cubic capacity of compartments for single and multi-storey bldg and fr of elements of structure forfactory and warehouse bldg of certainfloorareas. Warehouses Warehouses with pallet rackingcan provide particularfire hazard,aisles acting as flues. Reg forinstallationofsprinklers,accountingforfrequency ofoutletand flowratesbasedon degreeof hazardforstored material. In USA apply rules from National Fire Protection Assocation and client's insurer. In UK Fire Officers' Committee Rules forAutomatic Sprinkler Installations should beadhered to. Site planning Control offire spread canalsoaffect location offactory orwarehouseon site, particularly in relation toadjoining users. This can affect bldg costs as there are rulesset down formaterials and frof walls when adjoining otherproperty at particulardistance. ForUK—unprotectedarea requirements in Bldg Reg ES (Bib592); for USA —*state bldg codes and requirements of American Insurance Association (Bib026); in general codesprovide fire safety for people and underwriters protect bldg. IIIII Factorieswithoutsmoke ventscan become rapidlysmoke-filledwith fire spreading under roof 1 surface Withvents& smoke reservoirsfirecan be quicklycontained&controlled 2 :3 C') 278 Industry Industrial buildings V ,P ENVIRONMENTALCOMPARTMENTATION V V Compartmentation, so long as compatible with handling and services demandsof production and sto process, can be used reduce both energy loss and certain hostile environments, such as fumes, heat, noise and dust, aswell as limiting fire spread. Hot, dirty processes can be grouped to exploit energy and material recoverytechniques. Proportion ofarea/volume of factory affected by processwill indicate strategy; high proportion of area affected, group processes into compartment;low proportion,enclose separateelements of processwith local extraction and controls. Alternative increasingly attractive with high energy cost: segregate those whoworkin production area into environmental enclosure, exploiting automation, and only -11* 1 minimally temper malority ofarea. Parallel with warehouses: automate main stosection, limiting environmentalcontrols tozonesofhigh labour use fororderpicking and assembly. In unitsconstructedspeculativelyforrentingoff& amenity accnprovided in stripforflexiblespaceallocation WORK PLACEDESIGN Design ofworkplace fundamentalto achievinghigh levels ofproductivity: alsoinfluences labour relationsand absenteeism.Work placecombines: Ergonomics Work people's relationship to machinery and work actions to reduce fatigue and increase safety. Mechanical handling From most basic, low cost handling devices, scissor lifts, hoists and counterbalanced manipulators,whichcan revolutionise manualwork, to accumulating conveyors, automatically routing mobile work stations and robotassembly machines. Work organisation Grouping people for certain tasks. Traditional isolation of machine operatorsand line assemblyorganisationunder reviewin severalcountries in Europeand in USA; team organisationcanoffer greatercommunication and production flexibility. Environment 2 Environmentalfactorscanbeconsidered forpurpose designedfactories: with noisy &dirty processesoff andamenityaccncan besegregatedfrom productionzone Positive demands: temp suited to activity—USA: AmericanSocietyof Heating,Refrigeration & Air-conditioning Engineers (BibO3l), UK: Institution of Heating & VentilatingEngineers (Bib164) airflowand air cleanliness lighting: backgroundand task —p398—4OO Defence against: glare noise vibration harmful gaseous or dust products: explosions key: 1 lightmaterial:low usage,infrequentoperation 2frequenthighlevel controls orlightpositioning 3 convenientcontrolzone: standingmanipulation 4seated control zone: light& medium-heavylocation 5infrequentzone of heavy material 3 Manualwork& sto involvesomecriticaldimensions: mostcommon working &manipulativezone is in2—4band IQDL II 4 II Hli Li2 II Simplehandlingaids suchasscissorliftcanimproveworkingconditions& productivity 5 Counter-balancedmanipulatorcanenableoperatorplaceheavy loads accurately Industry 279 Industrialbuildings WORK PLACEDESIGN Amenity Washing, changing, wc and smoke/rest provision related to workplace. Location and scale depend onworkorganisation—.(4): traditional line production will require centralised services accessibleto numbers of people team organisationimpliesamenityaccnclose byorlocaltoteamoperating area; with changes in production organisation depending on manufacturing methods and volume, both are likely to change with increasing frequency. key:a1000 b2400 c800 1 Typicalmanualorder picking frompallets&shelf,replenished by reach truck; simultaneouspickingfromeach sideforhighthroughputinstallation key:a 1000 b1800 2 Slowerthroughputpickingoperation with 1-waytrolley access: replenishedby narrowaislestackerorfrombehind rack uiu a b c a key:a800 b75 c150 dllOO e250 3 Typicalrack& shelfhforfloorlevelorder picking 4 Wet services,washing& rest ar: a small divisibleunitsas stripalong boundary bmed & largesizefactorybldgwith 2possiblezonesforplacing wet services,eitherallowing freelocationineachzoneorgroupingintoflexibly positionedbutdistinctwet serviceunits,egforteamaccess cforlargescale factoriesanotheroptionisislandwet serviceand amenity ar; advantages: singleundergroundservicesrun &accessibility fromall sides c0) 280 Industry Industrial buildings HYGIENE ,' 1•••• unnals washtrough —i ii, Washing general UK law requires that adequate and suitable facilities for washing, conveniently accessible,beprovided and maintainedforuse of employed persons in allfactories. Where nospecialorderofficial recommendation not less than 1 washbasin/20P doing clean work, 1/lOP doing dirty work, 1 /5P handling poisonous substances. Provisionofwashbasins—vBib6O8 Lavatories UK factory laws do not specify numbers of lavatories: provision considered 'suitable and sufficient' foroffices, shopsand railwaysequally relevant for factories—vBib346 347 604. Lockers 1 2 Layoutofdo, washr, drinfood Changingmiwith strict separation ofclean&dirtyclothes productsfirm Changing areas ocher sizes IhwdI I Forclean trades 1 locker/P must beprovided; fordirty 1 double locker/P to keep workand street clothing separate. Mm I changing area0.5 m2/P Ambulance rooms Specificationforambulancerm: 11750130013001 11850130013001I 118501 3501 500 Floor space not less than 9.29 m2 with natural light and ventilation. Should contain: glazed sink with hot and cold running water, table with smooth surface, means of sterilising instruments, adequate supplyof suitable dressings, bandagesand splints, couch, stretcher, separate rm for male and female, qualified nurse always available. I timber 120001 400 I 500I 12000140015301 vents 3 2-tier rowoflockersformultiple shift firm: orlower lockerforwork clothesupperforstreetclothes shell — 4 Doublerowofventilated clothes lockers:benchesinfront * 1120 towelholder 5 Hbwith tapsand adequate dimensions;washingtroughs narrower(up to 940 deep) 6 Washfountain(Bradleysystem): 25% saving in spacecompared with rowsofbasins;waterconsumption 10P/15—391: water pressure atmosphere 7 Continuousbasin: Rottersystem Fountainonwallwithdrinking jet, controlledbylever 8 o• 11 Sho cubicleswithclotheshooks outside iri 9 Seriessho eachfor4P 10 Continuousshoalongwallswithfootsho 12 Sho cubicleswith clotheshooks inside Industry 281 Industrial buildings SANITARYINSTALLATIONS ;7N ID iD 7 __ D —125—"———1.55—i ___________ i— 1.5 —"-—1.15—-, LDH h Singlerowclosetsdoorsopening outwards(above),inwards(below) 1 —1.25 H is...... \N h ZN D Sanitary installationsaccording to German standardgiven here. 1 tloor outlet with smell trap per closet and 1 tap connexion with 1 socket spanner and hose union. Cleaner's sink. Floor surface non-slip, water resistant, easyclean. Walls washableupto2000high. Floorand wallssealedagainstmoisture. Rm temp mm 15°C. Wc partitionsto ceiling height; space outside well ventilated; 1 washbasinand handdrierper 5wc.Where soap dispensers titted 1/2 basins. Mm 1 mirror for2—3 basins. —t 1.5—44———1.55 Iii Singerow closetswith urinal on oppositewall 2 7N {D7K 7i\ : r h l.25 2.05— 500+— 1.1 —t-600- :* 1 ZNT —1.5—it-——125—i 3 Singlerowclosetswith bowl urinals opposite 4 h5004900 F500+S1Xii 12 Changingarwith hanger Changingarwith simplehook tittings:unattended 11 fittings:unattended Doublerowclosets iockerswdh benches locker bend, HHHH locker L 11 350 1 Lit '— Al wwstodssickngunder ftj H±H 5 Washrwithhb 6 Washrwithtrough 13 Mm 1.0 slo4ffl DH[IIE E±1:d i—9-H 450s-ô--r--6OO-i—6OO-i —5Xi—4 [I] HI U 1.0 t—500—4 1.3 r IL 1.0 —900-i I I i—900—4 1.0 [Istool I— 9— dimensionsforchanging rm _—105 —500 4 'a >2,05 Al 7 Washrwith tootbaths 8 Washrwith foot-trough 1.05 14 Depositdo, singlelayout with pegs, duallayout with hangers do): attended I closedsho wrlti —1.05—4550: changingcubicle __Ff14 1.05— 1.5 —±1.05*1.05°--1.1-' 3.6 — -°2.15 -H 9 Gullydrainage,individual drainagetorhalf-opensho compartment 10 Bath cubiclewith changing alcove:mm dimensionstorsho& bath units 720-800-' 15 Vendingmachines (theatre a C C', 282.Industry Industrial buildings LOADINGBAYS Link between production or sto process and distribution system. Much effort toreduce production costs can bewasted throughdelayed vehicle turn-round and increased manning if loadingarea notcarefullydesigned. Decisionsin loadingbayplanning Raised orgroundlevel dock?Generally, forend-loading containersand box bodies vehicles, as in retail distribution, raised; for side-loading curtain sided and flat bed vehicles, ground level. Separate loading baysforincoming and despatch —v(1): separate bays, together with vehicle marshallingareas, where manufacturing system involves differentcharacteristics between raw materials and finished products, with raw materials calling for side handling at ground level and palletised for despatch needing end loading. Similarly for large distribution warehouse: bulk loads of single product delivered, mixed loads oforders despatched indistributors' ownvehicles; here segregationfor traffic management and materials flow in warehouse, particularly as vehicle handling peaks may coincide. Number ofloading bays, spacing and layout: loading bays must never be considered in isolation; mustbe related to circulation and check-off area behind them. Decision on numbers question ofthroughput patterns and availablearea next todockfor load preparation. Clearly ifvehiclescan behandledfasterwith pre-assembled loads, less loading docks required than for slower turn-round with material being assembled as loadingoperation continues. loading bay spacing and layout influenced by depth of manoeuvring area available and depth of load accumulation space behind dock. Choice of which should have more spacemust be basedon assessment of individual throughput demand. It o 10203040 m I I 3366 99132 ft inwards:suppliers'bulk key: a loads bhighbay bulkstockpaflelsto Cpalletbreakdown& repacleng er dorder selection& loadassembly edespatch loadingbay: users'disbibutionvehicle fl-way trafficflow glongtermtruck ar parking& users'maintenance ods 2 Manywarehousescanusedockforincoming & despatch goods; in factories sharing type of loadingbay maynotbepossiblebutgoodsvehicle manoeuvringarcanbe common 1 Large retaildistributioncentrewith separate goodsinwards&despatch loadingbays key: longwheelbasengbichassistruck a2.8m b3.9m c4.7m d5.5m e5.lm f4.6m g26.8tntsmingcircle 4smmninparfdng:3mcentres 3 _-"n reinendloading:3,3 mcentres 35 mpreferredmm spacing:3.8 mCentres 33mnabsolutemmnal3.8mcentres 4 5 3omdat5timcentres 6 I 15marticulatetruck a4.7m b5.7m c7.3m d8.3m efl.8m t7.8n1 g27miunmingcircleat 900fulllock 23 m(75 6 neverless than20nidepthevenifspacinggreaterthan tOrn I 20 25 30 35 40 45n1 ntis distancefromface ofloadingthktoboratdary ofrnanoerenngarforsinglemovementtum-c&d 3 Calculating yard depth& loading bay spacingfor 15 m articulated trucks parked at 900 to dock 122m1n(for tTaflicflowA c0unterclockwise 19.flforlfl.8tractor/traileretc 168 for168tractor/trailer VIA V I A V t' manoeuvengyr loadingar ———— - -ltorclockwise. trafficflow A) 5 Typicalturningdimensionsforrigidchassis &articulated trucks maalo7kerticul c A tractor-trailerI B c posftion w 'apron' space 10.7 3.0 3.7 14,0 13.1 122 3 146 43 128 A £ £ -— b 4 I 137 13,4 30 174 4.3 14,9 14.6 37 waitingar Truckloading& manoeuvring, USAdimensions a loading, manoeuvring andwaitingar b& C apronspace requiredfor 1 move intooroutof position Industry 283 Industrial buildings LOADINGBAYS (cont) Spacing Directly related to yard depth; conditioning factor: distance closely parked vehicles have to pull out before turning —.(1). Angled, raised docks reduce yard depth at expense ofnumber ofvehicles handledat 1 time: ground level drive-through bays reduce circulation width but increase length. Finger dock compromise for side and end loading where manoeuvring area limited. Loadcheck-off/accumulationspace Behind cross circulation aisle load handling zone (dock levellers with raised docks). Should have capacity of 1 .5 vehicle loads. Remember space for broken pallets, relected loads, rubbish: at least 1 load area. Crosscirculation aisle4000 allows 2 fork-lift pass and for turnout from docklevellers. Keep thisarea clear ofcolumns. end-loadingraiseddock: drawforwarddistance Raised docks Equip with docklevellerplates accommodate both changes in vehicle bed height as they are loaded and different types of vehicle. Standard loading dockheight in USA 1220, common with 1 200 in Europe: with European vehiclesgreater variationsinbed height.Dock levellers should not exceed gradient of 1 in 10withhighest orlowest vehicle. Energy Do not face loading bays into prevailing wind. Raiseddocks: use dock shelterswhere vehicle forms hermetic seal with bldg and segmentalor roller shutterdoor closes on to leveller when vehicle leaves. Ground levelor finger docks can be completely enclosed (straightthrough flow ortail in). Alternatively, hot orcold air curtainscan beused butthese not substitute for enclosure. Security Drivers should not be able gain access beyond dock, except in some distribution operationswith company'sownvehicleswheredriver arranges order of loading. Generally, raised docks with dock shelters provide inherent security: separate lavatoriesand access totraffic office should beprovided forvisitingdrivers. finger dock: raised end& sideleading Weather protection If docksheltersor enclosed dockcannot be installed canopy required overloading area: should allow at least 5000clear height. Gradients Ground should beflat(except forlocal drainagefall) for lengthofvehicle in frontofdockor mm oflength of articulatedsemi-trailer. checkoff buffenat 1.5toad Heavy goodsvehiclemarshalling & circulation Segregate light vansfromheavygoods vehicles: to use differentdocks! partsofthe dock equivalent gafew foraccess frombothdirections ,I' \ Provide heavy vehicle waiting bays before loadingbayarea and clear of manoeuvring space Provide parking baybefore exit for drivers tocheck load security Circulation should beclockwise inrighthanddrive countries, anti-clockwisein lefthanddrive: iereversing into loadingdocks alwaysondriver's 21.5 ------- __J Themore angleofvehiclefromloading dockreduced greaterreductionin yard depthbutlower numberof vehicles handled simultaneously in space 1 sid 7mcanopy L :—------- _ 3800 mm - 5000 nun 1100—1500 K 12.0 levelsection (55 ftinsomeliSAslaten) 2 - II ml 1220standard 3000typicalfor4000laming/passing levellerplate aisle Sectionthroughraisedloading dockfittedwithdockshelterforenergyretention: canopy(dotted)only ifshelteromitted needed 284 Industry Industrial buildings LOADINGBAYS: USA RAIL 1 Typical rail track spacingrequirements USA fence(if required) leadtrack J2.2railrightofway \ 3050 9140min ___ m1n_- __ rail servicedoor 7' tspurtrack 21 3 r !, C- a 61.0 truck loading bldg -' parking 1 520 walkway orlandscaping I 0 F ______________ V // b 91 23.0— 12.2railright ofway tWCI( 6100min — rail spurinside bldg 2590from inside wall bldg parking loading 1 n 5, CS1I co c j___________ 520walkway orlandscaping J9l4osetback(Iandscaped) street right-of-way bldg 91.4 parking 9. . 1 520 walkway orlandscaping street right-of-way : Sm! .1111,! 25gOfrominsidewall I loading -.j F — bldg parking 0 1520 walkway orlandscaping I 5, V Il 21 3 1 c Is, IC) 61.0 stH H eli railspurinside bldg 23— I f9l4osetback(landscaped) Railservedbldg layoutsUSA arail in right-of-way, bldgset back,spuralongsidebldg brail ineasement, bldg set back, spur alongsidebldg, note:spur layoutrequires easement onadjacentproperty: canbeeliminatedby movingeastwardrail servicedoor &consequently point of switch crail in right-of-way, bldgonpropertyline, spur insidebldg d rail ineasement, bldgset back,spur insidebldg 2 2590 (typic&) -21.3 ___________________property line&centreline of lead track 12.2 raileasementi I • 21 1 61.0 r1tZii! 146 setback (landscaped) streetright-of-way 23 I .l \ rail servicedoor truck 61.0 loading 19146setback(landscaped) leadtrack- property line&centerhneleadtrack rail easement iit)mm spur track j_ _______________ 2590(typical) (—23.0— ii. — — Industry. 285 Industrial buildings ci Rental unit WORKSHOPS Great variety in shape and size: workshops classifiedhere by location, circulation requirements —*p286, tenancytypes —p287, and technology theycan accommodate—*p288. Most ofdetailedstandardsand examples given thoserequired fortypical inner cityflatted factory (rental unit). C') Most common locations —.(1)—(5). Domestic 1 garden IK 1 1 or2 peoplecarryingonhobbyorpart-timeoccupation inextension of home Educational institution 4 Standardunitswithsharedaccessinmulti-storeybldg Ancillaryto large factory 2 Repetitiveprovisionforclassorgroupof 20—40 people production Small industrial estate wc off workshop sto I I I photo lab I Groupofnon-specificunitsfor range ofverysmallbusinesses wood workshop metal workshop I onference I 3 — 5 gar Specialistworkshopsforusebystaffmaintaining company'splantorbldg itself 286 Industry Industrial buildings WORKSHOPCIRCULATION spaces/floorar innercity suburbs&rural distribution heavy goodsvehicles light commercial vehicles m2 m2 Parkingoutsidebuilding 1/1000 1/1000 Elevatorsinsidebuilding cars 1/400 1/500 1/500 1/1 000 light industry heavygoodsvehicles light commercial vehicles 1/4000 1/2000 1/1 000 1/200 1/500 1/50 1/1 000 1/150 1/500 1/30 cars Standards depend on location as well as on type ofuse—.(1). Related toexternal parking and totenancies —.(2)(3). Circulationwithin workshop Derived fromtechnology used aswell astype oftenancy —+(4)—(7). offspace light commercial vehicles cars 1 Parkingguide lines: USAstandards—.p263 4 Straightline: goodsin&outoppositesidesofplant; requires bldg with good accessboth sides:common inmedium-sized firms 5 Overlapping:similarto4 butformuchlargertypeoffirm 2 Goodselevatorservinglargegroup of tenancies: centralmanagement may neededtomaintainfreeuseofelevators at peaktimes 6 U-shape:goodsin&outsameside of plant; possible in bldgwithonly limitedaccess:commonwith verysmallfirms 3 Severalgoodselevatorseach of whichservesseveral tenants,whomust cooperatein its use 7 Convoluted: goodsin&outon same side of plant;sometimes necessary in bldgwith restricted access forlargefirmswhen accommodated Industry 287 Industrial buildings WORKSHOPTENANCIES: BUILDINGTYPE ci Indirectaccess—(1) Typeofbldg: shallow ormedium depth with cross wallstocreatevertical C') compartments. Type of management: individual firm's name displayed and each has unitwithownservices. Managementcould take 1 unitover forown use. Type ofuser. small well establishedfirms requiring own identity. Subdivision: units have street (or yard) frontage, may receive visitors directly and have own stairs,elevators. Compartmentation: each bldg contains several tenancies divided by fr walls. Escape routes: each tenant has fr stairway: if area of high fire risk alternative means ofescape required. Open plan —*(2) Type of bldg: shallow or medium depth with central corridor on each 1 level. Type ofmanagement: common receptionist: lifts/stairs/corridors from intermediate space to be maintained. Type ofuser: small firms needing some security but less concerned withpresenting individual identity. Subdivision: unitsreached through internal stairsorcorridors common to several users. Compartmentation: each tenant separated from adjacent tenants by fr floor. Escape routes: each individual tenant has door to shared fr escape corridorwhich leads to fr stairway, second means of escape normally alsoneeded. Indirectaccess Shared spaceI —(3) Type ofbldg: deepplan. Type of management: tenants share services and participate in management of accn. Type of user: small expanding firms with compatible uses: allows for rapidchanges in sizeand staffing. Subdivision: unitsas suchdo not exist but tenants take space within largeenvelope having single front door. Compartmentation: each open area surrounded byfrwallsand floors. Escape routes: each compartment has directaccess or 2 or more fr stairways: may be necessaryprotect relevantdoorwayswith fire shutter. 2 Open plan 3 Sharedspace Shared spaceII—*(4) Typeofbldg:any building type. Type of management: head lessee relinquishes no responsibility for space: may provide telephone, secretarial services on time sharing basis. Type of user: newly founded tiny firms (1—5 persons) requiring low overheads and mm commitments. Subdivision: space rented from another firm usually on somekind of licence. Compan'mentation: separate subdivision only required if sub-tenant represents high riskof fireorexplosion. Escape routes: considered same as for main tenant unless special fire risk. A J 4 Sharedspace 288 Industry Industrial buildings type machine passengers heavy light goods goods rrn pit elelevators yes yes yes yes yes no yes yes yes yes no no yes yes yes yes yes yes no no no no no yes no yes yes yes yes yes yes yes yes no no no no no no no yes no yes yes yes no yes no 2sides no yes yes no no yes 2sides no rio no yes no no yes yes yes no no no no no no yes yes mobile 4sides 4sides hydraulic lift manually operated lift platform hoist elservicelift scissorslift dock leveller elbelt conveyor gravity conveyors elwinch manual winch manual floorcrane 1 external fittings access 3sides 3sides 3sides 3sides WORKSHOPS:EQUIPMENTSPACE —(1) shows requirements for some suitable handling eqp for small premises. —.(2)(3) showtypical space needed per machine in tightly planned layout: does notnecessarilyallowforgeneral circulation,process sto or initial installation of machinery. —v(4) shows percentage of total area required foroperations invarious types of workshop. 4 sides 2sides 2 sides mobile Suitablehandlingeqp forsmallpremises A 2 4 Space budgettingbytechnology Eqpspace—.(3) eqp in commonuse types Ax B-.(2) workingspace per item metal work machiningcentre jig boring& milling machine turret drill surfacegrindingmachine capstanlathe bar & billetshears press brake engraver diesinker weldingplant toolgrinder shaper power hacksaw punch press sliproll nIbbler shearclamphead bandsaw workbench plastics extruder vacuumformer blow moulder acrylic saw heatingoven 6.0 x 4.0 3.0 x 3.0 2.6 x 3.2 2.6 x 2.2 3.0 x 4.0 2.5 x 3.0 3.0 x 6.0 2.2 x 3.0 1.8 x 2.2 2.8 x 2.5 1.1 x 1.2 1.7 x 2.1 4.0 x 1.2 1.5 x 1.3 x 2.1 2.3 x 1.2 2.1 x 1.5 2.3 x 3.1 1.1 2.7 X 1.9 2 8 x 2.8 2.8 x 2.8 3 ü 4.5 3.0 x 50 06 x 1.1 woodwork bandsaw circularsaw surfaceplaner knot holedrill milling machine slot boring machine dove-taller jointer scroll saw drill press woodshaper radial arm saw beltsander veneerpress lathe polisher carpenter'sbench printing lithographicpress plate maker folder drill 3.0 x 5.0 4.8 x 7.9 2.6 x 5.0 2.2 x 4.2 4.0 x 5.0 2.2 x 5.0 2.2 x 4.3 x 8.3 x 1.9 x 1.6 2.9x 1.6 6.5 x 1.8 4.4 x 4.8 5.0 x 4.2 nailer sole press heel press shapingmachine leathercutter patternstamper 1.5 x 2.2 1.5 x 2.2 1.5 x 2.2 2.Ox 2.5 3.0 x 3.5 1.5 x 1.7 2.0 X 3.0 2.2 X 2.6 3.0 x 4.5 electronics instrumentbench 1.5 x 4.5 motor repairs each bay 30x 60 general compressor 0.75 x 1.2 2.5 x 5.0 1.5 x 1.8 1.2 1.2 1.5 1.5 1.5 < 3.0 2.0 4.2 photographic developingtank 2.4 x maxlength print 1.5 x maxlength print/2 3 Typicalspace requiredper machineintightlypackedlayout footwear 7.0 x 14.0 1.2 x 2.2 2.0 x 2.0 2.0 x 2.0 1.2 x 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.6 guillotine gluing belt enlarger clothing layingup machine sewingmachine steampress ironing bar steamboiler x dustcollector furnace hot dip tank dryingcabinet upholsterypress forge kiln potter'swheel x 2.0 x 3.0 x 2.2 3.0 x 7.0 2.5 x 3.5 0.9x2.1 0.9 x 2.1 1.8 x 1.7 1.5 1.5 1.7 Industry 289 Industrialbuildings 3 Mixed workshop: WORKSHOPEXAMPLES 1 die casting; employs15;approx 150m2 Benchworkshop: furskins;employs2; approx 75m 4 Repairshop: electronicsrepair;employs2;approx47m2 2 Craftwork: organ building & wood furniture; employs2;approx 175m2 . general woodwork sander ri U organassembly & wiring ii —V 5 Machine workshop: lithographicprinting; employs3; approx93m2 6 Small factory: women'sshoe manufacturer; employs47;approx 370m2 ci c(I) 290Industry Industrial buildings Workshopdesignfactors Factors affecting fabricdesign and services requirementsforrepresentativecategories ofworkshop —(1). factorsaffectingfabricdesign Service requirements E Factors affectingfabricdesign& servicerequirementsforworkshops 1 z ma a poBe A B C D rjsssDiowniri timber furniture film production furs, skins film processing electronicrecording engraving toys, musicelinstruments metalwork,plating,casting clofhrig tight engineering valves,tools deskaceessories,plastics food processing pnnting E rnenufacturing stationery brewing spinning F electronicrepairs motorcar repairs bicycterepairs meamcaiprops SERVICINGSTANDARDS Check all applicablebldg codes and municipalplanreview requirements. Fornew industrial bldg following standardsapply: Electricity UK: Each unit to be provided with separate 415 V 3-phase supply, including, sitednormallywithin production area,main distribution board, ofadequate capacity fornormallyanticipatedunitneed ofabout 70kVA, fitted with fused switchboard. (70 kVA units in range of 1 000 m2 and upwards need separateloadcalculations.)Lightingcircuitsto beprovided within offices and lay in appropriate locations. Power socket outlets to be provided in offices. Fused switch socket outlets to beprovided in lay where el sto heaters used. In offices —vp234 lighting wiring should followlikelyoffice subdivision and should finishwith fluorescent fitting but in lay and do should be batten ceiling typefitting. Provide external flood lighting atbackof bldg over service door wired to each individual unit to illuminate rear service area: may be supplemented by street lighting where layout permits. Note: no provision to be made in standard specification for lighting trunking or 13 amp ring main in production areas. USA:currentcharacteristics ofservice vary with process. El eqp forair conditioning may be required for some processes orlocations. Telephone Underground service ducttobeprovided intoground floortoallow easy cable connexion. Gas/gascentralheating Services to be carried into bldg and sealed off in production area. Supplycapacity to be designed toallow provision ofcentral heating to production and office areasto normalworking standards.Centralheating to be provided only when required at landlord's cost: may be in office areas for larger units using conventional hot water radiator system incorporating provision for hot water for domestic uses. Boiler to be sitedin production area. Watersupply/plumbing Cold water supply for domestic needs only to be carried into bldg; tenants'process orsprinkler requirements notallowed for: supplementary serviceto be laid if excessive need indicated. Cold and hot water supplies tobe connected to allwashing installations: hotwater supplied from either wall mounted el 3 kW sf0 heater (capacity54 I) or if more economic central hotwatercylinder having capacityapprox 351/basinor sink. All stotanks tobe adequatelyinsulated. Drainage Surface waterdrainage down pipes should have traps accessible from ground floorlevel and be locatedinpositions to avoidaccidentaldamage. Ample external surface watergullies should be provided in service yard to avoid waterstanding and grid channels should be provided across serviceyard entrance where levels ofyard could allow surface water to run off into bldg. Foul drainage should allow for domestic demand; sealed gully in production area for process effluent. Trade effluent certificate required for individual trade needs. Ventilation Mech ventilation tobe provided forwconlywhere layout makes impractical natural ventilation. All offices naturallyventilated. Productionareas needonlyhave separate provision for manuallycontrolled roofmounted extractors where chosen form ofheatingwill notachieve this result.Any extractor fans to be completely weather proofed and capable of being serviced at roof level. Fire alarm Alarm systems to be installed toeach unitthroughout office production areas. El operated systemwith manual initiation. Supplementary brief (program) to advise if provision to be made for sprinklers, smoke detectorsor emergency lighting. Hosereel pointsonly to be provided whererequired by reg or statute. In USA sprinkler design approved by state insurance commissionorfire marshall's office. Industrial buildings references: —eBibliographyentries 031 036 052 053 164 177 178257280284301 305 331 332 333 338 341 346 348352 354 363 374 382 387418456 470 477480 481 486 505 534 539 590 592 597 600601 602603604 605 606 608 616 627 634 642651 Industry 291 Laboratories ________ CLASSIFICATION Lab differwidelyin layout and service requirements according to use. linkto adjoiningunit &/orfireescape aM IL] eH Classificationcategoriesincludetype ofdiscipline(eg chemistry,physics, biology), level ofstudy(eg routine, teaching, research),provision of eqp (egbenches, rigs), level ofservicing (eg wet, dry). Hospital lab —+p176 bE2] TRENDS In past lab designed for specific, fixed use; now growing tendency advocate 'multi-purpose' where worker has permanent station. Rapid changes in technology create new fieldsof study and demand costly sophisticated eqp which must be fully used: consequent need for adaptable labspaces which may bechanged during life ofbldg. Most difficulties in adapting to change arise because lab benches, sto cupboards and piped services aspermanentfixtures can only be moved with considerable effort and disruption. 1 approach is design main structure and standardservices asfixed items with more specific variable items,including furniture, movable. dE2i ii Comparisonof square& rectangularlab unitsofequalar showinggreaterflexibilityoffered bysquare layout arectangular unit (24.8m2) bsquareunit(24.5 m2)C2workers& sharedeqp d3workers&sharedeqp e4 workers&shared eqp in centralar 2workers&largerig 1 PLANNINGPRINCIPLES Most significant recent developmentsin planning: adoption of square rather than rectangular modules —÷(1) allowing for greater flexibility in bench arrangements with introduction of island bench unitsand freestanding eqp; use of movable table tops rather than permanent fixed bench units: variations in work top height as well as grouping of tables can be achieved to suit particular needs; f 2 a banthropometricdata governingbenchspacingforboth teaching& research type bench h seat h w kneehole mm vertical distance mm floorto underbench sittingonly sitting& standing: women sitting& standing: men 3 700 850 900 425 625 675 575 575 575 606 800 850 INDIVIDUALSPACEREQUIREMENTS —*(2)(3) Ideally conditioned by critical anthropometric dimensions, eg depth of work top being based on max convenient reach; may be some 600 in theorybut in practice worktopmay vary between 610 and 840. Work top length similarly may vary between 2100and 4600for researchstudent, depending on discipline and particular research requirements; can be reduced to approx 1 500/P where groups of workers share eqp. Work top heightmay varybetween lowchemistry benches at450above flocr level and 900 forbenches at whichworker stands. Typical rangeofbench&seatI _ILLIIJLL±IIILIJ r;i arrangement of heavy eqp, fume cupboards, wash-up etc grouped in central servicezones. PLANNINGMODULE Working unit (group ofworkplaces) forms basic planning bay ormodule —(2b). Normal workplace can beconsidered as being approx 1600 x 800. Modulewidth may vary from 2600 to 5250; av approx 3000 to 3600, which allows 2 parallel rowsof benches with centre gangway giving room to pass between 2workers. = 2workspaces + centre passageway Modulew 2 x 800 3000—3600 I. hiflfTTTTTflrfl FtiIiiIL Li:'1 !Tn1T1t 1400—2000 Typical bldg dimensions include: modulew 3000—3600 moduled 5000—8000 corrw 2000—2500 3600—4200 storeyh L. 4 Typical plan showing flexible lab with grouped central services (preclinicalsciencesSouthampton UniversityEngland) ArchJohn S BonningtonPartnership key 1 teachinglab 2post-graduate & research lab 3preparation& servicemi 4rmwith specialisteqp 5 Typicalplan showingrelationship of centralworkspace tolab unit (zoologydept Edinburgh University Scotland) ArchArchitecture Research Unit Universityof Edinburgh key 1 lay 2sto 3culture 4 research lab 50ff 6cold mi 7lecturelab 8instruments 9 post-graduate lab 10chromatology 11 centralworkspace l2warmrm l3darkrni l4secretary l5labl6radioactiverml7media preparationmi 18wash-up I 16 ip I 32 15 48 20m I 64 ft 292 Industry Laboratories SERVICES DISTRIBUTION —ip383—4 Sub-main distribution can be either offvertical ducts serving individual orpairs oflab ateveryfloororoffhorizontal ducts serving group oflab on everyfloor.Vertical ducts can be integrated with main structural frame, provideready access toservices onfloorthey serve, eliminate problem of fumecupboard ducting; butcanprove expensivestructurally if service potential not fully utilised. Horizontal distribution of sub-mains usually cheaper initially; but has not same adaptability and requires numerous connexions infloor. Several methods of servicing individual benches available; need for adaptability led to development of movable and pre-plumbed services connected flexiblyto floor points. Central service spine permits backto-backlayout of benches; service bollard allows benching laid out in 2 directions. However, studies of relocatable spine systems show new layout ofteninvolves extra costand disrupts activities in rm below since live supply of services to all possible connexion points prohibitively expensive. Overhead servicing by mast and/or flexibles more convenient and economic arrangement. Perimeter,peninsularand island layoutscan be serviced in any combination and spacing required. Access for maintenance and adaptation can be achieved with mm disruption offurniture and eqplayouts and confined tofloorbeing served. Valuablefloorspace can be saved since traditional floor-mounted service spine between benches removed. Furthermore, tendency overprovideto compensate for lack of flexibility in layout reduced. DISPOSALSYSTEMS Drainage problem with overhead servicing: gravity ratherthan pumped systems simplest, with permanent grid of floor points. Lab wastes may carry corrosive agents orbe ofvery high temp. Drip cups, bottletrapsin borosilicate glass and chemically resistantptfe flexible tubing to outlets normal methods of dealing with suchrequirements. In any case waste runs should be immediately visible and accessible in rm towhichtheybelong. or vacuum-assisted Solid waste normally put in bins; but in hospital research or animal experiment lab incinerationofsoiled materialorcarcassesobligatory. STORAGE Growth in project work and use of multi-discipline lab has increased amount and type ofsf0. Recent developmentstowardadjustableshelving and trays: movable sto unitsundertables more adaptable than fixed bench sto. Pressing needfor further space makes organisation and management ofsto major consideration. Categories include: central: special sf0 often centralised (eg workshop sto, inflammable solvents, explosives, poisons); best for large scale and/or expensive eqp; staff organisation and checking control important; local: frequent use of items necessitates regular local sto, limited in capacity; workplace: essential forpersonal eqp and project work material. Flexiblelab arofscienceblock WellesleyCollegeMassachusetts USA Arch PerryDeanStahl Rogers 1 key h hotwater coidwater main waste g gas twp rainwater m W wvp waste ventpipe te telephone& at le iume extract I lightingtrunking heatingpipes as air suppiy 3 Zoologydept EdinburghUniversityScotland: leftintegration ofservicesandstructure right sectionthroughdeptextension showing repetitive verticalsub-mainsducting 2 iFmn 400 - wUP . LjL oljHlL worktop sto cpd o 4 Overheadflexibleservicinginpilot project LeicesterPolytechnic EnglandArch Leicester EducationAuthority 400 5 Sectionthroughscienceslab Polytechnic Sunderland England showing detailsof overhead servicing& its integration withinstructure ArchJo4in SBonnington Partnership Industry 293 Laboratories SPECIALREQUIREMENTS Some operations need special eqp or techniques calling for particular controlled environment not availableorappropriate ingeneral lab areas. These include: cold sto & lab warm & incubator rm sterile/dust free rm dark rm fumeproducing techniques chromatography rm chemical distillation steam production vibration/noisy eqp animal rm radiation & x-rayrm temp control important air locks & cleansing provision needed entrycontrol needed cupboardsusuallysufficient: largescale need special rm special rm: fume extraction extraction needed structural & plan isolation environment & security control screening & security RELATEDSPACES 1 Detailsof lab benchesinscienceblockWellesley Space for related activities needed in addition to general lab provision: staff, seminar, small off, lib, do, sto, plant, preparation, some or all of suchrm will be needed College Massachusetts USA FINISHES Floor: durable, easy clean and maintain, resistant to most chemicals likelybe spilled; ideally should be lointless or have mm jointspossible. Such traditional finishes aswood blocks still preferred by users buttend to high cost. Sheet linoleum, pvc or rubber with welded orsealed joints and coved skirtings now more common. Walls &ceilings:special protection notgenerally needed. Suspended ceilings provide smooth, light-reflecting surface with acoustic properties to whichpartitions can be abutted. Walls need to be washed down from time to time: blockwork should be plastered and decorated or sealed with sprayed plastics finish. Worktops: traditionally solid timber, teak or iroko; laminated plastics faced board cheaper. Aswith floor multitude of finishes frompvctiles or sheetto vitreous tiles can be used, depending on type of work being carried out. 2 Mobile fumecpdshowingserviceconnexions 3 TypicalteachingarTeacherTrainingCollegeTeesideEngland Laboratoryreferences: —.Bibliographyentries 039 122 206 278 283 336 337 341 349 354362 524571 a ci) 294 Industry Farm buildings PURPOSE partsper million hydrogen sulphideH2S I upper limitconsidered acceptableforman to breath duringworkingday carbon ammonia NE-I3 dioxideCO2 5000 10 25 Design data presented here are based on human and animal requirements, animal housing technology including labour use, crop sto and processing, waste handling and legal controls. Toxic gas limits illumination (lx) —.p25 2050* stockyard calf nursery sickanimal pen pig/poultryshed HUMANWELFARE 50 50 Man: environment 30_50* milking ar Dust concentration not more than 10 mg/rn3ofair 100 100 dairy Toxic gases —v(1) Noiselevel not more than 90dB (A) per 8 hr-day exposure Avoid contact with dirt ifpossible Illumination levels —+(2) 20_50* 2050* 20_50* vacpumprm barnetc tractorimplements farmworkshop 100 * higherfigureapplieswhen nonatural lighting CATTLE:BASICDATA Illuminationlevels 2 Function of farm bldg to modify effect of climate on livestock, crops, agricultural eqp and man atwork. Housing also allows easier handling and storing of feeds, products and waste materials. Decision to erect farm bldg may also be influenced by other considerations, eg investment, taxation, personal motives etc. Thermal requirements Under UKclimatic conditions allclasses ofcattle can be housed at temp equivalent tothoseprevailingoutside. Protectionfromrain notnecessary forolderanimals (180kgliveweight) ifanimalperformanceonly criterion. But combination of rain, wind and lowtemp may lead to fluctuation of food intake. In high rainfall areas rainwater entering waste sto system can be excessive. USAwide variations inclimate meanall classescattle cannoteverywhere be housed at temp equivalent to that prevailing outside. Except in temperate areas milking cows need protection in extremes of cold and 3 heat. In blizzard areas cows calvingand beef cattle up to 14—16 months old need shelter. DimensionsofFriesiancows type age weight kg youngfemales (heilers) cows lightbreeds medium-heavy heavy withers body I neck I 35 700 650 6rnonths 175 1000 1101) — — 1year 2year 1150 1 250 1 250 1 450 — — 3year 300 450 575 1300 1600 mature mature mature 350—450 500—550 600—650 1140—1350 1 390—1620 600—620 1 320—1380 1 530—1650 630—650 1 350—1440 1 620—1680 650—700 atbirth calves hto 4 — Typicaldimensionsofcattle; recently USAbeefcattlerevertedto longer back animal I 1100 1300 1500 1 600 1 700 1800 5 reachof mouthforvarious h of feed table abovestance 0 100 200 300 400 750 800 850 800 840 880 900 920 940 840 910 980 1 020 1 060 1080 910 960 1010 1030 1060 1080 940 990 1040 1070 1090 1120 880 900 930 Reachofmouthofcattle Animaldimensions Typical dimensions ofFriesiancows shown—v(3); otherclasses ofcattle Reach ofmouth basic criterion fordesign offeeding barriersand troughs —v(5). Feed &waterintake Cattle in UK consume 30—60 kg of forage or silage depending upon energyand fibrecontentof ration, and drink 35—601 ofwater per day. In USAwider variation in normal feed and water intake. 295 Industry Farm buildings a CA1TLE Wasteproduction Cattle defecate and urinate indiscriminately:canonly be madetodeposit waste in particular places by useofphysical restraint,egcubicles. —*(1) showsquantities ofwaste produced by different classes of cattle 1200kg/rn2deadload 200 kg/rn2 live load HOUSINGELEMENTS Housing systems canbeclassified bymethod ofcollectingand handling waste products. In slatted floor systems waste passes through perforations in floor to be collected and periodically removed from cellar beneath. In straw-bedded pens dung and some urine absorbed by straw. Resultant farmyard manure must be removed periodically. In cubicle systems use made of inability of cattle to walk backwards up step.Raised cubicles can thereforeonlybeentered headfirst; dungand urine deposited into cubicle passage, scraped regularly, or may be slatted. Slatted floorpens Slatted floorsystems eliminatebedding and save labour. Proper space allowances —(2) should be maintained to ensure sufficient animal treading action. Totally slatted floors normally used for beef cattle or suckler cows only. For dairycows useofslats limitedto cubiclepassages, feeding stances and circulationareas. 3 Reinforcedconcreteslatsforcattle 4 Slurrydraw-offpoints 125 slat laid with 40 gap suitable for all stock above 200 kgliveweight or 6—8months —*(3).Foryounger stockqualityand conditionofslats more critical: 25 or 30gap preferable. Slurry cellars should be flat floored with draw-off points orreceiving pits for vacuum tankers orpumps at gable ends orperimeter walls. Sluice gatesliftedorpusheddown allowing slurryto fill receiving pit; overflow lip system —.p304(4) also used. Sometimes necessary agitate slurry before emptying. For this purpose slats may have to be removed for access with recirculation/agitation pump. Some designs incorporate suspendedcentral passage with several access points. Some pumps require 0.5 m sump to work efficiently. Examples of slurry draw-off points—*(4). Sto capacities of slurrycellars —(5). Externalwaste sto—p301 (3). animal calf calf store(stock) dairyheifer beef age (month) 0—3 3—6 6—15 6—15 15—24 15—24 dairy heifer beefcow 24+ dairycow 24+ 1 wasteproduced (kg/day) (m3/day) 5 7 14 14 0.005 (O.17ft3) 21 21 28 45 0.007 0.014 0.014 0.021 0.021 0.028 0.045 (1.6ff3) Avquantitiesofwasteproduced bycattle floor ar weightof approx animal (kg) age (months) (m2/animal) 200 300 400 450 500 550 2 7 12 16 18 20 23 1.1 1.5 1.8 1.9 2.1 2.2 Spaceallowanceforbeefcattleonslats weightof beast (kg) floor ar sto capacity (m3lbeast) forvarious cellardepths(m) (m2/beast) 0.9 200 300 400 450 500 550 1.1 1.5 1.8 1.9 2.1 2.2 1.2 1.5 1.8 2.1 0.99 1.32 1.65 1.98 2.31 1.35 1.8 2.35 2.7 3.15 1.62 2.16 2.7 3.24 3.78 1.71 2.28 2.85 3.42 3.99 1.89 2.52 3.15 3.78 4.41 1.98 2.64 3.3 3.96 4.62 5 Stocapacitiesofbelow-slatcellars 2.4 2.7 3.0 2.64 3.6 4.32 4.56 5.04 5.28 2.97 4.05 4.86 5.13 5.67 5.94 3.3 4.5 5.4 5.7 5.3 6.6 (I) 296 Industry Farm buildings numberof animals capacityofurinetankrequired(m3) CAULE 540 kg beef cows 360 kg 450 kg beef cattle beef cattle 50 100 150 200 22 44 66 88 19 22 38 57 76 44 Build-up ofslurryatrecommended stocking densities 300—400/month, depending on type and level of feeding. Hay fed animals produce thick slurrydifficulthandle with pumps. In suchsystems high-level slats can be installed allowing tractor access for mucking out. Urine drained off throughdrainage shafts intourinetank. Urine tank capacity fordifferent numbers ofanimals —(1). 66 88 Tankcapacityrequiredfor2monthsstoof urinefromhigh level slattedbldg 1 Fortypical arrangement ofhigh-level slatted systems —(2). Straw-bedded pens Resting area bedded with 2—4 kg allowance/animal —(3). 2 Mucking out usually doneonce during and at end of housing period. Build-up of bedding overhousing period .—*(4). Walls mustbebuiltwithstandpressureofmuck and stock:225 blockwork with piers at3000 centres rising to height of 1 400 above max level of muck build-up suitable. Height should preferably be3700(mm 3000at eavesto allow tractor headroomformucking out. High levelslats forbeef cattle weight(kg) (months) 200 300 450 500 550 3.0 3.4 4.0 4.2 7 12 18 20 23 lot housing period (months) Space allowances forcattlein bedded pens build-upof muck(m) 3.4 ma/beast 4.0m2/beast 2.1 5 4 3 2 1.75 1.4 1.05 0.7 0.35 5 3 4.4 6 1 Whereverbedding next to feeding trough step or ramp should total ar, lying &feeding(m2/animal) approxage of straw/animal/day. For space be provided allow cattle reach trough comfortably —(5). Floors should preferably be concreted butrammed hardcore may be used. Ifliquidto bedrained fromunderbedding concrete floor should have fall of 1:20. Concrete feeding stance above level of bedding area provided in part-bedded pens: saves some straw. Cattle may also be given access concrete area cleaned by scraping in self-feed silage systems. Silo floor should fall 1:30 away from feed face. Open scraped areas should fall 1:30away fromtroughs and covered areas. Urineand faeces together with bedding and feed residuals scraped to external slurrysto (midden). Tractor mounted orautomatic scraper blades normally used remove slurryintosto. Cubicles 1.8 1.5 1.2 0.9 0.6 0.3 4 Build-upofmuck at2stockingdensities (not USApractice) In this system small quantities bedding (500 g/daychopped straw or sawdust) spread over resting area equipped with cubicles and raised 150 above passage. Cubicle divisions —(6) should not hinder lying or rising movements ofanimals orallow animal to gettrapped orentangled in cubicle frame. Cubicles not often used for beef cattle. Keeping cubicle bed dry more difficult with male animals. Problem accentuated by fact that animals are growing. Cubicle system not suitable for bull beefproduction. Cubicle must notbe sowidethat smallestanimalto use itcanturn round and dungin it; but must be wide enough allow animal lie comfortably. Cubicles must be short enough ensure dung falls in passage: but cubicles too shortwill not be used as animal will lie over heelstone or kerb. Adjustable head or knee rail used to reduce effective length of cubicle;adjustable side rails accommodatedifferent sizes of beast. Cubicle dimensions should be related toanimal weight—(7). Step orramponbeddedfloor Cubicle passage widths (mm): slatted 1 800, solid scraped 2100. If passage serves also as feed stance, mm widths 2500 slatted, 3000 scraped. Cross-passes 1 800 should be provided if more than 25—30 cubiclesin line. Calf pens Mm space required —(8). Divisions forindividual pens can be constructed from demountable and adjustable rails,or boardswhere completeseparationrequired. Divisions should bedemountable and easily cleaned and disinfected. Alternative to individual penstethered feedfence—.(9). 6 Cubicledivisionsforcattle 612 7 I& w cubicles as relatedtoweight 8 pen type age (weeks) mm individual upto4 1.1 (1.5 group uptog upto8 Mm uptol2 space (m2/calf) 180 -i 640 x 0.75m) 3660 1.8(1.8x 1Gm) 6casT L1& 1.1 1.5mm space requiredforcalf pens 9 Tetheredfeed fence 4270 Industry 297 Farm buildings CATTLE C Calf pens(cont) In grouppens with bucket feeding pen front oftenequipped with simple manual trapping yoke. 1 Alternativeto buckets cascadetrough: allowssimplified pipeline delivery of milk with individual rationing.—(1)shows details ofcascadetrough: system suitable for larger scale operations where labour spent on feeding tasks often reduced to mm. Self-trapping yoke installed to control calves during feeding reduces subsequent cross-suckling. 'Automatic' feeders mix and supplymilk substitute feed to groups of 10—15 calves on adlib basis: allow more flexible labour routines but feed consumption (and hence cost) higher. Cascadetrough formilkfeeding calves Feeding weight (kg) approxage 150 2 Troughspacefor restrictedfeeding 300 400 450 500 550 mm troughspace (months) (mm/animal) 5 12 16 18 360 520 600 20 23 620 640 660 J:L__ i5 jpj 300:otoer stock 250:youngerstock 130° 500 180 3 nmn Feeding barriersforcattle 25 When feed rationed or restricted sufficient trough space must be provided for all animals feed simultaneously. Trough space requirements When teed continuously available (ad/lb feeding) notall animals require teed atonce.Trough-space/animal depends on typeof feed aswell as sizeofanimal. Lessspace required forcereal feed than forforage: grainor concentrates: 75—100/animal self-feedsilage: 100—175/animal mechanically-filled trough maintainedfull: 175/animal Feeding barriers —(3)essential prevent feed wastage. Self-trapping feeding barriers (yokes) designed prevent animal access tofeed,or restrain or releaseselected animals—*(4). Dimensions of trough and feeding passages for mechanised cattle feeding —*(5). Inclined floortrough allows animals reach further; subsequently less secondaryhandlingoffeeds required—.p294(5). Forunits housing over200animalsflat floor feeding passage4400wide preferred: feed left outside reach of cattle can be pushed forward nearer to them using specialised tractor mounted plough or brush attachment. Feed residuals can be also removed using this machine. Feed bunkers for complete (mixed) diets—*(6). These hold2—3days' supplysince denser feeddeteriorates less rapidly. j Self-feedingbarrier 6 5 Passagesformechanised feedingofcattle 1600 :/LZ,//k , 4 120 Feedbunkersforcomplete(mixed)diets (1) 298 Industry Farm buildings passages). Lower (inlet) area twice this. Ifdifference in height between inletsand outlets different from1 000, areas multiplied by height factor obtained from—(3b). CATFLE Feeding (cont) Typical dimensions ments —*(2). ofmobile feeding eqp —(1); turning space require- Feeding stances should allow space for animals pass behind others feeding. Foradult cattle allow 2400mm forslatted stances,2700mm for solidscraped stances. Watering Should be 10—30 animals/water bowl. Water troughs should provide 0.02 m2 of water surface/animal or 300 of water trough frontage for 40—50animals. During winter water should be heatedto 10CC.Provision to prevent cattle fromdefecating intowaterdrinker required: install floor curb200highor rail about 300 fromdrinker; ordrinkers can be recessed into wall or covered with cattle operated flaps. Water bowls ortroughs usually installed at height 700—1 000: should be located where do not obstruct otheranimals feedingor movingto and fromfeeding area, and preferably wherespillage will notwetbedded lying areas. Ventilation Natural ventilation suitable for ventilating all cattle bldg, including calf bldg. Fan-assistedventilationsystems only justifiedinexceptionalcircumstances eg USA in heavily fly infested areas to supplement fly spray system; exhaust fan system not continuous running but worked on times.Sizesofopenings fornatural ventilation basedonbldg floor area, weightof cattle and difference in height between airinlet and airoutlet. —*(3a) used to obtain area/animal of upper opening (outlet) from av weight of animal in bldg and total bldg floor area/animal (including Example 1: 30 x 100 kg calves in bldg 750 difference between inlets& outlets floor ar/calf 75/30 = 2.5 m2 outletar 0.042 x h factor 0.7 = 0.03 m2/calf inlet ar double this = 0.06 m2/calf x 10000 with 2000 h Example 2: 100 x 400 kg cattle in bldg 10 x 30 m, 2500 h difference between inlets& outlets floor ar/animal 300/100 = 3 m outletar 0.087 x hfactor 0.57 = 0.05m2/head inlet ar doublethis = 0.1 m2/head Design procedures also available for bldg with single openings, eg open-fronted bldg, and slotted roofs (—+Bibl08). Type of ventilation opening can be chosen suit method of construction and size required. Simplest has continuous opening at eaves and open ridgeformed by omitting ridgecapping—(4). Mechventilation should notbeneeded ifnaturalventilation designed for in newworkorconversions. If required, provide capacityof 1.4 m3/h kg live weight= 0.39 I/s kg live weight. Design openings to provide inlet speed of0.5—1 rn/s. Animal handling&veterinarysystems Efficient handling systems essential for speedy and safe restriction of animals for veterinary, breeding or management purposes. Important elements ofcattle handlingand controlsystemsare shown—p299. E S E '0 t0 S 0 1 Dimensionsoftractorwith fore-endloader&of forageself-emptywagon a b hd,ffe(er'ceinIe&outlet 3 a arofridgeopeningasdetermined byweightofanimal &stocking density; bhfactorforcalculationofventilationopenings +24t t/////////////Z '/,'2' 2 Turningspacesforfeedingmachinery 4 Open ridge:USA ventedridgepreferred tff 8000 race Industry Farm buildings CATTLE Animal handling(cont) ________ 33°E1____ __________ 330[H____ 255El __________ l75:1 _____ torcingpen IiII Li iii iiii iiIi ' I it I2I II Li U Isolation pens forveterinary treatment,disease diagnosisetcshould be provided. Pens (3000 x 6000) should be bedded: feed should be delivered totrough fromoutside pen; for dairy cows milking line should beinstalled. Drain separatelyfromother animal areas. Calving pens should be separate from main resting area; floor should be bedded; tractor access for mucking out required. Pen size 4000 x 4000adequate. Holding pens space requirements: beef cattle 0.95—1.4 m2/beast mm adult cattle 1.7m2/beast cows and cattle 1.85 m2/cow and calf IiIi IiLi ______________ :TT60 Forcing penleads fromcollecting pen to race;should befunnel-shaped and should hold not less than 12 cows plus calves or 15 adult cattle. catwalk crush & vetgates vet gates race Single sided splay preferable, with 30 angle. Race(chute): 18mlong 680 wide internallyand 1 680 totop rail will hold 10—12 cattle. Catwalks should be provided on both sidesof race 760 above ground level and not less than 300wide. — crush J_______ J 3—way shedder 299 ______ pen2 pen 3 Crush (squeeze chute): race terminatedbycrush which may be metal proprietary make orconstructed in timber. Weighcratesometimes used ascrush. There should be goodaccess at bothsidesto head,neck, feet, underflanks and rear ofanimal. Crush should beunder cover with good daylight and artificial lightand provisionforhosing down whole area. Shedder gate: should be installed after crush wherever need to sort animals for weighing, separation for pregnancy, loading etc. Gates should be installed at far end of all holding pens allow recirculation of groups or individual animals. Dimensions of cattle handling systems —v(1), typical Iayout—*(2). race recircijlationalley catt race 1 Cattle handlingsystems: dimensions Milking In loose housing systems cows milked in parlour. Milking in cowsheds using bucket or pipeline not practised in new dairy units because of access 2 hygieneand high labour requirements both in milking and cleaningeqp. Examples oftypical milking parlours—v(3). Basic considerations which will determine type and size of milking parlour: max size of herd (allowing for future expansion) time allowance formilking (max2hours) max mean peakyield concentrate feeding policy use of dairy labour (1 or 2 men) capital available Automatic cluster removal essential in 1-man operated rotary parlours toavoid serious overmilking ofcows. In UKsecondoperatorconsidered wasteful of labour since not fully occupied during milking. In USA second operator required forhandstripping.Selectingnumber ofmilking units complex matter: for advice consult local agricultural advisory service. Cattle handling systems: typical layout Design of parlour pit for operator should respect ergonomic limitations of operators. Location of milking jar should not hinderroutine tasks or obscure viewofcows. 3 Typesofmilkingparlour abreast hernngbone r I LI II tandem III 1 chule tandem '' 300 Industry Farm buildings CA1TLE length'A' noof Milking (cont) Pit depth —(1 )(D) ideally 950 for tall milker, false floor being used for shortermilkers: compromise depth of750oftenused. Pit width—.(1 )(C) for2stalls/unit mm 1 515, for 1 stall/unit 1 515 mm for 1 operator and 1 828mm for 2operators. cows 6 8 10 12 14 Use only high-level jars in pits less than 1 515 mm. 16 Parlour length —e(1)(A) 3050 + 500/rn standing. 20 22 24 18 Rotary pariourdimensions vary between individual manufacturersas well as with type and number of standing.—n(2) gives guide; use manufacturer'sdata fordetailed design. Collecting area: before milking cows moved from resting and feeding area tocollecting areanext milking parlour.Space allowancein collecting area should be 1.35 m2/cow, but 1.1 m2 usuallyadequate with straight herringbone parlours where initial batch of cows removed almost immediately. In rectangular yardswidth usually equal that of parlour. Cows should enter at farther end so that all movement in 1 direction. Circular yards make backing gate easier install: usually either full or three-quarter round. Capacityshould be coordinatedwith size of herd orgroup. When at grazing in summer herd maybegrouped differently or not atall. 6050 7050 8050 9050 10050 11050 12050 13050 14050 15050 Dairy: normally attached milking parlour reduce length of pipe runs. Should be sitedso that rear of milk tanker can be parked within 3000of door; adequate tanker turning space must be provided.900clear space should be left all round bulk milk tank(s) (mm 600). Space must be provided for working and for eqp as required: washing troughs, water heater, cupboard, cleaning products etc. Ifexpansion of herd may take place space should beprovided for replacementoftank by largerone, or installationof second tank. 2600mm ceiling height may be required for use of tank dipstick. Wide external doorway (2000—2500) with no astragal should be provided for installationor replacementoftank. Tank capacity can be calculated by taking av daily yield and adding 40—50% to contain fluctuations and possible future yield increases. Alternatively, workfromfigures of 181 asdaily yield, to which 20% may be added to allow forall cows reaching peak yield at same time. Internal finish of dairy must be smooth and easily cleaned eg walls cementrendered and paintedwith chlorinated rubber or epoxy paint to height of at least 1 400; non-slip concrete floor draining to trapped gulley; rooflinedon underside ofjoistssothatitcanbekept freeof dust and cobwebs. Dairy must be lightand airy: windows one-tenth of floor area; opening windowsorventilators fly-proof; illuminationof 100 lx required. In USA reg require screened openings; lobbytype entryalso necessaryprevent flyspraymist contaminatinganimals' feed or utensils. Motor rm should be separate from dairy, area 3.5—4 m2. Provision for tractor pto to operate vacuum pump in power emergencies may be required. Office to accommodate table, wall charts etc should be sited with clear viewofparlour and area next to unit. Modern dairy unitshould have wc, changing rrn and rest rm for staff. Feeding: concentrate often fed in parlour from automatic dispenser, oftenfeed stored in loft over parlour. Sometimes bulk bin set outside and feedstransported to parlourbyauger. Footbath:provide forfootbathfarenough away from parlourexit prevent slow flow of cattle leaving parlour. In such situation footbath does not require to be more than 1 200 wide butto be effective should be at least 3000 in length and have drain outlet. Possiblearrangementof services in 120-cow dairy unit—*(3). I Herring-bonemilkingparlourdimensions type tandem tandem herringbone herringbone abreast abreast abreast numberof standings approxdia (m) 16 12 18 7.6 13.5 7.0 9.2 14 6.1 20 30 7.7 11.4 8 2 Rotary milkingparlours: approxdia 3 Servicesin 120-cowunit Industry 301 Farm buildings CAULE :3 Bull pens C Pen can be sitednear collecting areasothat cows ontheirwaytomilking parlour may see bull. Stockman can thus observe cow behaviour and look formanifestation of heat' or readinessto mate. Feeding and watering of bull mustbecarried out from outsidepen. Wall, gatesand feedersmust beofsubstantialconstruction. Cowservice area should be incorporated within pen layout. Dry lying areashould slope to drain, usually raised by 50 from concrete floor and well bedded with straw or sawdust. Feeder should be provided with strong trapping yoke to restrain animal for routine veterinary treatment or restriction during cleaning. Refuge' must be installed ineach corner of pen—.(1). Tethering ringenables bulltethered independently ofyoke. Exercising yard (unroofed) oftenprovided next to bull pen (20—35 m2). Service pen should include foot rests to take weight of heavy bull especially when used with young heifers. Footrests are 2sloping timber ramps 225—300 wide, fitted to inside of pen walls. Length of rests approx1 500, height 530atrear to900 at cow'sshoulder. Typical layout and dimensions for twin bull pens —n(2). External wastestorage 1 Slurry sto —ep295 304 requiredfor wastefrom scrapedareas in cubicle units oras extrasto for slatted units with shallow channels. Slurrysilos or tanks (above and below ground) lose moisture ony by evaporation. Dungsteads and middens designed drain off excess liquids and used for more solid waste, or help solidify semi-solid wastes(not used USA, where muck collectedbycontractors). Examples—n(3). Bull pen refuge detail Dairy cow housing Examples ofdairyunits—r(4). 2935 2 Bull pens:typical layout&dimensions 4 Dairyunits:typical layouts lagoon dependson lagoon Capacity 310 IT I 4— channei\ \ ,.f//fl/7 25 /////Z/ZZt7f///Zi/Z///////// tank 3 spacing Externalwastesto ramp // flZ/ ///Z. core ///////// / / /110ramp 300 butylsheet melden (I) 302 Industry Farm buildings Sucklercow housing CATTLE Beefcattle housing Beef cattle normally housed in slatted, bedded or part-bedded pens, occasionally in cubicles. Linear plans usual, with pens arranged either side feeding passages. Pen depth determined by ratio of floor space —np294(5) 295(2) to feed trough length animal —.p297(2). Typicalplans -a(1). In some low rainfall areas possible house and fatten cattle in roofless unitson sheltered sitesorwith sheltered wall. These units have slatted pens or sometimes cubicles. Slurry sf0 must have additional capacity for rain falling on unit. Ifentiremale cattle (bull beef) kept pens must berobust with divisions at least1 600high: cubicles should notbeused. For safety ofstockmen all fittings, eg waterbowls, should be accessible from outside pens and goodanimal handling and loadingarrangements(race (chute) etc) must be provided: example of bull beef housing —.(2). NB: beef cattle not normally housed in USA apart from loafing barns—.(6) Calf production from suckler cows usuallyrelies onsmall, early maturing cow,well adaptedsevere environments.Provisionofcalf creep (nursery) pens (where calves receive food without competition from cows and rest)major design point of difference fromother formofbeefhousing. Cows housed in cubicles, bedded pens or slatted pens. In slatted pens allow 2.5—3 rn2/cow. Cowareas communicate with calf creep pens by creep gate through which only calvescan pass.Creep pens dimensioned according avsizeof calf, which depends on calving date—o(3). Should be visual contact between cows and calves in creep; inspection of and access to creep pen for supervision, feeding, cleaning waterbowls and mucking out (in bedded pens) should be good. Provide 1 waterdrinkerforevery12 calves. If cows tocalve indoors, provide separate calvingarea, preferably straw bedded pen. Typical arrangements of suckler cow housing—.(4). Calf housing General arrangement of calf housing units—.(5). e I, tM14 126 3000 5400 4 I 1.... i, 36 _____ Beef housingunits:typical layouts 1 Vslattedpens creep j 'L I J J J I cainp pen 4 Suckler cow bldg: typical layout 2 Bull beet unit layout calvingdate bedded pen (m2/calf) slattedcreeppen (rn/calf) springcalving continuouscalving 1.1 1.4 autumn calving 1.7 1.0 1.2 1.4 3 Sizes ofcalf creeppens 385 space kiI 1f,anei r 6 Loafingbarn 5 Calf housingunits:layout 81 — tractoraccess .1• Industry 303 Farm buildings Thermalrequirements Outside thermoneutral range of tempanimals either too hot, or will be wasting feed keeping warm because too cold. Thermoneutral range of different classes of pigs depends on level offeeding, type offlooring, number of pigs/pen and air velocity. —(1) shows ambient air temp related to 3 floor types, 3 times maintenance level of feeding and air velocity not exceeding 0.15 m/s. Thermoneutral zone of sows pregnant for 112 days, live weight of 140 kg undersame conditions as above: 11—25° for thin and 7—25° for fat animals. Pigs on low feeding levels should be kept at2—3°C higher airtemp than thoseon high levels. —*(2) shows relationshipsbetween feed,floorand mm airtempfor65 kg pigs. Thermalinsulation—p393—4 Animal dimensions —°(3) givesbodydimensions ofdifferent classes ofpigs. Behaviour:buildingimplication Eliminatory: pigs defecate in discriminatory fashion,iewithin selected area usually determinedby location of water drinkers —p304. Every pig tends defecate in own area within eliminatory zone. Important allow enough space ineliminatory zone, sothat atleast3pigs maydefecate at same time. Should less space be given likelythat some excreta will be deposited elsewhere, eqin lying orfeeding area. Sexual: newly weaned sows should be housed near boar in orderto encourage sexual behaviour. Partition between sows and boar should be perforated, allowing visual and bodily contact. Resting, eating & general movements: piglets spend approx 10— 20% of time suckling (15—25 times/day). Fattening pigs on dry ad/lb rations spend 5% of time feeding (8—12 times/day). On wet feeding only 3% of time spent at trough (4—8 times/day). In general fatteners (75 kg) would spend 80—85%of time lying, 15—17% moving about in pen, 3—5%eating. Abnormal behaviour: aggression amongst growing pigs manifested bytailand earbiting, sometimescannibalism.Savagingmore predominant among adult sows. Bldg designer can influence behaviour pattern by changes in stocking rate, group size or housing systems. Abnormal behaviour can be also caused by nutritional factors, genetic susceptibility, disease states, teething problems etc. floor type thermoneutralrange(°C) forvarious live weights(kg) concrete perforated bedded 34—5 31—5 30—5 1.5 20 17—30 16—30 10—30 40 60 age atfirst parturition litters/sow/year number/litter born alive number/litter at 3 weeks avweightof piglet at 3 weeks number ofpigletsstillalive at 8 weeks avweightat 8 weeks total weight ofweaned pigs/sow/year farrowing index = daysbetween birth of 1 litter & next limit to larrowing index national avof farrowing index 10% ofUK producers with farrowing index length of lactation = anytime upto85 days 403days 2.0 10.5 9.0 5.9 kg 8.7 18.2 kg 300kg 133 days 195 days 230 days pigsfattened as 40—90 kg porkers baconers 90 kg heavy hogs 120kg; USA 147—180 kg Illumination Keep pigs in dim light: but at least 5 lux —4p25 should be provided for management and servicing tasks. Feeding systems Pig can be fed wet or dry meal either in ad/lb or rationed form. Typical systems shown in following scheme: ,bags—hoppers---trough ry m wheelbarrow—+handscoop—trough automatic conveyor—÷hoppers-—trough "automatic conveyor—+hopper/dispenser-—*floor Trough-{ 1automaticpiped—*trough tank—.trough meaLm0be closecircuit communaltrough "(river feeding) ea\ / et \ Waterconsumption Adequate supplies of fresh water should be available at all times. Following waterallowances should begiven: Growing pigs il/dayat15kg liveweightincreasingto51/dayat 90 kg liveweight sows non-pregnant 51/day sowspregnant 5—8 I/day sows lactating 15—201/day 2 days sto ofwatershould be providedto ensure continuity ofsupply in emergencies. animal 1(m) w(m) h(m) rumpto approx weight(kg) breed shoulder(m) 100 boar 1.95 0.32 0.85 1.1 135 Iargewhite 13—29 13—29 11—29 12—29 10—28 11—28 sow 1.5 0.75 0.85 1.1 135 landrace 1.85 0.35 0.4 1.2 158 largewhite 7—29 5—29 4—28 fattener 1.28 0.3 0.7 0.95 77 largewhite weaner 0.9 0.2 0.42 0.7 50 0.72 0.17 0.33 0.58 40 largewhite 13 weeksold argewhite 11 weeksold 0.4 0.09 0.22 0.23 1 Thermoneutralzoneofpigs piglet 3 2 :3 Pig husbandrydata-check list: PIGS: BASIC DATA Feed—floor —airtemprelationships for65kgpig Approx pig sizes 2.5 7daysold a(n 304 Industry Farm buildings but also sawdust, peat, woodshavings etc, to faeces and urine. In general housing systems based on solid waste (farmyard manure) demand more labour for bedding tasks but no problems should occur where access, sto areaand run offdrain properly designed. PIGS: BASICDATA (cant) Watering Forvarious typesof drinkers and theirrespective water wastage—*(1). There should be 2 drinkers/pen in case 1 gets blocked. In general 1 drinker/6 pigs required. Bowl type drinkers should be sited where Bedded systems Straw bedding oftenused for pregnant sows (1.0 kg/day), boars and weaners (500 g/day) Bedded pensshould be at least3000wide.All internal partitionsshould be removable to allow tractor access for mucking out. Floors should be sloped 1:20 towards drain leading to sumpat side of bldg accessible for slurrytanker. Some bedded unitshave chain and paddle manure conveyor including loading elevator at one gable end. Manure removed twiceweeklyinto muck spreader and then tofieldsor sto(not usualinUSA). faeces contaminationminimised.Pig-operatedflapscan be used prevent contamination. Variation on trough drinker sometimes used: 50—75 pvc pipe set in raised concrete floor and top cut open, discharging water into shaped concrete within concrete floor: water supply controlled with ballcock valvelocated atbeginning of line. PIGS: WASTE Wasteproduction Slurrysystems Pigs fed dry meal with adfib water produce quantities ofwaste asgiven Pigs housed on perforated floors, eg slats, expanded metal ormesh; or dunging area onlyeither perforated orregularly scraped toholding tank. Faeces and urinestored inchannels below perforated floors. Channels emptied eithercontinuously oronce in 3months intoexternal slurrysto. Channels emptied periodically have sluice gateand receiving pit. Flushing system where liquid fraction of slurry pumped into tipping buckets holding several hundred I sometimes used. Flowremoves solid faeces and feed residuals intoexternal sto. Some slurrychannels have sump at end directly emptied with vacuum tanker. This system not recommended as oftendifficult remove solid sedimented at far end of channel. Continuous emptying ofslurry channels intoexternal storelies on hydrostatic pressure gradient which causes slurryto slide over lip into pit. Only narrow (1 000) channels not longer than 20 m should be used. Depth determined fromequation given —(4). Wastehandlingsystems Typicalsystems —(3). Solidwastes produced byadditions of bedding material, usually straw, type ofdrinker % of waterwastage indirectnipple (bite type) directlyoperatednipple bowl 46 56 6 12 trough animal live weight kg 15 piglet weaner growing—finishing growing—finishing boar Waterwastageof drinkers waste produced kg/day 1.04 1.9 30 70 90 4.4 5.8 4.03 125 170 160 drysow sow&litter 1 2 Waste (urine & faeces)producedby pigs 14.9 4.9 4 Continuousoverflowslurrychannel y 1 6 1 2 2 2 1 2 2 2 38 1 1: 51 22 < slurry handlingsystem lending system I a I c b d e I g S 3 7(Th 24 40 15 I feeders Illliquidfeedingfronr fendingsystems: dry feedingon floor IIdryfeecting fromautomatic trough&bowls dry feedingfrombowls Vdry feeditrg fromtroughs iv 3 Typicalwastehandling &feedingsystems manureremovalsystems a partfyslattedIloor overslurry channelbdoabledungnigpassages with sohdfloors ccentraidungung passagewithsolidfloor dservicepassageovercentralscraper channel epartlyslattedfloor(gaps:251 overcentralscraperchannel partlyslattedfloor (gaps: 25>over sidescraperchamels 9partlyslatted floor (ranied 100>oversidechannels hpartly slatted fkjor(raised 100>over centralscraperchanrid I Industry 305 Farm buildings Sow & boarhousing PIGS: MANAGEMENT Ventilation Forced orfan ventilation should be designed according to mm and max ventilation rate required, inlet air speed and subsequent air jet and air distribution pattern withinbldg. Free airoutput offans can be found from manufacturers' data sheets. Allowance should be made for resistance of ventilation ducts, usually 0.5—0.7 of their free air output. Inlet air speed or jets can be used to determine air movement within house: specialised technique and assistanceofspecialist should be sought. Pressurised systems usually blow air into roof space and use false ceiling ofglassfibresupported on netting foreven distribution ofair. Air outlet often below slat level thus removing most air pollutants. In air extraction systems fans housed in central shafts terminating above apex or alternatively in side walls suitably baffled and terminated in neutral pressure area to minimise effect of wind. Location, area and numberof air inletswill determine air distribution and air velocities in bldg. Manufacturersoffans who specialisein animal housingapplications oftenprovide design assistance. ventilation rateshould be0.000052 m3/s per kg liveweight, summer ventilation rate 0.0003 12 m3/s per kg of live weight. Max airvelocity at pig level to be 150—200rn/s. Mm —(3)(4) showexamples ofdry sow housing and service bldg. Sow stalls: w: 600—650 (if divisions open to 150 above floor level) or 700—750 (if divisions solid fromfloorlevel) I: 2000, with orwithout trough according todesign h: 900 gate forentryand exit ofsow: usuallyat rear floor:rear halfusually slatted. Boarpens: should extend to at least9 m2; 1 side of pen should be approx 2500 long; divisions should bevertical tubular railing 1 400 high, allowingboar observe other animals and general activities within bldg; vertical arrangement of railing prevents boars from climbing and jumping on to divisions. Farrowing: —a(5) shows farrowing crate and creep area for piglets. Function of farrowing crate prevent piglets from getting injured orcrushed bysow. Creep for piglets ofupto5weeks ofage should be 1.3m2 mm and from 5 to 8 weeks 1.75 m2. Mostof farrowing accn designed for weaning of piglets at5weeks ofage. Approx 1.0m2ofcreep areashould beheated. Farrowing house —*(6). Withnatural ventilation systems air inlet area should betwice as largeas air outletarea. Air outletcan be either open ridgeor several chimneytypeextractors withflatcapping. Air enters through baffled inlets round wall, at least 1 000 above pigs. Ventilation extraction area should be 3.6 cm2/kg live weight. Air inlet area should be 7.2 cm2/kg live weight. Typical ventilation systems—(1). Handling Pigs, particularly fatteners, regularly weighed, usually by mobile crate/ weigherin feed passage. Some arrangements have permanentservice area for weighing, cleansingand veterinary tasks with holding area. Pig movement should be controllableby 1 man. I Pigs canwalkthrough 600 widepassage.With 700 baconerswill be able turnaround. Mature sows and boars require 1250—1 450wide passages to turn round. Corners should be wider (900).Wherever pigs, particularly sows, required reverse round corners passageshould be increased by 300—.(2). For loading and unloading into animal road transporters provide ramp (1:7) with battens or deepgrooves toprevent slipping. 30.5 3500 250 4 I r Dry sow housewith boarpens&food sto 0 3 heated Cr]_, ii LJ 1 600 950 U Typicalventilationsystemsforpig housingunits j 1200 2750 5 Fan-owing pens:dimensions&layout I I -• JiHHI HI iii HI I 11.6 ih111I 4200 1450 2 wofpassagesforsows 3 Drysow housewithboarpens 6 Farrowinghouse 11.6 C (I) 306 Industry Farm buildings liveweightkg totalarm2 daily consumption of beddingkg 10—30 30—90 0.75 Group size & pen shape 0.3 0.5 1.2 11 sows PIGS: REARING& FATTENING 2.5 Formation of stable social hierarchydesirable. Fattenerson ad/lb floor feeding should be kept in groupsof 15—20. Pigs lying down should coverfloor area, so that excreta will be deposited elsewhere (dunging area). With part-solid, part-slattedfloors, pen should be twice as long as widewithapprox900 wide slatted dunging area. Individualspaceallowances &strawconsumption 1 08 c Troughspace B 07 O o 0, 04 6 2 .. — .—. .—-..-D .—- .—.. -_ —.. —- .— -..... 03 .... —. 02 .— .— Trough space/pig for ad lib feeding should be 100 and for rationed feeding300. Spatial requirements —.(1) shows individual space allowances for bedded systems, ie total floor areadividedbynumber ofanimals occupying it;—.(2)shows space allowances for systems with solidfloorand slatted dunging area. —.(3)(4)showexamples of rearing and fattening houses. , 01 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 00 110 20 130 140 (kg) IveweiglrI coverage 01 floor A oplimuni tourcoverageby 5019pigsitattenersi12-18 caIrtemp. B loose aboveabove26 c c& duringsummertempup1026c 0:floorcoveragebelow 12 c 12—18 ett c floorcoveragedurrngtemp note dunqlngarentraat0 15—02 rn'/pg 2 I Spaceallowancesforfatteningpigs a 1 ___k1 leedpassage I 200k 1800 1000 l500 1800 000 j) 00 . 01L 3000 2O0, [IHili 1100 1100 1200 1200 3 Rearingaccn 4 __L20 __ tng 4 wallsto _— ceIlIng --.-, Fatteninghouseforpigs ar _________ 6000 4900 ________ 6000 an Outlet Industry 307 Farm buildings SHEEP Feeding Housing ofsheep prevents poachingofland, allows better management and labour use, can lead toincreased stocking rate on land, may release pasture for cropping and can reduce lamb mortality during lambing period.These potential benefits are offsetby high cost of housing as well as costof providing additionalfeed. Space requirements Individual floor space allowances forsheep —v(1). Solid floor Sheephoused on bedded floor seem to have more foottroubles than those kept on timber slatted floors. Solid floor should be well drained consolidated hardcore with 150 ofstraw. Hayracks and concentrate troughs required. —v(3) shows recommended trough length. Simplewooden trough with hayrack —÷(4) sufficient. Water Sheep prefer running fresh water. This can be provided by trough equipped with overflow to drain: 600 x 300 water trough surface sufficientfor up to80ewes. Ventilation Natural ventilation system based on 450 open ridge and 1200 deep spaceboarding with 100 boards and 25 gaps satisfactory. Sheep in open-fronted bldg can be protected bystraw bales. Illumination Slatted floor Pressure treated timber slats rangefrom63 x 32to38 x 25with 20gap forlarger sheep and 16gap forsmallerbreeds. Slatsusually arrangedin removable floorsections 1200 x 2400. Slattedpanelscanbesupported on dry blocks for easy removal and so allow easy tractor access for mucking out. Floor panel joists 75 x 50should besplayed foreasierself cleaning and set at 450 centres. Depth of500 issufficient for 1 housing season waste sf0. Illumination of20 lx—.vp25 required during lambingperiod. Feedstorage Feed sto area at gable end or close by should be provided to minimise handling time. Sheep housing Example ofslatted pole barn type sheephouse for 320 ewes—v(5). Layout Ewes preferlamb in groups rather than individual pens. Creep area for lambs after lambing can be provided. Feeding should be carried out in pen passages. —v(2) shows 2typical layouts. spaceallotment type largeewe (68—70kg) largeewe&lamb smallewe (45—69kg) smallewe&lamb ewe hogg (m2) slatted floor solid floor 0.95—1.1 1.2—1.7 0.75—0.95 1.0—1.4 0.45—0.75 1.2—1.4 1.4—1.85 1.0—1.3 1.3—1.75 0.65—0.95 Floor spaceforsheep 1 4 Dutchbarn Troughforfeeding hay&concentrate polebarn 675 .1' slaa spaceboarding ding 9500 1600 i — frOugh a — I I // I individualpens 2 Typicallayoutsforsheephousing typeofsheep trough1* largeewes smallewes 475—500 375—425 350—400 hoggs 4800 1200 1 L 4800 4800 21.6 * onself-feed silage100—250 adequate for allsheep 3 Recommendedtrough I 5 Slattedpolebarn sheephousefor320 ewes 12 4 308 Industry Farm buildings SHEEP (cont) j 46O 5000 900 1staggeredshedding(spieer)gates [th deco --_________ 8 anti-wavegroove thu1?ifi 3bath controlisland ft -Jllffii — dimensions 0 E F A B C 0 610 1168 381 2743 1219 305 686 1168 381 2743 1219 305 686 1245 381 3200 1372 229 955 1090 1365 Sheep handling Sheepshedder Handling eqp usually constructed from 950 high, 125 x 125 timber posts set at 1 500 centres with either complete dressed boarded sides or4 x 100 wide timberrails. Should consist of following: (splitter) 1800 2100 appros capacityQ) 2 1 holdingpen: spaceallowance/eweand lamb 0.65 m2 shedder (splitter): width 460 and length 3000—5000; should have 2 A staggered gates —v(1). Sheep dip Sheep dip bath and swim-around dipper often used when sheep enter bath on side-slideprinciple and walkout on ramp. —v(2) shows dimensionsand layout of such dips. Drainingpen 2draining pens required side by side with shedding entryand guillotine exit gates —v(3). Forcingpen 2 forcing pens or circular pen leading to dip with exit shedder gate Sheepdip required. Forcing pen usually8000 long and 900 wide with solid sides. 6700 Footbath race(trough) Footbath race should be 10—12 m long, 900 wide at top and 350 wide at bottom —v(4). Typical layout for handling 200 ewes and lambs —a(S). 3 4 Sheepdrainingpen / -I /_ drattingpen pens taading pen race& tootbath holdingpes 5 Sheepfootbathrace - Typicalsheephandling layout POULTRYHOUSING Poultry houses should be well insulated (0.6 W/m2°C), equipped with fan ventilation, feeding,watering and mechanicalwasteremovalsystems. Deeplifterhouses suitable foralldomestic fowl. Layers normally kept in cages. .—a(6)shows typical designs for poultry houses. Light requirements Light levels of 0—20 lx —ap25 required; for most poultry control eqp for manipulation of artificialday length required. Ventilationrates category pertorated f 6 -7600 pullets&hens 1.2 2.5 3.5 broilers 0.05 0.9 1.8 tkrorhosse 22 Typicaldesignsofpoultryhouses turkeys tan naturalventilation eatractventilationsystem gabletan pertorated pvcdad pentorated cmimg _1'"<11_ .t"lii(k orate __________ __________ outlet 7 Typicalventilationsystems, poultryhouses weight max rate mm rate nit/h bird rr?/h bird kg 0.5 2.0 5.0 11.0 10 14 15 0.8—1.3 1.5 2 0.1 0.8 10 14 12 6 12 15 27 0.7 1.7 12 1.5 2.7 Ventilation systems &controls Poultry house ventilation systems consist of light-prooted airinlets, air distribution, outlets, fans and controlgear.—a(7) shows typical ventilation arrangements. Industry 309 Farm buildings POULTRY Space requirements: hens a- deeplitter 0) system density(live weightper unitof floor ar) qualifications rearing birdsfor laying (age 16—20 weeks) 19.5kg/rn2 floor artoincludethat occupied byfeeding&wateringeqp upto3.2kg liveweight over 3.2 kg live weight 14.7kg/rn21 17.1 kg/rn2J floor artoincludethat occupied byfeeding&wateringeqp broilerproduction units 34.2 kg/rn2 floorartoincludethat occupied byfeeding&wateringeqp system density(liveweightper unitof floor ar) qualifications rearingbirdsfor laying 39.1 kg/rn2 densityrelates to cage floor ar adult batterybirds 3or more lightweightbirds/cage 3or more heavierbirds/cage 2birds/cage singlebird cages 39.1 kg/rn2 44 kg/rn2 29.3 kg/rn2 19.5kg/rn2 densitiesrelateto cagefloor ar: rnintroughspace 100/bird system density(liveweightper unitof floor ar) qualifications rearingbirds forlaying 9.8 kg/rn2 floorarto includethatoccupied byfeeding& watering eqp layingbirds 8.3 kg/rn2 floorarto includethatoccupied byfeeding& watering eqp laying birds cages strawyards Space requirements: turkeys rearing system density(liveweightper unitof floor ar) qualifications broiler-typehousing 39.1 kg/rn2 floorartoincludeany aroccupied byfeeding&wateringeqp tierbrooders 19.5kg/rn2 carry-oncages, hayboxes raisedonwire orslats, 34.2 kg/rn2 verandahs pole barns 24.4 kg/rn2 enclosedrange ar 10m2/bird (987birds/ha) floorartoincludeany aroccupied byfeeding&watering eqp breeding density(liveweightper unit of floor ar) system on floors hens kept for insemination, hens 19.5kg/rn2 &maleskept togetherfor natural mating maleskeptforartificial qualifications floor arto excludeanyfloor nest boxesbutto includeallothereqp 0.84 rn2/bird insemination in cages 29.3 kg/rn2 0.84 rn2/bird hens males in enclosed range ar 16.7 rn2/bird (617 birds/ha) hensshouldbe housed individually 310 Industry Farm buildings SMALLDOMESTICANIMALS:DOVES hayracksshould notexceed 20.Metal orceramictroughs used forwater and grain concentrate: should be fixedto prevent overturning. Trough Specification frontage 50—60/rabbitsufficient. space requirements 0.4—0.5m2/pair dry and clean protected fromexcessive sunshine, windand rain safe from predators demountable forcleaning goodaccess for keeper Pens Location Fur rabbits often kept in pens (2 m2/pair) constructed fromgalvanised netting —÷(3). Side netting should be sunk about500 belowground level to prevent rabbits from burrowing out. Pens should have sidesabout 600 high and be covered over with netting. At 1 corner of pen box consisting of 2 compartmentsforfeeding and nesting.In some instances penscan beraised 800above ground. on SE-E facing wall, usually underprojecting eaves behind perimeter walland in roofspaces. DOGS Construction Dressed T&G boardingwith waterproofroof, internally2compartments, 40 wide top for roosting. Floor level 100 below entrance to prevent young fromfalling out. —(1) shows layout and dimensions ofdovecots. 1 with nest. Partition between compartments with RABBITS Spacerequirements breed spacear small medium 0.56 0.72 large 1.2 Domestic kennels should be roomy enough allow dog stand upand turn round. Construction usually dressed timberwith waterproofroofing, eg roofing felt. Kennel should be demountable for easy cleaning. Floor should be raised 60—100 above ground level, often bedded with straw or wood shavings. Floor and roof can project in front of entrance, forming sheltered lying area. —.(4) shows typical design for medium sizedog. Professionalkennels—*p31 1 SMALL POULTRYHOUSES hofcage Poultry houses for layers should be situated in sheltered locations surrounded by fenced area allowing 15—20 m2/layer. 500 550 650 Design ofcages Depth should be 800 for easy cleaning or catching rabbits. Cages usually arranged in 3tiers, raised fromground level by 150. Single tier cages should be800above ground level. Height oftop floorshould not exceed 1600. Floorshould beslattedwithtimberslats,30wide with 10gap: waste collected on sloped floor underneath, urine stored in collecting tank or bucket. —(2) shows details of 2-tier rabbit cages. Cages for nesting should have front half of floor area solid. Frame and walls of rabbit cages usually dressed timberprotected with timber preservative. Felted roofshould have good overhangsforweatherand sun protection. Feeders & waterdrinkers Hay racks with small trough below usually fixed on front gates but should not occupymore than 1/3 of gate area to maintain good lighting and ventilation. To prevent young escaping gaps between wiresand Internal space of 1 m2 sufficient for 3—4 layers. Volume of 0.65 m3 should beprovided per hen, with at least200 oflinear space on roosting rail. Rail should besituated about 1 600 high with gaps between rails of 400. Below roosting rail is waste collecting board which is periodically cleaned. Nests should be 300 wide and 350 deep; often located in groups along wall. Nests bedded with straw; if production control required, folding, self-trapping flapsfitted tonests Feeders &waterdrinkers Hoppers or feedingtroughs with wire above trough to prevent hens defecating into feed. Drinkers usually heavy containers 400 high with rail round. Construction Hen houses oftentimber-built with felted roof and resting on concrete base with DPC throughout. Structure should be insulated; provide proper opening for air inlet and outlet for natural ventilation. Typical layout and dimensions ofsmall poultry house —.(5). .—\ k i hay 'IS II _______ ________ S j 2000 550 ______ Ji, 1000 hay Layoutofdovecots Ing art) I Li 4 td 850 Dog kennels 840 4 L_J°° 1 1000 3 2 Tierrabbitcages f sheltered ______ I __j bed S Smallpoultryhouse pen water Furrabbitcages Industry 311 Farm buildings KENNELS concreteblock Professional kennels include sleeping quarters in conjunction with adequate exercise runs. Area of individual runs varies according to breedand size of dog. Where individual independentdog housesused in each run construction should be wood with demountable roof (centre-hinged if large) for sanitary purposes. Floor should bewood mm 75 above ground with full ventilation between ground and floor. Burlap bags provide washable bedding and may be stuffed with cedar wood shavings for severe weather protection. Dog house entrance should be baffled against directwind draughts and driving rain, snow. Kennels with common shelter bldg, perhaps incorporating grooming and minor med services can be constructed economically of concrete blockwith poured concrete floor, which should be sloped to gutter and drain, providing easy wash down. Wood pallets with loose washable rugs serve as beds in eachenclosure—n(1 )(2). Fencing for exercise runs mm 1680 high should be fully fenced across top unless sides 8440 high. Gravelsurfacepreferedforruns but concrete more easilymaintained and offers better sanitation. All exercise runs should have full man gate with patentedkennel hardware. Mm run 1 070 wide and 3050 long. Food and water dishes stainless seamless steel mounted on runfencing with steel bands. _______ }(}4 . run fUfl 1220 run run run t run run • tredraln gutter __________________________________________________________ Layoutplanofkennelswithcommonshelterbldg ;IH __________________________ ___________________________ 4__ Lj4I 2 Kennelswith commonshelterbldg aelevation bsection 7000 1L °hy — ' workbench DUCKS § ] ______ I _______ Sb ru extrac/_lJ _______________ __________________________________________________________ 3 Layoutofsto&honeyprocessing rmforup to 100 beecolonies __________________________________________________________ i GEESE Design similar to houses forducks: space allowance of 0.4 m2/goose required. Floor should be sloped to drain, damp-proofed and lightly bedded. Nests should be 600 x 650 and nest partitions 300 high. Entrance should be 500 x 500 equipped with doors orcurtain. Layout and dimensions of goose house for 30 geese or 3 geese and young run I concretewalk honeynpening &bottling x run .. * ittgatesoperatebyinteriormechanism Example of timberbeehouse set on stoneor concrete foundations for small bee-keeper —(4). Beehouse could be insulated for operator comfort. Ducks sleep on floorswhichshould be dryand sloped todrain foreasy cleaning. Floor should be damp-proofed, lightly bedded with straw and open drain covered with timber slats 40 wide with 20 gaps. Space allowance of 1 m2 required for 3—4 ducks: 1 duckhouse should house nomore than 20ducks and 4drakes. Entranceintohouse should be300 wide and 400 high. Ducks must have accessto water. Nests should be 450 450 with 300 high partitions and placedonfloorwith no bottom so that ducks do not damage eggs as they enter nest. Good natural ventilation and lighting required. Water trough should be located near slatted drain. Structure maybe insulated.Typical layoutand dimensions of duck house—n(S). fioorriraunU ! Iift _____ Though bees normally kept in hives beehouses equipped with sto and honey extraction and bottling rm sometimes constructed. In general 30 and more bee colonies would justify provision of sto and processing area. Sto area3000 x 4000should benext tocovered loadingentrance or patio. Honey processing area (6000 x 7000) should have outside door. Layoutofworksurfaces—n(3). 4 2700 6300 —/ I I I nests I I 3000 5 JlOOO 2300 Beehotisefor20beecolonies sleepingar Housefor30geese LI IT[1d09 gutter BEEHOUSES 6 sto I I Housefor20ducks — 312 Industry Farm buildings: crop storage GRASS Towersilos Glass coated steelorconcrete,hermeticallysealed sto torshortchopped (10—12) wilted grass (35—50% moisture content). Rapid tilling and emptying possible using blower-loader, cutter unloader, auger and delivery conveyor belt. Av density ot silage 1.2 m3/t. Estimated losses 10—15%. Silo dimensions vary from 5500—9000 dia and 12 to 21 m height. Site requirements: adequate soil load-bearing capacity, space for dump-box, access for tilling and turning of tractors, trailers and elevator loaders. Animal handling, feeding and waste removal should not be affected by tower filling operating. Space for future expansion may berequired. Clamp silos Usually openconcrete pools withdrainage ofslurry liquor topitholding 150 I/f of silage. Walls capable of withstanding lateral pressures of unwilted shortorlong cutgrass. Lateralwallsofrailwaysleepers (orties) held by vertical steel shores or columns, mass reinforced concrete or sloped timber. Detailed designs should be by structural engineer. Cut grass deposited onconcrete apron stackedwith tractor mountedloaders and compacted by tractor: compacted density 1.1 m3/t. Silage depth 2000for self-fed cattle upto3500fortractor cut-and-cart to cattle.—u(1) shows examples ofopenclamp and towersilos. STRAW Baled straw avvolume 1.4m3/t; bales 1 000 x 600 x 500 weight 22—27 kg.Simple open-sided Dutch barns with dry floors positioned near livestock bldg with vehicular access adequate. Sometimes bale stacks orroundbig bales leftoutside. Loosestraw can be blown into barnswith space-boarded open sides. Mechanisation of handling difficult: av volume of loose straw 23 m3/t. taneous combustion. Mechanisation of hay feeding difficult unless chopped, driedand ted as processed teed with other components of ration. Barndrying: cold or hot air reducing moisture to 20% used to ensure good quality hay during rainy weather. Hay in bales or blown loose stacked on wooden slats ormesh over main and lateralair ducts (600 x 800). Overall height ofdriedhayupto 3500in barnswith space boarded sides. POTATOES Bulk store Bldg usually portal frame, 4800toeaves, insulatedto 0.5W/m2 °C with thrust-resistant wallsforbulk sto. Concrete floor with DPCstrong enough support heavy vehicles; doors normally sliding, insulated (4500 x 4500) with personnel door. Ventilation system based on under-floor lateral ducts(350 x 350) at2000centres running at right angles to main air ducts. 75thick spaced timber slats used to coverducts. Surface 'A' frameducts cheaper but inconvenientduring unloading.Fanstosupply air flow of0.02 m3/s pert stored including mixing chamber for recirculation and thermostatic control system required. Bulk sf0 volume 1.5 m3/t; height up to4000. Pallet box store Suitable for sf0 of different lots, varieties or seed crop potatoes. If potatoes harvested directintoboxes less handlingdamage totubers. Bldg specification similar bulk sf0 but6000hightoeaves and of narrower span. Because nothrust on walls, timber frames and panels oftenused. Ventilation based onfloor level ducts forair distribution and extractfans located at 1 gable end opposite air intakefan. Recirculation duct required to maintainair recirculationduring periods oflowventilation rate: usually of plywood suspended from ridge, fitted with adjustable apertures. Ventilation rate of 0.01 m3/s per stored adequate. Pallet box 1 200 x 1 800 x 900deepwill hold Boxes often stacked 6deep. Allow 3000 freefloorspace at 1 gable end. it. HAY Bale sizessimilarto straw. Av volume 9 m3/t; loose hay 12 m3/t. Dutch barn or pvc heavy duty sheeting required protect hay from rain. Good ventilation and moisture content below 2S% required prevent spon- ..eutemaichute f Goodsf0 management required to minimise: bacterial rot& loss of colour moisture loss loss due tosprouting loss ofcooking qualify, and to prevent frostdamage —u(2) shows examples of bldg forbulkand pallet methods of sf0. topcutter—auger recircuiation unioader conveyorbeft § j .11 biower ioad : 1 E 8 0 Ca ".>_siiaeiiuortank tO—40m TI 1 Tower &openclampsilos I 1 I 2 Bulk &pallet boxpotatosf0 bldg 4i2.O + Industry 313 Farm buildings: crop storage GRAIN top [conveyor lop conveyor evator I I elevatoi L_ — 1 1 —r outlets -, -- [T n portabie augerin tube S h1 _______________________ bottom conveyor(in trench:binoutletsover) longitudinalsections (alternativegrainflow) top conveyorwith outletstoeachbin trench squarebins square bins Layoutsforgrainsto bins nomial mm 3000x3000 , 4500 high; slotted metal floor over plenum chamber approx600 deep (special slots canblowairtoliftgrain withoutmanual workintobottom conveyor)connected tofan rm(eloroil fired) by airduct, usually combined with bottom conveyor. Some circular bins have perforated sidesand central plenum vertical duct of < 1 000 dia —v(3). (ii) predrying: mostly by continuous floworbatch driers (el or oilfired) for < 10 t/hr. Former may need 10000 x 3000 x 2500 high plus perimeter access and Iatter3000 x 2500 x 4000 high. Intakepit—v(4) (from bulk tanker truck) slopes to elevatorwhich raises wet grainto drier (possibly through pre-cleaner) and/or to sto. Work space for drierand eqp may need 80—lOOm2. Elevator will need 2000abovetop conveyor, probably as penthouse (vented). Driers need dust extract pipe(s); intake doors should be 3500 x 4500high. (iii) refrigerated: betterquality ifgrain kept at 4.4cCbymeansofcoldair blown through bulk or bin sf0. Most layouts similar to warm airdrying: some have lateralducts at 3000centreswith external mobile refrigerator/ blower connected to each in turn. —v(2) (more normally predried) i) trench blower-auger or overhead conveyor and emptied by portable auger; uninsulated roof; small gable vents; artificial lighting; doors 3700 x 3700. (ii) bins: (mostly for small quantities orvery mechanised units) —(1), square or circular thrust-resistant steel ortimbersides seton3500grid and 3800 high; usually bins support roof; filled byconveyor under ridge, emptied by gravity and shovel into below ground conveyor or by floor sloped at35°. (iii) hermetically sealed bins: using glass-fused steel or reinforced 9 dia x 12 m plastics rings for wet grainof 25% moisture content; high (sometimes 18 m); reinforced waterproof concrete base; filled by blower throughtop dome, emptied by bottom outletauger. Drying (i) insitu: forbulk, in principle generally asforpotatoes —vp3l 2; for bins bottomconveyorin trenchorlunne crosssections(binsmay nothavesloped floors) circularbins Sto: wheat 13, barley 14, oats 2 m3/t. (i) bulk: withinthrust-resistant walls, usually steel, approx 2500 high, plus asbestos-cement sheets to eaves 1 200; waterproof floor, with grain coned upat30°to centre ofbldg; normal spans 14—18 m; filledby normalmax 4575x3800 asbestosi roof 3 Grain drying&sto: radialflowbins inbarn 2 Grain drying&sto: nestof binswith roof: section 4 Intakepit c(I) 314 Industry Farm buildings MACHINERY& IMPLEMENT STORAGE Circulationroundstationery machines automotive machinery space allowanceto side 1000 " " toside 600 high machinery low machinery all machinery all machinery " " " " " toside tofront to rear Machinerysheds Open-fronted shedsadequatefor simple implement sto. Tractor, combineharvester and self-propelled machineryrequiring some daily maintenance should be kept in sheds equipped with sliding door, el light, watersource and preterably concrete floor. 500 500 500 Workshop Static space requirements offarmmachinery description h w I tractor 2600—3000 1 400 1 800 1800 3200 2200 2200 2300 3500 2500 4000—6000 trailer manurespreader crawler combineharvester truck slurry spreader baler drill mountedplough disc harrows/roller hayturner 2300 4000 2900 2200 2600 2000 1 800 2800 3200 1 200 1 400 800 1200 4300 2800 5500 3800 9500 8600 3600 6000 2800 2400 2400 2500 Fully enclosed, insulated bldg 4000 to eaves, equipped with sliding door, watersource, el light and power points, forge with chimney or point torel forge, operating pitwith gantry beamover, racks abovework benches. Outside concreted drained turning area and floodlight Fuel store Oil-tanks to workshop and turning area, raised on concrete walls to allow gravity filling ot machinery. Catchpit holding content of tanks desirable. Fuel stored in separate sf0 complying with conditions of reg and codes—*(1) shows example ofmachinery shed and workshop. concreted turningar 1 Stofortractor & implements with workshop Farmbuildings references: —÷Bibliographyentries 108115118137288325333334335340341 347 348351 352 356357358359360363364365 415 582 589 601 646 Leisure 315 Sport STADIA:GENERALDESIGN CD Sportsdata on following pages compiled with help ofBritishSports Council TechnicalUnit for C') Sport: basic technicalinformationgathered from governing bodies ofsports and gamescovered. CD C Activities divided into 3 categories: outdoor; those which can beplayedin common spaces indoors; thosewhich essentiallyneedseparate orexclusivespace. Governingbothèscommonly specify dimensions for 3 standards of play: international and national; county and club; recreational. In some instances standard dimensions available for olympic competition and forsports fordisabled:forthese dimensions forall standardhave not been included; unless specified they are inadequate for national 1 USA: segmental 2 Amsterdam:semicircular 3 Rotterdam: sides& corners curved; 4 standards. Several sports subject tostatutory requirements for lighting, temp, playingsurfaces and eqp: always refer to Technical Unitfor Sport and to governing body. NB for UK stadia, terrace and seating design, reference must be made to Guide toSafety at Sports Grounds (Football) Combined soccer pitchwith running track roundit conforming to recognised international athletics standards may determine size of sports area: basic shape ellipse—(6). Stadium usuallypartexcavated:earth so gained built up all round. Combination of grandstand with changing rm, shower, first aid rm and provision for police, fire service, admin, press, broadcasting now usually avoided (economy and hygiene). Dormitories fortraining courses in separate bldg. forfootball only Townplanning: stadia should be well integrated with surroundings, with easyaccess for traffic and supplies (rail station, bus stops, car parks etc). Neighbouring industries with smoke, smell and noise undesirable. Group together covered and open-air installations for different sports: if possible in town's 5 U-shaped plan greenbelt. 6 StadiumatHanover Arch Hillebrecht Goesmann Budapest:horseshoe shapeabouttransverse axis 316 Leisure Sport: stadia SIGHT LINES In Europe axes of stadia usually NE-SE —(1) ensure most spectators havesun behind them. According toVitruvius (1st century BC) rowsof seats and standing terraces should rise atsteady rate 1:2 for acoustic reasons also.Today useofamplifiers makes good viewonlycriterion for tiering. For staggered seat arrangement every other back row should look over heads of corresponding front rows: gives parabolic curve —(26)starting with rise of 380 and ending with rise of 480. Best views on long sideswithinsegment; hence stadia of this shape, first built by Hadden (USA), whichgive new and convincing impression. 2 Designforgrandstandofstadium for100000spectators(Nervi) asection bconstructionofsightlines Visibilitydetermines sizeofstadium 1 2rows 2 rows — a -4- -1 b 150 for peoplewithhats 100 for peoplewithout hats edge of arena +22.3 constructionof sighttinesfor(a) +12.7 +6.7 TRAFFIC Stadia should be near traffic arteries, accessible by road and rail, with projecting turnstiles sothat spectators candivide intostreams fordifferent entrances. These usuallyat half heightofgrandstand, giving access to rows higher and lower by ramps or stairs —(2). Calculate widths of passages and stairs according number ofspectatorsleaving stadium as all leave at same time in contrast to gradual arrival. According van Eestern's investigations 5000spectators at Amsterdam stadium need 420sto leave by 9500stairways (Los Angeles 720s Turin 540s). To determinestair wtoevacuategiven numberof spectatorsfromstadium number of spectators withingiventime: stair w = departure time ins x 1.25 Stairs and corridorsflow times—p407—8 Check applicable codes and standards. 9500x420s= 0.8sor 1 spectatoroccupiesl000stairwin in 1 S 95O002o 5000 = 1.25spectatorsoccupyl0000fstairwayw. Heisinki Rio deJaneiro 3 Circulationroutesin stadia Fiorence Arezzo Leisure 317 Sport: stadia Standing terraces: proportion w: h400:200—v(4)—(9) Seatingterraces:proportionw: hfrom 800 : 480—v(11)—(1 7) CD C,) After5 steps firm railings (crush barrier) Lower passageway all round 1 CD 250wide Doubleand treble standing terraces nolonger built spectatt_ _____________ 1 natural ground level 3 Sectionthroughstadiumwith partialexcavation,earthmound& superstructure SectionthroughOlympicstadium Berlin ArchMarchBrothers - SEATINGTERRACES — - 11 Woodenbencheswith plank -- 8000 - 6370 4- 6860 -. 6860 — 29.44 -—_______ -4 step 4— 2 900 780 —4 SectionthroughViennastadium 31 —i 780 i— 0 470 STANDING TERRACES 400 4—1250-—.-—4-—I 400 43304450 12 Woodenseatsonconcrete Ox70 4 Steps withtimber reinforcement I— 5 —- 330-450 I 1 760 —4 Angle steps 7 700 —4 450 14 Seatingtiers:d750 h450 w 500 6 I— 4-260-4---440 —. per person 330— 13 SlopingRC deckwith stepsin concretetopping uprights Movableconcreteunits I— 760 15 On timberframe asatStuttgart —I 330—450l I330—4504 9. 8 Reinforced concretewith fallsto drain 16 On metal bracketsset in 9 PrefabricatedRC unitsonsteel joists concrete 17 Seatingwith backs GRANDSTANDSECTIONS --i i20—.-72O--72O _______________________________________________________ 10 Standingramp,slope 10%,6P/i 000 mm2 18 Normalrise,upper steps 19 Normalrise, lowersteps USA risers 152—460, treads610—762(660 usually satisfactory) 318 Leisure Sport centres CD ORGANISATION (I) crcuiar track CD 7— 1 2 Dispositionofspectators large scale sports & large scale sports medium medium small Spatial patterns &circulationindrysportscentre small scalewet scale sports community &dry dryonly centre provision leisure/rec centre sports/rec sports/rec centre centre (wet& centre dry) S. pools 50m 25m o • ••0 20m tree shape learner diving .. • sportshall(s) large medium o small small community ancillaryindoorsportsaccn practiceha weighttraining/conditioningrm projectileha squashcourts climbingwall indoor bowls billiards/snooker ice rink theatre/multi-purposeha ancillaryaccn changing spectatorseating: fixed occasional informalviewing club meetingrm firstaid firstaideqp crechesto creche(alternative use, sto) saunasuite refreshments cafeteria bar vendingmachine IS • 0 .. • outdoorgrounds grasspitches hard porous/syntheticpitches floodlitpitches tenniscourts possible 5 0 •5 S. staffrest rm staffchanging 0 •• •• 0 • I0 reception off SI essential 0 0 0 S staff& management key: •• •0 •0 0 0 0 0 S typical/desirable •• •• o . .. 0 0 0 0 .• •. S 0 o 0 5 S• •• . •• o •o 0 0 0 0 •0 •• •• SI •• 0 S • 0 IS 55 0 0 0 55 I0 S S • 55 •• 0 0 IS S 5 0 •• •S •• •• 5. 0 S. 0 .5 .. . .. .0 0 .0 0 0 •. •. •. .• S. •S I• 0 •1 S S S • . . 0 •• •I 0 .. .0 I •• 0 o I 0S •• S• . 0 0 0 o o o o 0 0 a a 0 0 0 0 SS • •• S Mainfeaturesrequiredfor6sizes of sports bldg:general recommendations onlyallbldgbeing influencedbyarserved,population &other resourcesavailable 3 Leisure 319 Sport centres EXAMPLES bowlsha iti -J 1 Dry &wet leisurecentreonschoolsite DunstableEngland Sports centres for disabled —Bib639 2 SportscentreBridgnorthEngland:circulation &socialspacesspatially well conceivedegin entrance haglazedscreenallowsviewsintoswimmingpool, betweensportsha&squashcourtsglazed bridgeoffersviewintoeitherar 3 LargecomplexHarrowEngland comprises indoor&outdoorsportscentre,withpoolalongside&outdoorbowlsground 320 Leisure Sporthalls USE OF UNDIVIDEDSPACE courts of same kind;critical heights which in some instances degrade standard for which otherwise floor space adequate; need for some additional tree circulation space inside hail entrance. —'(1) shows number of sport playing courts or other spaces which fit into various sizes ofsports orcommunity halls. Number ofspaces given foreach sportoptimum willfitintoundivided hall spacefor3 standardsof play:N internationaland UKnational;CUKcounty orclub;R recreational. Required mm space allowed for each takes intoaccount not onlyactual playing area but: necessary run-outor safety margins, team bench and officials'space round playing space which amount to overall areasused forassessment; where practicalsome overlapof marginbetween parallel 36.5x32x 32x26x 91 7.6—9.1 bowls)portablenoncompetitive rinks) boxing)trainingr'ings) 32x23x 32x17x 7.6—9 1 754 m2 6.7—9.1 736m2 67—76 554 m )105x75 (105x56x )97x54x )85x54x )92x54x 3995ff2 12600ff2 8925ft2 8175if2 7770ff2 5880ff2 5238ff2 nostandard nostandard nostandard nostandard nostandard nostandard nostandard 2 C ±3)1*) R 2 N 3)1*) n N 4 N 4 N C 25—30 if) 22—25 if) 25m 18m 2Oyd 8 N 525m 18m 2Oyd 5 Nt 2 N 7 A 18m 20yd 2Oyd 3/4Nt/c 4 A' 4 6 N 4 C** A N A' 4 A 3 A 3 A* 6 C C** 9 N N 4 N 6 C A 12 A 9 R 8 N A 3 12 6 A 3 5 1 C — 1 C 1 A — 6 N 6 C S N 4 C 4 N/C A' — 7 8 N C 6 8 N C 3/4 2/3 N 1 C 1 A' 1 C 1 A' 2 A' N — C — C 1 1 2 — 1 N* 1 — P A' 1 C C — 1 A' C' 1 A 1 4 6 N 2 4 N C 4 N A 1 A A 1 N C 2 4 N 4 2 N* 2 6 N 1 2/4N/C 6 A 4/6C/A 4 6 N A* 2 4 N C 1 N 1 C* 1 1 A' — 1 N' 2 A microkorfball 1 C 1 C netbat 1 N 1 A 2 C'/A 10 15/21 12 N 6 N C/C 10/15 C/C N A 8 FtP 12 A C 2 4 1 — N* A 1 A 2 4 A 1 2 A )56—65x41 )56x28x x 22 if) 22It) 2850—3455ft21555if2 nostandard 1 N lSyd — — N 2 3 N A C'' 1 C" 2 6 N A' C* N 1 C* N' C 2 1 A — A — 2 N 1 Nt 1 Nt C A' 2'Nt/C A 2 3 2 A 2 C — 1 3 1 nostandard — 7 C/C A 12 A 10 4 C'' 4 — A — A C C'' 1 nt 1 A+t C 2 4 A N C C A 1 A' — P — — — — — 1 A* A' C 1 2 A* A — — — — N A 1/2 A — — 1 N 1 N A 2 A 1 A 3 2 2 2 A C' — / C — — A — — — — 1 — — — — C 1 — — — — N — — miniBB — / N 2 A* / 7 1 A — — A* — — — — — — — — — C/C C" — — 1/2N/C 2 1 4 6 1 2 A — — 1 P 7 1 — — N'/C A — A' miniBB P 2 3 A' — A* 1 1 1 N — A' 2 C Nt C'/A 1 A 1 2 — 3 4 3/4* N/C +1 A P C — A N C 4 8 A' 2 4 1 A' 7/9 14 4 C A 2 1 n — N C A' N 6 10/12 C/C C 1 2 — 2 1 A 1 A — Nt 3 1 1 A — 3 3 18m A 1 — N 6 10/12 C/C — A 1 C — 8 1 A V I keeptitmovement & dance;Yoga 1 1 1 12 voteybat N iBm lSyd 2 5 A 3/4' N/C +2 A' — P mini-handball tug-ot-war C'' 5 N C trampolining 1 1 3)3*) tabletennisc/c 1 A 1 9 lawntennis no standard x A' 5 I C lacrossetemale 22—25 if) N R* N kendo C** N 12 14 karate 3 4 1 2 N N judo iBm 2Oyd C'/A 8 hockey 2 N 2 1 cricketnets handbat 2 525m 18m 2Oyd 525m 18m C gymnastics)olympic) 22—25if) 4590ff2 22—25 if) 17,0—20.Ox 17.0x8.5 67 156 6.7 265.2—321 m2 144,5m2 3Om N 5-a-sidetootball 486.7 m2 67—7.6 371.25 m2 25—30 tt) 1 )pistes) 6.7—76 429 m2 x 25—30 If) 2 fencing x 6.7—7.6 (105x85x )96x85x pitches crickef6-a-side 29.5x16.5 26x16.5x 22.5x16.5 )120x105 x 30if) 6)2')A basketball communityha small ha 29x26x 832 m2 archery )l of shoot) badminton space. 1168 m2 4 6 aikido Fire: check fr reg and max component value; in UK halls 7000 m3 or over need DoE waiver; 'volume' can include unenclosed structuralroof mediumha large ha sports For most sports possible provide spaces for mix of 3 standards; in practice several differentactivities may beprogrammed at same time. C" A Definitionofscales:max numberofcourtsrelatedtostandardsofplay:(forkey & footnotes—tp321(1)) 6/7 1 C/C A C'' — 4 8 C/C A 4 A — C'' 1' — C'' 3—6 6—8 2 — 1 — — — C/C A 4 A' 1 A A — — — A' — — Leisure 321 Sporthalls USE OF UNDIVIDEDSPACE(cont) largeha mediumha small ha 36.5x32x 32x26x 29x26x 32x23x 32x 17x 9.1 7.6—9.1 7.6—9.1 6.7—9.1 6.7—7.6 1168n,2 832m2 7Mm2 736m2 554m2 (120x105 x 30It) (105x85x (96x85x x 25—30 if) (105x75 25—30 if) 25—30 if) (105x56x (97x54x 8925ft2 8175ff2 7770ff2 12600ff2 weight lifting contests wrestlin x 6.7—7.6 486.7m2 22—25 if) 22—25if) 5238ff 5880ff2 6.7—7.6 6.7—7.6 429m2 communityha 17.0—20.Ox 15.6 x 6.7 371.25m2 265.2—321 m2 (85x54x (92x54x 29.5x16.5 26x 16.5x 22.5x16.5 22—25 if) 4590ff 22—25if) 3955ff 17.0x8.5 6.7 144.5m2 (56—65x41 (56x28x x 22if) 22 It) 2850—34551f 1555ff — N — N — N — N — C — C — C — C — C — — 4 N C 2 6 N C 6 C 2 6 N C 2 3 N 3 8 C R 2 6 C R 2 6 C 2 4 C 2 R 12 C R A Key: N C A P C/C ns S t 1 international/national standard county/club standard recreational standard practice aronly forfable tennis2gradesofmm spaceallowances forinter-county/inter-club standardsof play no standards have yetbeenlaid down arbehind shooting line belowsafety standardrecommended;acceptablespacecan beprovidedbyslightlengthening ofha; oresisting spaces may be usedforpractice belowmm space standard recommended bygoverning body concernedbut capableofproviding purposeful & enjoyable activity recreational standard where ha is less than7600clear hforbadminton & trampolining orless than7000forbasketball & volleyball; 6700 hsuitable formini-basketball & mini-volleyball county/club standard whereha less than 9000clearh Continuation of —.p320(1) definition of scales NB UK standards subject to revision. Current details availablefromSports Council Information Centre STORAGE Inadequate sto space for sporthalls very common fault. Allow for full rangeof eqp needed. As eqp must beaccessible sto must be shallow (say 5000 max)and ideally placed along side of hall. Recommended mm requirements for3catagoriesofhall —v(2). Check list—v(3) fixed ceiling protectionfor lighting Climbing ropes& trackway climbingpoles&trackway speakers track systemfordivision nets • • • • • cricket golf archery volleyball 5-a-side-soccer basketball ceiling mountedbackboards &goals (manual oreloperation) (manual oreloperation) wallmountedbackboards & goals gymnastics asymmetricbars pommelhorse vaulting buck vaulting horse horizontal bars rings trampolinespotting rig parallel bars springboards,floors boxing ring gamesapparatus tennis volleyball badminton 5-a-sidesoccer indoor hockey handball netball 3 Sportseqp checklist • • • • • •• • . . movable • • • • • • • • • • • • • .• . .. .. • • . sto ar m2 h access large 112 75 50 medium small 2 sportsha ha Mm 7000 2700 2250 waccess 4500 4500 3600 sf0 requirementsfor3cate9onesha sportsha walls scoreboard wall protection/padding seating fixings/recesses fire eqp protectionto services/heating wallspeakers floors courtmarkings sockets&plates(fixed to floor orsub-floor) fixed . . movable .. . . S S • . ancillaryha ceiling tracksystemforcurtains lightingsystems • activities judo & martial arts (mats,wallpadding) .• snooker tabletennis fencing boxing movement& dance(barre, mirrors) .• •. . floor sockets/fixings • boxing training weight/fitnesstraining weightlifting wrestling markings movablefloors/platforms . . • . . .. • S . 322 Leisure Sport: outdoor - PITCHES 4.57m 48.8m 4.57m (15ft) (16011) (1511) 70yd) 110—155 m (120—i True - V '........ 8 I E I-- I--- C', 8 Orientationdiagram:for purposesofthischartseasonsfor variousgainestakentobeasfollows (southernhemisphereexcepted): associationfootball&rugbyfootball 1 Sep—30 Apr; hardcourt tennis, basketball,netballallyear round; cricket,baseball,grasscourttennis 1 May—i 5Sep; pavilionsshould avoid SW-NWaspect (225°—3150) H I I 9 Football,Australian r.. I -J Football,American 1 76.8—91.5 68m)74yd) - ) , (84-100yd) V 8 N 0 E 6 '0 t N I rn-00 20m II I E I I I I L 000 1Dm 30m 40m 50m 70m l 90m Isalety 1wai6ng line se&end margins6m(20ft) 0 2Oyd(18.288) 3Oyd(27.432) 40ydl36.576l 10 Football,Gaelic E Ir'i 11 Handball 13 Hockey:forcounty&club matchesrecommendedpitch90 x 55(98½ x 60 yd),overallspace95 55-65m SOyd(45.72) 6Oyd(54.864) 70ydl64.008) 8Oyd(73.152) 90ydl82.296) lOOyd(91.44) wrunen 6 I -- men 12 (60—70 yd) Li 3 Archery,clout Archery,target Football,rugbyleague 54.9-73.15m(60-8Oyd) 54.9m(6Oyd) 8 11 x 60(104 x 66Y2yd) ---c 7m 69n1(76yd) T 59.47m(66yd) HI; I E lt ItI; IS N LL 60m(66yd) 4 Baseball(Littleleague2/3 size) E '0 Hill Football,association:National PlayingFieldsAssociation recommendssizes:seniorpitches 82yd) I L J 73(4590)m l1Li (195—225It1nUSA( 6,,i 14 Football,rugbyunion 15 Football,Canadian 40m(44yd( 0 0 p T S 0 S 11 N "C E 8 x 96—100 x 60—64(105—109 66½— 70yd);juniorpitches90 46—55 (98½ x 50—60 yd); international 100—110 64—75(109—120 70— x f — 1 Camogie x E1 ,.. side&endmargins6m(20ft) 6rn 6 7 E 5 Bicyclepolo 91—110 m(110—126yd) H lI;l x E a, L 16 Hurling 17 Korfball 323 Leisure Sport: outdoor PITCHES 110m(l2Oyd) lOOm(lO9yd( o Lacrosse,men 1 Lacrosse,women:groundhas 2 nomeasuredormarked out boundaries IIi 27.5m 27.Sm 275m (300yd) 3043m1 I 1 Ic In0 II I I I I L 3 , II) 33m135yd) 4 ' -1- H / / \\\ // I I 0 LL E Polo ii1 (ii \1I IL' Netball alllines E 50 wide 600 in 3 IrI Ii II , ix frombad lineto supportpo 1000 q 2m 128—183 m (140—200yd) (l2 7 - E.- Tug-of-war radius E ** 850 inbetween extension , marginatsides& ends1000;where spectatorsprsserttmix2000;dimensions aretoinsideoflines mm 6 Rounders rope off 7 restricted 800 150 m 17m(l9ydl 46m(bOyd( ••\ recommen Li" 5 ( tree throw line 1600 4.— Shifty 42.1 m (46yd) 4 I _T__i___I]i Ii, 8 Curling I 15 Basketball 91.44m(lOOyd) 160m1175yd( // / / 20m(22yd1 Si I L1 V U I I-. E 16 Mini-hockey 9.14 m(30ft) 73m(240ft) 111 11 \\\\\\ 9 I ]1EIilhII 17 6-man football Cricket 18 Softball 27.43—54.86 m(30—60 yd) 1 -* usully about36.6 m(4yd) risesiii middle 203—457 mm ng Bowls,crown s" }:::::::::::::::::::: L 12.2tn(4Ottl 19 Decktennis doub I El .............v..... ___ 13.4m(44tt) 11.9m(39ft( 1.Sm(5tt( doubt Ii I I i '\.pJnior3.2m(10ft6in) sen,or:4m(13ft( 20 Paddletennis IE 1 6 E EE 324 Leisure Sport: outdoor ATHLETICS 867gm min9m 126.52w 7lanesat 122 85m landingar(sandpit) S 65m pm 7 Longjump: NBlandingarat bothendstoavoidadversewind straig6ct40.04m straight25.01m 1 c:: I wnway45m rnin4om minim 7.3m 2 300mrunningtrack 200mrunningtrack tIm (senior) runway45m 9m (junior) min4om spInjump manrunup43m(47 yd) -, EJ__________________________ I landingar(sandpit) 8 E 81.6w & Triplejump(senior junior) radius70 m /o, / mnn65m I ...— I ; — I — \ — \ \\—--- — 176.91 m 9 — .— Discus& hammer:discusbase2500hammerbase2135 mingm 11 m (senior) runway45m 40 m 9m(junior) I:] I mm Ik ar I landing (sandpit) 75w 10 Combinedtriple & long jump 84.3gmstraight radiussatetyboundary80-95 m 400 mstandard7-laneclub running trad: for6-laneall-weathersurfaces reduceoveralldimensionsby2440(approx overallsize 179 x 106m (193 x 116yd)); majorcompetition&regionaltracksrequireBall-weatherlaneswilh 10-lane sprintstraight:increaseoveralldimensionsby2440 (approx overall size 181 xlii m(198x l2iyd) t._ I /i I El crilI 4 2F ------- ' *-* 4m Ii > \ , \- - Javelin Sm ii —s--- S radius20-25m f . iunway45m mIn4Om L4_d 38.8 m landingar(airbed) ssm 5 Shot 6 High jump runway365 m --- 4 12 Polevault 1i? 325 Leisure Sport: indoor PITCHES : SE U) a) Q FO 1—3m I 0 Fc( 36m(ll8ft) L______m ______ -J 353 n—9 59in) 6 (I 6lrn)2Olt) mm 5w 1m ' 9—lOm(30—331t) 1 m)3tt3in) a (4011 square) 7 I bars E a, msquareH• 3m n, _____________ Eti CU CU Cs 11J_ )9ft9in( 14 m 2omrunup)66ft) 4m(l3tt( runoti I I L 7 J Gymnastics,female in, 262m(86ft) Basketball:mm h7000(23 ft)—nalso p323(15) o4 lie a, I reboundwallsallround to2000(1220mm) 3 It — floorexercise ID() I (89—20011) E 1—2m Micro-korfball 6 a C 1 h 7600(25 if) asyrnetricT -- 27—60 36m(118 5) — irn II 11 12 m(411) Badminton: 1—2 m Lacrosse,female:pitchformalegame(not shown)46—48 x 18—24m(151—158ftx 60—79if) S a, 0 -1-a 1—3m lI E I—IS i3 o a, E r 'r .6 HC 16—18m(52—Sgttl IS Ia 12 Judo 3 2-3m I $ 4$ 18m)6Olt( — B Volleyball — I — mmn3Ornmax36m(99-ll8lt) 13 Tug-of-war 5-a-sidefootball i7m(559in) a, 0.3ft) S 'a L a ( (2 Cs a, I.) a, z ____________— 6.5m)21 ft4mn) 20mrunap(6f1) 4 I 65m )5lt5in) runon C-2 A-i 15—3m)5—i0ft( 36-44m(39-48yd) a, 4m(l Gymnastics,male: mm h 7600 (25 if) i.5—3m)5—lOlt) S 9 (2 E Cs Wrestling(N nationalCclub Rrecreation) I =1 L 5 Hockey:teamsizesadjustedaccording to size ofpitchavailable Li in 30—40m(98—131 10 Handball,7-a-side \\ It) 14 Americanbowlingalley (mayhave anynumber lanes:usual mm 8) 15 Shuffleboard 326 Leisure Sport: indoor PITCHES(cont) E 0i I g •::•:•:•: raised •:•:•:•:•::i i I E 1 Tennis .F E E °r '— .- 0) •:•:•: :::• rI•:•:•:• ,:•.•.•., .•:•:•: I 7 Boxing:forcompetitioninaddition to ring& spectatoraccnfollowing needed: medexam rm, weighing rm, gloving-uprm, admin, lightingabove ring, watersupplytoeachcomer I 14m(46ft) F 15—2n (41111 in) 5 Fencingpistes 2 I Netball 0-ibm 2.5(8ft) 6 (6'hftyt I (911) ê 1 (3'/o—Sfi( 9m(301t) 8 Karate 9 Kendo L1IJ 4 305m flhifl2m (II ft6in) 3 6 Trampoline Aikido ATHLETICSTRACKS Resources for indoorathletics fall into 2 main categories: competition: provide forfull range ofcompetitivedisciplines; will provide for spectators training: (a) with some limited competitive use; (b) purpose built; (c) adaptations ofexisting sports halls. In USANational Collegiate Athletic Association(NCAA) rules forcollege athletics, forotheramateur events Amateur Athletic Union (MU);some track and field events still measured in yards, feet and inches; many present tracks still in such measurements; new layouts generally in metresorotherSI units. European AthleticAssociation (EAA) specifies forindoor events: Arena Shall be covered and heated and shall consist of track circuit, sprint straight, runways for4jumps, siteforshotputt. Natureoftracks Tracks andrunways surfaced with woodor suchothermaterialasallows normal use of spiked shoes; number of spikes shall comply with InternationalAmateur Athletics Federation rule 142 (4). 60 m hurdlesshall include 5 hurdles, h 1 060; 13.72 mfromstart line to first hurdle; 9140between hurdles; 9720fromlast hurdle to finishline. Female: 50 m hurdles shall include 4 hurdles, h 844; 13.0 m from start line to first hurdle;8500 between hurdles; 11.5 m from last hurdle to finishline. 60m hurdles shall include5hurdles, h844; 13.0 m fromstart line tofirst hurdle;8500between hurdles; 13.0 m fromlast hurdle to finish line. Events Runwaysfor long&triple jump & polevault: wide. Landingareaforjumps:in high jump and pole vaultlandingareasshall be in accordance with IAAF rules 201 (e) and 3 (d). In long jump and triple jump they shall measure 6000 long and 2500wide and shall consistof 300 in depth ofwet sand on synthetic track base. Putting theshot: sector shall be 450 but may be reduced bytechnical delegate ifnecessary to meetlocal conditions. Othertechnical installations: all other technical installationsshall be strictlyinaccordance with IAAF rules. Circulartrack 1 lap oftrack shall measure 160 m 200m in length. Eachbend shall be 35 min length and banked atanangle 100 18°. Eachstraight 35m.Where no raisedborder, measurementshall betaken 200 outward from inner edge of track. Track shall be 4000 6100 wide; shall include 4 lanes. ' Sprinttrack ' Sprint straight shall have beyondfinishing line 15m. 6 lanes: width of each 1220; / , — consdecsurroundingindoorcyclingtrack 4or6nesat1 or mm w. 1.22or prefered extension Hurdleraces Male: 50mhurdlesshall include4hurdles, h 1060. There shall be13.72 m fromstart line tofirst hurdle; 9140 between hurdles; 8860fromlast hurdletofinishline. 40 m long and 1 220 45or40m bends 10 Requirementsforindoortrack Leisure 327 Sport: indoor ATHLETICSTRAIMNG CD for athletes training indoors, with limited competitive use, Provision neednot includeexpensive 200 m banked tracks. Many events can be simulated if briefthought out inadvance with consideration of needsof athletes. Needs a b 12 badminton poie vaufl ihrowingpactice gymnasiucs 1 badminton(2courts) 345 athietics—longjump —Sprint be considered at planning stage of sports 4'—236in(77 tt6in)—4-.--.--———-—--428 m(140116cr) : :• : : 2 of athletes should centresso that this maior spectator and participantsportcan gain some of benefits fromindoor provision other sports have received —*(1) pole vault hurdies 0 -4.- 13m(14¼ yd) combatsports basketbafl—training gym & 2badminton tennis 5-a-side football I I volleyball badniinlon ootball iectures demonstraiions 14 basketball 5sid&oolball : . : • : I I —— —— \ I 3j•5•,,_ 4 polevaull -''--_./ rnaxrunup58m (63¼yd) longjump triplelump run up 55 m maxrunup 43 m I ngjump /'\rnau II 34 badminton(2courts) pole vault throwingpractice long jump Sprintstarts 25 hurdles / basketball tennis 5-a-sidetootbail volleyball ba&ninton i i - run outi doorfor 4 4 3I cage sdiscus. shot hamme E — - throwing practice urn N = I I "Tjçh s poe maxrurup37in vault' 2 L diushot / I L throwing: hiumpt8mH 2 I • maxrun up 39m \ — — 1 netball longjump tnpieJump maxrunup 55 in(60yd) maxrun up 43m(47yd) I —— / — lanes Sf' SportsstadiumtraininghaGateshead England: apermutations possibleathleticstraining 1 ofpossible activities bpermutationsof WEIGHT& FITNESSTRAINING multi gym multi gym abdominal shoulder unit conditioners squat conditioner doordtscJ rack transportarack leg press i ng ar [1 I multigym-1 I bench press L d Er trolley bench 11N * rackj fl fIam .L. [1 [chine rowing Units purpose hyperextension bench multi transports ra,L' , Wristroller step up bench leg extension _________ 15m(49ft3tn) flex -.4--.-—— -r , 8 C) or 8 0 0) blackboard multi-purpose betch squat racks -. gym 12 Stationwith [199 multi 7complete weight stack cycle II I dual 'ackboard OtH barbell fl_purpose bench II rack Fiiin! I dlck or iiceboard irergometers ..wallto platform [1 oor ymar racks [rcise —- —- - — 6000(lgft9in) —5 olympicplate T 8 Lt) cx I I Cc I,) 12! board 1 UUUIflb fl) racks 2 FitnessrmatleisurecentreCramlington England 3 Conditioning&weighttrainingrmBunyanrecreation centreBedford England I (1) C CD 328 Leisure Sport: indoor SPORT NEEDINGOWN PITCHES/SPACES - ia -- 303(loott)- !+ i1 tiiTighne 425m(141t) plan - 303(1005)- a -: S 1 firingline 4N 425rn —•— H i0 E section '0 targetzonel05m(3ftS4r)4 18288m(SOtt) 20 I arar SeCtion [ 303m b targetzone1.0m b_ JE[ '0 sectIon tiringhne L 425rn)141t) largetzonel05m(3ft6in) plan Projectile ha section & plan asmall bmedium Clarge 10 Rackets asection bplan mlI ILP 2archersshootto eachtargetboss stopnet 9.754m(32lt) —-:iiiii shooting waiting line line targethoe S N 2ni (65610) l range 2 Archery:international&nationalshootsrequire rangesof3025& 16m &20yd; forclub & recreationalshoots 13.716(15 yd)willdo: mm ceiling h3000 mm 37m(12ft3w1( I rolldowncarpetlstoneeded) 1 5m 125(4ft9iii> - 33m(tOItlt) ll hall 125 1Sm aE Squash asection bplan: dimensions & surfacefinishescritical;referto governingbodies 6 32 m(105It)desirable3749m(123It) 3 Bowling:singlerinkinprojectile —'0 7 IrE Rugbyfives 1— t Billiards& snooker,agreedstandardstable: 3500x 1750 playingat b 11 1185m6086 asection bplan 33.6O4rnl10tt3in( S N 14m(4fl6un( 67 E na 225 600(211) mat I __________ pumng ____carpet si_I] = I liD C., I? I 12 Golfpractice Real tennis: dimensionsofcourtatHampton Court England 8 II 33.5 m)llOIt) _______ 4 9.lSm(30ft) Bowling:4rinksmittforrecreation, 6 for IIIl:E. ujj I 20.117m(66tt) toumamerits 13 Cricketpracticenets; h3.650(12ft) 303m(99531n) - a b 425m 4—-f 5 9 Cycling 11 hnngline j 1.05m targetzone 4_f U+Itbifll Shooting,target, small bore a section bplan 14 Ice skating Leisure 329 Sport: swimming INDOORPOOLS Waterarea—*(1) Location: central, good public transport connexions. Rough guide to changing nn—p336—7: accessible from hall,separated bysex; notinside pool area; 1 do unitll—1.5 m2 pool area; common changing rm as extra provision: dispersed population (rural areas) 20—25 x 11—13 m within 25 minutes travel of 30000 people; partially concentrated (surburban areas and free standing towns) 25 x 11 m pool + learner pool within 15—20 minutes travelof30000people; concentrated population 25 x 13 m pool + learner pool within 12 minutes walking time of 30000 people.Usage/head ofpopulation: medium and small towns 3.5times/ year;cities 1.3—2.5/year. type of b coveredspace changingrm small av large 2floors changingrm 1 floor m3 m3 30—40 40—55 50—70 40—50 50—65 60—80 1 Ratio of enclosed spaceto1 m2water ar 2 Circulation&groupingofelements space. Pre-cleanse:barefootpassage pastwctoshowers; 1 sho/8dospaces: sho space required 1.35—2.15m2; in some countries (eg Switzerland USA) use of cleaning passages with sho activated by floor contact or light beam.Throughshormto swimmingand teachingpools—*p335. Toilets: mm 2wc; male 1/15—20female 1/7—10; urinals 1/15—20 male. public access 3 Baths at Hanover-Linden Germany(design HochbauanttHanover):indoorbseparatedfrom outdoorbby 3submersibledoorswithfootbasins and 6 sti infront indoorswimmingb: pool 12.5 x 25m training pool6 x 12.5 m openairswimmingb: free-shapegeneralpurposepool 20 x 25 m divingpoolwith 10m stage 20x 20m changing:indoor49change-overcubicles, 600do & 5groupchanging rm;outdoor36change-over cubicles&1320cIa exercise sectiona-a III II 176 o 36 Leisure&poolcomplexRoxburyYMCA USA Arch TheArchitectsCollaborative 4 9 12m ft 330 Leisure Sport: swimming INDOORPOOLS(cont) Heating & ventilation: water temp recreational pools 27°C, learner pools 28°—30°, diving pool 28°; airtemp 1—2°abovewatertemp: changing rm, pre-cleanse, clothes sto not less than pool water; air changes: volume flow rate of0.15m3/m2/s ofpool water plus wet surround. Waterpurification plantfor heating,filtering, disinfection. Watercirculation: main pool 3 hr (if veryshallow withheavy bathing load every 2 hr); learner pool 11/2 hr; diving pool 6 hr; pH near aspossible 7.7 or 7.6, never outsiderange 7.2—8.0. Pool: width, length —*(3); water depth: non-swimmers 900—1 250, swimmers 1 250—3500,learnerpool 500—900. Mm depth forswimming 900. a _L bh Internal finishes: floors easy-grip and slip-resistant finish, glazed ceramic tiles, smallsize mosaic; pool surrounds slip-resistant flooring; pool bottomand walls: tiles, wallsurround upto2000tiles orwaterproof paint; upper wall areas and ceiling sound absorbent materials. Metal parts rust and condensationproofencased,no heattransmissionbridges. Plastics generally suitable. All fixings and fittings ideally made from corrosion resistant metals, egstainlesssteel, bronze, certainaluminium i.l r ij r1 L_J r—-' e r r—' L..J 25m 8.5 m(4lanes) 10.5m(5lanes) 13m(6lanes) f rL_J1 r'°' L_.J 17 m(8lanes) r r' L.._l .___J I r°r"T i___ L__I 33.33m d Typicalpool profiles: a&bfor 'in ground' pools c& for'aboveground' pools e 'in ground'steeltank 'aboveground'steeltank f international pool S •0 freeformshapepool separate deepwaterdivingpooi S S • 5 5 a 0 0 0 a • 0 5 0 S 0 •0 • • informalviewing viewingaroverlookingpooi 0 0 0 21 m(8lanes:lullOlympicstandards) 25m 10-12 m(7ni mx) •0 vendingmachines firstaidrm S • • • • S sauna suite a a a •O 17m 0 •0 • cafeteria bar 21 m SOm spectatorseating fixed rakedspectatorseating occasional spectatorsat poolside refreshments 17m leisure pool pool pool waterar 50 m main pool 25 m main pool separate teaching/training pool 1 000 springboardmain pool recreational divingchutes wave machine 13m national! local recrearegional pool tional/ S 0 I 600 5 0 I I stepsupto 600 posunound lanero I 600 2m laneropepombOn 900 7m 900 I 900 2m 16¾m 20m definite provision possible provision 2 Poolfeatures 3 Mainpool sizes:mostcommonsizesshownin heavierlines Leisure 331 Sport: swimming Waterpolo INDOORPOOLS(cont) Playing area: for national/international events 1 800 deep; district! countyevents 1 500 mm; club/Amateur Swimming Association events in UK 1200mm. Dimensions—(2). Swimmingpools for disabled —*8ib639 Poolsforleisure Main features of pools specifically created for indoor leisure and recreational swimming: lively, warm, gay interior; good quality materials; shallow waterwith beach edges; wavemachines; water chutes; artificial sun bathing; plants, trees, seating, refreshment areas forswimmers. Private indoor poo1s—p115—6 S E N 1 Commonwealth poolEdinburgh Scotland MatthewJohnsonMarshall& Partners asection bplan Arch Robert 4 Typical'leisure' freeformpoolWhitleyBayEngland; plan Arch Gillinson Barnett& Partners 2 Dimensions forwaterpolo F— 20.0 50.85 3 IndoorbWuppertalGermany:section Arch Hetzelt H 5 Indoorpool BottrupGermany Arch Heinz Kisler CD U) C CD 332 Leisure Sport: swimming INDOORPOOLS (cont) a / // 1.-I. b % T'LI4 -1500- 7 I hydraulic L F1600 1 Springboard hydraulically adjustable 1000—3500 a plan 4800 Pooledgedetail liftingplant I—i 500-1 —I bsection pO$selehand-grip drainage charerel 500 2 600 Springboarddetail 3 Deck-levelpool: edgesection 8 Pooledgewith Wiesbadentypeoverflow: restingledge &gangway in multi-purposepool a 9 Longitudinalsectionof25mpoolwith9underwater lights x 500 500mmmm surface ar max slope 10 b 4 10 Diagramof startingplatform: cable to timingeqp only built-inin major poolcentres Moveablefloorstypicalinstallation a in raisedposition b lowered Underwaterlightingin swimming,diving&multipurposepool 11 - IF-i sechona—b a--''_IHEE, :..: 150 5 Recessedshapedsteps 6 Glazedceramicsteps Leisure 333 Sport: swimming OPEN AIR POOLS Location: sunny, not down wind of industrial plants, nuisance from smoke or noise. Season:depends on climate. For NW Europe: 100—120visits/year, of which 40—60 busydays, of which 10—15 peak days Perhead of population (depending on climate): 1 .5—3 visits/year. 1—2 m2 overall site area 0.1—0.2 m2 water area Pervisitor 0.6—1 m2 water area L9i ogood viewing o badviewing 1 Viewingconditionsforend &side positiondivingboards Changing rm for5—8%of population Non-swimmerspool: separate in largeinstallations;depth 800—1 250; easy-grip steps for sitting at shallow end; floor surface of pool nottoo slippery. Paddling pool: access by gentlyfalling ramp; free shape; depth 100— 400; floor surface of pool nottoo slippery. Waterchute:-_*p337(5) Pool construction: dense vibrated concrete or RC; inside finishfrost resistant tiles, paint (epoxy resin orother). Expansion jointsdepending on construction Steps (a) corrosion resistant metal in 600—1 000 wide recesses (b) special shaped ceramic glazed unitsbuilt in—p332. Distance apart ofsteps 10 m; distancefromdiving tower 8000 Starting platforms: —p332 Guide line: vertical below starling platforms. 2 D'Albaroopenairbat GenoaItaly Diving line: on pool floor, 250—300wide. Walk-through pool:3000 x 4000—4000x 6000: depth 300—400 with overflow. Walkway round pool: 2000; access. 5600 near diving stages and pool Water circulation: 6 hr turnover when bathing load infrequent; 3 hr turnoverwhen load heavy. Water cleaning—*p337. Ancillaries: 3 Layoutofalpine bGloggnitzAustria entrance with cash desk, centrallysituated laundry issue& sf0 swimming instructors' rm first aid rm (or doctor's rm) staff rm, separate formen & women eqp, swimming & sports gear, deckchairs etc, possibly with issuing counter changing rm, separate for men & women (communal changing rm, changing cubicles, separate rmforclubs& schools); family change wc sitedconveniently tochanging rm & pool pre-cleanse showers hand & foot wash basins plant rm: watercirculation & purification:boilers telephone, loudspeaker & clock systems with signaldevice adequate parking space admin off Showers, lavatories—vp335; changing rm—ap336 Desirable:roofed rest rm, sales rm, manager'sflat, broadcastingsystem. Garden swimming pools —*p114 4 Open airbinFrankfurtGermany 334 Leisure Sport: swimming DIVING POOL DIMENSIONS a +F 100 IJo + E J -I- mel 7500 p 5000 p A-A4 1 FédérationInternationalede Natation Amateur(FINA) international standardsof diving:diagrams alongitudinal section bcrosssection a springboards fixedboards A board h fromwater B boardI C boardw D d of water at plummet E distanced D im 3m 4.8 4.8 0.5 7.5m lOm 6.0 6.0 3.5 6.0 Sm 5.0 2.0 3.8 6.0 2.0 4.1 8.0 2.0 4.5 10.5 2.2 2.7 3.0 3.0 3.0 7.5 10.25 11.0 4.5 2.5 1.25 1.5 4.6 9.0 3.5 2.5 1.5 4.6 3.0 3.2 13.5 4.5 2.5 1.5 3.4 2.75 5.0 2.75 5.0 2.75 2.75 5.0 0.5 3.0 5.3 maintained forward F distancedD maintained to sides G clearanceforward H clearanceto sides I distanceto adjacent board J clearancebehind L clearanceoverhead M clearanceoverhead w01srround necessary wdh 1000 springboard +M • N H, 'F' a 2 StandardsfordivingboardsapprovedbyAmateurSwimming Association (UK) table a competitivedivingtable brecreational diving(firmboards) maintained tosides clearance overhead maintained forward 3.8 2.5 5.0 2.75 6.0 Notes: 1 tableincorporateslatestdimensionsrecommendedbyASA;includes column ofdimensionsfor7500platformh (considereduseful forhigh board training) 2 ± 100 tolerancepermissibleonnominalboardh: alldimensions should relate to centralpoint atfront end of diving board(s) 3platform thickness should not be 200 at Itsfront 4designersshould consider current standardsspecifiedbyFINAifpoolto be used fornational/international standard events; recommendedthat divingpool beseparatefrom mainpool: where not possible boardhotspringboardshould be confinedto 1000 and wheninuse arconcerned should be ropedoffto avoid swimmerscausing safety hazard plummet sectiotmof divingpoolstobe readin association with tables & 5 2.5 2.5 1.5 b A board hfromwater B boardl C board w 0 d of waterat plummet E distanced 0 maintainedforward F distanced D maintainedto sides G clearanceforward H clearancetosides I distance to adiacent board J clearancebehind K clearancebehindboard L 1 m 1 m 2m 2 m 0.75 1.75 0.75 1.75 075 0 75 0.75 0.75 2.6 26 3.0 3.0 3.0 4.0 3.0 4.0 3m 3m 0.75 175 0.75 0.75 325 3.25 3.5 4,5 5m 5.0 2.0 3.8 6.0 2.2 2.2 2.4 2.4 2.6 26 30 45 5.5 2.5 2.5 5.5 3.0 2.5 6.5 3.0 2.5 6.5 3.5 7.5 3.5 2.5 10.25 3.8 2.5 2.5 2.5 25 1.25 1.25 1.25 1.25 1.25 0.8 0.8 08 0.8 0.8 1.25 0.8 0.8 1.25 3.0 3.0 to wall clearanceoverhead 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 Leisure 335 Sport: swimming SLIPPERBATHS,SHOWERS Slipper baths: in separate units; number approx 0.1 x pooi size (m2); sizesaccording todemand and number ofvisitors —o(4);space required changing rrn CD (0 C CD Centrepassage width 3000. Side passage width 1600. Clotheshooks inside on freewall or inside door. Window cillabove bath Washable walls 1 I— 23 U, 650 1000 -- f-i 000 - HI Sho passagesection&plan I—2000—i I— 2700 —1900-1 —i 2Ii 1-2000--i 4 800 abovefloor level. Hard finishon solid floorwith drainage; all corners and skirtings coved; all metal parts heavily galvanised; alltimberpainted 3undercoats and 1 finishing coat. Steam baths: individual cubicles, box baths or shared baths (steam baths), separate for men and women,orused at differenttimes. Separate rest rm 22°C, massage rm 30°, sho rm 25°with warm bath 22°and cold bath 100. Shapes ofbenches for lying on—o(6). Turkish bath —o(7): warm airrm 45—50°C, hotairrm 55—60° and sweat rm 65—70°, adjoining rest, sho and massage rm as above. Outer walls doublewith heated aircavity; ceiling slopes towardsoutside todrain off condensation. All fittings rustproof. Windows with treble glazing. El fittingswater tight. Saunas—*(5)(6)—p1 17338 Arrangementofsho&wcwithcirculationroutes - 1 1 300 above floor level. 1-2000-1 - (?) i—2000-l Cubiclesizes 1200—.- - 1000 rr Jo 'j......,400 T1H 4.. F- -+— 400 420 340 6 Bench typesforsteamb 5 StandardFinnish saunastove with boiler (alsosuitableforwashing clothes) accordingto Finnish standards: 12000;steps& benchesofwooden battensnailedfrombelowsothat bodydoes nottouchhotnail heads Functionaianaiysisof healthb bathr layout—o(4) ab& bench bb&couch cbasabove d—easabove lasabove 8 mrii2 + vestibule (1000) mm2 3800 5120 5220 7600 7600 5600 7800 7120 9600 9600 — vesitibule Spaceneededforbath cubicles—.(4) 336 Leisure Sport: swimming POOLCHANGINGROOMS i500'- 1000 1250 *- 1250 i- 1-.- 1250 Individual cubicles —v(lb): 1/visitor; size 1000 x 1000—1200;gross —. area ofchanging rm/cubicle 3—4 m2. Cubicles to be used in turn: (a) with locker —a(la)(2)3—4 lockers! cubicle; (b) with supervised central do —v(3)(4); size and area as for : individual cubicle; desirable ratio approx 53%. (Very economical: itfew cub,c'es cubicles visitorscubicles can beusedsingly.) Bath cubicles—ap335(4)(8) Common changing rooms: (a) with central handing-in do —v(4); a b loot washbasins Cubicleswithoutseparate shod &barefootpassages: with locker bindividual 1 ainterchangeable Heightofchanging rm f/ (\ ---4 I —— ± 0 I 0 + 8 ± j_ -' (_\ 1_i ventilation 8 C, — fj J_ Oi f\ /\ fi /\ ,' 4. 4----;---4 f---1 ,\ LI:'.... -4-4- 8 ± 8 TWWThHH I t *4004 F 1500 400 400 F : :::....: _: 400 400 lemales 1— 1300 +1000-l--1300— I..,.I.11111111 i_j I """ii"," iiiii— I ,i. •4 lernales —1300 11000 -l300-4 1_ 1500 5 Commonchangingrm: awith clotheshooks bwith lockers 2 Interchangeablecubicleswith lockers I 2800. -r shodpasage /\ space required/place 0.5—0.8 m2; (b) with locker —e(5b); space requirementas (a) + locker area, 3—4lockers/seat; locker size: 300 x 500— 400 x 600desirable ratio approx 26%; (c) without locker, with clothes hooks—v(5a); for groups supervision desirable; space requirement as (a); desirable ratio approx 14%. I ,uslll,iuil.ui .1. 3 interchangeablecubicleswithcentralattended do males I—.- 'F UUiUiffltlJ clothesreceiving& issuing 1000 C, interchangeable cubicies 4000 .—+—- clothesissue ______________________ 4. a, 4000 ,500 t3°°0 I ] —4 504' common changing rm 1. key tool washbasin availabletofemaies availabletomales 4 do cubicles&common changingrmwithcentralsupervised Interchangeable 6 ______________ outofuse CiO5edslidingdoor Changingarplannedsothat2centralspacescanbeusedat different times by eithersex Leisure 337 Sport: swimming I-130O-i-1000-1300--+- 2200 POOLCHANGINGROOMS -1 Forpublic bldg essential find most economic staffing solution. Division of interchangeable sections by sex can be varied by use of sliding partitions —ep336(6) or byswitching notice boards. Av visitors 60—70%men 30—40%women Cubiclewith supervised do; interchangeablecubiclesformen & women;indicatorboard 0canbe switchedaccordingtodemand 1 F—750H-—750 ] T.S -r ' L hooksfor clothes Coatstandsfor interchangeable cubicledo 3 bench h 375; bench w 300 In open-air bathsper changing rm 40 users per section or area20 coat hooks on run of board forcoat hooks 3000. shoes, j30O Space requirements —(2)(3): 500 bench/adult 400 bench/child —H foldingbench m Clothes sto: individual lockers orattendant supervised basket—.(4)sto —sp336(3)(4) Ratio of total changing/clothes sto space per user approx 1 .75 m2. 29 Cubicleswith proprietarypanels inbaths atNordeneyGermany Cubicles and clothesstand of timberor corrosion resistant metal with proprietary panels —(3). Include changing needs ofdisabled users: 2000 x 2000 cubicle. WATERCLEANING Purification, flocculation and disinfection ofswimming pool water: hygienically essential turnover period forindoor public pools: swimming pool 3hr learner pool 1/2 hr diving pool 6 hr Purification of river, surface and pooi water chemically byflocculationof organicsubstances to induce coagulationfollowed by filtration. Filterrm sizes—÷(6). Disinfection usually bychlorination. In asymmetrical pools arrange outlets so that complete through flow possible and no watercan stagnate in corners. For cleaning pooi floor, specially in open-air pools, remove sediment with brushes and suction sediment pump. Basketcoathangerwithshoebagforinterchangeable cubicles 4 capacity/hr aroffilter rm clear h offilterrrn m2 m 20—40 20—30 3.5 60 40 50 60 65 3.5 3.5 3.5 3.5 3.5 4.5 m3 80—100 150—200 250 300 400 70 80 6 Spacerequiredforfilter installation;foropenairadd 50% polishedterrazzo 120 I- t— 600 h— I— 2030 5 Water chute BadKissingenGermany 800 120 —t--i — 338 Leisure Sport SAUNAPLANNING sauna fresh exhaustair exhaustair ax ussr under entrance/exit • t airb I Domestic saunas—xpl 17 Bathing time: 3 x 8—12 minute sessions, total for 1 bath 120 minutes. Rm forcooling (sho, hose, plunge) —x(2)(3)(9)(1 0)and airbath—x(3)(12). Natural cold waterpleasanter: lake orsea inlet (or snow). Air bath: breathing in fresh cool air as offset to hot air, cooling down freshairrmH she_a bI warn,fool hosean 1 warmfootb essentiai,plungeboptional Privatesaunadiagram 2 Domesticsauna—xpl17 body. Provide protection against peeping; seating; water cooling by hose withoutrose or/and plunge of approx 1 000 m3. Warm footbwith seating required. Changing area: cubicles (oropen) fortwice number ofvisitors at peak times —(13); also ancillary rest and massage rm —x(12) for approx 30 visitors, 2 massage points; 1 rest rm for 1/3 bathers apartfromstaff. Room temp: undressing 20—22°C; pre-cleanse (coldwater) rm 18—20°; massage rm20—22°. J 24—26°; cooling —400 swlrmningpooi -850 - 450 I— 900 3 Saunain swimmingha 9 10 Plungeb 2000 4 Planl—3P ±t.h 5 S 2—4P Section—x(9) I Publicsaunasuite Ashtonunder-Lynepool England Arch TechnicalUnitforSport 11 6 3—5P OT 500- 500 p600 1 refreshments 1—600--I changingml pre-cleanse hoserecess piungeb 6 warn,footb 7 sauna 8 freshairb 9 restrm 10 massage 11 cash desk 2 3 4 5 I 7 l—.-—3750 —Ii-—-4280 —-41.2000 Saunafor1—3Pt section 12 11— 4250 —44-.-— 4000 Saunafor 30Pt plan IP changingrm pre-cieanse& wc sauna coolingmm restrm freshair massage 8 Saunawith indirectheating (Bemberg):section 13 1 nTlsizesegfor30P 0.8—1.0m'IP 0.3—0.5m'/P 0 5—06m'/P 1.0-1.5 m'/P 03—0.6m'/P 0.5 m'/P 6—Bm Arrequiredper P& mi sizes changingmi pre-cleanse sauna coolingIn, massage restm, xi' 24—30 9—15 rn' 15—18rn' 30-45rn' 12—iBm' 9—lBrmi' lob, iav,corr 99—144m' +21—35m' air b bench 20—50m' 120—17gm' Leisure 339 Sport: tennis COURT REQUIREMENTS Playing space needed for court—(1): h of net at centre 915, at posts h 4000; 2.5 wire 40 mesh. Artificial lighting 10 m h at long sides. Scale of courts to population: regular players av 2% oftotal; ratio courts/players 1:30 to 1:35 very good, 1:45orover poor; new courts 1:30. Additional space amounting to 25% ofplaying spaceneeded forcar park,children'splay area, paths,bldg etc. Surface: exceptionally smooth, hard and pervious to rain: must attract very little dust and be dazzle free; materials: grass, cinders, plastics. 1 060; netting enclosure 10970 1370 3 Drainageplansfortenniscourts end margin h= 11.0 enclosure 9000 enclosure dimensions international&national county & club recreational relating to standards officialchampionships recommended of play minendmargin mm sidemargin 6400 6400 5490 3660 3660 3050 36580x 18290 enclosure size for 1 cOurt mm h 36580x 18291 34750x 17070 wiorcourts 33530 31700 waddedloreach additionalcourt 15240 14630 in 1 enclosure 7000 —6400 4 Playingspace neeoed forcourtsofdifferent standardsaccording to requirementsof(UK) LawnTennisAssociation 11.89 1 Coveredcourt h I 2000I 14.0 10.0 i'2000.i 10.97- 'f fl! - —36.57- 16.27 I neth800 (TeTh :.:.:.z.L.:.;:.:!:!r:..t.:.J.:.:.:.: a 2 Dimensions& shapesforcoveredcourts—(4)sections alongitudinal bcross 5 Children'scourt 340 Leisure Sport SKI JUMPINGSLOPES pian / Sketch forconstructionofskijumpslopes 1 Following symbols should be used: Djstance fromparapet of lower referee's cabin ofhorjzontal 'd' beneath edge of platform: D x tg 16°—20°. Cabins should be located stepped along diagonals formed by line fromplatform edgetoend of point 'D'. Upper sideof floor of individualcabins lies 1 000—1 200 beneathparapet. Diagonal oftowertoaccess oftrack should be7°—i0°sothatreferee can properly observe entire flightand landing. As manystarting pointsas possible should be locatedon run up distri- P datum point table point K critical point (end of Slowingdown section & startof runoutslope) B endof landing runforvaulting M slowing-down section (distancefromPlo K) Mi distance from P to B L distance fromedgeof slope to P Li distance fromedge of slope to K H verticaf projectionof L N horizontal projectionof L H:N ratio ofverticalsto horizontals a slopeof platform b slopeof jump-off trackat datum point(P)upto criticalpoint(K) C run upslope Ri radius of bend fromrunupto platform R2 radius of bend fromlump-off to run Out R3 radius of bend fromplatformto jump-offtrack Iofplatform U partof runupinwhichspeed no longerincreases E partof runupinwhichspeed increases F OveralllOfrunup(F=U±E+I) A lofrunout Vo speed at platformedge in rn/s D horizontaldistancefromplatformedge to lower part ofreferees tower 0 distancefromjump offtrackaccessto referee'stowerfront edge TP buted evenly along length E15 whose distance should amount to about 1 000vertically. Bottom starting point: E — E/5. widthofjump-offtrackat K: L1/7 + 4m. Mm Remarks All slopesgivenin oldgrading (360°). If transfersparabolic, thenRi and P2 smallest curves on thoseparabolas. I Withnatural runup, sections mainlyused should be marked every2000 to help locate starting point precisely.Gradients on platformand several pointsin curve between run upand platformend should be recorded on both sidesbyfixedbuilt-in profiles so that even non-experts can determine correctand precise profile when jump being worked. Profile markings should be applied along jump-off profile both sides down torun-out, allowingexact snow profileto bedeterminedparticularly in deepsnow. Jumps with L more than 5Dm should not normallybe built with Vo of less than 21 m/s. Jumps with Lover 90 m not approved by Fédération internationale deski (FIS) (except foraerial skijumps). Standardsforchiefparts of platform: H:N 0.48—0.56 Datum point of platformcan bedetermined: Li —M, wherestandardsforMare: 0.5—0.8Vo forplatforms up toP= 70m P M M Mi Ri R2 R3 I U A 0.7—1.1 Vo forplatformsuptoP = 90m 0—0.2Vo 0.12Vo2—0.i2Vo2+ 8m 0.14 Vo2—0.14Vo° + 2Dm profile selectedforfront structurewhich best meetsangleof flight 0.22Vo 0.02Vo2 D 0.5—0.7x Li to loweredge oftower 4—5Vo on horizontalrunOut 0 0.25—0.50x Li medium &largejumps L E C E L c C 8—10 30° 35' 40 U 25 23 21 4.5 3.3 32 28 25 T 7—9 6—8 Vo =0.5 0.48 0.46 0.44 0.42 0.4 0.38 b .1. 9—12 C 4O U I Vo 05 0.48 b 53.0 51 0 35—37 58.5 562 665 64.0 61.5 750 722 695 66.7 81 0 780 750 72.0 65.3 630 60.8 23 71.5 69.0 24 77.7 5.5 25 840 52 8.8 46 21 71 58 49 9.7 48 22 80 65 54 10.6 5.1 89 72 60 114 53 99 80 67 125 15 20.0 19.5 19.0 18.5 18,0 17.5 170 30—34 111 90 74 140 5.7 26 902 870 837 805 77.2 5.1 3.5 16 96.3 930 895 860 82.5 915 87.7 25.5 24.8 24.0 23.3 22.5 21.8 21 0 3O—35 124 100 81 150 5.9 27 39 32 28 5.8 3.7 17 31.0 300 29.0 28.0 27,0 26.0 250 33—30° 137 110 88 16.0 62 46 37 32 6.5 4.0 18 36.5 35.3 34.0 32.8 31.5 30.3 29.0 33—30° 52 43 37 7.2 42 19 42.0 40.5 39.0 37 5 36 0 34.5 33.0 34—37 59 49 42 8.0 4.4 20 47 5 45 8 44.0 42.3 40.5 38.8 37.0 2 056 0.52 44 €a 8—10 0.54 62 smalljumps c C 3O 35' Dimensionssmall slopes 34—37W 28 .1. 36—30° 37—30° 38—40° 3 Dimensionslargerslopes Example: accordingtoterrainfollowingdataapplyto LI &H:NegH/N =0.54; C = 35°; L = 87m; intableyouwillfind L = 87&incolumn to left Vo=26; at somelevelbeneathc=35°,E=gOm,U=14&T=5.7;F=E+ U+T= 90+ 14 + 5.7 = 109.7m: skijumpwith dimensionsdifferingfromabovecan beapprovedbyFIS but in suchcasesdesignermustgive writtenreasons Leisure 341 Sport SKIJUMPING SLOPES 5 a if" I I juniorlumP _ 4 LI !6 I 5 , Olympicjump ___________________ 0 b m 6 12 18 24m 40 40 40 ott vi Olympicjump 1 Skijumpsat aGarmischPartenkirchen Germany b HolmenkollenNorway: 1 start 2 run up 3take-offplatform 4 run out 5grandstand 6umpires towers ICE RINKS Hosed ice rinksinsomecountries ontenniscourts, rollerskating rinks and similar large areas (surrounding wall h approx 100—150); water layer20; drainage forletting out water. Artificial ice rinkswith refrigeration system 25 below screed. Pump system with deep freeze salt solution or cold air chambers (usually ammonia compression method) —e(3)—(5).Sometimes combination of rollerskatingrink summer (Mar—Nov) and ice rink winter (Dec—Feb). Refrigeration system25—50 below top of rink surface (not possible on terrazzo). Standard racetrack: 1300m, 333.3 m,standard400m: measured500 in fromedgeoftrack—e(2). In double track system each track 3000 5000. Ice hockey—ep342. Bobsleigh runs with pronounced camber madeofice blocks atcurves. Spectators preferably oninside curves, otherwise protective mounds of snoworstraw bales. Toboggan runssitutated on N-NW-NE slopes, preferably in hollow: I 1 500—2500m; incline 15—25%;w 2000.FIat finish orrise inopposite w direction, camber at curves, obstacles protected with straw bales or snowmounds. Walk-up alongside noton run. 400mracetraclc 2xosntralaxis= 2x111.94= 223.88m innercurve =25.5x3.1416= 80.11m oulercurve =30.5x3.1416= 95.82m 25 111.94 —20.97 70 P/ CrOSSIng //i! ,-5000 m_/'/'/ 20.97—1O00m 41 3000m startls0Om 7.957.76 innerlane ----.- ) JcringPxtradsw from70m =0.18m crossingstraight 2 Standardracetrack 400mI 100 insul--— ahon _.....f sub-concrete concrete seamlesspipes distrbution rods in 75 concretemd trios-salt steel prig elf felt endline m 2' reinforcement crease protectiveordIe radius2000 gravel 3 Artificialice rink: layoutof refrigerationsystem(brine) 4 Detail ofsurfacepipes 5 Detail ofembeddedpipes 6 Longcurlingground 342 Leisure Sport ICE RINKS (cont) 0 m-nee targetground l() run-ott— sideline —— I 1000 0 .LI —I .Le5aO Curling —(1): ground 42 m; w 4000 (30 x 3000also possible); intermediatetracks(strips) 1 m; pitch ends 600. Starting and aiming areas surrounded with easily crossed wooden barrier on3 sides. Scottish curling—e(2): field 142m;target area (tee) 03650. Tocentre pointoftee 38.35 m. If ice poor, reduce to 29.26 m. Curling stone: weight19.958 kg, circumference 914,h ofcircumference. Icehockey—o(3): ground 1/8 26 x 56 m, 30 x 61 m. Goal1830w, 1220h; may be played around back. Pitch requires wooden barrier 1200h—u(3). Figure skating: rectangular rink 26 x 53 m 30 x 60 m. Combination ofrollerskating rink in summer (Mar—Nov) and ice rink in winter (Dec—Feb).Cold pipe system 25—50 beneath a track surface —*p34l (5). ROLLERSKATINGRINKS 2 1 Scottishcurling rink Sportstracks rollerskating hockey—.(4)15 x 30— 20 x 40 m 25 x 50 m figureskating 2 Play tracks lOx 10— 20 x 20m. Impact board 250 h, 30 above track, 800 parapet along allsides, 2000chain-linkgrid at narrow end (to catch ball), surrounding walking areas 1200; 50—100 deeper. Joints 5—6, slope 0.2%. Surface wateringuttersorditches, frost protection layer 200 —*(4). Construction Asbestoscement panels 15; laid on squared timberor on sand bed. Concrete tracks, 100— 150 according to type of bed, jointless ifpossible, but imitation joints may be incised 2—3 wide.Space jointsevery 25—30 m, gap width 15. 1000—2000 Hard concrete screed, 8 on fresh concrete base (20 mortar if possible to take up stress between screed and concrete base). I .+_5400-÷--5000_1 I I 2 Cementscreed withadditives 1—10. centre 1215 1000 1 I jj 200 a ptnalt4 point I Ib Iu I I I 30-40m 4 Rollerskatinghockey Thnx\n rollerskatetrack 30m N9 cxi, 5 teamchangingrm L=rr ArtifIcialice& rollerskatingtrack vc E o Cs Terrazzo, polished, 15, joint rails of brass, metalalloyor plastics, only forindoor tracks. Castasphalt trackson fixed base, as normal. Leisure 343 Sport: golf SITE Courses generally cover between 40 and 60 ha. Most popular those amongsand dunes or on heath land, neither hilly norflat. Well-drained arable land generally suitable; in UK government grants may enable more expensive works beconsidered if derelictortipped land reclaimed. Golf holes need proper safety margin: should not pass closeroads or throughnarrow tongues between houses. LAYOUT—(1) Normally 18 holes: often prudent start with future extension. 9 holes while providing Site round club house 1stand 10th tee, 9th and 18th green (preferably infull view), putting green, practiceground, car parks,members entrance and serviceaccess. Ifprofessional's shop separate,place onway to first Fairways Width normally 30—40 m. Start 100 hole: 60 m (90 m on boundaries). Rough Carry rough:tee to fairway Marginal rough: to either side of fairway,generally with mown band of semi-rough' of approx 10 m before trees, shrubs etc. Bunkers Sand areas averaging perhaps 100 m2 but of all shapes and sizes. To influence play determineoptimum line, provide options and penalise mistakes. tee. Area dictates total length absolutely; contour, natural features obstacles affectitmarginally. and Expect about 5300 m from40ha 6220 m from60 ha Par is rating of av professional performance and yardstick by which measure skill, errors and course difficulty: applied to each hole and totalled for 18—.(2). Tees May be combined on av length course but may be separated into championship, medal, club, ladies at progressively shorter distances. Allow300 m2 (400 m2 at par 3 holes). a Greens —(4) Size tosuit approach shotand need to spread wear by changing holes: say400 m2 to 600m2. 3 agolfclub b golfbag Cgolftrolley 1 Golf courselayout(GolfDevelopment Council) strokes par! usuall hole m 3 4 5 110—1921—2 290—410 440—500 1 1 1 2 avm 2 Parvalues 2 2 par 75 72 71 67 67 3 9 6 4 5 13 0 4 11 12 4 10 4 3 1 m from men's tee. Playing width! 6310 5580 5120 5120 6760 4 Typicalgreen: 59m2 344 Leisure Sport: equitation INDOORSCHOOLS Location Preferably attownedges directily connected bybridlepathtowoodland, pasture, heath-land orotherhacking-out —v(1). In past ridingschoolsusually grew round existing bldg, eg adding to stablesof old house, building asbestos-clad barn structure over riding area to provideall-weather teaching. Siting & access 1 Countrylivery stables& riding school size ofopen trackwi frontofschool:70.0>' 100.0 clearhot largeschool:11.2 clearhot smallschool 8.0 -. If' >partrmabove douhie>'andsclosed inatapprox5600 above 0 both gangways&stan arwith lanternround top hot bldgabovestandings 2400, gangways4600; litbylanternabove increasedhover gangways Essential requirements for anysite: goodaccess for heavy vehicles aswell ascars access toopencountry and/or bridlepaths adequate el supply adequate watersupply, possibly including fire hydrants loose boxes should be protected fromprevailing winds low-lying sites whichcatch water and are usually frostyin winter to be avoided stable smells sited awayfrom adjacenthouses turning space for horsebox trailersand for loweringramps side and rear, with space to load and unloaddifficulthorses;tuming space also required formuck lorry —vp345(1)(2) access for fire appliances; requires roads mm 3600 wide capable of supporting pumping appliance laden weightapprox 101, with mm turning circle17 m dia mm clearance height 3600, forhay lorries 4500: all gate openings mm width3000clear space to convert barn or erectpurpose-designed indoor school; nun land requirementwith outdoor installations —vp3454ha. Planning& layout Planning of installations breaks down into 3 main groups: instruction, horse management,admin—vp345. Traditional plan usually arranges loose boxes looking inwards to courtyard with only covered way in front of each box. Later development: totally enclosed loose boxes arranged either side of corridor enabling themtobeserviced bytractorand trailor circulatingthrough block—v(3): disadvantage extra cost, including extrafire precautions; horses can become bored withoutoutside view. However, betterworking conditions forstable girls;ventilation can becontrolled toeliminatedraughts; easier tomaintain even temp; quieterconditions canbeadvantageifsite near road or railways. Othergeneral principles: preferable school not so near stables that voice of command from instructors canbe heard and sodisturb horses atrest; riskoffire in stables necessitates special planning consideration: straw sto requires mm 1 hrfr from other parts of bldg, or fire break at least 4500recommended. Consult relevantcodes and standards. Spacerequired Size of indoor school dictated by ability of fast moving horse turn 10.0—11.0mø. Many differentstandardsofcovered school. UK National 24.4 m, large enough contain Equestrian Centre has riding area 61 international size arena and hold dressage and showjumping events, with seating for300along 1 side.At other end ofscale possible provide suitable area underDutch barn, ofwhich sidesonly clad for 3000from eaves, with wattle hurdles enclosing floor.Whatever standard of bldg essential indoor ridingspace be 42 x 22 m to give40 x 20 m clear floor space required forelementary dressage, allowingfortiltedkickingboardsurrounding walls. x — _____________ hay sto 20 19 18 17 seroce 16 yard - i_ 14 13 12 11 wof school floorfor single circuit accordingly: 12.0 m wof school floorforgroups: 15.25 preferably 20.117 m I ofschoolfloor ratio 2:110w eg40.0:20.0 I can be increased: 20.0 x 60.0—80.0 yard 10 muck container feed x military school: 18.29 54.86m h ofbldg: 4000—5000 - Information based on requirementsof British Horse Society (BHS), British Show Jumping Association(BS,JA) and Fédération d'EquitationInternationale(EEl) 2 II n ii tack Ueichange ue=amity box Ii im —I -r entrance Plan of Lea Bridgeriding schoolLondon Lee ValleyRegional Park Authority Arch J M VBishopMGQuinton 3 Leisure 345 Sport: equitation RIDINGCENTREPREMISES 10.0 7.O(7.0 I 2500 landrover &trailer I I t6.01.11.o i0.O horse box fl7.oI Instructional: indoor school and areas—u(3)(4); outdoor manege—e(5); grass paddocks (mm 8000 m2); outdoorshow jumping ring; outdoor dressage area; cross country training area; clubrm/lecture rm/canteen; sf0 forjumps, cavaletti etc(approx 5% activity area). 6.0 manure container 2 1 Clearancerequiredfor Clearancerequiredfor manoeuvringlargecontainertruck manoeuvringhorsesintotrailer/box 62.0 60.35 42.0 40.234 I riear_ I ..L mm JL-_ I riding space Vehicle and loading areas—+(1 )(2) — ====1 I I temahona Horse management:stables (loose boxes —a(6)and stalls); utility box: grooming, clipping, shoeing, washing, treatment of cuts etc (size as loose box but without fittings except tie rings); sick box (approx 3500 x 4500): should be away fromother boxes but within sight of other horses; door should be in 2 leaves for horse to look out or be enclosed if requires complete quiet; sling suspended frombeam with block and chain may be needed: 1 250 kg max loading (for heavy draught horse); larger establishments may need completely isolated boxfor infectious diseases. Feed sto —u(7), feed rm, tack rm—u(8)(9), tool sto; hayand straw sto: Dutch-barn type structure; size depends on number of horses and method of buying: year's supply of hay most economic way to buyas price rises steeply during winter; straw price not affected so much therefore sto less critical. Datato determine size required: for 1 horse approx 9 kg hay/day, 1/2 bale straw/day; weight: 1 bale hay approx 23 kg, 1 bale straw approx 18 kg; bale size approx 900 450 x 450: approx 10% extra volume should beallowed ontotal storequired forair circulation and remaining stock when newload arrives. x Ridingschoolar: mm hneeded forjumping4000, 5000 preferable; doorw 2300in twinsliders;ifspectatorseating needed will beadditional to riding ar; judgesbox &collection/mounting aralso needed 3 33.2 f—18.3-4 01 J E 1' manege ring 365 101a & rail fence surround C at ra 5 48.857.81 • I a tm C 0 cinder all-weather welldrained surface E 5 Mucksto: traditionally openbunkers with brickorblock wallson4sides with opening approx 900 wide on 1 side: concrete floor should drain towards this opening with gully outside. Size depends on number of horses and management.Allow approx 5.6m3/horse/week. After month volume reducedapprox two-thirds. Skip-type containersrecommended: various sizes depending onnumber ofhorsesand frequency ofremoval. Veterinary sto: bandages may be kept in cupboards or pigeon-hole racks. Leg bandage measures 127 wide and approx 75dia. Medicines and poisons should be kept inseparate cupboardsand clearly labelled. Smithy: possibly 10—15 m2 in large centres otherwise space to park mobile blacksmith. Administration; reception off; manager's off; staff rm; first aid rm; lavatories; changing rm; garaging for horse boxes, tractors and trailers; resident accn formanager; residentaccnfor grooms and/or stable girls; plant rm (boilers, el switchgear etc); workshop. Manegering entrancefrom stables —24.4—25.9-—'f 3500 4 Indoorshowjumpingarenawithcollectingnng,warm-up&practicejump space:formounting/collecting ar allowfor20—30 horsesat 3.5—5 m2each Jo 2hatterhooks metal channel protective ping to door ca ______ / 11tiering j{ fallonmanger floor painted brickwork a hayrack straphinges tie ring forhay net 'feedsto 1200 I I L_1 _______ .—i skunitL shelfoer hot & cold halter hooks e bucket taps over gulley bridleracks ceilinghung bridlecleaning+ hooksfor girths r + ce4nghung dr'jing rack 7 Feed sto:size dependson numberof horses &methodof buying feed (sacksor bulk); each bin capableof holding 101 kgoats, 76kg bran, 178kgcubes 8 enirancefromyard holders ullnose\ automatic drinking trough or x j•x900 ______ _________ entrancefromyard b brick tiering for horse iJ_ racks kick-overlatch mange 150O 3500 r_-4&oboiIe° 8 ii Ivanisedmetal screen 3500 iop with units 3500 saddlehorse r—49000451) ragchesfS.f1 ffsosk ----8500 cleanrm draining Planoftypicaltack & clean rm; in larger establishmentsseparate cleaningrm desirable; BHS recommends1 tack rm/15 horses;valueof tack requires rrnspecially securefrom burglars o [___/// saltlickholder r 9 Eqp storedintackrm includes: saddleson racks anotlowerthan700 fromfloor nor higherthan 1800,600 centres;stirrups& leathers;bridleson C Typicallayoutforloosebox: mm intemaldimensionsponies 3000 x 3000, horsesbelow 16handshigh3000x 3500, horsesabove16hh3500 x 4000; recommendedh approx3000—4000; ifinternal corrneeded mm w 3000recommendedfor usebyservicing vehicles&as means of fireescape; stallsmm 12700,mm w 1 800; mm passage betweenstalls1 800 asection belevation Cplan 6 a b racks b 1 600abovefloor;head collars,girthsonhooks 1 800 above floor;blankets, rugs,sheetsusually storedingalvanisedsteelchests(may be kept in generalsto) 346 Leisure Sport: marinas DEFINITION water Liwater d bJFJJW / land TYPES OF DEVELOPMENT Landto water relationship —'(1): land locked —'(4), built-in —'(5), ®eO Landtowater relationship: a land-locked d offshore e island 1 a N semi-recessed, offshore, island (constructed in open water: special case). Tidal situation: bbuilt-in csemi-recessed ////////// L1!IJJ b%'////////// 0 non-tidal: variations ofwaterlevel 1000; usually easy for people and trolleysand simple connexions between onshore and offshore service systems; tidal: substantial changes of water level; difficult connexion between pontoons and land for people and services; construction difficulties almost inevitable. Site selection factors:legalproblems; transport systems; potential for future extension; construction options and methods; geological, hydraulic, climatic; soil and sub-soil; orientation, physical features, erosion, possibility offlooding; engineeringnetwork onshore; materials stability; tides, currents, navigational requirements; pollution control; labour sources; effect of marina on existing environment during construction periodand after completion. 125 250375 500w 4J0 Marina's main role provide shelter from wind, waves and swell of passing craft; access to moorings at all states of tide with space for manoeuvre; tieing-uppoints for boats with services, eqwater, el, telephone, television, refuse collection, fire fighting, sanitation, public address system; sanitary needs and amenities for yachtsmen, eq wc, sho,changing and drying rm, entertaining,sporting activities,shopping; car parking; eqpforlaunching, lifting, manoeuvring, repairing, maintaining boats; other bldg directly relatedto boating. 800120016005 2 Energy-absorbing slopesinside HantsholmharbourDenmark 3 Pontoonlayouts: astretching from land bstretchingfrom breakwaters cstretchingfrom floatingelements OFFSHOREBOAT HARBOUR COMPONENTS Area needed: craftsizesvary: I 4.8—21.3m (USA 4.3—24.4m), beam 1.8—6.0m (USA 2—6m); areas ofwatercalculatedon basis ofplanned numberand sizeof craft moored, pontoon layout, types ofberth. Depth ofwater: mm 600 (USA 610) plus max draft ofvessel at lowest astronomical tide, 300 reserved for stilting, 300 for clearance, If too shallow atlowest tidedredging necessary. Channel: leading to entrance 20—30 m wide; main channel within harbour area depends on number and sizes of craft passing through at any 1 time, mm w 18 m. Entrance:protectionrequired from ingress(waveenergy tobeabsorbed before choppy conditionsarise inyacht basin)—'(2); suitableprotection: spending beaches, rocks or concrete blocks moulded to appropriate shapes, piles. Pontoon layouts: well selected layout very important; main choice limited to pontoonsstretching from a land, b breakwaters, c floating elements —'(3). 9 50 10 150 200w 150 300 450 6006 4 Yacht basinChichesterEngland: land locked, 1000berths Berth types—'(6): a stern toquay, iettyorpontoon bowsto piles (poor for embarking); b same but bowsmoored to anchors or buoys (notfor tidal marinas); c alongside finger piers or catwalks, 1 craft each side (convenient for embarking); d alongside quays, ietties or pontoons, single banked; esame upto 3 or4abreast (disadvantageofyachtsmen on outer climbing overinnercraft); fstar finger. central square kb Hto 5 MarinaPort GrimaudFrancebuilt onreclaimed marshland:900 flats each withberth 6 Types ofberth k a Leisure 347 Sport: marinas COMPONENTS(cont) Locks: oftenhave more than 1 compartment; should maintainconstant water level on 1 side,other side varying withtide; capacity decided by peak use; waiting pontoons either side lock recommended. Pontoon design: often used to carryservices and to support lighting units, lockers, refuse collection points, fire fighting devices; service bollards oftenprovided: boats/bollard 2—6;sewage collection points for boats recommended either as holding tanks or as outlets connected with vacuum sewage system leading to onshore network. Mm w main access pontoons 2000with fingers 500 wide;if total pier I over 100, 2500wmoreappropriate; mm wfloating pontoon 2500. Pontoon types: fixed: for non-tidal marinas; fixed deck (timber, aluminium, plastics decking) resting on structural supports (piles most common);serviceducts usuallyunderdeck; floating:for tidal marinas or where structural difficulties occurand supportson bed not feasible (eg deep water, geological conditions); deck fixed tofloating unitsand so kept at required level above water; floats of steel, plastics, timber, concrete, polystyrene, filled with lightweight material (eq polystyrene) or left hollow; pontoons held in position by dolphins; in exceptional cases may be anchored to bed; connexion to land byhingedbridge,ramps, lifts, hoists, collapsible steps. Breakwaters: rubble mound: mainly forsites with relatively small tidal variations; alternative concrete blocks moulded to shape: not appropriate for more extensive structures; with relatively shallow slope (1:2 to 1:3) rubble mound occupies largewater area otherwise available for craftor otheressential uses; vertical face: concrete walls (constructed in open sea conditions as mass concrete or buttress structures): efficient when built, difficult to constructand maintain; caisson type: precast concrete cylinders (either hollow or filled with sand) resting on sea bed; circular shaped cusps between units, positive contribution towave energyabsorption; floating: usually considered for sites with great depth of water and relatively mild conditions; sometimes act as secondary protection or primary barrier, reducing sea impact before waves reach main sea defence. Fuellingpoints:considered desirable but not required by authorities (UK); floating tanks not usually accepted. NB fire risk prevention at pointsofflexibleconnexions between tanks and floating pumps. Pollution control: in non-tidalmarinaswater circulationcertainlyrequired but hard to achieve. Sanitary accn for yachtsmen essential (travelling distance 100 m); provide refuse disposal units close to craft as possible; pollution culverts may alsobe needed. Onshore elements: car parking: ratio cars: boats 1:1—1:2; not too farfromcraftforyachtsmen and their eqp; sanitary accn; recommended mm either 1 wc and 1 shoeach sexper20 berthsor 1 wc, 1 urinal, 1 hb, 1 shoper25men, 1 wc, 1 hb, 1 shoper25 women (max occupancy of harbour estimated 6O%; suggested ratio men towomen 2:1); yacht clubs: floor ar/P 1.0—5.0 m2: club rm, lay, drying rm, bars, restaurants, meeting rm, indoorsports, off, information centre, sleeping accn, caretaker's flat: hard standing, boat sf0, repair shop and other elements related to boat maintenance and handling; should have suitable device for boat lifting and launching and easy connexion toroads; freeareas formanoeuvring; fuel tanksoftensitedclose to boatyards; ancillaries may include customs, coastguards, lock keepers, insurance brokers, car hire, travel agent oft. njjiiii_j.I [DDfl .I -l—la 4 1 Boat sto with hoist MarinaentrancedesignBrightonUK 5 Stoforsmall motor boats Sto bar lecturerm club C 2 Main componentsof lock ter d 6 Floatingjetty with housing superstructure Brightonmarina: section 3 Slidingcaisson& dockentrance 7 Clubhousedesign StokesBay sailingclub Gosport UK: aWelevation bgroundfloor cfirst floor dsecondfloor Sportreferences: —Bibliography entries003006 046 083 183 205 212 297 355 384 388 475514515516517537538549585586587588639 1 CD (I) C CD 348 Leisure Theatres REGULATIONS street -- overt otherwise audience v i:I 1•passage > stage -& passage >40 40 court '1' a9o4 I street !ih1: 4O Reg concerning theatre and cinema bldg and schemes not rigid inUKor USA:concern public safety; must becomplied with to obtainnecessary licence; should be discussed with licensing authority atearliest stage. Principles applicable world wide;main task ofarchitectachieve balance between commercial, artistic and spectator requirements, and design scheme which complies with 'means of escape' and differential detail safety reg. For consents required in UK in addition to theatre or cinematograph Street Distanceto adjoiningbldg if theatre street 1 passage Ito licence—.Bib300 301 328 329 346 347 361 363 591 598 599 2 Distanceiftheatreparallel tostreet For USA—e local bldg codes Organisation Theatres may bedividedinto 3 parts—e(4): reception: entrance, booking hall, foyer, cloaks etc auditorium stage: main stage, wings, back of stage, scenery sto, workshops, dressing rm, rehearsal rm etc Parts vary in content and size depending on type drama, revieworcinema. of theatre: opera, Situation: Bldg for public entertainmentmust be sited allow 3 Distanceiftheatreliesbetween blocks 4 LayoutofViennaStateOpera concert opera . revtew . cinema audience leavearea more rapidlythan requiredleavepremises.Check requirements at earliest stage. —v(1)(2)(3)for typical dimensions. Audience arrival times —s(5) extend from 15—30 minutes, departures 5—20 minutes. Pwaitingin booking ha Pbookingwithin20mm 6% before performance queuingforadvance booking ticket control time, ifarrivingbycar seating % ofPleavingseatsat interval time requiredfor leavingseatto foyer time intoilet time fromseattodrive,excludingdo waitingfor taxisortransport 10% 20% 8% 2—15mm 1 mm 4—12 mm 2—15 mm 100% — 1 1 mm 6—9 mmr 4 mm — 50 75 4 mm 4 mm 6 mm 6 mm 1 mm 5mm 1—15mm 1—15 mm 2—5 mm mm — — — — S Tableafter Burns-Meyer& Cole(—oBibi52) giving% ofP&time inmm needed reachorleaveseats,asmeasured inUSA 111111 JI EU cio/P Car parks —vp248—50. Capacities usually determined by planning authority. Site vehicle entrance away from theatre entrance. Include covered areaforsetting down passengers. Exits mustall openoutwards and comply with requirementsfornumbers and travel distance. General rule for numbers (UK) 1600 width for250 visitorsor partthereof with mm of2exits —.(6)(7).Ramps not toexceed 10% in UK; can be limited to 5% incontinental Europe. Cloakrooms—v(7) Modern systems include self-service lockable coathangers orlimited length counters with mm number attendants. Stairs—v(8) —°p408 Must complywith exitwidths requirements.Ifwidth more than 1 800 should be designed as double stairs with central handrail, 2 x 1100 ie 2200 wide. Risers not exceed 150, treads mm 280. Foyers fortheatres can be 100—500 m2/P;for cinenias space required for circulation and exitonly,unlikely be more than 100 m2/P. Toiletsin accordance with licensing requirements; also —eBibO92. USA reg for exits, stairs etc vary: example—a(1 0). v'l000for2OP befler2000&more direct imght& + oecitiiation 1100—l_00 IAI 6 Corrw: llOOforuptolOOP, 1600forup to 250 P 7 Exit&clo maxtravel refreshment fire-proofwail distance within assembiy space Im) rim occupancy group classification L/1 f-la ffJ f-2 ofwI capacitylP/unit doorsoropenings aisle primary Secondary & from from stairs cross assembiy safe & aisle space Sr escalators 26 30 53 38 38 76 80 90 400 50 80 400 100 125 500 60 80 320 ramps corr, safe ar, exd passageways 80 100 425 'unit 560 /corr i-ia: enclosed theatreswithstagesthat theatreswhichprohibit mayhave scenicelements,i-lb.enciosed use of scenic elements onorabove stage: f-2, outdoor assembly spaces 8 Stairs:llOOforuptolOOP; 1600 forupto 250 P; centre handrail requiredover 1800w 9 Providelob betweensmoking& non-smokingar: doorsto openin directionofexit 10 Determinationof exit&accessrequirements: extractfromNewYorkCity bldgcode Leisure 349 Theatres CD SIGHT LINES C') Typical seated spectator—(1) Eye height: 1120± 100 Tread of seating tier (rowspacing) 1: 800—1150 Head clearance C: C1 = 65: mm clearance/row, assuming spectator will see between heads row infront (every-other-row vision) C2 = 130 allows av spectator see over head av specator in front (every-row vision) Rise R —*(2): difference in height between adjacentseating platforms Floor slope: Arrival point of sight(APS) —(2)(3): intersection of highest sightlmneat focal planepositioned 50above stage platform Distance: horizontal distance from eye ofseated spectatorto APS D1 = distance fromeye offirst row toAPS = distance fromeye ofgiven rown toAPS Elevation: vertical height ofeye ofseated spectatorabove focal plane E1 = vertical height ofeye offirst row abovefocal plane = vertical height ofeye ofgiven rownabove focal plane = 0 establishes max stage height allowable, ie 1 060 CD C E Constant rise floor slope —(2): sight lines from rows parallel; APS determined by intersection of sightlinefromlast orhighest row at focal plane: T T R=-E1+(N—1)+C E1 D1=—E1+(N—1)C =t(R—C)—C(N—1) N = number ofrowsin seat bank. Iscidomal floor slope —(3): exponential shape of floor slope results from generation of sightlines fromsingle focal point orAPS; iscidomal floor slope makes more efficient use ofgiven total rise: 2 Constantrisefloor slopes Type and scale of performance will dictate range of performing area sizes —*(4). May be desirable enable performing space accommodate variety of performing area sizes. Containment of audience within130° angleperipheral spread of vision from performer at point of command will help promote maxvisual and auralcommunicationbetween performer and spectator. Largest performing area should fall within boundary defined by 130° angle of peripheral spread of vision from seats at ends of front rows —(5). Limitofcentreof action defined by 60°angle of normal, accurate, polych romaticvisionfrom seatsatends of front rows. Pointofcommand should logically fall within centre ofaction. Boundary limit of seating area ofauditorium might be defined by given constant angle of peripheral spread of vision to sides of given stage opening. Limits ofboth30°and 60°angles of peripheral spread of vision tovarious openings illustrated —(6). 3 Iscidomalfloor slopes A 8.5m B 10.7m C 12.8m D 14.9m E 17.Om 4 Rangeofperformingar 5 Relationstiipbetween performingar&seating 6 Viewinganglefields fromstageopening 350 Leisure Theatres AUDITORIUM movable (flying &/or hinged) auditorium ceilingcan beused tovary seating capacity insingle ha Auditorium longitudinal sections shown —.(1 )—(6) have same numbers of rows. Max D:H balcony overhang proportion recommended: 1:1 for concerts, 2: 1 foropera, drama. Flying balcony may allow greater D : H ratio by allowing reverberant energy reach rear seats frombehind. Last rows should have clear sightline to central speaker cluster. Balcony overhangs positioned clear of projection beam. Max sight line angle frombalcony to stage: 300 Convexand irregular surfaces aid sound diffusion. Domes, vaults and other large concave surfaces may cause acoustic problems. Higher ceiling for longerreverberationtime asrequired forconcerts; typical hall volume: 20.5 m3—35 m3/audienceseat. Lower ceiling forshorter reverberation time as required for drama, speech; typical hall volume: 7.5 m3—14 m3/audience seat. In halls used for concerts treat stage and audience seating as 1 volume. In multiple-use halls this condition achieved with hard orchestra shell which must be demountable for full useofstage forscenery. Acoustic requirementsmay dictatethat reflective surfaces at ceiling of orchestra enclosure extend out above audience seating. 6 3flying baic traprm seatwagon sb ar/musician 1—1.5 m2 7 Typicalorchestrapitliftdetail max seats: 12—17(l4typ) USA 18—30 modifiedcontinental 14—22 UK 8 Multipleaisle seating max seats permittedperrow: 49;unlimited incremental increase in row I sometimespermitted asfunction ofincremental increaseinrow spacing 9 'Continental'seating Leisure 351 Theatres SEATING Sizesdepend on type of chair and determine chair spacing. Decide on chair style at outset. Traditional chairs require mm spacing at 840 and are 500 wide—*(1);mostcommon USAdimension 530. Modern chairs vary considerably: can need1 400 spacing and width of 750. Standing space —+(2) formerly normal not usual in modern theatres. Seating usually laid out in straight or curved rows; in some theatres angled seating tried —e(3). Seating radius centre point best established by trying alternative positions. Short radius enables whole audience face centre of stage but this must be drawn to ensure adequate circulation spaceat front stalls sides. I- 840—1000H I Allseatsfixedtip-up chairs (exceptinboxes);armchairseating needs1400 x 750spaces 2 Standingroom, unusualin modem theatres BALCONIES 2000 r— Theatres with 1 balcony (frequent in USA) —*(5) can give better sight lines than multiple —*p350, reduce staff requirements, simplify exits, increase spectatorconvenience. Sometimesmovableceiling.Very deep stalls under balcony .—(5) tend to limit upward sight line. Multiple auditoria have become common —e(7). Containment of sound in each auditorium major problem. —1 : FLEXIBLESEATING—aIsop135 H— 3 Angledtip-up seatsgive elbow room 2400 — 4 Boxesmay have 10chairs& clear way toexit Divisionofauditoria intosmaller rm bysliding folding partitions common in conference centres; more difficult in theatres with stepped floors. Consider closing off areas of seating to provide smaller capacity; to provide full flexibility folding seating areas can slide away to expose level floor —spl35(4). Loose seating used on flat floor gives very poor sightlines:musthave temporary fixing. Stoaccnforloose seating must be provided;1 000folding chairs need 20—36 m2stospace. 9 24 25 50 1 8 5 5 24m 15ft m 75 ft PUIHHHIIIH0011_ 5 Section rough auditorium ofAmerican1-balcony theatrewith ambulatory&view intorear stalls: equal seatvaluesostandard prices possible 6 HamiltonPlaceOntarioCanada aorchestrafloor b1St balconyfloor Arch Garwood-Jones 7 Concertha Helsingborg Finlandwith 2ha1 aboveother a longitudinal section bplan of large ha Arch S Markelius key 6 upperlob 7 upperpart studio theatre 8 meetings 9 orchestrastage 10 dramastage 11 reCeiving 12 ott& entrance 13 dressingrm 14 rnecheqp 0 3 6 9 12m 10 20 30 40ft 352 Leisure Theatres mm normal max m m 10 drama 8 review 10 10 12 musical opera 1 11 12 18 STAGETOWER Dimensions governed by stage machinery, increasingly complex to speed scenery handling and changes. Small stage withoutside and backstage —(2a). Shifting scenery by hand with trained staff 3 mm; with 'jacknife'trolleys15sec—9(2b); ifsideand backstagewith traverse rn 12 14 15 25 trolleys10sec—(3). Revolvingstage Stagew Discwith 2—3 sets—(3) 2 discswith contact at stage centre Reciprocating segments —*(2c) Ring stage withcentreupstage—(2d) Ring stage withcentrein house—*p353 I r--t—l 2A I Stage tower Widthofstage twicestage opening —÷(3). Depthof stagefromfire curtain 3/4 stage width, height to rigging loft i i L_i underside medium height of auditorium + height of stage opening Fireman's rm 800wide,2200 high scenery at each side of stage,with viewandexittostage; escape route also required. Width of corridor at stage level 2200, otherwise 1 500. If stage (without side and backstage) larger than 350 m2 width of corridors increases by 150/50m2. Exits fromstage areas should beplanned provide readyegress from all parts. Include at least2 exits ofwhich 1 must lead to openairthrough a unventilated lobby. Mm widths should comply with reg. Exit requirements frombasement and dressing rm areas similar, ito be independent of stage area and 1 from dressing rm should also lead directto openair. Workshops(locksmith, carpenter,paint shop) connectedbyfirelobbies to corridors. c d Diagramsshowingvariousways ofsetting&handlingscenery Scenery sto atstage level 1O% ofstage area. Heightof scenery stoapprox6000—10000. Rigging loft: space overstage used for hanging scenery and lighting eqp. Between loft and roof construction allow 2100 head room. Adequate ventilation equal to 10% stage areatobeprovided by haystack lanternabove loft. Varies fromcode to code USA. Fire curtain:stage must be separated fromauditorium by fire proof curtain ofwire-woven asbestos clothstretched between top and bottom steelpipes, asbestos plates fixed tofireproofsteelframe orsheetmetal fixed to fire proof steelframe. Hand release to operate fire curtain and drencher system over. Both automaticand hand releaseusuallyrequired in USA. Curtain must be in 1 piece; should move vertically and should close completelyin 30 seconds. 3 Diagrammaticplan of stage towerwithtypicaldimensions Diagrammaticsectionofstagetowerwithtypicaldimensions Leisure 353 Theatres MULTI-FORMTHEATRE Ring stagewithcentre inhouse-.-(1)—(5)Aimsatintimateconnexion of audience and actor; brings play amongst audience in contrast to peep-show' stage. These methods call for modern stagecraft. Actor playssurrounded by his audience —(2)(4)(5) without curtain and with little scenery. Auditorium may be round, square or rectangular —(4). Instead ofsceneryuse canbe made offilm projection.Revolving stages —(2)(3). Revolving auditorium —*(2)(3).'Theatre in the round' (arena type)where common stage omitted —(5). Combined 'arena' &'peep-show' stageAsarena theatresidewalls of auditorium have rolling orsliding outpanels which line upwith cyclorama and thus enclose space. As 'peep-show' theatre proscenium arch put between auditorium and stage. 1 Arenastage:groundfloorplan Arch Kreisiinger& Rosenbaum 2 'Total theatre' withrevolving centre: plan shows bothpositions: after Gropius Theatre references: —4Bibliographyentries 015 034 113 114 152266298309340343350 351 352361 408409413475556572626 3 NewLondonTheatreDrury LaneLondon: revolving stage&frontstalls with adjustableh seating; canbe eitherin theroundorproscenium Arch Tvrtkovic& KennyChew&Percival I KleinesHausTheater Mannheim (Germany)with adjustable seating a peep-show'stage withorchestra bdouble-sidedarena stage carena stage allround ArchG Weber 5 Arena StageTheaterWashingtonDC USA upperlevelplan Arch Harry Weese 6 Circle level Olivierauditorium National TheatreLondonEngland Arch DenysLasdun Plan at balc level TyroneGuthrieTheater(three-quarterarena) MinneapolisUSA Arch RalphRapson 354 Leisure Cinemas —also theatres p348—53 Techniques& regulations Very similar to theatres. Old requirements (UK) for open space round cinemas stillapplicable—(1 )(2);architect mustdiscuss requirements at earliest stage. Use of courtor mall access becomes more common in comprehensive schemes, but unless courtfully fire protected may not countas exit—(3). Consultrelevant codes and standardsfor all details. Doors & corridors mended. Limitto sightangleof35° above horizontal produces distance to screen on centre line of 1.43 x height fromfront roweye level totop of picture—*p357(4). Seat sizes finally determine layout dimensions —*p350—1. Vertical sight lines determined in similar way as for theatres—p349 except that each spectatorshould have clear viewto bottomofpicture. Side seating at front limited byangles ofsightto screen —p355(6). Widthsmust match exitrequirements. Doors toopenoutwards against exit flow in corridor and to be free of fastenings except panic bolts. Projections forhandrailsup to75allowedintoexitwidths butdoors must provide clear exit dimension measured fromdoor face to frame when standing open. Doors generally required to befr and selfclosing —'(5). Accesstoauditorium Srcases Now often considered necessary in commercial cinemas. Various theoriesusedto divide total seats needed. Ratios of 1:2or2:3 fordual cinemas; ratiosof1:2:3 fortriple cinemas; progressionofseat totals for larger multiples. Basicrequirement: givevisitor choice of programmes andenableoperator judge business potential of each film soas showit in auditorium ofcapacity to match public demand. If film playing to half capacity audiences can be transferred to smaller auditorium or vice Must also match exit requirements —p348, clear width being measuredbetween walls orwalland balustrade—*(6). Not less than 3 risers permitted; not more than 16 risers in straight flights. Max of 2 successive flights without turn allowed provided number of risersreduced to 12. Landings attop, bottomand between flights should equal width required. Stairrisers(UKcode) not to exceed 150, treads atleast 280; USAcodesvary. Stairs —'p408 In stepped seating can be from beneaththrough vomitory orfromrear, each to crossoveraisle. Side and rear aisles add toease ofaccess and supervision ofaudience. Multipleauditorium versa. Seating capacities vary between 100—600 chairs: generally regarded (UK) asmm and max auditorium sizes—(7). Seating Layoutssimilar totheatres—*p349—50,except seatblocks donotnormally exceed 14 chairs. Spectator convenience improved for continuous performances; salesofconfectioneryimprove when accessfrom seating increased. Modern chairs, some of which have nottip-up seats, need greaterspacing, Distance fromscreen to front rowofseats determined bymax allowable anglebetween sightline fromfirst rowtotop ofscreen and perpendicular to screen at that point: max angle 30°—35° recom- Sales, staff, projection and service arrangements can be as for single cinema —*p355—7. Ventilation andacoustic separation must be provided. Single projection rm to link all auditoria preferred but automation and closed circuit tv to monitor programmes make possible separate eqp in conversion of old properties. ! 0 •i\\ street t1o :i.;:;;II;I.1i1r... 6OL120 1courttotaketotal tierofspectators street 1 Cinemas with morethan 2000 seatsshould haveexits on more than 1 publicroad,orbesituatedin courts i3i3 Cinemaswith less than2000 seats shouldhaveexits on public road; maybe incourts—(3);for passages—(4) street pa11t1 : I: 1 court. ii! 3 Cinemascanbesituatedoff street butmayrequirealternative exits slope1:1O. radiatorsin tire proof rise eys auditonum 5 's15O tread door'must openoutward Door&corrwtocornplywithreg —p348:doorstoopenagainstexit flow 6 direct light& —ventilation 1.1 1. Wofstairstoequaiexitw —p348:flightsnotlessthan 3 risers not morethan16, l2if2flights without turn 7 CinemaPutneyLondon: multipleauditona; partofcommercialbldg, with high levelcommonprojectionrm Leisure 355 Cinemas Cloakrooms Not standard requirement inUKcinemas: ifprovided should beplanned notto obstruct exits or normal circulation—*(1)—sp348. • Projectionrooms Used to be divided into separate compartments for rewinding and projecting film with dimmer rm, battery rm, switch rm, spotlight rm, workshop and staff and storm, each 6—10 m2forming suite—e(2)(3). column 1.6 ::...:.-.::::-:::•::.......g ......•..... F::::::::•:•::-::::::::•::::::: 1 1.1 Modern automated systems take about same space and require rewind bench to giveoperational flexibility. Arrequiredfordocounter —vp348:notusualinmodern cinemas amplifier & tapedeck 1 Type of eqp to be used should be established at outset tofinalise detail dimensions. Provided non-inflammable (safety)filmonlyused exits can beinternal —n(4): if inflammabletimused 1 exit mustleadtoopenairand haystack lantern must be provided, with opening area of 0.19 m2for each 640 m of film used and stored in rm. Exit to public area must be through ventilated protected lobby. Circulationspace for servicing and access must be provided round eqp; front wall length of 5500 x rm depth of 3500is av size. Plan staircase and door widths to allow for access of eqp; risersshould not exceed 190 treads at least250. Mirror projections and observationused where space limited, and before automation became available —(3). With mirrors 1 projection rm can serve multiple cinemas located vertically; but as general rule better avoid mirror projection. Picture ratios vary with film systems: operator mustdecide whatrequired —n(S).Advance techniques employ variable height and width pictures; as size of arc lamp used determined by picture area max effectobtained byusing differentratios ofequal areas. portholesassmall P\ canopy arclampextract switch gear rm Diagramofprojectionrm; ifwindow installed ensuredaylightcannot reachscreen aplan bsection 2 Using70 film makes possible bigger area screens. Normally accepted max screen widths:for 70film 20 m, for35film 13 m. Screen sizeshould be largeas possible up tothese maximaorwidth of Projectionrmingallerystructure, observationthroughmirrors:with 35 mm also projectthroughmirrors 3 seating whichever least; ratios ofwidth to max viewing distance should befrom 1:2to 1:3—v(6). Advisable inverysmall cinemasaccept ratio of 1:2 to enable standard focallength lenses to be used and avoid very small pictures. Wider pictureswould requirespecial lenses. Tocalculate picture widthobtainablefromgiven lens: 4 Internalprojectionrmwith mech ventilation w= film frame apperture w x throw focal Iof lens Inanamorphic (Cinemascope) projection same formula used multiplied by2. 1:1.37 normal 1:1.66paramount 1:I.75mgm 1:1.B5columbi 1:2.2 todd ao (70mm) 1:2.34cinemascope 5 1:3.25 cinerama Commonfilm ratios:useadjustable maskingto screentosuitpicturesizes \/ with vertex zoneii perboia \—asyniptote pointonScreen iso-defo,rTlatlon zonelimit lutes zonei: y=0.3x'—H' zoneii: = H=screenh y 6 Curved directional screens originallydeveloped to overcome dispersion of reflected light from flat screen. Modern cinema with betterscreen material able to use curve of screen to reduce amount of apparent distortion to sidesightlines. Too much rise onchord cangive problems with focus over whole picture area. Screen radius usually between 75—100% of projection throw; rise on chord should not exceed 10— 12% ofchordwidth. i ii' flatscreen—seatingzonelimits zone i: y= ±(0.5W—yO.33x' — H') Vii) where, \/0.75W'+3H' zoneii:y= ±(0.5W— where, 0.25W' +3H' Filmprojectionplanning: viewing pointonscreen:line of iso-deformation =boundaryof seatingarfor which spectatorswillseesame apparent distortion: hyperbolashapedefined in planbyasymptotesfrompointon screen; zoneIdistortion existsbutnot noticedfromseatsfallingwithin hyperbola: mm horizontal distancefrom vertexof hyperbolatoscreendeterminedbylimitationof verticalanglefrom eye of firstrowtotopofscreento max of 30°—35°;zoneIIdistortions noticed but toleratedfrom seatsfallingoutsidezone I;zone Ill (seating placed beyondlimit ofzone II) distortionsof projected imagenottolerated&viewerwillrefuse curvedscreen—seating zonelimits iso-deformationzonelimit tinesmost easily plottedbygraphicalmethod: plotiso-deformationhyperttoiaIronpoint on screen& rotateaxesaboutcentre ofscreencurvature seat placedhere: viewing flatscreen: seatingarrepresented by arcommon to spacewithin 2 hyperbolas;arinzone Iforwide projectedimages lessthanzone Iforpointon screen;seatingarforzone IIforwide imageonflat screen maycorrespond approxtozone Ipoint onscreen viewing curvedscreen: zoneI arforgrvenscreenwcanbeincreased by curvingscreen;appropriatecurving willcause overlapof hyperbolasdrawn from sidesofprojectedimagesoastodefinegreatercommonseating ar CD (/) C CD 356 Leisure Cinemas Generallayout In addition topublic areas must include staff and service areas: boilerhouse el substation m2 25—30 28—38 m2 plenum chamber kiosk stockrm manageroffsuite 3 sto rm switch, battery, workshop &staffrm ice-cream sto 20 staffrm 45 projection rm 19—25 20 10—15 or 38 28 40 Lighting systems Provideinaccordance with detail licensing requirements: decorative lightingand anyrequired spotlights toauditorium dimmed to showfilm, otherpublic areasmaintainedwhile spectators use bldg; cleaner'slighting to auditorium and foyers: auditorium system used as emergency lighting under managementcontrol; USA emergency lighting operates automatically if main fails; maintained lighting to auditorium and exit boxes throughout bldg: designed provide illuminationofseatingareasand gangwaysduring film programme (no light to fall on screen or walls); New York City code requires aislesand crossings have mm 5.35 lx at all times; 2 Cinema in Oslo:groundfloorplan showing circulationinlateral arrangementwith double-sideddo ArchBlackstad& Dunker safety lighting to all public, key staff areas and exit boxes throughout bldg: must be kept on as part of maintained system; should main el supply fail safety system must be able provide sufficient light allow public and staff leave bldg safely; N American and continental Europe practice provide separateemergencylightingsystem which only illumines on failure of main supply: notpermitted in UK. other el systems includefire and burglaralarms, speakerwiring, internal telephones, induction systems forboth deaf-aids and managementcall, closed circuit tv, emergency public address and main switchgear for controlofheating, ventilation, projection and stage eqp. box oft Heating—*pl 6385—9 Ventilation&air conditioning—*pl5—16392—4 Heating and ventilation for public entertainment bldg developed as licensing authorities required higher ventilation standards. In UK fresh airventilation requirement basedon number of persons accommodated and varies from 70—93 m3/hr/P in auditorium and extract system for 75% of input air. Where air-conditioning installed at least half this quantity must be fresh air, with up to 50% filtered and recirculated. 3 CinemainMadrid:diagonallysituatedincorner bldg withmosteconomic useofspace &goodshapeofauditorium; ground floor plan Arch Gutierrez Soto Foyer and toilet systems based on normally accepted standards —xBlb347.Toilets affected bylicensing requirements. staff Incoming air must be heated; plenum system generally used with air supply at screenend and extract divided in auditorium rear corners to avoid vitiated airbeingilluminated by projection light ray. General parts ofbldg can be heated by lowpressure hot water system. cix Filmdisplay In schools, universities, hotels and other bldg 16 eqp used; when approved this does not require separate projection rm, provided clear space maintained round eqp. Regulationsfor space requirement vary from 900 to 2000. Picturewidths up to6000possible with suitable light source; anamorphic (Cinemascope) ratio varies from 35 to 1:2.66. Commercial cinemas in USA and UK have used 16 eqp but in UK picture and printquality notgoodenough. —xalso lecture theatres p135 :J1fl projection exit cio-l- sidegangway exit 't stair to gaiiery . stage podium screenJfl artists [ cix-4-- - auditorium (orchestraLfil exit wc - I . I sidegangway LI . fresh- j, exit I 4— street stairto gatery secondaryentry & stair toprojection 1 Circulationdiagram: stageaccnnotnormallyneeded; exitstosuit seating capacity 4 Cinema in Turku Finland: 590seats ArchBryggman I Leisure 357 Cinemas Screensystems Cinema screen in past titted into adapted theatre; today increased picture size (Cinemascope, Cinerama,Todd AD, Circarama, IMAX,for small cinemas closed circuit tv) determines interior design. Traditional cinemas—.(1a)had small pictureswhereas3-projectororiginalCinerama system .—°(lb) involved spectator with 30.5 m screen. This surpassed by new single projector IMAX system with 70 film used horizontally to enlarge frame size and provide 36.5 m picture, seating being placed closescreen preventing whole picture being seen without both vertical and horizontal movement of head; callsforspecial projector and auditorium; used in Canada and USA. a Circarama system using 11 projectors gives full involvement but no seating practicaland handrails necessary prevent audience tailing over —°(3): used very successfully at Disneyland. Further development used in theme parks and now in Experience theatres world wide: audio-visual technique ofautomated multiple projection of still pictures with auditorium effects and multi-track magnetic sound systems. Closed circuit projection tv system feasible with electronic line enhancement; gives picturesof 2430x 1 830. With Eidophor' screen sizes up to 9 m x 12 m possible. Development in progress in USAand UK. 1 Sound systems Have developed considerably; problems of handling magnetic sound recordings on film being answered by Dolby encoding optical system. Stereo across screen and to front and rear provided on 70 film with 5 rear screen speaker tracks and 6th track forauditorium speakers. Wide screens and side sound sources can produce acoustic problems: generally for cinemas reflected sound paths should notexceed directpaths by more than 15 m—.p18395—7. atraditionalcinema bfororiginalCineramasystem 2 Civiccentre in centralrestricted position forces placingofhaforvarious uses (cinema,concert,exhibition, museum, theatre)aboveone another: spaciouscentrallob,foyer&stairsshared Arch Cassandra Athens 3 Circarama:screencircular (370°);11 synchronised projectors producecoherentpicture; example;Expo Brussels yroihonray cenireiune betternot toeeceedtO I + —keepeyepoinitor saeen frame sighthnesfromrearsears tobottomofyiciure sight tine angiesvary raker t v to screen= .43 hfromfront .f_.___distaflce eye ieneitotopofscreen 4 Basicrequirementsforauditorium levels; rakenotnecessarily limited to 10% & 5% in USA 358 Leisure Drive-in cinemas Curved layouts give maxof360 carspaces and individual speakers foreach car. Usual layouts on principle of amphitheatre forboth individual and multiple schemes. —(1 )(3). Sizesover 1000 carsunusual.Multipleschemes more acceptable to operators. Some original situations in N America rebuilt to include dual, tripleorquadruple layouts. Situation on highways usuallyaway from residential areas. Should be sited so that lights frompassing traffic donot disturbspectators or throwlighton screen. Layout should provideview of picture at not more than45°from screencentre; rampsshould be designed so that spectators can see over cars in front —*(2). Distance from screen to front rowwith large screen often more than 50 m. Carholding areasavoid trafficjams on highway. 2 double ticket booths normal mm: 500 cars need mm 20minutes toenter. Exitsshould be away from entrance. Cars may leave and entersimultaneously between programmes. Screen size varieswith overall capacity: 30.4 x 13 m normal max, 20% of distance to rear Drive-incinemainfanshapewith singleramp, shownforright-handdrive traffic;projection bldg obstructsviewfrom2rowsto rear 1 sightlines to bottomof screen—cars titledupto maximise viewthrough windscreen&over cars infront - 2 • 6100 2OO 1 o Children's playground and outside seating provided in NAmerica. Surface waterdrainage catchment pooi oftensitedin front ofscreen. Projection bldg in centreor at rear, includes -- — 0 pole with loudspeakers &elheaters —- - cars normal mm. Should face between E and 5, making possible earlier evening performances. Heightabove ground depends on site profile, determines angles ofcar ramps. 0 3400 increases with steeper carramps Dimensionsfordoubleramplayout: singlerampscommoninUSA workshop, sto, switchrm, soundand projection system. Can includepublic toilets, restaurant and office. Max projection throw 137 m nor lessthan2 x screen width. Sound reproduction best with speaker taken into car from poles spaced at 5000 centres. El fan heaters may also be on poles. Some N American operators also have air-conditioning by underground ducts with flexible car connexions. Floodlighting provided for intermission; hooded roadway lighting maintained through performance. 3 Dual drive-incinema:1 projection rmfor bothscreens makes possiblestaggered startingtimes;all other services(eg ticket off,bar,lay) used jointly Cinema references: —Bibliography entries 084 098 099 113 114 129328329339 347 426 598 599 359 Leisure Museums Irecepton restoration registry sto CD Forshowing worksofartand obiects ofculturaland scientific interest rm C', must: ensure protection against damage, theft, fire, damp, aridity, strong curator research lecture rm gallery check-in entrance 1 ROOMS 2 Sectionofgallery litfrom 1 Side only, bottompartindirectly, attenuatedlighting Layoutdiagram spotlight sunlight and dust; showworks in best light(in both senses ofterm): normally achieved by dividing collection into objectsforstudy(egengravings, drawings) kept in portfolios and stored in cupboards (with drawers) about 800 deep and 1 600 high; objectsfordisplay (eg paintings, frescoes, statuary,ceramics, furniture) Exhibits must be so placed as to be seen without effort: calls for selective and spacious arrangement, with variety and suitable rm shape and sequence. So faraspossible each group of pictures in 1 rm orsequence ofrm and each picturea wall to itself: ie number of small rm. These also provide morewall space in relation to ground area than large rm, necessary for big pictures: rm size depends on picture size. Normal human angle of vision (54° or 27°up fromeye level) achieved with well lit pictures 10m away = hanging height of4900above eye level and about 700 below it —(5). Only withlargepictures isthere needforeyetotravel from bottom of frame up above angleof vision. Best hanging position for smaller pictures: point of emphasis (level of horizon in picture) at eye level m 3 4 Installlightingsothat anglesof incidencecorrespondwith natural light Typicalcross-sectionfor museumofnaturalhistory ribbed glass frosted glass , screen N' S N _____ " __________ k>1 j 100 I- 5 - largest hanging surface best 5.6 hanging surfaces between 950&3.6 3—5 hanging surface space/picture 6—10 m2 ground surface space/sculpture 1 m2cabinet space space/400 coins Calculations formuseum lighting highly theoretical: quality of light what matters. Experiments carried out in America therefore more important (—÷Bib561). In recent times continuous increase in use of artificial lighting, instead of constant variations of light experiences even with N lighting —*p360. GENERALLAYOUT No continous circularitinerary butwingsleadingoutfromentrance. Side rm forpacking, despatch, transparencysection, restorationworkshops, lecture rm. Museums sometimes in bldg originally designed for other purposes. 1) 6 Ideallylitrmwith uniform lighting front both sides,asworkedoutby S HurstSeager(-.Bib561) Well-lit exhibitionhabasedon Bostonexperiments 1001 (Th i > I27/' iLl T1 900r 27° 2.0 1.0 1.5 500e h 7 Field ofvision:h&distance 8 a 0.1 1000 0.5 0.6 0.75 10 Paintingstowithdetachablesteelmeshframesonwhichpictures can behungasrequired&be readyforremovalatanytimeforstudy Size & distance outerwallof glass optional J. AAAA1iAWA1,AI I Exhibitionrmwith side lighting: suitablehangingsurfacebetween 300 &600 with mih of6700&dlih 2130forpicturesor3040—3650for sculpture,ascalculatedfrom Bostonexperiments 11 9 Exhibitionrmwith folding screens(designK Schneider) allowsgreat variety ofrmarrangements ox+iöo-+io.o' —, 12 Exhibitionrm withsuccessful useofavailablespace:panels betweencentralpillarscanbe rearrangedbetweensupportsas needed;ifouterside-wallof glass installedwindowarrangementof innerwallcanalso bevaried CD 360 Leisure Museums LIGHTING Daylight as lightsource givesmm overheads. Overheadlighting: advantages,independentof orientation, not affected by overhanging trees or neighbouring bldg, easily regulated (lamella ceiling), little reflection, light more widely spread over exhibit area; disadvantages, strong heat build-up, risk of damage from water and condensation, only diffused light. Window lighting: viewout (relaxing), rm easily aired and kept ateven temp, better light on groups and individual exhibits, illumination of showcases fromback. 4 Main floor Wallraf-Richartz-Museum CologneGermany Arch R Schwartz&Bernard key 1 rest rm 2 rm reaching to overheadlight inupperstorey 3side-litrm 4side-lit recess 1 Section& light sourcesMuseumofWesternArtTokyoJapan Arch LeCorbusier a lightsource b 2 Section a-a &light sourcesMuseoCiVKOTurin Italy ArchBassi& Boscheth b-b 5 Joan Miro FoundationBarcelonaSpain hasrampextendinground all4 sides ofsculpturerm allowing worksto beviewed fromvarying heightsand aspects;note useofskylights-.section afirstfloor plan sections Arch Sert Section key 1 sculpturerm 2 ha 3print mi 4balcover groundfloor 5 telwith sculptures 6ha 70ff 8director'soff 9restm, lOprintarchives b 3 Section&light sourcesMuseumofModem Art Rio deJaneiroBrazil Arch Reidy Leisure 361 Museums 2 VancouverMuseum Canada Arch ArthurErickson key EXAMPLES 14 TTjm1' [1] n-i [III [111 r — L. L gairer' 1 entrance 2 lob 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 off/seminarrm rampedgallery greatha small objectgallery theatre visiblestoar lounge 10 outdoorcourt [Ii LII [Ii r-i r1 r, : : r- - -r r1 - gallery 0 EEEJ - - -t : : __________ _____ L. b W4EEI1. gallery L apaceanum F4iii jJ auditorium vvvvv ri L1 im I—I 3 C 1 CenterforBritishArtYaleUSA asectionatB—*le bthirdfloor csecond floor d firstfloor egroundfloor ArchKahn rii 'v"" I ir'wri Ia..rJI I vvvvv[ Air &Space MuseumWashington USA asecond floor b firstfloor C groundfloor Arch Hok Museumsreferences —*Bibliographyentries 040318385476612 Page blank in original 363 Components INTRODUCTION Components bringstogether various categories ofconstruction data intended asan aid to the userofArchitects' Datainapplying the principlesand examples given throughout the body of the book. Underthe general heading Services' are guidelines on the spaces needed to install, operate and maintain systems of distribution, heating, ventilation, thermal and sound insulation, lighting. Thereafterfollow practicalcriteriaforcertaincomponents: doors, windows, corridors andramps, stairs, escalators, elevators. practices are presented in detail in Ramsey& Sleeper/American Institute of Architects Architectural Graphic Standards —Bib 549. Conversions As anaid to readers whodo not workin metric units ofmeasurementa listofconversion factors and a setof42conversion tables introduce the pages on services systems. Data here presented are based on the latest Britishand European research and are not directly applicable by those working in non-metric units of measurement. The material presented and Materials the approach to its presentation are thought to be of general Values to be given to physical characteristics ofcommon building interestto architects in America as in other continents; but USA materials have been brought together inatable which follows the practices differ in somerespects from what is given here. Such conversion tables and precedes 'Services' .—p384(1). 364 Conversions FACTORS metric 'imperial'/US length 1.0mm 25.4 rnrn (2.54cm) 0.039 in 1 in 304.8 mrn (30.48cm) 914.4mm 1000.0mm(1.0 m) 20.117rn 1 000.00rn (1 km) 1 609.31 m area lOOrnm2(1.Ocm2) 645.2 mm2 (6.452 cm2) 929.03cm2 (0.093 m2) 0.836rn2 1.0m2 0.405ha (4046.9m2) 1.0ha (10000m2) 1.0km2 2.59 km2(259 ha) 1 ft lyd 1 yd 3.4 in (1 .093yd) 1 chain 0.621 mile 1 mile 0.155in2 1 in2 1 ft2 1 yd2 1.196yd2(10.764ft2) 1 acre 2.471 acre 0.386 mile2 1 mile2 volume 1004J mm3 (1.0cm3; 1.0 ml) 0.061 in3 16387mm3 (16.387cm3; 0.01641; 1 in3 16.387 ml) 61.025in3 (0.035 ft3) 1.01(1.0 drn3; 1000cm3) 0.028 rn3(28.32 I) 1 ft3 0.765 m3 1.0 m3 1 yd3 1.308 yd3(35.314 ft3) capacity 1.Ornl 1.0 ml 28.41 ml 29.57 ml 0.473 litre 0.568litre 1.0 litre 1.Olitre 3.785 litre 4.546 litre 100.0 litre 100.0 litre 159.0 litre 164.0 litre 0.O34flozUS 0.035 fI ozimp 1 fI oz imp 1 fI oz US 1 pint (liquid) US 1 pint imp 1.76 pint imp 2.ll3pintUS 1 gal US 1 galimp 21.99 gal imp 26.42 gal US 1 barrel US 1 barrel imp mass lOg 28.35g 454.0 g (0.454 kg) 1000.0g(1 kg) 45.36kg 50.8 kg 907.2 kg (0.907 t) 1000.0kg (1.0 t) 1000.0kg(1 .0 t) 1016.0kg(1.016 t) mass/unit length 0.496kg/rn 0.564kg/rn (0.564 t/km) 0.631 kg/rn(0.631 t/km) 1.0kg/rn 1.116kg/rn 1.488 kg/rn 17.86 kg/rn length/unitmass 1.0rn/kg 2.016 rn/kg 0.035 oz (avoirdupois) 1 oz (avoirdupois) 1 lb 2.205 lb 1 cwtUS cwt irnp ton US 0.984 ton irnp 1.102ton US 1 ton imp 1 1 1 Ib/yd 1 ton US/rnile 1 ton irnp/mile 0.056 lb/in (0.896 oz/in) 1 oz/in 1 lb/ft 1 lb/in 0.496 yd/Ib 1 yd/Ib metric mass/unit area 1.0g/m2 33.91 g/m2 305.15g/rn2 0.011 kg/rn2 0.013 kg/rn2 0.224 kg/rn2 0.251 kg/rn2 1.0 kg/rn2 4.882 kg/rn2 703.07 kg/rn2 350.3 kg/km2 (3.503 kg/ha; 0.35g/m2) 392.3 kg/km2 (3.923 kg/ha; 0.392 g/m2) 'imperial'/US 0.003 oz/ft2 1 oz/yd2 1 oz/tt2 1 cwt US/acre 1 cwt imp/acre 1 ton US/acre 1 ton imp/acre 29.5oz/yd2 1 lb/ft2 1 lb/in2 1 ton US/mile2 1 ton imp/mile2 density(mass/volume) 0.593 kg/rn3 1.0kg/rn3 16.02kg/rn3 1186.7kg/rn3(1.187 t/rn3) 1 328.9 kg/rn3 (1.329 t/rn3) 27680.0kg/rn3 (27.68 t/m3; 27.68 g/cm3) 1 b/yd3 0.062 lb/ft3 lb/ft ton US/yd3 1 ton irnp/yd3 1 1 1 lb/in3 specific surface (area/unit mass) 0.823 rn2/t 1.0rn2/kg 29.493rn2/kg 1 yd2/ton 0.034 yd2/oz 1 yd2/oz area/unitcapacity 0.184m2/l 1.0 rn2/l 1 yd2/gal 5.437 yd2/gal concentration 0.014 kg/rn3 0.017 kg/rn3 1.0 kg/rn3 (1.0g/l) 1.0kg/rn3 (1.0g/l) 6.236 kg/rn3 7.489 kg/rn3 58.42 grain/gal US 70.16 grain/gal imp 1 oz/gal imp 1 oz/gal US mass rate offlow 0.454kg/s 1.0kg/s 1 lb/s 2.204 lb/s volume rateofflow 0.063 I/s 0.076 I/s 0.472 I/s 1.01/s (86.4 rn3/day) 1.01/s 1.0 1/mm 1.0 1/mm 3.785 I/s 4.5461/s 28.32 I/s 0.0038rn3/rnin 0.0045rn3/rnin 1.0 rn3/s 1.0 rn3/s 1.0rn3/h 0.0283m3/s velocity 1 grain/gal imp 1 grain/gal US 1 gal US/minute 1 gal irnp/minute ft3/rninute 13.2 gal imp/s 0.264 gal US/s 0.22 gal imp/mm 0.264 gal US/mm 1 gal US/s 1 1 galimp/s 1 ft3/s 1 gal US/mm 1 gal imp/mm 183.162 gal US/s 219.969galimp/s 35.31 ft3/h 1 ft3/s 0.005 rn/s 0.025 rn/s 0.305 rn/s 1 ft/minute 1 in/s 1 ft/s 1Dm/s 3.28ft/s 1 000.0 rn/hr (1 krn/hr) 1 609.0 rn/hr (0.447 rn/s) 0.621 rnile/hr 1 mile/hr 365 Conversions metric 'imperial'/US fuelconsumption 1.0I/km 1.01/km 2.352 I/km 2.824I/km acceleration 0.305rn/s2 1.0 rn/s2 9.806 m/s2 = g (standard 0.354 gal imp/mile 0.425 gal US/mile 1 gal US/mile 1 gal imp/mile itt/s2 3.28 ft/s2 g = 32.172 ft/s2 acceleration due to gravity) temperature X°C x(X—32)°C temperature interval 0.5556K 1K=1°C energy (X+32)°F X°F 1°F 1.8°F 1 Btu/hr 1 calorie/s 7.233 ft lbt/s) 1 horsepower 0.986 horsepower 0.317 Btu/(ft2hr) 1.0 Btu/(ft2 hr) 1 Btu in/(ft2hr°F) i.OW/(rn2.K) 5.678 W/(m2.K) 0.176 Btu/(ft2hr°F) 1.0Btu/(ft2 hr°F) thermal registivity 1.0m K/W 6.933 rn K/W 0.144 ft2 hr°F/(Btu in) 1.0 ft2 hr°F/(Btu in) 67.07 kJ/(m3 K) 0.239 Btu/(lb °F) 1.0Btu/(lb°F) 0.015 Btu/(ft3°F) 1.0 Btu/(ft3°F) specificenergy 1.0 kJ/kg 2.326kJ/kg 1.0 kJ/m3 (1 kJ/l) 1.OJ/l 232.1 J/l 0.093 ft-candle (0.093 lumen/ft2) 1.0 ft-candle (1 lumen/ft2) 1 apostilb 0.000645 cd/ft2 1 cd/ft2 1.0cd/in2 force iON 8.897kN 9.964 kN 1.ONrn 1.356 Nm 113.ONrn 253.1 Nm 1356.ONm 3037.ONm pressure 1.0Pa (1.0 N/rn2) 1.OkPa 100.OPa 2.99kPa 3.39 kPa 6.9 kPa i0O.OkPa 101.33 kPa 107.25 kPa 15.44 MPa 0.2251bt 2.205 Ibi 1.0kipf(1000lbf) 1.OtonfUS 1.0tontimp 0.067 lbf/ft 1.0 lbf/ft 1.0 tont/ft i.Olbf/in 1.Olbfin 0.738lbfft 1.0 lbf ft 1.Okipfin 1.Otonfin 1.Okipfft 1.Otonfft 0.021 bt/ft2 0.1451bf/in2 1.Omillibar 1 ftwater 1 in mercury 1.0 lbt/in2 1.Obar 1.0 standardatmosphere 1.0 tonf/ft2 1.Otonf/in2 6.933 Btuin/(ft2hr°F) thermal conductance specific heat capacity 1.0 kJ/(kg.K) 4.187 kJ/(kg.K) 1.0 kJ/(rn3 K) .0 cd/rn2 10.764 cd/rn2 1 550.0 cd/rn2 moment offorce(torque) 0.li3Nm(113.ONrnm) 0.738ttlbf/s 1.0kilocalorie/hr 1 ftlbf/s 0.144 W/(rn.K) 1.OW/(m.K) luminance 0.3183cd/rn2 1 Btu 1 kilowatt-hr 1 therm (100000 Btu) 1.0W thermal conductivity 1 lx (1 lumen/rn2) 10.764 lx 1.Ocalorie 7.233 ftlbf ftlbt 0.293W 1 W/m2 3.155 W/m2 illumination 1.0 N/rn 14.59 N/rn 32.69 kN/m 175.1 kN/m (175.1 N/mm) 1 intensity ofheat flowrate refrigeration force/unitlength 1.356J 4.187J 1.163W 1.356W 4.187W 1 kgf rn/s (9.807W) 745.7W 1 metrichorsepower (75 kgf rn/s) 12000 Btu/hr = ton of 1.0 kgf (9.807 N; 1.0 kilopond) 4.448 kN 0.239calorie power (energy/time) 'imperial'/US refrigeration 3.517 kW 1 1.OJ 9.807 J (1 kgfm) 1 055.06J 3.6 MJ 105.5MJ metric 0.43 Btu/lb 1.0 Btu/lb 0.027 Btu/tt3 0.004 Btu/gal 1.OBtu/gal Metric systemreferences: —Bibliographyentries010012 127135228473479494495531 610 366 Conversions TABLES Listoftables 1 millimetres toinches 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 2 decimals ofinch to millimetres 3 inches & fractions ofinchto millimetres 4 feet &inchesto metres 5 metres tofeet 6 feettometres 7 metrestoyards 8 yardstometres 9 kilometres tomiles kilograms to pounds poundstokilograms 31 kilograms per cubic metre to pounds percubicfoot 32 pounds percubicfootto kilograms percubicmetre 33 metresper second to miles per hour 34 milesper hour to metres persecond 35 kilograms forcepersquare centimetre to pounds forceper square 10 milesto kilometres 11 square centimetres tosquare inches 12 square inches to square centimetres 13 square metrestosquare feet 14 square feettosquare metres 15 square metrestosquareyards 16 square yards tosquare metres 17 hectares to acres 18 acresto hectares 19 cubiccentimetres tocubicinches 20 cubicinches to cubiccentimetres 21 cubicmetrestocubicfeet 22 cubicfeettocubicmetres 23 litresto cubicfeet th cubicfeetto litres litresto gallons imperial gallonsimperial to litres litresto gallons US gallonsUSto litres inch 36 poundsforceper square inch tokilograms forceper square centimetre 37 kilonewtons persquare metre topounds force persquare inch 38 poundsforceper square inch to kilonewtonspersquare metre 39 wattsto British thermal unitsperhour 40 Britishthermal unitsperhour to watts 41 wattspersquare metrekelvin to Britishthermal unitspersquare foot hourdegree F 42 British thermal units per square foot hour degree F to watts per square metre kelvin TABLES millimetres to inches mm 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0.04 0.43 0.83 1.22 0.08 0.47 0.87 1.25 1.65 2.05 2.44 2.83 3.23 3.62 4.02 0.11 0.51 0.91 0.16 0.55 0.94 1.34 1.73 2.13 2.52 0.2 0.59 0.98 1.38 1.77 2.17 2.56 2.95 3.35 3.74 4.13 4.53 4.92 5.31 5.71 0.24 0.63 0.28 0.67 0.31 1.02 1.41 1.81 1.06 1.46 1.85 1.1 2.21 2.24 2.64 3.03 3.42 3.82 0.35 0.75 1.14 1.57 1.93 2.32 2.72 3.11 3.5 3.9 4.29 4.69 5.08 5.47 5.87 6.26 6.65 7.05 7.44 7.83 8.23 8.62 9.02 9.41 In 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180 190 200 210 220 230 240 250 0.39 0.79 1.18 1.57 1.97 2.36 2.76 3.15 3.54 3.94 4.33 4.72 5.12 5.51 5.91 6.3 6.69 7.09 7.48 7.87 8.27 8.66 9.06 9.45 9.84 1.61 2.00 2.4 2.8 3.19 3.58 3.98 4.37 4.76 5.16 5.55 5.94 6.34 6.73 7.13 7.52 7.91 8.31 8.7 9.09 9.49 4.41 4.8 5.2 5.59 5.98 6.38 6.77 7.17 7.56 7.95 8.35 8.74 9.13 9.53 1.3 1.69 2.09 2.48 2.87 3.27 3.66 4.06 4.45 4.84 5.24 5.63 6.02 6.42 6.81 7.21 7.6 7.99 8.39 8.78 9.17 9.57 2.91 3.31 3.7 4.09 4.49 4.88 5.28 5.67 6.06 6.46 6.85 7.24 7.64 8.03 8.43 8.82 9.21 9.61 6.1 6.5 6.89 7.28 7.68 8.07 8.46 8.86 9.25 9.65 2.6 3.0 3.39 3.78 4.17 4.57 4.96 5.35 5.75 6.14 6.54 6.93 7.32 7.72 8.11 8.5 8.9 9.29 9.69 4.21 4.61 5.0 5.39 5.79 6.18 6.57 6.97 7.36 7.76 8.15 8.54 8.94 9.33 9.72 0.71 1.5 1.89 2.28 2.68 3.07 3.46 3.86 4.25 4.65 5.04 5.43 5.83 6.22 6.61 7.01 7.4 7.8 8.19 8.58 8.98 9.37 9.76 9.8 367 Conversions in 0.000 mm 0.0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.1 0.254 0.508 0.762 1.016 1.27 1.524 1.778 2.032 2.286 2.54 in 0.001 0.002 0.003 0.004 0.005 0.006 0.007 0.008 0.009 0.0254 0.2794 0.5334 0.7874 1.0414 1.2954 1.5494 1.8034 2.0574 2.3114 0.0508 0.3048 0.5588 0.8128 1.0668 1.3208 1.5748 1.8288 2.0828 2.3368 0.0762 0.3302 0.5842 0.8382 1.0922 1.3462 1.6002 1.8542 2.1082 2.3622 0.1016 0.3556 0.6096 0.8636 1.1176 1.3716 1.6256 1.8796 2.1336 2.3876 0.127 0.1524 0.4064 0.6604 0.9144 0.1778 0.4318 0.6858 0.9398 1.1938 1.4478 1.7018 1.9558 2.2098 2.4638 0.2032 0.4572 0.7112 0.9652 1.2192 1.4732 1.7272 1.9812 2.2352 2.4892 0.2286 0.4826 0.7366 0.9906 1.2446 1.4986 1.7526 2.0066 2.2606 2.5146 1/16 /16 1/8 1/4 /16 3/ /I8 9.5 34.9 11.1 0.381 0.635 0.889 1.143 1.397 1.1684 1.4224 1.6764 1.9304 2.1844 2.4384 1.651 1.905 2.159 2.413 1/2 /16 /8 14.3 15.9 11/16 3/4 17.5 42.9 19.1 /8 13/16 15/16 mm 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 25.4 50.8 76.2 101.6 127.0 152.4 177.8 203.2 228.6 254.0 1.6 27.0 52.4 77.8 103.2 128.6 154.0 179.4 3.2 28.6 54.0 79.4 104.8 130.2 155.6 181.0 204.8 206.4 230.2 231.8 255.6 257.2 4.8 30.2 55.6 81.0 106.4 131.8 157.2 182.6 208.0 233.4 258.8 6.4 31.8 57.2 82.6 108.0 133.4 158.8 184.2 209.6 235.0 260.4 7.9 12.7 36.5 38.1 39.7 41.3 58.7 60.3 61.9 63.5 65.1 66.7 84.1 85.7 87.3 88.9 90.5 92.1 109.5 111.1 112.7 114.3 115.9 117.5 134.9 136.5 138.1 139.7 141.3 142.9 160.3 161.9 163.5 165.1 166.7 168.3 185.7 187.3 188.9 190.5 192.1 193.7 211.1 212.7 214.3 215.9 217.5 219.1 236.5 238.1 239.7 241.3 242.9 244.5 261.9 263.5 265.1 266.7 268.3 269.9 33.3 20.6 22.2 23.8 44.5 46.0 68.3 69.9 71.4 93.7 95.3 96.8 119.1 120.7 122.2 144.5 146.1 147.6 169.9 171.5 173.0 195.3 196.9 198.4 220.7 222.3 223.8 246.1 247.7 249.2 271.5 273.1 274.6 47.6 73.0 98.4 123.8 149.2 174.6 200.0 225.4 250.8 276.2 49.2 74.6 100.0 125.4 150.8 176.2 201.6 227.0 252.4 277.8 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 0.2032 0.508 0.8128 1.1176 1.4224 1.7272 2.032 2.3368 2.6416 2.9464 0.2286 0.5334 0.8382 1.143 1.4478 1.7526 2.0574 2.3622 2.667 2.9718 0.254 0.5588 0.8636 1.1684 1.4732 0.2794 0.5842 0.889 1.1938 1.4986 1.8034 2.1082 2.413 2.7178 3.0226 m ft 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 0.0254 0.3048 0.3302 0.6096 0.635 0.9144 0.9398 1.2192 1.2446 1.524 1.8288 2.1336 2.4384 2.7432 3.048 decimals ofinchto millimetres 3 inches &fractions of inch to millimetres 4 In 0 2 1.5494 1.8542 2.159 2.4638 2.7686 0.0508 0.3556 0.6604 0.9652 1.27 1.5748 1.8796 2.1844 2.4892 2.794 0.0762 0.1016 0.127 0.381 0.4064 0.4318 0.6858 0.7112 0.7366 0.9906 1.016 1.0414 1.2954 1.3208 1.3462 1.6002 1.6256 1.651 1.905 1.9304 1.9558 2.2098 2.2352 2.2606 2.5146 2.54 2.5654 2.8194 2.8448 2.8702 0.1524 0.4572 0.762 1.0668 1.3716 0.1778 0.4826 0.7874 1.0922 1.397 1.6764 1.7018 1.9812 2.0066 2.286 2.3114 2.5908 2.6162 2.8956 2.921 1.778 2.0828 2.3876 2.6924 2.9972 feet& inches to metres 368 Conversions 5 metrestofeet m ft 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180 190 200 210 220 230 240 250 7 metresto yards m 32.8 65.62 98.43 131.23 164.04 196.85 229.66 262.46 295.28 328.08 360.89 393.7 426.51 459.32 492.13 524.93 557.74 590.55 623.36 656.17 688.98 721.79 754.59 787.4 820.21 0 0 9.84 42.65 75.45 108.27 141.08 13.12 45.93 78.74 111.55 144.36 173.89 206.69 239.5 272.31 305.12 337.93 370.74 403.54 436.35 469.16 177.17 209.97 242.78 275.59 308.4 341.21 374.02 406.82 439.63 472.44 505.25 538.06 570.87 603.68 636.48 669.29 1 2 3 3.28 14.22 25.15 36.09 47.03 57.96 68.9 79.83 90.77 502.0 534.78 567.59 600.39 633.2 666.01 698.82 731.63 764.44 797.24 22.97 55.77 88.58 121.39 154.2 734.91 767.72 800.53 508.53 541.34 574.15 606.96 639.76 672.57 705.38 738.19 771.0 803.81 19.69 52.49 85.3 118.11 150.91 183.73 216.54 249.34 282.15 314.96 347.77 380.58 413.39 446.19 479.0 511.81 544.62 577.43 610.24 643.05 675.85 708.66 741.47 774.28 807.09 515.09 547.9 580.71 613.52 646.33 679.13 711.94 744.75 777.56 810.37 255.91 288.71 321.52 354.33 387.14 419.95 452.76 485.56 518.37 551.18 583.99 616.8 649.6 682.42 715.22 748.03 780.84 813.65 4 5 6 7 8 9 8.75 19.69 30.62 41.56 52.49 63.43 74.37 85.3 96.24 107.17 9.84 20.78 31.71 42.65 53.59 64.52 75.46 86.4 97.33 108.27 119.2 130.14 141.08 152.01 162.95 173.89 184.82 195.76 206.69 217.63 228.57 239.5 250.44 261.37 272.31 702.1 80 90 10.94 21.87 32.8 43.74 54.68 65.62 76.55 87.49 98.43 1.09 12.03 22.97 33.9 44.84 55.77 66.71 77.65 88.58 99.52 2.19 13.12 24.06 35.0 45.93 56.87 67.8 78.74 89.68 100.61 101.71 100 110 120 130 140 109.36 120.3 131.23 142.17 153.1 110.46 121.39 132.33 143.26 154.2 111.55 122.49 133.42 144.36 155.29 112.64 123.58 134.51 145.45 156.39 26.25 37.18 48.12 59.06 69.99 80.93 91.86 102.8 113.74 124.67 135.61 146.54 157.48 150 160 170 180 190 200 210 220 230 240 164.04 174.98 185.91 196.85 207.79 218.72 229.66 240.56 251.53 262.47 273.4 165.14 176.07 187.0 197.94 208.88 219.82 230.75 241.69 252.63 263.56 166.23 177.17 199.04 209.97 220.91 231.85 242.78 253.72 264.65 167.32 178.26 189.2 200.13 211.07 222.0 232.94 243.88 254.81 265.75 168.42 179.35 190.29 201.23 212.16 223.1 234.03 244.97 255.91 266.84 0 mile 1 2 3 4 0.62 6.84 13.05 19.29 25.47 31.69 37.9 44.12 50.33 56.54 1.24 7.46 13.67 19.88 1.86 8.08 14.29 20.5 26.72 32.93 39.15 45.36 51.57 57.79 2.49 8.7 30 40 50 60 70 250 kilometres tomiles 6.56 39.37 72.17 104.99 137.8 170.6 203.41 236.22 269.03 301.84 334.65 367.45 400.26 433.07 465.88 498.69 531.5 564.3 597.11 629.92 662.73 695.54 728.35 761.16 793.96 16.40 49.21 82.02 114.82 147.63 180.45 213.25 246.06 278.87 311.68 344.49 377.3 410.1 442.91 475.72 187.01 219.82 252.63 285.43 318.24 351.05 383.86 416.67 449.48 482.28 26.25 59.06 91.86 124.67 157.48 190.29 223.1 29.53 62.34 95.14 127.95 160.76 193.57 226.38 259.19 292.0 324.8 357.61 390.42 423.23 456.04 488.85 521.65 554.46 587.27 620.08 652.89 685.7 718.5 751.31 784.12 816.93 yd 10 20 9 3.28 36.09 68.9 101.7 134.51 167.32 200.13 232.94 265.75 298.56 331.37 364.17 396.98 429.79 462.6 495.41 528.22 561.02 593.83 626.64 659.45 692.26 725.07 757.87 790.68 km 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 6.21 12.43 18.64 24.85 31.07 37.28 43.5 49.7 55.92 62.14 188.1 26.1 32.31 38.53 44.74 50.95 57.17 4.37 15.31 14.91 21.13 27.34 33.55 39.77 45.98 52.2 58.41 5.47 16.4 27.34 38.28 49.21 60.15 71.08 82.02 92.96 103.89 114.83 125.74 136.7 147.64 158.57 61.24 72.18 7.66 18.59 29.53 40.46 51.4 62.34 73.27 83.11 84.21 180.45 191.38 202.32 213.26 224.19 235.13 246.06 257.0 267.94 94.05 104.99 115.92 126.86 137.8 148.73 159.67 170.6 181.54 192.48 203.41 214.35 225.28 236.22 247.16 258.09 269.03 95.14 106.08 117.02 127.95 138.89 149.83 160.76 171.7 182.63 193.57 204.51 215.44 226.38 237.31 248.25 259.19 270.12 129.05 139.99 150.92 161.86 172.79 183.73 194.66 205.6 216.53 227.47 238.41 249.34 260.28 271.22 5 6 7 8 9 3.11 3.73 9.94 16.16 22.37 28.58 4.35 10.56 16.78 22.99 29.2 35.42 41.63 47.85 54.06 60.27 4.98 11.18 17.4 11.81 169.51 9.32 15.53 21.75 27.96 34.18 40.39 46.6 52.82 59.03 6.56 17.5 28.43 39.37 50.31 34.8 41.01 47.22 53.44 59.65 118.11 23.61 29.83 36.04 42.25 48.47 54.68 60.89 5.59 18.02 24.23 30.45 36.66 42.87 49.09 55.3 61.52 369 Con versions 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0.31 0.6 3.35 3.66 0.91 3.96 1.22 4.27 6.71 7.01 7.31 10.06 10.36 13.1 13.41 1.52 4.57 7.62 10.67 13.72 2.74 5.79 8.84 11.89 14.94 32.31 32.61 35.37 38.1 38.41 41.15 44.2 47.24 50.29 53.34 56.39 59.44 62.48 65.53 68.58 71.63 74.68 41.45 44.5 47.55 50.6 53.64 56.69 59.74 62.79 65.84 68.89 71.93 74.98 35.67 38.7 41.76 17.68 20.73 23.77 26.82 29.87 32.92 36.0 17.98 21.03 24.08 27.13 30.18 33.22 36.3 39.32 42.37 45.46 48.46 61.87 64.92 67.97 71.02 74.07 16.46 19.58 22.56 25.6 28.65 31.7 34.75 37.8 40.84 43.89 46.94 49.99 53.04 56.08 59.13 62.18 65.23 68.28 71.32 74.37 2.13 5.18 8.23 11.28 14.36 17.37 20.42 23.47 26.52 29.57 2.44 5.49 8.53 11.58 14.63 16.15 19.2 22.25 25.3 28.35 31.39 34.44 37.49 40.54 43.59 46.63 49.68 52.73 55.78 58.83 1.83 4.88 7.92 10.97 14.02 17.07 20.12 23.16 26.21 29.26 3 4 5 m 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180 190 200 210 220 230 240 250 yd 3.05 6.1 6.4 9.14 12.19 15.24 18.29 21.33 24.38 27.43 30.48 33.53 36.58 39.62 42.67 45.72 48.77 51.82 54.86 57.91 60.96 64.01 67.06 70.1 73.15 76.2 9.45 12.5 15.54 18.59 21.64 24.69 27.74 30.78 33.83 36.88 39.93 42.98 9.75 12.80 15.85 18.9 21.95 24.99 28.04 31.09 34.14 37.19 40.23 43.28 46.02 49.07 52.12 55.17 58.22 61.26 64.31 67.36 70.41 73.46 46.33 49.38 52.43 55.47 58.52 61.57 64.62 67.67 70.71 73.76 0 1 2 16.76 19.81 22.86 25.91 28.96 32.0 35.05 39.01 63.09 66.14 69.19 72.24 75.29 42.06 45.11 48.16 51.21 54.25 57.3 60.35 63.4 66.45 69.49 72.54 75.59 60.66 63.7 66.75 69.79 72.85 75.9 6 7 8 9 5.49 14.63 23.77 32.92 42.06 51.21 60.35 69.49 78.64 87.78 96.93 106.07 6.4 15.54 24.69 33.83 42.98 7.32 16.46 25.6 34.75 43.89 53.04 62.18 71.32 80.47 8.23 17.37 26.52 35.66 44.81 53.95 63.09 72.24 81.38 90.53 99.67 108.81 117.96 44.81 47.85 50.9 53.95 57.0 60.05 51.51 54.56 57.61 m 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180 190 200 210 220 230 240 250 mile 0.91 9.14 18.29 27.43 36.58 45.72 54.86 64.0 73.15 82.3 91.44 100.58 109.73 118.87 128.02 10.06 19.2 28.35 37.49 46.63 55.78 64.92 74.07 83.21 92.35 101.5 110.64 119.79 128.93 1.83 10.97 20.12 29.26 38.4 47.55 56.69 65.84 74.98 84.12 93.27 102.41 111.56 120.7 129.85 138.99 148.13 157.28 166.42 175.57 2.74 11.89 21.03 30.18 39.32 48.46 57.61 66.75 75.9 85.04 94.18 103.33 112.47 121.61 137.16 146.3 155.45 164.59 173.74 182.88 192.02 201.17 210.31 219.46 228.6 138.07 147.22 156.36 165.51 174.65 183.79 192.94 202.08 211.23 220.37 193.85 203.0 212.14 221.29 130.76 139.9 149.05 158.19 167.34 176.48 185.62 194.77 203.91 213.06 222.0 0 1 2 3 184.71 3.65 12.8 21.95 31.09 40.23 49.38 58.52 67.67 76.81 85.95 4.57 22.86 32.0 41.15 50.29 59.44 68.58 77.72 86.87 95.1 96.01 104.24 113.39 122.53 131.67 105.16 114.3 123.44 132.59 141.73 150.88 160.02 169.16 13.71 115.21 140.82 149.96 159.11 168.25 177.39 186.54 195.68 204.83 213.97 223.11 187.45 196.6 205.74 214.88 224.03 124.36 133.5 142.65 151.79 160.93 170.08 179.22 188.37 197.51 206.65 215.8 224.94 4 5 6 178.31 52.12 61.27 70.41 79.55 88.7 97.84 106.99 116.13 125.27 134.42 143.56 152.71 161.85 170.99 180.14 189.28 198.43 207.57 89.61 98.76 107.9 117.04 126.19 135.33 136.25 145.39 154.53 163.68 172.82 181.97 225.86 200.25 209.4 218.54 227.69 7 8 9 12.87 28.97 45.06 61.16 77.25 93.34 109.44 125.53 141.62 157.72 14.48 30.58 46.67 62.76 78.86 94.95 111.05 127.14 143.23 159.33 191.11 km 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 1.61 16.09 32.19 48.28 64.37 80.47 96.56 112.65 128.75 144.84 160.93 17.7 33.8 49.89 65.98 82.08 98.17 114.26 130.36 146.45 3.22 19.31 35.41 51.5 67.59 83.69 99.78 115.87 131.97 148.06 4.83 20.92 37.01 53.11 69.2 85.3 101.39 117.48 133.58 149.67 6.44 22.53 38.62 54.72 70.81 86.9 103.0 119.09 135.19 151.28 8.05 24.14 40.23 56.33 72.42 88.51 104.61 120.7 136.79 152.89 9.66 25.75 41.84 57.94 74.03 90.12 106.22 11.27 27.36 43.45 59.55 75.64 122.31 91.73 107.83 123.92 138.4 154.5 140.01 156.11 8 yardsto metres 127.1 144.48 153.62 162.76 171.9 181.05 190.2 199.34 208.48 217.63 226.77 216.71 6 feet tometres 10 milesto kilometres 370 Conversions Area 11 squarecentimetres to square inches cm2 3 4 5 6 7 0.31 1.86 3.41 4.96 31.16 32.71 34.26 35.81 37.36 20.46 22.01 23.56 25.11 26.66 28.21 29.76 31.31 32.86 34.41 35.96 37.51 0.47 2.02 3.57 5.12 6.67 8.22 9.77 11.32 12.87 14.42 15.97 17.52 19.07 20.62 22.17 23.72 25.27 26.82 28.37 29.92 31.47 33.02 34.57 36.12 37.67 0.62 2.17 3.72 5.27 6.82 8.37 9.92 11.47 13.02 14.57 16.12 17.67 19.22 20.77 22.32 23.87 25.42 26.97 28.52 30.07 31.62 33.17 34.72 36.27 37.82 0.78 2.33 3.88 5.43 6.98 8.53 10.08 11.63 13.18 14.73 16.28 17.83 19.38 20.93 22.48 24.03 25.58 27.13 28.68 30.23 31.78 33.33 34.88 36.43 37.98 0.93 2.48 4.03 5.58 7.13 8.68 10.23 11.78 13.33 14.88 16.43 17.98 19.53 21.08 22.63 24.18 25.73 27.28 28.83 30.38 31.93 33.48 35.03 36.58 38.13 2.64 4.19 5.74 7.29 8.84 10.39 11.94 13.49 15.04 16.59 18.14 19.69 21.24 22.79 24.34 25.89 27.44 28.99 30.54 32.09 33.64 35.19 36.75 38.29 7.44 9.0 10.54 12.09 13.64 15.19 16.74 18.29 19.84 21.39 22.94 24.49 26.04 27.59 29.14 30.69 32.24 33.79 35.34 36.89 38.44 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 0.16 1.6 3.1 1.71 30 40 4.65 4.81 6.2 6.36 50 7.75 9.3 10.85 12.4 13.95 15.5 17.06 18.6 20.15 21.7 23.25 24.8 26.35 27.9 29.45 7.91 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180 190 200 210 220 230 240 250 13 2 1 0 10 20 60 70 80 squaremetresto squarefeet 0 j2 m2 3.26 9.46 12.56 12.71 14.11 14.26 15.66 15.81 17.21 17.36 24.96 26.51 28.06 29.61 35.65 37.20 38.75 0 9.61 11.16 23.41 34.1 8.06 11.01 18.76 20.31 21.86 31.0 32.55 6.51 18.91 1.09 8 1.24 2.79 4.34 5.9 9 1.4 2.95 4.5 6.05 7.6 9.15 10.7 12.25 13.8 15.35 16.9 18.45 20.0 21.55 23.1 24.65 26.2 27.75 29.3 30.85 32.4 33.95 35.5 37.05 38.6 9 ft2 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 107.64 215.29 322.92 430.56 538.2 645.84 753.47 861.11 968.75 1 076.39 1 184.03 1 291.67 1 399.31 1 506.95 150 160 170 180 190 200 210 220 230 240 250 260 270 280 290 1 614.59 1 722.23 300 310 320 330 340 350 360 370 380 390 400 410 420 430 440 450 460 470 480 490 500 10.76 118.4 226.01 333.68 441.32 548.96 656.6 764.24 871.88 979.52 1 087.15 1194.79 1 302.43 1 410.07 1 517.71 1 1 1 1 21.53 129.17 236.81 344.45 452.08 559.72 667.36 775.0 882.64 990.28 1 097.92 1 205.56 1 313.2 1 420.84 1 528.48 1 636.11 1 743.75 1 851.39 1 959.03 32.29 139.93 247.57 355.21 462.85 43.06 150.66 258.33 365.97 473.61 53.82 161.46 269.1 376.74 484.38 64.58 172.22 279.86 387.5 495.14 75.35 182.97 290.63 398.?7 505.91 570.49 581.25 678.13 688.89 785.77 796.53 893.41 904.17 1 001.04 1 011.81 1108.68 1119.45 1 216.32 1 227.09 1 323.96 1 334.72 1 431.6 1 442.36 1 539.24 1 550.0 592.02 699.65 807.29 914.93 1 022.57 1130.21 1 237.85 1 345.49 1 453.13 1 560.77 602.78 710.42 818.06 925.7 1 033.34 1140.97 1 248.61 1 356.25 1 463.89 1 571.53 613.54 721.18 828.82 936.46 625.35 732.99 1 829.86 840.63 1 937.5 948.27 2045.14 2055.91 2066.67 2 152.78 2 163.55 2 174.31 1 1 1 1 2368.06 2378.82 2389.59 2 475.7 2 486.46 2 497.23 2583.34 2594.1 2604.87 2 690.98 2 701.74 2 712.51 2 798.62 2809.38 2820.14 2906.26 2917.02 2927.78 3013.89 3 024.66 3035.42 3121.53 3132.3 3143.06 3 229.17 3 239.94 3 250.7 3336.81 3347.58 3358.34 3444.45 3455.22 3465.98 3552.09 3562.85 3573.62 3 659.73 3 670.49 3 681.26 3 767.37 3 778.13 3 788.9 3875.01 3885.77 3896.54 3982.65 3993.41 4004.17 4090.29 4101.05 4111.81 4197.93 4208.69 4219.45 4305.56 4316.33 4327.09 4413.2 4 423.97 4434.73 4520.84 4531.61 4542.37 4628.48 4639.25 4650.01 4736.12 4746.88 4757.65 4 843.76 4 854.52 4 865.29 4951.4 4 962.16 4 972.93 5 059.04 5 069.8 5 080.57 5166.68 5177.44 5188.2 5274.32 5285.08 5295.84 5381.96 2400.35 2411.12 646.88 754.52 862.16 969.8 1 1 1 1 657.64 765.28 872.92 980.56 2077.43 2 088.2 2 185.07 2 195.84 2260.42 2271.19 2281.95 2292.71 2303.48 2507.99 2 518.76 2615.63 2626.39 2 723.27 2 734.03 2841.67 2938.55 2949.31 3 046.19 3056.95 3153.83 3164.59 3261.46 3272.23 3369.1 3379.87 3476.74 3487.51 3584.38 3 595.15 2830.91 3692.02 3 702.79 3799.66 3 810.42 3918.06 4025.7 4133.34 4240.98 4348.62 96.88 20451 312.15 419.79 527.43 624.31 635.07 731.95 742.71 839.59 850.35 947.22 957.99 1 054.86 1 065.63 1162.5 1173.27 1 270.14 1 280.91 1 377.78 1 388.54 1 485.42 1 496.18 1 593.06 1 603.82 1 700.7 1 711.46 1 808.34 1 819.1 1 915.98 1 926.74 1151.74 1 259.38 1 367.02 1 474.66 1 582.29 1 668.41 1 679.17 1 689.93 1 776.05 1 786.81 1 797.57 1 883.68 1 894.45 1 905.21 1 991.32 2002.09 2012.85 2023.62 2034.38 2098.96 2109.73 2120.49 2131.25 2142.02 2206.6 2217.37 2228.13 2238.89 2249.66 2314.24 2325.0 2335.77 2346.53 2357.3 2421.88 2432.64 2443.41 2454.17 2464.94 2 529.52 2 540.28 2 551.05 2 561.81 2 572.57 2637.16 2647.92 2658.69 2669.45 2680.21 2 744.8 2 755.56 2 766.32 2 777.09 2 787.85 2852.44 2863.2 2873.96 2884.73 2895.49 2960.08 2970.84 2981.6 2992.37 3003.13 3067.71 3078.48 3089.24 3 100.01 3 110.77 3175.35 3186.12 3196.88 3207.65 3 218.41 3282.99 3 293.76 3 304.52 3 315.28 3 326.05 3390.63 3401.4 3412.16 3422.92 3433.69 3498.27 3509.03 3519.8 3530.56 3541.33 3605.91 3616.67 3627.44 3638.2 3648.97 3 713.55 3 724.31 3 735.08 3 745.84 3 756.6 3821.19 3928.83 4036.47 4144.11 4251.74 4359.38 4 445.49 4 456.26 4467.02 3907.3 4014.94 4122.58 4230.22 4337.86 1 044.1 86.11 193.75 301.39 409.03 516.67 3842.72 3 853.48 3 864.24 3950.36 3961.12 3971.88 4057.99 4068.76 4079.52 4154.87 4165.63 4176.4 4187.16 4262.51 4273.27 4284.04 4294.8 4370.15 4380.91 4391.68 4402.44 3831.95 3939.59 4047.23 4477.79 4488.55 4499.31 4553.13 4563.9 4574.66 4585.43 4596.19 4606.95 4660.77 4671.54 4682.3 4693.06 4703.83 4714.59 4768.41 4779.18 4789.94 4800.7 4811.47 4822.23 4876.05 4 886.82 4 897.58 4 908.34 4 919.11 4 929.87 4983.69 4994.45 5005.22 5015.98 5026.75 5037.51 5091.33 5 102.09 5 112.86 5 123.62 5 134.39 5 145.15 5198.97 5209.73 5220.5 5231.26 5242.02 5252.79 5306.61 5317.37 5328.14 5338.9 5349.66 5360.43 4 510.08 4617.72 4725.36 4833.0 4 940.63 5048.27 5 155.91 5263.55 5371.19 371 Conversions j2 0 1 2 4 3 5 7 6 8 9 cm2 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180 190 200 210 220 230 240 250 64.52 129.03 193.55 258.06 322.58 387.1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 451.61 516.13 580.64 645.16 709.6 774.19 838.71 903.22 967.74 032.26 096.77 161.29 225.8 290.32 354.84 419.35 483.87 548.38 612.9 0 ft2 6.45 70.97 135.48 200.0 264.52 329.03 393.55 458.06 522.58 587.1 651.61 716.13 780.64 845.16 909.68 974.19 1 038.71 1103.22 1167.74 1 232.26 1 1 1 1 1 296.77 361.29 425.8 490.32 554.84 12.9 77.41 141.94 206.45 270.97 335.48 400.0 464.52 529.03 593.55 658.06 722.58 787.1 851.61 916.13 980.64 1 045.16 1109.68 1174.19 1 238.71 1 303.22 1 367.74 1 432.26 1 496.77 1 561.29 19.36 83.87 148.39 212.9 277.42 341.94 406.45 470.97 535.48 600.0 664.51 729.03 793.55 858.06 922.58 987.1 1 051.61 32.26 96.77 161.29 225.8 290.32 354.84 419.35 483.87 548.39 612.91 677.42 741.93 806.45 870.97 935.48 25.81 90.32 154.84 219.35 283.87 348.4 412.91 477.42 541.93 606.45 670.97 735.48 800.0 864.51 929.03 993.55 058.06 1116.13 1122.58 1180.64 1187.09 1 245.16 1 251.61 1 309.67 1 316.13 1 374.19 1 380.64 1 438.71 1 445.16 1 503.22 1 509.67 1 567.74 1 574.19 1 103.23 167.74 232.26 296.77 361.29 425.81 490.32 554.84 619.35 683.87 748.39 812.9 877.42 941.93 000.00 064.51 1129.03 1193.55 1 258.06 1 322.58 1 387.09 1 451.61 1 516.13 1 580.64 1 006.45 1 070.97 1 1 45.16 109.68 174.19 38.71 238.71 303.23 367.74 432.26 496.77 561.29 625.81 690.32 754.84 819.35 883.87 948.39 012.9 077.42 1135.48 1141.93 1 200.0 1 206.45 1 264.51 1 270.97 1 329.03 1 335.48 1 393.55 1 400.0 1 458.06 1 464.51 1 522.58 1 529.03 1 587.09 1 593.55 1 1 116.13 180.65 187.1 245.16 251.61 309.68 316.13 374.19 380.64 438.71 445.16 503.23 509.68 567.74 574.19 632.26 638.71 696.77 703.22 761.29 767.74 825.81 832.26 890.32 896.77 954.84 961.29 1 019.35 1 025.8 1 083.87 1 090.32 1 212.9 1 277.42 0 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180 190 200 210 220 230 240 250 260 270 280 290 300 310 320 330 340 350 360 370 380 390 400 410 420 430 440 450 460 470 480 490 500 0.93 1.86 2.79 3.72 4.65 5.57 6.5 7.43 8.36 9.29 10.22 11.15 12.08 1 1 1 1 1 1 219.35 341.93 1 348.38 406.45 1 412.9 470.96 1 477.42 535.48 1 541.93 600.0 1 606.45 3 4 5 6 7 8 0.19 0.28 0.37 1.3 0.65 1.58 0.74 1.21 2.14 3.07 3.99 4.92 5.85 6.78 10.31 10.41 11.24 12.17 11.33 12.26 13.19 14.12 15.05 15.98 2.42 3.34 4.27 5.2 6.13 7.06 7.99 8.92 9.85 10.78 2.6 3.53 4.46 5.39 6.32 7.25 8.18 8.64 9.57 10.5 11.43 12.36 13.29 2.23 3.16 4.09 5.02 5.95 6.87 7.8 8.73 9.66 10.59 11.52 12.45 13.38 2.51 4.74 5.67 6.6 7.53 8.45 9.38 2.04 2.97 3.9 4.83 5.76 6.69 7.62 8.55 9.48 0.46 1.39 2.32 3.25 4.18 5.11 6.04 6.97 7.9 8.83 9.75 10.68 0.56 1.11 11.61 11.71 14.21 14.31 15.14 16.07 17.0 17.93 18.86 19.79 20.72 21.65 22.58 15.24 16.17 17.09 18.02 18.95 19.88 12.54 13.47 14.4 15.33 16.26 17.19 18.12 19.05 19.97 20.9 21.83 22.76 12.63 13.56 14.49 15.42 16.35 17.28 23.5 24.43 25.36 26.29 27.22 28.15 29.08 30.01 30.94 31.87 32.79 33.72 34.65 35.58 36.51 37.44 38.37 39.3 40.23 41.16 42.09 43.01 43.94 44.87 45.8 23.6 24.53 25.46 26.38 27.31 28.24 29.17 0.09 1.02 1.95 2.88 3.81 13.01 13.1 13.94 14.86 15.79 16.72 17.65 18.58 19.51 20.44 21.37 22.3 14.03 14.96 15.89 16.82 17.74 18.67 19.6 20.53 21.46 22.39 23.23 24.15 25.08 23.32 24.25 25.18 26.11 27.03 27.96 28.89 29.82 30.75 31.68 32.61 33.54 34.47 35.4 36.33 37.25 38.18 39.11 40.04 40.97 41.9 42.83 43.76 44.69 45.62 26.01 26.94 27.87 28.8 29.73 30.66 31.59 32.52 33.45 34.37 35.3 36.23 37.16 38.09 39.02 39.95 40.88 41.81 42.74 43.66 44.59 45.52 46.45 16.91 17.84 18.77 19.7 20.62 21.55 22.48 23.41 24.34 25.27 26.2 27.13 28.06 28.99 29.91 30.84 31.77 32.7 33.63 34.56 35.49 36.42 37.35 38.28 39.21 40.13 41.06 41.99 42.92 43.85 44.78 45.71 7.71 20.81 21.74 22.67 23.69 24.62 25.55 26.48 27.41 31.03 31.96 32.89 33.82 34.75 35.67 36.6 28.34 29.26 30.19 31.12 32.05 32.98 33.91 34.84 35.77 36.7 37.53 38.46 39.39 40.32 41.25 42.18 43.11 44.04 44.97 45.89 37.63 38.55 39.48 40.41 41.34 42.27 43.2 44.13 45.06 45.99 30.1 1.49 18.21 19.14 20.07 21.0 21.93 22.85 23.78 24.71 25.64 26.57 27.5 28.43 29.36 30.29 31.22 32.14 33.07 34.0 34.93 35.86 36.79 37.72 38.65 39.58 40.51 41.43 42.36 43.29 44.22 45.15 46.08 3.44 4.37 5.3 6.22 7.15 8.08 1.67 9.01 9.1 9.94 10.87 11.8 12.73 13.66 14.59 10.03 10.96 11,89 12.82 13.75 15.51 15.61 16.44 17.37 18.3 19.23 20.16 21.09 22.02 22.95 23.88 24.81 25.73 26.66 27.59 28.52 29.45 30.38 16.54 17.47 18.39 19.32 20.25 21.18 31.31 32.24 33.17 34.1 35.02 35.95 36.88 37.81 38.74 39.67 40.6 41.53 42.46 43.39 44.31 45.24 46.17 centimetres 1 283.87 9 m2 10 to square 1148.38 1154.84 2 1 58.06 122.58 51.61 12 squareinches 14.68 22.11 23.04 23.97 24.9 25.83 26.76 27.69 28.61 29.54 30.47 31.4 32.33 33.26 34.19 35.12 36.05 36.98 37.9 38.83 39.76 40.69 41.62 42.55 43.48 44.41 45.34 46.27 0.84 1.77 2.69 3.62 4.55 5.48 6.41 7.34 8.27 9.2 10.13 11.06 11.98 12.91 13.84 14.77 15.7 16.63 17.56 18.49 19.42 20.35 21.27 22.2 23.13 24.06 24.99 25.92 26.85 27.78 28.71 29.64 30.57 31.49 32.42 33.35 34.28 35.21 36.14 37.07 38.0 38.93 39.86 40.78 41.71 42.64 43.57 44.5 45.43 46.36 14 square feetto square metres 372 Conversions 15 squaremetresto squareyards 0 m2 17 4 5 3.58 15.55 27.51 39.47 51.43 4.78 16.74 28.7 40.66 52.62 63.39 75.35 64.58 76.54 88.5 100.46 112.42 124.38 136.34 148.31 160.26 172.22 184.18 196.14 5.98 17.94 29.9 41.86 53.82 65.78 77.74 89.7 101.66 113.62 125.58 137.54 149.5 161.46 3 6 7 8 9 8.37 20.33 32.29 44.25 9.57 21.53 33.49 45.45 56.21 57.41 68.17 80.13 92.09 104.05 69.37 81.33 93.29 105.25 116.01 117.21 10.76 22.72 34.68 46.64 58.6 70.56 82.52 94.48 106.44 118.4 127.97 139.93 151.89 163.85 129.17 141.13 153.09 165.05 175.81 177.01 130.36 142.32 154.28 166.24 178.2 187.77 199.73 211.69 223.65 188.97 200.93 212.89 224.85 236.81 190.16 202.12 214.08 226.04 238.0 594.41 248.77 260.73 272.69 284.65 296.61 308.57 320.53 332.49 344.45 356.41 368.37 380.33 392.29 404.25 416.21 428.16 440.12 452.08 464.04 476.0 487.96 499.92 511.88 523.84 535.8 547.76 559.72 571.68 583.64 595.6 249.96 261.92 273.88 285.84 297.8 309.76 321.72 333.68 345.64 357.6 369.56 381.52 393.48 405.44 417.4 429.36 441.32 453.28 465.24 477.2 489.16 501.12 513.08 525.04 537.0 548.96 560.92 572.88 584.84 596.8 yd2 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 hectares toacres 2 1 11.96 23.92 35.88 47.84 59.8 71.76 83.72 95.68 107.64 119.6 131.56 143.52 155.48 167.44 150 160 170 180 190 179.34 191.36 203.32 215.28 227.24 200 210 220 230 240 250 260 270 280 290 300 310 320 330 340 350 360 370 380 390 400 410 420 430 440 450 460 470 480 490 500 239.2 251.16 263.12 275.08 287.04 299.0 310.96 322.92 334.88 346.84 358.78 370.76 382.72 394.68 406.64 418.6 430.56 442.52 454.48 466.44 478.4 490.36 502.32 514.28 526.24 538.2 550.16 562.12 574.08 586.04 598.0 ha 0 1.2 13.16 25.12 37.08 49.04 61.0 72.96 84.92 96.88 108.84 120.8 132.76 144.72 156.68 168.64 180.59 192.55 204.51 216.47 228.43 240.39 252.35 264.31 276.27 288.23 300.19 312.15 324.11 336.07 348.03 359.99 371.95 383.91 395.87 407.83 419.79 431.75 443.71 455.67 467.63 479.59 491.55 503.51 515.47 527.43 539.39 551.35 563.31 575.27 587.23 1 2.39 14.35 26.31 38.27 50.23 62.19 74.15 86.11 98.07 110.03 121.99 133.95 145.91 157.87 169.83 181.79 193.75 205.71 217.67 229.63 241.59 253.55 265.51 277.47 289.43 301.39 313.35 325.31 337.27 349.23 87.31 99.27 111.23 123.19 135.15 147.11 159.07 171.03 182.99 194.95 206.91 218.87 230.83 242.79 254.75 266.71 278.67 290.63 302.59 314.55 326.51 338.47 350.43 208.1 220.06 232.02 243.98 255.94 267.9 279.86 291.82 303.78 315.74 327.7 339.66 351.62 . 173.41 185.38 197.34 209.3 221.26 233.22 245.18 257.14 269.1 7.18 19.14 31.1 43.06 55.02 66.98 78.94 90.9 102.86 114.82 126.78 138.74 150.7 162.66 174.62 186.57 198.53 210.49 222.45 234.41 235.61 246.37 258.33 270.29 282.25 294.21 306.17 318.13 330.09 342.05 354.02 365.97 377.94 389.89 401.85 413.81 247.57 259.53 271.49 283.45 425.77 437.73 449.69 461.65 473.61 485.57 497.53 509.49 521.45 426.97 438.93 450.89 462.84 474.81 486.77 498.73 510.69 522.65 534.61 546.57 558.53 570.49 582.45 361.19 373.15 385.11 397.07 409.03 420.99 432.95 444.91 456.87 468.83 480.79 492.75 504.71 516.67 528.63 540.59 552.55 564.5 576.47 588.43 362.39 374.35 386.31 398.27 410.23 422.18 434.14 446.11 458.06 470.02 481.98 493.94 505.9 517.86 529.82 363.58 375.54 387.5 399.46 411.42 423.38 435.34 447.3 459.26 471.22 483.18 495.14 507.1 519.06 531.02 281.06 293.02 304.98 316.94 328.9 340.86 352.82 364.78 376.74 388.7 400.66 412.62 424.58 436.54 448.5 460.46 472.42 484.38 496.34 508.3 520.26 532.22 541.78 553.74 565.71 577.66 589.62 542.98 554.94 566.9 578.86 590.82 544.18 556.14 568.1 580.06 592.02 545.37 557.33 569.29 581.25 593.21 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 12.36 14.83 17.3 19.77 22.24 50 60 70 80 90 123.55 370.66 617.76 864.87 1111.97 1 359.08 1 606.18 1 853.29 148.26 395.37 642.47 889.58 1136.68 1 383.79 1 630.9 1 878.0 2125.11 2 372.21 533.41 295.41 307.37 319.33 331.29 343.25 355.21 367.17 379.13 391.09 403.05 415.01 acre 2.47 0 acre ha 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 10 4.94 20 24.71 49.42 271.82 296.53 518.92 543.63 766.03 790.74 1 013.13 1 037.84 1 260.24 1 284.95 1 507.34 1 532.05 1 754.45 1 779.16 1976.84 2 001.55 2026.26 2223.95 2 248.66 2273.37 247.11 494.21 741.32 988.42 1 235.53 1 482.63 1 729.74 2471.05 7.41 30 74.13 321.24 568.34 815.45 1 062.55 1 309.66 1 556.76 1 803.87 9.88 40 98.84 345.95 593.05 840.16 1 087.26 1 334.37 1 581.47 1 828.58 2050.97 2075.69 2 298.08 2322.79 2100.4 2347.5 172.97 420.08 667.19 914.29 197.68 444.8 691.9 939.0 1161.4 1186.11 1 408.5 1 433.21 1 655.61 1 680.32 1 902.71 1 927.42 2149.82 2174.53 2 396.92 2421.63 222.4 469.5 716.61 963.71 1 210.82 1 457.92 1 705.03 1 952.13 2199.24 2446.34 373 Conversions 0 yd2 1 2 3 1.67 10.03 18.39 26.76 35.12 43.48 51.84 60.2 68.56 76.92 85.29 93.65 102.0 110.37 118.73 10.87 19.23 27.59 35.95 44.31 52.68 61.04 69.3 77.76 86.12 94.48 102.84 111.21 119.57 4 5 6 7 8 9 6.69 15.05 23.41 31.77 40.13 48.5 56.86 65.22 73.5 81.94 7.53 15.89 24.25 32.61 40.97 49.33 57.69 66.05 74.4 82.78 90.3 98.66 107.02 115.39 123.75 91.14 99.5 107.86 116.22 124.58 132.11 132.94 141.31 149.67 158.03 166.39 m2 0 0.84 10 9.2 100 110 120 130 140 8.36 16.72 25.08 33.45 41.81 50.17 58.53 66.89 75.25 83.61 91.97 100.34 108.7 117.06 17.56 25.92 34.28 42.64 51.0 59.37 67.7 76.09 84.45 92.81 101.17 109.53 117.89 150 160 170 180 190 125.42 133.78 142.14 150.5 158.86 126.26 134.62 142.98 151.34 159.7 127.09 135.45 200 220 230 240 250 260 270 280 290 300 310 320 330 340 350 360 370 380 390 400 410 420 430 440 167.23 175.59 183.95 192.31 200.67 209.03 217.39 225.75 234.12 242.48 250.84 259.2 267.56 275.92 284.28 292.65 301.0 309.37 317.73 326.09 334.45 342.81 351.17 359.54 367.9 450 460 470 480 490 500 376.26 384.62 392.98 401.34 409.7 418.0 168.06 176.42 184.78 193.15 201.51 209.87 218.3 226.59 234.95 243.31 251.67 260.04 268.4 276.76 285.12 293.48 301.84 310.2 318.57 326.93 335.29 343.65 352.01 360.37 368.73 377.09 385.46 393.82 402.18 410.54 168.9 177.26 185.62 193.98 202.34 210.7 219.07 227.43 235.79 244.15 252.51 260.87 269.23 277.59 285.96 294.32 302.68 311.04 319.4 327.76 336.12 344.48 352.85 361.21 369.57 377.93 386.29 394.65 403.01 411.38 1 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 210 acre 0 2.51 3.34 11.71 4.18 12.54 20.9 29.26 37.63 45.99 54.35 62.71 71.07 79.43 87.79 96.15 104.52 112.88 121.24 129.6 137.96 146.32 154.68 163.05 171.41 179.77 188.13 196.49 204.85 5.02 13.38 21.74 38.46 46.82 55.18 63.55 71.9 80.27 88.62 96.99 105.35 113.71 122.08 130.44 138.8 147.16 155.52 163.88 172.24 180.61 188.97 197.33 205.69 5.85 14.21 186.46 194.82 203.18 20.07 28.43 36.79 45.15 53.51 61.87 70.23 78.6 86.96 95.32 103.68 112.04 120.41 128.76 137.13 145.49 153.85 162.21 170.57 178.93 187.29 195.65 204.02 211.54 219.9 228.26 236.62 244.99 253.35 261.71 270.07 278.43 286.79 295.15 303.51 311.88 320.24 328.6 336.96 345.32 353.68 362.04 370.41 378.77 387.13 395.49 403.85 412.21 212.38 220.74 229.1 237.46 245.82 254.18 262.54 270.91 279.27 287.63 295.99 304.35 312.71 321.07 329.43 337.8 346.16 354.52 362.88 371.24 379.6 387.96 396.32 404.69 413.05 213.21 214.1 221.57 229.94 238.3 246.66 255.02 263.38 271.74 280.11 288.46 296.83 305.19 313.55 321.91 330.27 338.63 346.99 355.35 363.72 372.08 380.44 388.8 397.16 405.52 413.88 222.41 230.77 239.13 247.49 255.86 264.22 272.58 280.94 289.3 297.66 306.02 314.38 322.75 331.11 339.47 347.83 356.19 364.55 372.91 381.27 389.64 398.0 406.36 414.72 214.89 223.25 231.61 239.97 248.33 256.69 265.05 273.41 281.78 290.14 298.5 306.86 315.22 323.58 331.94 340.31 348.67 357.03 365.39 373.75 382.11 390.47 398.83 407.19 415.56 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0.4 0.81 1.21 1.62 2.02 2.42 2.83 3.23 3.64 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 4.05 44.52 84.98 125.46 165.92 8.09 48.56 89.03 129.5 169.97 206.39 246.86 287.33 327.8 368.26 210.44 250.91 291.37 331.84 372.31 12.14 52.6 93.08 133.55 174.02 214.48 254.95 295.42 335.84 376.36 16.19 56.66 97.12 137.59 178.06 218.53 259.0 299.47 339.94 380.41 24.28 64.75 105.22 145.69 186.16 226.62 267.09 307.56 348.03 388.5 28.33 68.8 109.26 149.73 190.20 230.67 271.14 311.61 352.07 392.55 143.81 152.18 160.54 127.93 136.29 144.65 153.01 161.37 169.73 178.1 30.1 22.58 30.94 39.3 47.66 56.02 64.38 72.74 81.10 89.47 97.83 106.19 114.55 122.91 131.27 139.63 148.0 156.36 164.72 173.08 181.44 189.80 198.16 206.52 140.47 148.83 157.19 165.55 182.28 190.64 199.0 207.36 215.72 224.08 232.44 240.81 249.17 257.53 265.89 274.25 282.61 290.97 299.33 307.7 316.06 324.42 332.78 341.14 349.51 357.86 366.22 374.59 382.95 391.31 399.67 408.03 416.39 174.75 183.11 191.47 199.83 208.2 216.56 224.92 233.28 241.64 250.0 258.36 266.73 275.09 283.45 291.81 300.17 308.53 316.89 325.25 333.62 341.98 350.34 358.7 367.06 375.42 383.78 392.14 400.51 408.87 417.23 173.91 ha acre 0 ha 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1 000 40.47 80.94 121.41 161.87 202.34 242.81 283.28 323.75 364.22 404.69 20.23 60.71 101.17 141.64 182.11 222.58 263.05 303.51 343.98 384.45 32.37 72.84 113.31 153.78 194.25 234.71 275.19 315.66 356.12 396.59 36.42 76.89 117.36 157.83 198.3 238.77 279.23 319.7 360.17 400.64 16 squareyards to squaremetres 18 acres to hectares 374 Conversions Volume 5 6 7 8 9 in3 19 cubiccentimetres to cubicinches cm3 0.06 0.12 0.18 0.24 0.31 0.37 0.43 0.49 0.55 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 6.1 0.61 6.71 12.82 18.92 25.02 31.12 37.22 43.38 49.43 55.53 1.22 7.32 13.43 19.53 25.63 31.73 37.83 43.94 50.04 56.14 7.93 14.04 20.14 26.24 32.34 38.45 44.55 50.65 56.75 2.44 8.54 14.65 20.75 26.85 32.95 39.06 45.16 51.26 57.36 3.05 9.15 15.26 21.36 27.46 33.56 39.67 45.77 51.87 57.97 3.66 9.76 15.87 21.97 28.07 34.17 40.28 46.38 52.48 58.58 4.27 10.37 16.48 22.58 28.68 34.78 40.89 46.99 53.09 59.19 4.88 10.98 17.09 23.19 29.29 35.39 41.5 47.6 53.7 59.8 5.49 11.59 17.7 23.8 29.9 36.0 42.11 48.21 54.31 60.41 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 j3 0 21 cubicmetresto cubicfeet 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 24.41 30.51 36.61 42.72 48.82 54.92 1000 61.02 m3 18.31 0 ft3 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180 190 200 210 220 230 240 250 23 litresto cubicfeet 12.2 1.83 litre 35.31 353.15 388.46 706.29 741.61 1 059.44 1 094.75 1 412.59 1 447.9 1765.73 1801.05 2 118.88 2154.19 2472.03 2 507.34 105.94 141.26 176.57 459.09 494.41 592.72 812.24 847.55 882.87 1130.07 1165.38 1 200.7 1 236.01 1 483.22 1 518.53 1 553.85 1 589.16 1836.36 1871.68 1 906.99 1942.31 2189.51 2224.82 2260.14 2295.45 2542.66 2577.97 2613.29 2 648.6 2825.17 2860.49 2895.8 2931.12 2966.43 3001.75 211.89 565.04 918.18 1 271.33 1 624.47 1977.62 2330.77 2 683.91 3037.06 3178.32 3213.63 3248.95 3284.26 3319.58 3354.89 3390.21 3 531.47 3 566.78 3602.1 3 637.41 3672.73 3708.04 3743.35 3884.61 3919.93 3955.24 3990.56 4025.87 4061.19 4096.5 4237.76 4 273.07 4308.39 4343.7 4 379.02 4414.33 4449.65 4590.91 4626.22 4661.54 4696.85 4732.17 4767.48 4802.79 4 944.05 4 979.37 5 014.68 5050.0 5 085.31 5 120.63 5 155.94 5297.2 5332.51 5367.83 5403.14 5438.46 5473.77 5509.09 5650.35 5685.66 5720.98 5756.29 5791.61 5826.92 5862.23 6 003.49 6038.81 6074.12 6 109.44 6 144.75 6180.07 6215.38 6356.64 6391.95 6427.27 6462.58 6497.9 6533.21 6568.53 6709.79 6745.1 7062.93 7098.25 7416.08 7451.39 7 769.23 7 804.54 8 122.37 8 157.69 8475.52 8510.83 8828.67 0 70.63 423.78 776.92 247.2 600.35 953.5 1 306.64 1 659.79 2012.94 2366.08 2 719.23 3072.38 3425.52 3 778.67 4131.82 4 484.96 4838.11 5 191.26 5544.4 5897.55 6250.7 6603.84 6851.05 6886.36 6921.67 6956.99 7204.19 7239.51 7274.82 7310.14 7557.34 7592.65 7627.97 7 663.28 7910.49 7945.8 7981.11 8 016.43 8263.63 8298.95 8334.26 8369.58 8616.78 8652.09 8687.41 8722.72 282.52 317.83 635.67 670.98 988.81 1 024.13 1 341.96 1 377.27 1 695.1 1 730.42 2048.25 2083.57 2401.4 2436.71 2754.54 2789.86 3107.69 3143.01 3460.84 3496.15 3 813.98 3 849.3 4167.13 4202.45 4 520.28 4 555.59 4873.42 4908.74 5 226.57 5 261.89 5579.72 5615.03 5932.86 5968.18 6286.01 6639.16 6321.33 6674.47 6992.3 7027.62 7345.45 7380.77 7 698.6 7 733.91 8051.74 8087.06 8404.89 8440.21 8758.04 8793.35 6780.42 7133.56 7 486.71 7839.86 8 193.0 8546.15 6815.73 7168.88 7522.02 7 875.17 8228.32 8581.46 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0.04 0.39 0.74 1.09 1.45 1.8 2.15 0.07 0.42 0.78 1.13 1.48 1.84 2.19 2.54 2.9 3.25 0.11 0.81 0.14 0.49 0.85 0.21 0.57 0.92 0.25 0.60 0.95 1.17 1.2 1.31 1.55 1.27 1.62 0.28 0.64 0.99 1.34 1.52 1.66 1.7 1.87 1.91 1.98 2.01 2.22 2.58 2.93 3.28 2.26 0.18 0.53 0.88 1.24 1.59 1.94 2.3 2.65 2.33 2.68 3.04 3.39 2.37 2.72 3.07 3.42 2.05 2.4 2.75 3.11 3.46 0.32 0.67 1.02 1.38 1.73 2.08 2.44 2.79 3.14 3.5 ft3 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 0.35 0.71 1.06 1.41 1.77 2.12 2.47 2.83 3.18 3.53 2.51 2.86 3.21 0.46 2.61 2.97 3.32 3.0 3.35 375 Conversions in3 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 16.39 32.77 49.16 65.55 81.94 98.32 10 20 30 40 327.74 491.61 7 8 9 cm3 jfl3 0 50 60 114.71 131.1 147.48 70 80 90 20 cubicinches to cubiccentimetres cm3 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 163.87 1638.71 1802.58 1966.45 2130.32 6554.83 6718.7 8193.53 8357.4 9832.24 9996.11 11470.9 11634.8 6882.57 7046.44 8521.27 8685.14 3441.28 3605.15 3769.02 3932.9 4916.12 5079.99 5243.86 5407.73 5571.6 3277.41 13 109.7 13273.5 14748.4 14912.2 16387.1 0 ft3 655.48 819.35 983.22 1147.09 2294.19 2458.06 2621.93 2785.8 10160.0 11798.7 13437.4 15076.1 10323.9 11962.6 13601.3 15240.0 3 0.06 0.34 0.62 0.91 1 474.84 2949.67 3113.54 7865.79 8029.66 9668.37 11307.1 12945.8 14584.5 16223.2 4096.77 4260.64 4424.51 4588.38 4752.25 5735.47 5899.34 6063.21 6227.08 6390.95 7374.18 7538.05 9012.89 9176.76 10651.6 12290.3 13929.0 15567.7 10815.5 12454.2 14092.9 15731.6 7701.92 9340.63 10979.3 12618.0 14256.7 15895.5 9504.5 11143.2 12781.9 14420.6 16059.3 4 5 6 7 8 0.08 0.37 0.65 0.93 0.11 0.4 0.68 0.96 0.14 0.42 0.17 0.45 0.74 1.02 0.2 0.48 0.77 1.05 0.23 0.51 0.79 1.08 1.22 1.5 1.78 2.07 2.35 2.63 2.92 1.25 1.53 1.27 1.56 1.84 2.12 1.3 1.59 1.87 2.15 2.44 1.33 1.36 1.61 1.9 1.64 1.93 2.21 2.49 2.78 3.06 3.34 3.62 3.91 4.19 4.47 4.76 5.04 5.32 5.69 5.98 6.26 6.54 6.82 1.19 1.47 1.76 2.04 2.32 2.61 2.89 3.17 3.46 3.74 4.02 4.3 4.59 4.87 5.15 5.44 5.72 6.0 6.29 6.57 6.85 1 2 1 2 7210.31 8849.01 10487.7 12126.4 13765.1 15403.8 1 310.97 9 m3 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180 190 200 210 220 230 240 250 ft3 0.28 0.57 0.03 0.31 0.59 0.85 0.88 1.13 1.42 1.7 1.98 2.27 2.55 2.83 1.16 1.44 1.73 2.01 2.29 2.58 2.86 3.14 3.43 3.71 3.11 3.4 3.68 3.96 4.26 4.53 4.81 5.1 5.38 5.66 5.95 6.23 6.51 6.8 4.0 4.28 4.56 4.84 5.13 5.41 3.2 3.48 3.77 4.05 4.33 4.62 1.81 2.1 2.38 2.66 2.94 3.23 3.51 3.79 4.08 4.36 4.64 4.93 0.71 0.99 2.41 2.69 2.97 3.26 3.54 3.82 4.11 5.18 5.47 5.75 6.03 6.31 5.21 6.6 5.49 5.78 6.06 6.34 6.63 6.88 6.91 4.39 4.67 4.96 5.24 5.52 5.8 6.09 6.37 6.65 6.94 3 4 5 4.9 2.71 3.01 3.28 3.57 3.85 4.13 4.42 4.7 4.99 5.27 5.55 5.83 6.12 6.4 6.69 6.97 2.18 2.46 2.75 3.03 3.31 3.6 3.88 4.16 4.45 4.73 0.25 0.54 0.82 2.8 3.09 3.37 3.65 3.94 4.22 6.99 5.89 6.17 6.46 6.74 7.02 6 7 8 9 169.9 453.06 736.22 1 019.38 1 302.54 1 585.7 1 868.86 2 152.02 198.21 481.37 764.53 1 047.69 1 330.85 1 614.02 1 897.18 2 180.34 226.53 509.69 792.85 1 076.01 1 359.17 1 642.33 1 925.49 5.58 5.86 6.14 6.43 6.71 5.61 7.08 0 litre 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 cubicfeetto cubicmetres 1.1 1.39 1.67 1.95 2.24 2.52 4.51 4.79 5.07 5.35 5.64 5.92 6.2 6.48 6.77 7.05 5.01 5.3 22 28.32 56.63 84.95 113.26 141.58 283.16 311.48 339.79 368.11 396.42 424.74 566.32 594.64 622.95 651.27 679.59 707.9 849.48 877.8 906.11 934.43 962.75 991.06 1132.64 1160.96 1189.27 1 217.59 1 245.91 1 274.22 1 415.8 1 444.12 1 472.43 1 500.75 1 529.07 1 557.38 1 698.96 1 727.28 1 755.6 1 783.91 1 812.23 1 840.54 1 982.12 2 010.44 2 038.76 2067.07 2 095.39 2 123.7 254.84 538.01 821.17 1104.33 1 387.49 1 670.65 1 953.81 2208.65 2 236.97 2491.81 2520.13 2265.28 2293.6 2321.92 2350.23 2378.55 2406.86 2435.18 2463.5 2548.44 2576.76 2605.08 2633.39 2661.71 2690.03 2718.34 2746.66 2774.97 2803.29 2831.61 24 cubicfeetto litres 376 Conversions 25 litresto gallons 0 litre imperial 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 2.2 4.4 6.6 8.8 11.0 13.2 15.4 17.6 19.8 22.0 100 27 litresto gallons US litre 0 20 30 40 2.64 5.28 7.93 10.57 50 13.21 60 70 80 90 0.22 2.42 4.62 6.82 9.02 11.22 13.42 15.62 17.82 20.02 0.44 2.64 4.84 7.04 9.24 11.44 13.64 15.84 18.04 20.24 0.66 2.86 5.06 7.26 9.46 11.66 13.86 16.06 18.26 20.46 11.88 14.08 16.28 18.48 20.68 1 2 3 4 0.26 2.91 5.55 8.19 15.85 18.49 21.14 23.78 26.42 100 0 kg 29 kilograms to pounds 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0.88 3.08 5.28 7.48 9.68 1.1 1.32 3.52 5.72 7.92 10.12 1.54 3.74 5.94 8.14 10.34 12.54 14.74 16.94 19.14 1.98 4.18 6.38 8.58 10.78 12.98 15.18 17.38 19.58 21.78 3.3 5.5 7.7 9.9 12.1 14.3 16.5 18.7 20.9 5 12.32 14.52 16.72 18.92 21.12 21.34 1.76 3.96 6.16 8.36 10.56 12.76 14.96 17.16 19.36 21.56 6 7 8 9 1.85 4.49 7.13 9.78 12.42 15.06 17.7 2.11 2.38 5.02 7.66 10.3 12.95 15.59 18.23 20.87 gal US 10 Mass 2 1 gal imp 0.53 3.17 5.81 8.45 10.83 11.1 13.47 16.12 18.76 21.4 24.04 13.74 16.38 19.02 21.66 24.31 1 2 0.79 3.43 6.08 8.72 11.36 14.0 1.06 3.7 6.34 8.98 11.62 14.27 1.32 3.96 16.64 16.91 19.29 21.93 24.57 19.55 22.19 24.83 9.25 11.89 14.53 17.17 19.82 22.46 25.1 3 4 5 6.61 1.59 4.23 6.87 9.51 4.76 7.4 10.04 12.68 12.15 14.8 17.44 20.08 22.72 25.36 25.63 15.32 17.97 20.61 23.25 25.89 6 7 8 13.23 35.27 57.32 79.37 15.43 37.47 59.52 81.57 20.34 22.96 23.51 26.16 9 lb 2.21 24.25 0 10 20 30 4.41 26.46 48.5 70.55 92.59 22.05 44.09 66.14 46.3 40 88.18 90.39 50 60 70 80 90 110.23 132.28 112.44 134.48 156.53 178.57 200.62 222.67 244.71 266.76 288.81 310.85 114.64 136.69 332.9 354.94 335.1 357.15 379.2 401.24 423.29 68.34 154.32 176.37 198.42 220.46 242.51 264.56 286.6 308.65 330.69 352.74 374.79 396.83 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180 190 200 210 220 230 240 250 260 270 280 290 300 310 320 330 340 350 360 370 380 390 400 377.0 399.04 418.88 421.08 440.93 462.97 443.13 465.18 487.22 509.2 531.31 553.36 575.41 597.45 619.5 641.55 663.59 685.64 485.02 507.06 529.1 551.16 573.2 595.25 617.29 639.34 661.39 683.43 705.48 727.53 707.68 729.73 751.78 773.82 795.87 817.92 839.96 862.0 749.57 771.62 793.66 815.71 837.76 859.8 884.05 410 881.85 903.9 420 430 925.94 947.99 928.15 950.19 972.24 994.29 016.33 038.38 060.42 082.47 440 450 460 470 906.1 970.03 1 992.08 014.13 480 1 490 1 036.17 058.22 080.27 500 1 102.31 1 1 1 1 1 158.73 180.78 202.83 224.87 246.92 268.96 291.01 313.06 445.33 467.38 489.43 511.47 533.5 555.57 577.61 599.66 621.7 643.75 665.8 687.84 709.89 731.93 753.98 776.03 798.07 820.12 842.17 864.21 886.26 908.31 930.35 952.4 974.44 996.49 1 018.54 1 040.58 1 062.63 1 084.67 6.61 28.66 50.71 72.75 94.8 116.85 138.89 160.94 182.98 205.03 227.08 249.12 271.17 293.22 315.26 8.82 30.86 52.91 74.96 97.0 119.05 141.1 163.14 185.19 207.24 229.28 251.33 273.37 295.42 317.47 337.31 359.35 381.4 403.45 425.49 447.54 469.59 491.63 339.51 361.56 383.6 405.65 427.68 449.74 471.79 493.84 513.6 515.88 535.72 537.9 557.77 579.82 601.86 623.91 645.95 668.0 690.05 712.09 734.14 756.19 778.23 800.28 559.97 582.02 604.07 822.32 844.37 866.41 888.46 910.51 932.56 954.6 976.65 998.69 1 020.74 1 042.79 1 064.83 1 086.88 11.02 33.07 55.12 77.16 99.2 121.25 143.3 165.35 187.39 209.44 231.49 253.53 275.58 297.62 319.67 341.72 363.76 385.81 407.86 429.9 451.95 473.99 496.04 518.0 540.13 562.18 584.23 101.41 103.61 123.46 145.51 167.55 189.6 211.64 125.66 233.69 255.74 277.78 299.83 321.88 343.92 365.97 388.01 410.06 432.11 454.15 476.2 498.25 520.29 542.3 564.38 586.43 606.27 628.32 608.48 630.52 652.57 758.39 650.36 672.41 694.46 716.5 738.55 760.6 780.44 802.48 782.64 804.69 824.53 846.58 826.73 848.78 870.8 892.87 914.92 936.97 959.01 981.06 1 003.1 1 025.15 1 047.2 1 069.24 1 091.29 626.11 648.16 670.21 692.25 714.3 736.34 868.62 890.67 912.71 934.76 956.81 978.85 1 000.9 1 022.94 1 044.99 1 067.04 1 089.08 674.62 696.66 718.71 740.75 762.8 784.85 806.89 828.94 850.98 873.03 895.08 917.12 939.17 961.22 983.26 1 005.31 1 027.35 1 049.4 1 071.45 1 093.49 147.71 169.76 191.8 213.85 235.9 257.94 279.99 302.03 17.64 39.68 61.73 83.78 105.82 127.87 149.91 171.96 194.01 216.05 238.1 260.15 282.19 304.24 19.84 41.89 63.93 85.98 108.03 130.07 152.12 174.17 196.21 218.26 240.3 262.35 284.4 306.44 324.08 326.28 328.49 346.13 368.17 390.22 348.33 370.38 392.42 350.54 372.58 394.68 412.26 434.31 456.36 478.4 500.45 414.47 436.52 458.56 480.61 416.67 522.4 524.7 546.7 568.79 590.84 612.89 634.93 544.54 566.59 588.63 610.68 632.73 654.77 676.82 698.87 720.91 742.96 765.0 787.05 809.1 831.14 853.19 875.2 897.28 919.33 941.37 963.42 985.47 1 007.51 1 029.56 1 051.6 1 073.65 1 095.7 502.65 656.98 679.02 701.07 723.12 745.16 767.21 789.26 811.31 833.35 855.39 877.44 899.49 921.53 943.58 965.63 987.67 438.72 460.77 482.81 504.86 526.9 548.9 571.0 593.04 615.09 637.14 659.18 681.23 703.28 725.32 747.37 769.41 791.46 813.51 835.55 857.6 879.64 901.69 923.74 945.78 967.83 989.88 1 011.92 1 033.97 1 056.01 1 078.06 1 009.72 1 031.76 1 053.81 1 075.86 1 097.9 1100.11 377 Conversions gallmp 0 Iftre 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 galUS 45.46 90.92 136.38 181.84 227.3 272.76 318.22 363.68 409.14 454.6 0 litre 0 2 254.57 300.03 345.49 390.95 436.41 259.12 304.58 350.04 395.5 440.96 263.67 309.13 354.59 400.04 445.5 268.21 313.67 359.13 404.59 450.05 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 11.36 49.21 87.06 124.91 162.76 200.61 238.46 276.31 314.16 352.01 15.14 52.99 90.84 128.69 166.54 204.39 242.24 280.09 317.94 355.79 132.48 170.33 208.18 246.03 283.88 321.73 359.58 22.71 60.56 98.41 136.26 211.96 249.81 287.66 325.51 363.36 26.5 64.35 102.2 140.05 177.9 215.75 253.6 291.45 329.3 367.14 30.28 68.13 105.98 143.83 181.68 219.53 257.38 295.23 333.08 370.93 34.07 71.92 109.77 147.62 185.47 223.32 261.17 299.02 336.87 374.72 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 2.72 7.26 11.79 16.33 20.87 3.63 8.16 12.7 17.24 21.77 26.31 30.84 35.38 39.92 44.45 48.99 53.52 58.06 62.6 67.13 71.67 76.2 80.74 85.28 89.81 94.35 98.88 103.42 107.96 112.49 117.03 121.56 4.08 8.62 13.15 17.69 22.23 26.76 31.3 35.83 40.37 44.91 49.44 53.98 58.51 63.05 67.59 72.12 76.66 81.19 85.73 90.26 94.8 99.34 103.87 108.41 112.95 117.48 122.02 126.55 131.09 135.62 140.16 144.7 149.23 153.77 158.3 162.84 167.38 171.91 176.45 180.98 185.52 190.06 194.59 199.13 203.66 208.2 212.74 217.27 221.81 226.34 3 13.64 59.1 4 18.18 63.64 159.1 18.93 56.78 9463 174.11 168.21 26 gallonsimperial to litres 28 gallons US to litres 30 poundsto kilograms 0 10 20 30 4.54 9.07 13.61 18.14 50 100 110 120 130 140 22.68 27.22 31.75 36.29 40.82 45.36 49.9 54.43 58.97 63.5 0.45 4.99 9.53 14.06 18.6 23.13 27.67 32.21 36.74 41.28 45.81 50.35 54.88 59.42 63.96 150 160 170 180 190 200 210 220 230 240 250 260 270 280 290 68.04 72.57 77.11 81.65 86.18 90.72 95.25 99.79 104.33 108.86 113.4 117.93 122.47 127.01 131.54 68.49 73.03 77.56 82.1 86.64 91.17 95.71 100.24 104.78 109.32 113.85 118.39 122.92 127.46 132.0 300 310 320 330 340 350 360 370 380 136.08 140.61 145.15 149.69 154.22 158.76 163.29 167.83 172.37 176.9 181.44 185.97 190.51 195.05 199.58 204.12 208.65 213.19 217.72 222.26 226.8 136.53 141.07 145.6 150.14 154.68 159.21 163.75 168.28 172.82 177.36 132.45 136.99 141.52 146.06 150.59 155.13 159.67 164.2 168.74 173.27 177.81 181.89 186.43 190.96 195.5 200.03 204.57 209.11 213.64 218.18 222.71 182.34 186.88 191.42 195.95 200.49 205.02 209.56 214.1 218.63 223.17 400 410 420 430 440 450 460 470 480 490 500 213.66 86.38 131.83 177.3 222.75 3.79 41.64 79.49 117.34 155.19 1 390 204.57 250.03 295.49 340.95 386.41 431.87 36.37 81.83 127.29 172.75 218.21 2 0 60 70 80 90 31.82 77.28 122.74 154.56 200.02 245.48 290.94 336.4 381.86 427.32 27.28 72.74 118.2 163.66 209.11 40.91 109.1 22.73 68.19 113.65 1 lb 40 9 104.56 150.02 195.48 240.94 286.4 331.86 377.32 422.77 100 60 70 80 90 8 9.09 54.55 100.01 145.47 190.93 236.39 281.85 327.31 372.77 418.23 193.04 230.89 268.74 306.59 344.44 50 7 4.55 50.0 95.47 140.93 186.38 231.84 277.3 322.76 368.22 413.68 189.25 227.1 264.95 302.81 340.65 378.51 20 30 40 37.85 75.7 113.55 151.40 6 2 7.57 45.42 83.27 121.12 158.97 196.82 234.67 272.52 310.37 348.22 10 5 1 0.91 5.44 9.98 14.52 19.05 1.36 5.9 10.43 14.97 19.5 6.35 10.89 15.42 19.96 2.27 6.8 11.34 15.88 20.41 23.59 28.12 32.66 37.19 41.73 46.27 50.8 55.34 59.87 64.41 24.04 28.58 33.11 37.65 42.18 46.72 51.26 55.79 60.33 64.86 24.49 29.03 33.57 38.1 42.64 47.17 51.71 56.25 60.78 65.32 24.95 29.48 34.02 38.56 43.09 47.63 52.16 56.7 61.24 65.77 25.4 29.94 34.47 39.01 43.54 68.95 73.48 78.02 82.55 87.09 91.63 96.16 100.7 105.23 109.77 69.4 73.94 78.47 83.01 87.54 92.08 96.62 101.15 105.69 110.22 114.76 119.3 123.83 128.37 132.9 137.44 141.97 69.85 74.39 78.93 83.46 88.0 92.53 70.31 70.76 75.3 79.83 84.37 88.9 114.31 118.84 123.38 127.91 146.51 151.05 155.58 160.12 164.65 169.1 173.73 178.26 182.8 187.33 191.87 196.41 200.94 205.48 210.01 214.55 219.09 223.62 1.81 9707 101.61 106.14 110.68 115.21 119.75 124.28 128.82 133.36 137.89 142.43 146.96 151.5 156.04 160.57 165.11 169.64 174.18 178.72 183.25 187.79 192.32 196.86 201.4 205.93 210.47 215.0 219.54 224.08 74.84 79.38 83.91 88.45 92.99 97.52 102.06 106.59 111.13 115.67 120.2 124.74 129.27 133.81 138.35 142.88 147.42 151.95 156.49 161.03 165.56 170.1 174.63 179.17 183.71 188.24 192.78 197.31 201.85 206.39 210.92 215.46 219.99 224.53 48.08 52.62 57.15 61.69 66.22 93.44 97.98 102.51 107.05 111.58 116.12 120.66 125.19 129.73 134.26 138.8 143.34 147.87 152.41 156.94 161.48 166.02 170.55 175.09 179.62 184.16 188.69 193.23 197.77 202.3 206.84 211.37 215.91 220.45 224.98 3.18 7.71 12.25 16.78 21.32 25.85 30.39 34.93 39.46 44.0 48.53 53.07 57.61 62.14 66.68 71.21 75.75 80.29 84.82 89.36 93.89 98.43 102.97 107.5 112.04 116.57 121.11 125.65 130.18 134.72 139.25 143.79 148.33 152.86 157.4 161.93 166.47 171.0 175.54 180.08 184.61 189.15 193.68 198.22 202.76 207.29 211.83 216.36 220.9 225.44 126.1 130.64 135.17 139.71 144.24 148.78 153.31 157.85 162.39 166.92 171.46 175.99 180.53 185.07 189.6 194.14 198.67 203.21 207.75 212.28 216.82 221.35 225.89 378 Conversions Density (mass/volume) 31 kilo9rams per cubicmetre to pounds per cubic foot Velocity 33 metresper second tomilesperhour kg/rn3 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1 000 mIs kilonewlons per squaremetre to pounds forceper squareinch 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 0.62 6.87 1.87 8.12 14.36 20.61 26.84 33.09 39.33 45.57 51.82 58.06 2.5 3.12 9.36 56.81 1.25 7.49 13.73 19.98 26.22 32.46 38.71 44.95 51.19 57.43 33.71 39.95 46.2 52.44 58.68 21.85 28.09 34.33 40.58 46.82 53.06 59.31 3.75 9.99 16.23 22.47 28.72 34.96 41.2 47.45 53.69 59.93 1 2 3 4 5 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 kgfI 13.11 19.35 25.6 31.84 38.08 44.32 50.57 8.74 14.98 21.23 27.47 4.37 5.62 11.86 60.56 5.0 11.24 17.48 23.72 29.97 36.21 42.45 48.7 54.94 61.18 15.61 24.35 30.59 36.83 43.08 49.32 55.56 61.81 6 7 8 9 15.66 38.03 60.4 82.77 105.13 127.5 149.88 172.24 17.9 40.26 62.63 85.0 107.37 20.13 42.51 64.87 87.24 109.61 129.74 216.98 174.48 196.85 219.22 131.98 154.34 176.72 199.09 221.46 10.61 16.86 23.1 29.34 35.58 41.83 48.07 54.31 18.11 4.47 26.84 49.21 71.58 93.95 6.71 29.08 51.45 73.82 96.19 8.95 31.32 53.69 76.06 98.43 11.18 33.55 55.92 78.29 100.66 111.85 134.22 156.59 178.96 201.32 223.69 114.08 136.45 158.82 181.19 203.56 116.32 138.69 161.06 183.43 205.8 118.56 140.93 163.3 185.67 208.04 120.8 143.16 165.53 187.9 210.27 123.03 145.4 167.77 190.14 212.51 13.42 35.79 58.16 80.53 102.9 125.27 147.64 170.0 192.38 214.75 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.42 15.65 29.87 44.09 58.32 72.54 86.76 100.99 115.21 129.43 2.84 17.07 31.29 45.51 59.73 73.96 88.18 91.03 105.25 119.48 133.7 21.34 35.56 49.78 64.0 78.23 92.45 106.68 120.9 135.12 8.53 22.76 36.98 51.2 65.43 79.65 93.87 116.63 130.86 4.27 18.49 32.71 46.94 61.16 75.38 89.61 103.83 118.05 132.28 122.32 136.54 9.96 24.18 38.4 52.63 66.85 81.07 95.3 109.52 123.74 137.97 11.38 25.6 39.83 54.05 68.27 82.5 96.72 110.94 125.17 139.39 12.8 27.02 41.25 55.47 69.69 83.92 98.14 112.36 126.59 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 11.6 13.05 27.56 42.06 56.56 71.07 85.57 100.07 114.58 129.08 143.58 22.37 44.74 67.11 89.48 194.61 152.11 lbf/in2 0 14.22 28.45 42.67 56.9 71.12 85.34 99.56 113.79 128.01 142.23 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 37 10 2.24 24.61 46.96 69.35 91.71 0 10 cm2 35 kilograms forceper squarecentimetre to poundsforceper squareinch 6.24 12.49 18.73 24.97 31.21 37.46 43.7 49.94 56.19 62.43 0 mile/hr 100 PreSSUre,stress 0 lb/ft3 kN/m2 (kPa) 0 lbf/in2 0 10 102.41 5.6 19.91 34.13 48.36 62.58 76.81 7.11 108.1 2.9 17.40 31.91 46.41 60.91 4.35 18.85 33.36 4V.86 62.36 5.8 20.30 34.81 49.31 63.81 7.25 21.75 36.26 50.76 65.26 8.7 23.21 37.71 43.51 58.01 1.45 15.95 30.46 44.96 59.46 72.52 87.02 101.52 116.03 130.53 73.97 88.47 102.97 117.48 131.98 75.42 89.92 104.42 118.93 133.43 76.87 91.37 105.87 120.38 134.88 78.32 92.82 107.32 121.83 136.33 79.77 94.27 108.77 123.28 137.78 81.22 95.72 110.22 124.73 139.23 100 200 300 400 14.50 29.01 500 600 700 800 900 1 000 145.03 52.21 66.71 10.15 24.66 39.16 53.66 68.17 82.67 97.17 111.68 126.18 140.68 26.11 40.61 55.11 69.62 84.12 98.62 113.13 127.63 142.13 140.81 379 Conversions lb/ft3 0 2 1 3 4 100 mile/hr 6 7 8 9 32 kg/rn3 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 5 16.02 32.04 176.2 192.22 160.19 336.39 352.41 320.37 512.59 480.55 496.57 640.74 656.76 672.78 800.92 816.94 832.96 977.13 993.15 961.11 1121.29 1137.31 1153.33 1 313.51 1 281.48 1 297.5 1 441.66 1 457.68 1 473.7 48.06 208.24 368.43 528.61 688.79 1 1 1 1 848.98 009.16 169.35 329.53 489.72 64.07 224.26 384.44 544.63 704.81 865.0 1 025.18 1 185.37 1 345.55 1 505.74 112.13 128.15 80.09 96.11 272.31 288.33 240.28 256.3 400.46 416.48 432.5 448.52 560.65 576.67 592.68 608.7 736.85 752.87 768.89 720.83 913.05 929.07 881.02 897.03 1 057.22 1 073.24 1 089.26 1 041.2 1 201.38 1 217.4 1 233.42 1 249.44 1 361.57 1 377.59 1 393.61 1 409.62 1 521.75 1 537.77 1 553.79 1 569.81 144.17 304.35 464.54 624.72 784.91 945.09 1 265.46 1 425.64 1 585.83 1601.85 0 0 10 20 4.47 8.94 30 13.41 40 17.88 22.35 26.82 31.29 35.76 40.23 lbf/ j2 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 lbf/ in2 1 6 7 8 g 2.68 7.15 11.62 16.09 20.56 25.03 29.5 33.98 38.45 42.92 3.13 7.6 12.07 16.54 21.01 25.48 29.95 34.42 38.89 43.36 3.58 8.05 12.52 16.99 21.46 25.93 30.4 34.87 39.34 43.81 4.02 8.49 12.96 17.43 21.91 26.38 30.85 35.32 39.79 44.26 5 6 7 8 g 0.49 1.2 0.56 0.63 1.34 2.04 2.74 3.45 2 3 4 5 70 80 90 100 0.45 4.92 9.39 13.86 18.33 22.8 27.27 31.74 36.21 40.68 0.89 5.36 9.83 1.34 5.81 10.28 14.75 19.22 23.69 28.16 32.63 37.1 41.57 1.79 6.26 10.73 15.2 19.67 24.14 33.08 37.55 42.02 11.18 15.65 20.12 24.59 29.06 33.53 38.0 42.47 14.31 18.78 23.25 27.72 32.19 36.66 41.13 28.61 2.24 6.71 34 milesperhour to metresper second 44.7 36 0 kgt/cm2 0.7 1.41 2.11 2.81 3.52 4.22 4.92 5.62 6.33 1 2 3 4 0.07 0.77 1.48 2.18 2.88 3.59 4.29 4.99 5.69 6.4 0.14 0.84 1.55 2.25 2.95 3.66 4.36 5.06 5.77 6.47 0.21 0.35 1.05 1.76 2.46 3.16 3.87 4.57 5.27 5.98 6.68 0.42 1.62 2.32 3.02 3.73 4.43 5.13 5.84 6.54 0.28 0.98 1.69 2.39 3.09 3.8 4.5 5.2 5.91 6.61 5 34.48 103.42 172.38 241.32 310.28 379.22 448.18 517.12 586.08 655.02 0.91 1.12 1.83 1.9 1.27 1.97 6.12 6.82 2.67 3.37 4.08 4.78 5.48 6.19 6.89 6 7 8 9 41.37 110.32 179.27 248.22 317.17 386.12 455.07 524.02 592.97 661.92 48.26 117.22 186.16 255.12 324.06 393.02 461.96 530.92 599.86 668.82 55.16 124.11 193.06 262.01 330.96 399.91 468.86 537.81 606.76 675.71 62.06 131.0 199.96 268.9 337.86 2.53 3.23 3.94 4.64 5.34 6.05 6.75 2.6 3.3 4.01 4.71 5.41 poundsforceper squareinch to kilograms forceper squarecentimetre 4.15 4.85 5.55 6.26 6.96 7.03 1 2 3 4 6.9 75.84 144.8 213.74 282.7 351.64 420.6 489.54 558.5 627.44 13.79 82.74 151.69 220.64 289.59 358.54 427.49 496.44 565.39 634.34 20.68 89.64 158.58 227.54 296.48 27.58 96.53 165.48 234.43 303.38 372.33 441.28 510.23 579.18 648.13 0 kN/m2(kPa) 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 IC meLre 1105.27 rn/s 50 60 70 80 90 100 oot o iogramspercu 68.95 137.9 206.85 275.8 344.75 413.7 482.65 551.6 620.55 689.5 365.44 434.38 503.34 572.28 641.24 406.8 475.76 544.7 613.66 682.6 38 pounds forceper square inchto kilonewtons per square metre 380 Conversions Refrigeration W thermal units per hour 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 Thermal conductance 41 wattsper square metrekelvin to Britishthermal units persquarefoot hour degree F 0 1 2 3 3.41 37.53 71.66 105.78 6.82 40.95 75.07 109.12 10.24 44.36 78.5 112.6 146.72 180.84 214.97 249.09 4 5 6 7 8 9 13.65 17.06 47.77 81.89 51.18 85.3 119.43 153.55 187.67 221.79 20.47 23.89 30.71 Btulhr 39 wattstoBritish 34.12 68.24 102.36 136.49 170.61 204.73 238.85 272.97 307.09 341.22 139.91 174.02 208.14 242.26 276.38 310.51 143.31 177.43 211.55 245.68 279.8 313.92 116.01 317.33 150.13 184.26 218.38 252.5 286.62 320.74 283.21 191.08 92.13 126.25 160.37 194.49 225.2 228.61 290.03 324.15 259.32 293.45 327.57 262.74 296.86 330.98 27.3 61.42 95.54 129.66 163.78 197.9 232.03 266.15 300.27 334.39 255.91 5459 88.72 122.76 156.96 58.01 6483 98.95 133.07 167.2 201.31 235.44 269.56 303.68 337.8 W/ (m2K) i 0.0 Btu/(ft2hr°F) 0.0 .0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0 9.0 10.0 0.176 0.352 0.528 0.704 0.881 1.057 1.233 1.409 1.585 1.761 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 0.018 0.194 0.370 0.546 0.722 0.898 1.074 1.250 0.035 0.053 0.229 0.405 0.074 0.247 0.423 0.599 0.775 0.088 0.264 0.440 0.616 0.793 0.106 0.282 0.458 0.141 0.158 0.951 1.127 1.303 1.479 1.656 0.969 1.145 1.321 1.497 1.673 0.986 1.162 0.123 0.299 0.476 0.652 0.828 1.004 1.180 1.356 1.532 1.708 1.427 1.603 0.211 0.387 0.564 0.740 0.916 1.092 1.268 1.444 1.620 0.581 0.757 0.933 1.110 1.286 1.462 1.638 0.634 0.810 1.34 1.515 1.691 0.317 0.493 0.335 0.511 0.669 0.845 0.687 0.863 1.021 1.198 1.374 1.550 1.726 1.039 1.215 1.391 1.567 1.744 381 Conversions Btu/hr 0 4 5 2 3 0.59 3.52 6.45 9.38 0.88 1.17 3.81 4.1 7.03 9.97 12.9 24.03 26.97 6.74 9.67 12.6 15.53 18.47 21.4 24.33 27.26 15.83 18.76 21.69 24.62 27.55 1.47 4.4 7.33 10.26 13.19 16.12 19.05 21.98 24.91 27.84 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.568 1.136 1.703 2.271 0.057 0.624 1.192 1.76 2.328 2.896 3.464 4.031 4.599 5.167 0.17 0.738 1.306 1.874 2.442 3.009 3.577 4.145 4.713 5.281 0.227 0.795 1.363 2.839 3.407 3.975 4.542 0.114 0.681 1.249 1.817 2.385 2.953 3.52 4.088 4.656 5.224 1 6 7 8 9 2.05 4.98 2.34 5.28 2.64 5.57 w 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 Btu/(ft2. hF) 2.93 5.86 8.79 11.72 14.66 17.59 20.52 23.45 26.38 29.31 0.00 0.29 3.22 6.16 9.09 12.02 14.95 17.88 20.81 23.74 26.67 12.31 15.24 18.17 21.1 1.76 4.69 7.62 10.55 13.48 7.91 8.21 8.5 10.84 13.78 11.14 14.07 16.41 16.71 17.0 19.34 22.28 25.21 28.14 19.64 22.57 25.5 28.43 19.93 22.86 25.79 28.72 11.43 14.36 17.29 20.22 23.15 26.09 29.02 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.284 0.852 1.42 1.987 2.555 3.123 0.341 0.908 1.476 2.044 2.612 3.18 3.747 4.315 4.883 0.397 0.965 1.533 2.101 2.669 0.454 1.022 1.59 2.158 2.725 3.236 3.804 4.372 4.94 5.508 3.293 0.511 1.079 1.647 2.214 2.782 3.35 3.918 4.486 5.053 W/(m2K) 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 5.11 5.678 1.931 2.498 3.066 3.634 4.202 4.77 5.337 3.691 4.258 4.826 5.394 5.451 3.861 4.429 4.997 5.564 5.621 40 British thermal unitsper hour owa 42 Britishthermal units persquare foothour degreeFtowattsper squaremetre kelvin 382 Components Materials PHYSICALCHARACTERISTICSOF COMMONBUILDINGMATERIALS material densi, (kg/rn) E-modulus (kN/mrn2) tensile moisture strength movement (MN/rn2) (%) In selecting building materials architect needs take into account their significant physical characteristics. This knowledge helps him assess how manufactured products specified and constructions designed perform in use. Precise values influenced by such factors as temp, moisture content, surface condition, internal structure. These usually determined by means of standard tests, which may take into account conditions of use. Handbooks issued by professional and other independent organisations give precise values for many common materials, with details on conditions underwhich values were determined. Manufacturers'literature may also givevalues. —.( 1) brings together valuesfrommany sources: devised as aid for architects at early stages of design. In most instancesrange ofvaluesgiven. Designer must judgewhichappropriate to his need. However, in some instances contractual orregulatory reasons may imposestandardised values, orvalues determined by standardtests. Manufactured products may be combinations chosen and placed to give desiredperformance. Innumerable combinations available, some proprietary. Not possible give their values here. Formany values may becalculatedusing recognisedprocedures. For others information must be sought from manufacturers or obtained experimentally. of different materials, Characteristics Table givesfollowing characteristics: Density (kg/rn3): enables mass of material be calculated; gives indication of many other properties, eg generally light weight material when dry gives good thermal insulation and sound absorption but poor sound insulation Modulus ofelasticity (kN/mm2) and Tensile and impressive strength (MN/rn2)give indicationsof structural performance, modulus of ages. Generally lightweight and fibrous and some cement-based materials show dimen sional changes when wetordry; suchneed be accommodated in design; movement may be reversible or onlyhappen on first use Coefficient of thermal expansion(per 00 x 10-6): changes intempcause materialsexpand or contract; such movement again may need be accommodated: expressed bycoefficient Thermal conductivity —up393(2) expressed asWm/rn2°C,conventionallyW/rn°C. Forsome materials values greatly influenced bymoisture content Sound apsorption coefficients—vp397(2) non-combushble naturalstone granite limestone marble sandstone siate 2600 2000—2200 2500 2000—2200 2700 dense concrete gravei aggregate limestoneaggregate otherrock aggregate 1800—2500 1800—2500 20—60 slight 8—to 10—80 001 35 slight 3—4 4—6 7—12 9—11 15—36 0.02—006' 0.02—003' 0.03—01' 12—14 7—8 10—13 0.03_0,06i 003—0 06' 0.1—0.2' 0.02—0.03' 8—12 8—12 6—8 035—07 8 0 15—0.3 00—005' 8—14 5—8 4—6 slight 20—36 sintered aggregate vermicuhte aerated (auto-ciaved) 1400—1600 1100—1400 400—500 400—900 8—10 8—10 bfldra caicium siiicate load-bearing clay engineering cementsci'seds 1500—1800 1 500—1800 1800—2200 14—18 4—26 1400—1500 20—35 siight 002—0.06 asbestoscement 1400—1600 14—26 01—025 lightweightconcrete clinkeraggregate t.5 2—2.5 007 15—36 no tines 2.5 3—80 10—35 1800—2500 1750 1 4—3.2 0022 1.3 1.9—2.0 06—20 08—2.0 08—20 05—07 015—0 18 05—I 0 5—1 0.7—1.3 iO—t3 0.5—0.6 8—12 025—0.4 gypsum: asplasterorsiabs, biocks& paper-cooered aggregate, boards; maybe reinforcedwithlibrousmateriais, be namedorirlcorporaie light weight iowstrengthwhenwet,noncombustible denseplaster foamed piaster plasterboard 1100—1200 850—900 950 16 18—21 16 18—21 04—045 025 0 16 metals&glass: densemater,ais assheetsorthinseciions;physicalcharacteristics dependon composition, shapeSgeometricai arrangement, SirOitg bat maybe brittle;no signilicantoiled ofchange in moisiureconteni castiron miidsteei aiuminiurri&atoys copper&alioyo lead zinc glass 7000 7800 2300—2800 8400—8900 11 350 7000 2500 80—120 210 70—75 95—130 70—280 400 70—550 120—400 14 140—220 70 30—170 negligible negligible negiigible neghgible negligible negligible negiigib)e 10 12 24—29 17—21 30 23—33 9—11 40 50 160—230° 130—200° 113 07—1 wood: naturalmaterial with considerable variat,oorisinphysicalcharacieristics accordingtospecies& condition, particularly moista,econtent balsa softwood hard wood 100—250 300—600 55—12.5 550—900 7—21 (veryheavywoods over 1 000) considerable considerable 005—0 06 4.Swithgrain 01—013 30—70across grain 0 14—0.17 plastics: syntheticorganicpolymers'thermosetting remainhard on hardening,iherrnoplastic sohened on reheating,physical characteristics depend oncomposition,modifiedbyfillers& piasticisers; natural& syntheticrubberssimilar; combustible, givingoilsmoke& ioniccombustion products;highcoetttcientofexpansion acrylic polycarbonate polyethylene (iowdensity) polyethylene (highdensity) polyproplylene polystyrene nyion rubber asphalt 1440 25—3.3 1150 920 22—25 01—0.28 negligrbie negligible negligible 50—90 50—70 160—200 02 023 035 05—1 negligible t 10—140 05 0.9—1.6 negligible negligible negligible negligible negligible 80—110 60—80 100—120 0.24 30—80 1.2 960 915 1050 1100 930 2300 1,7—3.1 0007 017 03 0 16 thermalinsulatingmaterials: lightweight,tibrousorcellularin compoutiongiving goodthermal insulation 650usdabsorbliorn butpoorsoundinsulation, lowresistanceto crushing;readilyabsorbmoisture, with increasein density&thermalcondachnity; montcombustible exceptmineral based,improvedby cl'rernical additives mineral baud expanded perlite expanded vermiculite glass tibre mineral wool asbestos orsubstitute insulating board cellular glass — notes: nitiai irreversibie shrinkage 2 initial irreversible expansion 3iowemissivity/high reflectivity ofbnghtsurtace ot thesemetais againstheat radiation (W/mC) natural stone.clay bricks,terracoitablocks.caiciamsilicatebricks,concrete (block, slabOr cast).rieriseorhghtweight(aerated, ceilular,or mortar, reinforcemeni; lighterweight rnateriais: betterthermaiinsuiation,soundabsorption, absorbmoisture&showdimensional change onwetting& loweriherrnalresistioity, wood-wool sfab chipboard tibreboard corkboard characteristics tivity lightweightaggregate), physicalcharacteristics dependondensity,shape, georiretrical arrangement, 01 1 Common building materials: valuesfor physical (per"Cx 106) thermal conduc- masonry: elasticity indicating stiffness Moisture movementsexpressed aspercent- thermal movement 65 100 25—100 50—150 750—900 26—36 175 5—8 400—700 500—800 250—350 0.6—07 2—28 o 16—0.25 2 5—72 0.04—007 0.7—01 00.4—0 07 0.04—007 0 12—0 16 85 0.06 015—0.4 035 008—013 015—0.2 005—0.07 04 130—160 polystyrene bead 15—25 pvc 40—70 tuenwd urea-formaldehyde polyurethane 30 8—15 004—0.05 14—45 35—50 0035 0035—0 045 9 003—0.04 2—7 0.03—0.07 Components 383 Services: Distribution Distribution system for services needs careful planningensure system economical in both builders and specialistwork. System starts at point ofentryofserviceto bldg orfromboiler and plant rm to all spaces being served. Points of entry of services and plant rm location should be determined at early stage. DISTRIBUTIONMEDIUM Heating distribution may be byhot water,steam, orwarm air.Water may be at low pressure under boiling point or at high pressure above boiling point depending on quantity of heat to be distributed. Air inefficient means ofdistribution but required for ventilationorairconditioning. Example: in 100 tube transfer capacitiesare: low velocity air 072 kW 2.16 kW high velocity air 525 kW low pressure hot water 2385 kW high pressure hot water DISTRIBUTIONLAYOUTS In multi-storey bldg distribution pattern may be: (a) primarily horizontal with secondarydistribution upor down through floors; (b) primarily vertical with secondary distribution along floors. (a) more common especially for low bldg or those with dissimilar flow plans but system may occupy greater building volume by increasing floorto tloor height of all floors. (b) more suitable forhigh bldg with repetitive floor plans. VENTILATION Some ducts may require ventilation to limit temp rise or because of service contained, eq natural gas. Where floor construction carried through, vent each floor topand bottom. Ifductcontinuous,vent at ends (—.Bib111). WALKWAYS—+(1 )(2) Retain clear working space 700 wide x 2000 high after all services installed. Large takeoffs and expansion loops may require additional width. Accessfromends —boiler rmorplant rm. Intermediateaccess to changes ofdirection and lunctions by removablecovers mm 450 x 600. Access openings should allow length of pipe (6000) be installed or removed. CRAWLWAYS—(3) Clear working space 700 wide x 1 000 high after all services installed. Accessbycovers mm 450 x 600 atintervals of 10—15 m. heat loss uptokW 35 64 153 255 423 956 1432 Whether primary distribution atground level orroot level willdepend on location of boiler or plant rm At ground level may be in walkways or crawlways underground slab provided these do not conflict with foundations. root void or in extra deep ceiling void.Horizontal distribution above root level difficult protect from weather, complicates root drainage. A w B h 6 pipes 6 pipes PRIMARYHORIZONTAL DISTRIBUTION At roof level distribution may be in pitched heating f&rsize on 1 side on both 40 10€ 50 65 80 100 125 150 1140 1180 1235 1330 1425 1505 1430 1 580 with hangers with rollers sides 2010 2055 2130 2230 2370 2515 2665 1660 1770 1960 2150 2310 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000 Walkways:dimensions(f&r= flow &return) 1 PRIMARYVERTICALDISTRIBUTION Primary vertical distribution is by vertical duct spaces through bldg. Direction ofhorizontal connexion atfloor slab level should notbe limited byadjacent stairwells, liftshafts, orflues. Trimming beamsmay also limit horizontal connexions. -f INTERCONNEXION VERTICAL& HORIZONTAL Interconnexion between verticaland horizontalduct critical:ducts should not be in samevertical plane and vertical duct should be long sideonto horizontal duct to givegreatest common interconnecting area. -A- ACCESSTO DUCTS Access to ducts should be adequate for maintenance work and for renewal of pipes etc, which have shorter life than that of bldg. Access either through duct —walkways, crawlwaysand large vertical ducts —or through access panels in sideortop of duct. FIREPRECAUTIONS 2 Walkways& crawiways—.(1 )(3) heat loss heating uptokW f&rsize 3 pipesoneachside A w Either firestops atfloor level orfr construction and access panels. SOUNDTRANSMISSION 35 64 153 255 Floor construction carried through at or near floor level. All pipe penetrations sealed airtight. Access panels of adequate sound reduction and sealed airtight. 423 956 432 3 40 50 65 80 100 125 150 B h with hangers with rollers 1430 1580 1070 1095 1 000 1660 1770 1960 2150 2310 1140 1000 1 000 1000 1000 1020 Crawlways:dimensions 1 205 1280 1360 1435 1 000 384 Components Services: distribution heatloss upto kW 3 6 13 24 35 64 153 255 423 956 1432 heating & size I r A w B hwithout crossover hwith 15 20 25 32 40 50 65 80 100 125 150 1350 1360 1395 1430 1475 1520 1600 1680 1780 1920 230 235 240 250 255 265 285 295 320 345 375 320 2070 TRENCH DUCTS—*(1)(2) crossover 345 375 410 445 520 560 615 710 805 885 r • Trencnducts:dimensions(I&r=flow&return) 1 heatcapacity uptokW A w B l&rsize 15 20 25 32 40 50 65 80 100 125 150 605 615 650 685 730 775 855 935 1035 1175 1320 300 305 315 325 330 340 380 425 475 555 heating 3 6 13 24 35 64 153 255 423 956 1432 A pipesize 1 pipe HORIZONTALDUCTSAT CEILING LEVEL—*(3)(4) Pipe supports above pipes for pipework to be installed or removed from below. Crossovers Trenchduct LA 625 Space requirementsforhorizontalductat ceiling level (containingheatingflow & return,hot waterflow&return,coldwater service&coldwater main) uptokW 2 A h 3 heatless Pipe supports should be below pipes or on sides to allow lengths of pipe be installed or removed. Allowspace under pipe supports and slight fall for draining. Access through continuous covers or covers at junctions and changes of direction and breakout screedcover whenrequired. Pipeson rollersallow expansion movement. A B 2pipes d 4 I r SCREED DUCTS—*(5)(6) Chase formed by omitting floor screed. Useful for local hot and cold water connexions to sanitary fittings and local heating pipework. Floor finish carried over plywood covernailed to battens. Access by cutting floor finishand prising up cover. Pipe size usually limited to 20—22,otherwise screed ofuneconomic thickness. Oversized hole required for connexion for expansion of pipework. Horizontalduct at ceiling level C diaof hole requiredfor connexion 1.5 3 6 20 25 32 13 24 5 150 150 150 150 150 54.5 59.0 64.5 71.5 80.0 46.5 51.0 56.5 64.0 73.5 VERTICALDUCTS—*(1 1 )(12) Onerow pipestoallow installationand removal 6 Screedducts:dimensions heat loss uptokW w A heating f&rsize 605 615 650 685 730 775 153 15 20 25 32 40 50 65 255 423 80 100 956 125 150 935 1035 1175 1320 3 6 24 35 64 1432 d withorwithout B crossover without 13 r 100 100 100 100 100 10 15 855 from front without removing other pipework exceptcrossovers. Access through removable panels or doors full floorheight on long side. Crossoversand clearance for valves increase depth considerably. Diagonal takeoffs with 45° bend reduce depth but increase width by Screedduct — B with crossover crossover 115 120 125 135 140 150 170 180 205 230 260 295 330 405 445 500 595 690 770 205 230 260 increasing spacing ofvertical pipes. ESTIMATINGVENTILATION! AIR-CONDITIONINGSIZES For preliminary planning purposes ventilation! air-conditioning ducts may be calculated from: Lowvelocity:cross sectional arofductm2 = floor ar servedm2 Space requirementsforverticalducts 9 Vertical ductwith crossover (containingbeatingflow & return,hotwaterflow & return,coldwater service&cold watermain) heat heating loss f&r upto size kW 75 B A w —— may be above or below depending on venting of pipework. Continuous access from below through ceiling or panel. Add extra depth of ceiling support system, recessed light fittings etc. Drop rodsallow expansion movement. B dWtthOLit dwithcrossover ———— crossover 100 150 75 100 150 soil soil soil soil soil soil pipe pipe pipe pipe pipe pipe 75 soil pipe — 100 150 soil pipe soil pipe 750 High velocity:cross sectional arofduct m2 = floor arserved m2 2250 Ductsshould notexceed 1:4 shorttolong side and bestsquare. High velocity ducts should be circular. Allowspace for insulation,flanges and supports:100 on allsides. pvc copper pvc copper pvc copper waste waste waste waste waste waste 3 6 13 24 15 20 25 32 40 50 65 255 80 423 100 956 125 1432 150 35 64 153 815 840 895 173 825 855 905 173 860 885 940 173 895 920 975 173 940 965 1020 173 985 1015 1065 173 1060 10901140 173 1145 1170 1225 180 1245 1270 1325 205 1385 14152875 230 1530 1555 1610 260 205 205 205 205 205 205 205 205 205 230 260 255 255 255 255 255 255 255 255 255 295 295 295 295 295 295 295 295 295 255 295 260 295 350 350 350 350 350 350 350 350 350 350 350 320 320 320 320 320 320 320 320 320 320 320 375 375 375 375 375 375 375 375 375 375 375 370 370 370 370 370 370 370 370 370 370 370 425 425 425 425 425 425 425 425 425 425 425 10 Space requirementsforverticalduct including soiupipe(containingheatingflow & return,hotwater flow &return,cold water service,cold water main&soil &wastepipes) I) socket exiemai dia socketexternal pipe nsuiation ) — pipeinsulation pipesupport channei A r 5pesupport channel ) ) —B-. 11 Vertical ductwith soil pipe 12 Verticalductwith soilpipe &crossover Components 385 Services: Methods of heating Decision on type of heating emission in individual spaces depends on requirements ofthermal comfort inrelationtothermal responseofbldg. anglevstves,sideconnexions, top & bottom size mm A B C 15 115 125 140 115 120 135 25 20 25 THERMALCOMFORT-+(4) —vpl6 High standard ofthermal comfort requires: surrounding surface temphigher than airtemp airtempat head lower than atfloorlevel: low tempgradient air movement justperceptible butvariable and with nodraughts hum not very important except at tempabove 21°C: should not exceed 70% norbe less than30% straight valves, bottomconnexions 15 20 25 130 150 160 130 140 155 _____________________ Ifradiator underSI elf, clearance of twice cifromfaceofradiatorto waftrequired aboveradiator: clearance of 1½ timesd requiredunderradiator 1 Space forradiatorvaIves—(2) THERMALRESPONSEOFBUILDING Thermal response ofbldg depends on: area and orientation of glazing: largeareas of glazing facing sun give quickresponse reflectivityof external surfaces where exposed to sun: high reflectivity reduces heat gain fromsunand reduces response mass of bldg structure and position of thermal insulation: mass inside insulationgiveslong responsetime; lightweightbldg haveshortresponse time Quick response bldg will give economy in heating cost but be hotterin summerandmoredifficult heat comfortably. TYPES OF HEAT EMITTERS *—c'A 2 Space forradiatorvalves—°(1) Low temperature radiant panels: heated by embedded el cables or heating water pipework. Surface preferably floor for low temp gradient butwall orceiling surfaces can beused. Floor surfacetemplimited to 29°C. Emission: 50% radiation 50% convection. Mediumtempradiant panels:flat steel orcast iron plates with waterwayscast in or welded tobackofplate. Surface tempgenerally 75°C. Emission: 50% radiation 50% convection. Radiators: generally made fromsheet steel; may be 1, 2 or 3 panel or with finson backto increase outputfor given face area. Surface temp 75°C. Radiant: convection emission depends on number of panels, fins etc; single panel approx 25% radiation75%convection. If radiators in corner or recess allow space for valves and for air flow Natural convectors: may becontinuous casing orindividual casing of pressed steelcontaining finned tube heater. Heatoutput depends on size offinned tubeand height ofconvector. Surface templower than radiator: about35°C. Saferwithyoung children ordisabled people. Emission: 10% radiation 90% convection. Natural convector cases often made ofbuilders workfor better appearanceand robustness —(3). Opening atbottomAshould notbeless than width of finned tube. Inside depth of casing B should only allow mm clearance (6)forfinned tube.Grilleat top should have atleast70% open area. 3 Buildersworknaturalconvector—(1) type ofheat emitter floorheating mediumtempradiantpanels order of thermal comfortunder steadyconditions 1 2 3 panel radiators 4 naturalconvectors fanconvectorsorductedwarm air 5 approxorderof response 5 4 3 2 1 Forthermal comfortsurface tempofsurroundings better if higher thanairtemp;someradiant emission required, proportiondepending onthermal insulation 4 Order ofthermalcomfort&speedofresponsefromheatingemitters Fan convectors: similar tonaturalconvectors except that aircirculation byfan. High outputforsmall sizeand independent ofheight of casing. Heatoutputeasilycontrolled byfanspeed. May bepositioned overhead iffanadequate toblow hotairdown. Emission: 100%convection. Ducted warmair:forheating similartofan convectors. Difference is in method of heat distribution and in space occupied in rm. Used in domestic installations but in large bldg only when mech ventilation required. Emission: 100% convection. 386 Components Se,vices: Heating systems C) 0 2 -a 0 CD I-.. C') In choosing heating system 3 decisions to make: fuelto be used means ofdistributing heat fromcentral source method ofheatemission in individualspaces meter w size kW CAPACITYOF INSTALLATION d h doorw doorh 373 1980 1170 1530 1220 1450 560 2060 1220 1680 1370 1520 Approxcapacity of installationcan be calculated—(1). Example: 4-storeybldg 13 x 70 x (shallow plan bldg) ventilation rate2 air changes 933 2290 1370 1830 1680 1680 1400 2590 1450 1830 1680 1830 = intermediatefloors2x 13 x 70 x 72= = top floor 13 x 70 x 86 1867 2750 1450 2220 1680 1830 2800 2900 1710 2360 1830 1830 3733 3050 1730 2520 1830 1830 groundfloorl3x7Ox79 = = total heat loss 71890 131040 78260 281190 280kW ventilationrequired:upto1 867 kWventilation arto be4% of floor ar of meterrm dividedbetween high & low level;over 2800kW ventilationartobe 6% of floor ar Bldg with intermittent heating need overload capacity: thisdepends on heat uptime. Normally 20% butmay be 100% excess capacity. 2 small bldg shallowplan Gas meter rmmm dimensions deep plan bldg bldg number ofair changes 1 2 4 6 2 4 6 2 4 6 181 79 121 167 72 115 161 62 104 150 57 100 146 106 148 194 86 128 174 71 113 159 117 92 134 180 75 117 groundfloor intermediatefloor topfloor 102 singlestorey 146 192 92 135 159 205 163 Heatloss W/m2 GAS SUPPLIES Distribution Gas distributed through high pressure nationalgrid system toall regions. The main: provision and maintenance of main gas supply in UK responsiblity ofBritish GasCorporation. Service pipe: where laid in public ground, British Gas Corporation responsible for provision and maintenance of service pipe between main and inlet side of meter. Where part of service pipe laid in private land provision and maintenanceusually responsibilityof user. Internal installation pipes from meter to appliances responsibility of bldg owner. No service pipe may be installed inunventilatedvoidspace orduct. Protection ofpipes:gaspipes must beprotectedagainstcondensation, damp, freezing and corrosion. Flues andair supply for gas appliances(—÷Bibl 19). Themeter Primary metersshould be situated closeas possible point of entryof servicepipe and allow easy accesswithout disturbing consumer.Meters should not beexposed to: possibilityofphysical damage continuous damp orwet excessive changes oftemp possibilityofcontact with flame or elsparks. Gas meters mustbe separatedfromel meters byfrpartition. Domestic meters require space 330wide, 360deep, 660 high. Gas metersin larger installationsrequireseparate rm—(2). ELECTRICITYTARIFFS 2 basic types of tariff for el heating: restricted hours tariff, with el available at night onlyatcheap rate; normaltariffs,with elavailableat any time but at 2—3 times restricted hours rate. With restricted hours tariff heat generated must be stored during night for use next day. Heat may be stored in structure of bldg, particularly concrete floors, in vessels containing waterunderpressure, or in wellinsulated high-density cores ofthermal stounits. Storing heat in form of hot watermostflexible arrangement. Direct el heating by radiant or convective emitters, often in form of individual portable appliances. Oilstorage 4 main types ofoil stotanks for industrialand commercial oil fuels: mild steelwelded mildsteelsectional cast iron sectional reinforced concrete Most widely used: mild steelwelded; usually horizontal, cylindrical or rectangular. If ground space limited vertical cylindrical tanks may be used. Capacities net sf0 capacity (—Bib130) can be calculated in 2 ways (use largest): 3 weeks supply at max rateofconsumption 2 weeks supply at max rateofconsumption plus usual quantityordered for 1 delivery. Ifmax weeklyoffiake less than 9001,stocapacitystillshould notbe less than 2950 Itoaccept 22701 deliveries. Desirable provide more than 1 tank in many circumstances, each of capacity accept at leastfull delivery, each tank having separate filling pipe, unless situated next each otherwhere common filling point can be used, with isolating valves. Different grades must bestored in separate tanks. Mm SITING Should if possible be installed aboveground. Site should not be sublect extremesoftempand not beintrusive. Clearance should be allowedfor withdrawal offittingssuchassteam coilsand immersion heaters. If underground installation unavoidable, should be in specially constructed brickorconcrete chamber, with access to drain valve etc: dry ground and finished structure madewatertight. Sump must be provided in floor at 1 endand floor must slope towards sump. Buried tanks should not be indirectcontact with soil: almost impossible avoid corrosive attack. Components 387 Services: Heating systems -A OILSTORAGE(cont) Supports Horizontal tanks on brick or reinforced concrete cradles. Downward slope of 1:50 fromdrawoff towards drain. Cradles should not be under jointsorseams of tank plates; layer of bitumenised felt between cradle and tank. Height of tank supports should provide at least 400 space between drain valve and ground level to allow access for draining and painting. C) 0 9 -o 0 B CD .3 mm 150forsteelcradles Verticaltanks Up to 2750 dia may bedirectly erected on BC foundation. Base of tank with bitumen-based seal between tank and concrete. Largerdiatanksto be assembled on site should be erected on self-draining foundation with base plated on bitumen and sand or bitumen-macadambase. 4 Cylindricaloilsto tank —.(3) BOILER ROOMS Catchpit Where overfilling or leakagewould be fire hazard or contaminatedrains catchpit required. Made of brick or concrete with oil-tight lining and sealed to concrete base under tank supports. Capacity should be 10% greaterthan capacity of tank or tanks. Catchpit should have facility to remove waterbut no permanent drain. Manholes —vpl 3 Every sf0tank should have manhole in accessible position,preferably at top. Circular: notless than 460 dia;ovalorrectangular: not less than 460 long, 410 wide. Vertical tanks over 3650 high should have additional manhole at base for maintenanceand cleaning. Storagetemp oilclass BS classification mm temp sto °C lightfueloil mediumfueloil heavy fueloil E F Boilers and associated eqp heavy and noisy. Generally best position on ground slab. Boiler rmshould not benext spaces that are toremain cool orquiet. Accessfromroad toboilerhouse must be adequate forlargest piece of eqpto be replaced. Boilers require airforcombustionand boiler houses need good ventilation reduce internal temp. In large boiler houses separate flue desirable for each boiler, rising directlyto highest part of bldg. For size of boilerrm, access and ventilation requirements —vp388(1)— (4). Dimensions allow all layouts. Solid fuel boilers may need larqer boiler house for fuel handling eqp. If pressurisation eqp or chillers to be included boiler rm must belarger. 10 30 45 10 25 35 G tempat outhow fromsto &forhandling°C mm Space round eqp required for making pipe and el connexions and dismantling eqp for servicing. Goodmaintenanceofall plant essential for proper performance, fuel economy and max life. ciear h ioadkW 1 Delivery About 7 to 8 t capacity. Delivery vehicle dimensions similar to 7 t long wheelbase tipping vehicle. Conveyor delivery vehicles can stack to 2500above load level: ordinary delivery 1400. Factors: bulkdelivery foreconomy stocapacity mm 11/2 x capacity ofdelivery vehicle goodsf0 heightsaves space plan for mm manual handling eggravity feed fordelivery point to sto Where boilerfiredfromfront fuel should be stored in front orgravitateto front fromsto at higher level. Magazine type boilers should befed from fuel sto above hopper attop ofboiler. CalorificValue& Density fuel calorificvalue MJ/kg densitykg/rn3 anthracite bituminous coal 35 330 30 28 800 400 coke Calorificvalue& density capacityI 1140 2275 2730 3410 4550 5455 6820 9095 11365 13640 15915 3 w w h Oilsto temp SOLID FUEL 2 I access door lengthA 1655 1705 2010 2165 3150 3760 2900 3305 3940 3965 4880 diaB 990 1375 1375 1375 1375 1375 1830 1985 1985 2135 2135 capacity length A dia B 18185 22730 5260 5870 2135 2290 27280 31825 36370 40915 45460 54555 68190 81230 90920 6175 5590 6505 7420 8030 9550 12195 12195 13720 2440 2745 2745 2745 2745 2745 2745 3050 3050 Oilsto: dimensionsof cylindricaltanks—.(4) ventilation Iouvres inlet outlei (low level) m2 (highievei) m2 upto200 7900 5300 3500 1500 2000 048 0422 200—600 9800 7900 4300 1700 2300 1.44 1.22 600—1800 16900 12200 5300 3400 3000 4.32 1800—6000 19100 18200 7300 3400 4200 144 11.646 6000—20000 26800 26000 9300 4400 5800 48 0 3668 5 Boilerrrndata 3.709 C,) 388 Components Services: heatingsystems BOILER ROOMS(cont) emergency exit pumps 1 to4 Boiler houselayouts;technicaldata-.p387(5) CALORIFIERROOMS Calorifier rmis heating substation where heatinwater(orsteam) athigh pressure and tempchanged to heat atlow pressure and temp. Several calorifier rm may befed from1 boilerhouse in large installation. In districtheating schemes with distribution at high pressure and temp, calorifier rmrequired at intake. rating A h B c w d Calorifier rm should notbe next tospaces that are to remain cool. D space at front E space at back F H 0 weight flue l/D space space space lull on left on above kg side right side Access required fromroad through bldg tocalorifier rm forlargestpiece ofeqp to be replaced. Calorifier rm must be ventilated to reduce internal temp. 610 610 35 915 35— 1020 610 100 1320 960 100— 1605 960 1 1180 300 1605 640 1525 300— 1605 2230 1525 1180 900 1765 2230 1885 1550 upto Calorifierrm —(5) contain 2 hot watersto calorifiers, 2 water to water non-stocalorifiers, pumps and controls. 915 500 500 560 535 600 840 845 1130 775 1525 75 150 160 160 200 200 200 200 10 10 155 250 510 510 510 510 75 150 160 160 510 510 510 510 500 680 810 840 900 990 990 990 115 220 270 680 980 1750 2520 3350 102 150 178 225 254 2x 254 460 2x356 ATMOSPHERICGAS BOILERS Smaller gas boilers burn gas at low pressure, do not have forced draught; quieterthan pressure let boilers butless efficient. Boilersuptoabout35kWcapacity availablewitheither balancedflue or 6 Atmosphericgasboilerdata:dimensions fortop&bottomofrangeof each rating; I/O = internaldia front elevation conventional flue. sideelevation Spacemustbeallowedatfrontforwithdrawalofburners and atsideand backfor connexions —(6)(7)p389(l )—(4). loadWI w I clearh access door ventilation louvres w h inlet outlet 110wlevel) m2 (highlevel) m2 0422 up to200 6900 4800 3500 1100 1950 0.422 200—600 10100 6500 4300 1500 1 950 1.22 7000 1600 1950 3.709 600—1800 12000 5Calonfiermidata 5300 1.22 F4HB+4 G4 3.709 7 Atmosphericgasboiler —---E Components 389 Services: heatingsystems A kw h 35—100 1195 1470 100—300 1550 1780 300—900 2060 900— 3000 3000— 10000 c E F 0 H weight flue l/D space space space space space kit with at st onlett on above kg burner front back side right side B w rating D d 640 1450 610 940 940 1310 1310 1465 1830 2005 3060 3160 3520 1100 1000 2080 2080 2770 2980 5095 4115 3890 4350 5645 7040 8435 1415 2290 3250 2760 4130 2490 2490 3560 3785 500 1310 1310 1400 1500 1500 1640 3835 4370 6225 160 400 700 700 1425 1425 1505 1655 1655 1655 460 560 1210 1210 1210 1210 1230 1375 1375 1380 540 765 765 800 1000 1000 1500 1500 2000 2000 890 1690 2915 2915 4850 6095 6095 30990 30990 49490 200 200 254 432 432 432 432 660 710 1016 1 Pressurejetgasboilersdata:dthension fortop&bottomofeachheating range —'(3) rating kw A h upto35 950 35—100 950 1195 1470 100—300 1550 1780 300—900 2060 2490 900— 2820 3000 3655 3000— 3950 10000 5250 B C d D B space space with at at burner front back w 550 845 550 925 640 1005 1310 1265 1465 1830 3170 3170 3180 3180 4115 2005 2930 2930 3150 3945 3965 6535 7045 8435 800 800 800 1215 1215 1220 1220 1450 2290 3050 2880 3695 400 400 500 1310 1310 1320 1320 1415 1415 3535 4370 6225 F 0 H weight flue lID space space space kill onleft on above kg side right side 150 150 150 155 700 700 700 700 1505 1655 1655 1655 205 205 205 355 1000 1000 1425 1505 1505 1550 1550 1550 200 200 200 200 1000 1000 1000 1000 1500 2000 2000 2000 185 230 260 1380 2915 4675 4675 6100 9755 30990 30990 63100 152 152 203 204 254 255 350 400 PRESSUREJET GASOR OIL BOILERS On pressure jet boilers burner forced-draught fan assembly projects considerably from front. Assembly often hinged for access to boiler shell for maintenance. In largersizes considerable space required at backfor easybend flue connexion —'(1)(2)(3). STORAGECYLINDERS Domestichotwatercylinders Domestic hot water cylinders must be installed with enough space make and unmake connexions to fit or remove cylinder —÷(4)—(6) p390(1). In rectangular cupboard connexions on diagonal save space -'(7). Largeindirect cylinders Indirectcylindersneed only low primary circulation pressure and will operatewithgravity flowifcorrectly placed in relationto boiler. Large indirect cylinders have bolted head to allow internal annular heater to be withdrawn and replaced. For withdrawal space required —'p390(3). Indirect cylinders may be vertical or horizontal —÷p390(2)— (5). Horizontal useful if headroom limited but vertical more efficient in preventing mixing ofinco

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