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Architects' Data: Building Design Reference

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Ernst Neufert
ARCHITECTS' DATA
Second (International) English Edition
General editor VincentJones
Editorial consultant George Atkinson OBE BAArch) RIBA
USA editor Wm Dudley Hunt Jr BScBArch FAIA
Editor JohnThackara
Deputy editor Richard Miles
b
Blackwell
Science
This document
L
contains
447
pages
© 1980by
Blackwell Science Ltd
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All rightsreserved. No part of this
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the publisher.
First English language edition published by
Crosby Lockwood Staples 1970
Reprinted 1973, 1975,1977, 1978(twIce)
Second (International) English Edition
first published in Great Britain 1980by
Granada Publishing Ltd
Reprinted (with minor amendments)1981
Reprinted 1982, 1984
Reissuedin paperback by
Collins Professional and Technical Books 1985
Reprinted by BSP Professional Books
1988, 1990, 1991, 1992, 1993, 1994
Reprinted by Blackwell Science
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Original German edition published by
Friedr. Vieweg & Sohn, Braunschweig,
Wiesbaden,as Bauentwurfslehre
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British Library
Cataloguing in Publication Data
Neufert, Ernst,
Architect's data.—2nd (international)
English ed.
1. Architectural design: Technical data.
I. Title
II. Jones, Vincent,
Ill Thackara, John
IV. Miles, Richard
721'.0212
ISBN 0-632-02339-2
V
Contents
Flats & apartments
ix
Contributors
x
Acknowledgements
89
xi
Foreword
90 Access
xii
Howto use the book
91
Fire precautions
xiii
Abbreviations
92
Internal planning
94
Point blocks
96
Duplex & triplex sections
BASIC DATA
Human scale in architecture
99
3 Drawing sheets
100
6 Drawing practice
9 Proportions
Dimensions & space requirements
Privategarages
Gardens
104 Siting & layout
16 Thermal comfort
105 Soil preparation
17 Visual efficiency
& acoustics
19 Access & circulation
20 Roadways/parking
25 Lighting
27
Shared accommodation
103 Enclosures
15 Quality of air
18 Pattern & texture/noise
97 Internal access
98 Stepped houses
2 UseofSlunits
11
Building types
106 Pergolas/paths/equipment
108
Trees/shrubs
109 Water
110 Gardens for disabled/rock gardens/roof gardens!
floodlighting
Daylight
111
Garden structures
33 Sunlight
112
Indoor gardens/roof gardens
113
Water lily & fish pools
COMMUNITY
114
Swimming pools
Houses
115
Private indoor pools
117
Domestic sauna
38
Design/organisation/orientation
41
Access
44 Standards & regulations
Education
45 Relationship to otherbuildings
47 Thehouseplan
118
Schools: principles
119
Early school
55 Kitchens
120 Rural schools
61
Bathrooms
121
Middle age range
66 Public rooms
123 Olderagerange
70 Bedrooms
127 Boarding schools
73 Storage
76 Security/privacy
129 Media centres
77 Privateopen space
78 Adaptable houses
134 Colleges: lecture rooms
79 Underground houses
80 Energy saving houses
139 Drawing studios
82 Housing old people
85 Housing disabled
142 Dining rooms
88 Balconies
145 Libraries
130 Furniture
137 Schools ofart, design, drama,music
140 Student hostels
143 Youth hostels
vi
Contents
Hospitals
149
Health services structure
150 Modular design
151
Means of escape/fire protection
Restaurants
202 Planning factors
203 Space allowance
204 Table sizes
153 Design/building configurations
205 Snack bars
154 Ward design
206 Drive-in
156 Nurse working rooms
207 Using minimum space: restaurantcars
& self-service
158 Ward design data/geriatric
160 Maternity
161
Paediatric& children
Hotels
208 Types
162 Longstay
209 Flowdiagram
164 Psychiatric centres
210 Plan forms
165 Ward upgrading
211
166 Outpatients
212 Frontof house
168 Accident & emergency
213
169 Radiology
215 Administration
171
216 Guest bedrooms
Operating
Public rooms
Kitchens & food stores
173 Intensive care
218 Building services
174 Cardiac surgical/transplant/limb fitting
219 Motels
175 Burns/physical medicine
221
176 Laboratories
224 Public houses
Convention hotels
177 Pharmacy/libraries
178 Non-residentstaffchanging
Office buildings
179 Offices/supply
225 Building type
180 Housekeeping
226 Definition of office areas
181
Community health care
227 Types of officeshell
228 Core
Religion
230 Relationships
182 Churches
231
185 Mosques
232 Services
186 Synagogues
233 lnternalenvironment
187 Crematoria/mortuaries
234 Construction
COMMERCE
235 Space standards
236 Special area requirements
Shops &stores
188 Situation
189 Movement between floors/service details
191
Windows
Means of escape
237 Spaces for meetings
239 Furniture
241
Storage
243 Equipment
192 Fire/boutiques
193 Food shops
Banks
195 Chemist/men'swear/shoes/fashion fabrics
245 General/customer services/drive-in
196 Self-service
247 Examples
197
Supermarkets
198
Hypermarkets
Vehicleservices
199
Shopping centres& precincts
248 Car parks
vii
Contents
251
Multi-storey car parks
253 Petrol stations
255 Bus parks
302 Beef cattle housing
303 Pigs: basic data
305 Pigs: management
257 Rail station passengerdetails
306 Pigs: rearing & fattening
307 Sheep: housing
Airports
308 Sheep: handling/poultry housing
258
Planningsequence
309
259
Runways/taxiways/ferminals
260
Flow & functions
310 Small domestic animals: doves/rabbits/dogs/small
poultry houses
261
Baggage handling/aircraftparking
311
262 Catering/aircraft maintenance/airfreight
Poultry: space requirements
Kennels/beehouses/ducks/geese
312 Crop storage: grass/straw/hay/potatoes
313 Crop storage: grain
314
Machinery & implement storage
INDUSTRY
Industrial buildings
LEISURE
263 Site selection/site development
Sport
315 Stadia: general design
264 Basicbuilding types/selection strategy
266
Factorybuilding types
269 Warehouses
316 Stadia: sightlines/traffic
317 Stadia: terraces/grandstand
273
Site layout
275
Industrial parks
318 Sport centres
320 Sport halls:use of undivided space
276
Building environment
322 Outdoor: pitches
277
Planning for fire control
324 Outdoor: athletics
278
Environmental compartmentation/workplace design
325 Indoor: pitches
280 Hygiene
326 Indoor: pitches/athletics tracks
282
Loading bays
327 Indoor: athletics training
284
Rail-served buildings
328 Indoor: sports needing own space
285 Workshops
288 Workshop equipment space
329 Swimming: indoorpools
333 Swimming: openair pools
289 Workshop examples
290 Workshop design factors
334 Swimming: divingpool dimensions
335 Swimming: slipperbaths/showers
336 Swimming: pool changing rooms
Laboratories
338 Sauna planning
291
339 Tennis
Classification/planning principles/space requirements
292 Services distribution/disposal systems/storage
293 Special requirements/related spaces/finishes
340 Ski jumping slopes
341
Ski lumping slopes/icerinks
342
Ice rinks/roller skating rinks
Farmbuildings
294 Human welfare/cattle: basicdata
343 Golf
295 Cattle: waste production & disposal
346 Marinas
344 Equitation
296 Cattle: straw-bedded pens/cubicles/calf pens
297 Cattle: calf pens/feeding
Theatres & Cinemas
298 Cattle: feeding/watering/ventilation/handling
348 Theatre regulation/organisation
299 Cattle handling/milking
349 Sight lines
350 Auditorium
301
Cattle: bull pens/dairy cowhousing
viii
Contents
351
Seating
Lighting
352 Stage tower
353 Multiform
398
354 Cinema techniques/seating/multiple auditoria
400
355 Cloakrooms/projection rooms
356 General layout/lighting systems/heating/ventilation/use
Doors &windows
General/building lighting/glare
399 Task lighting/light sources/emergency lighting/outdoor
Integration of electric lighting & daylighting
of 16mm
357 Screen & sound systems
401
Doors: dimensions/fire safety/flow capacity/disabled
persons
358
402
Doors: industrial types
Drive-in cinemas
403 Windows: coordinatingsizes
Museums
404 Windows: positioning/safety & accessfor cleaning
359
Rooms/general layout
405 Windows: basic types/selection check list/ventilation!
360
Lighting
361
Examples
COMPONENTS
asurement
363 Introduction
double glazing
406 Windows: shading devices
Corridors stairselevators
407 Walking speeds/corridor capacity/rampsfor disabled!
waiting areas
364 Conversion factors
408 Stairs: tread & rise proportions/regulations/fire escape!
stairs for disabled
366 Conversion tables
409 Escalatordimensions & traffic capacity/passenger
conveyors
Materials
382
Building materials physical characteristics
410 Elevator dimensions
411
Elevator traffic capacity/paternosters
412 Elavators for disabled/planning
Services
383
Distribution
385
Methods of heating
386
Heating systems
392 Ventilation
REFERENCE
393 Thermal insulation
413 Bibliography
395 Sound insulation
429
Index
ix
Contributors
ErnstNeufert
Professor Technische Hochschule Darmstadt
Ernst Neufert, born in 1900, in 1919 became the first student of
architecture at the Bauhaus in Weimar. He left at the end of 1920 for a
study tour in southern Europe but before long Gropius called him back
as his assistant. In 1924 he became technical director of the Bauhaus
officesin Weimar and then manager ofthe Gropiusworkshop during the
rebuilding of the Bauhaus in Dessau' and alsotaught in the department
ofarchitecture atthe Bauhaus.
In 1926 he became professor and director of the department of architectureat the newlyfounded Building Technical College in Weimar and
shortly afterwards assistant director of the construction department. In
1930 he moved to Berlin to become head of the department of
architecture at Itten, a private school of art, and started to workas a
free-lance industrial architect. It was in Berlin that he brought outin 1936
the first edition of Bauentwurfslehre.
Following the war he was co-founder and member of the board of
directors of the Bund Deutscher Architekten (Federation of German
Architects), was appointed professor at Darmstadf Polytechnic and
director ofthe Institute forStandardisation (Institut fur Baunormung)and
continued toworkalso as free-lance industrial architect.
Professor Neufert has lectured in many cities, suchas Graz, Belgrade,
Skople, Thessaloniki, Athens, Istanbul, Beirut, Karachi,Rangoon, Hong
Kong, inJapan's major citiesand at Neutrain Los Angelesand FLWright
inTaliesin West Arizona.
He is honorary member of the Real Academica de Ciencias y Artes
Barcelona and of the Royal Institute of British Architects, honorary
professor and doctor at the University of Lima, Peru. He has been
awarded the German Merit Cross with star, as well as various other
German and foreign honours
Ernst Neufert's other works include Bauordnungslehre (1943) and
lndustriebauten (1973).
UK contributors
USA contributors
Peter Ackroyd Dip Arch (Poly)Reg Arch TheSports Council
AG Aldersley-Williams MArch(MIT) RIBA Engineering Design
Consultants
Norman SAllanson Des RCA FSIAD John SBonnington Partnership
DerekWArnold ARIBA
Nadine Beddington FRIBA FSIAD
(assisted by DermotO'Brien FSIAD)
Robin G Booth MA MSc Dip Arch RIBA MRTPI John SBonnington
Partnership
Jan PetrCermák-z-Uhrinova BSc(Hons) TEng(CEI)MIAgrE Scottish
Farm Building Investigation Unit
J B Collins BSc(Eng) CEng MIEE FCIBS
DrFrancis Duffy ARIBA DuffyEley Giffone Worthington
JolyonV P Drury MA(Cantab) DipArch RIBA MIMH Jolyon Drury
Consultancy
Nelson Foley RIBA ChiefArchitect Trust House Forte
JA Godfrey ARIBA
David Jenkin DuffyEley Giffone Worthington
Eva M Jiricna DipI Eng Arch RIBA Louis Soissons Partnership
Geraint John DipArch(UCL) RIBA TheSports Council
Geoffrey Jones BArch(Lvpl)
Olwen C Marlowe ARIBA Dip LD(Dunelm) DipTP(Birm)
David LMedd OBEHon DSc ARIBA Department ofEducation &
Science
Mary B Medd OBE ARIBA Department ofEducation& Science
AlanMorgan DipArch RIBA
DermotO'Brien FSIAD
G J P O'Neill
Robert Payne DuffyEleyGiffone Worthington
Elizabeth Phillips DipArch RWA ARIBA
Dennis Sharp MA AA DipI RIBA
Deyan Sudjic BSc DipArch
Dr Martin Symes MA Dip Arch(Cantab) AA Planning Dip RIBA
Richard E Theakston Dip Arch RIBA JohnSBonnington Partnership
PR Tregenza BArch MBdgSc PhD RIBA MCIBS
R EVickers DLCCEng MICE British LiftStab Ltd
David Whitham MA(Cantab) AA Dipi
Peter Frink BArch MScMFA Principal !rink BeuchatArchitects
Walter Hart AlA Architect
Wm Dudley HuntJr BSc BArch FAIA
Margaret K Hunter BAAlA Architect
Edgar H Hunter BABArch AlA Architect
Robert T Packard BArch AlA Director AlA Documents/Architectural
Graphic Standards Division
MimiFord Paul BA BSArch Architect
Bradford Perkins SeniorVice President & GeneralManager Perkins &
WillArchitects
8
x
Acknowledgements
The Editors and the Publishers acknowledge with sincere thanks the
kind help and information provided by many individuals and organisationsduringthe preparation of this work. The Publishers have made
everyefforttoestablish and properly acknowledge thecopyright owners
ofthe drawings and plans used in this book and wishtoapologiseforany
unintentional omissions that may have been made. Should any otner
acknowledgements be necessary the publishers will be happy todo so
whenthe book is reprinted.
Theworksof individual architects are acknowledgedthroughout thetext
but particular thanks are also due to:
HenryDreyfuss Associates forFig. 2 on page 9;
TheArchitecturalPress forFig. 1 onpage19and Figs1 and 2onpage22;
SunsetBooks for Fig. 4 on page 77;
The Architectural Press for Figs 1-9 on page83, Fig. 1 on page 84, and
Fig. 5on page86;
SunsetBooks for Figs 5 and 6on page 113 and for Figs 6-11 on page
114;
Moriyama and Teshima for Fig. 4on page 146;
Ahrends Burton and Koralek for Fig. 2 on page 148;
Powell Moya and Partners forFig. 3 on page 150;
Watkins Gray Woodgate International (UK) forFig. 1 on page 155;
R. Seifert and Partnersfor Fig. 5on page 157;
The Nuffield Foundationfor Fig. 1 on page 161;
Robert Matthew, Johnson-Marshalland PartnersforFig. 2onpage 161;
George TrewDunn Beckles Willson Bowes for Fig. 1 on page 167;
Wilson and Wilson for Fig. 2 on page168;
Robert Matthew, Johnson-Marshalland PartnersforFig. 2onpage 171;
The Oxford Regional HealthAuthority for Fig. 5 onpage172;
Donald A. Goldfinch Associates for Fig. 1 on page 175;
South East Thames Regional HealthAuthority for Fig. 1 on page 176;
The Nuffield Foundationfor Fig. 2 on page 176;
MehmetKonuralp for Fig. 3on page 192;
Isabe lieHebeyfor Fig. 4 on page 192;
The Architectural Press for Fig. 2 on page 198;
The National Playing Fields Association for Fig. 1 on page 322 and
Figures on pages 323—4;
The Architectural Press for Figs. 1, 4and 5 on page346 and forFigs 2-4,
7 and 8 on page 347;
Progressive Architecture for Fig. 3on page 361.
The following are reproduced by permission ofthe Building Directorate,
Scottish Development Department: Fig. 1 on page82, Figs 10and 11 on
page83, Fig. 2 on page84 and Figs 1-4and 6-8 on page86;
Fig. 1 on page 148 is reprinted fromArchitectural Record September
1976 © 1976, by McGraw-Hill, Inc., with all rights reserved;
Fig. 2 onpage155 is reproduced with thepermission of theController of
Her Majesty's Stationery Office;
Fig. 1 on page 162 is reprinted with permission from the American
Health Care Association Journal, Vol. 4, No. 4, July 1978. Copyright
© American Health Care Association. All rights reserved;
Fig. 3 on page 162 isreproduced courtesy ofArchitects Derek Stowand
Partners in association with the Regional Architect, South West
Thames Regional Health Authority;
Fig. 2onpage164 is reprinted from Architectural Record October 1979
© 1979, by McGraw-Hill, Inc., with all rights reserved;
Fig. 3 on page 171 is reproduced courtesy of Cullen Lochhead and
Brown in association with the Chief Architect of Western Regional
Hospital Board, T.D.W. Astorga, Esq., FRIBA;
Fig. 1 onpage174 isreprinted fromArchitectural RecordAugust 1977©
1977, by McGraw-Hill, Inc., withall rights reserved;
Fig. 4 onpage180 is reprinted fromArchitectural RecordAugust 1977©
1977, by McGraw-Hill, Inc., withall rights reserved;
Fig. 1 on page 201 is reprinted fromArchitectural Record June 1978 ©
1978, by McGraw-Hill, Inc., with all rights reserved;
Fig. Son page291 is theZoology Extension, EdinburghUniversity and is
reproduced by permission of the Designers, the Architecture
Research Unit, University of Edinburgh;
Fig. 1 on page 361 is reprinted from Architectural Record June 1977 ©
1977, byMcGraw-Hill, Inc., with all rights reserved.
xi
Foreword
Architects'Datafirst appeared in English in 1970, nearly thirtyfive years after Ernst Neufert published his rules for building
design' — Bauentwurfslehre — based on his lectures at the
Building Technical Collegein Weimar. He had arranged in one
book for convenient reference during design work, data on the
spatial needsof man in his home, his work place and his leisure,
and on his animals, toolsand belongings. The book clearly meta
need: in 1979 the 30th German edition appeared; it has also
been published in Spanish (12 editions), Italian(5), French (5),
The sequence of sections has been rearranged. All parts have
beenreviewed, revised, brought up to date and in most instances
expanded: this edition is twenty-five per cent longer and perhaps
seventy-five per cent new in substance. Special attention has
been given to new thinking on housing, education, hospitals,
industrial construction and farm buildings. The section on sport
and leisure has been made far more comprehensive.And throughout the implications of energy conservation, the needs of the
elderly and disabled,and defenceagainstfire havebeen stressed.
Portuguese(3), Serbocroat(3), and in Russian, Greek andTurkish;
but beforethe present, only one edition in English,which came
late on the scene.
As the first internationaledition to be published the book contains
several building types which are not common in some countries.
Both British and American contributors liked this. In some
instances,suchas shopping precincts,more than asingle building
is involved; for these the information given is more general. In
others, such as underground houses, prolects aswell as finished
buildings have been given as examples, although this is the
In the 1960s the book'sinternationalrepute led the Professional
Literature Committee of the Royal Institute of British Architects
and manyothers to recognise the need for an English language
edition; but to convert to imperial measureswas a greatobstacle.
Conversion tothemetric system in Britain and the Commonwealth
changed this. An English edition becamepossible. It was edited
by the late Rudolf Herz who had studied in Berlin and had
practised many years as an architect in the United Kingdom.
He had no easy task. With so big a book translationalone wasa
major undertaking; furthermore much terminology and some
practice details had to be modified. At that time, therefore,
publishers and editordid not try to bring the whole book up to
date;theyconcentrated on getting it out.
During the 1970s the need for a new edition thoroughly revised
became more pressing: there were new imperatives of energy
conservation, economic constraintand changing social needs to
affect the design of buildings. More influential still for such a
work: the 'information explosion', whose full force will be felt
duringthe 1 980s, changing the role of such a design handbook.
When he wrote Architects' Data nearly fifty years ago Neutert
provided a mixture of abstracted design, principles, hard data
and examples. Today there is less need for illustration of construction details. Manufacturers increasingly distribute technical
information which can be filed in uniform office systems; and
withtelephone lineand videodisplay unit an office can reach vast
computerised and regularly revised data banks. To make sense
of this mass of information the architect now needs even clearer
guidance on the principles and bases of design.
Basis ofthe revision
Ouraim, therefore, has been to simplify,
rearrange and modernise.
Requirements or advice contained in regulations,standardsand
codes have for the most part been left out: theychange during
the life of the book and vary from country to country; moreover
for legal and codified data the designer should always look tothe
original source. Full references have been given. Informationon
construction elements (such as foundation, brickwork, roofs)
can easily befoundelsewhere; it has been leftout or reduced to
make moreroom for more fundamentalworkon building types.
At the beginning 'Basic data' summarises the essentialsof the
human scale in architecture and at the end 'Components' brings
togethersomenew Europeanplanningguidelines forthespaces
needed to install, operate and maintain the oftencomplex services
now required in buildings; technical aspects of the internal
environment; and practical criteria for such components as
windows, doors, stairs and elevators.Thoughtheyare not directly
applicable in a non-metric context we felt these pages to be of
wide interest in their approach to the presentation of such
information. In the body of the bookthe measureof whatto leave
out, what to put in or to expand has been: does this help the
designerin solving heror his problems of spatial needs?
exception.
Units of measurement
The International System of Units (SI) is used for all units of
measurement. A decision on how to apply the system faces
architects and engineers when drawing plans. at what point to
switch from the basic mm to the derivative m. There appears to
be no ruling by authority on this. In Architects' Data it is solved
in two ways. All linear measurements in text are given in millimetresup to 9999, standing as herewithout indicator,and from
10 m upwards they are givenin metres with the indicator m. On
theotherhand in the many smalldiagramswhich formoneof the
book's most useful elements, four figure dimensions would
oftenmake for clutter: wherethereisthisdanger, for dimensions
above 999 metres are used without the indicator m.
There has to be one exception to this rule. In sportinternational
dimensions standardsare given: some of theseare still expressed
in 'imperial'or US customaryunits. This sectionthereforepresents
an unavoidable mixture.
To meetthe needsof users in the United States of America, who
are mostly still using US customary or 'imperial' units, a set of
conversion factors and tables is provided —.p364—81 (with a
simplified version on p434). In other appropriate
instances the graphicscale may be used (see below).
Scales
Many of the plans and diagrams in the book do not needscales;
their purposeis to expressrelationships or situations. In many
others the practical needs of the user are best answered by
giving dimensions on the drawing. Scales are used only in
relation to plans or diagrams of specific buildings or installations
and these are shown graphically in metres and feet.
Style
This book is not literature; it is a practical manual. The text is
telegraphic and predicatory; in this it follows the practice ofErnst
Neufert, who wrote in his first edition that his aim had been to
'reduce, schematise, abstractthe elements of design basics so
as to make simple imitation difficult and to oblige the user to
create form and content out of data'. The size of many of the
diagrams makes necessary the use of abbreviations, these are
therefore used consistently in all plans and diagrams and in
captions, the most common in the text also, the intention being
that theyquickly become familiarto the user. Abbreviationsused
in the book(—pxiii) are also listed forquickreferenceon
p434 which carries the conversion tables and factors.
Language is a usual problem in a book intended for users both
xii
Foreword
nt
sidesthe Atlantic,
to mention othercontinents. Sometimes it
is possible to find a neutral alternative expression; at others we
have risked annoying everybody occasionally by choosing a
word fromone or the other usage: thusthe British have to accept
aisle', 'elevator' truck'; North Americans must stomach 'footpath', 'ground floor' for 'first floor' (and 'second' for 'first' . .
'cooker'for 'range' (which has a limited specific meaning in the
United Kingdom). Only rarely have we fallen back on using a
double expression such as 'trolley (cart)'. NorthAmericanreaders
are also asked to accept that British spelling has been used all
through.
Distantly related is the problem of the rule of the road. Quite a
numberof illustrations show access roads, car parking, turning
circles and such details. Some have their origin in continental
Europe, some in North America, some in the United Kingdom.
Rather than try to convertall to one rule we have indicated on
each relevantpage whether it refersto elior right handcirculation.
Acknowledgements
The contributors in the UK and USA who have made this new
edition possible are named —pix. Authors, publishers,architects,
institutions and public bodies who have allowed the use of
copyrightsare listed on the pagefollowing. Warmest thanks to
all.
Planning and execution of the revisions, changes, new concepts
and improvements, while a cooperativeeffort, have been entirely
the publishers' responsibility. But theworkwould not have been
possible without consultant editor George Atkinson, whose
experience, technical knowledgeand practicaloutlook have been
invaluable, We are indebted also to Wm Dudley Hunt, whose
professionalism and expertise, which are the basisof the respect
he already enjoys in the USA, have helped enormously in the
completion ofthe book.
Lastly we salute and thank Patricia Crowe, whose secretarial
skills gave us a clear course through the seas of paper, and
deputy editorRichard Miles, whostepped in to see things through
in the later stages ofthe work. The formidabletask of drawing or
revising the manynew or modified figures fell to Sheena Busby
MSAAT and the design and layout of the printed page to Tony
Leonard, to both of whom our sincerest thanks.
Vincent Jones
John Thackara
How to use the book
Arrangement
The contents table —.pv shows the grouping of subjects & sequence
ofthe book: frombasicdata for man & his buildings, through man in his
community, to buildings for commerce, industry & leisure, to some
technical planning data & regulations. It can be used to find the pages
referring to a given subject suchas 'shops &stores'.
The index —.p429 is a tool for quick reference to a point of detail eg
'access', 'shower', 'wheelchair'.
Thebibliography —.p41 3 isdivided into3 parts: athe mainalphabetical
(and numbered) list of publications for further reference, & extracted
fromthis ba list of the most important regulations&codesofthe UK &
USA, c a list of references under subject headings eg 'airports',
'disabled', 'offices','schools'.
Abbreviations used—pxiu are also given on p434 together with
conversion tables from metric to USA customary or imperial
measures
Units of measurement: Sl—pl, conversion—p364 & p434.
Application
Suppose you have to prepare a scheme for a college of further
education. Under 'education' inthe contents there are pagereferences
for lecture rooms (134), schools of art (137), student hostels (140),
dining rooms (142), libraries (145): these together givesome ofthemain
components needed.
On studying thesepages you will find cross references (indicated—.) to
other sections suchas accoustics (18 395), auditorium (350), cinemas
(354), fire escape (44 91), kitchens (213), sanitary units (65), seating
systems (351), shared accn (99), sighttines (351 ), space standards(44
48), workshops (288)
General information on proportions & human measurements is given
—.p9—24, on services, heating, lighting, sound ventilation & such
components as elevators, stairs, windows —.p383—4l 2.
Regulations & codes should be studied before starting any design:
—.bibliography fora listof the most important.
XIII
Abbreviations
Abbreviations used intext and diagrams are listed below,
gal
A
ampere
ar
area
gar
GP
gu
AC
alternating current
accommodation
administration
architect
American National Standards Institute
American Society for Testing & Materials
average
NB: pluralsarenot used inabbreviations
accn
admin
arch
ANSI
ASTM
av
h
ha
hb
hr
HUD
hum
Hz
B
b
base
bathr
bedr
balc
bldg
bldg reg
BOCA
BRE
BS(I)
Btu
BZ
bed
bath
basement
bathroom
bedroom
balcony
building
building regulation
Building Officials & Code Administrators
Building Research Establishment
British Standards (Institution)
British thermal unit
British zonal classification
in
J
joule
°K
degree Kelvin
kitchen or thermal conductivty
kilogram
kilogram-force
kilometre
IES
IFLA
ISO
k
kg
km
consult
corr
CP
CSSD
cupboard/USA cabinet
degreeCelsius
centre to centre/USA on centers
candela
central general stores
children
Chartered Institute of Building Services
Commission internationalede I'Eclairage(International
Commission on Illumination)
cooker/USA range
classroom
cloakroom
consultation, consulting (room)
corridor
code ofpractice
central sterile supply depot
d
day or depth
ME
dayr
dB
DC
deg
dept
DES
DF
DHSS
dia
DoE
DPC
dayroom
decibel
directcurrent
degree
department
DepartmentofEducation &Science
daylight factor
DepartmentofHealth & SocialSecurity
diameter
Department ofthe Environment
damp proofcourse
diningroom
dressing room
domestic service room
mm
c/c
Cd
CGS
ch
CIBS
CIE
ck
classr
do
di
dre
DSR
E
el
eqp
exam
°E
fdn
FFL
FHA
fr
ft
illumination
electrical
equipment
examination
degree Fahrenheit
foundation
finished floorlevel/USA elevation
Federal Housing Authority
fire resistant
foot
gram
height orhigh
hall or hectare
(wash) hand basin
hour
Deptof Housing & UrbanDevelopment
humidity
hertz
InternationalConference ofBuilding Officials
Illuminating Engineering Society
InternationalFederation ofLibrary Associations
InternationalOrganisation for Standardisation
(Organisationinternationalede Normalisation)
inch
ICBO
kgf
C orcpd
gallon
garage
general practitioner
guestroom
I
Ia
lab
au
lay
lib
liv
lob
lx
m
mdr
max
mech
med
MIT
mm
rn/s
mur
litre, length, long
larder
laboratory
laundry
lavatory ortoilet
library
living room
lobby
lux
metre
maid's room (Orau pair)
maximum
mechanical
medical
maintenancefactor
minimum
Massachusetts Institute ofTechnology
millimetre
metres persecond
music room
nur
newton
National Fire Protection Association
nursery
off
oper
OS
OSHA
office
operating
Ordnance Survey
Occupational Safety & HealthAct
P
passenger, patient, person, pupil
parents room/USA master bedroom
physical education
power take-off
pantry
N
NFPA
pa
pe
pto
ptr
R
radr
RC
reg
rh
RHA
RIBA
radius
radiator
reinforced concrete
regulation
relative humidity
Regional Health Authority
Royal Institute of British Architects
xiv
Abbreviations
s
SBCC
sd
ser
SfB
sho
sitr
SI
sk
St
sto
stu
second
Southern Building Code Congress
scullery
servery
system ofclassification (building literature)
shower
sitting room
Système international dUnités
sink
seat
store (-age)
study
ter
tonne
temperature
tongued & grooved
terrace
UDC
UF
UK
USA
universal decimal classification
utilisation factor
United Kingdom
United States of America
temp
T&G
USHB
USPHS
uty
United States Hospital Board
United States Public Health Service
utility room
V
volt
W
w
watt
width
wardrobe/USA closet
washroom
water closet
workroom
working plane
waiting room (orarea)
wa
washr
wc
workr
wp
wr
yd
yr
0
yard
year
centre line
diameter
greater than orequal to
equal toor less than
BasicData
1
The human scale in architecture
1
LeonardodaVinci: ruleofproportion
In the past dimensions based on the human body, and on man's daily
activities, provided a natural basis forall unitsof measurement.Common
units like the inch — twelfth part of the foot, palm, hand, span, cubit —
length of the forearm, eli — outstretched arm, yard — pace are directly
related to dimensions of the body. Other units (pole, furlong, mile —
pound, stone, bushel etc) have theirbasis in human activities.
While trade was largely local and manufacture on a craft basis, local
variations in measurements were of limited importance.The growth of
science and technology, and the establishment of centralised states,
typified in 18th century France, led to a demand for rationalisafion of
weights and measures. This the metric system, first adopted in 1790,
met. It had ageodetic and decimal base, divorced from human dimensionsand fromthe duodecimal bases of many earlier systems
During the 19th and early 20th centuries, the metric system went
through several refinements asscientific knowledge about the physical
world progressed. Out of these refinementsarose the 'Système International d'Unités'(SI) now almost universallyadopted. Architects' Data
isbased onthe use of SI units—.p2
Architectural design remains largely about man and his spatial needs.
The aim of Architects'Data is to bring together in convenient form
dimensional and spatial planning information relating to most human
activities. Thechange to SI which took place in the UK —and many other
English-speaking countries — in the 1970s stimulated a fresh look at
userrequirements and their dimensional framework. The introductionof
SI in the USA during the 1980s will have asimilar effect
2 BasicData
Use of SI units
The rationalisedmetric system Système InternationaldUnités (SI) isa
quantity
unit
symbol
length
mass
time
el current
metre
kilogram
second
ampere
degreeKelvin
candela
m
kg
absolutetemp
luminousintensity
s
A
CK
cd
coherent system, nearly all the quantities needed being derived from
only 6 basic and arbitrarily defined units—9(1).
note:practicalunit for temp
isdegreeCelsius(°C):
temp intervalsofKelvin&
Celsiusare identical
Basic units
1
name
symbol
orderofmagnitude expression
giga
mega
kilo
hecto
deca
G
10
deci
centi
milli
micro
nano
k
h
da
d
1000000
1000
100
10
0.1
0.01
0.001
0.000001
0.000000001
102
10
c
10
10
m
10
10
2
2
6
10
n
SUPPLEMENTARY& DERIVEDUNITS
1000000000
i0
i0
M
MUltiples & sub-multiples of SI units
2
name
physicalquantity
symbol
newton
oule
N
work,energy,quantity
J
powerorenergyflow
watt
W
= kg m2/s3(orJ/s)
pressure,stress
pascal
coulomb
Pa
C
V
of heat
rate
el charge
el potential
el capitance
el resistance
volt
frequency
magneticflux
magneticflux density
inductance
luminousflux
farad
ohm
hertz
weber
telsa
F
henry
H
urn
lx
lumen
lux
illumination
ft
Hz
Wb
T
From the 6 basic units others have been derived and mostly given
special names —C(3). For use in design ofbldg thesefall into 5 groups:
space and time —.(4); mechanics and properties of matter —.(5); heat
and energy—C(6); acoustics and sound -(7);and illumination—.(8).El
units, already well established, are also reproduced—C(3).
Some multiples and sub-multipes of basic units in common use also
have special names:
litre
103m3
tonne
10 kg
hectare
10 m2
Conversion factors & tables —.p364—81. Use of SI units—.Bib135
relation tobasicunits
= kgrn/S2
= kg m7/s2(orNm)
force
To avoid using largeorsmall numbers a set ofprefixes hasbeenagreed
for general use in the SI system. These are set out—C(2). In selecting
prefixesconsideration should be given toorders of magnitudelikelyto
be met with in practical situations. To reduce confusion preference
should begiven tomultiples and sub-multiples chosenin steps of1000.
Those multiples shown in brackets—.(2)are not recommended.
name
temperature
°K
degreeKelvin
degreeCelsius CC
energy
megajoule2
(heatisonly one torm kiloioule
ofenergy)
ioule
= kg/rns2(or N/ni2)
= As
= kg rn2/s3A(orW/A)
= A2s4/kg m2 (orAs/V)
= kg rn2/s3A2 (orV/A)
= cycle/s
= kg m2/s2A2(orVs)
= kg/s2A(orWb/m2)
= kg m2/s2A(Vs/A)
= cd sr
= cdsr*/rn2(orlrn/rn2)
millijoule
megawatt
kilowatt
watt
milliwatt
k-value
U-value
newton/rn2
powerorheat flow
rate
(energy/time)
conductivity
transmittance
vapourpressure
vapourresistance
(reciprocal of
vapourdiffusion)
vapourresistivity
(reciprocal ot
* sr sferadianorsolid
anglesubtended at centreofunitradius sphereby
unit area ofsurface
symbol
Mi
kJ
expression
1 °K
(273.15°K)
1000000 J
1000 J
J
1
mJ
MW
kW
W
mW
0.001 J
J
1000000W
1000W
1 W
0.001 W
W/mCC
W/rn2°C
N/m2(1 millibar= 100N/rn2)
MN5/g
MNs/ m
vapourdiffusivityor
permeability)
DerivedSI units
3
quantity
1
quantity
name
symbol
length
kilometre
metre
millimetre
km
m
mm
squarekilometre
km2
area
volume
velocity
hectare
squaremetre
squarecentimetre
ha
cubic metre
litre
kilometre/hr
metre/second
m2
cm2
theabsoluteorKelvinscaleisusedin science andistheofficialSI scale
butforall practical purposesCelsiusisused;
expression
1000rn
lm
2 1 therm
6 Energy,heat &thermalinsulation;technicaldatap16 393—4
0.001 m
1
000000 rn2
frequency
m3
1
m3
soundlevel1
decibel
dB
I
0.001 m3
km/h
0.218m/s
reverberation time2
absorption3
second
sabin
T
s
rn/s
1
rn/s
1 sound levels recorded
usuallyasA-weightedsoundpressure inN/rn2
units: dB(A)
2 reverberation time = 0.16 V/AwhereV is volume of rrn in m3 & Ais
totalsoundabsorption
unitofabsorption, thesabin, = a x Swherea isthesound absorption
coefficientofamaterial, Sitsar
I
mass
tonne
I
l000000g
Structuraldesign
Hz
cm2
expression
5
hertz
(cycle/second)
m2
symbol
(force/area)
symbol
1
name
pressureor stress
name
1
quantity
(mass/acceleration)
quantity
10000m2
4 Space&time
force
approximates to 105.5 MJ
kilogram
gram
milligram
kg
g
mg
(1 000 kg)
1000g
ig
rAcousfics; technicaldata p18 395—7
quantity
name
symbol
luminousintensity
luminousflux
(flowof light)
candela
lumen
cd
illurninance
lux
lm/m2
0.001 g
1000000 N
meganewton MN
kilonewton
kN
1000N
newton
N
iN
(1 lbforce approximates to 4.5 N)
Pa
1 N/rn2
Pascal
(sometimes expressed as N/mm2)
rn
(lightfallingon surface)
luminance
apostilb
(light emittedby source) (candela/rn2)
8
Illumination; technicaldata p25—6398—9
cd/rn2
BasicData 3
Drawing sheets
LAYOUT& IDENTIFICATION
Layout: on every sheetfiling margin, titleand identification panel.
Filing margin: at left hand edge 20 wide. Filing punch marks and
foldmarks printed as ticksatedges ofsheet(microfilming—.p7).
--
Titlepanel: place in bottom right handcorner of sheet toaid reference
when prints tiled or folded —(1)(2). Include: job title; drawing title;
scale; date of drawing; job number; SfB and UDC reference if appropriate; name of architect. Panel may also give initialsof person drawing,
tracing and checking sheet. USA panels—*(3).
Revision suffix should be changed each time drawing issued after
revision; or list each revision as is USA practice.
Printed blank title panels or use of stencils, transfers or rubber stamps
save timeand labOur,
Information panel: note nature and date of each revision, with architect's initials; start atbottom ofpanel and workupwards Ifgeneral notes
included start at top and workdown.
Key: on large prolecfs give key diagram showing continuous drawing
sheets, with appropriate partblacked inon each relevant drawing.
Orientation: showN point on every plan. When practicable all plans
should have same orientation, except for site location plan. For this draw
N at fop ofsheetto avoid identificationwith official maps
Information&title
panels in USA a vertical
arrangement bhorizontal
3
Al
A2
iniormaiion
panei
iuiiepanei
0
('I
a
90
1
I
Typicaltitle panel: vertical
b
—Is
8
180
2 Typicaltitle panel: horizontal
BI
AO
4 Basic Data
Drawing sheets
SIZES & FOLDS
Standard sizes
A0841
xl 189
Al 594 x
841
A2420x
A3 297 x
A4210x
594
420
297
These sizes all proportional, leading to simple reduction and enlargement: sheets may easily be folded tor filing and despatch. Relatively
small sizes should lead to easier handling in drawing office and on site.
Keepnumber ofsizesto mm toease binding and reference.
Original drawings and contactcopies should each be ofstandard sizes;
therefore avoid trimming sheets to less than A sizes.
Folding
Printsmay be folded toA4 size quite easily from any large A size.
When prints are to be filed necessary to told in such way that punch
holespenetrate only 1 layer. Methods offolding —.( 1)and p5.
I
I
—-. —--———.———.-
A0
841
———-
x 1189
-—
Al
594 x 841
A2
420 x 594
A2
430 x 594
A3
298 x 420
1
Simplefoldingofdrawings
BasicData 5
Drawing sheets
SIZES & FOLDS
A0
841
x 1189
:'
105
IN'
//I
I'//
/ >!
I
I
I
I
Al
594 x 841
=
105—
It
H>
V
A2
0)
20
420 x 594
A3
297 x 420
1
Foldingofdrawingsforfiling
0)
N-
420 x 594
A2
N-
rg
i
BasicData
6
Drawing practice
Designer's principal languageis through drawingand draughtsmanship.
Drawingsexpress his intentionsclearly.Theyare internationallyreadable.
Supplemented by schedules and specifications of materialsand workmanship they enable quantities of materials needed and prices to be
estimated, bids to be drawn up, work to be planned by builder and
carriedout on construction site. Drawingsare principal meansbywhich
designer'sintentions are discussed with clientand authorities.On basis
of architect's drawings designs of specialists (eg structural, mech,
el engineer) and work of specialist contractors can be planned and
coordinated.
parts ofbldg
&site
typeof
information
kxation
I-i,
substructure
II!-h.-_ superstructure
secondary
elements
.
-thJ-_--
foundation plan
4— finishes
In recent years much attention has been given to use of drawings and
theircoordination —up7. Draughtsmanhas availablewide range ofinstruments and tools. Since first English edition of Architects' Data unprecedented developments in reprographic techniques and computer
seMces
111114__ fixtures
4-— Site
graphics.
WORKINGDRAWINGS
assembly—1
[
L
(foundation
j
details
4—
4—
4—
i—
4—
4—
Working drawings should convey bulk of technical information about
bldg project. Builder needs to know 'shape', 'size'and 'location' ofbldg
as whole and of all constitutent parts and must be told 'composition' of
materials to be used and assembly and fastening methods (—v Bib
075 081).
Grids on plans and key reference planes on elevations improve quality
of dimensional information on working drawings; when repeated on
details they help to locate them in bldg. Composition best dealt with in
bills of quantities or specifications. Drawings and schedules should
indicate materials used; graphic symbols may be used for this purpose
substructure
superstructure
secondary
elements
tinlehes
services
fixtures
site
(—eBib142).
Theset ofdrawings
Two facetsof information used to classify information needed in structuring sets of drawings: first differentiates between location,assembly
andcomponent information; second parts ofbldg and site-.-.(1).
substructure
superstructure
secondary
elements
firushes
services
fixtures
site
—u(2) defines purposes oflocation,schedule, assembly and component
drawings.
Not every type of these drawings will be required for 1 bldg proiect.
Some types of drawings and some types of information may be in
appropriate circumstances combined.
BRE tests favour elemental breakdown of bldg for systematic and
convenient arrangement of information. —x(3) shows universal list of
elements with codenumbers based on Cl/SfBtable 1 —up8 (—uBib553)
(not used in USA).
*there will beadditional
drawingsdeafing
withproject aswhole
Arrangementoftheset
1
iocation
site&externai
Works
therewill building
be additional
iocation
drawings
deahng with
pro(ect as
to identify, locate & dimension the
Site & externat works
toidentify, iocate & dimension parts
& spaceswithinbldg & ioshow
overaii shapes by plan,eievahon
(— —) site,project
to locategrids,datums S key
substructure superstructure
toconvey dimensions forsetting Out
togiveotherinformation ofgenerai
nature forwhichsmat scale is
approriate (eqdoorswings)
ground
primary secondary
substructure eiements eiemenfs
orsection
reference planes
whole
(3—)
(4—)
togiveiocation & setting-out
(10)
(20)
(30)
cross-references
ioshow cross-references to
(it)
(2t(
(3t)
(4t)
ground
external
wails
evternal
openings
external
)t2)
(22)
internal
walls
(42)
(t3(
(23)
floors
(32)
internat
openings
(33)
floor
openings
(34)
baiustrades
information about 1 eiemerit. or
groupofreiated elements
eiement:
tocolectrepetitive information
about elements orproducts which
eiement.
toshow assembiy ofparts of
f
element including shape size
ofthoseparts
toshow an element at its unction
withanother element
toshow cross-references to other
assembly & component drawings
floorbeds
(t4)
)t5)
(t6)
(24)
stairs,
ramps
(25)
internal
(43)
floor
(44)
stair
(45)
suspended ceiling
ceitings
(36)
(46)
(351
2
eiement or
sub-elements
toshow shape, dimensions &
assembly (&possibly composition)
ofcomponent tobe made away
frombldg
toshow coinponent parts ofan inSitu
assemblywhich cannotbe defined
adequately onassembly drawing
Typeofdrawing& purpose
(5t)
(6—)
(7—)
(8—)
(9—)
mainly
lived
loose
external
elements
(60)
(70)
(80)
(90)
external
works
(61)
el suppiy
(it)
el
(81)
(91)
circulation circulation
(52)
(62)
drainage, power
waste
(72)
seating
fixed
(82)
seating
loose
(92)
(53)
liquid
supply
(54)
gases
supply
(73)
culinary
(83)
cutinary
(93)
(64)
(74)
communications sanitary
(84)
sanitary
(94)
(65)
(75)
cleaning
(851
(95)
(76)
sto
screening
(77)
special
activity
(78)
(86)
(96)
sf0
screening
(551
(63)
hghting
space
coohng
(17)
piles
(27)
roofs
(37)
roof
openings
(47)
roof
(18)
(28)
frames
138)
(48)
(581
3
site
fittings
(66)
space
transport
heating
(57)
(67)
ventitation
(261
foundations
component
(5—)
element:
occurin variety
torecord cross-references to
assembly & component drawings
assembty
(2—)
finishes mainly
piped
(40)
(50)
schedules, assembly &
component drawings
schedute
(1—)
services
156)
Elemental breakdown(from Ct/SfBtable 1)
(68)
security,
control
cieaning
(87)
special
activity
(88)
(97)
(98)
BasicData 7
Drawing practice
WORKINGDRAWINGS(cont)
Elementcode (stairs)
Numbering, titling&coding
—(1)shows simple numbering system, (—.BibO8l).Other information,
suchas job number, or information relating drawing to particularblock,
zoneor rm, best placed inseparate but adjacent block.
Sheetnumber
Titles should be brief but comprehensive. If drawing shows particular
feature of element, this should be stated in title, If detail applies at
particular location, thistoo should be stated—.(2).
Schedules of components, finishes etc can be used as convenient
collecting centres for cross-reference.
A(24)2
Assemblydrawings
Preparation oftechnical drawings formicrofilming
1
2
(4)(—.Bib128).
Title
Title
Assembly
Assembly
Stairs
Frame
Halflanding
staircase No 3
Beamsongrid
lines A & C
Drawings should be on smallest standard sheet size compatible with
clarity. Drawing sheets larger than AO' should be avoided. Centring
markin form of line should be shown at centre of each of 4 sides at
drawing frame —.(3).
Since size of copy printed back from microfilm usually different from
size oforiginal reference to scale used should bestated on drawing: eg
(original scale 1:5).
Titling
designation
nominal size nominal
ofsheet
borderw
xl
AU
Al
A2
A3
A4
554 x 801
400 x 574
long
297x
277x400
longside
420
210x297
10
10
International papersizes
Derivation of ISO A series of paper sizes —.(5).
drawing frame preferred
size
orientation*
841
189 20
594 x 841 20
420 x 594 10
* To facilitate automated
3
Microfilming increasingly used for storing record drawings Drawing
sizes —=(3) and mm character height for capital letters and numbers
Simplenumberingsystem
801 x
and folds—.p45.
1149
Scale ratios
Introduction of metric
reduces number of scale ratios compared with
USA traditional scales —(6).
horizontal
190x277
vertical
metricscales
traditionalscales
printing on rollstock
(expressed
asratio)
drawingsheetsize
Al, A2& A3
drawing number AU,
&title
dimensions &
all other
characters
mm
5
AU
3.5
& A4
4=10"
3=10"
2=10"
7
A4
Al, A2, A3
fullsize
half full size
character h
11/2'' =
Mm
= 10''
/0=10
Al
AD
B41594
(1:250)
(limiteduse)
1'lO
1:20
[1:32]
[1:48]
1:50
[1:60]
[1:64]
[1:96]
1:100
[1:196]
1=200"
[1:240]
= 10"
[1:384)
1" =400"
(limited use)
[1:8]
1"=lO'O"
= 10"
1/16' = 10''
1/32"
(1:25)
1:5
[1:24]
1" = 5'O"
characterh forcapital letters&numerals
nochange
nochange
[1:6]
= 10''
1/4''= 10''
1:2
[1:4]
10"
¾" = 10"
is
1:1
[1:2]
[1:3]
[1:12]
[1:16]
1/2''
note: it is stressed that recommendations in thistable
aremm; however, whenlowercaselettersare usedthey
should beproportioned sothatbody h approx
0.6 times capital letterh
[1:11
1=10"
=
3/4
2.5
10''
[1:120]
[1:128]
1:200
[1:480]
1:500
1" =500"
1" =600"
ll89B41
geometricderivationof
ISO 'A'senes
constant ratio ofsides1:
'2
—
successivehalving
ofsheet sizes
lar ofADsheet 1 m)
1" = 1 chain
A3j
420
297
[1
1=800"
425
[1:600)
[1:720]
[1:792]
[1:960]
1:1000
total:
24
9
1
(2)
5
ISOAseriesofinternationalpapersizes
6
remarks
preferred other
Drawingsheet sizes &framesizes
application
Drawing sheets sizes
Metric&traditionalscaleratioscompared
8 BasicData
Drawing practice
LEVELS
REFERENCING
General
Levelson section& elevation
Datum
should be prolectedbeyonddrawingwith arrowhead indicating appropriate
tine—(1a).
Levels record distance of position above or below defined datum.
Properlysurveys refer site elevationstodatumestablishedbygovernment
on olticial maps. UK temporary bench mark tTBM) USA site bench
mark establishes ptane to which atl other tevets related as positive it
above' and negative if below Dimensions given in mm, or in USA
rormatiy in ft and tenths of ft. in relation to datum
Levelson plan
On site diawings show existing levels ditterently fromintended levets
Existirrg contours showndotted new contoursin solidlines. Spot elevations
ahown
existingleveL x 58.21
row level
Ix 60.251
Exact position towhich level apptiesshould be indicated by 'x
[root levels should be clearly indicatedon plans
UK Finished Floor Level
FFL
60.25
USA Finshed Floor Elevation FFE
60 25
UK practice usessame method as for tevets on plan except that level
Classification& coding
tn USA practice drawings used to show locations and dimensions ot
btdg elements and materials identified in notes bygeneric terminology.
Specifications accompanying drawings describe materials and workmanship. Widespread use of standard construction indexing system
improved both coordination and reference between drawings and
specifications and costestimating and product data
StB system of classificationand coding ot btdg componentsand elements
(applied in UK as Cl/StB —.Bib553(allows information be coordinated
and correlated
By means of SfB information contained within different kinds of documents (eg billsof quantity,drawings, specifications,texts,frade literature)
can be coordinated and correlated for max benefit of user.
StB is facet system of alpha-numericalsymbols forming 3 tables which
may be used individually or in combination to indicate concepts and
terms required
Levels on sectior' arid elevation —l1).
These tables list: building elements, components/products, materials;
alsop6(3).
FFL 107.0OO
01
lfirsifloor)
FFL 101.0001 G
(ground floor)
G-01
mezzanine)
TBM 100.000,
FFL datum
FFL 1O4.OO0
V
level
98.000
B-01
(basementl
V
Eachtype ofcomponent orelement shown ondrawing may be identified
by appropriate StB notation eg:
Ff2
concrete blocks
Gf2
concrete lintels
aluminium sections Hh4
hardwood sections Hi3
manholes
(52)
external walls
(211
windows
(31)
doors
(32)
radiators
(56)
Notations may be combined eg:
external walls, concrete block (21 (Ff2
windows, aluminium
(31)Hh4
doors, hardwood
(32)Hi3
Keep number and length of component and element notations to mm
compatible with rational system of identificationforeach particular ob.
Specific component within any range may be identified by suffix giving
nominal sizesforlength, width, height:
concreteblock Ff2400mmx 100mm x 200mm
- -.- --
i—
elevation9753
U
elevation
secondfloor
6096
1L
Alternatively, where principles of modular coordination are applied,
such suffix may give nominalsizes forcomponentorelement in multiples
of 100mm(M( eg: concrete block Ff2 4M x 1M x 2M
0
C,-,
0-mezzanine
elevation3048
firsto
I
ground
- floor
eievaiion 00 'I,),
varies
groundlevel
Igrade)
_____
I-)—.
Nexisting grade
elevarion 386r
b
1
Levelson section& elevation a UK
bUSA
Drawing practice references:
—Bibtiography entries061 075081 082 095 127 128 135 142 290 322
448463553621 638
BasicData 9
Proportions
MAN: THE UNIVERSALSTANDARD
1
Proportions of humanbody
Bodyand reach characteristicsotpeople of key importance inarchitectural design: fromearly time artists and scientists have been concerned
with dimensions and proportions of human body —.(1). In such dimensional systems human body has been measured in terms ofhand, foot,
arm or head. Using data from anthropometrical survey one can plot
graphsofmeasurements againsttheirfrequency ofoccurrence forming
curvedline —.(2). Normal, or bell-shaped, curve obtained when adult
standing heights or other measurementswhich depend on bone structure shownon graph. Curve is symmetrical if measurementsof group
normally distributed.
People by reason ofage, sex, physique and, possibly, disability show
wide range of body and reach dimensions Anthropometry name used
for science of measurement of human body and its movements in
space. From studies of functional anatomy concept of effective work
space has beendeveloped. Architects' Data brings together much of
this information. Although for purposes of design usually necessary to
use av human dimensions as criteria, should be borne in mind that only
half or less of population under consideration may be fully satisfied. In
somecircumstances, particularly when designing for young children,
elderly or disabled, necessary totake account ofspecial needs, and of
variations fromav. In stature adult femalesaverageabout 5% less than
adult males and elderly women up to 1O% less.
sIandnlg6
7
78
3SD
76
75
2SD—74
1 SD
___________________
mean medrarc& node
—
mean
68
I SD
6
6€
65
64
2SD'—
Semicurve
62
3SD—61
60
Q
1
2000 3000 4000 5000
Frequencynumbercr1 maies)
60 7000 8000 9000
Frequencydistributioncurveforstanding h USA males
10000
10 Basic Data
Proportions
Systems ofproportions have been used in design byarchitectsthroughout the centuries. Measurementsof classical bldg show basis of geometrical proportion —.(1).
'1
One frequently used proportionalrelationshipbasedon goldensection:
relationship M:rn in which minor part m is to major part M as this is to
sum of both ie:
m:M = M:(Mm)-.(2)
RELATIONTO HUMAN SCALE
One architect to develop proportional system for use in design was Le
Corbusier. His concept Le Modu/or (Bib445)was first publishedin 1948,
though he had been evolvingthe ideaofcombininghuman dimensionsin
a mathematicalframework for some time previouslyin an attempt to use
in his designs a measure related tothe human scale which was universallyapplicable.
System uses Golden Section to mark out divisions of human body
—(3)(4). First proposal for Le Modulor was based on mans height of
1 720 (approx 5 ft 9 in), giving with outstretched arm —.(3) overall
dimension of2160. Later height of6ffDin (orabout 1 830) was adopted,
giving overall dimension of 2260 Based on these last dimensions 2
series, red progression and blue progression, were developed —.(6).
Each dimension is proportionally larger, or smaller, than its neighbour
giving harmonious progression. Using dimensions from the 2 series a
series of rectangulargrids can be formed, basedon Golden Section but
related tohuman scale.
1
CornerofDoruc templebased ongoldensection
1
I
1
\
\\
I-
/2
,
M
-
--\----/:
/
m
\'
4
'1
J
j•
4
I
The modular
mA—M—Am-'
2160
5 Greektemplein plan&elevation based,as in—fl),on golden section
dimensions inSI units inmm
dimensionsininches roundedto V2"
redprogression
redprogression
952807
588867
363940
224927
139013
85914
53098
32816
20282
12535
7747
4788
2959
1829
1130
698
432
267
165
102
63
39
24
15
9
6
3
Humanproportions
E
V2
Rectanglewith sides
correspondingtogoldensection
2
a
6
biue progression
1177735
727880
449855
278025
171829
106196
65633
40563
25069
15494
9576
5918
3658
2260
1 397
863
534
330
204
126
blue progression
306
609
1881,
377
1161/2
44½
233
144
89
27½
55
17
34
10½
21
6½
13
72
4
8
78
48
30
18
11
Explanationsof dimensions&workingofLeCorbusier'smodular
Basic Data
11
Man
DIMENSIONS& SPACEREQUIREMENTS
co
Body measurements
(I)
—.(1 )—(20) showbody measurementsbasedon Europeandata.—(21 )—
(26) show further body measurements based on USA data. School
children —.p131—32.
1375
F—750—
—1
—625—-—f
a
a
'— 625
1—300-I
small easychair
for
sewin'
I—
—
900—1000
17 I
1250
—1
1V
1500
I
19i
1625
i
201
2000
F—860-—
—710—
24
___
12
Basic Data
Man
DIMENSIONS& SPACEREQUIREMENTS
Mm
dimensions and space requirements of human beings in some
common situations,basedon European measurements—.also p1 1 13 14
Space requirements between walls (for moving personsadd
h*
13751
4
1
2
i
875
1000 I
4
1150
4
3
1
Q% to w)
—
I
5
1700
--
6
-
I
2250
7
Space requirements of groups
9
8 Closelypacked
Normalspacing
10 Choir
11
12 Withshoulder loads
Waitingqueue
Step measurements
750-
4
750 —4 750
I-
-4
13
14
875
-
Marching
requirementsof variousbodypostures
r
f
875—-I—-- 875 -—-4
1250
4-—--
15
-
625 —4
2000
16 Max/rn
Strolling
=
6persons
0
H—1 125—1
I— 1000—H
17
18
4— 1125 —H
4_
4—
875 —4
20
19
—1000 —I
4—
26
27
2125
21
b— 875—I
—1000 —4
4—-—- 1750
22
23
24
—---4
Space requirements with stick & umbrella
Spacerequirements for hand luggage
F—800 —4
25
4-—625--t
—4
—875-—1
28
BasicData
13
Man
DIMENSIONS& SPACEREQUIREMENTS: ACCESS FORWORKON BUILDINGS
min2450
+
—-
Bodyclearance: prone
1
1000 —4--
9
Service access: panel
t
-$ rI(I
mm
560
to 600
2 Body clearance: crawl
rnin
if00
1250
3
Lj
Bodyclearance: squat
mm
-+--900-+-
angle
0
W
50—55" 1620—1 570
57—60 1500—1450
63—66' 1370—1320
69—72' 1270—1200
74—55" 1150—1050
300
to350
10
4
recommended forangles 50" to 75"
handrails required onboth sides ifrisers not
left open orit nosidewalls
w 500-600with handrails
600mm between sidewalls
Serviceaccess: catwalk
880
900
910
920
950
recommended riser 180—250
tread 75- 150
45 dia max forhandrail
Body clearance: stoop
13 Service access: step ladders
w#
5
Bodyclearance maintenance
reachlevels
900
760
1550
stand
el1220
11 Service access. stairs
920
L1_-_600
mm entries for I man
330—450difficult
450—610 fair
61 0—920good
300
inclined
150
vertical
wmin800
1100
650dia
7
(800 square
preferable)
Service access: crawlway
ft
mm
angle R
330
1150
335
1050
340
1000
950
350
850 360
900
850
875° 370
90.00 380 max
800
300
450dia or
Service access: hatch
Proportions references
Bibliography entries 075 081 082 445
W
75.0°
78.0°
80.5°
83,0°
optimumrange
square
8
generally suitable forvertical movements75—90
ladder frame should extend900aboveplatform
w 380mm. 450 desirable
600 mm between sidewalls
150 toe space
12
Service access. ramps
provide back guardover 6000h
14
Serviceaccess: rung ladders
14 Basic Data
Man
WALKINGSPEEDS& FLOW CAPACITY —aIsop407
DIMENSIONS& SPACEREQUIREMENTS
NB Europeandata (1)—(7); USA (8)(9)
Stairs
Relation between riser and going for most normal staircases 2R: 1G
= riser (not greater than 190, or tor elderly and ambulant
disabled not more than 170: external steps 145 preferred) and G =
going (not less than 240, orfor elderly and ambulantdisabled not less
than 250: external steps 370 preferred).
Av walking speeds on stairs lower than in corridors: generally laster
down than up but in dense crowd down may be slower. Number of
mis-steps increases as size of tread reduced: more accidents going
downstairs than up. Design details -.p86(5) 408/3
where R
I—
625
-
Corridors& ramps
Normalpaceofmale adult on
horizontalplane
1
2
On ramp pace reduced:
desirableslope 10%—8%
350—400
Factors affecting walking speeds on level footways (in oroutdoors):
purpose ofjourney;
age and sex;
whether single person or in group:
air temp(quicker in cold);
floorsurface;
whether carrying weight;
crowd density:
flow pattern.
Walking speeds vary within crowd; range between highest and lowest
speed can be equal to mean value.
a
3
Tread&riseproportionrule-ofthumb:going + twicerise = 600
4 Ifstairs narroworcurved
distanceof walklinefromouterstring
450—400
Limit of free flow conditions in corridors: approx 0.3 P/rn2; higher
densities limit individual's ability walkat natural speed and overtake. At
density 1.4 P/rn2 (commonly adopted design max) most people will be
walking atless than natural speed and feel some discomfort
Short length of slope in level toofway scarcely affects walking speed;
5%). Steeper ramps can reduce
similarly for low gradient ramps
speed markedly: eg by20% with 10% gradient,40% with 15% gradient.
Elderly and disabled (—.p85(2) 87(11)) generally walk more slowly
down than up ramp (gradient 8%). Design details —op407.
(
Doors
With heavy trafficspeed offlow through doors depends on type of user
(eg old/young, carrying weight) and on density of traffic each side of
door. For heavy 2-waytraffic 2 separateopenings desirable.
Design details op401 —2.
Elevators
Traffic capacity determined by analysisofflowpattern—op410—12
5 If stairswide &straightdistance
ofwalk line fromhandrail550
6
W ofstairsallowing2peopleto
pass
w
same
as
stairs
2030
mm
970
5—15
7
W ofstairsallowing3peopleto
meet &pass
8
Stairs:USA dimensions
9
Ramp: USA dimensions
Basic Data 15
Man & his buildings
Bldg shelter man against unwanted effects of weather, A principal
functionof their design is to ensure within bldg environment conducive
towell-being and efficiency. Severalphysicalvariablestogether involved
in determining whether environment is, or is not, acceptable for 1 or
more human activities. There are indices which combine in various
ways physical variables which relate to human responses; 3 of these
indices relate to: thermal comfort, visual efficiency, acceptable levels
of noise—p16 17 18. Quality of air must be acceptable,not containing
contaminants whichmay be unpleasantoreven harmful.
constituentgas
% byvolume
nitrogen
oxygen
78.08
20.94
0.03
0.95
carbondioxide
argon & othergases
Compositionofdryatmosphere
1
source
contaminants
physiological
C02,H20,bodyodour
combustion(fullyburntfuels)
combustion(unburntor partially
burntfuels)
householdactivities
tobaccosmoking
C02,H20,S02
C0,CH4, petrolvapour
H70,odours
GO, odours, irritants
2 Commoncontaminantsofair
Qualityofair
Fresh air in open country consists largely of nitrogen, oxygen, water
vapourand small amounts ofothergases. Amount ofwater vapour in air
always changing. Composition ofdry air—(1).
Outside air may be polluted by contaminants released from industrial
processes, burning of fossil fuelsfor heatingortransportation,dust etc.
Indoor air may also be polluted —(2). Rates.at which contaminants
produced vary in part according to kinds of activity going on—(3)—(5).
Limiting values of common contaminants—(6).
Odours, mainly body odourand consequences of tobacco smoking,
present special problem: consist oflarge number ofconstituent chemicals in small but variable proportions. Attempts to define and measure
odours chemicallyusually unsuccessful.In general tobaccoodour masks
body odour. Withnearly all odours effects become rapidly less noticed
after few minutes in conthminatedspace.
Fresh air supply needed to maintain body odour at satisfactory level
depends upon standards of personal hygiene. Different for adults and
children —.(7).
For tobacco odourconditions, habits and patterns of occupancy vary
greatly. Ventilation requirements for offices depend on whether office
space small (when may be assumed all occupants smoke) or large
open-plan (when on avonly 50% or less will be smokers)—(8).
Air quality may be maintained in 3 ways: by controlling production of a
contaminant, venting anyresidue toopenair; bydiluting contaminant by
bringing in outdoor airthrough windows,ventilatorsetc;byreplacingused
and contaminated airmechanically through system ofairconditioning.
For exact conditions check relevant codes and standards.
contaminant
activity
C02(l/s/P)
resting
light work
moderatework
heavywork
very heavy work
H20 (water vapour) g/s/P
0.004
0.006—0.013
0.013—0.02
0.02—0.026
0.026—0 032
a
0
30
40
112
a
>
40
0.
0.
40
40
to
a
3
Ratesofproduction of physiologicalcontaminants
activity
H20 g/day/household
cooking
3000
1000
1000
500
bathing
dish washing
clotheswashing
clothesdrying
4
a
5000(automatic dryersto beventedtooutside)
C.
a
a
Ratesof productionofwatervapour(H20)fromhousehold activities
C.
0.
fuel
a
a
contaminant
water vapour(H20) SO2
l/s/kW g/hr/kW
l/s/kW
CO2
naturalgas
kerosene
lowpressure
gas
[co
of
5
Rates
0.027
0.034
156
96
—
8.9 x
0.033
130
—
0.8 I/s/cigarettecarbonmonoxide (00)
production
contaminant
methane
propane
butane
acetylene
hydrogen
petrol(gasoline)
6
occupationdensily m'/P
7
Airsupply rateforodour achildren badults: 1 conditionsregarded as
goodby occupants&acceptableto visitors 2intermediate3conditions
objectionabletovisitorsbutstill bearablebyoccupants
ofcontaminants bycombustion & smoking
.?
0.5
0.005
0.0005
30
30
30
302
30
0.1
Co2
'
C)
C
%
a
limitingconcentration %
toxicity
carbondioxide
carbonmonoxide
sulphurdioxide
10
C.,
2
flammability
—
C
o
120—75.0
—
5.0—15.0
2.0—9.5
15—8.5
2.5—8.2
4.0—7.4
1.4—7.6
Limitingvaluesof commoncontaminants
,.
7bodyodour
\.' \'\
/[
watervapour
\t \ \\ X
\
\(
\
— tobacco smoke
(smalloff)
\J(o(n-plan)
S
E
a
>
0
8
\
2
I
I
4
6
8
floor space/P: my/P
10
12
Ventilationrequirementsforoff: verticaldottedline shows lowerlimitas
definedbyUKOffices&Shops&RailwayPremises Act (assuming ceilinghof
2.7m)
16 BasicData
Man & his buildings
THERMALCOMFORT
Am temp required for thermal comtort depends on occupantsactivity
and clothing worn Also depends on speedotairmovement and on hum
of air in temperate climates only to a small extentl
0
"or purpose ot specifying comfortable temp 4 levels of activity have
been suggested —f t) Also convenient to divide clothing worn into
categories according to insulation which it affords, this being specitied
in the unit 'do': 1 'do' 0.155 ci" C/W. Exceptforbedctothing modern
indoor clothing rarely exceeds insulationvalue 1 do —.(2)
o
Eo
0
o IS
ri terms ofcomtort people atfected almost as much by tempolsurfaces
which surround them as by that of air. 1 way ot specitying combined
affect of air and surface tempis by use of tempof globethermometer
- 13) However, if little ditference in rm between globe and air temp (as
happens in well insulated rm) air temp may be adequate measure ot
thermal conditions
monthly mean outdoor temp 'C
Preferredindoortemp:USAtemprange greater. say —50"— +43C;for
interpretation—.text
4
Important to distinguish between ventilationrateswhich affect airquality
by diluting contaminants and air movement which may aIled thermal
comfort. If air movement in rm exceeds about 0.2 m/s, higher rm temp
required to provide equivalenl comfort. In normal temperate environrnenl effect of hum on perceived warmth very slight: but it people very
hellosduringvery active work or in very warm environment) high hum
will aggravate discomfort Air movement overskin will be beneticial
Nb particular level of tempwill be satisfactory for everybody. Not only
will dress and degree activity vary, but people differ in requirements.
L'sually adequate maintaintemp within 2 Cofoptimum. While no importoot general ditterence between temp preterred by men or women,
yaung or old, there will bedifferences in part due toclothing and in part
toactivity Old people usually less active Children ofsecondary school
ade require similar temp to adults. but more tolerant ot variations.
Younger children even more tolerant and, being more active, prefer
lower temp 1 tudor intluencing clothing people wear is prevailing
outdoor temp For sedentary activities, carried out by people in their
isual clothing, preferred indoor temp generally lie within bands shown
— )4). Band A for bldg where heating,orcooling, plant operating: band B
toi free running' bldg iewhere no artificialmeans for heating orcooling
used; thermostat seftings USA: C (cooling in summer) D winter.
shows baseline thermal comfort chartbased on USA data
0
.0
0
.0
a)
(5)
Heating systems --.p385--91 ventilation 392
rateof metabolic
heat produced.
W/m2bodyar
activity
description
sleeping
bodyrelaxed, lying down, reclining
sitting
standing
active
reading, typing, clerical work
little movement (eg serving at counter)
whole bodymoving'walking.
bedmaking
40
50—60
65—90
90—130
'typical surfacear01 male bodies 1 8rn',female1 6rn
Levelsofactivityusualinbldg
1
insulation value: do1
clothing description
nude
light
normal
naked orlight underwear
summer dress trousers & shirt
winterdress,skirt & lumper,
3-piecesuit
1
zero
0.3—0 7
0.8—1.2
dlo—O 155m C/W
2 Categoriesof clothingwornindoors
clothing activity
sleeping
sitting
standing
active'
nude
31
28
29
27
29
26
23
25
light
normal
21
18
13
17
estimates subtedt to degreeofuncertainty
3
Comfortablerm tempinstill air: C in globetemp
drybulb) C)
5
Baselinethermal comfort chartbased on USA data
BasicData 17
Man & his buildings
task
design illuminance
(lux)
circulation
(foot-candle)
150
13.935
casualworkofshortduration
200'
18.5806
routinework (youngpeople)
3001?
27.8709
routinework eg in ott
5002 46.4515
750? 69 6773
demanding workegindrawing oft
fine workegtextileprocessing
1000?
92.9031
1 500:'
139.3546
very fineworkeghandengraving
minuteworkeginspectionofveryfineassembly 3500 278 7093
'it area windowlessnext higherlevel recommended
2
where retlectances of surfaces unusually low orerrorsintask have
seriousconsequences nexthigherlevel recommended: where taskof
shortdurationlowerlevel maybeacceptable
1
Designilluminances forcommontasks'illuminance -.p2526
task
max valueof glare index
demanding
routine
16
19
28
demanding
5
2
0.5
routine
casual
Mm
&circulation
DFforcertain
Important are quantity of light (illuminance)and glare,also reflectances
of surfaces beinglit—.p25—6398.The task,and its relative importance
against lighting its background and the whole space, determine Ilumi-
nance. Design illuminances, w mean illuminance over mainfenance
cycle of lighting system, forcommon tasks —.(1).
Visibility oftaskdepends ondirection ofincident light aswellas quantity
Harsh shadows, and glare from bright or very bright light source or its
reflection, undesirable. Glare can impair vision. But some shadowing
helps perception of textures and shapes.
Daylighting—*p27—32
Windows in bldg have 2 main visual functions: to let light in during
Recommendedmax valuesof glareindex
minDF%
Artificial lighting
Surface reflectances and colour of surfaces affect general brightness
and distribution of light in rm,
25
task
Visual performance depends on total perception of space: involves
quality of lightas well astotal amount. Indices tocoverdifferent aspects
of lightinghave been developed. Theydistinguish between artificialand
daylighting.
Discomfort glare arises when luminaires and other sources of light too
bright in contrast with general background. Degree of discomfort indicated by glare index, recommended max values beingdetermined by
task: the more demanding thetask the lower thevalue acceptable—(2)
routineforshortduration 22
casual
circulation
VISUAL EFFICIENCY
daylight hours and to enable people to see out—or in. Theypermit entry
into a bldg of solar energy direct, by absorption and reradiation by
atmosphere, and by reflection fromsunlit surfaces.Windowsalso source
of heat loss. Choice of window basic to architectural design - .p4O3—6
As source of illuminationdaylight hasmany pleasantdirectionalqualities.
Its quantity varies with outside conditions and is specified in terms of
DF; ie ratioof infernalto externaldaylightlevels—.p26—7. For lightingtasks
mm
DF specified, based on percentages of typical working year that
required lask illuminance will beexceeded - l3)
types of task
COLOUR
Colour in bldg is both aid to vision and meansbywhich architect creates
pleasant, stimulating appearance. Good colouring and good lighting
interdependent.
Common practice of describing colours byarbitrary namesdeprecated.
Several systems for classifying colours. One such, standardised by
CIE, based on 3 physical attributes(wavelength, purify, luminance),
widelyused in colour lab but less suitable for architectural design than
American Munsell system, basedon 'value' (lightness). 'chroma' (saturation ofpigment, or strength(. 'hue'.
Munsell 'hue' scale includes 10 major 'hue' regions, each sub-divided
—.141(5). Major 'hue' regions denoted by initials, positions in region by
numbers eg 7.5RP denotes reddish red-purple hue In UK attribute
'greyness' replacing that of 'value' or lightness. 5 distinct categories
used:grey: nearly grey: grey-clear: nearly clear: clear.
For use in design of lighting possible to determine fromMunsell value
approx equivalent reflection factor independent of hue' or 'chroma'
—(6l Hue planes —p18l1).
4 Munsellhue scale
stepsinall)
10 namedhue bandswith 10stepsin each (100hue
75PB
501'
perfect
N 2 4 6 810121416
white
white
9
8
ii....._
•IU UUI
7
6
UUU
UI• UU
III I
3
2
•
._
II
8
7
.
-
UIUI
•••ii
5
iUUIUIUU
4 UI.....
6
' U..
I
9)5
-
N 2 4 6 810121416
perfect
- -
•••••••
UIIUI
>3
2
-.
.
perfect
perfect
black N 2 4 68 10121416 black
chroma
N
._____
2 4 6 810121416
chroma
5
Vertical '/2-sectionsthroughMunsellsolid at aparticularyellow(5Yl &
particularpurple-bluehue (7.5 PB) withneutral axiscommonto both filled
rectanglesindicateapproxscopeof colourpatches in Munsell atlas
6
Munsellvalue
reflection factor%
very light
9—9.5
light
middle
dark
verydark
7—8
5—6
72—84
42—56
20—30
3—4
1—2
6—12
1.5—2
ReflectionfactorequivalentstoMunsell value
18 Basic Data
Man & his buildings
PATTERN& TEXTURE
Many bldg materials have texturedorcolour-patternedfinishes. Patterns
large in scale, with clearly distinguishableelements, allow each element
to be related to an individual colour. But if pattern small-scale, only
dominant or composite colour stands out. As scale reduced, eg by
increasing viewing distance,strong contrastsin colourlose effectiveness.
Changes in appearance with distance valued characteristic of such
natural materials as marbles, grained timber, multi-coloured brickwork.
Subtleties of colour and texture, apparent closeto, give way to overall
pattern viewed at middle distance. Atstill greater, become fused into 1
composite colour.
NOISE & ACOUSTICS
High levels ofnoise can leadtodamagetohearing. At lower levels noise
interferes withverbal communication.At still lower levels noise may be
disturbing orannoying. Acoustic design controls intrusive noise and by
choiceof materials, dimensions and shapeofauditorium speechand/or
music to be enjoyed.
Many noise indices available forpredicting noise effects. Formany bldg
I
distancebetween
talker &listenerm
1
2
4
normalvoicedB(A)
raisedvoice
57
62
56
50
44
51
45
39
8
note:for telephoneuselevel 0150dB(A)
55 dB(A) LU,, maygive occasional difficulty
2
and environmental situations equivalent continuous sound level (Leq)
expressed in dB(A) is adequate predictor. Exposureto high levels on
noise results in hazard to hearing. Upper limit of 90dB(A)Leq has been
suggested for8-hourworking day.
DiagramofMunsellsolidwith indications of 4hueplanes: —.p17
L
Interference with speech communication from intrusive noise depends
ondistance between talkerand listener, and onwhether voicenormalor
raised —n(2).
Degree of annoyance from intrusive noise depends on number of
factors, particularly typeof use and task being carried out—.(3).
Sound insulation —np395—7
satisfactory:
SENSITIVITYTOVIBRATION
Frequencies of vibrations encountered in bldg lie mostly in range 5—50
Hz. When frequency exceeds approx 20—30 Hz passes into audible
range. Ifenergysufficient, /e above thresholdofaudibility ofsound in air,
vibration will be heard as sound.
Max intrusivenoiselevelpermittingreliable conversation
typeofspace &task
noiselevel
auditoriarequiringvery goodlistening conditions
smallaudiforia,conference & lecture rm
bedr & forsleepingorresting
smalloff,classr& for listeningto radio
largeoff commercial premises, restaurants
typing pools, lab, machine rm
20_3D
30_352
30—40
40—45
45—50
50—55
dB(A)L
At certain frequencies amplitude small as 1 micron (0.001 mm)can be
detected byhuman occupantsthough inaudible.Dependingon frequency
and amplitude vibration may be imperceptible or painful —n(4).
maxpeaklevel of intrusivenoise: needforspecialistadvice
maxprovidedintrusivenoisefairlysteady
higherintrusivenoiselevelsmay beaccepted where thereare
high levels of machinery in space
: \ i \ iii__
3 Recommendedmax intrusive noiselevels
4
1
100
a)
68
4
i
I
6 8
—r—r
2
1
4
I
:E N
ariperceptibie
s.,
-
..L_L L
\I\
ust
cieariy
_
percepilbie perceptibk.
—-
10
annoying
..unpieaSant
'
I
i
LJ
.J.
6
r1
8
1
I
4
2
.
."
I
8
6
6
4
JJ
103
arrpiitude
_________________________________________________________
4
Humansensitivity:ReiherMeisterscale (verticalvibrations)
BasicData 19
Man & his buildings
ACCESS & CIRCULATION
Space required around for access and circulation of people, prams,
wheelchairs, trolleys(carts) etc. Access to bldg or groups of bldg also
for private cars, delivery vans, moving vans, trucks etc. Space may be
required forparking, shortor long term. Separatespace may be required
for parking orsf0 of2-wheel vehicles: bicycles, mopeds, motor cycles.
Shared surfaces
Usualto separate circulation of pedestrians and powered vehicles, but
in certain situations (eg shortculs-de-sac giving access to dwellings,
car parks) shared surfaces may be adopted. Their design should be
based on:
startof shared surface clearly distinguished fromnormal carriagewayby
changeintextureor surface orchange in level;
number ofvehicles using shared surface should be limited;
design should ensure adequatevisibility butdiscouragevehicle speeds;
parking spaces clearly marked;
provide clear zone free from parked cars to allow vehicles and pedestrians to circulate comfortably;
shared surfaces should beadequately litafter dark.
Footways
To design footways —*(1)—(5) safe, convenient and secure necessary
ensurethatthey:
provideshortest routes between dwellings and community services;
are keptseparate fromheavily trafficked roads;
have easiest practicalgradients;
are protected from wind and driving rain;
are wideenough toavoid needforpedestrianswhen passing to step out
intocarriagewayoronplantedareasand, wherenecessary,foroccasional
access by emergency vehicles, egambulances.
Paths & sidewalks also—.p4385 106
2 Wof800 allowspramsorwheel-
chairstopassthroughnarrowest
point; 1 800 allowspassingoneither
side ofnarrowestpoint
W of 1 200 allowsprams&
wheelchairsto proceed in comfort &
pedestriansto passeachother;
wideningto 1 800 at entrances to
curtilagesallowsall usersto passin
4
comfort
3 Wof 1350 allowsprams&
wheelchairstoproceed&
pedestrianstopasseach otherin
comfort; wideningto 1800 beyond
narrowedpoint allowsall users to
passincomfort
5
1
Spaces required forvarious
types ofpedestrian movement
At entrancestoprivatedrives or
parkingspaceswof800 carried
throughat footwaylevelenables
prams& wheelchairstoavoidramps
& droppedkerbs
-4-
U)
C-)
ci
20 BasicData
Man & his buildings
ROADWAYS
—.USA standards p21
—accessp41—3
Size and geometric characteristicsofvehicles determine dimensions of
roadways, lunctons,turning and parking spaces. Special requirements
for bldg serving commerce and industry. Not all types ofvehicles likely
to use residential roads. Those which do may not need access to all
partsofsite. In addition to private cars 3 types ofvehicle may generally
1
be expected in residentialareas:furniture removalvans; refusecollection
vehicles; and fire engines-..(1)—(3)—.p24.
Furnitureremovalvan
Space required forthesevehicles to move and manoeuvredepends on
context within which they operate. For major roads national highway
authorities lay down max permitted dimensions, axle loads and turning
circles. They recommend road widths, sightlines and other characteristics of major urban and rural roads.
On residential roads traffic flows light and sometolerancein dimensions
acceptable, egtopreserve existing features. Roadwidths narrowerthan
5500acceptable —(4)—(7).
2
Parking provision conditions adequacy ofroad width. Where roadsgive
Refusecollectionvehicle
direct access to dwellings and parking spaces roadways likely to be
used for casual parking. Where this does not happen widths largely
determined byconsiderations of movingtraffic. Narrowedsections may
be used to discourage parking where there is danger at pedestrian
crossing —.(8) (rare in USA).
Allowance must be made for increase in width of larger vehicles at
bends and fortheirturning and manoeuvreing—(9).
3
NB diagrams on this page apply for left hand circulation; for USA
dimensions and reg—p2l250
Fireengine
a
1•
Normallymaxwforresidential traffic5500:allowsallvehicles to passone
anotherwith overalltolerananceof500forlargestvehicle
4
4000
5
Carriageway 4800allowswidecar&furnitureremovalvantopasseach
otherwithoveralltoleranceof500butistoonarrowtoallowfreemovement of
largevehicles
...
r
v......
4100
____
___
5500
::X :::.:::.:;:::::::::::::. :•:•:•:•:•:•::•:-:•::•:-:•:•:-:::::S..
6 At4100 carriagewayistoonarrowforlargevansto passvehicles other
than cyclists; carscan passeach otherwith overall toleranceof 500; below
thiswcarriagewaytoonarrowto passeach othercomfortably
rr:in
7
i
In
5500
350
W of 3000mm between passingbaysinsingle-track system
2180
_-8
Parkingshouldbediscouragedat pedestrian crossing
1 720
9
Vehicleturningthrough90 afurniturevan b refusevehicle cfire
appliance dprivatecar
Basic Data
21
Man and his buildings
ROADWAYS
In USA roads described as follows:
Limited access freeways:
1 000—1 300vehicles/lane/hr (highspeed)
2000 vehicles/lane/hr (slower speed)
Arterial highways:
600—800vehicles/lane/hr (open road)
400—500vehicles/lane/hr (withtrafficsignals, parking intersections)
Design of roads should include estimating trafficflows and impact of
development on adjacent roadways.
Large vehicle dimensions —*(1)
Garage entrances
—.(2) shows dimensions forentrances toprivate garages and gradients
for road to garage ramps. —(3)shows recommended dimensions for
entrances to pay garages or carparks. Privategarage—pl00—2.
NB: diagrams on this pageapply to trafficcirculation on right
Collectors:
100—250trips/lane/hr
(6206 mm for 2lanes residential)
Private roads:
6706 for2 lanes (5486mm)
3962 for 1 lane (3048mm)
Note: city busesrequire 6858 road for right angle turnfromright lane.
Narrow roadwithpassing bays—.p20notused in USA: occasionallyon
private sites.Single lane provided to remote service area (andturning
space). Driveways forprivate houses recommended width 3353.
Turninglanes frequently used toprevent back up oftraffic at controlled
intersections or forslowing down at exits fromfreeways.
I
w
overhang rear(OR)
2.7
2.6
2.4
3.1
school bus
13.7
12.2
12.04
ambulance
6.5
2.1
paramedicvan
5.5
2.0
hearse
6.5
airport limousine
trashtruck
UPStruck
firetruck
6.9
8.6
2.1
1.9
1.6
1.5
1.6
0.9
1.8
2.5
3.0
vehicle
intercitybus
citybus
1
7.1
9.6
2.4
2.3
2.5
2.0
3.9
Largevehiclesapproxdimensions; exactsizes mayvary
straightin— backout
900 in—backout(1 car)
2
Gar entranceswithgradientsforramps
22 Basic Data
Man & his buildings
PARKING
A
A
A___t_
Basisor layout of vehicle parking spaces in parking bay ranges from
1 800 x 4600to 2400 x 6000. Largerbaydimensions usuallyadopted
for open air parking, or where high proportion of larger cars and vans
likely use. While 900 parking more economical in space requirement
(20—22m2/car)450parking (23—26 m2/car)more convenient—*(1)—(3).
Vehiclelengths —*p2024251
Vehicle parking spaces for disabled persons should be wider. For
semi-ambulant persons bay widths should be increased to 2700 or
better2800; forwheelchair users 3000—3100—op85 166(3).
1
Parallel parking
USA parking spaces vary; depending onzoning ordinances—op250.
A
c
B
'
A
\
2
450 parking
A
NB diagrams on this pageapply totrafficcirculation onthe left
4600 2200—2300
5500 2400
mnbldg 5800
inopen 6100—6700
B
C
A
__-
D
USA
mm 18.3
20.0 preferred
H
0
E
F
inbldg 3000 4600 2300 3260 5000 2800
in open 3390 5500 2400 3890 5500 2800—3000
3 90°parking
A
B
inbldg
inopen
4600 2300
5500 2400
C
D
E
F
6000
6100—6700
VEHICLETURNINGSPACES
a
c
4
Full lockforward: afurniturevan
bcar c refusevehicle dfireappliance
5
Fulllock reverse: afurniturevan
bcar crefusevehicle dfireappliance
BasicData 23
Man & his buildings
PARKING:VEHICLETURNINGSPACES
NB diagramson this pageapply totrafficcirculation on the left
Vehiclelengths —*p2024
a
b
C
d
C
d
1 Hammerhead,Tform: afurniturevan bcar crefusevehicle dfireappliance
b
a
2
Hammerhead,Vform: afurniturevan
a
3
Forwardside turn: afurniturevan
bcar C refusevehicle dfire appliance
b
d
b(c
Reverseside turn: afurniturevan
d
bcar crefusevehicle dfireappliance
a
4
C
bcar crefusevehicle d fireappliance
24 Basic Data
Man & his buildings
ROADVEHICLES
Typicaldimensions
45' 0"intercity bus (USAdimensions)
40' 0"citybus (USA dimensions)
39' 6' schoolbus (USA dimensions)
Iii
E
1-755÷755--I
311
_ ___
1)
'\USA wheel location
—n--fl---
10973
_______
1
LiLLLdi
I
Coachfor49passengers:seating layoutsvaryaccordingto use intended
fm5\
r?*M
r
11
4216
18'2" (USA)
11
USA wheel location
2
12-seaterminibus/largevan
'
3
I
C')
Large car
<II
Cl)io
c'J
II-'-
T
16' 11" (USA)
Cl)
Li
'
USA wheel location
4 Carinmiddle range; USAstandard
Cl)
II'
6
Man& his
references.
Minicar
buildings
--BibIiography
entries 086 256 445 557
5
Small(compact)car
Basic Data 25
Lighting
Lighting inside a bldg must fulfil 2 functions: (a)to illuminatethe interior
and itscontents; (b) where there issometask, egreading,performing a
delicate movement, walking up or down stairs, to illuminate the task
appropriately and to appropriate extent so that visual mechanism can
function athigh levelof efficiency.
When visual tasks might needtobecarried out anywhere ininterior bldg
lighting and task lighting may be provided bysame installation.Where
tasks always carried out at some fixed location, eg work points on
benches or at desks, less energy may be used by providing necessary
task illuminance through bench or desk lights, or localised overhead
lightingcombined with lower illuminance from general lighting (but not
less than 200 lux) to providethesurroundingvisualenvironment—*(1)(2).
(Forstandard techniques and design rules —Bib383 387).
A
goodcolourrenderinglamps
appearance
lamptype
warm
deluxewarm
of light
sottone27
deluxenatural
intermediate
U
*FH-J1
emphasised: forhomes,
restaurants, hotels
goodon allcolours,
emphasis on red:forshops,
particularly food displays
including meat
reasonably goodon most
colours, subduedeepred:
65
100
foroff, dept stores
goodonall colours: for
graphicA47
60
complieswith BS 950 pt 2
for critical workingraphic
natural
70
arts
emphasises yellows:for
off,dept stores,shops
northlight,
65
filament
lamps
0
cool
Arrangementsof lightsourcesfortask lighting inoff
similartoincandescent light
and blendwell withit;yellow
65
kolorite,
trucolor37
fluorescent
tubes
70
white,
colour84,
plus white
E
efficacy
relative
to 'white'
lamp
colour
display, shops, clinical
areasinhospitals,
museums
similartonorthskydaylight,
emphasises blues: for
blending with daylightbut
give 'cold' effectexcept at
matching
.
general illumination
:
artificial
daylight
high illuminance
complies withBS 950 pt 1:
critical colourmatching
5
B high efficacylamps
warm white
warm
100
blue distorted, red
subdued,yellow &green
emphasised:
........
2
Artificiallight
intermediate
white
intermediate
daylight
100
90
forfactories
similar toabove but less
'warm'
red subdued,yellow&
greenemphasised: blends
acceptably withdaylight
Notes
1 othertypes of lamp are madeforspecial purposes, eg decorative
colours:forreprography, horticulture, aquaria, ultravioletradiation;
2circuitefficacyof'white' lamp (ieincludingballast) canbe45—65lmIW
dependingonwattage; 3propertiesof lamps change inconsequence
ofdevelopmentsby manufacturers who should alwaysbeasked for
up-to-dateinformation
DEFINITIONS
Luminousflux: lumen
Radiant poweremitted fromsource evaluatedin terms ofitsvisual effect
is called luminous flux and measured in lumens. Effectiveness in converting input power (measured in watts) to lumens iscalled the efficacy
and expressed in lumen/W. —(3) shows relative efficacy and some
differentlamp types.
3
Propertiesoffluorescentlamps givingsubstantially white light
Illuminance:lux
Amount of luminous flux falling on unit area of surface is called illuminance, measured in lux (1 lumen/m2) (symbolE). Illuminancecannotbe
directlyappreciated byeye, which seeseffect ofilluminance in making
surface ofobject more or less bright according to magnitude of illuminance and reflecting power ofsurface,
ceilings 0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
white emulsion paint on plainplastersurface
white emulsion paint on acoustic tile
white emulsion painton no-finesconcrete
white emulsion paint on wood-woolslab
Reflectance
walls
white emulsion painton plain plastersurface; white
Some surfaces reflect lightdiffusely, eg blotting paper, some with very
little spread(specularly), eg mirror. Most decorated rm surfaces reflect
nearly diffuselywith greater or less degree ofgloss, so that brightness
depends to some extent on relationship between angle of light and
angleofviewing.
The higher the reflectances of surfaces in an interior the less the
absorption oflight and thelowerthe powertoprovide agiven illuminance.
Lightcolouredcurtains drawnoverwindows at night reduce lossof light.
0.8
glazed tiles
white asbestos cementsheet;concrete,lightgrey;
Portlandcement,smooth
0.3 bricks,fletton
0.25 concrete,lightgrey;Portlandcement,rough (asboard
marked)
timberpanelling: lightoak,mahogany, gaboon
0.2 timberpanelling: teak, afromosia, medium oak
0.15 brick, blue engineering
Reflecting power expressed as reflectance (symbol p), on a scale on
which 1 is max value achieved by perfect reflector, 0 value of perfect
absorber and 0.2 reflectance of medium grey. Reflectanceof coloured
surface related to visual effect of light reflected. For reflectances of
sometypical surfaces—(4).
0.4
floors
0.35
0.25
0.2
0. t
timber:birch, beech, maple
timber: oak
timber: iroko, kerning
quarrytiles: red,heather brown
4 Approx reflectances of typicalbldgfinishes
26 Basic Data
Lighting
DEFINITIONS(cont)
Colour: Munsell system—*pl 7—18
Munsell system convenient and commonly used way
of describing
colour of surface in terms of hue (position in colour circle), chroma
(paleness or fullness ofcolour) and value. Value correspondsto reflectance, approx given by:
reflectance
= value (value — 1)
100
(—Bib1 00)
Luminance:apostilbor candela/rn2
azi
cos46
BZ2 cos3a
BZ3
BZ4
BZ5
BZ6
Bz7
BZ8
BZ9
cos2
cos'5
cos(
1+2cos6
2+cos)
constant
i+sin5
BZ1O sinO
Mathematically physical brightness orluminance (symbol L)ofdiffusing
surface isproduct of illuminanceand reflectance,sothat L = EP, and ifE
is inlux Lisilluminance inapostilb.Alternative unitis candelapersquare
metre(cd/m2) whichisSI unit—p2and equal to,rapostilb.
Note: calculation of luminance not needed in routine lighting
design asstandardmethods(—48ib383387) prescribeilluminance
andreflectanceseparately.
Maintenance factor (MF)
Maintenance factor is proportion (expressed as decimal) ofinitial illuminance towhichilluminancefalls mid-way between cleaningand relamping periods. In design lighting design lumens are used for the lamp,
which is av light output through life. MF therefore refers to dirtying of
luminaires, rm surfaces and sources only:for interiors and installations
maintained in avstate ofcleanliness maybetaken as0.8. Forthosetobe
kept in specially clean condition take 0.9; for those which may be
allowed tobecome dirtier than avtake 0.7 —nilluminance below.
Utilisationfactor (UF)
Intensitydistributioncurveswith BritishZonal(BZ)classification
1
roomindex
1.0—1.6
Roomindex(RI)
2.5
4.0
direct &semi-directlighting
(BZ1—3,25% upward light)
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.1 0.2 0.3
0.1 0.2 0.3
floorcavityreflectance
2.8 2.4 2.1 2.6 2.3 2.05 2.5 2.2 2.0
E(h)1E8
general diffusedlighting
(BZ4—10,
50% upward light)
floorcavity reflectance
E(h)/Ee
2
0.2 0.3 0.1 0.2 0.3
2.3 2.2 1.9 2.2 2.0 1.8
0.1
UFis proportion (expressed asdecimal) ofluminousflux oflight sources
whichfalls on horizontal working plane in an interior: depends on shape
of lightdistribution fromluminaires, rm index —-nbelow and reflectances
of rm surfaces. Light distribution characterised by shape of intensity
distribution with respecttoangle invertical plane fromdownwardvertical.
These shapes commonly classified in UK by British Zonal System (BZ
no); the 10 shapes and their mathematical descriptions are shown
—*(1). Most manufacturers now tabulate UF in their catalogues.Failing
thistheycan beestimated byreference totables (—sBib449).
0.1 0.2 0.3
2.1 1.9 1.7
Conversionof scalar illuminance to illuminance on horizontal planefor
interiorwith light ceilings& walls
RI relates to dimensions of rm: length I, width w, with luminaire height
above working plane hm.
RI —
lxw
hm(l + w)
ILLUMINANCE—.p25
Where specific visual task exists illuminance is that on plane of task,
whether horizontal, vertical or inclined. In places such as foyers and
circulation areas 'scalar' illuminance is specified. This is a measure
which is independent of direction and is related to illuminance on a
horizontal plane inwaywhich takes into account notonly rm shape and
luminaire light distribution but, most important,floor reflectance—n(2).
Illuminance received fromgiven lighting installation falls during use
because there is gradual drop in light output of lamp during its life and
luminaire and rm surfaces getdirtier between cleaningperiods. (Shorter
these intervals more efficiently el energy is used but more expensive
maintenance costbecomes.) Recommendedilluminance (—nBib383) is
service' value ieavover period between cleaning; installed illuminance
is higher thanthis by the reciprocal ofthe MF.
Lighting furtherdetail—-np398—400
Daylighting —*p27—32; sunlight —sp33—7
BasicData 27
Daylight
INTRODUCTION
Daylightfactor
Because of varying intensity of daylight in countries with humid and
temperate climates inpractice most useful tobase daylightingdesign on
concept ofdaylight factor (DF),defined insimple terms as ratio ofindoor
illuminance —p26 (formerly known as illurninance value) to outdoor
illuminance and given as percentage.(More exact definition—Bib124).
CIE standardovercastsky
To provide practical basisfor estimation and measurement of DF in
Britain and NW Europe has beenfound convenient to adopt standard
overcast sky with sun obscured bycloud. This sky generally known as
CIE standard overcast sky and assumed to have uniform luminance
—p26(ie physical measure ofbrightness), in azimuthwithzenith lumiRelativeluminancedistribution of CIEstandardovercastskywithav
luminancetaken asunity:conventional valueatzenith togive 5000lux
illuminanceon horizontal plane—2050 cd/m2:illuminance —.p25 26
1
nance about 3times that near horizon—+(1). Zenith luminancedepends
on angular elevation ofsun but conventional value of2050 cd/rn2 was
assumed originally, giving unobstructed illuminance of 5000 lux on
horizontal plane outdoors.
Variation
in outdoorilluminance over year
Conventional value of 5000lux assumed foroutdoor illuminance from
overcast sky usefuldatum for initial calculationsfor daylight adequacy
being representative of av conditions over much of day in mid-winter
and significant periods in autumn and spring and wet days in summer.
Asthis value exceeded forabout 85% oftimegenerally taken ascritical
value below which resulting daylight indoors would be considered
inadequate. There are instances, however, where necessary to relate
indoorilluminance to variationinoutdoorilluminancevalues over specified period, especially in situations where it may be desirable to supplement daylight with artificial light. DF concept particularvalue in this
context; for although outdoor illuminance will vary indoor illuminance
will change with itand forallpracticalpurposesDF will remainconsistent.
Seasonal and daily variations in daylight onhorizontal surface outdoors,
averaged foreach month —*(2)(3).
For indicationoftotal working hr/yrforwhich indoor illuminanceexceeds
specified values in lux for a range of OF and forpercentage of working
hourswhen daylight illuminancein lux exceeds specified values, again
fora range of DF,—(4)(5).
AverageDF
Recommendations for adequacy ofdaylight have usuallybeenmade in
terms of mm DF. Recent studies have suggested use of av OFas better
indication of adequacy of daylight over an interior. For side-lit rm,
however, av daylight value on itsown Only general guide and needs to
be associated withdiversity index.
3 Illuminanceinluxreceived fromskyonhorizontalsurfaceoutofdoors
averagedforeachmonth& plotted against time
2170
1400
1200
0
1000
0
iIIuminafl 100 200
4
400
600
800
1000
1200
1400
Workinghr/yrforwhich daylightilluminances onworkingplane(wp)
exceedspecifiedvaluesat variousDF
luX
5 %ofworkinghrwhendaylightilluminanceonwpexceed specifiedvalues
atvariousOF: graphsbasedon 5-dayworkingweek (0900—1700)giving
yearlytotal ofapprox2170 hr
Basác Data
28
Daylight
INTRODUCTION (cont)
Diversityofdaylight
Diversity of daylight illuminance across rm can be shown as graph on
cross section ofrm, slope ofcurve indicatingdegreeofdiversity. Typical
gradient of illuminance on centre line of window —s(1). In line with
artificial lighting practice diversity ofilluminance can also be expressed
numerically asuniformity ratio,egas ratio ofmm toavDF. Thus
2015
a
'5
ti
10—
5-
minDF
uniformity ratio = av DF
Thegreaterthe diversity, the lower the uniformity ratio.
For relatively simplewindow arrangements and for roof light systems
index has meritthat itcan showin general sense whether necessary to
supplement daylight with artificial light.With complex window arrangements, however, may bepreferabletoexamine distribution ofdaylight in
somedetail.
0.5
03
1
Gradientofilluminance oncentreline of window
036
.
.
1278
Distributionof daylight
1
16
1.01
062
7..
447
1.52
0 72
avOF
.
T
047
48/20 2.4% appox
1278
47
1.52
0.36
16
I 01
-.
045
0.72
047
FT1
0.62
045
-42mfJ
2 Distributionofdaylight over horizontalplane: forclearness
intermediate
valueshave beenomitted
Further refinement in assessingadequacyof daylightin rmis to calculate
illuminance for number of points on regular grid. Contours of equal DF
can then be drawn: distribution of daylight over working plane can be
checked andareas where daylight is deficient be identified. If required
av DF can be estimated by simply averaging values on reference grid.
Where reference grid is taken right up to boundaries of rm values on
boundary lines should be weighted, ie divide corner values by 4 and
remaining boundary line values by2before averagingall values—.(2)(3).
Comprehensive set of daylighting aids has beenproduced tor UK by
BRE; these give simple check between window size and proportional
area of working plane within which specific values of DF equalled or
exceeded. Aids thus give broad indication of horizontal distribution of
daylight in rm—.(4).
CALCULATIONOF DF: GENERAL
Methods for predicting daylight Iluminance at design stage range from
simpleformulas to sophisticated computer techniques (—Bib076 107
251 368381 397457).
Amount of design information required for predicting daylight factors in
rm depends on complexity of method of calculation. For initial calculations, where window sizes not yet determined, useful if method of
calculation cangive areaofglassrequired to provide particularstandard
of daylight.
1.0
0.9
Ii
08 —
-
07
-
0.6
a
0.5
—
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
00
3 DistributionofdaylightonhorizontalplaneshownbycontoursofequalDF
4
j
11
/
I,
/
,/
/ / --,,
—4
/ 2ETI
---
— -.
n
Typicaldaylightingaid
1.0% -
-
i- e
—
-
--f-—
—4 0%
smalrmsei
B
.
obstruction
wail ra8ect
OF %
4
BasicData 29
Daylight
CALCULATIONOF OF(cont)
Initial estimates: side-litrm
Netarea of glazing rough measureofamount ofdaylight admitted to rm.
As first approximation, assuming side-litrm of normal proportions with
no external obstructions and with surfaceshaving avreflectance 0.4, av
DF can be taken as equal about 1/2 of percentage ratio ofglass to floor
area. Thus windows on 1 side ofrm with total glass areaapprox 20% of
floor area will give av DF about 4%. Under same conditions mm DF will
be approx 1/2 av value, le2%. Conversely, to obtain av DE of6% in rm
with floorarea 12 rn2will require glazing areaof approx 6 x 12 x 5/100
m2or 3.6 m2.
For closer estimate of mm DF in typical side-lit rm —n(1)(2). These
graphs give mm DF related to rm depths forvarious rm lengths (parallel
towindow wall) and window widths,with correctionsfor angle ofexternal
obstruction to mid-height ofwindow. Reflectancesof rm surfacestaken
as:ceiling 0.7, walls0.5, floor0.15. Mm DF assumed beon centre line of
window wall atpoint600fromrear wall. Window widths (strictly window
lengths) actual glassarea widths given as% rm length. Formore than 1
a
rmd—'
in mullipiesofwindowhaboveciiiievei)
(eepressed
window widths aggregatedand assumedwindows regularlyspaced along
windowwall.(Further details, including bilateral lighting—oBib397.)
Av DFcalculations
CIE methodofdaylightcalculation: typicalgraphapplicableto side-litr1
unilaterallightingwith noexternalobstructions
1
Av DF over horizontal working plane can be calculatedusing formula put
forward —eBlb452
085W
CR1+5ft
C
A(1—R)
where w isglassar
A is total arof rm surfaces (includingglass)
A1 is ar of floor & ofthosepartsofwatls below mid-height of window
(excluding window wall)
C is function ofdaylight incident onwindow &varies with sky luminance
& angleof external obstructions —.(3)
R is av reflectance ofall rm surfaces including windows, expressed as
decimal
0
R is av reflectance offloor & lower wallsbelow mid-height of window
(excluding window wall)
is av reflectance of ceiling & upper walls above mid-height of
window (excluding window wall)
Where window sizenot known glass area required givestipulated avDF
canbeworked out frombasic formula restatedas:
0
0
DFav
085 —--+°
A1
rmd—.
(in muitipiesofwindow, aboveciii)
2
CIE method ofdaylightcalculation: correctionstoDF forangles of
obstruction(tobereadwith—.1)
coefficientC
angle ofobstruction
measuredfromcentre
ofwindow (degrees
abovehorizontal)
No obstruction
100
20°
30°
40°
50°
60°
70°
80°
31
25
20
14
10
7
5
3 Variationof coefficientc with angle ofobstruction toberead withformula
forav OF—.above & IRCformula —.p30
(A(1 —R)
rml
mid
rmh
(m)
(m)
(m)
3.3
3.3
3.3
3.3
6.6
6.6
6.6
4.5
6.6
3.3
4.5
6.6
3.3
4.5
6.6
9.9
9.9
9.9
4.5
6.6
9.9
4.5
4.5
4.5
39
35
+ 5R
window
h
(m)
avDF
2.4
2.4
2.4
2.4
2.4
2.4
2.4
2.4
2.4
1.3
1.3
1.3
1.6
2.7
2.7
2.7
window I/mi Iaspercentages
30%
60%
90%
2.8
2.2
4.0
1.2
0.9
1.6
2.2
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.8
1.4
1.0
3.3
5.2
4.0
2.9
1.5
1.5
1.5
2.0
1.5
1.1
3.6
2.8
2.0
5.5
4.3
1.8
1.8
1.8
2.2
4.3
6.1
1.5
3.1
4.5
1.0
2.2
3.1
2.6
1.9
3.1
3.1
Basic assumptions: floor reflectance=0.15,wallreflectance= 0.4,
ceiling reflectance=0.7, externalobstruction=20% atmid-hofwindow; no
allowancefor dirt on glass but25% correctionfor window frame for3300—
4
6600rm1&15%for9900rml
BasicData
30
Daylight
CALCULATIONOF DF (cont)
Pointby point methods: verticalwindowsinside-lit rm
Basic assumption formost point bypoint methods ofdaylight calculatlon
adopted in UK is toconsider daylight reaching point in rm as consisting
of 3 components:
sky component (SC)
externally-reflected component (ERC)
internally-reflected component (IRC)
Howthese3 components operate isshown —v(1). Togive complete DF
the 3components are simply addedtogether. Correctionstorother than
clearglass, area otwindow obscured by framing and window bars and
effectofdirt on glass and rm surfacescanbemadeby applyingcorrection
factorsto final figure—vp31(4)(5).
SC & EAC
3componentsofDF: SC + ERC+ IRC= DF
1
ratio HID = hotwindowaboveworkingplane.distance Iron, wkldow
0.1
02040.6 0.8 1.0 12 1.4 1.6 1.8
0 01 0204060708091.0
02 01 0.2 0.5 0.8 1.1 14 1.6 18 1.9
0.301 0307 12 1721 242729
0401 04 10 16 22 ai 32 as 38
0.5 01 05 12 19 26 3.3 38 4.2 46
06 01 06 13 22 30 38 4.4 4.9 53
0.70207 152433424854 58
01
2.0
22
2.4
6 as
10
1.1
1.1
11
a.o
1.1 1.2
as 42
5.0°
12
1.2 1.3
1.2
20 2.1 22 22 23 23 24 24 24 25
31 3.2 3.3 3.4 34 3.5 3.6 3.6 3.7 37
40 4.1 43 4.4 4.5 4.5 4.6 47 4.8 4.9
4.8 50 52 53 54 5.5 57 58 5.9 59
5.6 58 6.0 62 63 64 6.6 67 6.8 6.9
62 64 6.6 6.8 70 7.1 73 74 7.6 77
0.60207 16263645525.863 67 7.0 7.3 75 7.6 7.8 80 8.2 83 64
1.0 0.2 0.8 17273848566.267
7.1 7.4 77 79 81 82 6.5 87 8.8 5.0
12020818294050596571 75 7.9 8.1 64 86 8.7 90 92 94 9.6
1.402 09 1931 43 54 6.4 72 78 6.3 87 91 9.3 96 9810.1 10310510.7
68 1.6 a2 09 1.9 32 45 5.7 6.7 758.2 6.7 91 9.5 9.810010210.610911111.6
1.6 0.2 0920334659 70 7885 9.1 9610010.210510.711.1
114 11.7122
P
0
3
1.9 0.2 102433476.07281 88
2.002 1.02.033476.1 7.38290
2.5021.0 2.1 3.34.662 748492
9.5
9.7
9.9
100 104 10.8 11.1 11311.812.0123126
102 10.711.111.4117122124127130
10.511.011.411.712012612.9133137
3.0 0.21.02.13.44.86.275 85 9.3 10.010.711211712.012.412913.313.7142
4.0 0.2 1.0 2.1 3.4 4.9 63 75 86 9.4 10110.611311812.212.513213.514.014.6
6.002 1.0 34 506376869.5 10210.911411912.312613213614.1 149
0.2 1.0 2.1 34 5.0 6.3 76 86 9.5 103 10.911.511912.312.713313.714.215.0
0
a
at
0
1? 22 3V 394550 5458 6V 6$ 66 6$ 69'
7 72' 74' 76' 79'
80'
For preliminary calculations —v(2) (Bib076). In use table gives data for
effective widthofwindow torightor leh ofline (normaltowindow plane)
drawn to reference —.(3). SC atany other referencepoint, also effect of
external obstruction, can be found by adding or subtracting SC of
hypotheticalwindows so that actual window remains.To allowtor reduced
luminance of obstructions values of equivalent SC for obscured
sections ofwindow aremulitplied by0.8
Other methods of predicting SC and ERCinclude BRE DF protractors,
Pilkington dot method, grid methods such asWaldramdiagram.With all
theseaids ERCestimated byassuming that proportion of skyobscured
by obstruction (as seen trom reference point) has luminance which is
somefraction of sky obscured. Unless luminance ot obstruction known
usual practice to assume obstruction luminance 'Is av sky luminance.
IRC
For preliminary estimates mm IRC can beobtained from —.(4)itcertain
limitations on size ot rmand reflectancesof rmsurfaces accepted. More
comprehensive coverage —vBibO76. Where relatively high accuracy
required IRC for side-lit rm can be calculatedusing BRE inter-retlection
formula:
IRC =
aegis oiobsiruckon
2
Sky componentstable (overcastsky) forverticalglazed windows:
shortenedversionderived—oBibO76
0.85W
—
A 1—A (CRi
5Rn,) /o
where
W isarofglassinwindow
A istotal ar ofceiling walls& floorincluding arofglass
R isav reflectance of ceiling, walls including glass & floor, expressedas
fraction
is av reflectance of floor & those parts ot walls above mid-h of
window(excluding window wall)
Rcw is av reflectance of ceiling & thoseparts of walls above mid-h of
window(excluding window wall)
C is coefficient with value dependent on angle of obstruction outside
Ri
window—vp29(3).
AC can be obtained by applying conversion factors related to av
reflectance of rm surface:
av reflectance conversion factor
0.3
0.75
0.4
0.7
0.5
0.8
0.6
0.85
Mm
floor reflectance
windowar
as%ot
3
Exampleofsimplecase:
=j
=0.7;
0.6
=
SCread againstthese ratios 1.5; repeatsection (W2) &add SC,toSC2 to
give SCforwholewindow 1.5+ 1.5=3.0; forobstructions treatobscured
sectionwindow & x 0.2tocorrectforlowerluminance;angleofobstruction on
&WID; fromdrawingff
=-=
table gives appropriateHIDforobscuredsection
reflectance
toconvertto
floor arof 10m2
to convertto
to convertto
floor arof90m2 avIRC
20
40
60
80
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1.4
1.2
1.0
1.8
1.4
0.9
1.2
wall
Conversionfactorstoapplyto —v(4)
13
20%
40%
avwafireflectance leociudingwindowl
SCforsectionofwindow(W,) is read —o(2) againstratiosHID
5
10%
offlooror
2
5
7
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
20% 40% 60% 80%
20% 40% 60% 80% 20% 40% 60% 80%
—
—
—
0.1
0.1
0.1
01
02
02
0.2 04
0.2 05
0.3 06
07
08
0.509
0.5 10
0.3
0.4
0.6
1.1
0.1 02
0.2 04
0.3 0.5
0.4 07
0.6 1.0
0.8 1.4
1.0 1.7
01
01
02
02
03
04
05
05
01 01
02 03
02 04
03 06
05 08
06
02
05
06
09
13
1.1 1.7
08 13 20
12 2.0
00 15 24
14 2.3
10 18 28
162.6 06122031
18 2.9 07 13 22 34
19 3.1 08 14 2.3 37
—
01 0.2 02
0.2 0.4 0.6
0.3 0.6 05
0.5 0.8 12
0.7 1.1 17
0.0 1.5 23
1.1 1.8 28
05 1.3 21 33
09 1.5 24 38
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
10172742
12
1.9
1.3
at 32
30 46
4.9
4 Mm IRC(Bib076)basedon rmof40m2floorarwith htoceiling 3000&
windowon1 side;ceilingreflectanceof0.7assumed and20°angle ofexternal
obstruction;correctionscan bemadeforother rmsizes& to convertmm IAC
toavIRCbyfactorsin-.o(5)
Basic Data
31
Daylight
CALCULATIONOFOF (cont)
M is correction factor fordirt or aging of glazing—*(3)
B iscorrection factor forwindow framing, glazing & internalobstructions,
eg overhead supports for machinery: where details of framing not
known typical value forBis0.75butfigurecould beless infactories with
overhead pipework, ducting & structural members1
G is correction factor fortype ofglass other than clear glass
g/f isratioof glazing artofloorar
Roof lightsystems
Spacing, as well as size, of roof lights is important consideration for
adequate daylighting: in general DF easier topredict thanforside-litrm
but samevariables apply, eg area and position of glazing, shape and
size of space to be daylighted, reflectance of interior surfaces. Illuminance on horizontal working plane from correctly spaced roof lights
nearerto distribution from overhead artificial lighting installations and
usuallysufficient to determine av DF.
Coefficient depends on roof light design, shape and size
space and reflectances ofceiling, walls and floor.
CIE recommendations (—oBib397) include method forestimating av DF
forvarious rooflightsystems atearly stage in design, with graphs forflat
(l-w)h
where I = length of rm, w = widthof rmand h = height above working
plane to centre of glazing. To ensure fairlyeven spread of daylight
spacing/height ratios should be kept withinlimits shown —*(6).
Pointby point methods:roof lightsystems
Where necessary to calculate DF at selected reference points with
some precision, eg to test daylight distribution, SC and ERC can be
obtained byusing BRE protractors. IRCcanbeestimated by using BRE
nomogram Ill—+Bib076.
Useful formula below with associated tables developed by Pilkington
Brothers (Bib543) for prediction ofav DF for rooflightsin range of roof
types,including shed, sawtooth and monitors.
AvDFon horizontal plane: D= 100.c.M.B.G.(g/f)%
where
c iscoefficient ofutilisation —*(7)(8)
Note: correction factor 8' for largecontinuousinternalobstructions,such asducting,
can beworked outon cross section(byproiection)forselectedreferencepoints.
vertical
windows
roof lights
reflectance
honzontal
sloping
clean eg
0.9
countryar,
outer suburbs
dirtyeg
0.7
built-upar,
lightindustry
0.6—0.5
verydirty eg
heavy industry
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.5—0.4 0.4—0.3
3
Maintenancefactortobe applied tocalculated
DF toallow fordirton glass
glazingmaterials
CIE methodof daylightcalculation: typical
graph applicableto skylightsinfiat roofs
vertical windows,
steeply sloping
roof fights
slopEng&
flatroof
fights
double single
glazing glazing
single
glazing
1
skhtsin alied roots(20pitthl
glass:
4—6clearor6
polished wired
6roughcast
1.0
0.95
wiredcastorpatlemed 0.9
6selectively
0.85
heat-absorbing
(palegreen)
6 body-tinted
0.55
heat-absorbing
(bronze)
0.9
1.1
0.85
0.8
1.05
1.0
0.7
0.95
0.5
0.6
corrugated resin-bonded glass fibre
reinforcedroofingsheets:
—
0.9
moderately diffusing
0.75—0.9 —
heavily diffusing
2
4
I
e
10
12
14
4
roomindex
coefficient of utitisation
0.6
.19 .16 .15 .19 .16 .14 .16 .14 .14
0.8
.25 .21 .2 .25 .21 .2 .21 .2 .18
1.0
.3 .26 .25 .29 .26 .24
1.25
.31 .3
0
.25 .24 .21
.27 .31 .29 .26 .27 .26 .24
1.5
.34 .31 .3 .32 .31 .29 .3 .27 .26
2.0
.36 .35 .32 .36 .34 .32 .34 .32 .29
2.5
.39 .38 .35 .38 .36 .34 .35 .32
3.0
.4 .39 .38 .4 .35 .36 .36 .35 .32
4.0
.42 .41 .4 .41 .4 .39 .39 .38 .35
5.0
.44 .42 .41 .42 .41 .4 .4 .39 .36
mt
.49 .42 .49 .48 .48 48 .45 .45 .42
.31
reflectance
0.7
walls
0.5 0.3 0.1 0.5 0.3 0.1 0.3 0.1 0
index
0.5
0.3
0
ceiling
room
0.9
coefficient ofutilisation
.19 .16 .13 .19 .16 .13 .16 .13 .13
Correctionfactorstobeappliedto calculate for
typicalglazing materials: forprecisedetailsof
proprietarymaterialsconsultmanufacturers; for
doubleglazinginnerpaneof clear glassis
1.0
.23 .2 .18 .22 .19 .18 .19 .18 .16
1.25
.26 .23 .2 .24 .23 .2 .22 .2 .19
1.5
.27 .24 .22 .26 .24 .22 23 .22 .2
assumed
2.0
.3 .27 .24 .28 .26 .24 .26 .24 .24
2.5
.32 .3 .27 .31 .28 .27 .28 .27 .26
3.0
.34 31 .3 .32 .31 .28 .3 .28 27
4.0
.35 .34 .32 .34 .32 .31 .32 .31 .3
50
.35 .34 .34 .35 .34 .32 .34 .32
inf
.4 .4 .4 .4 .4 .4
0.75—0.9
i
S
=1.5max
Hensweeven
dalight
8
ClErecommendsthat
monitorwahouldnotbe
lessthan S nor more
than¾S
6
5
H
Maxspacing of sawtoothrooflights& monitors
asrecommendedfor—n(7)(8)
.31
.39 .39 .38
Coefficientsof utilisation for monitorswith
verticalplus slopingglazing
1.0
Correctionfactortobeappliedto DF calculated
from—n(1)(2) toallowforavreflectances otherthan
0.2assumedfortables
0.3
.15 .12 .09 .13 .12 .09 .11 .09 .09
correction
factor
1.2
0.5
Coefficientsofutilisationforsawtooth roofwith
slopingglazing
16 1e%
1.1
0.5 0.3 0.1 0.5 0.3 0.1 03 0.1 0
0.8
CIE methodofdaylightcalculation:typical
graph applicableto skylightsinpitchedroofs
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.7
walls
0.6
2
reflectance
ceiling
7
avDF
av
1W
Rm indexas tabulated =
and low-pitchedroofs, sawtooth and monitor roofs, from which av DF
can beascertained. Typical curves forskylights inflat and 200pitchroofs
reproduced —(1)(2). By means ofassociatedtables corrections can be
made for various glass transmittances, for dirt on glass and for av
surfacereflectances differing from20% (0.2) reflectance assumed for
(3)(4)(5). For —+(1 )(2) av DF can be read directgiven glass ar/floor ar
ratios, length of bldg and height ofwallsaboveworking plane.
locality
of interior
32 BasicData
Daylight
QUALITYOF DAYLIGHT: GLARE
location
DF is measure of daylight Illumination: subjective aspects also help to
determine essential appearanceand character ofinterior, Ofsubjective
lightingphenomena glare isone ofmostimportant. 2 distinctiveaspects
of glare recognised: disability glare, which impairs ability of people to
see objects against glare source without necessarily causing visual
discomfort and discomfort glare, which causes visual discomfortwithout
necessarily impairing ability of people to see—.p398.
Typical example of disability glare: window at end of corridor or top of
staircase makes it difficult to see person or object silhouetted against
window. Such cases usually resolved by common sense; little to be
gained fromcalculation techniques.
Degree ofdiscomfort glarecan beassessednumerically and expressed
as limiting glare index. (—oBib367 382). Main controlling parameter
luminance of skyasseen through window; above lowvalue of window/
floor area ratio (l—2%)size of window not important. Recent studies
indicate, forexample, thatifoneassumessky luminanceof 8900cd/rn2
(exceeded foronlyabout 15% ofworking year) predicted glare indexfor
rm not exceeding 4000 in height with av surface relectances of 0.4
would be 26. Forsimilar rm with av reflectancesof0.6glareindex would
be24. These figures apply toworst conditions, egsingle window facing
observer. Forprogressive reductions in sky luminance predictedglare
indices would be reduced; egwith sky luminance of 6400cd/m2 glare
index would be reduced by 0.5 units and for sky luminance of 1 600
cd/rn2 by as much as 4 units, bearing in mind that incidence of glare
would be increased because of higher proportion ofworking hours for
assumed lower sky uminace. Conversely,forrm with higher ceilings (le
above 4000)glareindex maywell beincreased by 1—2 units.
As controlling factor is sky luminance, if values assumed for glare
indices are greater than recommended values—.(2)someamelioration
likely to be required. Practical ameliorative measures include use of
translucent curtains or blinds, louvred or slatted blinds, vertical or hori-
zontal fins and high infernalsurfacereflectances—vp406. Othermeasures
include placing windows so that immediate surroundings have high
luminance, use of windows on more than 1 wall and detailed design of
windows and their immediate surrounds so as to reduce contrast with
viewofbrightsky.
airport bldg &coach
stations
receptionar
Customs&
immigrationha
Circulationar, lounges
assembly &concert ha
foyers, auditoria
corr
stairs
banks
counters,typing,
accounting,book ar
public ar
churches
body of church
pulpit &lectern ar,
chancel&choir
altar, communion table
drawing off
general
general bldg ar
entrance ha &
reception ar
hospitals
reception &wr
wards
pharmacies
libraries
reading & referencerm
av DF
mm
%
%
0.6
desks
24
2
counters& desks
workingplane
24
2
06
06
2
2
06
06
06
workingplane
floor
24
2
desks
workingplane
5
2
liv (over V2 depthofrm butwith mm arof
distribution7m2)
1
bedr (over¾depthof rm butwith mm arof
distribution5.5m2)
0.5
k(over 1/2 depthof rm butwith mm ar of
distribution4.5m2)
2
dualpurposerm, eg k/livtobe litto more exacting
0.6
5
1
Recommendedmn DF fordwellingsextracted—.Bib107
Daylightreferences.'
—'Bibliography entries 047 059 074 076 107 202 251 252 291 367368
375 380381 382 383 397 452 457 527 528 529 567
23
24
workingplane
Idaylightglare index
to be calculated tor
directionof viewof
congregation)
21
on desks
on table
(level dependson
emphasisrequiredl
23
23
5
1.5
5
2
5
25
on boards
21
2
06
working plane
24
2
5
06
workingplane
Innermostbedhead
1mm value refersto
Innermostbedheadl
24
21
21
5
3
workingplane
21-
5
1.5
on tables
ladditionalel lighting
will be required)
verticalplane
23
workingplane
21
1.5
5
23
5
2
desks
23
5
2.5
desks
23
03
working plane
desks
21
21
21
21
1.5
benches
working plane
5
3.5
workingplane
21
0.6
2.5
workingplane
workingplane
benches
24
21
lab
2
5
5
swimming pools
pool
5
2
pooi surface
(careshould be taken
to minimiseglare &
reflectionsfrom
watersurfacel
workingplane
23
workingplane
(avoidspecular
reflections:limit daylightoninternallylit
controlsl
20
surroundingar
telephone exchanges
(manual)
general
2
0.5
requirements
followingreflectancesare assumed, walls0.4, floor 0 15,
ceiling0.7
treads
2
2
2
surgeries
DI%
limiting
daylight
glare index
5
5
5
5
wr
location
positionof
measurement
2
shelves (stacksl
museums &art
galleries
general
off
general
typing, business
machines,manually
operated computers
schools &colleges
assembly ha
classr
artrm
lab
staff rm, commonrm
sports ha
general
surgeries (med & dental)
OF
(furtherdetail—.Bib202 380382 3831
2
Scheduleof DF &glareindices
easels
23
22
23
BasicData 33
Sunlight
CRITERIA FORADMISSIONOF SUNLIGHT
Standards forUK
—BRE (Bib074)
—*(Bibl4l)
—*DoE Welsh Office (Bib251 252)
Standards for USA
—Ramsey & Sleeper (Bib549)
ForUSA latitudes—*p34—6
1
Altitudeofsunin relationtobldg orobserver (lat51.5°)
BlockwithmainaxisrunningN-Shas longshadowscasttosidesofbldg in
earlymorning&lateafternooninMar&Sep:smallpermanently shadowed ar
toNofblock in midwinter
2
3 Blockwith mainaxisrunning NW-SEshadowpattemvaries between am&
pm: relativelysmall permanently shadowedarinmidwinter
soaraftftudeat12OO
inkjn
cmsssection
8hr
so'ar altitudeat1200
________________inMar& Sep
38.5° 151°
l2hr
14hr
lOhr
l6hr
H—
L[__X1
LlOhr
-l2hr
14 hr
•N
4 Tallblock withmain axisrunningE-W (favoured wheremainrmfacingS
are required)cangive seriousovershadowing ofgroundto NofbldginMar&
Sep:comparativelylargearof site closetobldg receivesnosunlightin
5
Where possibleavoidsiting high bldg withdeeprecesses facing Nas
comparativelylargearof groundreceivesnosunlightatallinmidwinter
midwinter
S&N
SITING,ORIENTATION&SPACING
Nwindow
OF BUILDING
Check orientation of facades and spacing of
bldg inrelation torequired standardof insolation
—4p34—6. Some compromise on ideal orientation of facades will be unavoidable on congested sitesorin areas ofmixed development.
—*Energyconservation houses—÷p79—81
INSOLATIONOFOUTDOORSPACES
6 E&Wwindowsreceive horizontalsunraysat
equinox;theirangleofincidence becomessteeper
towardssummersolstice; W = shortestdayofyr,
T = equinox,S = longestdayofyr
SE& SW
7
N windowsreceiveonly littledirectsunlight
round summersolstice; Swindowsreceive
sunrayswith lowanglesofincidenceinwinter &
steep insummer
NE& NW
Where possible site largebldg sothat extensive
and continuous shadowing of ground round
them avoided; otherwise growth ofvegetation
will be inhibited. Problemdynamicand seasonal
pattern of sunlight and shadow should be
examined. For indication of extent ofpossible
shadowing from tall bldg during summer and
autumn (lat London) —*(2)—(5).
ORIENTATIONOF WINDOWS
8
SE & SWwindowsreceivefairamountof
sunshineboth summer&winterby lowdeeplypenetratingsunrays
9 NE& NWwindowsreceivenodirectsunlightin
winter buteffectivesunlightinspring&autumn
Orientation, size and shape of individual
windows may require checking ondrawings by
reference to sun path diagrams to determine
sunlight penetration and effectiveness of
required sun controls. Forgeneral indicationof
effect of various orientations on sunlight
penetration at different times of year (UK)
—*(6)—(9).
34 BasicData
Sunlight
METHODSOF FINDINGSUN EXPOSURES OF
BUILDINGS
3ways ofcalculatingposition ofsun relativeto particularplaces,seasons,
times ofday:
useof models in conjunction with sundial allows visual observation but
usefulness limited byobvious practicallimitations;
calculations and tabular projections toafford high degree ofexactness;
summer
solstice
but graphic projection preferred by most architects since it allows
measurement of bothsun and shade.
SUN PATH DIAGRAM
1
() & angle of bearing
Diagramshowsaltitude
(J3)
Sun's position at any date or hour may be determined from sun path
diagramwhichcorresponds to latitudeofobservationpoint—*(1 ) showing
altitude (a) and angle of bearing ($). Diagramsfor series of N latitudes
—(2)—(4) p35(1)—(5).
On each diagram altitude angles shown at 100 intervals by concentric
circles. Bearing angles shown at 100 intervals by equally spaced radii
graduated along outer periphery of diagram.
Elliptical curved lines in diagram represent horizontal projections of
sun's path, appropriate for 21st day of each month: months labelled in
Roman numerals; crossed grid of vertically curved lines, labelled in
arabic numerals, indicate hours.
Use ofsun path diagram
Example:
Columbus Ohio at latitude 40°N on 21 Feb at 1400—*p35(2). Find
elliptical curvedlines for Feb (ii) and markwhere itcrosses vertical line
of 1400 (2): thesetwo lines intersect as sun's position; read altitude
fromconcentric circle: 32°; read bearingangle fromouter circumference:
3503Q
w
Example ofuse ofdiagram forapprox latitude London England—p36.
2
24°Nlatitude
3 28°Nlatitude
4
32°Nlatitude
Basic Data 35
Sunlight
SUN PATH DIAGRAM(cont)
Further examples of sun path diagrams—.(1 )—(5). For method of using
diagrams —*p34.
C/)
C)
ci
1
36°Nlatitude
2 40°Nlatitude
3 44Nlatitude
4 48°Nlatitude
5 52N latitude
36 BasicData
Sunlight
USE OF SUN PATH DIAGRAMWITH BUILDING PLAN
C
)
Diagram —(1) shows path of sun on shortest day of year at approx
latitude London England (51° 50'N); —(2) shows sun position atdetermining daysofyear;—*(3)—(7) showmethod of finding amounts of sun
and shadow on bldg.
insun from0345—1030
= 6/4 hr
5
Shortlyafter 1100atsummersolstice NEelevation in shade; shortly after
1300SE elevationalso inshade;otherelevationsatcorresponding timesin
sun
insun from
0954—1800
= 8¼ hr
1
Path ofsunshortestdayofyear (approx 21 Dec)lat510 SON
2
Sun positionatnoonat
determiningdaysofyr:distanceof
sunfromobserverequalsradius
ofsunpath diagramwith dotted
path ofsun in plan,which
represents planprojectionof
correspondinghofsun
insun from1435—1800
=3'/4 hr
6 At equinoxNE elevation in shadeshortlyafter1000,SEelevation shortly
after 1500
insunfrom
0900—1545
= 6/4hr
N
elevation
pn
ofsun
insun from0815—0900
= 3/4 hr
3 4 To find
amounts
ofsun&shadowonbldgatcertaintimeofyear &day
(eg equInox1100) azimuthangle(19°)isplottedinplan fromcornerofbldgin
question;this shows limitofshadowcast inplan;angleofaltitudeofsun
(37.1°)then plottedwherethis line intersects verticalplaneof bldgfurther
back; lengthx,found byintersecting line drawn at rightanglestolimit of
shadow in planwith plottedangle of altitude, determineshofshadowcast in
elevation;plottedtoelevationat distanceafrom internal corner&linkedwith
eaves of line ofbldg gives limitofshadowinelevation
7
Atwintersolstice NEelevationreceivessun forbarely1 hr,SEelevationin
shadeafter1500
BasicData 37
Sunlight
CALCULATIONOF RADIATION
Design implications of sun's altitude and
bearing affected by actual
amount of solar energyfalling on exposed surface of bldg. choice of
orientation and selection of appropriatetechnical orpassive devices for
shading bldg will require thisthird range ofdata.
Graphic calculator —(1) (—Bib549) originates in USA therefore uses
Btu/ft2/hrunits. Upper halfof diagramcharts energies falling horizontal
plane under clear skyconditions. Radiationlines at 25Btu/ft2/hr intervals.
Lowerhalfshows amount ofradiation falling on vertical surface.
For use calculator would be drawn to same scale and size as sun path
diagram —*p34—6. Superimposed on diagram with correct orientation
radiation values can be read directly.
PREDICTINGACTUALDURATION OF SUNLIGHT
Data on sunlightavailability for any geographical location or climate
should, in general, be sought from nearest meteorological station.
Probability of sunlight unobscured by cloud or mist can be read off
modified stereographic sunpath diagramknown as'sunlightavailability
protractor'—(2) (—Bib074). Total number available hours sunlight
obtained by adding small figures between hour lines and multiplying
total, inthis instance (latitude 51 .5°N) by 30.4
In example—*(3)bysuperimposing house planon protractortotal hours
sunlightlikelyin February seem tobe 1.5 x 30.4 = 45.
1 Radiationcalculator: can be usedat anylatitude & anyorientation; is in
same scale &projectionassunpath diagrams—p34—6;transfercalculator
diagramtotransparentoverlay&superimposeon sunpathdiagramin
desiredorientation:radiationvaluescan bereaddirectly
solaraltitudeindegrees
510
IS
2025
303 40455060708090
67 123 166 197 218 235 248 258 266 273 283 289 292 294
Btu/1t2/hr
magnitudeofsolar radiationdependsfirstof allon sun'saltitude:tabulated
valuesindicatedirect radiationenergiesreceived under clear
atmosphericconditionsatnormalincidence
o
Forcomputationof total yearly sunny hours,multiply summatedaveragefigures
fromtheprotractor by30.4 (averagedayspermonth)
2
Sunlightavailabilityprotractor
3
Applicationof sunlightavailibilityprotractor (—BibO74)
Sunlightreferences:
—Bibliography entries074 141 251 252
38 Habitat
Design ofhouses
OF PERIOD & CONVENTION
EXPRESSION
-
Access
Around1500houseor townwas
walled in& had heavy gates
1
2 By 1700wall &gate wereonly
3
During 19th centurysecluded
housewas built inopensurroundings
with low fences
4
6 By 1500therewere heavy
doorswith door knocker&barred
windowswith bullseyepanes
7
8 In 20th centurycoveredway
leadsfromcartoentrancedoor
symbolsthroughwhich glimpsesof
gardencouldbeobtained
In 20th centurythere is no
enclosure (especially in USA)&
housestands unobtrusively in large
communalpark
Entrance
5 Around1000log houseshad no
windows,lowdoors& highthreshold
(lightwas admittedthroughopening
inroof)
Ataboutl700doorshad
attractivebars,clear glass &a
bell pull
(Georgianwiredtemperedplate
glass) whichelectroniceyeslides
sidewaysat same timeannouncing
visitor
Interior
slidingpartition
verticallysliding
window wall
9 Atabout 1500therewere low
heavydoors,cellswith sparse
daylighting&floors ofshort,wide
boards
10 Around1700widefoldingdoors
led intosuitesofrrnwith inlaid
flooring
By 1900sliding doorswere fitted
betweenrm, with linoleum, sliding
windows &draw curtain
11
Plans
privy
side
entrance
unbarredwindowsofplateglass
(temperedinUSA):Venetianblinds
or rollershuttersprovideprotection
againstsun
wc &
moUntain
cellar
12 In 20th centureymm are flexible,
with elworkedslidingwalls& low
street
j__sto
ha
F!
bedr
ground
nT__.ey
wc &
washr
first
floor
13 Timber(Walser)houseofabout
1500was influencedbyenvironment,methodofconstruction &way
ofliving (eg smallwindows)
maid
ogg
serv
dr
garden
ci
In stone houseof 500 walls
occupysamearasmisoas to give
protectionagainstenemies& cold
14
Between 1500's and present time science, technology and industry
have transformed outlooks, forms and, not least, appearance of our
society. House nolongerfortress orcrude shelteragainstclimate; it is,
orshould be, abeautiful unobstructive framework forourlives—open to
nature but protected fromit.
15 Houseof2000will havelight steelsupports&independent non-load
bearingcurtainwalling &partitionswhosecomposition providesprotection
againstbad weather&affordssound& heatinsulation: openplanning
probable,with nodoors between liv ar, drandha
Everyone has different concept; but the creative ability ofthe individual
dictates how far he is able to transfer his experience into reality and
express it through the material at his disposal. Some clients and their
architects are still in the 16th century but a few of each have already
arrived in the 20th; if the right centuries meet then a happy marriage
between clientand architect is assured.
Habitat
39
House organisation
SUBDIVISIONOF SPACE, FROM1-ROOMDWELLING TO PALACE
dr
maid
I
I
parlour
maid
IsEanthr
=
cook
ma
Activities taking place in single rm—1-rm
dwellings become progressively subdivided in
largerhouses until in palace everyactivity has
separate rm specially adapted in shape &
position.
Lines ofsubdivision also indicatespatialrelationship betweenindividualrm, which makesdiagram
helpful tool when establishing programme for
houses ofall kinds.
40 Habitat
Houses
N
favourable
7NE
garage
2
lake
—or river
Favourable& unfavourable sitesonhillsides
very good
1
N nosunshine
coldwinter winds
even distributionof daylight
Favourablehousepositions
garage
workrm
sto
Ia
wine cellar
heating
utility
W afternoon
Eearly morning
&evening
sun heatgain in
summer; may have
coldwinds in
winter: double
glazing advisable
sunmay have
heatgain &
glarein
summer: trees
desirable
3
Optimalorientationof individual rm
Sbest sideofhouse
siteboundary
high sun angle in summer
deepsun penetrationinwinter
meansforshadingglass advisable
yard
I
lineof
bldg
SE ter
optimal
position
E-W road
tine ofbldg
a
2
Z
I
widest
possible
spacing
N
4
Favourablehouseorientation on E-Wroads
EXTERNALINFLUENCES ON HOUSE PLAN
Siting &orientation
Principles of positioning house on plot illustrated diagramatically—(1).
For detached house plot on south side of E-W road most favourable,
permitting entrance and services to be placed near roadwhile living rm
and bedr lieaway fromroad, face sunand have accessto garden.
Arrangements on E-W and N-S roads shown indetail —(3)(4). Houses
on hillsides should generally be placed towards higher parts of their
plots—*(2). Prevailingwinds foreachsitemust beconsideredin planning
forcold and heat protection. Wind effects —p7781. Nslopes —*p46.
Orientation also —p33—7
5 Favourablehouseorientation onN-Sroads:plotsonEside preferable
Rules for siting detached houses also apply to dwellings grouped in
pairs or in rows. Some of factors considered on following pages, eg
problems of access, which are most extreme in terrace (row) houses,
apply to an extent todetached houses because ofbenefits, in road and
servicecostsand depth ofgarden,which generallyaccrue fromkeeping
plotsnarrow.
Safeguarding against obstruction
Where neighbouring plotsalready built on, position and plan ofhouse
can be adapted to known surroundings; otherwise possibility of future
development must be taken into account. Architect has duty avoid
undue obstruction ofdaylight over adjoiningland likelytobe developed
forhousing —p33.
Habitat
41
Houses
ACCESS
Accesstodwelling
5 basic systems can be distinguished;
Houses and footpaths along road with no segregation of vehicular and
pedestrian traffic: implies nothrough traffic, no on-street parking—*(1).
Road and footpath on opposite sidesof house: implies house design
permitting access either side without loss ofprivacy; requires children's
play area other than road—*(2).
Vehicular access stopped shortof houses: limited by access distance
(46 m for most services: 61 m in USA); requires particularly well
designed and maintained parking and garaging—(3).
Residents'&visitor's parking within boundary ofproperty: noteservice
vehicleparkingar
1
Vertical segregation of vehicles and pedestrians: expensive, suits high
densityofsteeplysloping sites —(4).
Primarily pedestrian access to small groups of houses shared with
private cars and light delivery vehicles: requires careful design to enforcelow speeds and restrict useto legitimate access—*(5).
Accessroads
Access roads tohouses can besubdivided into 2 groups —p42.
General access roads: accommodate service vehicles, cars and, depending onlayoutsystem, frontage accessoroccasionalvisitor parking.
Design to limit speed atjunction with local distributor road.
Minor access roads: designed to allow slowspeed vehicle penetration
of pedestrian priority area, serveup to 25 houses, speeds kept low by
width, alignment, surface textureand visibility provision, possibly hump
or chicane at entrance. May be cul-de-sac with turning at end, short
loop, or lead to restricted vehicle/pedestrian mixed courtyard.
Garaging the car
3methodsofgaraging orparking carmust also beconsidered; withinor
partlywithinhouse, adjoining house, separate from it. First 2 of these
will affect house plan—*plOO—1 (—*Bib225).
Design standards
2
Residents'parkingpartlywithinboundaryofproperty & partlycommunal
3
All parkingcommunal
4
Parkingaroffcoveredaccess belowpedestrian deck
National and local standards for zoning and subdivision reg should
guide planner. Road widths and construction, footpaths, frontages,
density, housing types usually established by codes and/orlocal reg.
5
Accessarsharedbypedestrians&vehicles
I
C-
'-4
'-4
42 Habitat
Houses
ACCESS
local distributor road
general access road
minoraccess road
Roadhierarchywithinhousingar:examplemakes useof sharedpedestrian/vehicle courtsasminoraccessroads
Habitat 43
Houses
ACCESS
a-
Primaryaccess
accessto
singlehouse
A
path reducedto single w to
avoid occasionalobstructions
1200
'3000long12mapart
Footpaths should run asdirectly as possibletomajorattractions(schools,
shops, bus stops) away from heavy traffic roads. Should be well lit and
overlooked (for security), sheltered and avoid steep gradients. Use
ramps rather than steps, or ramps as alternative routes where steps
necessary. Critical design widthshould allow prams and wheelchairs to
passand clear obstructions. Mm 1 800, but on pedestrian traffic routes
generally allow 2400 on open ground, 3000between bldg and fences.
Footpaths between road or pedestrian traffic route and small groups of
houses can be 1 800, 1200for2 houses (USAmm 1 220), 900 forsingle
house —(1 )(2). Max distance from road todoor ofhouse, 46 m.
Secondary access
Additional footways to serve garden side of houses, garage courts etc
canbe 900—1 000 between fences,600 inopen ground—p47(6) 106(22).
Plan todiscourage use asthrough routes.
SERVICES
footpath between
solid obstructions
2400
obstructionononesideonly,
open ground on other
1
Statutory utilities(eggas, water, el, telephone) should besupplied with
details of any proposed housing development at early stage in order to
agreeserviceroutes between different interests and avoid later adjustment, which can be both time consuming and costly. In UK they will
generally prefer to lay their services within public road, as this gives
them certain automatic statutory rights of access; but in segregated
layouts or those designed with narrow road widths this may prove
inconvenient or uneconomic and alternative routes may need to be
agreed. Perhapspreferable:rear-of-blockservicestrips, easilyaccessible
and surfaced with materialswhich may readily be removedandreinstated.
Television
Master aerials for television signal boosting often require licence or
permit.Television cables below ground should bekept mm of300from
el supply or lighting cables and well away from telephone cables.
1 800
Pedestrianaccess&trafficroutes
Recommended depth forlaying television cables: 450.
ACCESS FORDISABLED
Housing fordisabled —p85—7;internal access —+p86. Spaces needed
forwheelchairs —.(3).
1000
p
4a
endparkingoverhang
a.
b
50
sideparkingoverhang
500
'—mm 914—'
safetybarrier
1525
C
min1525
d
—mm
914__
signposts, traffic signals etc
walls, copings, parkingmeters etc
tamp posts should be sitedat heeloffootpath
beyond recommendedclear width
a=minclearw
2
Footpaths:mm clear w
3
Mm
space
I
clear w: aforsinglewheelchairbfor2wheelchairsc1525dia
dT-shapedspacefor1800 turn
44 Habitat
Houses
STANDARDS& REGULATIONS
a
mm
space1
least
dimension
arft2
luwith
Obr
luwith luwith luwith
lbr
2br
3br
na
na
na
na
na
na
160
160
100
120
170
110
120
80
luwith
Obr
luwith
Ir-da
Ir-da-sI
lr-da-k
na
210
250
na
na
270
Ir-sI
210
100
na
120
Ir
dr
br(primary)2
br(secondary)
total arbr
ohr
100
120
na
120
80
80
200
280
80
80
luwith
4br
180
120
120
80
280
116''
80
80"
84"
94"
80"
b
combined
space
k-da
lbr
minarft2
luwith luwith
2br
3br
luwith
4br
210
na
270
na
120
230
250
na
na
300
330
na
na
160
140
k.
least
dimension
see
note 3
USA mm
2
housing —÷Bib228.)
Horizontal controlling dimensions should be, in descending order of
preference, asfollows:
first:
multiples of300
second:
multiples of 100
third:
multiples of50 upto 300
For house planning tothesedimensions a 300 grid is used.
Vertical controlling dimensions more closely defined. Heights of door
openings and between floorsdiffer over relatively small ranges. For
dimensions forhousing, with preferences for public sector in UK—.(3).
Mm rm sizes USA—.(1). Bedrsizes —.70(1 7).
Ceiling heights
In USA FHA says ceiling heights must be such as not to create an
unpleasantsensationand nottorestrictphysicallymovementofoccupants
and furnishings. Ceiling heights clear under beamsorother obstructions
BUILDINGREGULATIONS
Distinct differences in legal intention result in different degrees of
controloverhousing design indifferent countries: eg reg in Englandand
Wales limited to securing health and safety of occupants and other
users; in Scotland designed to secure health, safety and convenience
ofoccupants and public atlarge, imposing mm space andeqpstandards
(—nBib233); in USAFHA, HUD reg and state and local codes apply.
misizes aforseparate rm bforcombinedspaces
ft
Recommendations forhorizontal and vertical controlling dimensions for
housing have beendeveloped in orderto make use of dimensionally
coordinated standard components. (Application in UK public sector
-*(2).
Ir
abbreviations: br bedr da diningar dr:diving rm kitchen hying rrnr iu:liningunit
na: apphcable 0br iu with no separate bedr ohr otherhabiiable rm 51 sleepingar
primarybedrshaH haveatleast1 uninterrupted wailspaceofatleast 10
3mmdimensionsofcombinedrmshall besumofdimensions
ofindividualsinglerminvolved
exceptforoverlaporcombineduse ofspace
fbi
Controllingdimensions
in
habitablerm
ha, bathr
luminous ceiling
sloping ceilings
7
6
7
0
7
0
7
6at leastfor½ rmwith noportion
less than 5' 0''
Most houses built for sale in UK by private builders conform to standards set by National House-Building Council (—vBib5l2); in USA
generally conform to FHA standard mm sizes and construction as may
be required byfinancing: alsoconsult state and local codes.
basementswithout habitable
spaces
6
Fireescape
USA
mm
8
In houses of more than
(consult codes).
ceilingheights
2 storeys fire escape must
be considered
Essentially single stairway in suchhouse should be separated fromall
rmbyfr construction and self-closing frdoors and leadto hallorpassage
giving access tooutside air at ground level. This has effect ofprohibiting
open planning on ground or intermediate storeys unless alternative
escape routes, eg by balcony to adjoining house, provided fromrm on
upperstoreys.
ROOFZONE
__________
nohntiton thidrness
but lowerbotifiary
lobeplacedtogive
sa,nefloortoceiiing
heightason lower
I
I
I
I—
LEVEL
2100
Pref}J_ __
1ipa
lstprefenence250
2ndpreference200
oc300
1000
WiNDOWciLLLEVELS
i
[ 0—
FLOORLEVEL—n_
C
w
OOR LEVEL (2
dimensionslobe
takenfromFFL
3
2—
WINDOWHEADLEVELS 1Stpret
2nd
DOORHEADLEVEL
3,,,ivn
UK verticalcontrollingdimensions
200
Habitat
45
Houses
RELATIONSHIPTO OTHERBUILDINGS
Daylight& sunlight—*p27—37
Consult relevant reg and codesfor daylighting standards in habitable
ml; thesealso provide for protection of residential bldg and undeveloped sites from obstruction of daylight by new development. These
provisions normally adopted in England&Walesbyplanningauthority in
development control (to some extent mandatoryinScotland).Proposed
bldg can betested forboth distancefrom itsown boundary and distance
fromother bldg by using permissible height indicators(—Bib251). USA
—FHAand city bldg codes.
So far as possible rm should receive sunlight at some part of day
throughout most of year but this not generally enforced by reg or
development control. Angles and direction of sunlight can be established hourly foranytime ofyear at anylatitude:examplesfor at 5105Q N
—.p36.Further orientation factors—.p34—6 4046.
Visualprivacy
Manyplanning authorities seekto prevent overlooking of houses from
neighbouring houses oracross road (controlledbybldg reg in Scotland).
Rule of thumb distance of 18 m often stated but is restrictive and
ineffective sincevisibility affected by types of windows involved and
their respective levels and incidence to one another. As with other
environmental factors privacy must be considered in relation to competing benefits and in high densitydevelopments it is matter forcareful
consideration indesign and layout.
Use ofblindside orsingle-aspect house designs willhelp, egon sloping
sites or where footpaths passclose to houses; effective screening of
private gardens alsoimpomtant—.(1 )(2). However,privacy should notbe
achieved at cost of isolation: ideally degree of screening for visual
privacyshould bewithincontrol of residents.
Privacy from noise
Houses built near distributor roads, or main highways best protected
from noise nuisance by embankments or other land formation —.(3).
Privacy can, however, be improved by use of suitable house plans with
rm facing awayfromnoise source (—.Bib240254).
Spread offire
Bldg reg generally restrict distances between houses built of combustible materials, such astimber, shingles orthatch,and their ownplot
boundaries; where non-combustible materials used extent of window
and door openings in walls close to boundary might be restricted to
prevent spread offire to adloiningproperty by radiation.
75dB(A)
\
'/
8OdB(A)
8Sdb(A)
68dB(A)
/
I
unprotectedsite
75dB(A)
BOdB(A)
85dB(A)
%
\
68dB(A)
I — //
f.__?
siteprotected bysimple solid barrier
75dB(A)
BOdB(A)
\
/I
85dB(A)
'
//
68dB(A)
siteprotectedbyplacing road incutting
1
3
Privacysecuredbyuseofsingleaspecthouses
Noise attenuation: shadedarwillbesuitable
housetypes
fordevelopmentwith conventional
privategarden
road
t
road
publicpath
public path
In
JL
2
Privacysecuredbyuseof reverse aspect houses: best orientation E-W
I0
46 Habitat
Houses
SITE TOPOGRAPHY
Effect of gradient
Where slopes moderate, choice of plan affected little by gradient; on
steeperslopessomeforms of plan can be used to greater advantage
than others.Where houses run parallelto contours use of wider frontage houses minimises needfor underbuilding or excavation. Savings
thus made can counterbalance usuallyadverse equation between wide
frontage and greaterservicing and development costs.Verysteep sites
can, however, present opportunities for imaginative use of split-level
plans or entryto upper floors—(1). Houses running across contours,
especially in terraces (rows), should employ narrow frontage plans,
stepping at each house or pair ofhouses.
Northslopes
Split level
1
Northslopes aggravate problems ofmaintainingdensity while providing
adequate sunlight to each house and garden. Simple solution: reverse
usual ruleand place each house at lower endof itsplot, with accesson
north side but on severe slopes spacing required might be excessive.
Solutionthen might be to employ upside-down' section,'placing living
rm on upperfloors where they can enjoysun fromsouthand views in
each direction —(2). Houses running across contours canbe particularly
advantageous on north slopes, sinceno garden needbe immediately
overshadowed by houses and all rmwill get sunlight.
i4
Aspect
2
In considering orientation —p4U,access, privacy and effectof gradient
there has recurred the concept of aspect, an important characteristic
relating house plan toconditions ofits site.
4modelscan bedistinguished —(3);
Dual aspect: rm lookout inbothdirections, toaccess and garden sides
'Upsidedown'
Single, blind-side, or controlled aspect: rm other than kitchen and
servicemi lookout in 1 direction only—usually garden side
Reverse aspect: rm on ground storey and upper storeys look out in
opposite directions
Open aspect: ideal detached or semi-detached condition where rm
can look out in3 or 4 directions withoutconstraint.
-1
3a Dual aspect
3b
Singleaspect
3d
Reverseaspect
1'
3c
Controlledaspect
3e Open aspect
Habitat
47
Houses
+
HOUSE PLAN: INTERNAL INFLUENCES
Determining factors
Main internal factors affecting selection of house plan:
mode of horizontal circulationwithin house,
user requirements,
appropriate standards & regulations
siteorientation & climate —p334046
HOUSE PLAN:CIRCULATION
Circulation within house determined primarily by type of access
appropriate toexternal conditionsand layout—.(1):5 modesofhorizontal
circulation can bedistinguished;
Throughcirculation
2
Circulationthroughha
3
Circulationthroughha&sb
5
Circulationthroughha &liv
This —(2) provides circulation fromentry to garden side by-passing all
living and working areas. Nosecondary accessto garden side needed.
Through circulation suitable for all forms of entry and particularly
appropriate where entrypossible fromonlyoneside.
Through-storagecirculation
In smallterrace (row) houses through circulationthough desirable can
require excessive proportion ofwhole ground-storey area. Modification
permitscirculation from entryto garden sidethrough hall and sto —(3).
This arrangement suitable forall forms ofentry.
Through-kitchen circulation
Provides circulation fromentry to garden side through hall and kitchen
—+(4). Appropriate inlayouts which provide secondaryaccesstogarden
side;but can beusedwhere thereis none.
Singlecirculation
From point of entrygarden can be reached only by passing through
living rm —(5). This type plan should only be used in layouts which
provide secondaryaccesstogardenside.Secondaryaccesswill normally
be necessary only in mid-terrace houses but layout situationscan arise
when sitingof other bldg imposessimilar conditions on end-of-terrace,
detached and semi-detached houses.
I
4
Circulation throughha& k
ri4
By-passcirculation
Garden side can be reachedoutside house but within property limits eg
by path orthroughgarage—.(6).
house
Throughatrium circulation—*(7)
6 By passcirculation
1
Accesstoproperty afrom bothsides bfromoneside only
7 'Throughatrium'circulationseenin USAsinglefamilydetached house
I
48 Habitat
Houses
HOUSE PLAN: STANDARDS& REGULATIONS
User requirements
entrances
Where house not designed for known client, user
requirements can most brieflybe summarised in statementof number of rm (not counting kitchen, bathretc) in
house and number of people intended to accommodate.
From normative standard of 1P/rm higher standards
characterised bygreater degree of specialisation—.p39.
Such specialisation hasin past time reachedastonishing
lengths — one English Victorian country house said to
have contained rm for ironing newspapers: nowadays
degree ofsub-division associatedwith palace unlikely to
be reached. What does happen isthat houses designed
or adapted to meet special needs, whether, eg for
musician, orchid enthusiast or disabled housewife, are
morespecialised, either by planningor by higher level of
servicing, in 1 direction This form of specialisation
secured by adaptation: will not generally affect process
of plan selection setout here.
living ar
5 is there space for required furniture in sensible arrangement?
6 is there sufficient space toseatguests in dining
7 doesliv faceprivate garden?
kitchen
8 is there directaccess, on same level, fromk to diningar?
9 isworksurface adequate, freefrominterruption &
is'work triangle' (sink—cooker—trig/larder)
from
compact
cross-circulation?
11 has possible useof k byelderly or disabled people been
considered?
12 isthere space foradditional eqp, orlarger items, likelyto be
used in furniture?
13 has kviewofoutside world—for callers, toddlers' play etc?
10
14 istherespacefor required furniture in sensible arrangements —
consider use of singlebeds?
15 can bedr beusedforchild'shomework, entertaining friends
bedr
Userrequirementcheck Iist—*(1)
& hobbies?
In absence ofknown clientplans should betested by list
of questions about house that might beasked byuser. In
any suchanalysisall planswill not meetall requirements
satisfactorily; it must be for designer to judge which
bathr
16 isbathr convenient for bathing baby?
17 hasuseof bathr byelderlypeople, orinvalids, been
considered?
18 is therespace forappropriate bathreqp, hanging
towelsetc?
sf0&
19 are refusebin &fuel sto accessible, conveniently placed
forcollection & delivery?
20 can bicyclesbetaken outside, pram put garden, & garden
refuseremoved, withoutpassing throughliving
priorities should be achieved (—Bib234).
Housing standards
Consult reg. Standards for dwellings in public sector in
Britain —.(2) based on Parker Morris Committee's report
(—.Bib233). Mandatory only for new bldg by local
authorities and housing associations these in practice
provide qualityplatform against which new housing can
be udged. Although mm floor areas stated for various
household sizes emphasis functional rather than
quantitive. Am layouts and house plansshould be shown
to be able to accommodate furniture and domestic
activities that theycan beexpected to contain.
is protection fromweatherprovided at entrances?
1
2 istherespace in haforreceiving visitors?
3 isthereconvenient sto foroutdoorclothing pram?
4 can metersbe read withoutentering living ar? (NBoutside inUSA)
accessibility
1
Userrequirementchecklist
N =netspace1
S = generalstospace2
For USA standards consult reg (—.FHA HUD) and state
and local codes; mm rm sizes —p44(1).
houses
1 storey
numberof persons(tebed-spaces) per dwelling
1
2
4
5
6
67
4.5
75.5
4.5
84
4.5
82
4.5
94
4.5
92 5
4.5
92.5
4.5
98
4.5
70
3.5
79
3.5
86.5
3.5
72
3.5
82
3.5
92.5
3.5
S
30
3
44.5
4
57
4
N
S
72
(mid-terrace)
N
S
74.5
4.5
4.5
N
S
flats
N
S
maisonettes
N
S
30
2.5
44.5
3
57
3
85
4.5
108
6.5
108
6.5
112
6.5
108
3.5
(67 if balcaccess)
Net space is ar01 aM fioors in dweiiing measured
tounfinished faces, inciudesarof eachfioortaken up
bystairways, bypartitions & byanychimney breasts,
fiues&heating apphances& arofany externai wc;
exciudes floorarofgenerai stospace (SI, dustbinsto,
gar, baic, anypart of rmlessthan 1500 high because
ofsiopingceilings& anyporch orcoveredwayopen
to air; in singieaccess house—.p47 any space
withinsto required forpassage from1 sideofhouse
to other, taken as 700wide, shaM beprovided in
addition toarintable.
Mm
7
m2
N
2 storey
(semior end)
3storey
2
3
Generai stospace lobeprovided exciusive of
anydustbinsto,fuelstoorpramspacewithin stoar,&
risingleaccess house, space within sto requiredfor
passage from1 sideofhousetoother; inhouses
somestospace may beon upperfioor, separatefrom
anylinenstoolWa. but atleast 2.5 ni' shaii be at
ground ievei; infiatsandmaisonettes up to 1.5rn'
maybe provided outsidedwefing; in some circumstances part of garintegral withoradjoiningdwelling
cancounttowards generai stospace
—.Bib479 (also gives schedules offurniture to be
accommodatedi
arfordwellingstoaccommodate varioushouseholdsizes(UKstandards: USA—.p44)
Habitat
49
Houses
SELECTINGPLANS
Classificationofplans
From external and internal determining factors set out in previous
pages, basic characteristics ofhouse plan can bestated under following
heads:
levels: 1, 2, 3 storeys orsplit-level
aspect: dual, single, reverse or open—*p46
horizontal circulation: through, through-sto, through-kitchen orsingle,
core circulation through atrium —p47
numberofrm and size ofhousehold: stated as eg (4 rm, 5person).
Thesecharacteristics provide basisforclassification ofall house plans.
To themisadded vertical circulationwhen housesofmore than 1 storey
considered.
Plandevelopment
Planselection not initially affected byhousehold size orspecialised user
requirements. First three heads of classification (levels, aspect and
circulation) narrow choice to number ofplan arrangements at this stage
expressed in simplest possible terms —+(1). This example shows how
1-storey house plans basically similar developed to accommodate
different household sizes.
ONE-STOREYHOUSES
?
HousesatDundeeScotland:variationsinsimplebasicplan Arch Baxter
Clark &Paul
1
1-storey house givesgreatest planning freedom, only planning determinants being aspect and horizontal circulation. Consequently
both simplest and most luxurious houses often planned on 1 storey
—(1)(2)(3)(4)p5O--1.
Relationshipbetween kitchen and bathrhorizontal:economies in placing
them together but savings in cost may not be great when weighed
against userconvenience —*p51 (6).
1:r
ih1±
2
'Arcon' prefabricatedhouse ArchArcon
4
Largeprivatehouse ArchBiecker
3 Old person'sbungalow
I
C
50 Habitat
Houses
PLANS: CLASSIFICATION
1
Houseat WhipsnadeEngland ArchLubetkin&Tecton
10
32
'
20
64
30m
96
3 HouseinBeverlyHills USA Arch ANeutra
2 Singlefamilydetachedhousebuilt round atriumClevelandOhioUSA
Arch HirumABlunden
J.
Habitat
51
Houses
PLANS:CLASSIFICATION
I
C-
(
I
8 lOm
6 1218243011
1
Houseforanartist Arch Rogers
2 Bungalowwith self-containedflat forhouse-keeperorchauffeur
Arch Neufert
iIv
3
L-shapedhousewith day& night wings ArchKossler& Peter
4
HouseinCaliforniaUSAwithterfacings& bathrbetween bedr
Arch Donald
d*j
0
I
4 6 8 lOm
I
I
I
I
6 12 18 24 308
2
'-4-,
'Iv
jT
L1IeirJ
er
6
II
6
5 Houseforcouplewithoutch: goodrelationship ofter, k &liv
Arch Erchmannsdorfer&Kindler
American2-storeyhousewith upperfloor entrance (siteis notflat)
1Pm
[LF
12 18 24 306
6 Housetosleep6 Arch LHilberseimer
N
7
8
ArchE H& M KHunter
52 Habitat
Houses
MORE THAN ONE STOREY
Newplanning determinants introduced: vertical circulation, relationship between kitchen
and bathr, which becomes vertical as well as
horizontal, and balancing of ground and upper
storeyaccn.
Verticalcirculation:thestair
In all houses of more than 1 storey plan is
influenced by position and design of stair. Stair
and its location affectconstructional system to
be employed: in repetitive house design most
important single standardising component.
Stairs differin design (straightflightordog-leg)
and in position. These, incombination, impose
different planning effects. To provide best
circulation aim istoarrive onfirststorey as near
as possible to middle of house; best choice of
position and typeof stair toachieve this related
to plan shape—a(1).
Kitchen& bathr
These comprise most heavily serviced part of
house;economy in plumbing and water supply
systems and problem ofaccommodating bulky
soil and waste stack at lower level eased by
placingone above the other—.(4)(5).
Ibedri
edr
C
____________________
''1
III
Dog-legstair hasgreatplanningadvantages&
much used intraditionalEnglishhouse;noteinter
house how accesstosmall rm& servicescanbe
provided at half-landingsaVictorianterhouse
Georgianterhouse cGeorgiandetachedhouse
1
b
2 Straightflight at rightanglestohorizontal
circulationoftenattractiveinsavingcirculation
spacebutdividesplanrigidly:insomeinstances
not disadvantage,particularly inblind-side
planning acentralstair throughhouse,single
aspectplan b centralstairthroughhouse,
dualaspectplan Ccentralstairacrosshouse, dual
aspectplan
Balance of ground & upper storey
accn
In some house types, designed for both small
and large households, total area required for
bedr and related accn does not balance living,
kitchen and other areas usually placed on
groundstorey: this because space allotted for
commonuse does not increase proportionally
to family size, asdo number and sizes ofbedr.
Economic design forsmall houses, sayfor3 or
4 persons, employs 1 V4-storey arrangement,
basically of 1-storey construction with open
roof truss to enable roof space to be used for
bedr. Such roof on 1-storey house can also
facilitate future extension of small house.
—np78.
Opposite problem occurs in 2-storey houses
designed formore than 6persons, where house
plans can be adapted by providing bedr over
pends, linking houses across pedestrian routes
3
Very simple& economicaldesignofterhouse
with 'farmhouse'k &bathrongroundfloor
upperstorey
groundstorey
path under
pondusedtoturncorner
45
Economyachievedby placing bath over k
6
7
rm
Bedrover pendsmeansofprovidingextra
Habitat 53
Houses
MORETHAN ONE STOREY
1 2 2 'throughha' typeplanswithsolidfuel heating&chimney: note
—.(2) how widerfrontagewith straightflightstairon perimeter leadsto long
uppersto circulation Arch National Building Agency (UK)
4
HouseatHallandSussexEngland Arch Chermayeff
b
3
HousesatMoultonYorkshireEngland: bedrinsulated tromoneanotherby
cpd& staircase; note influence ofstairtypeon upperstoreyplan
Arch Butterworth
ground
floor
5 SmallSwedishtypewithshonext
to kon groundtloor Arch Swedish
ArchitectsCooperative
upper
floor
Largertype with drnextto k&
centrestair Arch W Kraatz
6
7 TerhousesinKlampenborgDenmark: appearance of
detachedhousesachieved by staggering ArchAJacoben
I0
54 Habitat
Houses
HOUSE PLANS
bathr
bedr
Plan ranges
By classifications of type outhned—.p47—9, many agencies providing
houses,in both public and private sectors, havecompiled sets of related
house designs called plan ranges. Designs comprising plan range have
basic constructional features in common, such as staircase type and
location, kitchen/bathr relationshipand upperfloor construction. House
designs in such range can be varied to meet differing requirements
while retaining useful degree of standardisation
(1).
bedr2
bedr3
First storey plan of 3-bedr wide frontage house has been changed to
allow house to be used where controlled aspect —p46required. This
possible because critical elements unchanged:ie, inthiscase,plumbing,
heating, stair. Use ofsame firststorey plan asofnarrow frontage house,
possible, would impose dual aspect conditions on its use in layout.
Combined rooms: natural lighting& ventilation
Unlessseparately lighted and ventilated required area should be based
ontotalareaofcombinedspacesprovideddegreeofopenness,relationship
and planning of adjacent space allow adequate natural lighting (—.
Bib187).
In row-house (ter) plan —.(2)shaded areashould beused in calculating
required amounts of natural light and ventilation forcombination dining
and living space. Assuming total floor areadining and living rm 41.8m2
mm amount glazed area required would be 41.8 x lO% or 4.18 m2 in
living rm exposed wall. Vent sashshould be locatedto providecirculation
of air throughout area. Becauseof excessive distance dining areafrom
sourceof natural light height ofglazing should be great as possible.
J
bedri
bedr2
r2
bathr
Rangeofhousetypesfor 4& 5
personwide & narrowfrontage
houses Arch NBA (Scotland)
1
2
Combinedrm: naturallighting &
ventilation
bedr3
Habitat
55
Houses
KITCHENS
Kitchens best placed towards NE or NW of house and in small houses
should ideally overlook entrance, front door and children's play area.
Kitchen relates horizontally to front door (or tradesmen's entrance, if
separate), diningrm ormeal space, food sto,scullery and laundry areas,
refuse sto or disposal, and outside clothes drying and toddlers' play
spaces. It relates vertically to bathr, wc and other areas requiringwater
supply and drainage. In large houses functions of kitchen
can be spread over several rm (eg laundry, utility, pantry, scullery)
combined in household wing separated from rest of house to prevent
spreadofnoiseand cooking smells —np49(4).
rexck-up
unwrapping
washing
penling
addingwater
1
weighing
measuring
mining
keeping lood
hot,
dishing-ap
baking
holing
hying
grilling
stacking
washing
drying
disposal
Sequenceofactivities
Main activities for which kitchen designed: preparation, cooking and
serving of meals and cleaning up afterwards. Ancillary activities can
include clothes washing, general household mending and cleaning,
eating, children's play, studying, hobbies, entertaining and general
recreation.
WORKINGSEQUENCE
Sequence of activities —o(1) relatesto sequence of fitments, worktop —
cooker —worktop—sink—worktop, which is basis ofmodern domestic
kitchen planning —.(2): should never be broken byfull-height fitments,
doors or passageways.
Worktriangle
Distance user has to walk between sink, cooker and refrigerator or
larder critical in kitchen planning. Lines Joiningthese 3 elements form
what is known as worktriangle' —o(3). For normal family house combined length of sides of triangle should be between 5500and 6000.
Distance between sink and cooker should not exceed 1800; should
never becrossedby through circulation.
Sinks
Sinks require goodnatural light: best placed underwindow; should not
normally be more than 2300 from waste stack or external drain. Sinks
should be kept away fromcorners —e(4) and there should be plenty of
room tostandin front of draining side, though insmall kitchens washing
bowl of double sink may be placed towardscorner-.(5).
2 Sequenceoffitments
00
I
I
Cookers& work tops—*alsop56—8
Cooker should never be placed in front of window but should, where
possible, be provided with ventilating hood —e(6). It should not be
placed below wall cupboards and gas cooker should be away from
doors where draughts might blow out burners. Worktop should be
provided on each side; where cooker adjoins corner fitting return of at
least400 should be allowed for easy standing and access space. Low
level cooker requires space of at least 1200 in front for access —n(6).
Adjacent worktops should be at same level as cooker top; ifchange of
level required should beatpoint at least 400 fromcooker—o(7).
3 Work triangle(sk —ck — Irig)
4
Singlesk
Split level cookers with separatehob and wall oven increasinglypopular.
May be 1 or 2 (stacked) aboveworktop height. No perfect location:if in
continuous worktop interrupt workflow; it outside worktriangle extra
travel. Opendoor may bedanger tochildren.
Space forcasual meals to betaken should beallowed at worktop height
in working kitchen, and ideally in working partofdining-kitchen.
Refrigerator
Most difficult of kitchen eqp to
place. Important component of work
triangle; should adjacent worktop space. Frig door should open away
from work area for food access; should not block passageway or hit
another doorwhen opening.
5
Doublesk
6
Low-leveloven needsadequate
space infront: noteextractorhood
over ck
Also—p58—9
hardwood pull-out cutting
board (drawer below)
DINING-KITCHENS—p57
Kitchen may be associated with separate but related dining space to
become dining-kitchen. Separation can be achieved by arranging itments toprovide degree ofscreening or bychange inlevel offloor finish
(undesirable). Dining area should be planned in same way as small
diningrm.
I
f
Kitchen may also beenlarged tocontain dining table and chairs, without
separation, toform'farmhouse kitchen': more economical in spacethan
either separate kitchen and dining rm ordining-kitchen butoffers less
flexibility in use.
1
850
7
Changein level
Provideplaceforworking
seated,preferablywith pull-out
worktophavingdrawer&cutting
board above
8
I
ci)
56 Habitat
Houses
noof bedr
workcentre
0
mm
1
KITCHENS
2
3
4
Fixtures& work tops
frontages
475
381
610
457
610 813
533 610
813
762
533
533
457
610 762
533 610
762
762
frigspace5
work
1 side1
762 762
381 381
914 914
381 381
914
457
mixingworktop
533 762
914 914
1067
sk'
worktop,eachside
cooker&hobspace236
worktop 1 side4
top
381
Notes. when dishwasher provded610skacceptable where built-in wall oven
installed provide 457w worktop alongside cookershall not be located under nor
within305ofwindow;wherecpdprovidedabove cooker 762 clearanceshall be
providedtobottomofunprotected cpd or61010 bottom ofprotected cpd provide at
least229fromedge ofcooker toadlacentcorner cpd and381fromsideollrig toadjacent
cornercpd
trig space may be 533whenlug provided & door opens withinownw when cooker
not provided 762space shall be provided
1
USA standards require kitchen area which provides for efficient food
preparation, serving and sto, aswell as utensil sto and cleaning up after
meals. Provision of fixtures and workfops —s(1); worktops approx 610
deepand 914 high. Clearance between base cpdfronts in food preparation area mm 1 020
Required worktops may be combined when placed between 2 fixtures:
cooker,frlg, sink. Such worktop shall have mm frontage equal to that of
largerofworktops being combined. Kitchen sto —up75.
—+(2) givesrecommended kitchen sto shelfarea; mm 1/3 required area
to be located in base orwall cpd; mm 60% required area to beenclosed
by cpd doors.
Kitchenlayouts
—v(3)—(7) showvarious kitchen plans.
Standardsforfixtures&worktops
numberofbedr
0
3
2
1
4
m°
2.23
2.79
3.53
4.09
4.65
minshelfar1234
mm drawer
ar5
0.37
0.56
0.74
0.93
2.04
wall cpdoverfrig
Notes: dishwasher may be counted as037 m2 ofbasecpdsb
shall not be counted asrequired
shelfar shelf arabove 1880shall be counted as
required ar inside corner cpdshall be counted as50% ofshelfar,eacepl where
revolving shelves usedactualshelfarmaybe counted drawer arm excess ofrequired
armay be counted as shelfarifdrawer atleast 152d
Lshapek
oo
LIN
6
'N
'N
'N
A
8F
4
Corr plan k
N,'
StraightwaIIplan k
n
/
n
I
0 0
D
,
uT
0
0
..iED
°e0
\
-
I
L
li
,,/7 Squareplan kwithdining ar
Habitat
57
Houses
KITCHENS:EXAMPLES
7163
HH
__
7J rH6
I
1
kwith sewingar & homeoff 1 ptr 2sewing 3cpd 4familydiningoroff
5hob 6sk 7 freezer 8homeofffiles ArchJohn RPeterson
2
3 Gourmetcook's k 1 ptr 2walkintrig 3metal shelves 4choppingblock
5 marbleslab 6sk 7dishwasher S hob 9wallovens 10serving
11 warmingtray 12desk 13 hoodover 14dr Arch Cliff May
4
T rrr
Farmk 1 sk 2dishwasher 3waste 4cuttingboard 5hob 6oven 7cpd
over Bfamilydining 9frig/freezer lOdrystoshelves 11 hotwater l2drop
downironingboard 13 14dryer-washer 15sk 16 17freezers 18cleaning
cpd 19 ventilated food sto 20preserves, coatcpd ArchE H& M K Hunter
Efficientsmall kopensto or closes offfromdr&ter 1 sk 2 dishwasher
3 ck 4 carrouselcpd 5wallcpd 6trig 7chinacpd 82-way fireplace
Arch E H & M K Hunter
--- 2642
dr
4115
r
liv
1524
-
garden
entry
()
r21
H
(0
[21
c'J
Ill
5
12
liv
service
entry
1
[iii
110
——
5 Combination k/uty withgreenhouse 1 sk
2hob 3ovens 4bakingcentre 5trig 6chest
freezer 7deskwith booksover 9cpd 10 sewing
11 ironing 12stowall 13lau sk 14washer
15dryer 16greenhousewith sliding glass
Arch E H&MK Hunter
6
Homecentre k Lifemagazine house 1 folding
doors 2trig 3ovens 4hob 5sk 6dishwasher
7child's trig 8freezer 9washer-dryer 10liftup
mixer 11 rotating sto bin 12cpdover 13skylight
14motorisedwoodslat blinds,lowerfromceilingto
worktoplevel ArchM K Hunter
7 ksharesfireplacewith liv 1 trig 2 sk
3dishwasher 4ck 5k herb garden 6curtain
7fireplace Scpd Arch EH &M KHunter
I
58 Habitat
Houses
KITCHENS:EQUIPMENT
—
1 400
,.. _
I
Correcttoespace
2
Good &bad lighting
Hatchbetweenkor ptr&dining
arorrm with 2-waysto cpdabove
4
6
7 Self-ventingcooker
3
Space neededforbottomshelf
5 Where noverticalshaft planned,hood&ducttoexternalwall
advantageous
Outsidewallexhaustfan
T'j
1 270
__J
9
Standardcooker762wwith low
oven
10 Range 1016w with lowoven
11
ovens
12 Singlewalloven
13 Smallcooker533w with low
14 Microwaveoven
15 Grill toaster
Doublewalloven
oven
T
.787h914-_,t
1676
17 Frigwith 0.65 m3 refrigeration & 1.17 m3 freezer
Habitat
59
Houses
KITCHENS:EQUIPMENT
--
bhl
Frigwith 0.59 m3 refrigeration &
1
L
2
3
Frig0.25—0.34 m3
0.2m3freezer
Chestfreezer0.14—0.7 m3
7
1-
I
300
4
Uprightfreezer0.31—0.7 m3
6 Metal & plastics platerack
7
10 Juice extractor
11
El slicer
5 Mincers(meatgrinders) a hand
bel
—13O—
120
!T
T
C—
360
-1
F—180—-1
8
Mixer
9
Blender
Foodmill
I
13 Crockpot
14 Wastemill
h
.7
//
.7
300
flute
whitewine
/reclwino
//sheny
I/cocktail
hqueur
200
160
150
130
120
100
0
95
75
70
Th
15001
12 Coffeemakers
200
260
300
420
480
-360-I
-j-H-I-]-l EH
1-
1000
l-500H
17 Glass orplasticsfood drawers
350
400
460
620
700
'
19 Woodtrays
moat
-8001
1000
A
wallscale
L022o
IH
21
kscales
Pedal-operatedwastebin
TJc\,
-
ff
I-I-l-l-.
50
80
30
I-
16 Glasses
15
___
18 Boards
60 Habitat
Houses
LAUNDRYSPACES
b— 1000
1
Hingedironingboard
2
Clothes washing may be done in kitchen, utility rm, bathr (notpopular),
back porch, garage or, incombination with wc, in downstairs cloakrm.
-+
Space neededforironingseated
1 400
3 Elironingmachine
Laundry area needs space for washing machine and drier, for storing
cleaning materials and, possibly, for storing dirty washing; may also
have to accommodate ironing board or ironing machine and working
surface for sorting. Although mobile washing machines available most
models, automaticmachinesinparticular,bestplumbed inwith permanent
connexions towatersupplyand suitablytrapped waste. Where washing
machine not used, orin large houses where much hand washing done,
sink 500 x 350 x 250deeprequired and second bowl ortub desirable.
Tumbler drier —(12) best placed against outside wall to allow direct
extraction of water vapour: removablelinttrap required bysome models.
Even where tumbler drier provided rack or line needed for drip-dry
clothes. In small houses orflats this can befixedabove bath orshower;
otherwise should be in ventilated drying cupboard or over trapped
draining tray. Open-air dryingpreferred by many and makes nodemands
onenergyresources. Open-airdrying space should be easilyaccessible
fromlaundry area and preferably in viewfromkitchen —p77.
4 Howthingsused to be
690690
1
V
1
0
0
-I
5 Twintubwashingmachine(not
availableinUSA)
6
Automaticwashingmachine
7
Drier stackedonwasher:right
handconnexions
8 Toploadedautomaticwashing
machine
457
710 860
E
c0
r(0
±
9
Combination frontloadwashing
machine/drier:backconnexions
(pullout)
10 Watersoftener
=
1100
11
Spindrier (notused in USA)
12 Tumbledrier(musthavespace
atrear forventilation)
}
j.
13 Eliron
24
Ironingboard
15
Sleeveboard
16 Sewingmachine
Habitat
61
Houses
Best daylight orientation forbathr SE—NW; for ease of installation(gas
and waterservices) should be related to other rm requiring services
(above or backing on to wc, kitchen, utility rm etc, —.p52: will also
minimise noise frompipes); forconvenience should becloseto bedr.
BATHROOMS—p62—5
Internal wc and bathr fairlycommon: may be unavoidablewhere economical use floor area important,especiallyin narrowfrontagehousesor in
pointblocks. Ventilation essential and must accord with appropriatereg.
Showeruses less water than bathtub; often considered more efficient
because of its continuous flow; provides convenient alternative to full
2
Mm
clearancebetweenb &wall
legs
8
45G-
\withoutlegs
letinto
fioor
Recommended clearances
1
3
Space requirements for
movement(hfrom floor)
1-600
-r
4;;
2O0'
§
5
wc withflushingvalve orh-level
cistern
• 700
600
.
I-
900 -j
J1O
6
For ease of access, bathtubs sometimes partially sunkinto floor with
access to trap fromrm below. Where bathtub parallel to wall distance
fromcentre of bath to face ofwallmust be450.
Where possible space should be available for at least 1 item of bathr
furniture, suchas stool or laundry box. Fittings such as towelrails and
toiletroll holders should not obstruct activity spaces. Heated towel rails
best fixed 750 above floor level, above height of small child's head.
Medicine cabinets should be out of reach of children and fitted with
safety lock. Exposed pipes should be fixed to allow sufficient wall
clearance forcleaning.
Windows above baths can be difficult to open or to clean without
standing in bath, common cause ofaccidents: may also limit privacy and
cause draughts unless well insulated.Windows behind wash basinscan
also be difficult to reach; wall abovewash basin best used for mirror or
medicine cabinet.
convenience outlets nearwater source; safest locationaspartofsealed
light fixture over mirror with remote switching neardoorway.
700
wc underslopingrooforstairway
Showers in wall recesses have shower trays ot enamelled cast iron,
glazed fireclay or plastics with waterproof tiled walls or waterproof
rendering and steamproof paint upto2000: prefabricated shower units
in enamelled sheetsteel, aluminium or plastics also available—.p64 65.
Fixed showerarmsshould be mounted at 1 900: otherwise adjustable,
hand showerwith flexible hose should be used.
UK practice does not allow el sockets in bathr other than specially
designed shaverpoint, which should be out of reach ofbath; enclosed
light fittingswith cord-operated switch preferred. USA practice: no el
1-500—-I
4
length where space limited —*p63.
Shower outlet may be fitted over bath where suitable wall or partition
available at tap end for fixing, orcombined bath tap and shower fitting
with flexible hose may be used. For either bath activity space —.(1)
shouldbe at tap end unless permanent shower screens fitted.
Single basin
swingrail
__.47Q
.450
900-1000
900
700
600
700
11
12 Heatedtowel rail
13
14 Multi-pointfitting (hb,b& sho)
enclosedsho
400
7
/
iiii'
8
Bidet—ap63(9)
Sho
length
length_projection
5(10
open sho
80
2
250 90
1000
\
9
Grabrails
10
15
300
62
Habitat
Houses
BATHROOMS
Equipment
Gas water heaterfittedtohot
water cylinder
1
cOqrleni5.
Movable baths of zinc or enameled mild steel suitable only for infrequently used baths, children's bath —p63(2), hip baths —np63(3) and
use withoutmain services.
Fixedbaths—'p63(4)—(8) usuallyenameled cast iron, pressed steelor
plastics with various qualities ofenamel (fullgloss, acid resistantetc) or
fireclay.
Free-standing baths —p63(5) usually have taps at toot end: sometimes
loined towall along 1 sideto avoid water splashing behind bath.
Built-inbaths—op63(6) with extended rim attachedto surroundingwalls
& overlapping front: access panel necessary in UK.
Avon bathsfor use as built-in units p63(4) have integral front panel;
drain & overflow carried tooutside instandpipe ortrapped waste (USA).
Space-saving baths p63(7)(8) installedwhere space restricted butdo
not necessarily savewater; corner baths —.p63(7).
Fireclay baths glazed inside and out beautiful and expensive but uneconomic as slowtowarm up; pleasantfor leisurely bathing, however.
Footbaths p63(1O) movable or fixed, usually installed in larger public
baths; may be fireclay, earthenwareor enamelledcastiron.
Showers —op63(11)(12)base may be cast iron or fireclay (terrazo);
should preferably be sunk into floor & provided with tile or enameled
sheet steelsurround —also p64.
Polyban baths —op63(8) Spanish patent: can be used as hip baths,
footbaths, bidets or shower (With flexible shower arm); require little
space & savewater(not used in USA).
Bidet—op63(9)earthenware orfireclay, many variationsindesign; mixer
with anti-scalding device —also p61(7).
Basins with back skirting for plastered walls —np63(13); for washable
walls—.p63(14) many shapes & sizes, sometimes with separatemouthwashbasin oras double basin —.p63(15)(16);mixers for washing with
running water, butwasteful.
Squat wc —(8) hygienic but uncomfortable; has either flushing cistern
orflushing valve.
Wc —n(5)—(7) siphonic more efficient butextravagant inwater &prohibited
by some water bye-laws. Low level cisterns flush with little noise;
flushing valves more noisy—.(5)(6)but use approx halfasmuch water.
Water heaters (gas or el) —.(1)—(4). El sf0 heaters —.(2) use cheap
night-time el & can be set toheat up at any time during day.
2 Elstoheaterforkorbathr
10, i3i
0—410
230—300'
190—270
conient 5, 10.
3
Gas water heaterforchimneyor
outsidewall
4 Gaswater heat forhb
i-'11O-j
5 Wall toiletwith low levelcistern
I
\ioo
/
120
Ii
I
170
6
Toilet withbuilt-in cistern
T
,aper
F,)
L
-h
corkmat
x
I
670
plan
7
Eqpforwc
8
Squatwc
960
SW
=!=
—
760o
510
II
towel
I'
I
.J
L_Jf
Bathrwallcpd
10
Lockable medicine cpd
11
grab
,—
eieva5onA
9
1
609
1
recess r—l
soap
grab
bar
recess
soap
clothes
hook
hght
0
Bathr eqp &fittings aplan b elevations
ill
er
eievation
B
Habitat
63
Houses
BATHROOMS
I
Equipment
r-4
w
1500
780_82O50
1600
420
&
1700
I
1800
800
1 Standardmetric bath sizes
2
3
Children'sbath
Parallel-sidedcast iron bath
6
Bath for incorporation as built-in
unit
Hipbath
4
Enamelledcast ironbath
8
Polybanunit
12V
castiron
5
1875
700
700
7
EconomyAmericancorner bath
(enameledcast iron)
Shorterbathsrequiremorewater
——1004
1250
-
2
1500
1700
Shower requiresapprox301 water
1875
I
—900-
350—
400
610-680
350-420
1-.
recessfor
soap& brush
9
+a
13
10 Footbath(maybeincorporated
as built-in unit)
Bidet
a500—700
b400—600
—F-—
castiron, steel.fireclay,
earthenware,terrazzo,plastics
Sho b torincorporation as
built-in unit
12
15 Hbwith separate
16 Doublehb
11
Shotray forincorporation as
built-in unit
a500—700
b400—600
b
H
Hbwith back skirting
a
b
Hbwithout backskirtingbut
incorporatingmixer fitting
14
wash bowl
mouth-
64 Habitat
Houses
BATHROOMS
Wc &washrooms
Wc with low-level cisterns
-700
i
I- 1200
1850
KD
750j *
-4
2
under
high-level windows —(1 )—(3); wc
with high level cisterns —(4)—(6):
where cistern placed against
exteriorwall insulate againstfrost.
-
Bathrooms: smallest typeofbath
may be recessed into bedr wall
—*(7)with shower end screened
off with glass partition and
3
remainder curtained.
COL
1400
'
In general doors should be mm
460wide,should openfull90°and
open inwards except in accn for
elderly, when should open out-
2200
wards.
5
4
6
Hip-b (loosebowlinfold-up steel
frame)
Shortb
-,
Bathrooms
7
1
0
+
1.
binbedr,glass sectionat sho
end
4-
8 As (7)with dryingspace
1400
-4
9
91
-
1720
I-
c1]i
11
j°i
4—
2630
hbQ
Wa
b j
hbi)
-
1720
/
15
"
bedr
16
, TI
II_I
-. hb -
18 Doubleusebathr
L
6400
4—
I
bed
-4
ter
I
I—
17 Divided bathr&dre
5004700-4
çciiip
OL
jo —
—4
14
1jdre
12
7315
—4
20 Dividedbathr&dre between
19 Deluxe bathrldre
bedr
Showers
4-
D
4- 900 -,
900 4
cii
21
1600
t1
-
-,
E1
26
4- 1000 4-800 -4
-
23 Withfold-up hb
22
4-
25
4- 900
2300
-1
24
H
I—
2540
—I
27 StandardAmericanb
T
3657
-4
highwindow
T:
1219sq
thagortalb
28 Americansquaretubbathr
Habitat 65
Houses
PREFABRICATEDSANITARY UNITS
Standard layand bathr fittings mostly fairlycostly and taketime to install.
As requirements more or less uniform prefabrication preferable: in
particular forterrace houses, maisonette housesand large scale blocks
of flats, also for modernisation schemes and prefabricated housing.
Prefabricateditemscomprise complete plumbing units—.(1)(3), plumbingwalls—(2), complete elementsstoreyorrm high, with pipe mountings
and el leads, also items with accessories, flooring and, usually, ceiling
—+(4)—(9)(available without ceiling for old housing). Compact elements
of fixed dimensions —(1 Q)(11). Also individual elements with variable
I wcplumbingelements
2
fl\
U/.
Plumbing wall
F—1070—H
plumbingunit
Connexion to 1 -storey central heating system hasproved successful.
2100—1
I
3
ground plan design—*(5)—(9).
Construction: mainly sandwichwith wood skeleton and chlpboard,glass
aluminium, aluminium, stainless steel, glass fibre reinforced polyester,
reinforced concrete floor slabs —n(1O)(11) or new types of plastics.
Fittingsand accessories similar materials.Basic essentials: anti-scratch
surfacefinish and long service life (no material fatigue). Prefabricated
plumbing units mostly for use internally in bldg —.(13)—(16); proper
through ventilation therefore necessary: possibly forced ventilation.
Suitable forhotels—(14), hospitals,old people's homes—.(13).
4
Plumbingunitonwall
Self-containedwcelements&
fittings
+— 1250 —a
75
75
e—600
50
I—
1435—.1
1
I
k
S
I
1
p—1800—
I
2050 ——-----—i
I
5 Self-containedwcelement&
6
She elementwith plumbingshaft
11
As 10butwith shoatside
12 Large unitcomprisingk,
washr, heater
fittings
2285—-
I
I
I
2240
7
Bathr unitwithwashing
machine
14 Sho elementinhotel
1400-i
I
/1
2875
9
13 wcelement in hospital
r—..1_———
U1
I
8 Bathr unit
Smallbathrunit
—...Qt_
2110
I
I
1530
10 Compactunit
—
I
15 Sho elementinsmall dwelling
16 Prefabricatedbathrwith k
partitionwall
66 Habitat
Houses
PUBLICROOMS
Dining rooms
1-450*—900—4
•F550+4504
Position: breakfast area facing E —.(1 1), dining area facing W —v(1 2)
(13)(1 5)(l6); directaccess from hall or corridor not necessary but from
kitchenor pantry essential.
Space requirement: formerly largest rm dining rm has shrunk to bare
essentials: very often utilises corner —v(6), kitchen recess —vp55—7
ante-rm or area in living rm —*(4)—(7). Even in large houses dining rm
keptmodest—v(8)(9),sometimes with provisionto combine itwith living
rm for special occasions —v(10). Doors in rm corners convenient.
Mm clearancefromwall depends
onmethodofserving (withorwithout
1
2
Space requiredbetweenheadof
table &sideboard
servant)
4
1700
P—
r
0
24
P
200
x
IF1LII
- .-
eg600wand6P=
0.60x 6 = 1040
tii
:I11UEB
Outside dining spaces (verandas, terraces): should lie on windprotected sunnyside of house in front of dining or living rm (ie in W
Europe with prevailing SW windsshould face E or SE). Since E sun
shines at low angle roof can project quite prominently. Mm widthwith
bench seatalong 1 wall3000: roof projection 2000sufficient.
1800
-
Sideboardwith drawersathead
to
Diaof round table =
F
oftable
6
Table w. . . 550 to 1100
Seating w/P 550to 700
At head oftableadd . . . 100 to
seat w number ofP
3.14
600
3
Size ofdr . . .
—1
600 —
5 Mm table spaceinrailway
dining carwithtip-up seats4; little
morespace requiredindiningrecess
with loosechairs5
4
ri
H
3000
1—
iLJLP
b
3300
33
—1
flIfl9.
T
DftJij
breakia1I :
6
7 Formore than 5 Paccesstoall
Space-savingarrangementof
table withfixed cornerseat&
(possibly)small sideboards
I—
3200
seats mustbeallowedfor
H
F-
3300
In Americadiningspaceneark
withamplesto cpd&sideboardclose
at handoftenconsideredadequate
11
-
12 Diningrecess inliv (withor
without curtain)with accesstok,
intermediatestage toseparate dr
Arch Byrne
-4000
-4
3300-
Trverk
8 Smallestpossibledrfor6P
withoutsideboard; doorin corner
9 Smallest possibledrfor6Pwith
roundtable & cornercpd (double
Separatedr between k&liv
Arch Schwarderer
13
swingdoor to k)
preferable
1 550
-
—F-—
3900
—4—
14 Drbetweenter& liv (sliding
foldingdoors allowcombination)
.•.•.
:::....:
—
1 500
covering
ter
I
sard
I
ci
UQOUG
7450
dr
],7t-
un
10 Drfor 12 Pwith sideboard&spaceforservants: maybe enlarged into
living rm with space-saving arrangement of sliding foldingdoors
ser
15 Dr &livboth openingontoter,
ensuringgooddaylight
16 Relationshipofdrto other mi
Habitat 67
Houses
Guest& children'srooms
PUBLICROOMS
Livingrooms
I- 750
TJ1
h=1100
—4
T
4-600-1
-Uk1øgoo
900
j&h=600
4000
I—
1900
1—
-H
Comfortablelow easychairs
besidetable orstandardlamp
1
4750
4—
—1
2 Table in frontoffireplaceoff
centreto allowaccesstofire
—I
11
Narrow rm forguestsor2
teenagechildren,with joint work
table, separateWa, fold-up beds
12 Similarrmtoll withfold-up
beds &built-in cpd butwider:can
beseparateworktablesoneither
side ofwindow
teatrofley
10001
§
-
3100
4--
3500
4—
Easychairs350 h &table600 h
fortaking tea inalcove
3
4500
4—
250
750
4
Seatinggroup withsettee:easy
chair 380 h, table 600 h
13 Shortrmwithcpdl500h&
fixed beds,primarilyguest rm
3500
+1000
14 Large rmwith bunk bedsin
recess,largefreear, & hb& coat
hooks neardoor
Sewin9 machine 800/450
I
4—
2000 -J
__
I
1
1 600
F—
3100
4—
—4
5
Seatinggroupwith settee&
chairs: chair420 h, table 650h
3400
activity
—4
sitting
2 tea
3
aperitifs, etc
4
smoking
5
conversation
6
dancing
6
Seatingarrangementin liv (may
also beused forbreakfast): chair
440 h, table700 h
Musicrooms
7 playing
8
sewing
9 breakfast
10 eating
11
writing
12 reading
7
Incorrectgrand pianooften
drawnbyarchitects: long(bass)side
isonleft
8
Grandpiano incorrectly placed:
openingtowardswallinsteadof rm
13 music
14 indoorsport
internalwall
15
furnitureandeqp
specialised
rm
combined
rm
settee,lowtable,easy
chairs
teatrolley, sto ofcrockery
etc,seating
sto ofglasses, sideboard,
liqueurtrolley
smokers'table, pipe cpd,
tobacco sf0, smokers'
requirements
fire place, comfortable
easychairs, small
tables
parquet orlinoleum
dance floor, 2.5—3.5
m2 per couple
children'sfurniture,
carpeted floor, toy sto
table, sewingmachine,
linencpd, baskets
breakfast artowards E
withter, or between
bedr
dining ar,sideboard
desk,chairs, filing,
waste-paper basket
shelvesorcpd,easy
chairs with headrest
piano, cpdforother
instruments, musiclib
table tennis, billiard table,
punchball etc
salon
ladies rm
bar
liv
smokingrm
lounge
ballrm
children'srm
utilityrm
breakfast rm
dr
dr
stu
lib
stu
musicrm
games rm
Livingrm uses
Living rm usually multi-purpose; layout and furnishing vary widelywith
different uses entailing wide range of possible space requirements
9
Grandpiano wellpositioned in
relationtoseatinggroup, wall&
circulation,butwindow,heating&
externaldoor wouldbeadverse
factors
Grandpianoagainstinternal
wall,away fromwindow&heating,
wellrelatedtoseatinggroup&rm;
daylightcomingfrombehindplayer
10
—*(15). Therefore necessary define functions in detail before shape,
space for furnishing and movement of users can be planned. For liv
tables—(5) allow 650 space per person, for easychairs —*(2)(3)866
and
diafor roundtables personsx866
3 14
I
68 Habitat
Houses
PUBLICROOMS
Seating nearwindows
0
r
1400/8cc
2350-
Work tablescloselyrelatedto
1
window
2
Avoid seatingpeoplewith backs
towindow
3
Diagonalarrangementpreferable to 2&requireslessspace
On built-in setteebelowwide
window,however, severalpeople
can sitquitecomfortably
4
Seating away fromwindows
5
Bench seatalso satisfactory
between2windowsin lightcoloured
corner with suitablecarpet
7 Seatingagainstinteriorwallwith viewthrough picturewindow very
relaxing,speciallyinfront offrenchdoors
Seatingin middleusually
uncomfortablefrom lackof
relationshipwith rest ofmi
8
Seating roundfireplace
.400
draught
I.
§
1000
2000
V
9
Ingle-nook Arch Leusinger
10 Seatingarrangedtoavoid
draughtfromdoortofireplace
Chairswithhigh backs& ears'
also protectagainstdraught
11
12 Largergroupsshould follow
patternof heatradiation
Seating round workdesks
700
970
13 Colleaguesworkingclosely
togethershouldfaceeachother; with
largewindows&light-coloured
walls,daylightfromright istolerable
forwriting
14 Visitorsusuallysitin lightatend
ofdesk,face of interviewer being in
shade
a
15 Assistantsmaywork
temporarilyonflapat endofdesk
16 Conferencetable unnecessary
ifdesktop extensible
17 In small rmvisitorsmaybe
18 As alternativeto17visitormay
beseatedbehindhost,who turnson
revolving chair:door should bein
frontofdesk
Correct arrangement of seating greatly enhances comfort of users.
Relationship of daylight and artificial lighting important —(1)—(8). Give
careful consideration togoodcombination of furniture elements, choice
of independent heights and colours, well planned free area, correctly
hung doors, kind of floor (direction of boarding) —+(7), carpets
—(5)(6)(8)(1 2), treatment ofwallsincluding pictures and sitingofwindows, radiators, fireplace and piano —+p67. Seating area, however, will
remain focal point ofrm: everythingelse should be subordinatedto it.
seatedagainstinternall wall; small
table shouldbeprovided
Habitat
69
Houses
PUBLIC ROOMS
6900
I—
Living rm usedfor general daytime activities; serves mainly asfocus of
social activities of family round fireplace, tea or coffee table and for
evening leisure activities.Orientation best between E, S and W.
Windows —np404
—1
Reception rm (salon): in larger houses often used as music rm or
consult/waiting rm near entrance.
entrance
L.—' seatingar
Conservatory (wintergarden): usuallyfacing S accessible from living
ordiningrm.
Music room: nexttoliving rm; dimensionsdeterminedbysizeofaudience
and type and number of instruments; soft lighting from back or side of
players. For acoustical reasons rm shape usually square with wood
panelling; position ofpiano —ep67. In largerm sound reflecting surfaces
ress
1-rmdwellingfor2persons,with
differentactivitieswellseparated
1
2 Squareliv with seatingarnear
window& fold-upbeds
—
sidoboard
Mur& liv,with needleworktable,
fireplace,book-shelves
Arch Neufert
panelling) toheight ofabout 1 500.
4
Liv/dr cum murwith built-in
furniture,suitablefor 10—12persons
Arch Neufert
munc cxJ
underwindow
6800
H-
4500
I—.
Study: frequently serves asoffice or workrm. Near entrance and living
rm with W or E aspect; fitted with desk, bookshelves, filing system,
seating area (deepeasychairs, lowtable, cocktail cabinet).
Library: N orientation. 1 000 shelftakes approx 30—40 books. Height
between shelves250—300,shelfdepth 220—320.Forapprox, 120—150
books1 m2 of wall. Larger volumes, maps, folders etc in lower, deeper
shelves. Height oftop shelfapprox 1 700 from floor—+pl 46.
Children's rm: away from living rm but easy supervision essential
(from household rm) and preferably with access to garden or safe
balcony; on sloping sites may be on lower ground to give garden
access. Orientation E-W, low cill (guard rails outside), furniture to children'ssizes.Washable wallfinish(such aslinoleum orplastics-covered
7000
books
3
round players with absorbent surfaces behind audience.
1
H
H900-t
reading
desk
I—
'O
T
stu
8
bode
trolley
-I-
5
Smallmurwith grand& baby
grand pianos& seatingar: avoid
placing pianoclose toheatingunitor
in directsun
-
6
Murforquartets,trios or2grand
pianos &audienceof 12(daylight
from behindpianists)
3000 -4
4—.
6500
—1
9
Booksto inlong narrowrmwith
amplewallspace: reading desk
underwindow,small booktrolley
near door
'°°°
-1
T
-I-
7
Smallstuwith bookshelves, desk
&seatingar
3000 —
8
Largestu withbookshelves,
seatingarinfront of writingdesk
11 Work rmwithwholewallfor
bookshelves,sewingmachine
(underbookshelves),writingdesk,
seatingar, chestofdrawers
10 Smallworkrmwith writingdesk
nearwindow,bookshelves&seating
ar
70 Habitat
Houses
BEDROOMS
Positionof bed
Bedmaking requires clear space of at least 400, preferably 700 (USA
mm), beside bed. In most small houses, therefore, choice of bed
positions restricted by shape and size of bedr; to free as much floor
space as possible single beds usuallyplaced along walls and double or
twin bedsplaced headto wall. Nevertheless,relation of bed towalls and
to rm as a whole can also be important in contributing to feeling of
security. While stable, self-reliant person may prefer free-standing bed
—(4)lessself-reliantperson mayprefer—.(1)(2)(5) regardlessofamount
of space available.
Impression of restfulness depends on wall covering and colour, shape
of bed, orientation (head towards N), relation to daylight (looking away
from window) and relation to door (looking towards door). Relative
position of 2 beds also important because where 2 people sleep in 1 rm
differentarrangementsmay bedesirable,especiallywhere headpositions
concerned, according to relationship between people —(9)—(12) (16).
Also differentarrangementsforcouples,depending on personal preference
—(13)—(15).Withseparate beds change of direction may be preferable
—.(12)(15)(16). Separate beds for couples now common. Current
fashion may also favour water bed, though well to bear inmind that, fully
loaded, thismay impose floorload of up to2oreven 3 t.
—
>p
J
1 Alongwall
2 Headagainstwall
3 Headnearwall
4
lncentreofrm
5
Cornerofrm
6 Rear wall
7
8
Alcove
9
Friends
10 Sisters
11
14 Twinbeds (2mattresses)
15 Separatebeds
1.5
Recess
Brothers
12 Guests
-
13 Doublebed (single mattress)
16 Bunk beds
a
17 USA bedrsizes(mainbedrmin11.15m2 leastdimension 2845,secondary bedrmm 7.43m leastdimension2438)
sizes —.p71
a&bsingle C double d twin; USAbed
Habitat
71
Houses
Th
BEDROOMS
Today's reduced flat and house sizes call for most economical use of
floor spaceand make built-in cupboards desirable. Best arrangement
based uponenclosed wall recesseswith flooring running intocupboard,
walls papered or oil painted, and moth-proof doors. Ideal solution:
complete cupboard walls between rm—U(7)(11 )(12): sliding, accordion
or openout hinged doors.
Cupboards on exterior walls must be well insulated and ventilated to
avoid condensation —Up74(2); walk-in cupboards/dressing rm also
require ventilation —U(13). Cupboards can be located between bedr to
reduce sound transmission.
w
762
914
0?
a,
c
U'
1
bed I in UK vary according to manufacturer; 1 905 is
commonsize; othersizes 1880,1981and2133
69
U)
1524
1829
00
Modernbedr fitmentcombining bedhead, bedsidetables, fitted wa & sto
spaceabove
2
child'scotsize usually 1 219 long, 610 wide
USA mattresssizes
king
ao
queen
3-quarter
twin
I
1828
1828
2032
1905
1905
w
1981
1981
1524
1371
990
-1
J
note:add 76toeachdimension forframe
9
Double-depthcpd,single&
doubledoors(opened)
USA water bed sizes
king
queen
single
I
2133
2133
2133
w
1828
1524
1219
2500
-Iii0001
10 Double-depthcpd(withdouble
doors) & cornercpd formedsimply
bydoors;walls& floor of rm
continuous
Bed, divan& mattresssizes
3260
F-
1—
-I
2000
1500 -IF-1500-11750-4
-II-
2000 H
12 Cpd wallwith walk-incpd &
Cpd wallwith walk-incpd
between2bedr: linencpdopeningto washrwith sho between 2 bedrthat
corr;wall thicknesses varyfrom30 to are about4000deep
100 dependingonmaterialsused
11
Elevationofdoublebunk-bed
recess&built-in cpd
3
4
Elevation& sectiontoplan 5
showingeconomicaluse of space
:r
60
F—
3600
—I
I—
3600
500
—.i
,"mirror
13 Walk-in cpdbigenough to
serve as dre
5
Bed recessformedby built-in
cpd
6
7
3600
-
Built-in cpdrelatedtopositionof
beds
wall withcpd
Cpd acrossfullrmw, with
window (above) &mirroronsliding
door (below)
FF-
14 Americanexampleofwindow
3600
—l
bedr
11 2001
Linencpd atend of corr,door
frame serving2doors
8
15 As14butwith deepcpdonboth
sides angledatfrontto avoid
obstructingdaylight
16 Loweredceiling &curtainwill
combinecpd of 14& 15toformdre
72 Habitat
Houses
BEDROOMS
Rm sizes determined by bed sizes: beds and wardrobes often built in
rm accord with standard bed sizes.
Window preferably parallel to bed (for reading and view) so that with
desirable E orientation bed will stand N—S —.(2)(5)(8)(9)(13)(15) etc.
Doors should open without encroaching on sleeping area —4(2)(8)(9)
(12)(14)(16)(18) etc. Comfortable access to whole rm of of paramount
importance —4(5)(7)(1 1).
—*(1)(4)(6)(1 1) and sizes of small
— 3000
1
4000
9—
—.
-4
9
Singlebedr
USA bedr sizes —.p44(1)70
Stu/bedralso —p140(1 )—(5)
4—
4000
I—
—4
2
—I
10
IDL_Ji
°1
T
I—
4000
7
—1
5000
4—
I—
—i
11
Doublebedrwithdoubledepth cpd
3
4500
I-
4
5000
5000
—9
Bed-sittingmi
4000
—i
—
—
5
1—
4000
5000
4000
—9
13
4000
—..
23 Main bedrwith pull-outbed
—4
9—
18 Main bedrwith doublebed
12
—l
—
17 Main bedr
i__
I—
4000
6000
—i
24 Main bedrwith dre ar
—-
T
-r
§
8
I
I
19
25
I
8
1100
F
5000
—
6 Bed-sittingrrnwithdouble-depth
cpd
a--...--Vi_V]1
—
6000
—
—I
14 Doublebedrwithsleeping
4500
I
—4
20
recess
f
5000
7
—1
I—
Bed-sittingrm
21
—T
6
I
4—
8
5000
—.4
Bed-sittingrm withfold-upbed
ed
16 Stu-bedrwithsleepingrecess
22 Main bedr-sittingrm
—4
27 Separatebedrfor husband &
wife
—
4—
7000
7000
28 Separatebedrwith walkthroughcpd
—i
Habitat
73
Houses
STORAGEIN HOUSES& FLATS
Shape and position of sto space as important as its size. Sto should be
provided within easy reach of activities to which related and shape
should allow max useofwallareaforshelving —s(1). Stogenerally more
useful atground level than on upper storeys. Familyhouse willrequire at
least5m2ofgeneral sto, ofwhich at leasthalfshould be on ground floor
(USA mm 1.23 m2).
General storage
Sto rm require ventilation and those providing part of passageway
Entrance on longside of sto
allowsmax useofshelving
1
2
Allowspaceforpassagewayin
through' sto
through house should also permitnaturallighting.In suchcasesallowance
mustbe madeforloss ofusablespace tocirculationrequirements.—a(2).
Garden tools, bicycles etc usually best inexternal stoor,ifwithin house
itself,in stowith direct access from outside —*(3).
Hats & coats
Space required in or off entrance hall for hanging hats and coats and
storing outdoorfootwear, preferably in wardrobe or with racks to take
hangers —+(3). Additional space may be needed for storing working
clothes and eqp —(1 1 )(1 2).
Thepram
In family houses space required for pram —sp74(4): should be easyto
manoeuvre pram indoorssothat itcanbeused ascot(crib) during dayif
required.
25
_____
3
Meters
Credit metersshould be capable of being read withoutentering living
area of house. Arrangements which can be read by inspector from
outside —p74(3) available. Prepayment meters should be easy to
reach fromfloor level butgasmeters, especially, should beout ofreach
of small children. Space forgasmeters —*p386.
biding
doors
4
Inlinewa
Walk-in wa
Linen
q
0120
130
I
bI
________
510 80 35
400 Iao
400 40
Separate sto space should be provided for linen and bedding. At least
0.6 m3 required, fitted with slatted shelves. Must be dry and therefore
not entered from bathr or kitchen or sited against outside wall (unless
insulated). May be combined with suitably ventilated hot water cylinder
cupboard (heater closet) but not with 'combination' water unit as
condensation might occur.
Wardrobes
5
6
Hat&coat rack
Umbrellastand
1
Forclothing in particular,ease ofaccess more important than sf0space.
Effective depth of built-in cupboard forclotheshanging 600 but deeper
cupboards can be more fully utilised byattaching accessories to backs
of doors—s(7). As loads not great normal blackboard doors on strong
hinges adequate; shelves can be supported by adjustable ladders and
brackets. Walk-in cupboards —*p71 (11) take uplittle wallspace, as door
of 550 (USA mm 610 preferred 660) will suffice for cupboard of any
length; but floor space less efficiently used because of necessary
access area. Walk-in cupboards must be ventilated and lighted and
may be entered from, and used as access or escape routes between,
r
adjacent rm.
Is!
7
Clothes& linencpdwith doors
puttoadditionaluse (fordimensions
8
Dressingchairwith backrestin
coat hangershape(copyright:
Neufert)
600
ftLLEh.
I
'
fd8flselTflO8
—
Internal stoaccessible fromgardenwithoutpassingthroughliving arof
house
11
house
house
a
secbone-t
sectiona-b
9Wa
Section c-d
10 Built-inwa
12 Gar sto aside b rear
b
I
c)
74 Habitat
Houses
STORAGE
T
1.
I—
1000
600
*
USAel meteronbrickwall
4
550 +350-i
Section
Sechon
I—
1500,-".
4 700 P4700
,=.==tJ';=
8
I,6
Built-in doublewa (cheap&
1
2 Walk-in wabetweenbedr
3
5
Externalel metercpd
—.also p71
space-saving)
Pram
1
200
320
240
hangers
I
/
Ac.
280
350
men's hats
1
150
320
women's hats
7
—
-260
350
'0
200
6terrytowels900h
3pairpyjamas
handkerctefs
x1,x70
12women's
handkerchiefs
110 x 80 x 30
6
Dimensions
ofclothes
stockings
'
10shirts
120
3pairheavy
'—'2z./ men'ssocics
x80 x 35
3 bath towels lBOh
6
120
480
/5o
-i
200.,,
300
500
6 handtowels40h
1
20,
A
80,
/
Habitat 75
Houses
Kitchenstorage
600
"1°
Space required in or nextto kitchen for storing food and cooking eqp.
Stoalso needed forgeneral cleaningand laundering eqp and materials.
Dry goods should be enclosed and readily accessible from cooker and
sink positions.
Floor cabinets best used forstoring heavy or infrequently used articles.
Wall cabinets economical in space and provide convenient sto for
smaller and frequently used items: should be shallow enough to allow
full useof worktops below —(i).
1
Larderventilated to outsideairand protectedby flyproof screendesirable
even when space for refrigerator and freezer provided: should not
contain heating orhotwaterpipes norreceive direct sunlight. Should be
provided with well fitting door, preferably with threshold, to discourage
Sectionthroughworktop& sto
vermin.
Freezer need not necessarily be near kitchen: ifplaced inoutside stooi
garage must be locked against theft. Should be served by el power
outleton independent circuit.
Wine
3 Cloths &towels
4
Space-savingverticalsto of
dishes
Wine cellars should be clean, dark, dry, well ventilated (but avoid cold
draughts) and in quietposition free from vibration and away fromdirect
heat. Whitewines best kept at constant tempbetween 6°—8° C and red
winesat between 10°—i 2°C. Bottle sto may be in racks or in unglazed
clay drainpipes —*(11).
Fuel storage
Solidfuel requires volume of not less than 1.13 m3forfuel sto. Should
beaccessible fromwithin house orfromporch orother shelter. To avoid
spread of dust arrange that bags can be tipped from outside without
-500-1
LH-I4-
1000
ETh
1-500-4
5
Dish cpdwith drawers
II1
-4
1000
-4
H500-
6 Glass orplasticscontainers
entering house.
In makingprovisionforoilstowellbegenerous—*p386—7.Fuel tanksupto
2000I can generally be located adlacent to houseswithout restriction;if
enclosed should beseparated from remainderofbldg and provided with
catch pit. Fuel inlet point should be positioned within 30 m of place
where delivery tanker can conveniently stop. USA: oil tanks often
buried if 21001 orover.
Refuse
8
Refuse sf0 should be outside house, easily accessible from kitchen
door. Simple, easily cleaned, covered stand required. Carrydistanceto
collection vehicle access should notbe more than 46m and ideally less
than 25 m.
Q0c
Eggrack for 100eggs
(500 x 500)
7
8
hi
Slattedrackforfruit (800 x 420)
13
Lazytongs'rackingtofitavailablecpdspaces(80x BOx 80)
200130
220130
270x 150
30017O
I
180
/
/
210 /
180
180
Carpei
Potatorack
10 Bottlesstored sardinefashion'
indeep shelves
Q
300
120
depth300
7
oo
Bottles storedin drainpipes(64
boffles/ri?)
11
sweeperf
iloor
pohsher 420 ,
pyramids
1
;/o
320
12 Bottlesstored in overlapping
16 Vacuumcleaners
.'
4
Mop
9
/
4400
40
I
ci)
76 Habitat
Houses
SECURITY
PRIVACY:PUBLIC& PRIVATE SPACES
External security best served by good lighting and visibility. Access
routes and entrances should never be dark or concealed, however
romantic thismightappear, and should ifpossible allow sufficient space
toavoid unwanted encounter.
Amongmostdifficult problems in housing layout: striking right balance
Avoid dense planting round entrances and ground floor windows (or
use prickly shrubs!). In small blocks offlats entrance may becontrolled
by entryphones —.(1)(2) but this may be inconvenient where many
smallchildren. For single people or working couples someprovision
needed fordaytime deliveries.
Forthievesease ofexitas important asease of entry. Professionalmay
be willing to break window to secure access but will be unwilling to rely
on thisas his means ofexit Allexternal doors should therefore be fitted
with deadlocks and openable windows, ifpossible, befitted with window
locks.
Free detailed advice, based on expert local knowledge, available from
all UK police forces through their crime prevention officers.
between need for privacy and need to avoid social isolation. Balance
obviously varies according to individual character, temperament and
age so no perfectsolution possible but good layout will at leastallow
somedegree of individual choice. Designs which opt strongly for either
social' or 'private'approach unlikely to satisfy majorityofoccupants.
Dwellings opening directly on to busypublic spaces and access decks
designed to encourage social contact and neighbourliness may also
suffer intolerable intrusion, while screening desgned to provide
'defensible space' may result in roads and footpaths bounded byblank
wallsand fences. Eitherapproach likely to lead to feelings of insecurity
and dissatisfaction amongst residents.
In high density layouts, in particular, user satisfaction likelyto be enhanced, and incidence of vandalism to be reduced, by sub-divison of
large anonymous public areas intosmaller spaces related to identifiable
groupsofdwellings.
For flats,transition between entirely public zone of street and entirely
private zone of individual fIat may be by way of both semi-public zone
sharedbyall flats inblock (elevator and staircase hall etc, possiblywithsome
formof supervised access) and semi-private zone share by 2 or 3 flats
withaccess undercontrol ofoccupants —.(3).
For houses, public access road may lead to mixed use pedestrian!
vehicle court .-.p42, with psychologically restricted entry, related to
groupof 20 or so houses and further transition zone provided by front
garden toeach individual house.
—.alsop77
Gardens—.p103-—14
Bell-push& doormicrophone
mustbe in reachof children
1
2 Typicaldimensionsofdoor
transmitterwith light button& bells
for5floors
k
Iiv/dr
1bedr
:rL fl1dr
tcr==ir=i_[I
,jL
bedr bedr
r-I.b1
down±ffh±[
bedr
flfl
baI
0
5m
15tt
3
Semi-privateentrancezoneforflats a perspective
b plan
4
HawaiiHousingAuthority;2-storeyunitsover flats,solves 3-storeypublic
stair requiredfor3 floor flats agroundlevel bsecond level cthird level
Arch Akiyama!Kekoolani
Habitat 77
Houses
PRIVATEOPEN SPACE
All family
houses require somekind of related open space — whether
garden, patio —n(7) or balc—np88 —which is sunny and sheltered from
wind. Should ideally be large enough to allow space for clothes drying
—s(5)(6), toddler's play,out-door hobbiesand sittingout. Factors affecting
location outdoorliving areas—*(3).
I,
Gardens —p1 03—14
Enclosed garden enhances privacy. Walls,hedges and, to lesser extent,
Nface ofhousein shade& immediate foreground overshadowed but
longerprospecton to sunlit garden&wallformingsuntrap
1
air20°C; wind 16kph
___________________
air 20°C; wind 16kph
trees can providenatural protection fromnoise, wind and dust. Advantage if private garden can open out of liv, providing out-doorextension
oflivingspace: but not necessarilybest placed (UK) onSsideof house
sinceenclosed garden toN can provide sunlit view, though will need be
deepto be effective because ofovershadowingbyhouse itself—n(1).
Gardenstructures—pll1
Tents and sheds in gardens do not usually rate as bldg in UK: not
considered permanent living access when occupied only bydayand not
used for trade or business. Distance fromsite boundary orother bldg
should not be less than 1 800. Forframes and greenhouses —spi 11.
you feel
20°C
a
60steel rods
a
spaced 32apart
6 25steel flat barlj"
x
dia
7
weldedcap76 inside
air20°C;wind 16kph
0
yoeefeel
24°C
b
019pipe
F-
woodseat
9t4
brick laid
dryon25
sand
I
hand bevelie
-
benchnut° x ii
I
angleiron
cement
compacIeo1OdirodS
sub-soil
:- :
Built-inbarbecues aadjustablegrill canberaisedto305abovebrazieron
masonrybase bbarbecuefirepitcombination continuous unitwithgarden
seat &patio paving:hard-burnedfirebrick liner; ironpins adjusthof
grill Design aAKTobin bCMasonWhitney R Burton LittonJrRobertJ
4
Tetlow
Windeffects
greatestspan 2400
h
1900
c 425
weight 15kg
cord horn
3
Factorsaffectingoutdoorliving arlocations: consultlocalreg
5
Washinglines
7
Patio& deckonwater's edge ArchLawrenceHalprin
6
'Whirligig' clothesdrier
I0
ci)
78
Habitat
Houses
45,
10 ---—-f——lU8'—4-——l0'
-:Th
ADAPTABLEHOUSES
r
Two recent developments in house planning in Britain are intended to
extendflexibility in meeting user requirements.
8"——---10B"—-
N
'liv
WalterSegal'shouses
Architect Walter Segal has designed houses using sheet materials in
standard panel sizes assembled in timber supporting construction.
Column centres 3000—3600 apart give great planning flexibility with
acceptable beam depths and accommodate most rm sizes. Bldg are
raised above ground, with columns based on concrete pads. Planning
readily adaptable and materialscanbe reused —(1)(2).
Extendiblehouse
hILI
Extendible houses intended to permit first-home owners to enlarge
their houses as family size increases. Examples illustrated represent
2 approaches, extension of 1-storey house to form patio —(3), and
construction of rm in roof—(4).
I
Self-containedextensiontoexisting houseinSussexEngland 1970:
externalwallpanelswhite glazedasbestos sheetoutside, 50woodwool slab
core,plasterboard&laminateinside:flatroofoverhangs at eaves; imperial
dimensionsretainedtoshow howsizesrelatetosheetmaterials, 2' 0' panel
w + 2" joint &tolerance ArchW Segal
V
elevahon
before
afterextension
extension
8
21' 6"
6"8'6'8'64
or
Inthis Scottishdesignhouseisextendedupwards:nonewfoundations
brickworkneeded Arch NationalBuildingAgency Edinburgh
4
2 This largerhouseon slopingsite at Ballycummisk Ireland shows great
flexibilityofsystem Arch W Segal
3 These 1-storey 1-bedrhousesat ChathamEnglandcanbe extended to
provideupto3bedrbutspacerequired maymeanhigh initialsitecosts Arch
WCook BoroughArchitect
5
Americandesignforlowcost plywood panelhouse; roofpanels&wallsare
built inflat position& hoisted ortippedupintoplace agroundfloor bfirst
floor Arch E H&M KHunter
Habitat 79
ato
dr
entrance
ha
hv
Undergroundhouses
Growing concern with safeguardinglandscapefromill effects ofintrusive
development engenders greater interest in underground building for
housing. Application to domestic house of techniques of construction
devised for civil engineering or military proiects: costs involved cut by
recentrefinements in bldg technology.
Energy conservation further factor tending to favour building underground, ifonly in part. Soil provides good insulation layer, keeping heat
in during winter, out insummer —ep8O.
Underground housing still experimental. Designers must base predictionsfor such details as number of air changes/hr needed to keep up
ventilation levelsfor preventing build-up ofcondensation on empirical
calculations: not enough built examples see how different forms of
excavated construction behave in practice.
In UK bId reg framed before underground housing became likely
prospect; official approval thereforedependentonindividual negotiation.
a
F
sectionA
12 18 ii
sieepingpiaiforrn
entrance
ter
k
b
1
Hill tophouseFloridaUSA:sitedforpanoramic viewsbutpartlysunkin
groundtoreduceinterferencewith naturalcontours;turfedroofshelprest
blendin:upperlevelformssinglespace observatory asection bplan Arch
WilliamMorgan
3
HolidayhomeJutlandDenmark: partly underground soasinvisiblefrom
landwardsidewith viewsseawardthrough2largeglassdomes;underground
componentconcreteshell absections c plan ArchClausBonderup
a
b
1
2
3m
98
b
HouseinPenninesEngland:toavoidintrusion inaesthetically sensitive
areapartly underground,partlyhidden behindearthmounds asection b
plan Arch ArthurQuarmby
2
4 Twin beachhouses FloridaUSA: underground soas notto interfere with
views ofhouseson landside;built inpairsfromshellscast inGunite, cement
mixtureusuallyused forswimming pools; lowerhalvescast firstinto
excavatedsand then 100thick rootshellbuilt up oversteelreinforcing rods;
claimed costs approx1/2 thoseofequivalent conventional structure thanksto
layerofearth mm 560 asection bplan ArchWilliam Morgan
I
80 Habitat
Houses
ENERGYSAVINGBY PLANSHAPE
Minimumperimeter house
Reducing exterior wallarea can save energy. In theory dome or sphere
ideal configurationbut haveobvious drawbacks:circularplan has smallest
perimeterfor given floor area —.(1), Next best alternative: perfectly
square plan of 1-storey house; minimises wall and window area and
therefore energyIoss—.(2).
Entry locks
Enclosed entries, either within perimeter ofhouse—.(3a)oras appendage —(3b),can reduce energy consumption. Size ofentryshould allow
access doorsto openindependently.
Atriums
Windows responsible for 1530Yo total heatingenergy loss from house.
Strategic placing reduces loss and maximisessolar gain inwinter. When
windows face on toatrium this acts as passive solar collector —.p81 (1).
Sun planning
In many climates significant energy saving can be obtained by meansof
S-facing windows provided with overhangs,computedtorestrictsummer
sun, and Nwallsbuffered bysto areas.Sun trap with wind buffers canbe
make sure no drain or leak into sitearea from surrounding construction
suchas parking lots &septic systems
identifyground water levels & seasonal variations in level before deciding location of bldg & excavationdepth
assure adequate soil percolation for sunken courtyards & atrium areas;
consider installing overflow drains
anystructural system can beused, providing designed forproper loads;
general rule: 290 kg/rn2 (150 lb/ft2) for grass-covered roofs & 1950
kg/m2 (400 bItt2) where small trees are to be supported; snow &
pedestrian loads must be added
wall design generally same as anybelow grade (ground level) construction; but insulation needed between earth & exterior wall of structure,
allowing ittostoreheat, avoidingcontinuous loss toearth; best currently
available material styrofoam (because of closed cell construction); insulation can be reduced in thickness as depth below grade (ground
level) increases
when banking (berming) earth against existing walls advisable add
cement plaster on metal lath between earth & insulation to prevent
roots, insects & rodents from reaching existing walls
very effective in cold climates —.p81 (2).
butyl sheeting good material for waterproofing; also serves as vapour
ENERGYSAVING: EARTH
to control dampness inside use dehumidificationorcirculating air
—alsop79
Check list:
gentle S slopesidealfor underground structures: can build into hill &
still have benefits of southern exposures
avoid low-lying depressions: heavy, cold airwillsettle inthem; increased
danger fromfrost & damp
earth pipes (ducts buried in earth) may be used for cooling or for
pre-warming outside cold air forwinterfreshairsupply
1
Circularfloor plan
a
o
3
Entry lock:
II
-
barrier
examine all local bldg codes, especially in relation to fireexits&ventilation; increased aircirculation eqp may affect energyuse
studylighting carefully: important for undergroundstructures determine
howthis affects interiorcomfort &energy use
2
b
iiii
awithin baddedto(USA) standard practicehouse
1-storeysquarefloor plan
Habitat
81
Houses
ENERGYSAVING: VENTILATION
Effective passive approach to cooling: capture prevailing breezes and
ventilate house naturally —(3). Ideal orientation for this places face
throughwhichbreezes are to enter at oblique angle of 200_700 to wind
—(4). Instead of allowing wind pass straight through house this creates
turbulence which makes for betterventilation. When wind velocity low
internal velocity can beincreased by useof wing walls next towindow to
create 'mini pressure zones' there. Casement windows or adiustable
shutters can achieve same effect. Place windows where ventilation
required with cillsat desired cooling height: egin bedr at mattress level.
Window heights also—p4O4.
Plant evergreens on Nand Wsidesof house to block coldwinterwinds
(2).
Use ground shape and any nearby ponds or lakes to improve natural
ventilation. On slopingsites (particularlyfacing S) breezes move up hill
duringday, down at night. Near bodies of water cooling breezes move
fromwaterto land during day, fromland to water at night —.(5).
These guidelines may run counter to effective use of orientation to
maximise solar gain —p8O. Therefore for any design brief specify
whethersolargain ornatural ventilation should have priority.
fn general consult local weather bureau foraccurate informafion on solar
radiation, solar altitude and bearing, cloud cover, rain and snowfall,
direction and strength of prevailing winds.
1 Squareplan with atrium:windowsfaceinwards;atriumcoveredby
skylight
2OO
2
I-louseplannedtodealwith climaticconditionsof NW USA: suntrapwith
wind buffers Arch FrankLloydWright
rnrnrn
4
Orientationfornaturalventilation
5
Influencesofgroundshape&bodiesof wateron naturalventilation
3
Bldg sitedto accept prevailing breezesdraws airquicklythroughportal,
ventilatingcourt&drawingcoolingmoisturefrompoolintoair; massing
reduces heatgain & providesevening warmth
82
Habitat
Housing: old people
Strong trend against putting old people in homes unless in need of
special care and attention; —÷old people's preferences below. Limiting
factor can be land values. In USA most low income housing forelderly
has been high rise to allow use of expensive land near shops and
recreation possibilities.
UK standards envisage 2types housing:
self-contained for 1 or2 more active old people—(2)
grouped flatlets for less active with some communal amenities and
services—(1 )(3)p84(2)
a
Old people'spreferences
Check listofwhatold people want, based on USAexperience:
viewfromliving rmwith 1 window lowenough to see outwhen seated
exteriorpersonal territory' leoutdoor area forsitting and social contacts
9
1
?
Ô
4m
2ff
b
(porches, gardens)
closeto shops
informal home-like scale
community outdoorarea within easy walk
frequentresting places alongwalks
securityand fire alarm systems
adequate sto
kitchen worktopslowerthan usual
separate bedr rather than efficiency design
choice ofdining inorin community dining rm
Communal amenities
Common rm provided for self-contained dwellings may include sitting
rm, tvrm, hobbies rmorworkshop. Mm floorspace/P 0.95 m2. Provide
near common rm 1 wc and hand basin, tea kitchen or pantry with sink
andhot waterheater, space for hatsand coats, cleaningcpdand sto 2
m2.
Forgrouped flatlets providewarden's quarters, emergency alarmsystem
—(1) connecting each dwelling with warden's, common rm with 1.9
m2/P and ancillary amenities as for self-contained above, laundry rm,
telephone for tenants with adjacent seat, cpd for communal cleaning
materials
1 m3. Provide access between all accn by enclosed and
heated circulation areas and fordirect goods delivery fromdoor todoor;
delivery hatches orgrouped lockers acceptable.
Housingforelderly at CumbemauldScotland has31 cottages, warden's
house&commonrm, each cottagehaving wardencallsystemwithtalk-back;
meals providedatdaycentre asite layout b2-personcottage ccommon
rm/day centrelayout plan Arch RobertWhiteAssociates
1
2
Privateretirementhousewith adjoining unitforvisitingchildrenUSA
Arch EH & M KHunter
3 Low budgethousingforelderly FloridaUSA a typical 1-bedrdwelling
bsite layout plan Arch C Randolph Wedding
Habitat
83
Housing:old people
1730
reachmax
r r
shalt
mar
1370
1 435
reachmax
1585
0,
it
ita,
1
Max reachover worktopto shelf
&cpd
reachtoiward
on 850worktop
Access: if involves climbing more than 1 storey provide elevator: 2
elevators if more than 4storeys high;access stairs should be enclosed.
Stairs —*p86(5)408; ramps—*p87407. Alldwellings should have hail or
lobbywithspace forhanging outdoor clothes.
Doors —*p401 —2. Doorsto wc and bathr must open outwards and be
fittedwith special locks which can beopened fromoutside.
in
iO
E
Planningfactors
11
2 Max reachtounobstructed wall
cpd
Kitchen; worksequence —ep55. Provide working surfaces both sides
sinkand cooker. Max height working surfaces 850; max height shelves
1520 —*(1)(2).Cookers specially adapted for safe use by old people.
Mm
size trig 0.7 m3 (NB do not site underneath worktop). Mm sto
capacity 1.7 m3. Safety precautions—*p84.
Heating: space heating living areas capable maintainingmm 21°C; for
circulation areas in grouped flatlets mm 15.6°C when outside temp
sd=59
—1°C.
370
WO4(top
sink topmax
max850—
hh
table700
L.
w'I
E+
3 hof worktop workingsurface&
reachforwardtofittings
4
h+
h& thigh clearancefortable&
sittingworktop
about rm. Remember indesigning stospace oldpeopletendaccumulate
treasured possessions.
Guest rm: preferable provide rmforvisitsfromfamily in self-contained
dwellings. For grouped flatlets guest rm may be provided; should be
placed closeto communal lay.
bath nm
1)
-
El socket outlets: generous provisionof el socket outlets atconvenient
positions and levels important; mm (UK) kitchen 4, living area3, bedr 2,
hailorlobby 1 bed sitting rm 5.
Livingspaces: important provide adequatespace formovement round
furniture; consider use of buiit-in units (specially cpd, wa) but take
account also of furniture which can afford hand holds when moving
40-50
timberhandrail
panelface(itused)
mountedunder __________
rail
30mm
Bedrinself-contained dwellings follow standarddesign butnote importanceof room tomoveround; built-in wardrobe desirable. Bed sitting rm
sometimes ingrouped flatlets, usual in old people's homes —*(10)(1 1).
Safetyprecautionsfor old people —*p84
6 Section of brimadaptedforeasy
gripping
7-
T
255
-
560
5 Aids forgettingin &outofbwith
maxhrimfromfloor
'\T
7
rim orwatmountedhandles
hingeabner
4
900 450
*
p
40-Sodia
verticalpole
SefH
/
Iourta"—II verticalpote
oorannei
dram
tho
grating
L
seat__
T
Mountingofinclinedrailforwc
WOhhandspray
8
Bathr plansshowinghandingto
suit Pwith disabilityofright orleft leg
&positionofpolegrip
9
Sho mi plan
—
I
I_—
hb
IPd
3600
3600
24OO
T
3000
I.
10 Doublermdimensions&data
11
Singlermdimensions&data
I
-4000
I
84 Habitat
Housing: old people
Safetyprecautions
service entrance
Check listof safety precautions based on USA practice:
heating system should be designed to avoid burn injury
hotwatersystem should hold watertempat43°C orbelow
air conditioning should be designed to avoid draughts in sitting or
sleepingareas
radiant floor heating plus airsystem preferred
door bells and alarms should have low pitch: high tones perception
deficientin many old people
automatic shut-off forall gaseqpto prevent inhalationorexplosion
place fire sensor over cooker
el cooking preferred forsafety ofoldpeople
generousoverall lighting: avoid glareorshadowed areas
avoid rough wall surfaces
avoid slippery floors; no 'scatter' rugs; wall to wall low pile carpets
safest, especially in bedr, butNB strain on heart when vacuum cleaning
carpet
nothresholds between rm
Bathroom,lavatory
Relationshipsof elements inplanforhomeforold P
—
a
Bathr large enough for undressing and dressing, if necessary with
helper(especially in homes).
Handholds: atleast 1 forgetting in and outofbath —ep83(5); atleast 1 at
side of wc pedestal —ep83(7). Consider use of pole —vp83(5). Bath rim
should beadapted foreasygripping —vp83(6).
Bath: low-sided, flat bottom; length limited so that user cannot be
completely immersed: max 1 550. Consider seat atrim height for sitting
towashlegsand feet.
Hand basin: rim between 800 and 850high.
Shower —*p83(9): compartment well heated with pegs for clothes on
dry side, divided from wet side by shower curtain. Floor non-slip and
free fromhazards; if smooth with fall todrain, 1:40traywith upstand to
step over, not necessary. Provide secure handhold and wall-mounted
seat. Water supply thermostatically controlled to give between 35° and
49°C (UK requirement but—lJSAsafety precautionsabove). Adjustable
spray outlet on flexible hose which can be clipped on in different
positions.
Taps: must be usable by arthritic fingers; tops boldly colour-coded;
keep hotandcold in same relationshipthroughout bldg.
Wc: seat height 380—p83(7). In 1-P grouped flatlets hand basinshould
be provided.
•
tt
10 15 20m
15 30 45
m
2
_______________
9
12
ft
OLD PEOPLE'SHOMES
Main areas
residents' rm with related bathr and lay
communal rm: egdining, sitting, tv, handicrafts
kitchen, service, sto
admin, matron, med
staff accn, resident and day
Relationships —*(1)
4-storey Iayout—v(3)
Bedrooms: usually bed sitting rm. Typical layouts single p83(11),
double—*p83(10).
Furniture
Table heights: dining 700; gap between chair seat and underside of
tabletop mm 190 —p83(1 1); occasionaltables in common rm not lower
than chairseat height.
2
AmenityhousingforelderlyatSQueensferryScotland: 15cottages
arrangedround commongardenshaveexternalalarmbellsbut nowarden
service asite layout bhouseplans Arch Marshall, MorisonAssociates
3
Easy chairs: not too low for getting out; low enough to keep feet on
floor: 400—430; footstools forthose with short legs; seat depth 410—
470; arm rests 230 above seat. Back high enough to support head
(consideradjustable pad) angled at28°to vertical. Gap between under
seat and floor for heels to draw backwhen getting up. NB too soft seat
padding can put strain on tissues
Layoutplansof homeforelderlyDorset England a ground plan b 1St &2ndfloors C3rd floor
Habitat 85
Housing: disabled
Housing forphysically disabledtraditionally in institutionalcentres. Now
accepted as preferable provide accn in which disabled can live as
members ot general community, with theirfamilies oralone.
Particularrequirements tobeborne in mind when designingfor physically
disabled divide into those for
ambulant disabled
wheelchair users
Parking for wheelchair users should preferably be under cover and
linked to house. Car port particularly convenient: allows unimpeded
access. Cross beam should be supplied to take stirrup grip or hoist. If
garage provided should preferably be integral with house and give
direct access. In this case floor should be laid to fall of at least 1:100
away fromhouse; inUK relaxationfrom bldg reg requirements necessary
to provideflushthreshold.
Houses designed for ambulant disabled need not differgreatly from
thosedesigned forgeneral use; detail and fittings principalconcerns.
For wheelchair users particular attention needed to requirements of
wheelchair circulation —(1) and to accessibility of fittings from seated
position —p86(8). At initial planning stage allow approx 10% more floor
area than forsimilar accn in general needs housing —.p87(l)(3)—(5).
*1:1525
Choiceofhousetype
Wheelchair users should preferablybeaccommodatedin 1-storey houses
orgroundfloorflats,though upper storey flatmay besuitable on sloping
site where level or ramped exit to place of safety can be provided.
2-storey house acceptable if bathr and at least 1 bedr on ground storey
but this arrangement not ideal, particularly where disabled member of
familyis housewife.
I
Turningarrequiredforwheelchair
Ambulant disabled may be housed in suitable upper floor flats of
2-storey houses; but seriously disabled, even if ambulant, should not
be housed above third storey, max height for normal UK fire service
rescue ladders.
In bldg more than 1 storey whichhouses disabledelevator location and
design of critical importance. Lift doors must have 800 clear opening
width. In USAcab must be mm 524 x 1 524 with easyto push controls
1 220or less fromfloor and with raised or indented letters beside them
—p412.
Escape stairs must have treads not less than 250 and risers not more
than 175. Provide space within stairway enclosure on each floor for
thosewith limited mobility towait for help.
i
Kerbrampsshouldwheneverpossiblemakenaturalextension of
alignmentoffootpath
2
x
.1
In 2-storeyhouses:
1 ground floor rm should be available as bedr and
wcshould beprovided atgroundstorey level. Straightflightstairdesirable.
Siting & access
Housesfor disabled needto be withinreach of shops, children's play
spaces, church, pub,surgery. Access by level or rampedapproach, mm
width 1200, max slope 1:12,preferably 1:20. Gradients greater than
1:12 needrest areas 1 200long at9000intervals(inUSArest areasalso
if ramp turns); thosein excess of 1:20 at 18 m intervals—p87(l1)407.
In USAplatforms at doorways as for footpaths—below.
3
Slottedgratingsshould belaid at rightanglestowheelchairtraffic
Kerbs should be lowered at crossings and driveways to not more than
25 above roadway; USA practice prefers kerb ramps —.(2). Camber
shoufd not exceed 1:100. Slotted gratings should always be laid with
barsat right angles todirection of wheelchair traffic —.(3).
Footpaths —p1 9 43: where gradients exceed 1:20, or where dropto
side more than 600, handrails required 950 high extending mm 300
beyondbeginning and end of ramp or ridge. Railswith smooth surface
required for all ramps in USA on at least 1 side, 813 above ramp surface
and extending 300 beyond beginning and end, with 1830 straight
clearanceatbottom. Avoid loose gravel,cobblesorsells, though materials
with distinctive texturecan be helpfuf, particularly to blind or partially
sighted, in signalling approach toobstruction orchange in level. Provide
continuing common surface not interrupted by steps or suddenchanges
in level.Blend with levels ofotherpaths orparkingarea laneswhich may
cross. At doorways level platform at least 1 524 x 1 524 ifdoorswings
out or915 x 1 524 ifdoor swings in, stretching at least 300 each side of
300 mm
4
Openingwindow hazard
5
Footpathwforwheelchair
passing
doorway (USA requirement).
Main access path to house should be at least1 200 wide and anygarden
paths mm 900. Access from front to back garden should preferably
by-passhouse —.p47(6), be kept clear of opening windows and similar
hazards —*(4) and, in wheelchair housing, provide turning space for
chair—(1 )p43(3). Widthneeded for wheelchair passing —.(5).
Hazards:where suchhazards as open manholes and access panels of
openexcavations occurprotectby barrier mm 2400fromdanger point
and markwith sound and sightwarning devices.
Car parking: provide near houseaspossible, preferablywithin boundary
of property. Ambulant disabled driver requires parkingspace mm 4800
x 2700, wheelchair user mm 4800 x 3000; USA requirement mm
3660extra on each side. In general car park handicapped should be
nearest bldgand clearly marked.Disabled should not needtravel behind
parkedcars. Garage space needed forwheelchair user—.(6).
6
Gar spaceforwheelchairuser
(2800wadequateforambulant
disabled)
I0
86 Habitat
Housing: disabled
Common accessareas
In flats builtto accommodatedisabled and in other bldg likelytobe used
by them in any numbers at least 1 main entrance and any door giving
access to emergency exit orexternal space likely to be used bydisabled
____
1
occupants must have:
level or ramped approach
flushthreshold
clearwidthmm 775
1800
Elevator mustbe accessible to such entrance.
Withdoubleleafdoorsdesignsothat only 1 needopen
Double leaf doors should be designed so that only 1 leaf need be
opened —(1). Automatic sliding doors operated bypressure pad most
convenient but expensive. Where revolving doors used normal side
hungdoorof suitable widthshould also beprovided.
300
360
r1'
Internalplanning
=1300
maIbask4t...Ij
Forambulantdisabled 900 wide enough forentrancehalls and passages;
500
will also allow enough space foroccasionaluse by wheelchairs.
1500
2
Clearspacebeside doorforease 3 Deliveriesboxbesidefront door,
ofaccesstokeyhole;shelfforparcels insideboxdoorlockable
mm
900
775
240
J
Stairs
mix 280
preferred370
maxi
preferredmax 145
externalsteps
4
Doorsforwheelchairusers
shouldbehungwith hingestowards
corner
5
Stairsforambulantdisabled&
elderly people
y1dr
sj
IYM -'n
3600
casual
diningar
2400
Standardklayoutforambulant
disabled
6
7 Similar k—s(6)alteredto suit
wheelchairuser: 0oven, H hob,
TStrolley sf0unit B broom cpd,
WM washingmachine, A frig,
AS rotatingsto unit, Ssk
i
For wheelchair users entrance hail mm
200 wide for depth 1 800,
preferably 1 200 throughout. Lobby between 2 sets of doors will need
be 1 500 x 1500 clear of obstructions to allow freedom to manoeuvre
chair.USA: floor level insidc and outside for 1 524 fromdoorindirection
doorswings.
Clearspace mm 300 should be provided alongside leadingedgeoffront
doorforease ofaccessto keyhole and handle.—x(2):USA 300 each side
of door. Shelf 300 x 300 useful both inside and outside to take parcels
when opening orclosing door—s(2). Door closures should be suitable
for disabled users. Nosharp inclines or abrupt changes oflevel atdoor
ciii. If deliveries box provided —*(3) inner door should be lockable. Mat
wellsshould be fully recessed —s(2).
All internal doors should have mm
opening 775. Thresholds should be
flush. For wheelchair usersdoors should be hung with hinges toward
corner—*(4) or, insmallrm, open out. Lowhanging doorclosures must
not obtrude into traffic ways. Floor should be non-slip. Each storey
should be on 1 level orconnected by ramp iflevel changes.
Stairs & steps —s(5). Avoid abrupt nosing. Handrails813 fromtread
at face of riser, 1 extending mm 460 beyond top and bottom step (USA
requirement). Ensure adequate lighting without confusing shadows.
Withlow hangingceiling lights orsignsallowfree-standingstairclearances
2133fromfloor.
Controls & switches for light, heat, ventilation, windows, curtains, fire
alarms and others ofessential use should bewithin reach ofwheelchair
user.Identification of switches important, specially for blindor partially
sighted. Provideraisedorrecessedlettersornumbersfor rm identification
at side of door at suitable height. Knurled handle or knob on doors
leading to areas dangerous for blind person.
Living areas: additional space needed in wheelchair housing to
manoeuvre chair inliving rm, kitchen—s(6)(7), bath—.p87(1 )and atleast
1 bedr—p87(4)(5). Living rm windows should bedesigned allow seated
person seeout withoutdifficulty. Baywindow very suitable,especially in
wheelchairhousing —ep87(6).
Kitchen worktops and shelving adjustable in height —s(8). Knee space
beneath fitments particularly important in wheelchair housing —s(8).
Cooker should preferably have separate oven and hob. Deep sinks
difficultfor mostdisabled people: max depth 150.
Bathr & wc should be equipped with basic support and grab rails
—*p87(7); seat 400 wide should be provided at head of bath. Hand
basins bestset into worktops cantilevered from wall; preferred height
for use by ambulant disabled 850, by wheelchair users 750. Mirror,
towel rails and shelves 1 016 above floor.
8 a b k worktops&sheMngshouldbeadjustableinh
Wheelchair usersneedenough space round wc pedestalto permit both
frontal and lateral approach, with space for assistance if necessary
—ap87(8);doorshould swing out. Dispenser and disposal unitsatside of
wcnot directlyabove. Bathr ceiling should besoconstructed toallow for
fixing hoistortrack ifnecessary. If bathr planned opendirectly offbedr
track can be fitted provide directroute between bed, bath and wc.
Soundwarningsignals should beduplicated byvisual for deaf.
Habitat
87
Housing: disabled
Internalplanning
I—
Li
2 Withoutwardopeningdoor ambulantdisabled 3 Forwheelchairuser wccompartmentarmust
can usenormalwccompartment
bebigger
2700
Standardbathrenlargedtoprovidespacefor
wheelchairuser
1
4
Single bedrlargeenoughforwheelchairuser
400
1600—1700
'
L
I position
I ofceiling
hoo
possible
5
Doublebedr forwheelchairuser
6
Baywindow in liv cangive pleasureto
wheelchairuser
External detail
45O
35
posihon
ofpole
possible
ofhoist
line
p possiblepositions
ofpole& hoist
H
9
Publictelephonesuitableforhandicapped &
children;goodlightingimportant; instructionsin
braille & pushbuttondials forblind;volume control
onheadset
LIJJE
10
Drinkingfountainforwheelchairuser;should
beoperatedbyhandlever;pavedarroundfountain
toprevent mud & puddles
plantmaterialsshouldbe located
sothatshadowsdo not preventsun
frommeltingsnow& iceon ramp
surfaces
__________
slot forfeetofmobilehoist ortrolley(cart)
Spaces&fittingsforbathrforwheelchairuser
providemm asof54 lightat
atallramp&stair locations
—750—t---l°°—i
rampwvary accordingtodesign
-situations,preferredmm
1-way—9l4minw
2-way—lS3Ominw
hoistoreye-hook
—I
possiblepositionofhoist
oreye-hookforstirrupgripetcj
shouldextendmm 460
-1fr
maograthenl8.33%
300
8
____
Spaces &fittingsforlayforwheelchairuser
11
Outdoorrampdata:maxgradient1:12—sp407
&
beyondtop bottomoframp
T1524mm clearspaceatboth top
& bottomoframp
provideitOhkerbatedgeoframpsurface
foruse bysmailwheeledvefridesor
wheek*tairsasemergencywheelstops
88
Habitat
Houses
BALCONIES
Wind-protectedprojectingbalc
Cornerbalc
1
Balcony desirable extension of living rm, especially forflats.
Corner balconies that cannot be overlooked and are protected from
wind —e(1) more comfortable than freely projecting balconies which
have to beshielded on wind and weather side —n(2). Grouped balconies
should be suitably dividedforprivacy. —u(3) orseparated—a(4). Loggias
less economic as they createmore exterior wallsurface—u(5). Balconies
staggered vertically more difficult to protect fromwind and from being
overlooked —n(6); balconiesstaggered in plan well protected and private
—.(7)(8).
Important considerations include orientation to sun, view, position of
neighbouring flatsand bldg and relationshipof living rm, studio, kitchen
and (sometimes)bedr. Other factors:appropriatesize, privacy,protection
fromstreet noise, shielding from excessive sun, windand rain. Suitable
materials forparapets: frosted glass, plastics, asbestoscement, timber
slats and steel sheets fixed to supporting structure of solid or tubular
steelsections firmly attached to bldg; steel verticals (horizontal can be
climbed by children) do not give protection against wind or being
overlooked.
Draughts created between balcony floors and solid parapets —.(9):
betterplace parapet in front of floor—.(1O)or usesolidparapet (nottoo
high if 'bath tub' feeling to be avoided) with steelrail at byelaw height,
possible room forflowerboxes —.(1 1).
Access balconies _-np9O 9697
4
Groupedbalc withseparating sto
partitions
forfurniture
5
6
Staggeredbaic
3 Groupedbalc with projecting
Loggia
I
7
8
BaIcsfaggeredin plan&set at
angle
Staggeredbaic
lii
//4,4;
70
100
0
9
Parapetabovebalc
floorlevel
10 Parapetin frontof
balc floor
Solidparapet
vo
___________
a
11
I
roofgarden
round
0 square
Q rectanguiar
Prefabricated balc designed to
be pluggedontoapartmentbldgto
define&enhanceexteriorspace
Arch Kamriitzer
13 Apartmentblocks at Cross
Creek VillagePlayadel ReyUSA
have round, square&rectangular
balc placedtomodulateopenspace
betweenbldg Arch Kamnitzer
12
a
open(summer)
b
14 a largetop-floorapartments atLosAngeles USAhavesimilarbalc to
those ofsmallerunits bat apartmentsinHollywood USApenthouse liv
includesbalc ar&roofgardenmezzanine Arch Kamnitzer
i_
b
slopedtodeflect
sun (summer)
-
partialiyenciosed
_____________
I
intermediate
iotaiiyenclosed (winier)
______
sioped toadmit
Sun (Winter)
15 a Flexiblebaic created byusingframe of slidingglass doorsset on
perpendicularrunners bhingedglass createsbalc adaptableto seasons
Arch Kamnitzer
Habitat 89
Flats & apartments
BUILDINGTYPES
Thissectiondiscusses bldg divided horizontallytoprovide separateand
self-contained dwellings which need not necessarilybeon 1 flooronly.
Types can bedistinguished asfollows.
Low-riseor high-rise
In UK accepted max height of entrance door to dwelling normally
reached by ramp or stairs 4 storeys from ground level or from main
entrance to bldg. Beyond that limit elevator access must be provided:
bldg containing such flats called high-rise. In practice low-rise flatted
bldg often provided with elevators; in public sector housing these
required where more than 2 storeys have to beclimbed to any private
entrance door. Such bldg, from3to5storeys, oftencalledmedium-rise.
Pointblock or slab block
In point blockall dwellings share single vertical access system —*(1).
Vertical access mustalways include stairway; according to height and
layout bldg mightalso have 1 ormore elevators and secondaryescape
stairs. Slab blockcontinuous bldg in which dwellings reached by 2 or
more separate vertical accesssystems —(2).
Maisonettes
Separate
dwelling in low or high-rise blocks
Upperfloor plan of12-storey pointblockat Battersea London England
designed1963:balc provide escaperoutes between flats ArchGeorge Trew
& Dunn
1
having rm arranged on
more than 1 storey known as maisonettes: have been built in UK in
4-storeyblocks —(3), in slab blocks and in combinationwith flats —u(4).
Such arrangements can show savingsoverflatsofsimilar accnbecause
common access space less. In USA similar 'skip floor' design halves
elevator stops in high rise.
pñvatebale
2
uppertloorplan
Slabblock:9-storeyflatswith balcaccess built1953atPimlico London; in-situ rcconstruction: noteuseofsto
Arch Powell &Moya
toinsulate bedrfromstairwell
rt
3rdfloor
a
sedoo
ri
4
2ndfloor
gar
floor plans
2
3
4
b
3 Maisonettesin4-storeyblocksinhigh-densitydevelopment in London
England;levelsonsite permitaccess atsecond-storey h& demand single
aspecthouseplan:notescreening ofstair &escape balcatbedrstorey inupper
maisonette Arch YorkeRosenberg Mardall
4
Housingat RuncomCheshireEnglandon5storeys: sectioncomprises
2 x 2-storeymaisonettes, lowerenteredfromgroundlevel&upperfrom
second-storeywalkway,&top-storey flat approached bystairsfromgroundor
walkway,connectedby ramps&bridgetomainshopping aroftowncentre
Arch J Stirling
I
cr
90 Habitat
Flats & apartments: access
TYPESOFACCESS
Accesscan beclassified asstairway, balcony orcorridor.
Stairwayaccess
Stairway access, with 2, 3 or 4 flats per landing allows grouping of
services and can provide high degree of privacy: standard solution in
point blocks. Inslabblocks, however, disadvantageswhere more than 2
flats servedfromeach landing: usually involves back-to-back planning
andconsequently some form ofartificial ventilation—(1).
Balcony& corridor access
Balcony and internal corridor access, usuallyemployed in slab blocks,
permitsavings in common access space. Exposureto weather obvious
disadvantage ofbalconies, particularlyin high rise, and internal planning
constrained by potential lackof privacy on balcony side;window design
can modify this constraint.Internal corridorsescapeweatherbutintroduce
new problems of sound insulation, lighting and ventilation and require
higherstandards of management inuse. Open corridors orroof-streets
avoid most of these difficulties. In medium rise development open
corridors and sheltered balconiesgivingaccesstosmall flats overlarger
dwellings can accommodate wide variety of household sizes at high
densities. —(2). Balcony and corridor access have been much used in
conjunction with split-level flats and maisonettes. Such arrangements
—*p9697.
_____
I
a
Bridgeaccess
Forsiteswithsteeporvaried slopes bridge access—÷(3)offers flats with
1 storey at bridge level with 1 or 2 down and up. Stairs and landings
covered but notenclosed in all butseverest climates: ifclosed possible
byorientation usethemaspassive solar trap.
4
1rm/1P
bedr
2
L
hi
4rm/5P
1
3 x 2-rm flats/landingachievegooddaylighting&cross-ventilation but
extralengthofwall hasto beweighedagainst economyof circulation
Arch EGutkind
garden
1
b
ground
+U
brid1
I
roofstreet
4...1
dr
I-n-I
first
ground
a
1
cc
C
2
3 Bridgeaccess asection bplan
Medium-risehousingat highdensity(618 B-space/ha)at LillingtonStreet
London England:each familyhouseenteredatgroundlevelthroughprivate
garden;smaller maisonettes & flatshaveaccess fromopencorror roof
streets' which bridgebetween blocks &areservedbyelevators a siteplan
bfloorplans ctypicalsection Arch Darbourne & Darke
Habitat
91
Flats & apartments: access
FIRE PRECAUTIONS: PLANNING
CRITERIA
layout
conditions
flats & maisonettes
enteredfromcorr: no
alternativeescape route
from each dwelling;
a with smoke dispersal
iewherecorris
ventilated direct to
openair
b withoutdirectventlationto openairto
securesmoke
corrhassmoke outletsat each
end, &at intervals not
exceeding 60m
Horizontalescape routes
Everystorey containing entrance door to flat or
maisonette should be planned to ensure that
fire in any 1 dwelling will notobstruct escape of
other occupants frombldg. Problem related to
type ofaccess. Permissible travel distances in
relation to access and plan arrangement given
as designer'sguide ie planning criteria not
code/legal information —(1).
In USA national, state and local codes apply;
inspections and approvals usuallyadministered
by localauthorityin cooperation withstatedepartments: designers should seekearly review of
their proposals.
dispersal
Protectionof stairways
Every stairway serving flat or maisonnettemore
than 2 storeys above ground level should be
enclosed and separated from remainderofbldg
byfr wallsand self-closing frdoors. No dwelling
should open directly from such stairway but
should be reached through intervening lobby,
access balcony orcorridor. Enclosure requirementdoesnot apply tosubsidiary accessstairways serving small groups of dwellings from
opencorridors oraccess balconies,subjectto
conditons stated in (1)and in p93(l).
1
Traveldistancesinstoreyscontaining
flats&maisonettes:table hasnolegal
authority but isdesigner'sguideto escape
requirementswithin bldgmorethan 2storeys
hwhich containflats or maisonettes, based
onvariouscodes&reg currentlyapplied inUK
(1979);itgives maxtravel distancetostorey
exit which musteitherbedooropeningdirect
to openairatgroundlevelordoortoprotected
stairwayasdescribed—.p931.
flats &maisonettes
enteredfrom corr:each
dwelling hasalternative
storeyhas 1 exitonly with,
i everyentrance doornot
more than4500 tromstairway
approach lob,or
ii everyentrance dooropening intoventilated lob & not
more than4500fromselfclosing frdoortocorr leading
directlyto storeyexit
everyprivate entrance door
opens intocorr withsmoke
traveldistanceiron,
privateentrancedoor
to storeyexit
i escape in
1
direction
only: notmorethan 15m
ii escape in 2 directions:
notmorethan 40 m
notmorethan 4500
notmorethan 15 m
i escape in 1 direction
only:notmorethan 40 m
outlets
ii
1 notmorethan 4fIats per
storey,&netfloorarof flats
above1st storeynotmore
notmorethan4500
2 notmore than 4flats per
storey, & netfloor arof flats
not more than 15m
flats & maisonettes
enteredfromopen
accessbaic
floorofaccess balc
not more than 50m
flats and maisonettes
enteredindirectlyfrom
openaccess balc by subsidiaryaccessstairway
each flat &maisonette has
independent alternative
escape route,or
subsidiary stairway does not
extendmore than 1 storey
above orbelowopenaccess
balc,&subsidiary stairway
servesnoflat at accessbalc
level & notmorethan3flats
at higherorlowerlevel,&each
flat entered& whollycontainedwithin 1 level, & noflat
entrance door more than
5000fromhead orfootofsubsidiarystairway, &subsidiary
stairway opento accessbalc
&permanently ventilated
atits head
notmore than 5Gm
escape route
flats enteredfromlob in
bldg upto 4storeyswith
1 stairway only
escape in 2directions:
notmorethan 50m
than 380ni
above 1st storey notmore
than 720m2, &noprivate
entrance doormore than
than 4500 fromstoreyexit
orfromself-closing frdoor
across lob, &everysection
lob ventilated to openair
constructed ascompartment
floor
92
Habitat
Flats & apartments: internal planning
European development
Development of flats in Europebetween 1919 and 1939 largely dominated byconcept of mm dwelling. In extremehousingshortagedwellings
of small floor area and few internal amenities were used to provide
cooking breakiast
sql
ThHi.
high-density housing in inner-city areas —v(1)(2)(3)(4)(5). More
generously planned flats used in surburban situations and for middleclassoccupation —v(6)(7)(8)(9).
J
Standardsforflats & maisonettes
Modern flats not regarded as 'second-best' but should provide accn
similar to houses forequivalent householdsize. Indeed space standards
for flats in public sector in UKslightlymore generous than for houses,
recognisingdifficulties ofproviding for internalcirculationand fireescape
—p91 93.
5 Convertibleflat inday& night use
with fold-awaybeds&screens;ar44)
m2 Arch C Finger
Ii
6
5-bedrflat insystembldgStora
Tuna Sweden ArchYJohnsson
•h
k
iii_:,
4'
7 4&3-mi low-riseflatsatNeubuhlZUrich Switzerland 1931
Arch M E
Haefelieta!
recess
N Igar85e
IN
Viennese2-rmflatofl92Os;4
fiats/landing Arch F Schuster
1
2
SmallGermanflatwithwcon
innerwall;living ar28 m'
Arch MãrkischeWohnungsbau
J
8
ClassicalGermansuburban flat;4&3-miS aspect flats withgenerous
livingar& privatebalc Arch LHilberseirner
bedr
bedr
—1
JE
3 More generous3-mi fiatwithwc
&sho
4
9
Moretightlyplannedflats forE-W
aspect Arch LHilberseimer
Dutch3-mi flat with intemal
bathr: compactplanwith separated
service Arch H Leppla
10 5-miflatatHighgate London
Englandwith bedropeningfrom
internal lob (1936):this arrangement
wouldnow needsecondaryescape
frombedr Arch B Lubetkin
I
-'H
PL
1 lift
2 staircase
3 liv
4 loggia
5k
6rm
7 bathr
8
11
Flatsin high-riseblockBalomockScotland Arch SBunton&Associates
rITL
heating &water tank
12 Apartment-sizefloor inblockofflats
RouenFrance Arch LodsDepondt
BeauclairAlexandre
Habitat 93
Flats & apartments: internalplanning
layout
allrmon samelevelas
conditkns
1
entrance door
2
allrm on level above
entrance door
number ofescape
routes
bedr doors open into
entrance ha: no bedr door
morethan7SOOfrom
entrance door
any othercase
bedr doors open into
passage athead ofstair: no
bedr door morethan
7500fromhead ofprivate
stair toentrance door
2 anyother case
1
1 plusalternativeescape
roatefromeverybedr
withdoor more than
7500fromentrance door
1
1
1 plusalternativeescape
routefromeverybedr
withdoor more than
7500fromhead of
private stair
anycase
1 plusalternativeescape
bectropenfrominnerlob
withfrconstruction&selfclosing doorsasrequiredfor
private entrance ha
an alternativeescape
route fromeverybedr
opening frominner lob
bedron levelabove
liv &k;entrance door at
privatestairwayseparated
fromupperlobbyIrscreen with
self-closing frdoor
1 plusalternative escape
liv level
bedron levelabove
liv & entrance door at
bedrlevel
privatestairwayseparated
fromentrance ha by screen
with self-closingfrdoor
1 plusalternative escape
bedron levelbelow
privatestairwayseparated
fromlowerlobbyfrscreen with
self-closing frdoor
1 plusalternativeescape
routefromlower level
no bedr door morethan
7500fromentrance door
1 plusalternativeescape
routefromupper level
alternative private stairwayleadsup ordownto
alternative escape route
liv & kseparated frombedr
1 plusalternativeescape
open plan maisonette
1
allrmon level below
route fromeverybedr
entrance door
bedrnot opening
fromentrance ha or
landing passage
k
liv&k;entrance door at
liv level
bedron levelbelow
liv&k;entrance door at
fr
Ir
route fromupper level
route fromlower level
route fromlevel whichis
not entrance level
with privateentrance ha &
stairwayseparatedfrom
otherstoreybyfrwall or
screen & self-closing fr
door
1 plusalternative escape
2 withprivateentrance ha, but
stairwaynot separatedas in
1 plusalternativeescape
routefrom every enclosed rrnatentrance
level not opening into
privateentrance ha, &
condition 1
Privacy and fire escape principal determinants of internal planning of
flats and maisonettes. Otheruser requirements summarised in Parker
Morris standards—*p4448 Bib233.
Privacy—*alsop769698
Privacy bestsecured bystairway access where onlyentrance door and
possiblydelivery hatch opento landing. In balcony access, bathr, wc
andkitchencanbe placed onaccessside,but note difficulty in providing
natural light where high windows are below balcony.
Sound insulation presents greater difficulties in flats than inhouses,and
privacy best secured by planning. Avoid long separating walls to bedr,
and avoid bedrbeneath access balconiesor adjoiningelevators, stairs
or refuse chutes. Where possible usecupboards (closets) to increase
sound insulation of separatingwalls.
Fireescape
Bedrdoors opening into private entrancehall should wherever possible
be nearer toentrance door than living rmorkitchen. Alldoorsother than
bathrand wcshould beself-closing and fr;wallsenclosing entrancehall
should have ½hr fr. In most other conditions planforalternativeescape
routes from bedr above 2storeys. Recommendationsgenerally based
on current codes of practice summarised in —n(1) and illustrated —
(2)(3)(4). Butnote:always consult appropriatecode.
Services—p383—97
bedrlevel
byself-closing frdoor
DETERMININGFACTORS
route fromeveryenclosed rmatentrance
level not opening into
privateentrance ha, &
alternativeescape route
fromstorey which is not
entrance level
Attention should be paid to grouping of services and provision of
adequate service ducts, especially where bldg incorporate variety of
dwelling sizes and plans not repetitive. Standard location and arrangement of bath, wc and kitchen fittings facilitates design of ducts and
service stacks. Internal bathr and wc require mechventilation, either
individually or by common ducting. Sharedventilation systems require
smoke-stopping byfiredampersand stand-by fanstoensure continuous
operation.
Checklist forservices in flats
water
el
drainage (+ rain water drainage)
gas(not in high-rise)
mech ventilation
TV/FM radio aerials
TV/radio relay
telephones
main entrance phone & control
alternative escape route
fromeveryrmon atorey
which isnot entrance
level
anyothertypeof layout
1 plusalternativeescape
routefromeverybedr
&fromeverylevel which
isnotentrance level
Escaperoutesfrom flats&maisonettes: as—.p91(1)thisalso has nolegal
authoritybutisdesigner'sguidetoescape requirements relatedtointernal
planning,baseduponvariouscodes&reg currentlyapplied inUK (1979):
wherelocaldifferencesexistthey mightbelessonerous, buttableshould
alwaysprovideguidetosafe planning
1
3
In largerflatsdistancebetween furthest bedr& entrance doorsshould not
exceed7500unlessalternative escape route provided
EPt
ec
2
Conventionalsmallflat plan,mostsafelyarranged withliv &kfurthestfrom
entrancedoor
4
ienot morethan 1
bedr1
Jindowof
Flatwith innerlob,above2storeys, alwaysrequires alternative escape
provision
I
94 Habitat
Flats & apartments
POINT BLOCKS
Byingenious planning upto 10flats served by 1 vertical access system
in some continentaldesigns. Fireescapereg make suchsolutions difficult
in Britain, unless flats very small or unless access balconies used,
reducing convenience of point blockarrangement.
Some point blocks built in Britain —(1)(2)(3)(4).
American and continental examples —p95
upper floor plan
1
Point blockatThamesmeadEngland: 12-storey system-built structure
provides4 flats on eachstorey ArchGLCArchitectsDept
1 21/2
a
layout plan
a
b
Vblockshavebeendevelopedinseveral countries, particularlyinlow-rise
formswheretheycan bejoinedtogetherwithoutovershadowing: this
example,built in1957atCumbemauldScotland, hasarmsat unequalangles,
giving greatervarietyoflayoutarrangements &avoidingclosedcourts
atypicalupperfloorplan b layout plan ArchCumbernauld Development
Corporation
3
water tanks
carriedonliftshaft
—
flatson
17 storeys
2elevatorsstop
alternate storey
Tir
tJF caTny
main entrance level
b
2
Point Royal BracknellEngland: one offew Britishpointblockswithmore
than 4flats/storey;Split hexagonal plan logicallyaccommodates 6flats &
minimisescirculationspace &escapedistances;carspace foreach flatunder
circularpodium aupperfloor plan bsection Arch ArupAssociates
Low pointblocks or stubblocks',withelevators, canprovidesuitable
housingforeldertypeople, asinthis London England 3-storeyblockof
shelteredhousing—.p82 Arch YorkeRosenberg Mardall
4
Habitat
95
Flats & apartments
POINT BLOCKS
liv (bedrl
Some American and continental examples, most
meetBritish reg.
of whichwould
not
Flats in point blocks generally small, with kitchen and bathr planned as
standard unit and often with artificial lighting and ventilation.
Point blocks can be planned as 2 blocks of flats connected by vertical
access core.This twin plan arrangement improves daylight and sunlight
to larger number offlats —(4).
Americanapartments; smallserviceflats surrounding 16-storey
circulationcore Arch R C Reamer
1
0
I
4
12
8
I
24
12
I
36
16m
0
4811
12
2
Swedishpointblock:fire precautions relyon containing fire inflat whereit
originates& preventing smoke penetration bydoubledoorsat flatentrance;
escapehatches provided in balcfloors: accepted thatstairway &access
landingsmightnotbeusablewhilefire being fought
0
I
4
8
I
4
8
12
12
24
36
24
l6rn
12
I
I
4811
36
4 Twin plan: 10flats/floor,escapestairwellprotected buttraveldistances
wouldbetoogreatfor UKreg ArchMUller-Rehm, Siegmann
16m
I
4811
0
4
I
12
3 5flats/landingBerlinGermany: flats haveno corrbutlargeloggias: liv acts
ascirculationar Arch AAalto
5
8
I
24
12
36
16m
I
4811
Yblockon Siemenshousing estateMunich Germany Arch Freymuth
I
cr
96 Habitat
Flats & apartments
DUPLEX& TRIPLEXSECTIONS
Designs for split level flats and rnaisonettes,
with access balcony, deck or corridor every
second (duplex) or third (triplex) storey, have
beendeveloped over many years. While some
design problems solved, egvisualprivacy,cross
ventilation, others increased, such as sound
insulation.
—.alsop97(l)t4)
plan at corr level
Duplex:Russian type verysmallflat with limitedsleepingarbutmore spacious liv:
accessbalcserves2storeys; wcoftentrance lob ArchM IGinsberg
1
,1
a
C:
2
Tnplex: earlyFrenchtype; lob opensfromaccess baicwithstairsupor
down Arch Pingusson
access
k!kkkk
access balc
balc),)
5ra = 5rm,liv above
4rb = 4rm,liv below
I
iiv4rb
j
___
liv 5th
bedr
be1r
I
iiv5rb
3 Split levelflats withbalcaccess: entrance, dining ar&kat entrance level, liv
1/2 storey up,bedr
½ down
Arch Hirsch
escape balc
b
—
luggage
sto, etc
ffloset
'above'
'deck level'
below'
escape
balc
section
section
4 Triplex:Mareschal
system, withaccessbalceverythirdstorey, Cambridge
USA;separateentranceswith private Stairstorlargerflats:allflatshavecross
ventilation Arch Koch-Kennedy
5 Wide accessbaic or deck' housing RobinHoodLaneLondon England: 1/2
baypartitionscanbearranged to permitwidevariation ofdwellingsizes: Stairs
&blacked-inwallsmustberegarded aspermanent structure; noteescape balc
at bedrlevels Arch A &P Smithson
Habitat 97
Flats & apartments
INTERNALACCESS
bedr
1je. 9
F
baic
- JkI;1:
1
tS'lilc
sectionthroughstaircase
planotconleseia—b
planandercorrc—d
planone,cone—i
1
Split levelflats servedfrorn internal correvery thirdstorey: allflats have cross-ventilation —'also p96 Arch Neufert
2
Accessbycentrestairway;each landing serves2 flats:again allflats cross-ventilated
Arch Neufert
rwa5
EIIIL1
I<jc1kI
plans
?•
k
—
t
N
-
sections
3
Narrow-frontage flats Marseilles France through extendedthrough verydeepblockwith pnvate balcon each facade:
doubleh liv allowsun &daylight penetration,access bywide internal coneverythirdstorey Arch LeCorbusier
C
section
4
Centrecorrshortwell lit& ventilated, givingaccess to 1-rrn flatsatcorrlevel& 3-rrnflats by shortstairwaysup or
down Arch vanden Broek
98 Habitat
Stepped housing
Steep slopesinvite stepped form of construction. Rake (storeyheight toterrace depth) must
relateto slope: canbe80_400. Mm terracedepth
of 3200 facing S will secure privacy while
providing full sunlight and view. Gardentroughs
at front ofterrace provide someadvantagesof
private garden and prevent overlooking —(1).
Other arrangements giving increased privacy
Gardentroughspreventoverlooking ofter:necessary trough depthx = a(ha— ht)
hc
a=depth ofter ha = eyeh hc= storeyh hI =troughh
1
2 Teroverhangforextraprivacy
3
In 2-storeyunits upperfloor
overhangs
Advantages of stepped housing, with privacy
and viewat high densities, leadto use in special
conditions,even on level sites in bldg oftriangular
or slopingsection: can be in combination with
different bldg use —(9) or in single aspect
situation, to enjoy sea view or exclude motorwayor railway noise—(8).
5 L-shapedflats with protected
patios
4
Staggeredfloor plans
9
Section throughconference centre Designed byEGisel
6 Hillsidehousing ArchStucky& MenIi
7
Steppedhouseson levelsite ArchFreySchrdderSchmidt
4p
maisonette
2P flat
2Pflat
Housingat AlexandraRoadLondon England: alldwellingsenjoysaspect
&railwaynoiseexcluded ArchBoroughArchitect London Borough of
8
Camden
Habitat
99
Shared housing
Needs of 1-person households normally very much like those of 2large singleflat
mediumsingle flat
small singleflat
1
person. In certain circumstances, however, single people may prefer
share. May be provided in formof flats orhouses, usuallyforbetween 4
and 8people, containing 1-bed/sitting rm, bathrand farmhousekitchen
orseparate living/dining rm and working kitchen.
Houses or flats used for sharing require more parking space than
normal housing (at least 1 space/bedspace). Large private garden
unlikely to be required though some out-door sitting out space should
be provided. Generous provision should be made for sto of bulky
objects, sporting gear etc.
Particularly advantageous if meters can be read fromoutside —*p74(3)
and ifsomeformof external delivery boxcanbe provided for use when
occupants out atwork—(5).
HousingforsinglepeopleLeicesterEngland: typicalfloorplan ArchDoE
firstfloor
2
Variantofpartof—(1) whichprovideslargesharedflat for4people
insteadoflarge,medium&small singleflats
groundfloor
4 2Victorianterhousesadapted forsharing
ArchYork (England)
UniversityDesignUnit
1\e4
280
.
-v
C,)
5
siteplan
3
Bed-sittingaccnwith kcommon rminsmall4 personhouses: notewc
separatefrombathr Arch ManningClamp& Partners
Externaldeliverybox
Housing references:
—*Bibliographyreferences 037 038 044047 092 179 227228 233234
235236237238240242245246247248263264299300302363
372458464467511 512519521548558573574624631637650
I0
100 Habitat
Houses
PRIVATEGARAGES
Size
Avoid under-dimensioning garages. Clearance between car and side
walls should be mm 200—300 with margin in front mm 500. For getting
out allow at least door width between carand wall or between cars and
never less than 700. For car cleaning,wallsor other cars should be mm
1 200 away.
0
100,5
0.5 1;0 1.5 2;0 2.5
o
3
6
3;0354.04;55;055m
9
12
l
15
Typicalvehicleelevations
Garage should becloseto houseentrance, though not necessarilyfront
door, with easy access; actual distance from house will vary with size
and number of vehicles. On steep slopes with houses above road,
garage can be sitedatstreet level (maxdriveway gradient6%) butmust
be protected against ground water —.(6). Where house is close to
boundary garagecan be setatangle orcombined with next-doorgarage
Access driveway should either beconsolidated over its whole width or
have concrete wheel-runs —o(9). An apron infrontof garageshould be
concreted full-width, 5000—6000 long and drained forcarwashing and
to provide occasional off-street parking for another car. Garage floor
should be raised 30—50 above washing areaand slope towards it.
DJH
rt__
L
Siting garages
Integral garage—eplOl(1)(2)
2.0
2.5
2 Planviews of typicalvehicles
dimensions
no L
B
T
1
1
T
2
3
4
5
6
I
a
3.0
2.0
40
50
6.0
70
80
O
I—
L
H
-1
2
2J
h
16
2,2T2.4
3.0
3.0
3.5
2.4125 2.4
3.0128 3.0
40
p]j8
67
4.2
6.1
34
2.2124
2.4
30
F
o=regular
7
lb
2.5
USAsizes
I
H Tentrance
—
I23
y=
20
20
compact
—I
H
-
3
4
5
H
6
J_
5
J-
I
I
b
Houseonslope,garageon road
below
6
Usualsiting
1
Standardgarages ainelevation bplansizesfor: 1 motor cyclewith
side-car2—4 cars5&6vans&trucks; usualmaterials forthesedismountable
garagesasbestoscementorsteelsheets,flat orcorrugated, &timber
3
7
Boundaryin close proximityto
house,sogarageat angle
8
Combinedgarageswhere
distancefromboundarynot
stipulated
I— 1000—1500
J
4
Garage in plan—.(3)
I—
-
I—
—4
I—
-4
4—
2000
600 —4
__________
9
Accessdrivewaywheelruns
—1
4—
600
-
__________
Habitat 101
Houses
PRIVATEGARAGES
Incorporatedwithin house
Garages have been placed in basement,sometimes under conservatory
orsimilarannex to house —(1). Should be avoided if possible; should
not be used in areas whichhave freezing weather: access slope not
morethan20% —(4).
Driving up steepramp with motor stillcoldshortens engine life, is noisy
and can be difficult. Garage therefore better placed at ground level,
driveway having slightfalltowards road. On sloping sites groundflooror
terrace may be raised sufficiently to allow basement garage at road
level.
Direct access to garage fromentrance hall or lobby via self-closing fr
door usually permissible: threshold must be 100 mm above garage
floor. Otherwise access to garage can be provided under common
canopy with entrance door to house.
Garage should beaway fromliving rmand bedr, accessiblefromkitchen
and side or service entrance. Car washing and driveway should be
screened by shrubs and bushes, which will also muffle noise.
I9
Carports —.pl 02(6)
Doors—*pl02(7)—(10)
4115H
—I
1
Garage in basement, various arrangements: wofgarage doors& ramp =
1000;garagedimensions 2800 x 5500—3500x6500
car -4-
2ndstorey
Up-and-over doorsor rollershutters now usual: can be operated by el
motors with remote control switch or by electronic devices, provide
additional head-room for motorcaravans and similar vehicles. Slidingfolding doors require additional width. Hinged doors opening outwards
can be blocked by snow. When used should have provisionforfastening
in openposition.
Folding doors also —*p402
Windows and el lightshould be near carengine, with switches atgarage
doorand any other entrance; spark protected socket outlet, well clear of
floor, desirable. Heating best situated in front of or under engine,
keeping garage above 5°C.
Water tap with hose attachment should be near door, in easy reach of
washing area, with hose-reel mounted nearby. Garage should be ventilated near floorlevel.
Internalfinishes
1ststorey
Walls can be fair-faced brick or blockwork, painted, or tiled. Floors
usually cement screed, but oil stains hard to remove. Asphalt tiles
dissolved byoil; best flooring material oil-proof ceramic tiles. Fortyres,
standing on hardwood timber inserts orwoodblock isbest ifcan be kept
free from oil. Garage should have floor gulley, and floor should be
150—200 above ground level outside.
groundstorey
2 3-storeyhousewith integral gar:canbesiteddirectlybehind pavementas
gar & centralporchprovideprivacy; access togardenthroughuty
I
In basementgar,whereunavoidable, slopenotmore than20%
3 2-storeyterhousewith attachedgarinfront, screeningsemi-private entrancecourt:generallymoreeconomical
(&attractive)than 3-storeyhouse withintegralgarage—.(2) but implies lowerdensity'
I
'I
102 Habitat
Houses
PRIVATEGARAGES:BUILDINGREGULATIONS
Small garages
Fordomestic garages in EnglandWales—uBib65O
Small garage definedasonewhich hasfloorarea not more than 40 m2.
Such bldg subjecttospecial rules (El5)
Where small garage combined with small open carport rules of E19
mustalsobe studied.
Sing'egar(for a b—spi 00(3))
2
Doublegar
measurements —.p100
0
'
250
Detached bldg consisting of small garage,orsmall open carportorboth
should be regarded as PG 1 bldg for purposesof Part E (E18).
Detached small garagewhichis 2000ormore away from anyboundary
must have roof covering complying with El5 (roofs) but need not
conform toany other reg in Part E (E16).
Detached smallgarage within 2000 of boundary must have roof complying with E17 and any part of external wall within 2000 of boundary
must be externally non-combustible. All its internal wall surfaces must
beclass spread of flame (El8).
Detached small garagewithin 2000ofhouse musthave roofcomplying
with E17 and any part of external wall within 2000 of house must be
externally non-combustible. All internalwallsurfaces ofgaragemustbe
class
spread of flame. However, if house wall is itself externally
non-combustible and has 1/2 hr frand no unprotected areas within the
2000 distance greater than 0.1 m2or nearerto oneanother than 1 500
requirements on non-combustibility and flame spread do not apply to
garage walls(E18).
Requirements on class flame spread in E18 (3)(4) do not apply to
exposed surface of frame member forming partofwall.
Small garage attached toorforming partof housemust have rooftoEl7.
If there isfloor overgarage floor must have fr ofat least 1/2 hr. Any wall
between house and garage must have at least 1/2 hr fr. Any opening in
thatwall between house and garage must have threshold at least 100
above level ofgaragefloorand befitted with self-closing frdoor(1/2 hrfr)
to El 1. In all other respects suchgarage must comply with relevant
requirements of Part E (El8).
petrtrap
0
i_I__i_I
J•:
1U-f
10004—
±—
C
—
400
—•I
a
1_1.1_1
—H
I—
3 Gar with work bench, 1 car,
motor cyclewith sidecar&bicycles
I__I
F_
I_I.!.!
—I
5000—6000
4 Gar with washingar
0
Garage references.—eBibliographyentries 225 276 348 435 636 650
7
Overheaddoor(flyover)
8
Overheaddoor (foldaway)
Doublegarusedtoextend1-storeyhousetoscreen patio; lowdensity
solution
5
a
6
=
orr
acn
b
Examplesof Americancarports wellrelatedtoentrance a Arch-team
Gropius bArch HSeidler
9
Overheaddoor,sectional
(flyovertrader)
10
Rollershutter
Habitat
103
Gardens
ENCLOSURES
12
Simplechain-linkfencing:iron
postswith wire mesh
1
x 75
1
mt
square
1 250
expanded
J.
3
Battengate (from inside)
Wire nettinggatewith bracing
4
hexagonal
100x 19 boards
125x 100setin concrete
undulating
Wire netting:usualsize40—55
13 115brickwall (half brick)with
supportingpiers
14
Close-boardedfence
\
600-800
uptx2h00
groned
concreteorstone
,-.
5 Wrought-ironrailing rectangular
6
Framed,lodged,braced&
boardedgates
15
Angle-ironrailing
section
•ø10
1800
16 Hedge with link-mesh infill
—
1
1120
.1.
7
Wrought-ironrailingof 10—15
sections& bars
8
Wrought-irongate between
concreteorstone posts
100x100
125 x 19 railsnailed
aftemativelytoboth
sidesofpost
17 Horizontalboarded(ranchtype)fence
-1
x
150 75 mainpost
Most timbers used for fencing
require some form of protective
4270
87 1< 38
treatment. Particularly important
timberposts treatedagainst decay
below ground and at least 200
above ground. Concrete plinth
helps prolong life of most timber
fences.
x
87 38 prickpost
pointedfordriving
I
Lt
9
Timberpost& rail (4rail)
Design offence and materialsused
in itsconstruction should harmonise with surroundings. Showbest
side (fair face) of boundary fence
outwards with posts visible from
within site. On sloping ground
fence should follow contours.
Extend protective fences against
animals 100—200 below ground,
especially where hedge planted
—(16).Hedges —ep104.
10 Fenceofforestbattens(topof
battensweathered)
18 Wire-boundwoodfencing
availableinrolls
Where termites present inground
very desirable use pressuretreated or termite resistant wood
egcedar.
104 Habitat
Gardens
SITING& LAYOUT
protection fromnoise&
dust: NE(winter)
espaliertrait
pStreet
NIw
ter fl
_Q,2lJuo
was
•i
protection twall
lawn
from wind
(insummer) shadyar
boundarywall
-
Suitableplantingforhousewalls
according to orientation
Dec
2
Suitablelayout forsmallgarden
protectedfrornwind with
vegetablesnearkentrance
manure strawberries
teiII,eS_r
car
wash
9W
sandpit
side
- entr
Layout
Plan landscape simultaneously with design of house so that levels of
drives, terracesand entrances are coordinated. Where space permits
provide turningarea forvehicles and rrtechanisedeqp.
Study position ofsunand prevailingwinds andavoid frostpockets when
siting planting areas —n(6). Plant treesand hedges to give protection
fromcold N and E winds.
Vegetable production: allow 55—75 rn2/Pon best soil available.
Humus or sandy loam better than heavier loam, clay or loose sand.
Conserve topsoil excavated from areas of paving or building for use
fruitbushes
elsewhere —api05.
water
grass
•N
garden
4
Layoutforsmall sitetogive largest
possiblevegetablegarden
!
slopeswarmest during May and Sept
SW slopeswarmest Oct—Apr
SE slopes warmest Jun —Oct
Orientation —ap40 7781
Soil
•
swwig
3
N
waterbasin
fruittrees
—
ter
Aspect of ground and its angle of slope —v(6)plOS have important
bearing on amount ofsun radiation it receives at different seasons:
S
positionofsun
1
Siting
Orientation& relation
ofrm&tertogarden
crop plaidpoorneattosbdue
toshade& rootcompetition
*— shelter
belt
-
I
relatively
J.
Enclosuresforgardens
Walls: brick or stone (use type which blends with materials used to
construct house).
Fences: wood or metal (match surroundings)—api 03.
Hedges —a(7)(10): clipped foliage (formal) orflowering (informal). Allow
sufficient space for ultimatewidth ofhedge when established, 450—1 200.
To producethickhedgestagger plants thus:
Windbreaks
Planting of shelter belts has marked effect on soil temp, giving
considerable increase in crop production—(5).
increasedcropyield
5 Effectofshelterbeltoncrop production
coldairbufids
op invalley&
createsfrost
—
plantlower-growingplants
on higher partofslope
good
B
good
Effect ofslope &exposureonestablishment of plants
§
-1-
6OO-12t
stonesbuiltup in
diminishingomjrses
Jc
eon
thin sodsplaced
betweenindivdsarl
Hedge innorthernGermany
9
grasseventually
growsoverStones
giving appearance
ofturfhedge
Stoneusedinconstructionofturf hedge
7
Hedgeh
hawthornhedge
L600—
stones
8
bad
10 Turf hedge
il
Jf.
waler channel
Habitat
Gardens
SOIL PREPARATION
Topsoil
Top layer of soil must be preserved: provides growing medium for
plants.
underground
___________________________
I
Soil compaction
lopsoil
malerial
unlenor malenal
7
On bldg sites storetopsoil in temporary spoil heaps —e(1). Keep free
from weeds. If stored over long period use green manuring. Turn over
heapat least onceayear.
Spread topsoilafter completion ofearth moving. Allow 600—1 000depth
for planting trees, 500 for climbers and wall plants, 300 for shrub beds,
150 forgrassed areas.
Fill on gentleslopes
Topsoilspoilheap
105
5OO
Soil used as fill for hard landscapedareas should be spread in layers
300—400 deepand well compacted—e(3) (notall soilssuitable forthis).
Materials of different character should be deposited and compacted
separately.
Banks
Buildingup inlayers
4 Cohesivematerialin corewith
slight stepping
T/.177777'
8
Deadwattle
prevent sliding of fill material —(4).
Angle of slope should beconsideredin relationto maintenanceoperations
required and topand bottomofbank gently rounded off. Providedrainage
at bothtop and bottom of bank sothatsoilonly receivesmoisture falling
on its surface. Max gradient for mowing grass 1:3, forplanting 1:2 (or
1: 1 where no maintenance required). Turf laid on banks should be
secured with wooden pegs —*(5). On slopes steeper than 1: 1 turfs
should bethickerand laid stepped—(6).
Use wattle for steep banks where difficult establish plant growth.
Distinguish between dead wattle —+(7) and live —e(8). In using live
subsequent planting ofshrubs necessary aswillow actsonlyas pioneer.
On very steep slopes useretainingwalls—epi06(19)—(20). Crib structures
—.(9)and grass-concrete construction—+(10) may also be used.
Binding withsteppedturt
7
To prevent soil movement fill along slopes should be placed in layers.
Form cuts in existingground surface to create serrated profile to retain
fill material —u(2). On higher banks ground profile should be stepped to
Live wattle
selplantsbetweenbeams
atlopofwall sothaIthey
cascadeoverface
soiltype
weight
kg/rn3
angle of repose
(degrees)
loose &dry
loose& naturally moist
loose& saturated withwater
consolidated &dry
consolidated & naturally moist
loose& dry (av forlight soil)
loose& naturally moist
loose& saturated with water (av formedsoil)
consolidated &dry
consolidated & naturally moist
mediumcoarse&dry
mediumcoarse& wet
1400
1 600
1 800
45
he
ernbankrnienl beanis
slopeof
earth
groundlevel
loam
Cribstructure
g ravel
sand
brokenstone,wet
cia
1
900
27—30
42
37
1 500
40—45
1 550
45
2000
20—25
1 800
40
1 850
70
800
2000
dry
1 800
30—45
25—30
35—40
fine& dry
fine,naturally moist
fine &saturated withwater
coarse&dry
1600
30—35
1 800
2000
40
25
1900—2000
35
2000—2200
30—40
1 600
40—50
20—25
.
loose& dry
loose& verymoist
solid & naturally moist(heavier soil)
drysand & rubble
11
1 700
35—40
Weights&anglesofreposefor different kindsofsoil
1
2000
2500
1400
70
35
I
106 Habitat
Gardens
PERGOLAS,PATHS,STEPS& RETAINING WALLS
Retaining walls
Concrete construction cheaper than stone walling. Good form work
detailing essential obtain pleasingappearance.Dry stone wallingsuitable
for retaining earth up to 2000high. Brickbacking necessary for higher
walls-(1 9)(20).
Paths
Widthof ramped paths 1 220—1350;length 6000—9000.
1: 12 gradient necessary foreasy negotiation bywheelchairs. For short
pedestrian ramps 1:7 acceptable—vp85. Ifstepped, max height ofstep
is 125—e(11)—(13).
Paths also—*p1943
Steps
Insulationoftimberagainstrot
Climbersupport
1
Tread width not less than 300. Risers 90—150 high —e(1 4)(15)(17)(18).
Detailof finish to end of steps important, especially where set in grass
bank.
monolithoi
graniteor
basait
I
16 Walkingmore comfortable ifpath longitudinally concave:
agood, riseofstepsconcave bbad, rise convex
3
Tt:
4
Pergolaofmonolithstone
(commonin Italy &Ticino)
Pergolaonbrickpier
18 Stepsof naturalorworked
17 Steps withflagstones
stone
70-80
flY
6 Cobbles:expensive
,; •..
but durable
hli,ng
—soil
brokenstone
drainage
••
625
-t.e2 :1
19 Concreteretainingwall
(w base 1/3 h)
8
Pavedpath bedded
& raised(easier
keep clean)
Pavedpath flush
(preventsobstruction
oflawn mower)
9
10
20
Drywalling (specialdrainage
notnecessary)
Th
of slabs
Spacing
= length
ofstride:
114
thickness 30
=8386
sideview
19
end view
21
Turf &concretepayersfordrives, fire route round bldg, bank
iIli
14 Stepswith post supports
15 Stepswith flagstone&support
blocks
22
p3004
eoo
path
wheelbarrow
path
Dimensions of paths
j!l
2004
1,004400I 3004
orgarden
doubieflagstone
path
9OO—1
access
path
107 Habitat
Gardens: equipment
03000
350 x400
290 x490
410 x700
300 x800
2500
1150T
1200
800I
01000-1150
200
1
-5501
2
Metal foot scraper
3
Gardenchair&table(iffolding:
top600x 1000, l00thickwhen
Sunshade
r
700
1800
1500
folded)
400—,
610
i
85o)
J
tolded1B5th
Gardenchairs
tOIded80th(
4
2000
5
6
Deckchair
Hammock
8 Charcoal&gas portable
barbecue
9
11
Gardencarts &wheelbarrow
12 Lawntnmmer
Seedspreader
13 Walkingsprinkler
14 Lawnsprinklers
C
Ii'°j
15
Riding tractor
16
18 Reelmower
Leafcollector
)
20 Sprayer
19 Garden tools
21
Hose reels
22 Motortiller
1000-1100
2
(240)
2
1800—2000
'420
23 Tennisracket
24 Toboggan,skis
25 Tricycle
I
26 Bicycle
108 Habitat
Gardens
TREES,SHRUBS
Trainedfruit
-1
300-500
1200
P
I
wire
canes
T
2250
600
•eseaber
2
Pipe espalierframe
1
3
Framefordoubleespalier
4
Woodespalierfence
Wall espalier
I-41
T
T
ffrff[;
1-5004-500-
5
1-600-1
6
Uprightcordon
7
Doublecordon
Palmettecordon6& 8branch
8
Chandeliercordon
Tree planting
—espaherwire
1270strap& 400
spacersecuredtotop ot
stake&tree stem
tree securedwith wire
threadedthrough
n43ber hoseto protect
4
-ì
prevailing wind
5000
—I
9 Horizontalcordon
twit, treeshape, stock
crowned varieties
planting
interval
standard apple
appleon strong EMstock
bait
10 Heavystandard
11
On exposedsite
12 Normalsituation
appleon weak EMstock
standard pear
bush pear on pear stock
bush pear on quince
pear spindleon quince
prevailingw*id
—8
atandardcherry
1/2 standard cherry on
Pmahaleb
standard bitter cherry
1/2 standard cherry on
Pmahaleb
standard & bushplum
13 Onexposed
hillside
14 Toformclose
15 Fruitbushes
group
bush apricot
standard walnut
hazelnutbush
Shrubplanting
clay lodredintotop
80-150
replaceescavatedsoil
with town:25%
spreadout
rootsaway
fromwall
maId,
500
removeanyrubble
toensuretree
breakup sod:
incorporatepeat & grit
16 inpoorsoil
peachbush
standard apricot
ircoryodeecompost
17
Insandysoil
drainage
18 Against wall
gooseberry, red & white
currant
black currant
gooseberry & currant
cordon
raspberry & upright
blackberry
rambling blackberry
annual strawberry
cultivation
perennial strawberry
cultivation
inhouse garden &small-
enclosedsite
10 x 10
6x 6
5x5
Sx
3.5x3.5
8*5
6x6
4.5*4.5
4*4
plant/ha
100
277—400
400—816
156
277
494
planting
8v 8
x
4x4
plant/ha
156
''
400—625
x
3*3
7*7
625—1120
2.5*2.5
1120*1600
5x5
204
3x3
625—1120
10*10
100
6*6
6x6
277
277
5*5
7x7
5*5
5*5
400
4 v4
204—400
5x5
400
400
4*4
625
7
204—277
5
400
6*6
6x 6
8*8
5*5
156
5 x5
400
2.5 x 2.5
4x 4
70—100
Sx 8
3*3
625
2x2
2000—2500 2* 1.5
2 *2.5
1600
1.5
4444
1
2*0.5
10000
2 *05
2 *4
12*12
4*4
2x 2.5
2v 2
* 1.5
277—400
* 1.5
1250
2 >i 4
0.3*0.3
160000—
111 111
0.3
0.8 *0.3
66666—
41666
*
0.5 *0.3
0.25 0.25
625
1120
2500—3333
2000
6666
10000
*
0.25 0.25 160000—
* 0.3
05 * 03
0.6* 0.3
111111
66666—
41666
19 Plantingdistances:affectedbysoil&moistureconditions, manuring,
strengthofstock,variety& pruning, consequently greateror lessvariation
from 'coefficients'possible;EM = EMailing
Habitat 109
Gardens
WATERSUPPLY
rotaryspnnklerwith
diaup to 12.0
Water essential for plant growth.
If no mains (municipal) supply
available trial holes should bedug
to ascertain presence of water in
soil.
sprinklingcircles
musi overtap
sprinklerforbeds
(arcovereddepends
on pressure(
reservoirfor
handoperation
•
Shallowwells
Sunk directly into water-bearing
strata. Yieldlikelyto fall off in dry
weather.
0
hand
u4
Topreventcontaminationriskwell
should be at least 10 m (15 m
USA) fromanyseptictank orsewer
well
1
2
Hand-operatedpumpdrawsup
El-operatedpumpfeedswaterto
pressurevesseluntil switchcuts out
atapprox4atm; aftersome lossof
water pumpstarts upagain at 2atm
to7000d,pumpsupto 30m h;
output/mm 40—801: forgreaterd
largerpumpsneededwith suitably
built deep-seatedsuctionvalves
3 Perrot' typesunkensprinkler:
dug intolawn &centrallyoperated;
coverage8000—10000 at 1.5—3.5
atm; capacity/hr0.5—1.0 m3/valve
Reservoirs
foamor
clay
flowerpot
ofclayoroak
main and constructed with water-
tight lining(steining).
Wells may be operated by hand
—*(1)orelpump—v(2).Well house
mustbe insulated, protected from
frost and adequately ventilated if
below ground. Recommended
size: 2100 x 1500approx. Switch
and fuse box sited above ground
level.
Reservoirs
4
Small pools may be constructed
invariety ofways, depending upon
site conditions and economics —v
(4)—(8).
5
Waterproofing withclay, for
wateringonly (notsuitablefor
paddlingpools):thickclay covered
with layers of soil &gravel
Inexpensive gardenreservoir,
incorporatingfelt, sheetingor
continuoussealingwith 3—4layers
ofhessianstuck withbitumen;in
caseofimpermeablesub-soil pan
should bewateredtodiminish
pressureonseal
•.J
\.:.3iayers,,?
6
Reservoirwithclay asseal,lined
withstones:suitableforflowerponds
rendenng15thick
rentorc
L •te
Overflowshould be incorporated
—(1O)—(12); make provision for
emptying by either submersible el
pump orsiphoning —a(1 2). Bottom
of poolshould be sloped tooutlet
ifemptying tobe complete.
Pool edges need concealing.
Paving flags or coping more suitable for formal shaped pools —
(7)—(12), and grass—v(4)(5), marsh
plants orrocks forinformallayouts,
accordingto ultimateeffect desired.
consolclatedfoam
Paddlingpools
7
8 Swimmingp001ofreinforced
Reservoirwith brickbuilt banks
concretewithdamp-proofrendering
ormembrane;poolshould be
emptiedinwintertoavoidfrost
damage;also —vpl14
9
Marsh&water plant reservoir,
showingvariedcombinationof
differentplants: notsuitableforhard
water;also—npl 13
Waterlily &fishpools
—p113
Emptying
Irrigation
vent
opening
it
Recommended depth for children
foradults; for
200—400,800—1000
swimming pools —api 14.
removable
air
::::: overflow
:::::. outlet
10 Overflow&outletwith plugs
Overflow&outlet pipe
combined
11
12 Floatingel pump;further
emptyingbysimplesiphoning
Simplest form consists of series
of channels flooded with water
—a(13). Drains needed to remove
surpluswater—a(13)—(16). Overhead watering bymeans of line or
rotary sprinklers more efficient.
Rate at which water delivered
should be sufficient for soil
absorption withoutforming puddles
on surface.
Drainage
—
1n
--
—
—
::
contour
lines
drain
fascine
conuiexion
ofirrigation
pipewith thannel
13 Drainageplan
14 Open ditchwith
wattle
15 Coveredwattle
ditchwith sand bottom
16 Coveredditchwith
flagstones&rubble
I
110
Habitat
Gardens
Gardensfordisabled
Heightof raised bed suitable forwheelchair user 600 (must have knee
space underneath —v(3)); for ambulant disabled approx 860 —v(4):
varies according to individual heightand physicalstate. Forsome elderly
and handicapped outdoor gardening difficult; indoor garden can be
designedsuit special needs—v(2)p112.
Restrict widthof beds to 1200sothat workeasily carried outfromeither
side to cover whole area; comfortable total reach forward 750—965.
Surround bed with hard paving—v(1).
Important provide convenient supplies (eg water), sb and controls
whichmake lifting and stooping unnecessary; rolling cart ortrolleycan
eliminate muchlifting and carrying.
Roofgardensalso —p112
Provide background of screens, walls etcto protect plants fromeffects
ofhighwinds.
Tofacilitate drainagefinished surfaceofsupporting roofstructureshould
be laid tofalls—v(5).
Rockgardens
Undulating site with SE or SWaspect ideal. Simulate life-size outcrop
(not mountain range in miniature) linked by irregular-shaped areas of
stonechippings, alpine lawn orgrass.
When placing rocks first select 1 or2 specimens, mm 500 kg, for key
positions. Build up nucleus of rocks 250—500 kg round them. Place
smallerrocks 150—200 kg towards perimeter—v(6)(7).
Floodlit landscape features
To highlight foliage floodlights mounted on lower branchesof tree and
lightbeam projected upwards through foliage —v(9).
Iflight-source canbeconcealed floodlights maybepositioned atbase of
tree and beam projected verticallytoilluminatefull heightoftree—v(8b).
Light source placed somedistance away fromtree where foliage used
as illuminated background and details unseen —u(8a).
Sculpture may require only singlefloodlight butisenhancedbysubdued
lightingin surrounding areato give impression of reflected light.
individualrockslaid lifting
singhtiybackwardsto aiiowrainwater
totnckla overplants
rocksgroupedtogethermust
havetheirstratarunningin
direction&observe
sarne
naturalmarkings
Raisedgardenfordisabledgardener—+(3)
1
a
[
1220
584
stainless
drawers
[
stainlesssteel
planttos
r1[5t°JJ
b
51
window
roll-outbini
I
'I
2590
vent
stratamusttoiiow that
occurnngin quarrybed
--
—
Positioningofrocks& method ofbedding
6
t3 —
—
spread25 dia
drippingsalter
no manureortertiliserlobe
incorporatedintopsoil
planting
7
coarseshingle
-
4..
—50—ltodna
formationlevellaidtofails
totacilrtatedrainage
.
Construction of bed
ofrockgarden
2
Stand-upgardenplan a &elevation
hand,roll-out bin forfetchingsupplies
bwith water, supplies,eqp closeat
rocksliabletotopple
itsettooshallow
a
—..
wheretheretsan
obstruction,eg stream.
ffoodftghtpositionedsome
'Uistariceaway
-. —
——
b
8 afloodlit landscape feature blightsourcebelowtree
b
oos
.
on
.
lowerbranchestoproject
beamoflightupwards
positionedat
pointwherecascadestnkes
water &hewn projected
upwardssothatftcatches
eachdropletofwater
-
4
Raisedplantingbed for
wheelchairuser
3
trees
____________
Stand-upgardensection
shrubs
1= glassftbrequill
9
a
alightsourcelocatedwithintree bfloodlighting waterfall
•.
/
•1
600
peat
25 _______________
gravel
5
t
topsOit
.t ________
150
254
Roofgardenconstruction
Pest1
gravel
grass
io
peatLi1
1
ifI
b
t light
beaniof light
positionedparallel
todirectionofwater
projected
jet
.
.
toosoni
jet
——
gravel
10 afloodlitfountain bunderwater floodlighting
submerged
beamdirected
hilydownwards
into pooi
Habitat
111
Gardens
:
T
ii
1200-1800.
1
Smalltent in 2sections
2
Largertent in8sectionswith2
end sheets
4 aFree-standingworkcentreasdecorativescreen bworkcentreattached
togarorhousewall, closedwith hingedglazed panel; sto bins underpotting
3
Housetent
5
Open shed
6
Open shed withroof &toolsto
containingprivy
bench
"S
r.
—
for
___sc--dOor
weather
-.
protection
/\canopy
onokung
5000
3750
3750
7 Similar to 6butwithsolid
separatetoolsto & parapetsto
Enclosedshedtosleep 1
GARDEN STRUCTURES
9 Enclosedshed to sleep3,with
separatecookingspace
Not usually rated as bldg or considered as permanent living accn
unless continually occupied or
providespace
used for business purposes.
fflhing
N
l50
30011
Compost sto
12
Should not be sited nearer than
1 800 to site boundary or bldg on
same site, unless boat-house
structure and waterway boundary.
USA:check setback requirements
in local zoning ordnance.
a'
'80/80
10 Peat privy(dry)
Tents & sheds
1000 1500
1000 2000
Frame
Barbecues —p77 107(8)
Glasshouses & frames
Specifyglasshouses according to
type and width.
Lengthadapted tosuit conditions.
RoofridgesitedN-S.Framesface
S.
4)built fromground
level and often transferred to
another plot aftercropping. Other
typesmay be seton dwarf wall.
Glass usually680g. Heavierweight
906gorplastics sometimes used.
Dutch-light—÷(1
13 Smallgreenhouse
14 Dutchlights
15
Hothouse againstwall
Temp ofunheatedglasshousesand
frames 5—7°C, heated 12—15°C.
Ventilation essential. Specify
adequate numberofvents. Hot or
cold bed frame lights—*(12) may
be setonsliding tracks, completely
removable orraisedforventilation.
112 Habitat
Gardens
INDOORGARDENS
Indoor gardens lend adjacent rm spacious feeling: plants freshen air,
add hum, provide hobby, educate children. Ideal orientation in most
climates for most plants StoSE. Nto NEdaylight should beaugmented
by special plant lights. W sun difficult control. Plan artifical lighting not
only for plants' welfare but in relation adjoining rm. Studies showcool
whitefluorescents provide many characteristicsneeded byplants: also
availablespecialised plant lights with greater rangebenefits. Idealheating
and coolingforplants verylowvelocity airsystem: othersystems can be
adapted.
ROOFGARDENS-p88
Consider shade from nearby bldg, wind and smog when choosing
location and plantsfor roof garden. Weight ofsoil factor in roof garden
design (0.03 m3av soil equals 36kg).Ifquestion of structuralstrengthof
roofconsider hydroponic gardening using lightweightholding medium
suchasperlite orvermiculite. Desirablesetplants inplanters orhanging
baskets ratherthanbedsforease ofplant replacementaswellasweight
considerations. Planters may beofwood, pottery or reinforced plastics.
Shade tolerantplants could include fuchsias, begonias, hardy ferns,
impatiens, azaleas.Smog tolerant plants include ivy, oleander, azaleas,
ginkgo, camellia, privet. Wind tolerant plants: holly, ivy, boxwood,
euonymus (should be started as small plants tobuildup resistance).
Corr gardenplan
1
13 type
condensationgutter
window stool
/
glassH
slatefloor
cill
asbestos board
38sawedwoodcap sect,00s
1152c/c
radiation
_J9re
(L.
gardenconstructed
?t:z
c3r"
28ã
:
150stepOsrrs
withstaved5Qx lOOsides
I
\
if
gods
1—SlOradius—--f
50
50
topsoil
groundlevel
brokenbrick
50
20 plywood
5
concrete wall
914 \
vermiculite& gravel
Entrygardensection
hold,,,g
mediums
\ galvan isedwashtub
asphaltcoaledins,de
305clay potwith fitting
stainlessfood strainer
forpeastone
8
Methodofcontainerisedhydroponicgardening
2 Sectionthroughcorrgarden
Li
flnr
fixed
glass
p I..-grill
slate
So
Icopper
6 Entry gardenplan
step
carpet liv
3
infloor
overradr
Add-ongardenplan
liv
fixed glass
•
•
-
\
4
.
framing
insulati
50 x 150 CIII
100 concretesIab,, 255 concrete
p
100 gravel
wall
50 concreteblock
compactedearth
Add-ongardensection
7
Roofdeckoutdoorrm; roof
surfaceprotectedfrom foot damage
bypreservativestreatedwood floor;
design usestypicalapartmenthouse
penthouseaspartofplan ArchEH
&M KHunter
Habitat 113
Gardens
WATER LILY, FISHPOOLS
-.
1 liiterplate
2 liitertray
36pipefittings
4 pumpfittings
5 underwaterpump .
6 6ppefltfings
7 hosetowaterlajl
,
8 cablewith groundwire
H hoseconnexiontopump
G fiitermat&gravel
I
—-— —
,-.,_h,
7
0
86
water lev 355
Can be formal or natural in shape. Pre-fabricated pools usually glass
fibre or other plastics. Built-inpools reinforced concrete, using rather
dry concrete mix 127—152 thick, placed in wooden form or shaped
excavation in firm soil linedwith vinylplastics before pouring concrete.
Pools must be sitedfor max sun, high enough ensure ground water not
enterpool in heavy rain, near watersupply ifnoautomatic supply. Depth
waternot less than 355 sothatwaterlilies may be planted in boxes for
ease of removal. Provide overflow pipe, removable fordraining.
3 H
2
1
Filtersysteminstalledin pre-fabricated glassfibre pool
II
I
111)'ImII
tog sir
wa
ovens
dEan
4 Natural' poolwith waterfall
5
Smallpool &outdoordiningar
next k Arch Stedman&Williams
2
Garden arlargelydevotedto fish & lily pool
boiteo.t
spilipan
todeck
_i
chemical
characteristics
chlorine gas
lowers pH
sterilisingagent: formof chlorinewhich canbefed into
waterin continuousdoses, inexpensivebut highlyacid
&toxic: needs specialhandling,automaticfeeder.
constantalkalineadjustment
sodium hypochlorite
raises pH
sterilisingagent: popularchlorineformwith high chlorine
content; dispersesquickly when addedto waterwith no
residueto makewater harder;inexpensivebut needs
carefulhandlingavoid splash,damageto clothes;tends
deterioratestoredtoolong; needsfrequentpH
adjustment;dispersesfast in sunlight
calcium hypochlorite
raises pH
sterilisingagent: effectivealgaekiller, speciallyfor
treatingclinging algae;inexpensive;storeswell;but
dissolves slowly,leavingresidueunlessplacedin
basket orbag inwater; can causecloudiness& builds
uphardnessinwater
iso-cyanurates
noeffect onpH
sterilisingagents: dissolvecompletely,giving
consistent, highresidual; need less acidcompensation
than other forms; easy to use but costmorebecause
mustbeusedwith conditioner;needspecial kitfor
periodic check of conditionlevel
bromine lowers pH
sterilisingagent: canbeused insemi-automatic
distributionsystem but is expensive,corrosive,toxic,
difficult handle;less effectivethan chlorine
iodine lowerspH
sterilisingagent: stable,odour-freebutless activethan
bromine;does not causepHfluctuation;easyto use but
expensive;can turnwater green;difficult test for
residual; lesseffectivethan chlorine
sodium bicarbonate
raises pH
correctsalkalinity: recommendedformakingextensive
adjustmentsin alkalinity;long lasting;easyuse;
inexpensivebut slower actingthan sodium carbonate
sodium carbonate
(soda ash)
raises pH
correctspH: effective,quick acting, storeswell;
inexpensivebuthas relativelyshort life inwater;must
bepre-mixed
sodium bisulphate
lowers pH
correctsPH: generallyconsideredbest ofdryacids;
easier store than liquids; good forsmallpools needing
small quanfitiesbut has to be pre-mixedand needs
careful handling
muriatic acid
lowers pH
regulatespH&alkalinity:readilyavailable;mostpopular
pHadjuster;stores well;needsnopre-mixing but canbe
very damagingto pool ifnot used properly;needs
careful handlingprevent splashon user; smallamounts
can cause significantpHchange
'13flow iine
frompump
%4 d13m
wiremost,
.1
3
-
.-.•
_____________________________
'.. -:.. l9drainiine'< - '
Plumbing& pumpingsystems
•. -
6
Guidetocommonpoolchemicals
I
114
Habitat
Gardenswimmingpools
Siting
Protected from wind, close to rest rm (for use
on cool days), withinviewof kitchen (children
in sight) and living rm (foroperationofautomatic
gate) ie within field of vision. No deciduous
treesorshrubs bypool to avoid leavesdropping:
provide means of preventing grass etc from
falling intowater; possibly raisedcoping (design
decision).
2250(
smallest1 .bnepool
(2swimmingstrokes,
—4250—I
1/1.2P(
medium-sizepool(3-4 strokes.
smallest
size
2/4-5P).
permittingstartdivehornend
2
Layoutdiagram
1
Poolsizes
Size
3
Depth
ofwater
Width 2250. Length ofswimming strokeapprox
1 500plusbody lengtn: 4strokes = 8000length.
Depth of water to chin height, of mother not
children. Difference between height of pool
and water level —v(3) depends on skimming
method adopted.
Shape
Simple as possible for reasons of cost and
water circulation (—abelow: maintenance).
Rectangular but with ladder or steps in corner.
Circular pool shapealso economicalwith welded
steelplateconstruction.
Constructionmethods
Foil pool basin (foil = sealed outersurface) on
Layoutoftechnical
installationsforfullyequipped
swimmingpool
Deckatlevel of pavingconcealsfiltereqp &heaterbelow
DesignArmstrong&Sharfman
6
exhaust
prpes
skimmer
prevailing
wind
sluice
-auxiliaryfloor
S1JCbOfl
pump/outflow
supporting structure of masonry, concrete or
steel (including above ground) or in excavated
pit.
Basinsmade of polyesterorglassfibre reinforced
plastics, rarely erected on site, normally prefabricated; in general not self-supporting,
backfilling of lean concrete necessary.
Waterproof concrete basins (on-site concrete
double shells, cement-gun concrete single
shells, prefabricated concrete components).
Surface liningof pool usually ceramic mosaic,
less often coated (chlorinated rubber or dyed
cement)or cemented plastics sheeting.
Pool maintenance
Usually kept clean by means of recirculation
system —*(4): surface circulation —v(5), with
surface water kept clean by effective surface
skimmersor preferably sluices. Types offilter:
feed:nozzles
abovepipes
below
gravel or sand (bottom filters, some with
scavenger blower), diatomaceousearth (surface
filter), plastics foam.
5 Simple longitudinalflow
with suctionpipes
7
Perimeterfenceatpropertylineprovides safety&background for
plant materials,shelter
Additional algae control by means ofchemicals
(chlorine, chlorine-free alginic agents, copper
sulphate). Common pool chemicals —spi 13(6).
Water cleaning also—vp337
concretedeck
Heating
By counter-current device or continuous-flow
heater in boilerorsolarcollecting system. This
prolongs bathing seasonfor moderateadditional
outlay. In some places system using thermal
heateconomical.
plantingbed
50 deepscupper
8
Scupperkeepschlorinatedwater outof
plantingbeds
Section showingwater dfor6100 x 12.2
poolwith springboard
9
suIt-priming
punlp&rrloto-
returnline
lioej
vacuum
titting
inlets
steps
mainsuction
line
maindrain,
5fli
____________
frnertine)
/
10 Plumbingsystemfor sand orpressure
diatomaceousearthfilter with linesfrommain
drain, skimmer&vacuumconvergingon1 point
(notevalves)before entering pump&filter
deependfitting
flfler
IIconcreteslab/
hlter
heatrn
valve__________________
1vacUUm
returnline
heater
With skimfilter all linesdrainintoskimmer;
water filteredthen drawnintopumpforreturn
topool: pump& motorusuallyplaced within 15.0of
pool
11
Preferably not onlythrough fencing off pool but
by providing pool coverorself-operating alarm
signal system (triggered offbywave formation).
Protectionagainstfreezing
pump&matOr
unit on slab
va&iurn
Safetymeasures forchildren
With rigid pools by insertion of edge beams,
heating or anti-frost outflow system. Do not
emptyinwinter.
Open air pools also —vp333
Habitat
115
Private indoor pools
water
I
I
70—j-
temp
reiativeairh
a
%t
reiativeair hum
60%
I 70%
temp
inuse 2WCI26Cair2RC
3Ci 28'C
R
R
R itiö4
R iti
Ii
-•-
M 2191 193 143
50
—,
67
2
0
M 2941269 218 1631 143
20_LI
M 378' 353
10-b0+10+20
M
395 3391 320
temp difference.4Kwater/airnottobe
maintainedtorany lengthoftime
+30+40
air &watertemp
—10
Evaporationlimitincoveredpool;
topline: Poolinoperation,bottom
line: instate of rest; example:
water tempto = 27°C,evaporation
limit: in use36mbar (=30°C184%
hum), resting28 mbar(=30°C/65%
hum)
1
311
36
2471 227
811 89
66
302
123
2
Specificvolumeofevaporation in
covered pool(g/m3h)instateof rest
(A) &with max use(M)
Standard
I
Watertemp26—27°, airtemp30—31 °/60—70% relativehum;maxairflow
0.25mIs; waterevaporation 16gIm3hr(stateofrest)tomax 204 g/m3hr
with pool inuse. Main problem airhum: water evaporates from pool until
cD
evaporation limit reached —+(1)(2). In state of rest evaporation stops
even in low temp range, as saturated 'boundary layer' of water vapour
remains overpool: pool should therefore not be 'blown at'with ventilation
air. Expensive dehumidify pool house byventilation (though essential,
below); with hum at level ofup to70°even small thermal bridge can
cause structural damage inveryshorttime.
Construction
Most common formfully insulated hanger-type bldg suitable for winter
use (Km max 0.73); less frequent form, uninsulated 'summer' pool
house (can also be ofkindwhichcan be dismantled). Semi-retractable
roof and othersliding parts make possible openpool house during fine
weather, so can be used as open-air pool (all weather pool); however,
this causes problems overthermal bridges.
size—+(4); as part ofpool house, in annexes if necessary: wc, sho,
spacefor mm 2 deckchairs. Width of pool surround depends on wall
surfacearea (heightofsplashing—u(6)); accessiblepassage round pool
belowfloor level control leaks,full provision forleads and air ducts.
Mm
i—2 —l
500
Location
Incorrelation with: agarden (ideal 'covered pool'open-air)and shallow
___I
6counter-current
system
4 Smallestsize pool
surround
400 1250
I- t5O
§
§
heavysplashing
torwindowcleaning
1+—
8000 ——-4
625
1000
Standarddimensionsofcovered
pool
5
6
2000
Distancefrompoint of origin
circulatingair
1
suspended
2
3
4
pool
:u5t
ceihng
I
feet-washing troughs: b master bedr (withpabathr perhaps to beused
for showering); cliving rm: allocate 10 m2 ofplant rmfor boiler.
Auxiliary areas forrest, galley, bar, massage,keep-fitapparatus,sauna
—epi 17, hot whirlpool (massageat40°C).
Equipment
Mech eqp and installations: water treatment with filter plant, steriliser
dosing system, splash water trap (approx 3 m3), water softner(from)
waterhardness 7°dH), athlete's foot spray (particularly iffloorcarpeted
round pool); ventilation system with either fresh air or secondary air
—*(7) with ducts in ceiling and in floor, or simple ventilation box and
extractor (air flow not too fast, otherwise risk of draught); heating by
radiators, convector heaters or warm-air heating, combined with airconditioning, possibly solar collector system. Underfloor heating as
extracomfort: only practicable with floor insulation k greater than 0.7
and surfacetempless than 29°C.
Energy saving bymeans ofheat pump (cost depends onthat ofcurrent)
or heat recovery heat-exchangerinair-conditioningplant, or bycovering
pool (rollerblindor covering stage), or by raising airtemp in between
use (temp regulation byaquastat). Effective saving of30% total heating
requirement.
Other installation and eqp: starting block, underwater light (as safety
element), reverse current installation, chute, solarium; diving boards
require appropriate pool depth, and height of pool house. Sound protection (sound-absorbent roof, noise-dampingwith air-conditioningplant
(white sound), protection against structure-borne sound in pool basin
itself).
Technical specifications
In principle only corrosion-proof
materials: pot-galvanised (hot dip)
steel, corrosion-proof aluminium, no plaster, timber open-pore glazed.
Heatinsulation km, max 0.73 kcal/m2hr k.
mixing reguiator
pump
—l
1 mixingchamber
3 heat exchanger
7
Bottom-topventilationwith mech
plant forwindowheating
rçr
circulatingair
hash
air
topool
Layoutforheatingplant
chamber
exchanger
condenser
water
2 airintake
4 airextractor
Layoutofventilationplant
standardi
standard
Iexhaust
Ilair
w
122
177
244
323
330
427
533
regulator
I3 mixing
heat
9
8
2 airintake
4 aireutractor
10 Airstructurewithaircompressor, pliantmulti-layeredcanopy&airlock
1 stress-reliefdesign 2cablesystem 3skylight topviewshowing doublecable
system 4anchorsystem 5lightingsystem 6 HVACsystems 7 inflation
systems 8airlock 9revolving doors 10emergency doors 11 transparent
plasticswindows
mm
12.2
177
244
323
330
33.0
1280
max
hal
centre
550
61
800
88
1100 100
1450 122
1620 12.2
2620 15.2
2620 20.0
116 Habitat
Private indoor pools
Poolbasinsmainly reinforced concrete, in separatelayers. Expansion
iointsnot necessary with lengths under12 m. Important: ground-water
equalising valveessential to prevent damagetobasin. Lining: ceramic,
glass mosaic orpaint onsingle layer ofwaterproofconcrete orpolyester,
pvc film mm 1.5 thick assealing. Include in design skimmer orpreferably
overflowgully,bottominlet, counter-current system, underwater floodlight, and build in with sealing flanges. Plastics pool basins, because
of below level floor access surround, only possible in exceptional
circumstances orwithspecial structural reinforcement.
Floorlining:ceramic material orstone (must slope forwatertorun oft):
recently also water permeablecarpet(so savingneedfor sound-absorbent
covering). Provide forkeeping outwaterfromunderneath liningand for
sprays against athlete's foot. Floor heating pleasant addition but not
essential.
Walls: surface lining material must be damp-resistant and unaffected
bysplashing.
Airconditioning essential.
Hotelswimming pools: basinof60m2normally sufficient.Exceptions:
irregular periodsof use, wintersports hotels. Important: generous rest
area, deck chairs, holiday atmosphere, bar, keep-fit apparatus,sauna,
direct communication between hotel rm and pool bldg (elevator or
separate staircase); not many changing cubicles needed but clothes
lockerswith samelocks ashotelbedr.
Bath attendant usually required. Extension of use throughout summer
bymeans ofadditionalopen-air pooland connectingchannelforswimmers
(sun bathing lawns).
1
Poolrooted over with alurniniurn framedacrylic plastIcs dome
Indoor pools also —p329—32;changing rm —÷p335—6
mm
recommend
arratio
25
mardeckar(ratio) ir (arofpool)
2.0
0
15
10
0.5
I
0
93
1á6 279 372 465 558 6O
arofpool in')
73 86 99
ld2t) 1 15
4 Ratio ofdeckspacetopoolarea forindoor&outdoorpools
2
Woodframedpool enclosure with hatcentrefordiving
5 Layoutforcovered pool
3 asupportingframeworkofdoublemetal archesspans18—36 m risingto
7.4—12.3 m; pliantmulti-layeredcanopyprovidestension-stressed structure
b squaredomed structurewithsupportingframework of4 metal1/2-arch
sections arranged6.0—25.0 rn/side;canopyoftension-stressed pliantmuttilayeredmembrane
Habitat 117
Saunas
Sauna more than body bath: formany also method ofmental cleansing.
In Finland 1 sauna/6 P; used 1/week.
Bathing process: alternate applicationof hot and coldair, sweating in
dry hot air, hot clean gusts of water vapour at 5—7 minute intervals by
pouring on 1/4 Iwater. Can besupplementedwfth intermediateapplication
of cold water, followed by massageand rest.
Construction: usually blocks ortimber: good heat insulationnecessary
for enclosingwalls since heat difference between inside and outside
canoftenbe more than 1000in winter.
1300
Saunawith lobby1,changingrrn2,bathr3,benches 4—op338(4—7),water
tank 5, bathstove 6
1
Bathing area small as possible, 16 m2 2500 high. Dark wooden
liningtoreduceheatradiation onceiling and walls orsolid woodenwalls
of softwood,except forstove area. Plankbeds of lattice (air circulation)
atvarious heights forcomfortable sitting and lying, topbed approx 1 000
below ceiling. Plank beds demountable forcleaning, floors of gripping
material, no wood frames.
Smokesauna: layeredstones heated tohigh tempbywood fire, smoke
beingsparingly drawn offthrough opendoor. When stones glowing fire
removed, remaining smoke driven off by waterand door closed. After
short time sauna 'ripe' for bathing. Good smell of smoked wood and
reliable vapour quality. 50% traditional Finnishsaunasbuiltthisway.
Fumigating sauna:after heating with smoke removal, 'heated inwards'
when stove bricks heated to about 500°C. Combustible gases burn out
completely withoutcausing soot. Stove doors then closed even if still
flames ingrate. Temp quickly risesby 10—20°C. Lastcarbon fogremoved
before bathing by quickly opening door etcand ladle ofwatersplashed
over stones.
2
Saunawith lobbybetweenbathr1—6,& changing mi7
Chimney sauna: brickstove clad in jacket of stone ortin sheet which
guides smoke and gases to chimney. Heating by tire door to bathr or
lobby. When stones hotfiredoor closed and upperairflap instove jacket
openedwhen required to let out hotairor pour water on stones.
City sauna: with special el heater; heat regulation ofel heated stones
with pressbutton.
Tenip: at ceiling 95°Cdropping by 60°Cdown tofloor.
Relativehumidity: 5% or10% at90°or80°C: 100—120°C also possible
ifsufficiently low airhum.Sweat thenevaporates immediately.
Shower orwaterrm: where possible separated forinitial washing and
watercooling, 11/2—twice sizeof sauna area, withoutwood if possible.
Hip bath worthwhile 1000x 1000, 1100deep.
Air bath: for breathing in cool freshair to balance hot air, cooling of
body. Protect against peeping. Shower, spray and cold water basin
desirable. If noopenairbath possible, then wellventilated area.
Changing: openrm orcabins, twice as many asvisitors at peak times
(public sauna) —p338.
Rest rm: rest benches
functional area.
3
Largersaunawithlobby1,changingmi2, bathrplatform3, withstove4,&
massagemiwithwater boiler5 massagebench6, water basin7
_______________________________________________________
Saunawith bathr 1, massage&washr2, changingrrn3, veranda 4, wood
sto 5, cpd 6, bath stove 7, waterboiler8, &watersupply9
4
for half guests in sauna area, remote from
Massagerm: allow for30 persons, 2 massagepoints (public sauna).
Detailsconstruction & eqp public sauna—+p338
Garden references:
.—oBibliography entries 002 021 032066 087 155 161166167 171 263
264320376410411 430 431 466482550562 563
Z
118 Community
Schools
PRINCIPLES
——
Since each countryhas its own tradition of school provision, governed
byeducationaland economiccircumstances,notpossiblegive universally
applicable data forschool design. Informationgiven largely derived from
experience in England and Wales, but presented so faras possible in
terms ofwidelyapplicable principles. These apply both to new schools
and toadaptationofexisting ones, to industrialand totraditionalmethods
ofconstruction.
water
climbing
steps
seats
4frotectiorr
protection
In last generation school planning hasevolved in response tochanging
teaching methods and school organisation. Curricula have become
increasingly diversified to meet needs of individual pupils; whole
educational process more active and interrelated between its many
aspects. Classrm and independent special subject rm no longer sole
ingredients school design, particularly for younger and middle age
ranges.
Ageranges forwhich schoolsdesigned vary widely indifferentcountries:
compulsory schooling may start at5,6or7years,and end at12upto 16
years, with correspondingly different interpretations of pre-school, primaryand secondary stages. These can usefully be studied in 3 age
ranges: younger, approx 3—8years; middle, approx 8—13 years; older,
approx13—18 years.
Regulations
I
For UK DES reg (—vBib2l3) lay down mm standardsfor playing fields,
Planningingredients: underfives
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
tablework:eq usingmateiisls& ob$ctanotmakingmuchmess
ring:eqbaneplay,camping,shops, hospitals
music:eqeaploringsoundsindledusty,singing&dancingtogether
messy:eq usingclay,water,sand
quietwork:eq lookingatbooks, writing,resting.storyteting
moving:eq climbing,swinging,p.inpng, rolling
construction:eq buildingwithblocks,small& largescale, undertakings
such as
engines,boats,houses
[F5I
unila0 screen:
itablework
eqtableslorsitling'
andstandinground
localsto&display
2
acting
le
eaplsy[J.
tr
frolleYtey
traycart
-
5 quiet
eq benchseats
easycltair
-'
v?s
-
:t
fJscmen
she8 n—
bench
boaea
eq screens
local 'properties'clothestrolley
3 music
indhoduals
large trolls'1'
&smellgroups
e'Ling
wcekaurtscea-'
to
b1
tables
work
fightbenches
sk
easels
local sto
sand/watertrolley
2
benchC
genemL-,.10
service
localsto
ri
48
bert,
'
-
bin
bed
n
Schoolfurniture—vpl 19130—3
Boarding schools—+pl 27—8
YOUNGERAGE RANGE: NURSERYLEVEL
For pupils of pre-school age, in nursery schools and kindergartens,
learning process combines work and play. For main ingredients ot
planning, bothforindoorsand outdoors (which should beconnected by
covered areas to provide shade and shelter) —v(1).
6 movingclimbing
rostra
eq display
lowdisplayshelves
lowcpd
booktroeey
sites, sanitaryfittings and prescribeprovisionofsuitableaccnforchanging
rm, do, lavatories, meals, med, staff. Reg are supplemented byadvisory
publications. In USA referto state and local codes.
ct5jlow
nO rostm cpd
°bo
Cfl\ stacking trolleys
sand/cubes
waler
trolley
0
eq clearspace
hieght
suspensionfront
ceiling
1r
L.,
—
iF
'
8
7
7 construction
eqlocallowsto
rostra&cubes
bldgblocks
3
-t
toveranda
Activityzones: youngerchildren
lose
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
sandpit
high
low
ladder
house
stO
cupressus
mound
10 swing
11
12
13
14
15
3 Nurseryunitonsite ofassociatedprimaryschool,built in 1972for60th
from3—5years with2qualifiedteachers&3assistants: 30fulltime, 30
morningsonly,30aftemoons(iegoonroll);play ar,carpeted/tiled, opento
verandaleadingtowalled playcourtwithviewsoutbutenclosed forsafety
shoe
frame
weepingash
pots
roses
t6
boat
17 coveredar
18 roses
19 up
20
cotoneaster
21 tltorn
22 radioetc
23sk
24 tym
25 pets
26 roses
27 tlaps
28 waler
29 screen
30 logs
31 20P
32 raisedarsto
under
33 paints
34 send
35 tolding
house
36 send
37
38
39
40
tlaps
20P
books
rootlight
41 staff
42 torsythia
43 mbbish
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
shed
piano
milk
coats
display
hatch
St sty
52 med
53 music
54 tOPhandicapped
55
56
57
my
willow
birds
Community
j
ingredientsof
localcentres
Schools
NURSERYLEVEL
Workandplayofveryyoung children can be divided roughly intoabout 7
categories —(2). Indoors definition of zones mainly byarrangement of
furniture, but appropriate surfaces important eg for messy work (clay,
water etc) and for quiet work. Height also important for moving and
climbing. Pre-school accnmay be found as unit of school —e(3) or as
sharedar
outdoors
schoolsite
i
L schoolbldg
schoolneighbourhood
horsebase
119
separate nursery school —t.(4).
EARLYSCHOOL
In earliest years of compulsory school definition of spaces probably
reliesmoreon architecturalplanning: can beconsidered in3categories:
F
00000
L—
7'i1
parhcularbays
I
general work ar
garden
[_c:?
y
grass
ar
LJ
B
hardplayar
enclosed
—
EE
I
-
Ohht&
coveredwork ar
adventure&discovery
ingredients of localcentres, shared areasindoors,sharedareasoutdoors.
Design ofoutside as place forworkand play continues important —+(1).
Working groupsvary considerablyin size and may change fromhour to
hour as pattern ofworkchanges.
Ingredients of 'local centres' can beassembled into centres ofvarying
sizes and types according size and age range of school —e(2): homebase, space forallpupils forwhom 1 teacher responsibletobetogether,
not necessarily attables and chairs; enclosed rmforquietconcentration
or noisyactivitysuchas music-making; particular bays where special
eqp, egsink or cooker, can be installed and independent projects can
be pursued with continuity bysmall groups; general workarea, uncommitted space in which furniture can be arranged respond different
needs; covered workarea, toextend rangeofworkbyprovidingsheltered
transition between inside and outside.
Change fromstandard classr planning to planning in terms of centres
can be seen in adaptationofolderschool —e(3)(4) and onedesigned on
new principles —api20(1 ab).
Youngerage rangear01work
[H
IHiI
E
ULEJT
II
UL;1!
FE1
L[1I1
1
Hj
rEl
r1JflLEJflLfl
HjII1
orginplan1931
23
2 Diagrammaticexamplesoflocal
centreseach for2teachersworking
incollaboration:Hhomebase,
P particularbay,Ggeneralwork,
Eenclosedrm, Vcoveredworkar
45678
classr
boys
0
5m
0
1
2
homebase
smallgroup rm
Sb
3 cot
4 bin
blocks
6 up
7 costs
8 plants
9 cpd
10 books
5
11
racks
12 sto
13 vinylfloor
14 trays
23
24
15
16
25
26
27
28
29
30
rostra
SI
t7 homebase2.
smallgrouprm
18
19
20
shelves
ck
sand
2t birisunder
22 bookdisplay
pe store
displayon
corrugated
31
5
10
15 20 m
16 32, 48
168
1
girls
plants
displayshelves
picture
models
rug
recordplayer&
cabinet
recordplxyer&
speaker
32
pampasgrass
33 displayof
bottlesetc
34 climbingIrarne
35 displayof
gardentools&
36
37
38
39
40
plants
piano
64
ft
3 Conversionin 1976of 1931 schoolbuilt tostandard classrplanning; as
reorganisedthere are 3centresfor60P&teachers,with corrfurnishedas
additionalwork,reference&displayspace; ha&drshownhatchedareshared
byall,nursery unitadded
drums
xylophone
screen
Detailof centreBfrom (3); furniture&fixtureshavebeenarranged give
adaptedbldg greaterflexiblity
4
120 Community
Schools
in primary schooldesign —*(2):inclusion of nursery unitas integral part
of design yetwith degree ofindependence; contribution of money (and
RURALSCHOOLS
therefore space) fromsources outside education service (here about 1/3
of total cost) so as to offer wider social service, both forschool and for
adultcommunity, than could be provided independently.
Modemisationofruralschools hasreceivedwidespreadattentionbecause
manyofsmallest have fallen behind standards oftheirnewer suburban
counterparts, being economically hard to sustain. For2 general trends
—'Bib2l5
AREAS
NET
8560Cm2
3.56m2/Pat24OP
4.53rn2/Pat189P
163.62rn2
3—Syr
2.73m2fPat60 p
WORKING 612.66m2(72%otnet area)
2.55rn2/Pat24OP
5—7yr
324rn2/Pat189P
5—7yr
3—Syr
key
1 centre C
2 mc
3 cia
4 base2
5
6
7
8
9
10
it
12
13
14
15
16
17
stO
k
ha
base3
basel
head
books
stall
cafe
centreB
narsery
LIlY
centreA
140.0Cm2
230rn2/Pat6CR
analysisofar
teathrig
72.3% —.. Ia2.55 m2/Pat240P
teacttingsto
1.9
Psto&aan
5.7
k
7.4
amiki
ersetc
circulation
totalar
10
F
301t
6.9
1
42
100.0%
5 sk
5 sb
7 do
key
16
is3.56rn2/Pat24OP
a
2
3
4
aeranda
practical
8
9
wc
10
base
k
grouprm
11
12
13
14
court
ha
lb
books
cate
stall
16
sty
16
17
18
19
20
birchtrees
homebase2
homebase1
ptr
meetingrm
parm
toplaygarden
cherrytrees
las & sho
head
I a Diagram b planofinfants & nursery schoolopenedin 1979for240 P
5—7years with nurseryunitfor60; 3 centres, A& Beachforupto70 Pwith2
teachers,Cforupto 100 Pwith3teachers; hatchedarsharedby allPof5—7
9
key
1
2 In aWelshcountrydisrict5schoolswithinradiusabout2.51cm,withtotal
newschoolforl2ochof3—11years,with
enrolment99P,replacedl9l6byl
2local centreseachforupto50 P&2teachers&nurseryunit; outside:
pre-schoolgarden,play ar,footballpitch& illuminated hard-surfaced games
arforyouthclubs &adults
2
3
4
5
6
mc& cia
homebase3
harnebase4
ha
aerasda
tanksseer sb
t
torn
9
3015
7
8
9
sb
sk
sharedrm
10 cleresiory
11
12
13
14
15
toplayground
ramp
bins
k
med
2t
22
23
24
lo
Community
121
Schools
MIDDLEAGERANGE
In middle age range, as curriculum becomes more diversified, workin
local centres increasinglysupplemented byworkinofher spacesshared
by everyone, indoors and outdoors, where scopeof workcan develop
and deepen—v(1).
Designs forsuchdivision ofworkshown by2 schools —*(2)(3)(4),each
of which has centres grouped round common areas (hatched).
64.6%
P H
H
-
H H
i
v
HI
FJJ
10
H/E
fllV"I
cj
100.0% 1e4.07m'/Pat400P
[
paved
6
1
,graaaplayar
supplementary
by
flahared
by4centrea
8m
Lcentmj
A
6.
court
.,i
24 ft
I
,j1'arsharedby
.c
jfickn14j
.
centresA&B
I
planotcenste
17574rn2 1 79m2/Pat loop
tA
'In
1
i r'
nh
JIJt
bane3
ba
baae2
Middleage rangeschoolwith4centres& arofcommonuse (hafched);
more detailedplan of centrearisshown
drama&pe
teaching
teachingsIn
dining
P
HH4
[
//
<
hardplayar
,
t 1[Jfl
rurelscience
ODC)C'
badstudies
Diagramofarofworkrormiddleage range schools
Palo& san
admin
circulation
totalar
analysisofar
ar/P(at420P)
5.8n91
atm2
.
b5OW1is
I
'It
24
[ U]
schoolnieghbourttood
•!
ft
red.
Es
_6 l2,l8
supplementary
crafts& science
sapplementary
manic
H homebsae
P particolarbay
0 generalworkar
E
oaedmt
v coveredwodran
5OOlb1d
tlP3Pm
326496
c
hollersetc
circulation
total ares
achoolsite
L
'ii
keyplan
centred
centre
0
..,.
re2.63m2/Pet400P
admun
sharedar
outdoors
sharedar
indoors
local centre
teaching
teachingsIn
Palo&san
netar-j worldngar
totalar
2438 n,2(
t3tOm2
shared year 1
cettr
netar . workingar
I
s—
studioworlrehop
3 4 Diagramoforganisation&furnishedplan of
schoolfor420 Pof9—13yearsopenedwith 4
centresforapprox105P, supervised by3teachers
(otherteachersbeing also involvedintheir work)
122
Community
Schools
MIDDLEAGE RANGE
Local centresnotalways planned asdetined spaces. Another practiceis
toprovideflexibility bymeans ofuniform spacesub-divisible byscreens
and panels, rather than variety of spaces fordifferent kinds ofworkand
grouping of pupils. These 2 approaches, to flexibility and to variety,
represent2 distinct trends in current school planning. —e(i) shows
shared working areas designed intermsofrmforspecific subiects (as in
conventional secondary school) and therefore do not imply integrated
curriculum as implied in shared areas described —xp121(3)(4). —n(2)
shows middle range associated with olderrange schooling insecondary
school enlarged to comprehensive —eblock plan. 'Lowerschool' and
'upper school' share some areas such as pe, large scale music and
drama, and dining.
blockplan
extensionforlowerschool
0
30
60
9Gm
98
187
2955
analysis star
ar/P(of360P(
762m2
0
shared
work
4.18w2
5315% oftotal
tolalar
10
20
3Cm
32
66
986
/'t'/ shared
wow
ar
workingar
totalar
2972 In2
159Gm2
42—43% shared
241 m2med—
&dental
totalar
j
workingar
_
Lj27
23
IfLa_J _l
t—--''?(
h5_
26
)-?.
fi-t
0
6
12m
19
3911
plant
2 stageupperpart
3 gymspperpart
4 centre 120p7—9year
282.12m2,235 m2/P,
20P6—7year434t -n2.
2.17 m2/P
5 hlms
6 studentcoanol rm
7 510
8 lib
9 sIx
10 panels
11
12
13
14
do & wc11—13 year
centre 120P9—11 year
28058 m2. 2.34 m'/P
do & wc7—9year
lb clo&wc6—7year
clo&wcg—llyear
changing& shu
stage
tO gym
19 k
20 humecralts
21
wuod/metal/cluy
16
17
22
23
24
2b
26
27
28
29
30
r
L
med
dental
admin
wsrkrm
staff
—
:
E
mssic
mum entrance
28
books
resources
—
—
—
/—
1k30
29
29
32
head
secretary
off
32 meetingrm
33 sb & uheltnr
31
Norwegianschoolwith3localcentressub-dividedfordifferentacttvities by
screens& panels
1
Existing secondaryschool In NottlnghamshlreEngland extended in 1971 to
becomecomprehensivebyadding'lowerschool'(block plan)designedwith4
centres(key plan)&sharedworkar; dining, pe & other arge school activities
sharedwith 'upperschool'
2
'- -
i_i-c
N
1
.
-
23
0
science
crafts
centre 120P2ndyear
centre9oP2ndyear
tope, dining& upper
school
e med
7 head
8 qsietrm
1
2
3
4
ft
9 centrel2oPlstyear
ID cenlrn9oPlstyear
3
6
9
9
19
29
it12
dr
swimmingpool
13 sk
14 ck
lb
16
17
18
19
20
21
homecrahs
workshcrpcrahu
projects
prep
sb
biology
gids
12w
39h
22
23
24
28
26
27
boys
projectsincentre
greenhouse
court
staff
ueranda
28 lrsiieysIcarlul
29 sb bays
30 bookcases
31 qsietrm
32 audio-xisaalaids
Community 123
Schools
OLDER AGE RANGE
Designing for older age range more complex and less certain: educational policies at thisstage increasinglyaffected by political attitudes,
exam policies and demands ot higher education and of adult society
generally. Because of large numbers in schools and diversity and
choices within curriculum, social organisation has to be considered
more specifically within complicated pattern of time-tabling and accn.
—n(1) attempts bring into focus 3 essential elements: numbers, work
and socialorganisation, taking asexample 1 specific enrolment of 1 035
pupils aged 11—18 years, with annual entry of 180 pupils and 135
students of 16—18 staying on after mm school leaving age.
Characteristic principle affecfing planning ot schools for this olderage
range: work areas likely to be shared byall or most pupils, who move
from 1 partof school to anofher according to their particularcourses of
work. Number of subjects and relative provision madeforeach depend
on objectives of individual schools: some have predominance of
academic provision, othersof provision for scientific and engineering
work, and so on. But many schools hope achieve certain balance, with
wide range ofchoices—.x(2): usually common curriculum in loweryears;
preparation for examinations in middle years; diversification into many
differentcourses inlast few.
—x(3) presents organisation of3schools, with 7years age span horizontally, and numbers, work and social organisation vertically. Different
stages also reflected in social organisation:in examples 1 and 3 some
accn for workand forsocial bases exclusively forfirst and second year
pupils; someplanned mainly for third toseventh yearpupils; and some
(eg library)tobeshared by wholeschool. In example2 (largest enrolment)
organisation, and consequently planning, divides school into3separate
entities, except for workshop crafts and pe for whichaccnshared by
everyone.
workar
shared by all
examples:grouping
ofworkar
associationxl cioselyreiatedsubjects
religiouseducation
history
geography
art&crafts
maths
sciences
hornecralts
workshopcrafts
lib
diversilying
curricuia
languages
homecrafts
music
engiish
reiigious
education
ianguages
sociuistudies
drama
music
religious
education
drama
english
1 530P11—l8yrs
workshopcrafts
subiectsgroupedin centresotmixedinterest
sciences
arts &crafts
science
art& crafts
homecrafts
books& study
pa
science
art&crafts
maths
sports
gym
theatre
drama
enghnll
music
art& crafts
maths
subjects grouped
& modified in many
differentways
1
2
Older age range: schoolorganisation
years
=
360P
ti—l3yr
-
1
ining
—J—
reteduc
history
geography
MOP
13—16yr
I
I
=lOOP
16—18yr
Ssociaibases
1 dining
=
=
commonSn
snacks
1
numbers
-J
sociai
history geography
lib
engiish
homecratts
iariguages
sciences
ii
Ill
workshopcrafts
maths
I
music
dining
567 1
sociaibase
dining
560P
15—.lByr
I
sociaibase
dining
I
numbers
-J
social
-J
F
languages
homecrafts
21
music
drama
4
english
sciences
5
maths
arilcrafts
ll
720P
5socialbases
dining
I
I
617
240P
16—l8yr
13—lSyr
maths
articralt
workshop crafts
ye
sorsal
II
'
music
enghsh
english
sciences
numbers
ii—
study iariguages enghsh
repeal
wc
-J
dub
reieduc history
maths
geography history
draTia
repeat
pie
3 Older range: examples ofschoolorgartisation
socialbasel
geography
drama
example1
480P
11—13yr
history
I
1 OOP11—l8yr
1 400P 11—lByr
IJ 2 i__-L4
mleduc
geography
Sb
art& crafts
maths
sociai base
=
720P
13—l5yr
engiish
ianguages
booksS study
economics
reiigious
educatrsr
commerce
books&study
years
history
WI
english
720P
11—l3yr
socialstudies
Olderage: rangeofchoices
rei educ
study
reteduc
years
books& study
study
'
study
211
drama
art&crafts
workshop
sciences
crafts
maths
wCrk
1
hornecrafts
sciences
artJcraftu
lib& pubhC Sb
PC
2000P 11—l8yi
example2
1440P11—l8yr
example3
124 Community
Schools
OLDER AGE RANGE
—.(1 )(2) illustrate diagrammaticgrouping ofsubjects in centres ofmixed interests —p123(2)(3).
15-18 yrclub(1st)
k,Sr. youth (ground)
-
drama,music
english
art& craft
csf'
hb & admun(ground)
adminstaff,
teachers centre(1
science
homeeconorniuca
art& craft
tawerschool
)11—l3yr)
5t)i11
[]
english&
languages
)grcund)
humanites
(1st)
ha &pe
physics,
maths&
Li
WdmShO)
crafts
0 2040 60 80 m
(1
3
9
6
1
61126 ft
9 m
27
ft
MixedcentreforhumanitiesinBerkshireEnglandcomprehensive schoolfor2l2Pof13—18years,designedto
provideworkingarfor allPinthis groupforhistory, geography, religion &philosophy, economic&socialsciences;
alsoprovisionforsome to workonEnglish,mathematics & commercial subjects
1
orchestrami
mur
mur
6practicerm
0
3
6
9
18
2'7
sf0
sharedlistening
stu
13.0
13.37
327
2 CentreinsameBerkshireEngland schoolformusic,drama, art&lightcrafts, needlework &associated studiesin
English,with practicerm,listeningbooths&otherarforindividual work;designed forabout158Pto workthereat1
time &for80of16—18years to have social basethere
Community
125
Schools
may retain sense ofidentityin largecommunity. —(i)(2) showsolution
with school in 8 independent blocks, 7 of which (Ic
excluding largest, namely sports hall) planned as street community'.
These, with 1 and 2 floors, linked byagated wall and by sharing similar
bldg materials but retain independence byshape, size and detail.
OLDER AGE RANGE
to this problem
1 aim in design of most schoolsforolderage range mitigate institutional
influences
of size by finding ways in whichindividual and small group
1\
4%J
geog$
-ra
'
I
/
cIass/'5g
.c'bUs\
parking
visual •
tib
,Iaudio/
hardplayc.
pitch
7I
k
0
30 60 90 120 m
90180270360 ft
-
social
sportsha
hardplay
pitch
'?% c;/
I
-
.
tSetTDndart
fZ7
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/ 'ami
analysisofar
spodsha
teaching 65.2%
teachingsto 5.8
34
dining
k
Psto&san 7.5
6.2
admin
ie7.2m/pal6OOP
23
heating
1.3
circulation 6.3
totalar
100.0%
chemistry
-mar
sem'tutor
thology
languages
social
ssocia)/
classr
do
void
jd
/
9
30
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27
36 m
maths
I
/
90 1205
1 &2 High schoolinLancashire
Englandopened1978for600 Pfrom
11—16years: designedbygrouping
subjectstolessenpressureofsize
on individual& smallgroup
126 Community
Schools
SYSTEMBUILDING
analysisofar
teaching 63.0%
sf0 2.9
33
airing
k
27
teing
Psto&san
7.1
athrin
6.1
circufation 12.9
totalar
1000%
or 9_
ft
ie7.9 ma/Patggp
120
—xBib200
REGIONALINSTITUTIONS
—13
I22 4-
design/scienCe
11
'—'
30
tower school
540P
11—l3yr
28
—
J
2
1
l39
JI
I
85
Industrialsystems used buildmany schools: best offer sufficientflexibility
in both plan and section meeteducational needsalltypesschools, with
qualitythat rates them first class permanent bldg. —s(1)(2) show school
huilt using such system (CLASP), also used —upl2O(1)(2).Financial
contribution from non-educational sources made possible extended
provision forsportavailable both toschool andtocommunity —epi 20(2).
.,,,,,,,,,
37
Increasing diversity educational needs in 16—19 year age range
encourages development separateinstitutions serve several schools in
region.Some sited in association with 11—16 yearschool; somewith
college of further education —.y(3); some independent. At St Austell
England —v(3) provision ofpeavailable in nearby borough sports centre.
6th form college and nearby college of further education share some
teaching accn for linked courses. Generous provision for individual
study both in library and elsewhere; this, together with small rm for
seminars and tutorial work, of considerable importance for this age
group.
TTs
I_-._l
L_.musichal5balwo 0 5 1015m
01530458
.
j38
J
key
1
sports,pe
school&
2
3
4
5
6
community
theatre
admin
fib
design!
science
liberal
studies
7 music
school
sto
12 activities
space
13 up
14 squash
15 sportsha
16 gyro,
11
badminton
17
18
19
20
meters
el
lau
fuel
8 lowerschool 21 boilers
9 warden
22 foyer
10 teachers
centre
23 changing
24 yard
25 k
26 off
27 pottery
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
39
40
optics
preparation
41 seminar
42 lectures
engineenng 43 stu
crafts
44 classr
kiln
45 history
head
46 practical
scalpture
47 lounge
prolects
48 gallery
49 dr
forge
metal
50 needlework
wood
advanced
science
38 general
science
51 fabrics
52 social
53 void
54 homecrafts
55 technical
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
drawing
med
mothercare
textiles
painting
printing
languages
english
houserrn
do
65 staff
66 careers
adenn
10.6%
drcutafion
kdchen
12.2%
05%
P
less,coats,-.
67 libwork rm
68 geography
ajEn°ar
n
21
28
ng
234
8 1415
21
30
9
6
12m
20
40ff
3
St AustellEngland6thformcollege,opened 1973for460 P 16—19years,
hasdept forhumanities(including drama),music,science& mathematics,
socialstudies,&art&designcentre,allrelatedto ha,dramastudio, lib&social
centre
key
privatestu
gallery
3
4
5
1 2 In this NottinghamshireEnglandschoolbuiltonanindustrial system
lowerschool(blockplanonly) isfor540Pof11—13years,mainschoolopened
1973for990 Pof13—18years;centralcoreforadmin,dining, theatre, libleads
to3main 2-floor blocks; arts, crafts&sciences (design/science separate
1-floor bldg)
lib
careers
seminar
social
studies
6 geography
7 geology
8
9
10
11
12
history
control
restrm
deputyhead
gallery
13 prolection
14 privatestu
15 religious
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
education
28
ha
29
off
30
head
31
headseminar 32
33
dept
balance rm
34
lab
35
work rio
36
staff common 37
tel
rm 38
wc
computer
divisionrm
preparation
chemistry
mathematics
boilers
designoff
timber
art&design
do
el
seminaroff
english
39
40
tutorials
humanities
41 languages
42 seminars&
headsof
dept
43 forge
44 studio
45 wOod
46 textiles
47 metal
48 pottery
49 science
prolects
50
51
52
53
54
lecturerm
ha
drarnastudio
optics
science
preparation
55 biology
56 physics
57
students
socialar
58 music
59 tutor
60 k
Community
127
Boarding schools
Size varies from50 to over 1 000 boarding pupils. Proportionof day to
boarding pupilsalso varies; many schools take only boarders.Few new
boarding schools built recently but many extended, with new uses
found forexistingbldg.Asschool will be home' for two-thirds year aim
for homely and relaxing ambience, allowing pupils develop own personalities and community spirit.
SITE LAYOUT
Requirementsdiffer according to various factors: size of school, age
groups to be provided for, integration or separation of living quarters
fromother school bldg, location,climate,inclusionof day pupils,education
programme to beprovided.
Design easy, quickaccess between bldg (in hostile climates protected);
living, dining, recreationalareasclose together. In larger schoolsseparate
living quarters preferred, with communal dining. Integratedaccn more
suited to small schoolswith niulti-use rm. Urban sites generally call for
higher densities and multi-storey bldg, sharing amenities with community and using town services. On ruralsite school usually has to be
self-sufficient, onlyclassr and living quarters being multi-storey.
Boarding schoolswith many daypupils have living quarters integrated
with other bldg. Larger schools require and canafford more and better
provision for recreation, hobbies and cultural pursuits.
6m2, preferably9m2; USA mm 8.4 m2,preferred
10.2 m2.
Beds should not be arranged in tiers. Sto for each pupil's personal
belongings and clothes beside each bed. Spaces to be adequately
ventilated. Stu/bedr—*p140.
Sanitary
To bedispersed throughout bldg, accessible fromsleeping quarters.
1 sho orbuGP(50%baths)
1 hb/3 Pup to 60pupils then 1 hb/4 Pfornext 40 and 1 hb/each further
5: space 1 m2/P
1
wc/5 P
Ifday pupils'lay nearby requirements may be reduced.
USA:fordetails referapplicable codes and standards.
Sick rooms
In small schoolsplaced near matron next togeneral sleeping quarters.
In large schools can be in separate bldg with doctors and nurses
quarters and dental suite. Provide separately forboysand girls.1 sick
rm/20 P. Allow 7.4 ma/bed with 1 800 between any 2 beds. Provide
adequate rm ventilation. Provide adequate separate sanitary accn for
sick rm; separate isolation rm where pupils exceed 40; sufficient accn
for nursing staff.
USA: for details refer applicablecodes and standards.
Staff
ACCOMMODATION
Sleeping
Preferable face E; separate rm for each sex over age 8; preferred same
age groupto each dormitory.
Open dormitory more usual in preparatory and juniorschools (not in
5 m for first 2 beds, 4.2 m2 each
USA), uncommon in senior.
additional bed; 900 between beds. 6—12 beds normal but up to20 can
be accepted.
Dormitory cubicles each to have window 5 m.
a
Separatebedroom
Degree of supervision of pupils by staff depends on system adopted.
Many schools divide pupils into houses, each with resident house
master (often married), junior teacher(s) and matron; ancillary staff
sometimes also accommodated.Some staff live inseparate quarters.
Married teachers need living rm and bedr each 18 m2, 3—4 smaller rm
and kitchen each 11 m2, larder, wc, bathr, sto. Total each approx 80 m2.
Larger areas normal in USA.
Junior teachers needstudy 12 m2 neartodayrmspace, bedr 10m2near
topupils' sleeping accn, preferably bathr and sto.
b
894
el
I
staff
C)jl
c
c)
(81
0.1
9
I
CarmelCollegeWallingfordEngland:120pupilsaged13—18,integrated accnagroundfloor plan,
bsite plan
hockey
hockeypitch
____
_____
,—-----
9
120m
iàooooo
it
Arch HancockHawkes
N
128 Community
Boarding schools
9
ACCOMMODATION(cont)
Day room
2,5 50 7,5100
8
160240 320
than 2.3 m2/P, preferably 4.5 m2. Should consist of common
rm, library—spi29, hobbies rm, quiet rm, games rm, radioand tv rm.
Provide
Dining
Centralised dining normal: 1, 2 or 3 sittings, depending on school
policy. Space can be sub-divided to be more intimate and to Identify
groups of pupils. In small schools spacecan be used forschoolassembly,
concerts, drama productions.
Allow 1 m2/P and adequate airspace.
Kitchen
Allow0.5 m2/P withcafeteria servery, unitserveries forgroupsofpupils
or mobile serveries totables.
b
Ancillary
Adequate sto for pupils' luggage, bedding, clothes and eqp; laundry,
ironing rm, airing rm, sewing rm.
Recreation
Depends on size of school and nearnessto sports grounds, baths etc.
Provide access to grassed areas for ball games, swimming pool,
gymnasium, running track etc; suitable space and eqp for drama, art,
music, films,lectures, crafts, religious worship.
Services
Provide adequate and suitable air space and heat orcool and ventilate
according to climate. Services may be centralised or individual to bldg
—vp383—97.
'--
a
4;
.j
b
stu
I domiitOry
bedr
1/ !
m
ft
RiverThames
servorboarding
matron
bedr
dr
stu
bedr
stu'
I
bedr
head
H
I
prefect stu
Stu
bedr I dormitory
C
junior boarders
senerrboarders
UULI
HEJ
CharterhouseSchoolGodalming England: separateaccnfor462
pupilsin7houseseachwith house master& familylivingin asite
plan bdining block (7drround centralk) Chouseground &firstfloor
plans d housesection; 1 dr 2wash-up 3k 4lob 5lay 6off 7gas
meters 8bins 9 refrigeration 10saladpreparation 11 lift 12 potwash
l3staffdr l4sto l5pooI l6towerblock l7house7 l8house6
19 housemaster'sk 20housemaster'sdr 21 housemaster'sliv
22 housemaster'sstu 23lift 24 servicear 25stairwell 26commonrm
27 monitors'common rm 28 entrance ha 29hobbies rm 30bedr
31 bathr 32 liv 33k 34bedr 35tearm 36 bootrm 37gamesrm
38gar 39boys' lay 40 hobbiesrm 41 ter 42 day nursery 43 bedr
44stu/bedr 45bedr 46 press 47elevator 48stairwell 49flat roof
50washr 51 washr Arch SirGilesScottSon & Partner
E
J]IU1I11ffl
_________________
servery
IJiliLJJEI
1
Jfl1
I4
boys
k
r-'-1
LstodrylJ
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sto
meati
&hshl
_L
J J—
goods
peparason
1m
iiiiIOJt--'
]fltuckshop l
men
staff
coveredway
staffrm
staff
itchenstaffI
2 StPaulsSchool London England: 700pupils,60junior& 122senior
boardingpupilsin separateaccn aaxonometricview bseniorboarding
housefirstfloor plan cdining/kblock plan: 500seatsserve 1200
2-courselunchesin3-queuecafeteriasystem Arch Fielden &Mawson
Community
129
Schools
MEDIA CENTRES
—•
Lb 1
r]rno7LI
-[arts
1
=
{1
industrial -I
at
Growth in useof instructional materialsotherthan thoseoftraditional lib
coupledwith new emphasis on individual study has promoted concept
of media or resource centre. Such aids as microfilm, audio cassettes
and film needviewing rm and study carrels wired for special technical
eqp.Addedto libservicespace needs become larger; staffing and work
areas needed give effective support forclassr teaching needs. Student
use suggests variety working and study options. Mutli-purpose spaces
equippedwith movable or stacking chairs.
Such centres include many of following:
chairsof several types, including cushions or carpet risers
tables
carrels, manywired foreqp—.p177(3)
staffdesks &chairs
special furniture: circulationdesk, files, stocabinets,display, photocopy
reading, browsing, listening, viewing
openaccess materials & stacks
smallgroup listening & viewing
conference areas
groupworkprojects & instruction
admin &workspace
=
sociIr I -r
l—sciene
F
•ii:i::Jti
I==/'
0011
I—
zjooo
___
I
I
,J1_,
•
eqpsto
maintenance & repair
dark rm
professional collection forteaching staff
magazine & newspaper sto including microfilm
In larger schoolsystems radioand tvstudios and computerisedlearning
resources may be included in centre. In some systems material may be
distributed toseveral schools from 1 audio-visual sto centre.
N
1
Sincesuchcentres designed inresponse studentinput, localcommunity
needs and state guidelines variety of solutions found. Typical plan
Middle schoolWestfieldUSAwith mediacentre Arch McGuire &Shook
relationships toteaching areas indicated—(1 )—(3).
Corp
T
.
—
.
E
kindergarten
I
0 6
12m
20 40ft
§
.
I
.
.
-1
P I : T'
____r 1
ii
.
T1
.
]
I
I
l1rl11
multi-purpose
.
.
.
I
r
L
min—
.
I
servlce
chdd
cJU
.1
=
1
L]
i
4 #
speech
dr .
-I iangJa
I
.
.
.
.
activity
media
centre
k
ElementaryschoolTampaFloridaUSA:mediacentrenearlanguagedept Arch Rowe HolmesAssociates
3
1
Elementaryschoolon2floorsNeolaIowaUSAhasresourcecentreateachlevel ArchDanaLarsonRoubal& Associates
I
FH*
TEE
130
Community
Schools
somefeatureswhichlimit useoftables
FURNITURE
proportionoftop
Generalfactors
preventsneat
grouping
railpresents
sdtingplace —
atendoftable
Furniture governed bytype otteaching torwhich provided and bysize ot
pupils. In recentyears learning and teaching involved greater variety ot
group sizes and wider range ot activities. More mobility in schools and
closerassociation ot book workand practicalwork; both theseattect
design and distribution ot turniture. —*(1) shows common features
whichinhibit flexible useoftables and featureswhich encourageefficient
grouping and versatile use. Where tables required strictly for formal
reading and writing work—v(2) gives relevant data; but increasingly
these proportions giving way to double square shown for grouping
purposes —v(1).
Modern UK furniture range will consist of sitting and standing height
working surfaces in closeassociation and of many forms of mobile sto
and display. (—nBlbl97207 208).
rç
bevellededges
preventflatbutt
5t0& legframe
restrictsflsrigto
1sideoftable
spacingoflegs
lessdianw
ofchair
sanefeatureswfticfiallow maxuse oftables
—n
clearance
for
2chaim
II
betweenlegs
'\,,clearancefor
tchair
ü
II
betweenlegs
In USAtypical worksurface heights foreducational usevary from560—
790, although lower tables used for very young. Recommended work
depth variesfrom330 for youngest children to 460 for 15 year olds or
older. Width ofwork area varies from530 for youngest children to 760
for 15 yearoldsorolder—e(3).
sane eaarnples oftablegroups
e
1rrD
trapezoidal
3basicshapes
dimensionedto
groupfor
generalwork
n
\2iY
Ihil
Sto underworksurface not recommended unless atsideofknee space
orworksurface increased indepth. Toespace mm 610 torolderchildren,
who needvarying work heights depending on task: typing tables 670,
work tables 735, sewing tables 790. Work height for handicapped in
wheelchairs mustbe adaptedtotheir needs—up86.
Standing worksurfaces for school age children should vary from520—
915atage 15. Older childrenmayfind range 860—965 desirabledepending
on height and task to be done. Sinks set lower, high counters higher
EJEIJ
(1015—1120).
conddionsintioingtrials
desirable
J
sodc
100%
1Th4
1067
single double
esercise
%
120
*514
610
trapezoidal
100%
610 610*610* 1220
book
satisfied
762 ii 1524
sizet
260—520
squaretable
rectangular
tables
'ff0'
55:
t
14
I
15241530
hail
round
table
'60
120
tablefr 560.565,610,635,660, 675,740& 762
availablewith adlustable legsrange 56010762in 25 increments
100% tOO%
single double
%
300
300/520
satished
"
size
dc
'
130
100%
100%
double
cingle
480
of:
subiects
"7
yr
size2
'65'
3 USAtable sizes
a
2
3
m
mean
stature shoulder
'jj
10 L L2.
7 6
1280
...JfIt......J
%satished
340—580
size 3
'65'
$erf
130
D
100% 100%
single double
620
380-640
b
%
satistied
size 4
140
r70
-
100% 100%
single double
620—
420—700
2 UKtable plansizes
%
satisfied
bze 5
USAchairs &desks astacker bdoubleentrystudy ctabletarmchair
dliftlidtable &chair eclassrunit fdeskwith chair gclassrtypingtable
4
Iidesk jstudy carrels
Community
131
Schools
FURNITURE
Staturedata & distribution offurniture
sizes
Mobilityofpupilsin schools and high degree to
whichworkingaccn shared make increasingly
impracticalassign chair and table tosingle pupil.
Furnitureshared bymany:each chairand related
tablesize must therefore be designed suitmax
stature range rather than for individual pupils.
This in principle means simultaneous satisfaction of 7 fitting criteria shown —'(1), with
clearance between top ofchair seat and underside of table top.
A
B
C
D
E
Though stodecreasinglyprovidedatwork place,
if sited at any sifting working plane adequate
leg room can only be ensuredifzonesindicated
for ISOsizes 1—5—s(2) free fromobstruction.
F
3
UK view is that distribution of furniture should
be basedon pupils' stature ratherthan onpupils'
ages—'(3). Conversion ofstature to agefor UK
school population in 1971 —'Bib207. Revised
British standard specifications forpupils' chairs
shod feetflat onfloor
clearancebetween backoflegs&
front edge of seat
nopress at frontofseat between
seating surface & thighs
clearancebetween thigh &undersideof table forfreedom of
movement
elbows approxlevel withtabletop
whenupperarmvertical
firmsupportforbackinlumber
region &below shoulderblades
adequateclearance betweenback
rest&seat to ensurefree
movement of buttocks
G
A
P adoptmanysitting posturesbutassessmentofgood fitis simultaneoussatisfactionof above 7criteria
1
Fitof Pto chair &table: UKdata
and tables (—'Bib134) comply with ISO stan-
dards (—'Bib407),sizes ofwhich havetherefore
beenshown.
size 1
size2
ISO standards do notapply in USA: viewheld
thatstudentsizesvary somuch1 rm may need
more than 1 chair/table height. Dimensions
based on USA research (—vBibS49)—v(4).
IT
cv
IIHS
Jr.
HS
4th
2nd
tow
reach legh
reach eye
reach distreach radite level
ages ldgh
reach
A
2085
15
1915
1765
1880
12
1705
1545
1645
9 1510
1345
1505
7
a
anceco
E
815
1440
1374
1313
660
610
570
1215
1160
665
735
685
635
705
630
560
665
620
565
1320
1250
1185
600
555
510
1100
1040
890
605
555
510
600
550
485
1175
1120
1040
535
495
435
975
925
880
550
1080
1015
960
500
445
395
890
850
815
970
915
865
430
385
345
815
770
720
730
1370
545
510
1245
1330
1210
1085
485
500
485
425
495
445
480
435
390
KOG
5
upto
ages
hat
hH
work
topJ
work
ahe9
15
760
915
480
685
795
420
9
7
5
1675
1485
1320
1220
1090
635
695
380
585
635
485
ages
seat h
seatto
back-
back-
restO
resthP
405
370
150
175
445
145
160
420
9
325
135
140
355
7
290
130
330
5
265
130
120
125
305
12
15
12
hO
N
hb
dK
-
table
hL
F
370
355
570
330
445
250
into
armrestseatw
spacing A
mm
380
370
330
305
280
size 3
seat
IM
550
590
525
480
0
sizes
1108
340
300
300
400
2
Mm
3
StaturesofUKschoolpopulation
4
USAdimensionsrelevanttoschooltumiture;HS=high school KDA = Kindergarten
leg clearancezones:UKdata
275
basic
tablew
5
760
710
610
610
535
armrest
I
132 Community
Schools
FURNITURE
max reach(for96%ofagerange)
3—5 yr
Dimensional data: sizesof pupils &
stature
teve
1155
eye
sittinghi
eye lend
885
\ 68O
()j77s
so
Dimensional data derived fromanthropometric
survey of UK school age populatIon in 1971 by
Furniture Industry Research Association—n(1)
Sittingplanes those proposed in ISO Standard
(—rBib4O7). Figures refer to ISO stzes 1—5.
1825
780
610
iso size I
155o—fI
165
145
standing
working
1245
size
furniture
poptiteus
taneJ
I
10—t2yr
etbowS
5-8yr
max reach((or96%ofagerange)
iso
size
ethowS
180
an 150
size
2
manreach(for96% ofagerange)
8—10 yr
elbow h
s
iso195
155
maxreach)for96% ofagerange)
stature
I
eyeievet—,
t
525
9—11 yr
ii
425---*1 440
eye tenet
-isittingh
1025
I
11 135
't005
so size 3
elbowI
210
l-
l60
mze_
410±
an
poptiteus
—
Ii 14511245
1850_
750J
standing
wing
plane
UK dimensionsforpupils'furniture
max reach(for96%ofagerange)
133
Community
Schools
FURNITURE
Storageofpupils' belongings
Inschoolsforyounger children with less movement about school trays and individual con-
tainers at workplace suitable. Coats and small
bags can be hungon pegslocally.
But greatermovement of pupils in middle and
olderage ranges encourages widespread use
ofvarious kindsof bags in which books can be
carried from1 place ofworkto another.Central
provision of lockers therefore of decreasing
value sincetheir dimensions and their location
likelyto beinconvenient. Provisionofpegs and
racks forbags associatedwitheach workspace
becoming more convenient and more secure.
Forthisdimensionaldata given—(1)(2) relevant.
Data prepared by Furniture Industry Research
Association as part of survey of sto of pupils'
personal belongings.
In USA lockers —*(3) still standard for older
children, ifonlyfor security. In-rm stoprovided
for children up to 12 years old. Basket racks
also used —n(4).
Schools references
—+Bibliography entries134 191192193194195
196197198199200201 202203204205207
208209210211 212213214215265267275
314446451 476 484 526530 575581 607652
_
w
1 1—l6yeazs
150
20, 250 34,.350450450
h
50 150.20, 250
weigft(kg)
20,250
w
16—18yealx
1
350
distitution
otbagtype
li
230—610
II
230or305
II
305—460
40,450
weight(kg)
Size,weight&distributionofpupils'bags
3 USA lockers a1-tier b3-tier c6-tier
dcombinationunits
max 1605 = 5 305baskets
max
x230baskets
x
14806
min965=3x305baskets
m1n740= 3x23obasketj
23000
330
305
ioderbasket
mld calllengthcoats
(forcoats hungfromhoodsallowance
of200-300 shouldbe made)
2
Lengthsofpupils' coats
basketrack
only5%ofcoatswill be
longerthan shown
4
Basketrack;canbesinglerow(d305—335) or
back-to-back
134 Community
Colleges
I2
key
concourse
cocr
3 courtyard
4 lecturetheatre 1
5 projectionrm
6 plantrm
7 etevator
8 lecturetheatre2
9 soundproduction&
vision
10 upperstudio
11 lecturetheatre3
12 lecturetheatre4
LECTURE ROOMS& THEATRES
Utilisaflon oflecturerm and theatres traditionally lowin relationtospace
requirements and capital cost; therefore consider designing flexibility to
accommodate various functions. Such spaces could suit lectures, stage
productions, demonstrations and cinema. Large theatre could be divisible toaccommodatedifferent audience sizes; similarly,with retractable
seating system —spi 35, largelecture rm can be convertedintoassembly
hall orgymnasium.Number andextentofsuchactivitieswillalso determine
needforadjoining ancillary spaces suchas preparationrm, proiector rm,
workshops, changing rm, studios and sto.
Ifpolicytohirelecture theatre tooutside organisations during vacations
I
Lecture hacomplexpre-clinicalsciences bldg Southampton University
England Arch John SBonningtonPartnership
consider improved space standards and environmental conditions to
satisfy more sophisticated requirements of business world.
Mm
ar/P: 0.46 m2 (based on moveable seats, armless 450 centre to
centre)
0.6 m2 (fixed seats witharmsat500 centre to centre)
Basic shape
Shape of lecture theatre becomes more important as size and volume
increase. Square flexible but fan shape preferred for larger theatres
whereplan formrelates to adequate sightlines foraudio-visual presentations, cinema etc —vp136. Consider rear projection —v(3); tv data
pl36(l)—(3). Small capacity lecture rm up to approx 80 persons quite
satisfactory with flat floor: larger halls require either rampedfloor (max
1: 10) orstepped floor,dependent uponachievingadequate sightlines.
Uniform change of eye level should beachieved ateach seat row, mm
being60and median 125.
Theatre auditorium —vp35O
a
;c:::-
g.
L
b
2
Physicslecturetheatrewithdoublewallingtoreducesound&vibration
TechnicalUniversityDarmstadt Germany aplan bsection
Rearprojectionofimages forlectureha: notsoclearasfrontprojectionforlargehabutmoreconvenientfor
lecturer &allowshigherlight level inhafornote-taking
3
Community
135
Colleges
LECTUREROOMS: SEATING
SEATINGARRANGEMENTS
Seating types
Relate to function of hail ortheatre:
Categories:
individual chairs capable of being linked together in rows, stacked and
stored away, with or without arms,with orwithout writing tablets
fixedseating ofvarious degrees ofcomfort with orwithout tip-up seats,
with orwithoutarms—(1)—(3)
retractableseating systems capableoffolding down onto tiered staging
(which usually includes aisles), whole arrangement being retractable
and storedin relatively small area flat auditorium floor capableof being
used for otherpurposes —*(4).
Flexible seating —p351
Lecture: audience should be able to see and hear lecturer. Where
Seating mm dimensions
Backto backdistance between rows ofseats
(withtip-up seats)
Width ofseats, linked, without arms
Width ofseats with arms
Unobstructed vertical space between seats
750
460
500
300
chalkboard or screens needed desirable viewing requirements affect
seating plan. Increasing trend towards audience participation: implies
students should be close as possible to lecturer. Can be achieved by
U-shaped seating arrangementwhich reduces numberofrowsrequired
and also givesaving in total area.
Cinema: criteria forgoodviewing:
max horizontal viewing angle
max vertical viewing angle
critical angle of projector
max viewing distance
mm viewing distance
30°
35°
12°
6 x wof screen
2 x wofscreen
Demonstration:will usually require steeply raked floortoensure good
viewing totop ofdemonstration benches. Relativecos ofsuch auditoria
with heavily serviced demonstration benches, preparation rm and like
should be compared with costs of normal lecture rm equipped with
closedcircuit tv—*p136(1)—(3).
Seating canbe set round demonstration area insemi-circular formation
ifno requirement for chalkboardsorscreens, as with anatomydemonstration theatres.
Sightlines —*pl36349
Cinemas —p354—8
840 min—f
In
25Oi1
2
5
Sectionthroughorthodox lecture theatre
hof screen
Fixed seatingwithtip-up seats& writing shelf
6w
6 Preferredviewingdistancesforcinemaprojection
3
Fixedseatingwith tip-upseats& retractable shelving
4
Basicprincipleofrectractable seating
7 Lecturetheatrewithdemonstration table (surgical clinic)
136 Community
Colleges
LECTURE ROOMS: FIREREGULATIONS
Design of lecture rm ortheatre must conform tosafety reg, in particular
fire and means ofescape. Number ofseats permissible inanyrow—.(4)
dependent uponcleardistance apart of rows (back to backdimension
a
mm
seatway
(measured
between
perpendiculars)
E
A), resultantclearsection (dimensionEmeasuredbetweenperpendiculars)
anddistance ofseats fromgangway (0 = w ofseat).
300
330
360
390
420
In turn clearwidthof gangwaysand number within hall must be related
to numberof persons to be accommodated.
max
distanceof
max number of 500
wide seats/row
seat from
gangway
(500seats)
F
gangway gangway
both sides 1 side
3000
3500
4000
4500
5000
7
8
9
14
16
18
20
22
10
11
ACOUSTICS—*pl 8395—7
Just as Important hear distinctly as see clearly; lecture hall must be
tE
acoustically isolated from other noise sources.
No internal acoustic treatment should benecessary forrmless than300
m2 butas size and volume increasesshapeof hallbecomes increasingly
important.
Design of ceiling as reflector of sound from original source important
factor in achieving even distribution throughout hall. Design of wall
surfaces and finishes alsoimportant consideration ineitherreflecting or
absorbing sound according to theirrelationship to stage ordais.
sizeof
tvtube
seat row spacing
425
475
520
570
595
1
900
1 300
1 550
650
675
425
450
850
562
575
620
350
375
462
475
520
875
962
hoftv imagein relationtosizeoftube &seat rowspacing
size of
Ivtube
seatrow spacing
425
475
520
570
595
900
1 300
1 550
1650
1700
2125
2150
2400
1250
1300
1625
1650
1825
1125
1150
1459
1475
1625
d
2
Mm
viewing distancefromtvtube
I
I
I
/,
,,
—
/,
,/
\
——
numberofP
accommodatedon
each tierorfloor
200
300
400
S.
—
,..
500
av24m2
\
750
1000
—— —
Shape& squarefrontageofviewing arfor520 receiver
mm
number
ofexits1
2
2
2
2
3
4
mm
w
10502
1200
1350
1500
1500
1500
1
plus 1 additional exit of not lessthan 1 500 for
each extra250 P orpartthereof 2wouldnot
normallyapplyto exit corrorstaircases serving
auditoriumof theatre
t
'
3
4 a distanceofseatsfromgangways bplanofseating withoutarms
Cseatingwith backs& arms dpartofauditorium
5
Exit requirements
Community
137
Colleges
SCHOOLSOFART, DESIGN, DRAMA& MUSIC
Scope and intensity ofstudy in specialistart, design and drama subjects
vary from college to college. Facultieslikely include selection of:
drawing &painting: fine art
ceramics
sculpture
industrial design: engineering
furniture & interiordesign
theatre & television design
graphics & related visual arts including photography
silver&jewelry
textile design both print &weave
stained glass
drama
music
key
1 scuplture
2 artgaflery
3 groupmusic
4 pool
5 office
6 toye
7 painting
8&9 music
10 worlshop
11 greenrrn
12513 chorus
14 stagelift
15 dressingrm
16 sculpturestudio
17 switchm,
18 bars
19 do
Schedule ofaccn foreachwillgenerally include design studio, workand
practice rm, technical workshops and admin off. Communal lecture
theatre or assembly hall usable also as exhibition centre oftenrequired
but display areas for both 2 and 3 dimensional work should also be
provided throughout college.
20&21 toilets
22 storear
Designstudios
GardnerCentreforthe ArtsUniversityofSussex England ArchJohn S
BonningtonPartnership, formerly SirBasilSpenceBonnington&Collins
1
Should be next to appropriateworkrorworkshop; consider exclusion of
noiseand dust. Stospace forplan sheets,wardrobes orclotheslockers,
referencebooksand models should be included together with eqp for
copying drawings and documents, although suchmay be certtralised.
Goodlightingessential, both naturaland artificial.
Drawing studios —p139
Fine art studios
passage
assistance
Studiosfor painting and sculpture require largeareas; must have good
natural daylight with high level windows, equal
floor area, with N orE aspect.
to at least 25—33%Of
Rooflights may provide ancillary light; all windows should be fitted with
someform ofdaylight control. All surfaces should bedurable and easy
to clean.
Workshops
I—
4000—5000
Siting will depend on type of work being done. Light workallied with
graphics, silverand jewelry, photography and fashion may beplaced on
higherfloor;metal,woodand plastics workshops where largemachines
maybe installed best sitedon ground orbasement level.
—i
2 Tiersinlifestudio:seat ar/student0.65 m2
Good workshop layout must conformtoworkflow and safety-+p1 38(1 )(2).
Provideamplespace round machinesandforgangwaystoallownecessary
movement without incursion on work space. Non-slip floor finishes
should bespecified; workshop technician should beable survey whole
area frompartially glazed off.
1•
If each studentprovided with sets of toolsspace for individual lockers
needed in workshop area.
I—
Workshop eqp spaces —*p288
Practicerooms
900—1200 1000—1300
May be for individual study or group practice. Should be well insulated
against passage ofsound fromone to another.
Stores
Methods of storing wide range of goods and materials needed support
each activity should be closely studied, asshould areas required house
completed works before exhibition ordisposal.
All sto should be sited next to appropriate workshop; consider proper
conditions of heat and humidity where these may be detrimental to
materials being stored if not held within reasonable limits, eg timber,
clay, plaster.
Special racking needed for paintings and large canvasses; timberand
timber-based board materials, plastics sheets, metal sections, rolls of
textiles,glassand paper.
Allsuchsto will require element of control and security.
Ancillary accommodation
Will include offforteaching staff, common rm, lay andpossibly showers.
5 Sequenceofoperations: claymodelling &pottery
138 Community
Colleges
SCHOOLSOF ART,DESIGN, DRAMA& MUSIC
brazinghearth
sk
bench
'wall
n122n
1370P]
-a
915—
-y
1830
bench
______
benchl
[
ELi
metallathe
LI
drill
:'ifl U
sb
I-Fit1
forge
grinder
41220111
1220
[5 soldering bench
L
I
+ fromdrawing rm
cpd
fools
circular saw
{J
#jj-j [1 ['.
U woodlathe
eqp
chalkboard&display
4
1 370
9
4
19
32
2pm
64ft
Layoutforcombinedwood&metalshop
eqp _________
Clearancesforlayoutof metalshops
1
metalwork
translucentrootedar
woodwork
0
rindstone
3
6
lafhefftfl
arleft blank
o ggcm2
£ operating position
41-run out
2
Workingspacesround woodwork machinery
Fi
3
I
2134
/
painting studio
3
Variousforms of sto racking
5 Arts centrelayoutforcollege
drawing rm
9
12m
Community 139
Colleges
DRAWINGSTUDIOS
Reterence may not be confined to intormation contained on drawings;
ottenneedhave comprehensive set reference books or manualsclose
at hand for draughtsman: may be housed communally or at each work
station.
Space requirements related totype of drawing and allied work, itany, to
be undertaken —(1).
Further category of drawing studio that allied to workshops where
tull-sized setting-out drawings (USAshop drawings) (or workshop'rods')
prepared. Usually allied to construction industry, in particular joinery
shops; such drawings prepared on rolls of paper set down at long
benches. Draughtsmen workstanding up at drafting surtace which is
horizontal and 900 fromFFL. Original drawingsstored in roll form rather
than sheet asin other studios, torwhich housing maybeeither horizontal
(plan chests with drawers) orvertical (plan file cabinets).
Layout ofany studio therefore conditioned bytypeofworkbeing undertaken and type ofsupervision required.
In all studios good lighting essential,both daylight and artiticial;windows
should have N to Easpect. Ifthis notpossible windows should be fitted
with blinds to screen directsunlight and prevent glare.
Ancillary areas may include printing and reprographiceqp; this may be
housed in studio or, it sophisticated or large scale, sited in separate
area. Archive sf0 tor original drawings which may have to be kept tor
indefinite period should be properly conditioned tor sf0 of paper and
housings must be fire and flood proot. Present trend increased use of
computerprocesses tor production of working drawings; use at such
eqp may influence spatial requirements offuturedrawing studios.
Work station sizes in part conditioned by eqp needed to accommodate
drawing format to be adopted. Except in USA most offices committedto
'A' series of international paper sizes: smaller formats obtained by
halving larger dimensions in each instance—*p3—5. For most industrial,
engineering and design consultants drawing requirements can be
accommodated by AD format; drawing boards and drafting machines
sizedaccordingly.
Simplest form of work station: drawing board, eqp trolley (cart) and
draughtsman's stool; where dratting workrequiresreterence contained
on other drawings either reference tables or vertical screens may be
used carry this information. Screens have advantage of keeping floor
area needed tomm butat expense ofcontrolled supervision. Reterence
tables, which may also provide plan chest drawing sf0 below work
surface, either to side ofdraughstmanin parallelwith drawingboard orat
right angles to it. Further possibility available with 'back reference'
where reference table also support for drawing board behind. Where
drafting function only part ofjob requirement and adminworkalso to be
done reference area may double as off deskor, if space allows, desk
may formadditional element within workstation.
t.
920 1 —-.
300
,92O 300÷
460k
920
90
1300 1300 1300
1
-t
i---
_______
1300
utihsation4.2 m2/P
F
utiiiisation5.01 m2/P
utilisation6.03m2/P
utilisation5.01 m2/P
utihsation6.03 m2/P
I13001300
¶
screenwith
pin board
ji*atLofl42m/P
—
1300
———'————
9
)300300q1300
920
1
920
I utilisation5
1
m2/P
-1 300
______
---.
90
1300
920V
¶
-
L
F
...
.:
reference table
under drawing
board
18
j__
——J
300 920
920
utilisation
4.23 m2/P
90__________
utiisation 5.9 m2/P
trolley
drawingboard
-
LI
utiiisation
3.45rn/P
reference table
chair
1
Variousplanningarrangements
I
210
1 750
2 Drawingsbestkept intrcabinets
3
Steelchest forplans
4
Drawingtable: standardsizes
1000 x 1500&1250x 2000;h
2050(USA941 x 1092—1067x
2390; h 940)
Typicalsmall photocopying
machineused in drawingofffor
reproducingplans
5
140 Community
Colleges
Hostel (USA dormitories) bldg usuallyfinanced by universityorcollege
fromown funds, government grants orloans,openmarket loans: annual
income raised has to cover interest, amortisation, running and main-
STUDENT HOSTELS: PLANNING FACTORS
L_Ii
I
Singlestu/bedrwithhb: 10m2
2
Singlestu/bedr: longershape
providesmore economicaluse of
space
4
4
2700
3 Single stu/bedrwithouthb
4
2-studentunit, also usedfor
conferences 1 B 2desk 3wa4
bathr
tenance costs. Some governments make grants to subsidise annual
income. This canbe supplementedbylettingforconferences,educational
courses, holidayvisitors.In somecountries educationalestablishments
and studentunions have formed businesses provide off bldg for letting
sothat income can subsidise hostels. Size ofhostel rmand amenities to
be provided therefore depend on usesbldg can be puttoand on annual
income obtained.
Single students generally need accn for 30—33 week/year. Married
usually for 50—52 weeks. Accnshould caterfor children outside play
spaceand be placed near shopping and social services and amenities.
Trend to house students in range of accn for all categories; many
students prefer small independent units sharing some variety ofaccnto
institutional residential communities. Forsocial and admin reasons first
year students usually placed in halls of residence with staff rm, area
kitchen, laundry and ironing rm, toilets, sto etc, meals being taken in
dining centre.
Dining rm—.p142
Halls with shared diningand social services normally planned as large
number of study bedr with central bathr and small kitchen: may also be
rm orflatforstaff member provide supervision. In recent residential bldg
provision made forstudents prepare and take allmeals independently in
ownsocial groups. Smallgroupsupto4 students needbeself-selected;
groupof6—8socially largeenough divide intosub-groups without being
too big share cooking eqp successfully; 12ormore donotformcohesive
group: shared kitchen with dining rm used forother activities could lead
toproblems.
Conference use requires mm washbasin in each rm with goodaccess
car parking, lecture and dining rm: alternative accn forfew students in
residence during vacations and sto for possessions needed.
Independent housing or hostel units favoured by final year and postgraduate; can be in purpose-built groups, located in urban community
orconverted houses.
Shared accn also —p99
ACCOMMODATIONREQUIREMENTS
5 Doublestu/bedr 1 divanB
2curtain 3deskwith drawerunit
4easychair 5 heatingconvector
6book shelfover 7table with
bookshelves8built-in wa
ji
liR'
stu/bedr
7
dOue
siu/bedr hb
Typicalcompositeaccess(corr
accesssimilarbutcontinuous
betweenstaircase):noteposition
ofdr/kar& sharedwashr&toilet
6
1-bed/studyspace 9—15 m2; 2-bed/study space 13—19 m2 (unpopular
with UK students; liked in USA); self-catering unittotal area 16—20 m2:
areas may be slightly reduced in family' flats to allow more room for
Typicalstaircaseaccess
stul Stu/ SIU/ stui Stu/Stu/
dJ '
rbedrbedr
s,o wcCpd skrbedrbjbedr
________
stu/
FtL?rrT
bedr
Irr-'
ty
lI1-ILll
WCW sk
sho
stul
bedr
JfstuI stu/Istu/ siu/sStU/
ebedrbedbedr drbedbedr
8 Corr access round service
core;e = elevator
amenity space.
Rm to befurnished with bed/divan, deskand chair, shelves and hanging
for clothes 0.8—1 m2, open adlustable shelving and pin board, easy
chair, small table, bedside table, mirror, bin, rm lightand desk/bed lamp,
2 power points, rm heater, carpet, dense curtains/blinds. If wash basin
included providetowel rail, mirror, cupboard or shelf, shaver point. Rm
showersand wc sometimes included on individual orshared basis.
Some rm should be larger toprovide forentertainingand meetings.
Provide proportion of rmsuitable forphysically handicapped.
Married student accn should comply with normal housing space
standards —p4448: somewill have families
Provide background heating supplemented by rm heater controlled by
occupant.
Ensure goodsound insulation, especially round service pipes.
Shared accn —.p99
Sanitary
wc/6 students; 1 bath/6students, or 1 shower/12 students (preferably 50% baths); 1 washbasin/3 students if not provided in rm.
Space standard 1.2—1.6 m2
USA:checkapplicable codesand standardsforthese details.
Prefabricated sanitary units—.p65
Hot waterheating local or centralised.
1
r
10 Typicalamenityar
i
-r
Community
141
Colleges
STUDENTHOSTELS:ACCOMMODATION (cont)
Amenityspace
Dining kitchens not intended forCull meal service with utility space allow
1.2—1.6 m2/student.WithCull meal service allow 1.7—2 m2/student (less
for more than 6 students).
Where hostel close to other university bldg and communal service
used, dining kitchen may be only shared social space. Cooking and
dining areas should be separated with dining rm located where all
students pass it.
Newaccnmore likely provide self-catering. Eqpself-catering shared by
6: cooker and refrigerator, single bowl double-drainer sink, 2000—
3000 worktop with cupboards under and over (include individual food
lockers), refuse with capacity 1 day's use. Provide eqp for washing,
drying and ironing for each groupof rm.
NB: above not normal practice in USA.
Residences on campus use communal amenities; where accn some
distance fromother university bldg allow withinhostel m2/student:
large common rm
lib/reading rm
indoorgames
hobby rm
0.9—1.2
0.4—1.8
0.2—0.4
0.2—0.4
Within theseareas also coffee bar/shop, ante-rm/coffee lounge, place
for debates and society meetings, television, music practice, lay for
visitors asappropriate in accordancewith local reg.
Offices
Large residences away from campus need some off with approx areas
(m2): warden/supervisor 20, secretary/archives 20, management
committee/consult mi 30, housekeeper* 9, cleaner's changing rm* 9
porter* (next toentrance) 9, students' union 20.
* also needed when residence on campus.
Staff
03
6m
9 18 ft
I
StudentresidenceGuildford England asecond,first&groundfloor
plansoftypical unit bsectionsAA&BB croofplanofcourt Arch
RobertMaguire& Keith Murray
__________________________________________________________
Design tosuitsingle, married and marriedwith familycategories. Some
accnwithin residence provides supervision. Separateaccnin housesor
flats most economical. Wardenneeds (m2)67—93; single academicstaff
and housekeeper each 56—67; single supervisory staff 46—56; single
domestic staff asfor students.
Ancillary
Allow baggage sto 0.3 m2/student. Provide adequate central sto for
household and cleaning eqp, linen, furniture and refuse; on each floor
sto for cleaners and eqp with sink and watersupply. Provide laundry
chuteif appropriate.
Circulation areas and ducts account for 2—5.7 m2/student. Ensure
passages adequate for trolleys (carts) and carrying suitcases. Provide
entrance hall supervised by porter with space for notices, telephone
kiosks and milk and mail delivery. Bell system orloudspeaker willserve
to transmit messages inconjunction with sometelephone points.
Finishes
Materials should be durable, hard and needlittle maintenance.
Layout&building form
036m
9 18 ft
2
HaIlofresidencenextcampus Southampton England typicalfloor
plan ArchJ SBonningtonPartnership
a
Single row arrangement: widthof bldg 5500, rm 3500, corridor 1500;
doublerow arrangement: width 10 m, 2 rm each 3500, corridor 2000;
triple row arrangement: width14000,2rm each 3500,2 corridors each
1 500 with artificially lit and ventilated centre blockforwashr etc.Typeof
access available: bystairs to rm, by stairs and shortcorridors, bystairs
to central corridors. Adequate means ofescape in case of fire must be
provided —*p44 91. With 4 floorsand more elevators required: more
economical build up to3storeys.
Car parking: mm ratio 1 space/3 students; sto for bicycles and motor
cyclesalso.
Site footpaths away fromground floor windows and maintainprivacy.
2
WJ_LLJL'.U
IFTTrTTTTrf.-4
b
010,
______Om
326496 ft
__________________________________________________________
3 QuincyHouseHarvardUniversityUSAprovidesintegrated
communalservices asecondfloorplan 1 singlebedr 24-man duplex
suiteliv, bedraboveorbelow 3tutorliv 4stu 5bedr b firstfloorplan
1 k 2servery 3dr 4janitor 54-bedrsuites 6liv 7bedr 8listening rm
9workr 10 3-bedrunit 11 reading nn cground floorplan 1 lowerlob
2grillrrn 3seniorcommons4juniorcommons 5tutorialcentre
6superintendent 7service&gar 8entrance lob 9 house off 10tutor
suite 11 guest suite ArchShepleyBulfinchRichardson &Abbot
142
Community
Colleges
REFECTORIES/DININGHALLS
Can be provided in separate bldg within hostel (dormitory), within
community activities bldg or as separate bldg. Space requirements
depend on type ofservice(self-service fromcounter, self-service from
disheson table,waiter service) and seating arrangement but generally
allow 1.2 m2/student, allowing for number ofsittings. Longtables with
benches —(1) preferable (not USA) to small with chairs: cheaper,
durable, space-saving, easyclean and clear. Width ofseat 600; width
oftable600—(preferably)700.
Space for cross passages: (500 x 1050/3 seats = 0.18 m2); add
extraspace forside passagesand space in front of servery (service) and
entrance. Benches should stand 80—100away fromthis table;need be
only300 wide and 400—450high (easy tostepover). Benches nearwall
400 wide, including 120 distancefromwalltogive access.More convenient
enterfrom side but thismeans 4 students on wall bench.
For more elaborate furnishing —(2); where chairs and more comfortable tablesdesireddimensions are: widthofseat 650; widthoftable
700—800.Space required (access frombehind —hatched portion):
650 x 1150 = 0.75 m2. Share of cross passages (550 x 1150)/3 =
0.21 m2. Floor area/student with appropriate extra space as above:
1.1—1.2m2.
Ifspacealongwallbehind chairs used asmain passagewidthincreased
to
800.
Tables with seats at either end —(3) uneconomical, spoil communal
feeling and equality among students. Space needed fortables in corners
(—hatching): 5900 x 2550)/12 = 1.25 m2. Space/student required
Seating also —p202—4; snack bars —p205 206
Circulation ofdiners should be1-wayonly: can beachieved bycorrect
disposition oftablesand sitingof columns atcorners oftables toavoid
waste ofseating space —*(4).
Kitchen, servery(service) and stoarea between 40—50%of refectory;
food preparation 20% ofkitchen. Servery areaforcafeteria service upto
20% kitchen area. Desirable design on 1 level with convenient stores
delivery:avoid staircases and elevators if possible.
Kitchen should be big enough for work in uninterrupted sequence
withoutopposing traffic flows fromstotoservery. Stoatstart of circulation
followed by food preparation tables, sinks and eqp including area for
pastry making, thence to cookers, ovens and boilers, then to warm
cupboards and servery. Provide pot-wash nearto cooking area. Off for
chief chef should be positioned to provide supervision of stores and
deliverypoints and alsowhole kitchen area. Crockery should bestored
in serveryarea and after use go by trolleys (carts), dishwashers and
drying cabinets backtoservery.
Good ventilating system required to draw air from dining areas and
kitchen and avoiding flow ofairfromkitchen to dining area.
Restaurant kitchens —'p213--.Bib217
Sanitary (USA: check applicable codesand standards):depending on
location and proximity to other bldg should be provided next to dining
rm; if alreadyavailable nearby suggested provision: 1 wc/100 males,
plus 1/250 males, 1 urinal/25 males; 2 wc/100female plus 1/100; 1
washbasin/50P.
Finishes: materials should be durable and require little maintenance.
4501
40O1
________
ILl
?It'
L______J
[TT
________
I
30)1
3600
1
with allpassages and appropriate extraspace asabove: 1.2—1 .3 m2.
;ood
Colleges references;
—Bibliographyentries039040041 063096097113114147168176
200217226261 377413437441 446472476485526556569581
612629630652
2400—f
Longtableswith freestandingbenches
500
12300 -
l5ool
u5
2
Longtableswith chairs
450
150—200,.
Jo[
3650
•..
450
,-..___t
50200o70
.1
3
Tablewith chairsatend
goodarrangement of supportswithout loss
of space fordining halls 4400—4600
4 Space savingarrangementof supports
5
Integratedrefectory services St Catherine CollegeCambridgeEngland ArchArrte Jacobsen
Community 143
Youth hostels
Oftenconversions ofexisting bldg both because ofshortage ofmoney
and because often in aesthetically sensitive surroundings; therefore
Youth Hostels Association (YHA) reluctant lay down definitive plans for
arm2
place
Comment
typical hostels. Nevertheless specifications and requirements particular
and detailed, specially sincetightening offire reg —a(1). In UK DES has
also requirements for hostels forwhich itprovides funds: more onerous
on questions ofspace.
entrance hall
off/reception/shop
14
drying rm
14
Bed spaces
luggage rm
14
3.1 m2 floor ar/Pin dormitories
1 wc/1O bed spaces
1 hb/6 bed spaces
1 b orsho/20bedspaces
common rm
dining rm
member's k
warden's k
For purpose ofcomputing floorarea DES disallows any partoffloorover
whichceilings less than 2100high.
11
18.5—23
46.5
16
16—23
9.3
Ia
Wash-up
11
wardenssitr
14
YHA has lower standards, depending on grade of hostel: simple or
standard. Simple (need not have resident warden) mm 2.04 m2/bed
space; standard (must have resident warden living within curtilage of
hostel at all times when open to members) for dormitories mm 2.32
m2/bed space, recommended 2.78m2.Asdouble bunksnormally used
thismeans6.31 m2/bunk if DES standardsto be met.
bedr
Warden,s
wardens2nd bedr
warden's 3rd bedr
7.5
wardens bathr
3.25
dormitories
158—167
wc
washing accn
Dormitories
YHA, ruling body for hostels in England and Wales (Scottish YHA has
similarstandards), lays down allhostels must haveseparatedormitories
formenandwomen, with separate access. Layoutofdormitories should
be suchthatcan beusedbyeither sexasbookings demand: meansthat
either sex must be able to reach appropriate lavatory. Most compact
solution blockof intercommunicating rm with appropriate door locked
between sexes. YHAaimstoswitch to arrangementin many continental
hostels with4-beddormitories,with sanitaryaccnreachedfrom common
corridor, motel style. DES pressing for degree of privacy in washing
arrangements for women, satisfied by arranging washbasins in own
cubicle with curtain at entrance.
1
airing cpd
blanket sto
cycle sto
3.75
28
with bench & shoe rack
hatchto entranceha, reasonablyclose
to warden'sk
preferablyaccessiblefromentranceha
withoutpassingthrough principalrm:
with racks orhangersheated
ifcombinedwith drying rm, laundries&
wc 14—1 8.5 m2 each
or0.7—0.9 m2/P
with directaccess aspossibleto dr
ifpossible with hatch&door combined
fordirect serviceto dr: skinkpreferred
to separatesd; accessto dustbtns
each
with 1 or2 sk; tablespace fordirty
crockery; easy accessfromdr; if
possiblereasonableaccess to
warden's kforreturn of crockery
layout ofthese will depend usually upon
balanceof convenience,privacy,
as ect
,e3.16/P
forhosfellersnotlessthan 5,forwarden1
foreach sex 1 washrmwith b(separated
bypartitions)orsho, 1 footbath,basins
to DES standards
forwarden's use
warmed
forabout30cycles, preferablyin racks:
1 machine/305
note: floor arintendedasrtiin desirablebutinalterationsmuchwill depend
on existing bldg
YHA scheduleofaccnfor50-B hostel
1
Hosteller'samenities
As hostels closed during day arriving members need luggage rm to
leave gear withouthaving access to rest of hostel; may be combined
with drying rm, where hostellers take off outer clothing before booking
in at reception desk.
Toallowto cookown meals members' kitchen provided inall hostels, in
addition to kitchen of wardenwhowill also cookforhostellers. Members'
kitchens have combined double cooking rings and burners and grill
units, fuelled bypropane gaswhere mains services notavailable.Locker
space also required, and also washing up space, in addition to that
intended forthosehostellers whotake warden's meals who are required
towashup.
dustbins
solidtuel
cycles
r wardens
blanket
dryingrm
Ihotwater
boilerl
bathr
L
.1
,
wadens
bedr
a
,
drysto
reception
ofl&shop
2
Imen s
- wardens k
I
dOnniitorylleSl
I
mess
waslrn,
I
common/
-
dui,
dormitoryliesi
,
I
wardens
worishop
'
entranceha
11
Warden'squarters
Hostels with more than 40beds usuallyadministeredbymarriedcouples,
possibly with children whowill needliving quarters. Largest hostels will
have assistant wardens, provided with own sitting rm, staff dining rm,
kitchens and recreation rm.
Sb
gar&
lightingplant
& tuei
it .
ro'
'
doflTiitorylieS)
womens
membersk
I wash-up
Schematiclayoutfor 1-storeyyouth hostel
In larger hostels chief warden's quarters should be in form of selfcontained house orflat, with 3 bedr, bathr, kitchen, dining rm and sitting
rm. In these circumstances hostellers' accn should never be over or
underwarden's.
Fire safety
YHA increasingly concerned with applicationofmore stringent standards
of fire safetyto both new and existing hostels. Sources of danger have
beenidentified asprimarily: interference with stoves orheaters,particularly indrying rm; el orgas faults; smoking; misuse ofcooking stoves in
members' kitchens. Provisionof meansofescape inoldbldg difficult. Fr
required for protected staircases difficult provide in bldg with timber
floors. In smaller hostels, akin to domestic houses, distancestravelled
on fire escape routes not normally long enough to contravene reg.
Generally 18 m traveldistancetoplace ofsafety considered max where
floors timber, or 30 m where non-combustible. Mm of 2 staircases
normally required, in such positions that no person on anyfloor has to
go furtherthan max travel distance to reach staircasesorotherpoint of
accessto place ofsafety.
3 YouthhostelconvertedfromexistinghousebyYHA: a ground floor
b 1st floor
J
144 Community
Youth hostels
GERMANSTANDARDS
Small hostelwithdormitory 30—50 beds
Standard size40—i 00beds
Large 100—250beds
Very large 250—600beds
Optimum 120—180 beds,with 400 upper limit. Relate number ot beds to
av numbervisitors; design sleeping lager to cope with peak holiday
demand.
a
Siting: open, sheltered from wind, main rm facing SE,S.
Spacerequirement: forstandard hostel: indormitory 2.2—2.8 m2/bed;
for 2-tier bunks 1 8—2.0 m2; 1—2 large rm with 20—30 beds, orsmaller
with 4—12 beds; 8-bedrm much valued. Also rm forsick and accidents
d
1—2 beds.
Av occupation approx 40% girls 6O% boys; sexes either on separate
floorsor segregated by partitions: some rm arrangedto meetdifferent
balance upto 50/50.Av rm height 2800, not less than 2500.
Dormitoryfloorarea 1.5 m2/bed.
Plankbeds: single tier 1.2—1.5 m2/bed, 2-tier 1.1 m2/bed.
Common rm 1.0—i.5 m2/bed. Meeting/discussion rm sound-proofed
and located away fromotherday rm.
Wallspreferred wood lined, with rucksack stands and tip-up benches.
8600
— 3800
—f- -——t
T
__________
______
3800
—
r..s—..-.
__________
______
______ ______
________
\v
C,
ot
o.
0
10
I
—
F—
4750
5000
crockery washed by users
Larder next kitchen, long narrow and cool
—I
—H
0
C,
f00
00
— 2800
J
0
U,
—4
Typicalsleepingrm; mm ar between skirtings,4-bed 16 m2 (1 bed 4m'),
8-bed 16m2(1 bed 2 m2), 10-bed30m2 (1 bed3m2), 20-bed30m2 (1 bed
1.5m2);inlargedormitories32 beds32.7m'(1 bed 1.02m2)
2
Kitchens: Both visitors' and warden's kitchens nearentrance,preferably
with light from2 sides.
Visitors' kitchen fitted for self-catering; in smaller hostels can be in
common rm, otherwise separated, also apart from warden's kitchen.
Generous provision of cooking eqp; 100-I boiler and sk.
Rambler's kitchen big enough for group eat and also sit in winter.
Warden's kitchen: glass door or window allows supervision of coming
and going; food hatch tocommon rm. Equippeddouble sk, lowslop sk,
600 deep dresser under windows, lockable draw for money, power
pointsfor kitchen appliances; if gas-fitted, low rings for large pans. Sk
and crockery cupboards next food hatch and apart frommain kitchen:
Warden's quarters: mm 3 rm each approx 16 m2 including kitchen,
whichmay beon same floor or separate, in which case onground floor
nextto reception and with sitting rm, upstairs being 1—2bedr next girls'
sectionand bathr.
Assistants 7 m2/P
Entrance sheltered from wind or with porch; convenient approach,
sheltercanopy, easyforwarden watch over. Focusofhostel hall and day
rm, divided into noisy (workrm, table tennis, games, dancing), normal
(common rm, dining rm), quiet (writing, reading, discussion, office,
sleeping):noise control by separation ondifferent floors.
Washrooms: area 0.35—0.4 m2/bed; 1 washbasin/4—6beds; 1 footbath/15 beds, 1 shower/20—40beds. Showers can be in basement,
betternext bedr. Ground floorwashr for arrivals.
Lavatories: 0.3—0.35 m2/bed; 1 wc/i urinal/8—iO boys; 1 wc/6—8
girls: lower proportion in larger hostels
Laundry ifpossible related bathr, showers and heating; in large hostels
machines and spin driers.
Ancillaryrooms: sto for packs, bicycles, sports gear; drying rm; shoe
cleaning; utility rmforhostel eqp, first-aid box; dark rm in larger hostels;
warden'sworkshop.
Construction: suiting environment; resistant rough treatment; stone
and timbermainly, mm plaster.
3
Large hostel inGermany ArchLauterbach
Community
145
Libraries
INTRODUCTION
allocation
percentageof total ar
Essential that close rapport be established between librarian and
architect; for largest schemes libraryconsultant should beemployed.
adultlending
27 (up to 40 in small units)
Types
Community: primarily lending books to adults and children and with
general reference section. Current trend in UK towards larger central
libraries with branch satellites; rural areasoftenserved by mobile units.
Specialised: primarily used for reference,with small loan section.
Nationaluniversity: used forreferenceand research;continuallygrowing
collections.
See alsoschoolmedia centres —*pl29, hospital libraries—*pl77.
Increasing literacy and leisure timeplus information explosion' make it
important to plan for max flexibility and for future expansion. New
techniques arechanging methods ofcontrol/indexing/retrieval.
PATTERN
3 main elements, materials, readers, staff, are related in varying ways
depending on organisation policy: eg community, school and hospital
libraries require predominantly 'open access', ie readers have direct
access to books; catalogue a necessaryadjunct.At times largenumbers
of people circulate among spread-out shelving unitsand are attractedto
browse.
Larger libraries including universities and colleges concentrate sto in
'open stack' and put readingspacesnearbyratherthan amongstshelving.
Formal arrangement ofthisoften used in USA.
Alternative 'closed acess'allows no contactbetween readersand books
except through staff via catalogue. This method used for major sto in
national, largecity and county referencecollections, forrare and valuable
booksand as 'back-up'sto in any library: 'closed stack'.
Specialised/large libraries may have separate subject dept each with
enquiryservice; catalogue should remain centralised unless computer
based. Reference and loan section catalogues may bedivided.
reference
children
circulation/
services!
ancillaries
20
13 (maxar 150m2)
40 (about halfforstaff rm)
in small librarieschildren's
% arshould increase &
reference decrease
Adult lending
population served
3000
5000
10000
20000
40000
60000
60000
80000
100000
total vol
4000
4000
6000
12000
24000
24000
36000
44000
50000
floorarin m2
100
100
100
180
360
360
540
660
750
open access accn; 15 m2/
l000vol(butminar 100
m2);includes local
circulation, catalogues,staff
counters, informalseats tor
browsing at 1/1000
population,some
display eqp
Children
Floor ar 75—100 m2 for populations up to 10000, and 100—105 m2 for
10000to 20000people. Basis as for adults (seeabove); but does not
include space for study/talks/storyhours'. Separate entrance sometimesprovided:but control becomes difficult.
Reference
Allow 10 m2!1000 vol as less need for generous circulation. 1 study
space of2.32 m2/1000population,with somedegree ofprivacytoavoid
distraction; these figures willcoveranystaff desks required.
None of the adult, children or reference figures include provision for
periodicals, sf0 ofaudio-visual materials.
SPACE STANDARDS
Appreciable differences to be found among national and international
authorities. Following generally basedon IFLA standards:
Communitylibraries
population served
allowance per 1 000 population
'10000 to 20000
42 m2total floorar
20000to 35000
35000to 65000
65000to 100000
over 100000
1
39
35
31
28
Figuresbasedonsurveys,
butcan beuseful check;
include all general but not
indirect services (meeting
rrn, lecture&exhibition
spacesl
2
Relationships
Smallbranch lib,WorcesterEngland, 98m2
5500 vol ArchTLewis
146 Community
Libraries
ENTRANCE
vision. Function: to register new readers, issue and receive loan books,
deal with reservations and fines. In small librariesalsohandles reader's
enquiries—(1 )—(3).
P4,,
'I
<'1'I
,,'
TuII
CONTROLAREA
Close to or within sightof bldg entrance, and with space to absorb
congestion at peak hours, but located toallow max visibility for super-
out
returned
Community libraries should clearly declare bldg function, and be welcoming. Lobby should reduce entryof noise/draughts. Provide visual
stimulation here. Adequate control needed to prevent high losses of
booksetc throughexit: some have had to use turnstiles or electronic
detectors. Remember needs of disabled people (ramps/elevator!
escalator —.p85—7 407 408 412). Should lead to control/guide area
—*below, with display en route.
I
I
1'ir,
Small lib, staffof1; snag: cross
circulation
1
I
returned
boOks
GUIDE AREA
Islandcontrol,1 staff at off-peak;
snag: separationfromotherstaffar
2
out
I
Card index/book sheaves/computerprint-out books, located near control
orenquiry, en route toalldeptserved, also closetocatalogueworkarea.
If card index, allow say 12 m2 covering 36000vol.
)1r1
//
TJ
ENQUIRYDESK
'
II
I
I
I
(i__i
Near catalogue guide and bibliographies.Can help to share supervision
with control.
MATERIALS
3
Large lib,canadjoinotherstaff
work ar; snag: mm 2staff alltimes
Books are, and will continue to be, primary material.Space may also be
required for: newspapersand periodicals,discs, tapes and musicscores,
microfilms, maps and pictures; there may be more to add in future:
flexibility of layout necessary.
Shelvingunits
Most widely usedtype is metal shelving, individually adjustable, single
sided (along walls) and double sided (island). Unit height 2000 (loan
area), 1 500 (children's area), 2300 (bookstack areas). Shelf depth
200—300 (children's books), 200 (fiction, literature, history, politics,
economics, law), 300 (scientific, technical,med). Width of unit generally
900 in UK and USA. Main routes in open access' areas 1 800 clear
width, and minorroutes 1 200.
Bookstacks
Optimum length ofshelving 6 units(5400) to max 8 units(7200) but 4
units(3600)whereaccessible onlyfrom1 end.
Centres ofislands where openstack' are 1 280—1 520 (gives about 164
vol/rn2); where 'closed stack' centres are 1 060—1 280 (gives 200—215
vol/rn2). Choice between these limits depends on selection of shelf
depthsand aisle widths.
Derivations from stack centre figures will give choice of economic
structural grid dimensions atcentres of5400,6000,6850,7310,7620,
7750and 8350. Sub-divisions ofthesefigures will relate-windows,roof
lights, fixedelements, ventilation and lighting. Optimum column sizes
should be contained within 450 x 450 less finishes and tolerances,
clear ceiling height approx 2400.
Load-bearing stackunits nolonger favoured. Multi-floor 'closed stacks'
inhibit flexibility and require book hoistwith staff captive on each floor.
Large area stackmore flexible; max horizontal distancefrombookshelf
toexit or book elevator approx 33m: may need mech conveyors.
Variation for 'closed stack' sto: compact moveable shelving, of which
most common is 'right angle roller' type. Saves 5O% of floor space
compared with static unitsbut expensiveand creates extrafloorloading.
Space saving of 40% if aisles in static shelving were reduced from900
to 550 wide.
Consider dividing into fr compartments of about 450 m2. Use tempor
smoke detectors, not sprinkler system (causesmore damagethan fire).
Reading/study
Work table of 900 x 600/reader who should sit facing low screen
possiblywith built-in light. Student should have 2.32 m2 (which includes
circulation space), screened on 3 sides(open carrel); research worker
4
MetropolitanTorontolib, largestpublicinCanada,housesover 1.25
million books, one thirdondisplay; spaceforover800readersto studymostly
in arwith some naturallight
key
services
1 information 2gailery 3 synthesis 4eritendedhoursreading 5metroinformation
6newspapers7snacics 8rneeflng 9sto 10 audiovisualservices 11 generalreference& information
centre l2circuiation 13 himstack l4graphics lsbibhographicaicentre16 senidEng&receiving
3.0m2 ormore screened on 4 sides (enclosed carrel).Aimgivesufficient
privacy for mental concentration yet open enough to know if space
occupied and not misused. Lockable cupboardswhere books reserved
there for periods.
In community librariestrend away from formal reading rmtowards small
scattered alcoves and nooks. In university libraries either large reading
rm separated from books stacks or, more commonly in UK, reading
areas round perimeter of stack areas, with further seatingwithin stacks.
Community
147
Libraries
WORKAREAS
Unpacking and despatch, accessions and cataloguing, binding and
repairs, photocopying and typing
Offices
Staff rest rm, lockers, lavatories
Mobile lending service: weather protected off loading,vehicle garaging,
sto for book stock
ANCILLARIES
Studyrmfor reference materials
Typing/photocpy rm
Projection for slides, cine film, microfilm
Exhibition space, chairsf0, rm forgroup meetings
Theatre (film, lecture, music)
Junioractivityareas, groupprojects, story telling
Cloakrooms
Lavatories (locate toavoid use by general public)
Telephones
FLEXIBILITY
Larger the library greater the need for freedom of futurechange with
interchangeability of major stack areas, reading areas, staffareas. Fixed
elements (lavatories,staircases,major services etc) should begrouped.
Best if floors can carry stack loadinganywhere. Consider future expansion and possible effect on primary bldg. Partitionsshould beremovable.
In medium and small community libraries some flexibility desirable
(avoid built-in' fittings); but designer should beware lack of acoustic
separation and loss of identify forareas of different function and mood.
Consider changes oflevel.
FINISHES& SERVICES
Carpet general floor areas except stack and work areas; carpet or
resilient flooring staff side of control; carpet all steps and stairs in quiet
areas; sound absorbent ceilings toallareas. Palecolour floor in stack to
reflectlight tobookson lowest shelves. Book spines highly decorative:
forwallsand columns consider naturalwood/fabric/quiet paint colours.
Underfloor coil orducted warm air heating; at least3airchanges/hr. For
older books and manuscripts hum controlled to 55%. In reading areas
give temp of 20—22°C,USA: 18°C winter 26°C summer; but lending
dept can belowerasmost people wear outdoor clothes (add local heat
in controland otherworkareas).
In larger bldg
provide air conditioning at outset; or at least plan for
futureinstallation, especiallyforrare orvaluable collections (contents of
libraries often cost more than bldg itself). Air conditioning standard in
USA.Avoidentryofdirectsunlight; minimise solar heatgain (unlesscan
be used for heating).
Lighting by fluorescent tubesgenerally butadditional tungsten lighting
to indicate changes of function/environment and to add sparkle and
interest. Emergency lighting also required —Bib1 12.
Artificial lighting en lux—°p225: control/enquiry600lx, reading tables400
Ix in lending, but 600 lx in reference, book stacks 100 Ix on vertical
surfaces, cataloguing and workrrn 400 Ix.
Shelfunitsin lending areas needspecial measures:consider illuminated
canopy projecting about 500 from top of unit with sockets served by
underfloor ductdistribution.
Mm DF—p1 727—9 10% with reflectanceof 80% (wallsand ceilings)and
30% (floors and furniture).
1
Citybranchlib, DurhamEngland,496 m2 17000vol ArchA W Gelson
2
Universitylib en USA Arch Curtis& Davis
148
Community
Libraries
EXAMPLES
a
r
key
1 entrance
2 cIa
3 wc
4 elevator
5 photocopy
6 catalogue
7 issuedesk
8 carrels
9 seminars
10 reference inquiries
11 courtyard
12 cataloguing
13 subject inquiries
14 off
15 librarian
16 deputy librsrian
17 despatch
18 machine rrn
19 stsffrm
20 bookstacks
21 escape fromfloor
above
22 escape stair
if
I
p.
ft,,
=
ct
4+4P
==
23void
ite
13
—42
jfl
1sLllhI1LJ ...HTr\.l
0
10
20
30 m
do
ro
don
PolytechniclibPortsmouth England provides sto formorethan
320000 volumes&3000currentjournalsonopenaccesswith reading
accnfor500 students asecond floor bfirstfloor cgroundfloor Arch
AhrendsBurton & Koralek
2
NathanMarshPuseylibCambridgeMassachusetts USA, an
undergroundsub-dMsionwhichaddsover8000m2 to HarvardCollege
lib, appearsfromoutsideasslantinggrass-covered embankment; lawn,
trees, shrubsgrowinstone-rimmedearthplatform whichformsroof
alevel 1 blevel 2 clevel3 ArchHughStubbins &Associates
1
Libraries references
—*Bibliographyentries 065 073314 323 353 399 437 455471 472 474
476622625641 652
Community
149
Hospitals
HEALTH SERVICESSTRUCTURE
Role and relationship to clientof architect in designing for health care
services affected by nationaldifferences in healthcare structure: wholly
state organised, provided by private resources or organisations or
community, or mixed.
In UK, though some hospitals, homes and clinics
practice) still private, by far greater part, forming
(and local family
bulk of medicoarchitectural practice, now crown property administered by National
Health Service (NHS). Under direction Dept ofHealth & Social Service
(DHSS) or Scottish Home & Health Deptservice organised into 3tiers;
regional, area and healthdistricts. Broad planning,design and construction new bldg falls to regional authorities (RHA: in Scotland area health
boards) while health districts (HD) serving 100000—500000population
have immediate control individual hospitals, clinics and health centres
(HC). NHS in England to be restructured 1982to only 2 tiers: existing
RHAs and new DistrictHealth Authorities (DHA).
Traditionally in USA health care industry much more varied with health
services provided by private, educationaland religious sources, community, state and federal bodies. More recently position modified by
National Health Planning & Resources Development Act 1974 which
greatly increased influence of federal agencies, providing for national
guidelines for health planning and for setting up in each state Health
Service Areas and Health System Agencies: asresult architects's client
more likelybe state agency than individualinstitution.
Despitethesedifferences, and with variations of emphasis, structure of
health services inindustrialcountries essentiallysimilar. Majorelements:
Ambulant patient care: exemplified by group practice or medical
officebldg, local orcommunity clinics, health centres (HC), forming first
contact between medical care and patient.
Small hospitals: range from10—15 beds (UK 'cottage hospitals') upto
100beds,offering basic inpatient services. In UKmost private hospitals
fall within this class.
Community hospitals (UK District General Hospitals(DGH)): mediumsizedto largewith 200—600 inpatientbeds and most orallmajordiagnostic
In USA broad range of material, less organised, available. Sources:
Robert Wood Johnson Foundation(Princeton NJ), sponsors studies on
ambulatory care; Assistant Secretary for Health, Dept of Health &
Human Services (WashingtonDC) for enquiries on all aspects ofhealth
services planning; Kellog Foundation (Battle Creek Mich); American
Hospital Association (Chicago Ill) has extensive reference services;
National Technical Information Services (Springfield Va).
PLANNING& DESIGN
Hospitals an amalgam of components, some simple, some extremely
complex: each has time scale whichcovers useful design life, iebefore
it needs eithermajor alterationsorreplacement. Bycarefulplanning and
design components with similar characteristicscan begrouped together
so as to be adjacent to both thosethey serveand thosewith similar
structural and service characteristicsand lifespans.
Largeor medium hospital complex includes not only patient accnand
medical/technical installations but large admin section —p179—80,
electro-mech plant and engineeringservices, laboratoriesand pharmacy
—p1 76 177, library p177, industrial installations for food services and
laundry—p180, supply, service and disposal (sometimes in separate
complex), lecturehalls, staff hostels and restaurants,carparks.
Hospital essentiallydivided into2 main units: inpatientcare and outpatient
care; further essential units; diagnosis and treatment, admin; frequent
additional unit: education and research. In early planning relationship
between thesesignificant; diagnosis and treatment appearsas linking
function—(1)(2). Ideally these would all occuron 1 plane; however
muchsite and other organisational factors impose multi-storey design
easeof lateral movement remains prime consideration.
Before designer puts pen to paperbrief must be prepared explaining
operational policies ofhospital, with description ofactivities tobecarried
out and resources required to do this efficiently. Successful design
relies on effective and detailed brief: preparation must be joint venture
between hospital usersand architect with hisdesign team.
and treatment specialties. Also provide some teaching for med,
nursingand para-medstaff.Also providespecialistsupport forHC—4p181.
Tertiary or teaching hospitals: usually have 600—1 000 beds, house
not only all basic services but sophisticated specialties. Most provide
teaching formed students, nursingand para-medstaffand post-graduate
training and research.
Longstay: for elderly, chronically sick, children, psychiatric patients
and some otherspecial purposes p158 162—3 164.
In relation to all these, continuing change of emphasis; general trend
now shorter stay in hospitals, increase in specialist dept and services,
greaterstress on outpatienttreatmentandambulantcare,anddevelopment
ofsuchlocal services as health centres and clinics.
In manydeveloping countries pattern and orderofpriority different, with
greater stress on provisionoflocal unitsforessentialpreventivemedicine
campaigns and techniques.
Building regulations
Whereas in UK nationalbldg reg apply tonewand upgraded healthbldg
inUSAfederal, state and local codesand standardsmust beconsulted.
1
Hospitalsectors: diagram of relationships
INFORMATIONSOURCES
In UK DHSS provides design information on specific areas, services
and eqp: published as DesignGuides; BuildingNotes (HBN), Equipment
Notes (HEN) and Technical Memoranda (HTM); tendency now to provide more comprehensive and detailed information on Activity Data
Sheets (ADB). Known as 'Red Pack', as yet incomplete, ADB sheets
contained in 8 volumes divided into categories: 'A' describe activity
space and list eqp required, together with appropriate physical and
environmental standards; 'B' contain diagrams of individual pieces of
eqp. 'A' sheets offer choice: decision rests with planningteam. Sheets
not computerised, have tobe collated manually.
Other material is available fromsuch sources as King EdwardVII Fund
for Hospitals in London, Nuffield Foundation, and SHHD and Central
Services Agency (CSA); former Scottish Hospital Centre (SHC)
produced small practical information sheets based on full-sized mockups of hospital rm. RHA, Welsh Technical Service and DHSS(NI) also
produce guidance material.
2 Hospitalsectorsdiagramimposed onoutlineofNewYorkUSA Hospital:
d&t = diagnosis&treatment
150 Community
Hospita/s
MODULARDESIGN
•SS...
Both in USA and UK pressure to contain costs encourages use of
modular systems design —(1 )—(4). DHHS in UK sponsored range of
standard designs for whole hospital:
'Harness'method
Range of dept based on common design module of 15 m selected as
required to meetoperational needs and grouped in correctfunctional
relationship to Harnesszone'of communicationsand services.
'Nucleus'
Evolved from Harness, Nucleus provides initial 300-bed serviced unit
withinphased development.
Typical harness'developmentplanforDGH
1
'Best buy'
Standard hospital design providing complete packagefor600-bed DGH.
TIME SCALES FORHOSPITALPLANNING
Multi-professional project teams make lengthy briefing, feasibility and
sketchdesign stages inevitable; inception of project tocommissioning
can take 10—20 years: as resultmany new hospitals considered by
users outdated. To shorten pre-contract stage as much as possible
architect should produce carefully preparedtime-scale networks and
have theseagreed byteam before workstarted.
Once bldg handed over users should be given complete commissioning manual containing description of how bldg intended be used.
Instructions should be given for use and maintenance; where possible
full manufacturers' information should be included. Manual should be
compiled asworkproceeds; this cando much toaccelerateprogramme
and reducecriticisms made by users.
2 a& bTypicalDGH:York England DistrictHospital 800-B
Arch Uewellyn-DaviesWeeksForestier-Walker &Bor +YRHA
rn
LJJJ
1
El
ground floor
phase 1
(nucleus)
754
16
6
3
Typical'nucleus' DGH:MaidstoneEnglandDistrictHospital
Arch Powell,Moya &partners+ SETRHA
2 3: 1 main entrance 2 industrial
residentstaff 6geriatricdayP 7 physical med 8psychiatric dayP
9mortuary 10k 11 residences12 parking l3wards l4acbi,in 15x-ray
16outpatients 17operatingtheatres 18isolation
Key to 1
3 A & E 4 pharmacy5 non-
4 aDiagramof 16modularunitswithairducts&el/mechserviceshafts for
ArmstrongHospital Kittaning PaUSA b 1 modular unitwith el/rnechservice
shaft
Community
6 sub-compartments
exit
I 750m2
I
I
I
0
Ii
ff1
II
750m2 I
0
1
Hospitals
MEANS OF ESCAPE, FIRE PROTECTION, HAZARDOUS
MATERIALS
exit
750m2
I
II
Compartments&sub-compartments
ments; system makes possiblemovepatientsshortdistances,ifnecessary
in beds,to section sealed offbyfire door from smoke orfire in adjoining
section.
f
-
'
Most bldg reg contain clauses on mm allowable distances between
adjacent bldg and type ofconstruction acceptable to resist fire for given
periodsoftime; some statedistances andconditions forescaperoutes.
Up to 2 hours needed evacuate 600 patients from 2-storey, 4 hours
from 11-storey bldg: exhausting exercise for rescuers. All health bldg
whichcontain high proportionof bedfast,disabledand confused patients
should below rise, preferably withpatients restrictedto ground and first
floors. High rise bldg should be confined to sites where no other
solution possible. Because of theirspecial problems health bldg in UK
nowhave own more stringent fire safety measuresbasedonfrcompart-
2 compartments
1
151
protected route
32m
1
32m
=
,-= =-,
dual
direction
0
—
single
direction
s—
d
in
m
L64
——
Design guidance on size offire compartments and sub-compartments,
togetherwith max acceptable lengthsofescaperoutes in wards, operatingtheatres, lab etc,canbefound inofficial literature(—Bib216218219).
As general guidefollowing apply:
Are compartments—.(1)(2)(3)(4)
UK reg (USA —p152):
1-storey bldg must notexceed 3000 m2
Multi-storey bldg mustnot exceed 2000m2
Horizontal distance toalternative routes must notexceed 64 m
Horizontal distance in single direction to exit must not exceed 15 m
Travel distance within escape stairway must not exceed 45 m along
going
Pposition
Firesub-compartments (patient areas)
2
l
wards 3 m
others 1 m
I
handrail
3
Floor area must not exceed 750m2
Horizontal distance toalternative routes must notexceed 32 m
Horizontal distance tosingle directional exit must notexceed 15 m
Max occupancy 40patients
Traveldistancesforwards
T
Hazardous materials
Some eqp and substances used in examining, diagnosing and treating
patients radioactive, explosive or highly inflammable.Take everycare
checkthatwhere thesesubstances used design,construction, detailing
and service installationscomply with specific statutes and reg.
doors to openin
Onfiresafelyandhazardousmaterialsconsult official publications
andhealth authority concernedbefore makingany decisions.
j
950mm1
j
'1 95omin'T'
protectedlo
tostoreys
above18m
Escapestair dimensions
45m max travel
'
.</iistancealong
2 m clear
-- --
726
4
1
i
Verticaltravel distanceon
escapestairs
dl:fordouble carbanks
•Ild2:forsinglecarbank
Belevators
dl = 5/2—3 x liftcardepth
d2=3/2 x lift car depth
6
forO—25P
for26—60P
too Lfor61_2o0P
800
-
Bed elevators&P elevators
sao
Jfor2oi+P&
perlOOP Tdoloors
—
5
Size ofescapedoors
u
jI
!
Pelevators
d3 =determinedbytrafficpeak
I
7
2670
cardeptti
Bedelevator:detail
I
'I' 1'
dlord2
152
Community
Hospita/s
MEANS OF ESCAPE (cont)
Typical USA requirements given —(1)—(4). For each design project
necessary consult details of relevant state and local codes.
Traveldistancetoexits
*these
distancesorarmayvary indifferentbldg codes &canfrequentlybe
1
lengthenedin bldgequippedwithautomaticfireextinguishingsystems
2 Corrwalls:corrshall beseparatedfromallotherarbypartitionswhich
shall extendfull Ii fromfloortounderside ofrooforfloor slab above;vision
panels incorrwallspermittedwithwire glass:sizeofpanels limited unless
wholebldg protectedbyautomaticextinguishingsystem; interiorstud
partitionsmust befirestoppedtopreventfirespreadboth horizontally &
vertically
4
Subdivisionoffloors:floorsusedforsleepingortreatmentofmorethan50
patientsmust besub-dMdedbysmokepartitions andshall bedividedinto
compartmentsnotmorethan2090m2 inar;maxIorwofcompartments 45.7
m*; corr doorsinsmokepartititions shallbeoppositeswinging pair;doorsshall
havewire glass vision panels; ductswhich penetrate smokebarriersshall
mustbefirestoppedto preventfirespreadbothhorizontally&vertically
have
dampers
*these
distancesorarmayvary indifferent bldg codes; traveldistancescan
frequentlybelengthened in bldgequippedwithautomaticfireextinguishing
systems
—corrmust provide
access to at least
2 exits
largerrm
morethan 92m2*
require 2exits
notmore
than
9000*
3 Arrangementofexits:allpatientsleepingrmshallhaveexit doorleading
directlytoexit corrwhich shallbeat least2440 win hospitals;rmlargerthan
93 shall haveat least2remoteexits; exitcorrshall leadtoatleast2
m
exits;deadend corrshall notexceed9000
*approved
these distancesorarmayvary indifferentbldgcodes; traveldistancescan
frequentlybelengthenedinbldg equippedwithautomaticfire extinguishing
systems
5 Typesoffire detectorsaphotoelectricrespond tovisiblesmoke,workon
obstructionprinciple(risingsmoke tendsobscurelightbeam&soundsalarm)
bthermalrespond toheat energy cinfra-redrespond toflame dionisation
respondtoinvisiblecombustion products
Community
153
Hospitals
DESIGN/BUILDINGCONFIGURATIONS
-.
ii;)
heating&cooling
Ideal hospital design combines clear and simple traffic configuration
with ability expand bed units and service base in future, growth and
change withinhospital structure being continuous. Beds do not always
increase in same ratio as service programmes but each must contain
masterplan ofdirection. Bldg donotoccupymajorpart hospitalgrounds;
parking (1 I/2_2car/B)and multiple entrycreate larger land use.
;7
Broadlyhospital bldg made up of2parts: base and bedconfigurations.
Baseconcepts
Base services fall into 2 categories: ancillary services orientated to
patient care and service dept suchas sto, laundry,dietary, housekeeping.
These 2elements canbecombined in 1 basestructureorbeindependent.
Different fire-rated enclosures may determine approach.
Bed concepts
Design should meet nursing concept of optimum organisation and
staffing. B/staffing team usually 20—30 patients. Mix of private and
semi-private rm also contributes to bed design. Mm USA Health Dept
standards alsohave controlling effect. Specialty and intensive care units
have lower bed ratio; long term may containmore than 30 beds. Modular
nature of bed design may conflict with structure of base. Concept of
using long span trusses as mech-el route between hospital floorshas
developed. Question of additional initial cost as against life of bldg
flexibility mustbe considered foreach project.
By USA standards correct ratio beds to base for community hospital
approx37—46m2/B fornursing unitsand 46—56 m2/B forbase. Teaching
hospital may range up to 140 m2/B, with university programmes and
children'shospitals high as 185 m2/B.
datprncessirig
.i
auxiiiary
N
0 100 200ft
30 6o m
personneil
"'-'J LI \J (I..
nursingunits
diagnostic& treatmentservices
(includingciincs,etc)
[J
[j
admit,& pubiican
supportservices
Relationshipsbetweenmajordept at proposedmedicalcentreTucson
USA Arch Perkins& Will
1
0
7 14 21 28m
25 50 75 lOOft
2
Master planTempleUniversityHospital
PhiladelphiaUSA Arch Perkins&Will
3
Relationshipsbetweenpatientcare &support
services&betweenbldg &site
154 Community
Hospitals
WARD DESIGN: GENERAL
Outlooks on ward sizes subjectrapid change. Main recent trend away
fromclassical ward types(eg 'Nightingale': 12-Bopenward withnurses
desk at 1 end; 'Rigs': 24-B with nursing rm outside ward, beds set in
clusters); preference nowfor2—4 B. Despite this strong preference still
controversial: very small wards giveprivacy and in theory more personal
attention but can also be lonely, less often visited; ie society and staff
supervision possibly better in larger ward. Patients need audio and
visual privacy during med visits. Background noise and bed curtains
provide some in large ward but lights disturb at night; small wards
peaceful for resting patient butdo notprovide audio-privacy.
In USAmostcodesnow give max 4-B/rmand design standards usually
followed maintain mixof2-Band 1-B. In UK small rm also common; but
wardsmay consist ofmixofdifferent size rm—acute wards below.
Avstayinhospital foracute med orsurgery hasfallen, eg: major surgery
10—12 days, minor2—3 days, max 6 weeks (mainly orthopedic). Wards
forthesepurposes therefore designed formax efficiencyofstaffworking.
Forphysically and mentally handicappedand elderly —'longstay' —ward
design moredomestic and social —pl58 162 163.
Key problem ofdesign for efficient ward system: relationship of nurse
workingrmtopatientrm.Basic concept—3(1).
WARD DESIGN:ACUTE
Acute wards contain 24—30 beds; where possible should be linked
togetherto form admin unit of 2 or 4 wards, whichalso enables such
serviceasdayareas,doctors rm, disposal rm, stoetcbeshared between
2 wards; but check against fire reg before design decision made.
Possible breakdown of bed areasfor28-bed mixed sex wards include:
3 x 8-B rm + 4 x 1-B rm
4 x 6-B rm + 4 x 1-B rm
2x 12-Brm+4x1-Brm
Mostacutemed and surgical wards can be mixed-sex, argumentbeing
that itincreases bed occupancy. 1-B wards needed maintainoccupancy
atmax of85% orabove: 1-Balso required for patientsliable toinfection,
orto infect others, thoseseriously ill or dying and thoselikelyto disturb
others. Mixed-sex ward may not be acceptable to all users: check
before designing onthis basis.
Walking distance: keep walking distancesshortas possible for nurses
and ambulant patient. Maxdistance frombed towc12mand fromnurse
workingrmto furthest bedapprox 20 m.
Observation: continuous observation of patient by staff essential part
of nursingcare:during day achieved mainly in course ofwalking from 1
duty to another, at nightfromnurses station.Good design aim: 50% of
beds to be visiblefrom nurses station. Patients gain confidence from
seeing staff at work, dead-leg wards not popular forthis reason; if staff
have no duty perform less likelyvisit ward.
Control: patients, particularlychildren, adolescents and confused, need
to be controlled; dayr must not be too isolated from rest of ward.
Mixed-sexwards have own control problems. Staff need to control
visitorsandcheckthat theydo not overtire patients.
Noise: problem in large open areas; telephones and other eland mech
eqp can be noisier than acceptable. Design for40—45 dB by day and
35—40dB at night inmulti-B wards; 1-B wards should be35—40 dBatall
times. Courtyard designs can create problems of noise fromadjacent
windowstodifferent rm.
Daylight &glarewindows —p4O3—6 should notcause glare—p32 398
in bedfastpatients' eyes; beds should be parallelto windows unless
brise-soleil, external or between-glass blinds or similar devices fitted.
Windows design important:confused patientsmay try getout; allopening
lightsshould have device restricting accessible opening to 100.
Ventilation: mech ventilation often noisyand unsatisfactory, full airconditioning expensive install and run. Normal sites away from air or
trafficnoiseshould relyonnatural ventilation; 3 beds deepfromwindow
max before mech ventilation required. Central work rm require mech
ventilation and sufferfromheat build-up insummer.
Nurse call systems, closed circuit television (CCTV): Devices of
various gradesofsophistication; all liable to abuseorfailure. Seriously ill
patients cannot operate call systems therefore unwise rely on these
rather than personal observation; acceptable asauxiliary system.
ACUTEWARD: SUGGESTED AREAS
1-Brm
I®
r•
•
I_
option
nursing
sub-station
A control access&egress to unit
B access&visualobsefvationtoP
C Convenientaccesstosupport activities
1
Diagramofnursing/Prmrelationship
I
:•
B
lOOm2
multi-Bbay (per B)
dayr (perB)
9.3—10.0 m2
0.75m2
lockersetc (per B)
0.5—1.0 m2
nurse station
clean utility
dirtyutility& sluice
10.2—18.0 m2
14.0—16.0 m2
treatmentrm
14.0—16.0 m2
assisted bathr
sistersrm
doctorsrm
bathr
washing & sho
compartment
wc with handrinse
basin
10.25—12.0 m2
7.0—9.0 m2
7.0—9.0m2
ptr
ward k
flowerbay
cleaner
sto (inclargeeqp)
interview rm &
overnightstay
circulation ar
4.0—10.0m2
7.0m2
2.75 m2
2.0—3.0m2
4.0—6.0m2
20.0 m2
2.0—2.5m2
5.0—8.0m2
12.0—20.0m2
excluding wc& sho
depending on amount of
day space provided in
wards orasseparateday
space: separate 10.0 m2
extra space forlockers
etc
depending on position
ofdrug, linenbaysetc
ifseparatear = 9 +
7m
m
depending onsto
provided
forambulant patients
forambulant P
max for wheelchair P
beverage &snack point
only
for ward k service
mm
may be shared with
another ward
10.0—12.0 m2
25%—40%
depends onward layout
Community
155
Hospitals
BASICWARD TYPES
Linearward—(1)
In past wardsdesigned on linear form: large single space, 20—30 beds
supported by nurse working rm at one end, sluices and wc at other,
quite often largework table middle of ward. Main ward or wards and
majority of spaces naturally lit and ventilated. Observation of patients
good; patients had little or nochance offeeling neglected. Background
noise problem butto someextent this gave greater privacy than in4-or
6-Bwards. Since 1950's different shapes have been used (also modifications oflinearasat Guy's HospitalLondon).
Deep wardor race track—(2)
1
Guy's HospitalLondon typicalwardfloor,2 x 27 B ArchWatkinsGray
International
centre
Design concept developed in late 1950's, complete contrast to linear:
patients share nothing larger than 4-bed ward. Observation goodso
long asenough nurses tomove round ward. Racetrack design prevents
dead-legs where patients could feel neglected. Background noise reduced but as resultaudio-privacy for consultations not so goodas in
largelinear. Wards placed on outside walls, naturally litand ventilated;
nurse working rm form central core, need artificial light and mech
ventilation.
Courtyardplan—(3)(4)
Courtyard plan (harness, nucleus —pi50) attempts reduce internal
working rm and providegoodpatient observation. Success of this type
depends on amount ofdaylight available and degree ofprivacy obtainable. All wardshave somedaylight but some mech ventilation may be
necessary.
Falkirk ward;experimental, resulting fromstudiescarriedout bySHHD;
built mid-i950's,2 x 30B; first& second floors
2
4 Typical 'nucleus'ward,2 x 28B
0
5
10
15
15
30
45
20m
60 ft
-v
hr
14
11
H
I L1J2
___ iEJ L
Sm
9
20ft
5 Typical nursingfloor (48-B)AnneArundelGeneralHospital Annapolis
USA Arch Metcalf&Associates
10
3
Typical'harness'ward; 72-Bunitwith 3staffbases 1 wc 2sho 34-B 4
5-B 5b 6treatment 7basecleanutility 8dirtyutility 9sister 101-B
11 day/dining 12 3-B
l3sto 14visitors 15supplies
156 Community
Hospita/s
NURSEWORKINGROOMS
p156—7 show layout, dimensions and eqp required for main nurse
working rm in standard ward. Variationsin size and shape ofrm may be
dictated byward plan, butworkpattern and critical clearworking spaces
round beds and othereqpshould be maintained.
800mm
7200 (6-BI
T
4800 (4-B)
I
for4-Bwaid
1 4-or6-B ward, 8.4m2&8m2/B: optimumprivacy,eachP having wallon
one side; Bparalleltowindowto reduceglare;curtainsgive eachBvisual
privacybutcentreBhasless;max 3-B depthbeforeartificiallighting&
ventilationrequired
I4
Dirtyutilityrm, 14m°,equippedfordisposablebedpans: ifnon-disposable
used washerreplaces destructor,nodisposable sto needed 1 rackfor
bedpancradles 2slop sk&drainer 3bedpandestructor 4spacefor
disposablebedpan box 5disposal bag 6hbunit 7spacefordisposable
bedpan &urinal boxes 8spacefordisposal bags 9wastedisposalbag
10urinetest cabinet 11 sk&worktop,cpd under 12sanichair
dangerous
drugs
a
[thj
slidingdoor
external
LJ-
Dbctier
:f::f:f:.:.J
Dtha
1
ce
=
1
observation
externalwet
railfor
1-BwardssuitableforPliabletoinfection ortoinfectothers: a13m2with
sho &wc, also suitableforotherPneedingspecialattention 12.34m2 with
we, orcouldbewithoutweforbedfastPdying, needing specialattentionor
likelytodisturbothers;NB 1-Bwardsforsenouslyillmustbeclosetonurses
b
Sb
with
drainers
paper
towels
disposalbin
T-
L:I
•
3 .—,
b
1
window
J
el
:
T;ine
poene
MJ'3
5400
5 Cleanutilityorpreparationrm, 24.3m2; small dressing trolleys(carts)
2560
T
replacetraditionalfixedworktops,considered superfluous;linenstoredon
adjustableshelving&toppedupto agreed level; no linentrolleyrequiredfor
clean linen
c,,l
3
Id1!
positionofdisposalaradjoining
Iii
3200
station
E[i I I
450x450
L
2
i
depenserwithdrawer towel
& scheduin
Smallward pantry,5.5m:forbeverages & snacks only
6
Medicinetrolley (cart)chainedto
wallwhennotin use
Community 157
Hospitals
NURSEWORKINGROOMS
2x900 leaves
rnanoeuvnngfrom
straighf corrthroughdoorway
1
Doors&screensinwardcorr
r
-
-L
I
I
-i
.
I_
solidorgiazed
panelsifrequired
sohdorglazed
panelsifrequired
t
——
jIeoo j
I
700
900
2=
500
4
Mm
corrwfor manoeuvring B
-
T
900
double-leaf
single-leaf
2 Standarddoor sizes forhospitals: wherehigh/lowB used standard 2050
doorsIi enoughtoallowthroughBwith balkan beams;mm doorwfor
wheelchair800, preferred900
clock nursecall
indicalor
fire alarmbell
Princess Grace Hospital London
Small 136-bed hospital for private patients, majority from overseas.
Visiting consultants and surgeons diagnose and treat patients; permanently employed nursesand support staff.Added needtoattractpatients
by providing 1-B wards of domestic character and comfortable proportions (17 m2)with integral bathr, but as with NHS hospitals, prime
importance to design best possible environment for diagnosing and
treating patients.
9
3
Fittingsinward corr
5
5
P
3b
1
5
m
6Toft
PrincessGraceHospital22-Bwardunit: privatehospital Arch RSeifert
& Partners
158 Community
Hospitals
2 types;forassessment ofelderly, for long term care.
For assessment patients normally housed in adaptation of standard
acute ward withinDGH, because accesstofulldiagnostic and treatment
DATA FOR DESIGNINGWARDS:GERIATRIC
services needed.
For long-term patients (assessed and found to be in needoflong-term
care) aim to provide homely environment in which basic nursing care
can take place;emphasis on earlyambulationand rehabilitation—vpl 62.
Oftenin separate bldg on hospital campus, within easyreach ofdiagnostic and treatmentservices.
curtainrail
curtainon3
sidesofbed
ht
Dedhead
1700
In UK shortage ofgeriatric beds partially overcome byupgrading some
wards inolderhospitals (upgradingwards—vpl 65). Fordetailsofgeriatric
bedhead
bectiesdunit
thermometer
oo
14801
1000min
—
med gas outlets
-
bathrandwc—vp163.
1300
Bboilers
700h
v——i
I
ingsFunc
I
B
2x200 w
4-500-
1A
ti
95Owide
1?
200
01.I
1650
dotheshooh
B
—B
Phclst980X880
2050+550forbedstripper
shelf
a
1
1100 towefraji
Multi-Bward: eqp & fittingsinBar
D
1500
.hb
c--i_papertoweldispenser
suapdispenser
4
grabriel
-
100
geriatricb
——
685
•
j:
230clearanceundertap
C
Ba hr
1300
I
I
I
854
clotheshook
865 i7tlsforchildrenor
1300LT#J__
—
—-
duct 190v60
:
—
papersack
——
—
1100
adjustable light
Staff hb unit inwards, nurseworkingaretc
shed
bedpanred
unnetestcanet
1111111
3
-i
med
x330
bedpanwasher
gases2400
'T
1650
diet
l
1800
1200
droppedfrontsuitableforwtteelchanP
5 Shoar
7
x-rayviewer noticeboard
6
receiver
notetakuigdesk
300
4lousIooe
80
x300
1
1300
IllOOforseated 1000
viewer
Dirtyulilityar
6 Pwa unit (notstandard)
7 Nursesstation
syringedispenser
B Cleanutilityorpreparationar(dda= Dangerous
Drugs Acts)
I
grabrid
I1
nursecalletc
1
1549
Community
159
Hospitals
DATA FOR DESIGNINGWARDS(cont)
580
350..
typicalbedside lockers
3
KingsFundB:2080x910x380—810h
high/low B withpull-Outbedstripper
/
I
_______
IL
'.
'4
t
4 Orthopedicfractureframe: B
maybemovedthroughdoors
x558+230space
overbedtableforhigh/low B
completewith frame
Clinimaticdisposablebedpandestructor:
dryweight110 kgmax capacity 1351
Childrenscot: 1 370 x 760 x
610 + 69ohsides
5
drip stand
attachment
DHSSstandard
controlled
drug cpd
1
Typicalward eqp
6
7
Typicalincubator
Bassinetteforinfants
2 Geriatricassessment ward
(upgradedNightingaleward);one
problemofelderlyistoremain
continent:exampleshowshow
walking distancefromfurthestB
reducedfrom30m to8m &dayarfor
rehabilitation,dining &quiet
pursuitsprovided;B reduced from
28to22&wc increasedfrom4to8;
dayar2.252P 11-B2multiB rm 3disposal 5b (freestanding)
6preparationrm 7hb 8sluice
9wc 10k 11 staff clo/wc&hb
12 specialbathr/cleansingar
l4eqpsto l5dayar l6quietar
17dining ar 18 nursesstation
19 DSR 22linen sto 23wheelchair
sto 24sanichairsto 26sister
27staff rm 29 switchgear!
calorifiersetc 31 Pclothingsto
33 lecturerm 38sho 39special
couch 42doctor 44stainless steel
skwith layingshelf 45lalptr
46free-standingbidet/wc
10
3
20
60
3Dm
90ft
160
Community
Hospitals
MATERNITY
DV1F
Units normally attached to DGH or community hospital. Allow 0.5 B/
1 000 total population; 75bedscater for2700deliveries/year, 100 beds
for 3600 and 125 for 4500. Maternity clinics include ante-natal, postnatal, baby follow-up and family planning. Most units require normal
backup for reception, admin, including records, and provision for
education. In USAtrend toset delivery suitealongside surgery suiteor
L
risi I
Combinedfirststage&deliveryrm, 14.46m2 1 caps&masks 2baby
cot 3tray 4trolley(cart) 5singlebowlstand 6scrub—uphb 7sack&stand
8heatingpanel 9obstetricB 10chair 11 slidingdoor 12writingshelf
13 bedsidelocker 14 timeelapseclock 15oxygen suction, child 16sto
rack 17dispensers 18curtain 19 coathook 20spotlight21 drip poleon
wallhook 22wallthermometer 23clock 24observationpanel 25sphygniomanometer 26oxygensuction, mother 27bedhead panel 28cup&
flask 29overbedtray 30towel rail 31 footstool 32 analgesia trolley
33 overbedlight
1
integrate with it.
Deliverysuite includes: theatre, abnormal and normal delivery rm and
assessment area. For 125 beds allow 17 normal first stage delivery rm,
10 observation beds, 4 abnormal delivery rm and 1 operating theatre.
Obstetric theatre suite: theatre (28 m2)with full mech ventilation, hum
and coolingcontrol and antistatic flooring, oxygen and nitrous oxide and
2 vacuum points for mother, vacuum and oxygen for baby; scruband
gowningareas (9.5 ml, anaesthetic rm (16.5 m2),recovery bedsfor 2
patients (25 ml and clean utility (8.5 ml. All delivery rm require
pleasant daylit environment with privacy (blinds to windows), good
lighting for suturing, sound attenuation, anti-static precautions, med
gas, oxygen and vacuum outlets, and mech ventilation with hum and
cooling installations. Abnormal delivery rm (24 m2 plus scrubarea 1 .5
m2). Normal delivery rm (15 ml: 2 of these should be quiet with
blackout eqp. Combined first stage/delivery rm —+(1) enables patient
stay in 1 place throughout labour, herfirstmove being topost-natalward
afternormal recovery period: provide 1 oftheserm to 5 post-natalbeds.
Assessment area: 20% beds should be in 1-bedwards (13 m2)with
oxygen outletat bedhead, remaining 80% in multi-bed bays (9.5 m2/
bed) with oxygen outletto each pair of beds.
Ancillary accn: sto, milk kitchen (14 ml and flyingsquad sto (7.5 ml —
whichmay be in accident &emergency dept(A&E).
30-cotspecial care baby unit (SCBU) attached tothis number ofbeds
requires 22 multi-cot bays (4 m2/cot), 7 single-cot rm (5.5 ml and 1
special-cot rm ((7.5 ml; 20 cots considered mm size for viable unit.
Entrance to SCBU must include gowning and handwash areas for
visitors, and changing accn for staff: female, 11—14 m2 male 7.5 m2.
Bedsitting rm for mothers with sho and wc—(2).
25
L1716
Mother&child rm, 16.32m2 1 wa 2visitorchair 3window(curtainsor
blind) 4mother's bedlamp 5cantilevertable 6drawerunitunder
7mother'sB8curtaintrack gchild'scot looverbedceilinglight 11 twin
socketoutlet 12oxygen&suction 13locker 14childchair 15toybox
16wastesack 17hb 18toweldispenser 19towel rail 20shelves 21 wc
22baby bath 23mirror 24glazedpanel (withblindorcurtains) 25sliding
door 26sho
2
1365m2
w__
_____
2671712
21
9
9
18
16
1
96
9
10
20
64
30
96
4pm
1286
3 Obstetricdept Easthourne
EnglandDGH:
Adelivery suite Bmatemityward
1 wr 2seminar 3staff changing:
afemale bmale 4dayr 5first
stage rm 6multi-purpose 7wc 8b
9 lab 10 abnormaldelivery
11 trolley(cart) &wheelchairs
12 ovemightstay 13dirty utility
l4exam l5ptr l6doctor
17 nursesstation 18chargenurse
19 cleansupply 20anaesthetic510
21 dirtyutility 22transferar 234-B
241-B 256-cot 26assistedb
27dirtylinen 286incubators29k
30 centralmilk k 31 demonstration
32 obstetrictutor 33nurseadmin
34 reception 35sb 36mobile x-ray
37 1-B toxaemia Arch SETRHA
Community
161
Hospitals
PAEDIATRIC& CHILDRENSWARDS
o
1
20-Bchildrensward Arch NuffleldFoundation
3 6 9 12
,1 ,1rn
9 18 27 36 ft
division forarchitectural
studies
3
Diagnosiscentreforschoolagechildren,convertedfromoutmodedarof
olderhospitalinJerseyCityUSA; existingcourtyard used asplay rrn &
receptionar;sequenceofrmprovidesboth range ofhealthtests&educational
programme Arch HillierGroup
a
WestMiddlesexHospital
b
2 West MiddlesexHospital England apaediatric/infantsward
bpaediatric/children'sward A4-B/4-cot ward Al 4-B —staff B 1-B/i-cot
ward Cwash/wc Dbathr Enursesstation Fcleanutility Gtreatmentrm
H dirty utility/sluice Idisposallift Jptr Ktrolley(cart)bay Lsto
M 2-B/mother& babyrm Ml clinicalmi—staff Nsistersrm 0doctorsrm
Pconsult rm 0secretariesoff A playground P1 milkk 01 mothers si
R1 relativesrm Sstaffdo clinicalrm Uelevators Vpaternosterelevators
& stairs Wplay ar Xcleanersrm Yclassr Zadmission rm Arch Robert
I
MatthewJohnson-Marshall
Both wards—(2a,b) adaptedfrom standard,partof5-storey high system
bldg. Paediatric/children's ward—(2b)contains2 x 4-Bwards, 6 x 1-B
wards, 2 with wc and bath attached, and 3 x 2-B wards which can be
used eitherfor mother and child orfor2 patients. Classr forchildren in
hospital for several weeks but fit enough attend classes, eg child with
brokenlimb.Away fromward, areawith adjacenttoysto where boisterous
childrenencouraged play. Protected openair play area also provided.
Paediatric/infants' ward —+(2a) has 8 x 1-cotwards each fitted with
babybath and 4mother and baby rmeach capableoftaking full-size bed
and child's bed ifnecessary. Playspace provided togetherwith protected
open air area. Milk kitchen provides for heated baby feeds and baby
bottlewashing: dailythroughput 240 x 0.25 I milk, of which two-thirds
kept under refrigeration; extrasto required to keep milk over public
holidayperiods.
162
Community
Hospita/s
LONG STAYWARDS
Long staywards forelderly and infirm mustbesited near publictransport
for easyvisitingby relatives, often elderly themselves: need accessto
diagnostic and treatment services, sowherever possible should be built
on samedevelopment as DGH (community hospital) or be grouped
togetherto beable tosupport own services.
Patients could easilybecome institutionalised in wrong environment:
Mentally handicapped often also physically handicapped may also be
noisy, aggressive, overactive and selfdestructive. Particularlyimportant
that furnishings besoft, spongeable and durable forthese patients, and
that ceilings have sound absorbent finish.
Importantprovide variety ofspaces for social meetings betweenpatients
andvisitorsandbetween patients, and forsmall group chats orgames or
largergroupactivities (corralcoves, small separate rm). Dining arrangements also important forproviding social and domestic atmosphere.
1
accent on self-help and rehabilitationin setting aslikehome environment
as possible withoutimpairing quality of nursing care. Patients require
sleeping areas whichcan identify as own, and must have ready access
to personal belongings. Wc and washing places must be near to both
sleeping and dayareas. Design ofdayareas should allow patientsfollow
therapeutic routine enabling themcare for themselves and if possible
return home to receive necessary community care either atday centre
orbydomiciliary visits.
Clear marking
of rm, corr, elevators essential;
colour coding helps
Psychiatric wards —p164
Longstay patients highlydependenton staffin cases of emergency: vital fire escaperoutes be easily identified, fire stopdoors
have automatic doorclosersconnectedalarmsystem and fabrics
andfinishesfr.
Elevatorlevel coding
system usingcolours&
numbers;helpfultoP
with sensorydefects;
raisednumeralsaid
near-sightedorblind
Nowfew completely bedfast patients needing bedpans and bed baths
during day: majority will be taken to wc and bathr even if incapable of
attending tothemselves —*pl63(2)—(7). Becauseincontinenceprevalent
extrawc required aidtraining (maxdistance fromfurthest bed orcorner
ofday area: 10m). Where space limited omit treatment rmand replace
by cleansing rm with bath or wc each with thermostatically controlled
sho handset —*pl63(2). Wc,sluices and cleansingrmmust have efficient
mech extractventilation. Small utility rm with washing machine and
clothesdrier needed forpatients' clothes.
Provide extrasto space for wheelchairs, walking aids and sanichairs,
and for greatersupply of linen, incontinence pads and, where used,
disposable bedpans and urinals.Cpdalso requiredforpatients' suitcases
and clothesnot in current use, and foroccupationaltherapy eqp.
All floorfinishesshould be soft, non-slip and washable: plastics flooring
with welded joints suitable for wc, bathr and all nurse working areas.
Carpetsmay be used in wards and dayr where number of incontinent
patients limited. Patients can be confused and if allowed go outside
more easilycontrolled in courtyards than in open hospital grounds. All
doors wide enough for wheelchairs —*p86; fire stop doors should be
held in openposition byautomatic fail-safe devices foreasymovement
of patients in wheelchairs or using walking aids.
Termgeriatric —p158 generally used to describe those over 65 years
who developseveral med problems at once and who may also suffer
impaired mobility and be incontinent.
2
3 GenatricDay Hospital WaltononThamesEngland: 35 Ponbasisof5-day
week;includesPassessment, med,para-rned,nursingprocedures,
occupational&physiotherapy, traininginaids fordisabled&domestic
routines 1 mainentrance 2reception 3do 4 interview 5speech, dentist,
optician, 6 hair,chiropodist 7 sto 8off 9 individual therapy; physiotherapy
4 HostelaccnforP returning to hospital forrehabilitation courses(amputees
&other physicallyhandicappedP) 1 group dayr 2fireescape stair
3 bathr 4sh 5wc 6wheelchairbay 7ptr 8sto 9doctorsrm 10sister
duties 10grouptherapy;physical exercisesar 11 occupational therapy dr
l2court l3dr l4dr&wr l5wr 16k&servery l7dailylMngunitbedr
18rest 19b 20assistedb 21 treatment22dirtyutility 23 consult/exam
24staff rest 25boilers&tanks Arch Derek Stow& Partners
Mentallyhandicappedunit,planoftypical villa,CraigPhadngHospital
InvernessScotland 1 sister 2visitors 3 Pdo 4sto 5domestic service
rm 66-B 74-B 81-B 9wc l0bathr 11 staffwc l2preparation l3linen
l4uty l5disposal l6hobbies l7dutyrm 18TV lgdayspace 2Odr 21k
4ft
11 dr 12duty mi 13nursesstation 14 preparation 15treatmentrm
16assistedbathr 17dirtyutility rm 18sluice rm 19staffwc 20wr
21 reception 22off 23porter 24 domestic servicerm 251-B 26 large
1-B 274-B
Community
163
Hospitals: long stay
LIBERTONHOSPITAL—*(1)
Geriatric hospital in grounds of existing hospital; has both in and day
patients with total 184 beds mainly in 24-B units. Day patients can be
examined in 1 of 2 consult/exam rm and have midday meal in dr; share
physiotherapy, occupationaltherapy, dental and hairdressing services
withinpatients. Wards contain dining areaand 3 separatedayspaces, 1
forexercising and 2 for sitting in.
Wardblock
50
4-storeyward block: 3 floors48 beds each, 1 of40 beds on first floor
used for hemiplegic patients. 48-B floorsdivided into 2 x 24 nursing
units, each comprising 3 x 6-B bays, 1 x 4-B bay, 2 x 1-B. Bedside
fittings include nurse call, radio and tvcontrols, bed light and curtains.
Each 24-Bunithas2 bathr, 4wc,clean preparationrm, dirty disposal rm,
shares exercise/drfor ambulant patients, and 2 small dayr. Each floor
I!:J!iJ
H-i
83Vij
56
entrance
has ward kitchen, med officer's rm and sister's rm.
j•
0
Groundfloor
Entrance hall with reception counter and general waiting area. Lift hall
with nursingand admin offices, hairdressing rm, porter and shop.
a
63
5
10
1
b
16 32
-
6J 66
15
2am
I
48 64
1
It
LibertonHospitalScotland afirstfloor geriatricinpatients bgroundfloor
geriatricday P 49commonrm 50physiotherapy 51 dentist 52chiropody
53MD clinic 54therapist 55almoner 56wr 57hairdressing 58 darkrm
59consult/exam 60seminarinterview rm 61 medstaff 62lounge
63canteen 64dining ar 65servery 66trolley(cart)wash 67potwash
69cold sto 70reception 71 porter 72admin &nursingstaff
73generaloff 74shop 82bathr 83occuptional therapy 84wardar
85treatment 86exercise& dayr 87doctor 88sluice
1
Occupational and physiotherapy, med social worker, dentist and chiropodist share patient waiting area. Day patients and dr for midday
meals served from kitchen which also provides staff meals in small
canteen. Consult/exam rm separatedfromtherapeutic/social areas.
EQUIPMENT
cutacle
partition
imperviouswall tinish
sho curtains
sho handset
Tc!_
t
floorchannel
-,
L1
Ddspos11
hoolrs'
'
ptatform 1 980x550
___
-,
fl
—
hand
spray
hooha
I
laid to
)
i.—L
YntSt1
shj
curtain
I
trotley
sanichairs
(cart)
rlIr I Li
trolley
3200
,
T1•
1300
,
1300
(Th I
I
5
b& platform elevator
I
Tl
Incontinentbathr &wc,8.6m2+ 7m2; may beplannedasseparateunits;
requiredinwardscaringforelderly& handicapped wherepolicyofearly
ambulationcoupledwith needto extendnursingcaretonon-bedfast P; bothb
&wcequippedwith low-pressureshohandsetto easeproblem ofcleaning
incontinentP; goodventilationrequired:allowfor6airchanges/hr at peak
times
2
It
t
3
Assistedwc afornonwheelchairP requiring assistance of
2nurses b forwheelchairP
requiringassistanceof 2nurses
U0
1
a
4
Mobilebelevator
'astern
1800
Di
door
I ducttor
2170
6
Elevatingb
7
Fibreglasssittingb: dryweight52kg; avb 1251
4—1800---4250
1710
b
880
tagh
164 Community
Hospitals
PSYCHIATRICCENTRES
a
Present trend away fromisolated sitesforpsychiatrichospitals in favour
ofplaces allowing easy accessfordaypatientsand visitors and enabling
inpatients maintainclosetieswith theircommunity. Community involvement often encouraged in USA both by making appropriate parts of
centre available to public, eg gymnasium, children's play rm or craft
studio, andby incorporating suchamenitiesasartgallery or public lib.
Association with med centredesirable but important psychologically
psychiatric centre maintain own identity and character. Environment
contributes essentially to therapeutic process. Centre should be noninstitutionalaspossible consistentwith type of patient,need forsecurity,
protection from self-injury and vandalism; range from 'open door' to
forensicinstitution for criminally insane.
Great size to be avoided; patients should be grouped into units(max
30 P), smallenough facilitate development of community spirit(atmospherenearercollege dormitory than hospital).
Where climate allows common practice provide residential units inform
ofcottages in landscapedgrounds. Evenwhere restricted site imposes
compact bldg formessential individual units be identifiableasseparate
entities.
Bedrshould afford opportunity retreat and privacy: if 2-B, plan so that
each patient hasclearly defined individual area.
b
Conversely design and furnishing of public areas should encourage
sociability, supplementingformal treatmentwith therapeuticallybeneficial,
informal patient/patient and patient/staffmeetings. Placenurse/security
stations so that staff engaged in routine activities can observe patients
casually. Unobstructive nature of suchsurveillance important psychologically in alleviating persecution complex.
Hierarchical arrangement of staff and patients in group therapy rm
inhibitspatient involvement. Square orcircular seating space affording
mm distraction, with circular
seatingarrangement, probably ideal.
Mentally disturbed persons commonly showsymptoms disorientation
with regard to time and space. Views and contacts with outdoors and
living plants aid patient's comprehension oftime and season; directand
clearlydefinedcirculation patterns, supported by such aidsas graphics
and colour coding, inculcate sense of security. Colour playsimportant
role in therapeutic process: egyellowand orange help dispel lethargy
amonggeriatric patients.
Hospitalpsychiatricunits
Similarconsiderations apply psychiatric unitswithin general hospitals.
Since patients generally ambulatory,day rm and therapeutic activity rm
assumespecial significance. Although exigencies of hospital planning
seldom allow direct access outdoorareasatgroundlevel from psychiatric
unit sunnyoutdoor roofterrace should formintegral part, particularlyfor
geriatric patients.
2
1
C
2
CapitalDistrictPsychiatricCenterAlbanyNewYork USAaccommodates
400inpatientsin 16residentialunitseachofwhichalso serves25day
patients:upper of2superimposed unitsset backfromlowercreatesoutdoor
terwhile lowerhasdirect accessto landscapedsite;treatment,educational,
recreational,admin,research &servicedept housedin4-storeychevronshaped structure,joined toresidential unitsbysky-lighted,brick-paved,
indoormall which hascolourfulbanners, informal seating groups,beauty&
barbershop, chapel, music&gamesrm, laundromat; planat mall level
1 geriatric unit 2adult unit 3pediatricunits 4psychiatric outpatientclinics
5consult 6volunteers 7dining 8admissions9medrecords
10emergencyclinics 11 business 12free-standingcolour-codedstairsin
mall each serve4residential units,supplemented byelevatorsfor
handicapped ArchToddWheeler& Perkins &Will Partnership.
Hospitalformentallydisturbedpatientsfounded 1844in Providence RI
USA, whichhasbeenupgradedandexpanded, stands inbeautifulgroundsby
Seekonkriver afirstlevel bsecond level cthird level
key 1 lob 2admin 3admission&testing 4emergency 5med records
6activitytherapy 7dayhospital 8 interiorcourtyard 9inpatientunits
10food services&cafeteria 11 existing 12intensivetreatmentunit
13interiorgardenbelow 14professional off 15 diagnostic/treatment
Arch HillierGroup
2
Community 165
Hospitals
WARD UPGRADING
Although wards have always been designed for care of sick those built
before 1940were often intended forbedfastpatients.Sincethen advance
in technical nursing has allowed quicker throughput of patients most of
whom fully ambulant for 2/3 of stay; thus demand increased for nurse
working rmand patient dayareas, washing and sanitary services. Older
wards, structurally sound but ill equipped for present day standards,
therefore suitable for upgrading, particularly those with useful lifeof at
least 15 years. Moreover, taking factors below into account, can be
worthconsidering upgrading bldg scheduled tolast only 5 years.
existing
900900
Lt I nT1
üü u
9
no
Factors
Number of patients to be cared for under sub-standard conditions if
ward not upgraded, eq28-bed ward with 80% occupancy and 5-day av
stay has throughput of approx 1 600 P/yr and 8100in 5 years
Number of nurses to be trained in sub-standard accn, eq28-bed ward
with 6 students on duty during day and 2 at night for 6-weekperiod
equals 70students/year or350 in 5years
Proximifyto ancillary supporting accn
Change of usefromacute folong stay wards
Amount of money available
3
existing
Reallocation &divisionofspaces, noextension to existingward:existing
29-B, upgraded25-B 2small sanitary annexeadded:existing 29-B,
upgraded28-B 3corr& groupof nurseworkingrm&wcadded:existing 26-B,
upgraded30-B 4extension addedtolongwallof ward: existing 31-B,
upgraded28-B 52wardsjoined withcoreotnurseworkingrrn:existing 29-B
each, upgraded52-Btotal
1
9
..LL.J
_____
onEEur,
cc
tom
ão ft
_JJJL.Li_ifl00009000009900
runjnuoaonuugu5y
Key to ward plans C orC'd —cpd Con—consultrm D—dutyrm Disp—
disposalrca Dr—doctorsrm DR—dayr DSR—domestic servicerm E or
Equ —eqpsto flflowerrm I—incinerator k—kitchen L—linensto Lab—
laboratory&testcm NS—nursesstation OP—outpatientswr PC—Pclothes
lockers Prep—preparationrm Rec—receptionist S—sisterscm Sec—
SI —sluice St —sto Staff—staffwc T—treatmentan t—trolley
secretary
(cart)tx—telephone V—verandah W —waitingarforvisitors
existing
5
15
extension
courtysrd
$
I
Is
4
existing
EILLsJ
II
U U U UU U UU U U U
Equ
stsff
?
i
iptm
spgrsded
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ielevsto
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Ut UIU .UTII .UIU
existing
.c.,ci.ict..
dsr
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fl
staff
9
9
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3ff
upgrsded
5
OR
upgraded
166 Community
Hospitals
0
Standarddhnics
special clinics
ante-natal
generai med
generalsurgery fracture
dermatology Orthopaedrc
gynaecology psychiatric
opiliahiokigy
ant
dental
radioragnosbc
endoscopymi
chiropody
mainwaiting
reonrds
operatingtheatresuite
aadsimetry
aççrbance sri
forprosthetics
receptionarof
physiotherapy
reception
V'
diagnosis&V'treatment
plasterrm
ENTRANCESFOR NON-AMBULANT CASUALTIES &
OUTPATIENTS
All patient entrances must be suitable for those disabled or in wheel-
I
I
I
laboratories
nesmhospdalL
!
Ward at
malioperatingtheatres
OUTPATIENTS
I Relationshipofclinics to other hospitalfunctions
beacon+aerial_______
clearancebr
drivingander
clearincefor
reversingunder
a
EiJ1 fI
I
:3600
,6oOO
uofoading
2 Ambulancecritical dimensions,
3 Carparkingspacefor awheelchair P bambulantdisabledP
standardLondon England
ambulance:turning circle14.17m,
turning clearancecircle 15.25m
barriersdowntotal length
hospitalstreet
insate
1
ElIllIlIllIflhllIll
shelteredparkingdesirable
hospitalstreet
actuator
—
.
lIllllllFFtFJ
% qi; U
I
oubade
AL
9
required
After consultation patients may be sent directly or by appointment for
furtherdiagnosis and/ortreatment to unitswithin OPD, eg plaster rm,
physiotherapy, operating theatre or endoscopy rm. Endoscopy rm —
p167(2) requires accnavailable forpatients under sedation and perhaps
ante-rm forpre-medicationand holding(NBfibre-opticcoldlightsources
must not be used in conjunction with inflammable anaestheticgases).
Units may servewhole hospital;theatres and ancillary rmmay be partof
sFediafo
Clinics which can use standard accn: general med, general surgery,
dermatology, gynaecology, paediatrics, ante-natal, fracture, orthopaedic, psychiatry. Clinics which require special accn: opthalmology,
ear, nose & throat, dental. Clinics should have own reception pointand
waiting area 36 m2 (based on 1.4 m2/P).
I
j
j
canopy
Outpatients dept (OPD) provide consultation, investigation, diagnosis
and treatmentfor patients who require little or no recovery services
afterwards and are not admitted toacutewards. Most patients referred
attend session at specific clinic byappointment: receiveinitial diagnosis
and treatment, eg injections. Sessions approx 3 hr long (10per week)
and held 0900—1 200 & 1400—1 700. Each doctor may use either 2
combinedconsult/exam rmor1 consult with adjacent exam rm—n(5)(7)
p168(3) during 1 session. Am useapprox 9sessions/week: formula for
numberof rm required:
rmsessions/week = number of rm
main hospital theatre suite.
:1I
ssnJMMMM10
chair —*p86and must provide dirt control zone. Doors to A& E—÷pl 68
must allow accident trolleys —*pl66(11) easy entry. In A & E and to
lesser extent OPD standard practice to provide automatic opening
doors—*(4). Although thesecan beexpensive and unreliableusefulness
outweighs disadvantages in areas where wheeled access required.
Two main types:both actuated bypressure mats orelectronic devices.
Some manufacturerssupplyoutwardopening swing operatedmechanism
tooverridenormal operation inemergency.
Design area between 2 sets of doors to take trolley pushed by staff
member, without obstructionfrom door swings etc (2700 clear), Integrate
3 dirt controlzonesinto design. Provide canopy or recess doorway to
shelterdoors. If ambulance required to back up to door allow 3200 to
underside of canopy—(2).
canopy
eL._._\_
canopy
cL__N_
4 AutomaticdoorstoP entranceslayouts: Aforsetof900swingdoors
with safetybarrierbetweeneachdirectionoftrafficflow; Bforset of sliding
doors with parkingspace fordoorsinopenposition:max recommended size
foreach leaf900 C3cleaningzonesfordirtcontrol:externalzone should
haveopengrid typemattingsuitableforwheelchairuser,intermediate,
mattingwithbuilt-in scraperaction, inner,non-slipdustcontrolmatting
13
.1
flU
7
R17
ri
6 OPD FalkirkScotlandRoyal Infirmary 1 wr 2porter 3trolleys 4prams
5hearingaid 6wc 7consult 8do 9staff 10sto 11 audio 12treatment
13 preparation 14disposal 15CSSDsto 16eqpsto 17optician 18eye
19workr 20 dental 21 off 22dark mi 23orthoptist24ECG 25studio
26technician Arch Wilson&Wilson& Scottish Development Dept
wall a
w
13
Ii
15
waitb
5 Exam&treatmentrm 10.4m2, forambulantorwheelchairP 1 sliding
door 2wastesack 3toweldispenser 4sk 5trolley 6dispenserwithdrawer
7sheMng 8writingsurface 9swivelstool lox-rayviewer
11 wheeledcouch
fl®
16
l2chair l3examlamp l4twin 13-amppoint
15emergencycallbutton 16light switch 17x-rayfilm rack
18coat hooks
7 Combinedconsult/examrm,
15.48m2 1 chair 2couch 3 scales
4steps 5hooks 6couch-cover
dispenser 7 disposal 8exam lamp
9wpb 10desk 11 hb 12worktop,
sto under 13eqptrolley(cart)
14curtain 15sphygomanorneter
bracket 16writingshelf
2
14
Community
167
Hospitals:out patients
5
0
16
—'I.
1
f
10
15
I
35
I
20
25
6
809
I
45
L7NEPLI
21 1
11
IT
I_,ti.
21
—
1600
rn
4[Th1h11Tfl1
bEEI
14
9
6
7
Wheelchairlay, 2.56 m2 —'162
Ante-natalclinicAberdeenScotland MaternityHospital 1 prams
1
key 1 basinwith shelf 2papertowels
3waste 4wc 5toiletpaper 6mirror
7 hook(s) 8sk 9gulley 10P trolley
2children 3Pwc 4sister 5exam 6lecturerm&mothercraft7tutor
8study rm 9consult 10staffwcfemale 11 lecturerm 12do 13elevators
14work ar 15staff wcmale 16typists 17healthvisitor 18nurse
19 reception 20urinetesting 21 waitingar Arch George Trew
Dunn& Partners
LL.
wallB
11
6
J4-U-1
(cart) 11 hose point 12disposal
13 sack holders 14trolley
15stapler
14
wallC
1516
Cleansingrm, 13.4m2
(3)(5)—(8) room layoutssuitable
other depts &wards
1700
12
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2 Endoscopyrm—.pl66, 17.28m2 1 sk 2worktop 3wallcpdforfibre
optics 4trolley(cart) 5anaesthetic trolley 6stool 7intravenousdripstand
8 linenholder 9kick-aboutbucket 10 adjustable lamp 11 writingsurface
12
9
with drawers 12surgeonsbasin 13warninglight 14shelfwithlight 1510w
pressuresuction 16 highpressuresuction 17triplex-rayviewer 18 pin
board 19telephone 20coat hook 21 shelvesforpresettrays 22towel
dispenser 23cpd 24drawers 25shelving 26alimentarytrolley 27 bin
28Ptrolley 29DDAcpd
hooksbrmachinetools cleaningmachines
dryerI(( )LJLJU buckets
undersk
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4
213
Suction unit
10 Plasterapplicationrm, 33.5 m2, servesOPD& A& E notsuitablefor
general anaesthesiabecausemorethan 1 Pspace
key 1 oven ontrolley 2doublex-rayviewer 3sto shelves 4plinth 5 chair
6plaster-sawmounting 7clotheshook& mirror 8trolley 9curtain lOsk&
drainerwith plastertrap 11 steps 12ceiling hook 13 plastercastdisposal
14waste 15sk&drainer 16plasterdust extractor 17wallhook(s)
§IrH
-.i"L
1400
2150
5 Clinette& urinetestrm, 2.7m2 + 6.45m2 1 urinespecimenscollector
2 reagentstore 3worktop, sto under 4 slophopper&drainer 5disposal
6 basin 7hatch 8shelf 9handrinse
11
Tiltingaccidenttrolley
168 Community
Hospita/s
ACCIDENT& EMERGENCY
Accident & emergency dept(A&E) provide 24-hr365-day/year service
for accidents and med emergencies occurring in home, at work, at
sports ortravelling. Patientsnormallytakento DGH(community hospital)
with A&E resources. Deptprovides resuscitation, reception and first
stageexam; patients can then be discharged, sent to another part of
hospital for further investigation and treatment, admitted as inpatients,
orsentbyambulance to hospital containing regional specialty,eg burns
unit, neurosurgery —p173--5. Patients dead on arrival taken to small
rm near entrance before beingremoved to hospital mortuary. For dept
close to potential sources of accidents (airports, motorways) extra
provision for resuscitation needed.
A&E need to be on good access roads with drive-in entrances for
ambulances, sheltered fromwind and rain by covered ways and battle
walls. Entrances should have 2 sets of automatic fail-safe doors to
prevent draughts, with enough space to manoeuver stretchers and
trolleys—4p166(4). Deptmust havedirectaccess forpatients on trolleys
to all parts of hospital, particularly radiology .—pl69 170, plaster rm
—*pl67(9)(lO), surgical (OPD) —pl7l 172 and short stay wards.
Resuscitation rm must befullyequipped with med gases andbe close to
entrances. Doctors, often on duty for long periods, require comfortable
duty rm. Relativesofpatients needaccessto publictelephone. Interview
rm required by doctors for interviewing relatives and by police for
interviewing witnesses. Generous sto required for stretchers, blankets
and trolleys. Forbenefit of patients,relativesand escorts, whomay bein
severe state ofshock, allwaiting spaces as wellas clinicalareas should
be heated tomm 21°C.
Full snackbar can be provided ifshared byOPD —*pl66. Patientswho
return for further dressings or treatment given appointments outside
morning and evening rush hour for casualties so can use same accn.
Exam and treatment rm preferable to cubicles for patients requiring
audioand visualprivacy (can undress and be seen in comfort); casualty
doctorwill worksetof rm. Cubicles suitable for small cuts and abrasions
which do not require patient to undress. Separate provision may be
requested for cleansing patients and dealing with infected wounds.
Peak periodsfor both A&E and Casualty dept invariablycoincide with
weekends and public holidays: essential that sufficient stores and nursing eqp be available either by providing extra sf0 at point-of-use or by
giving staff access tocentral sto during holidays and off-peak periods.
11
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3prams 4eqp 5trolleys 6treatment 7interview 8sister 9duty 10wc
2
11
totheatres 12disposal 13 preparation 14to sharedx-ray
16exam 17resuscitation 18reception 19plaster 20sto
Arch Wilson& Wilson
Patients come withoutappointment and may have to wait sometime
before being examined and treated; provide generous waiting space,
with beverage point and at least 4 wc, 2 suitable for wheelchair users
p167(6).
9
ij
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——J
CASUALTYDEPARTMENT
Casualty dept provide 24-hr365-day/year service forcasual attenders
and patientsreferred byGPfor immediate examinationand treatment;
generally linked to A&E; can share some nurse working rm and staff
services. But combined only for convenience: specific functions very
different. Patients arrive on foot or by car, usually accompanied by
relativeorescort.Casualtydept should haveseparateentrance,preferably
with double setofautomatic fail-safe doors —pl66(4).
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Exam &treatmentrm orbay, 10.15m2, designedto allowfortrolley
exchangesystem;P onemergencytrolleycan takeplaceoftrolleyinrm
1 sliding door 2wastesack 3towel dispenser 4sk 5trolley (cart)
6dispenserwithdrawer 7shelving 8writingsurface 9swivelstool 10x-ray
viewer 11 emergency trolley 12 chair 13trolley 14exam lamp 15twin
13-amppoint 16emergencycallswitch 17light switch 18x-rayfilm rack
19coat hooks
j
A&EEastboumeEnglandOGH 1 ambulanceentrance 2casualty
entrance 3trolleys,wheelchairs4porter 5flying squad 6trolleys 7staft
do 8rest rm 9 1-B 10nursesstation 11 cleansupply 12dutydoctor
1
l3cleaner l4reception l5doctorsstation 26chargenurse l7wc
18assistedb 196-B 20interview 21 dirtyutility 22resuscitation ar
23 disposalrm 24k 25surgeonschanging 26sto 27dayr 28pchanging
male 29Pchangingfemale 30doctor 31 nurseadmin 32 housekeeper
33anaestheticmi 34 minoroperating 35crutchsto 36plastermi
37ear,nose &throat (ENT), eyes, noisychildren 38 septictreatment
39trealmentar 40fracture&orthopaedic clinic 41 waiting 42clinic
reception43P lay 44 appliance fitting 45canopyover Arch SETRHA
4
Resuscitation rm, 24.36m2 1worktop 2suctionunit 3 stool 4trolley
(cart) 5surgeonssk 6linensack 7wastesack 8worktopwith sk 9writing
surface,shelvesover 10mobilex-ray 11 anaesthetictrolley 12drip stand
13oxygensuctiongas
Community
169
Hospitals
RADIOLOGYDEPARTMENTS —p170
X-ray or radiology has 3 major sub-divisions:
diagnostic, which may
include ultra-sonics, fluoroscopy etc; radiation; nuclear medicine.
Depending onadmin patternoronphysical/functional relationshipswith
otherdept thesemay bearranged contiguously orseparately.
Diagnosticradiology
Provides internal images of patient either on film (radiography) or on
cathode ray tube(CR1—fluoroscopy). Must beprovided foroutpatients
and inpatients both forroutine examinationsand foremergencies. Dept
therefore has relationship to OPD, medical, intensive careand surgical
units.
Separation ofinpatient, typically ontrolley, stretcher orwheelchair,from
outpatient in street clothes and often bloody, should be maintainedlong
as possible, certainly through entrance, reception and waiting: if dept
largeenough alsothrough radiographic procedureand exit.
Arrange x-ray procedure rm sothatpatient's travel path does not cross
that of radiology technician until they meet in procedure rm. Easy
trolley/stretcheraccesstox-raytable essential.Plan dept sothattechnician
traveltime kept mm particularly between rm and filmprocessing.
Diagramofrelationships between radiology &other deptinrepresentative
USAhospital
1
Simplex-rays tolocate fracturesorposition ofcathetertake lessthan 10
minutes; more complex or intermittent procedures involving barium
swallowsor radio-opaque injections may take up to 3 hr to complete
while patientwaits in or near dept. Design forfollowing requirements:
separate rm for ultrasonography and for thermography; bench with
drinking water, bottle-trapped sink with sto cpd over exclusively for
bariumpreparations and wcfor patients whohave had barium enemas
both next to 2 x-ray rm; rm and viewing bay to process and check
accuracy offilms (normallycompletedwithin 15minutesof being taken):
automatic plumbed-in processors needspecial drainage; forward waiting area on basis of 1.3 m2/P plus 1.02 for relative or escort; extra
screenedspace for 2 patients' trolleys; 2 wc suitable for patient in
wheelchairs —+pl 67(6).
Each x-ray rm must be screened from other parts of bldg either by
barium plaster orbylead sheeting, both very dense heavy materials.All
glazingshould be in lead glass. X-ray eqp heavy and requires ceiling
heights between 3100 and 4000, extra moveable structural beams
suspended fromceiling will be required. Design floorsand ceilings to
takeextraheavyloads. Entrancedoors tox-rayrmshould be 1 400wide
in 2 leaves 900 + 500.
In addition to above mentioned areas support spaces for film sorting,
film reading by radiologistsandfiling necessary,also spacesfortranscribing
reports, sto foreqp and supplies, admin off and oftenconference rm.
2 EasthoumeEngland DGHx-raydept 1 lavage&disposal 2wc 3sto
4cleansupply 5 recovery 6x-rayrrnspecial 7x-raymibarium 8 bed
holding 9waiting lox-raymigeneral purpose 11 dark rm 12sorting&
viewing 13x-raymiA& E 14cleaner 15 reporting rm 16film sto
X-raybeam carriesinherentdangertoliving cells: propershielding
of all procedure rmessentIal; must bedesigned and supervised
by raditlonspecialist. In UK complywIth Code of Practice for
Protection ofPersonsexposedtolonisingRadiation.
17disposal 18superintendentradiographer 19staffrm
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13
1100
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Radiodiagnosticmi/changingcubicles, 28.8 m2 1 transformer2eqp
trolley 3 chestx-ray 4steps 5buckytable 6safety screen 7controlunit
8cassettehatch 9 clock 10stounit 11 bench seat 12shelf&mirror
13hooks
5000
3
Diagnosticx-raymidesignedbyAmericanHealthFacilities/Medical
PlanningAssociatesMalibuUSA 1 dispenserunit 2step-onwaste
receptacle 3surgical/instrument
dressing cabinet 4apron &gloverack 5to
daylightprocessingar 6intercom 7leadglass vision panel 8partition 2100
h 9x-raycontrolunit 10ceilingtube mount 11 generator 12tube carriage
133-size film dispenser 14 radiographic tablewithtomographic attachment
15fluorescentlight fixtureswallmounted 16footstool with handrail 17 side
chair 18warninglight 19tolay 20 mirror 21 corr
3500
closed
I
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5
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5 Viewing&processing rm,open&closedlayouts 1 tanks&water
nstallation 2cassettehatch(from radiodiagnostic rm) 3 darkrm
4processor 5sorting&viewing
170 Community
Hospita/s
RADIOLOGYDEPARTMENTS (cont)
Radiationtherapy
Technique whereby radiation used reduce or eliminate carcinogenic
cells: generated either bynatural source suchasradioactivecobalt orby
man-made as in linear accelerator. Because of massive quantities of
radiation used extremely heavy shielding required contain it: so heavy
thatsomereg require thisdeptbe placed atground level.
Whole unit constructed ofdense concrete:walls, ceiling,floor pitthickest
(approx 1 200) within 3600arc ofeqp, remainderapprox 600. Design all
steelwork, conduit, piping to prevent radiationleakage.Viewing porthole
double-skinned with highly corrosive fluid infill (zincbromide solution);
door locks controlled fromconsole in adjoining rm.
Procedure rmwiththeir shielding mazes must be largeenough accommodate eqp plus access forpatienton stretcher/trolley.Spaces required
forpatient receptionand waiting, examination,treatmentplanning,mould
making forshielding needed for patient during treatment, off and work
spaceforstaff. Offand lab space also needed forphysicist forcalibration
and radiation safetyofeqp.
Patients taken into rm containing eqp and so positioned that all 3
sources of radiation converge on diseased partof body; attendant then
retiresto control rm fromwhich patient can beobserved through heavy
lead glass porthole or by tv. Procedure can be very frightening for
patient: ventilation, temp and general environment control of utmost
importance. Pastoral photomural or fresco on wallsand ceiling within
viewofpatient during treatment,together with falsewindow with pastoral
view' opposite entrance, will help alleviate fears.
Nuclearmedicine
2
Buckytable: rm h required with floor/ceilingtubestand mm 3000max
4000
Diagnostic procedure involving ingestion by or injection into patient of
radioactive materials whichthen traced by scanning eqp. Am used for
scanning require some shielding; must be large enough accommodate
eqp, patient on stretcher/trolley, console and technician. In contrast to
diagnostic ortherapy procedure rm level ofradiationlowenough allow 2
or more patients scanned simultaneouslyin same space. Support spaces
include reception and waiting, off, sto, well shielded 'hotlab' beside
procedure rmfor sto and preparationof radioactive materials.
CATscanning
Relatively new method of non-invasive imaging of internal organs;
although diagnosticprocedure,often in separatesuitewith own procedure
rm, control rm, computer eqp space and support areas.
NB new diagnostic procedures continually developed; design
shouldallowaddition of mi/services when needed.
600concrete
400concrete
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CobattunitforradiotherapyPembury England ArchSEThamesRHR
5 X-ray film cabinet;willhold
approx 10000envelopes(360 kg),
26000 x-ray films(1040 kg):total
floor loading1 728 kg/rn2
6
Standardx-rayfilm very heavy
(155 kg/rnrun): max unsupported w
ofshelf900; eachradiodiagnostic rm
producesapprox625envelopes/
month
QJ -t
4
Typical cyclotron
7
Transformer:weight380 kg
8
Radiodiagnostic controlunit
Community
171
Hospitals
OPERATINGTHEATRES
Surgical and delivery suites increasingly considered centresto which
patients broughtforprocedures too complex for handling in physician's
off ortreatment area. Unlike traditionalsuite with different rmfordifferent
services (eg, ENT, orthopedic) suites now collection of multi-purpose
rm. In largeinstitutions more than 1 suitelikelybe provided, based on
usage: short (1—3 hr) procedures, such as ambulatory, frequently
separated from general, av length (2—4 hr) and very long (6—8 hr)
procedures. Delivery suites,formerly completelyseparatedfrom surgical,
todaycommonly alongside orintegrated.
Typicalfloor ofsurgical&specialservicesbldg Massachusetts General
HospitalUSA Arch PerryDeanStahl&Rogers
1
Designelements
Consider patient flow: entrance, control, holding pre-anaesthesia,
operating, recovery. Consider staff: control, clean-up. Consider eqp,
particularlyinstrumentsand other goodswhich must besterilisedbetween
each use: done locally (within suite) or centrally (for hospital)? Let
volumes guide. Consider sharing: like types ofprocedure rmcanshare
supplies, cleaning etc. Consider testing functions: 'quick' lab tests,
x-rayetc: howwill theybe done?
Space needs
Space suites need per inpatient bed varies greatly, depending on
whether ambulatory surgery offered, whether hospital has teaching
programmeand other suchfactors: generally28—46 m2foreachoperating
theatre.Space forcirculation,nursingand medicalstaffand non-functional
bldg elements such as air-conditioning eqp usually high ratio in this
setting, perhaps 80% above individual rm needs. Ifreprocessinggoods
donewithinsuite 28—37 m2/operating theatre or delivery rm must be
added. Locker rm, showers and rest rm for staff should be provided
based on numberstaff expected.
Circulation
Crucial to design of high technology operating and delivery suites; 2
JH
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St JosephHospital TacomaUSAhasellipticoperrmarranged round
centralcontrolrm Arch Bertrand GoldbergAssociates
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Cleanliness
Also critical in operating/delivery suite. All materials,surfaces, joints etc
must be easilycleanable and durable for repeated washings: sealed
joints to prevent infection. Anti-static materials should be used where
patients likelybe connected anaestheticmachines. Check requirements
with technical literature.
3p
6
6
171615141312 1110
18ft
3 Stobliill opertheatresuite:8standardtheatres withclean&dirtycorr
1 consultanaesthetistoff 2anaesthetistsecretary's off 3dutyanaesthetist
4studentlecturerm 5wc 6malechanging 7femalechanging
8
9cleaner 10 workshop 11 theatresuperintendent 12receptionarporter
l3dirty utility l4transfer l5cleanutility l6recoveryar l7darkrm
18 nursesrestrm 19 surgeonsrest rm 20techniciansrest rm 21 teak
22eqpsto 23theatresister 24 lab 25endoscopy 26calorifiers
27 refrigeration plant 28preparationrm 29opertheatre 30exit lob
31 anaestheticrm 32scrub-upar 33monitorrm 34plastermi 35plaster
sto 36disposalbay 37disposallob 38elgear 39med gases 40 stairto
air-conditioningplant 41 TSSU 42staff restrm Arch Cullen Lochhead &
Brown
basictypes: single corridorand double corridor or 'racetrack'. Single
has 1 corridorleading to all operating/delivery rm, used for patients,
staff and eqp: sterility maintained in each user of corridor and within
theatreitself; each rm preceded by scrub-up ar and has provision for
sterilisation withinitorbetween 2 rm. 'Racetrack'arranges rmin 'circular'
fashion with outside corridor orrm for staff and eqp, presumed sterile;
locker rm 'bridge' corridors; staff and eqp leave with patient; staff
'bridged'backthrough locker rm and showers. Corridor forPtrolleys 2:
45mw; others1.5mw.
I I 1;
4
Vedestasystemmodularoper theatreusesbasicstandard octagonalto
formseriesofunitsforuseinnew hospitalsorforupgrading; 10sizes
available,arfrom23.22m2 —436 m2 1 domesticstaffchange 2disposal
3sluice 4inspection/sto 5generators/batteries6air-conditioning
7emergencycorr 8theatre 9sterilemi 10P in 11 Pout 12surgeons
nursesorderlies in 13surgeonsnursesorderliesout 14sterilesupply
15soiled instruments/disposal 16cleanedinstruments 17access to
services 18 sterilesupply 19 anaesthetic rm 20exit 21 gowning
22scrub-up 23med gas 24instrument sto 25nursestaffrm 26surgeon
staff rm 27 orderliesstaff rm 28recovery 29mobile eqp 30transfer
31 sister 32change—NBservicingoflightingeqp completed outside theatre
172 Community
Hospita/s
OPERATINGTHEATRES(cont)
11
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OpertheatresuitesNinewellsHospital Dundee Scotland, designedfor
teaching servicecorr 2opertheatre 3x-ray 4TSSIJ 5accesscor
6femalesurgeons 7malesurgeons 9 nurses 10students 11 anaesthetic
dept l2surgeonsrest l3sto l4nursesrest l5nurseworkrm l6lecture
rm 17junior staff 18 recoveryward 19receptionward 20seniorstaff
Arch RobertMatthewJohnsonMarshall
1
I
1 isolatedpower
6700
panel 2gas&el
servicepanel
3anaesthetiststable
4monitor
5anaesthetistsstool
6anaesthesiagas
machine 7x-rayfilm
illuminatorsexplosion
proof 8kickbucket
gsurgeonsstool
10deep canily
surgicalilluminator
11 eleciro-surgical
and l2doubtebasin
13 mayostand
14 singlepanel
lsmobdetvcamera&
recorder 16 ceiling
11
118
5 Nut!ield OrthopaedicCentreOxford England: 1 conventional theatre,
2 clean-airglassenclosures'withfilteredair&special suitswith airintake&
exhaustforstaff 1 ramp 2 1-B intensive care ar 3barriernursing 4cleaner
5ste 6cleanutility 7dirtyutility 8nursesstation 9fireexit 106-B intensive
care 11office 12seminar/restrm 13staff 14lockerrm 15visitors 16from
wards 17waiting 18B park 19changingrm asurgeons borderties
c nurses 20 rest rm anurses borderlies csurgeons21 theatresister
22 plasterrm 23transferzone 24orderliesbay 25linen 26monitor eqp
station 27 operdept 28exit bay 29anaesthetic rm 30opertheatre
31 gown/scrub-up 32forwardholding 33 switchrm 34sterilisers
35 batteryrm 36servicear 37med gas 38plant rm 39loadingdock
40 issu 41 preparation42scrub-up 43operrm 44disposalbay 45dark
rm 46 mobilex-ray
gas& elservice
17 instrumenttable
18 casecart/trolley
18 aub-stedlisation
20 con 21 scrub-up
ar OesignAxnencan
HealthFacililies/
MedicalPlanning
Associates
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Generaloper rm
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3 Anaestheticrrn,exit mi,scrub-uprm, sterilesto: eloutletpointsin
anaesthetic&exit tobesparkless&hoseproof, insterilesto&exit hoseproof
only 1 sterilemi 2oper theatre 3table 4B 5 hb 6sterilesto 7scrub-up
rm 8anaestheticmi 9anaesthetictrolley 10anaesthetic machine
llservicepoints l2exitrm l3gowning
Opertheatre,36.10m2; alleloutletpointsinanaesthetic rm&theatreto be
sparkless&hoseproof 1 controlpanel 2dressingtrolley/cart 3 instrument
trolley 4basinstand 5table 6kickbasin 7stool 8swab stand
9anaestheticmachine 10anaesthetic trolley
position: willtilt inboth directions; also
designedtake variousattachments; small wheelsused putvery high rolling
loadsonfloor weightapprox230 kg, mm h approx700, maxh approx1 040
7
Suspendedoperatinglamp
weight8kg
8
4:
Adjustableceiling mounted
exam lamp, weight4.5kg
10 Mobilesuctionunit:this type
also availablewithoutcastorsorpull
4
9
Anaestheticmachine
handle;unitsforconnexiontopiped
systemsdo not havelowerpartof
controlbox
Community
173
Hospitals:special units
INTENSIVECARE
Hospitalscontain 2 basictypesbed accn: 'hotel' for patientsnotneeding
continuous directvisual supervision or life-sustainingeqp; 'critical' (UK
intensive) for patients whose survival depends on constant attention
and/or complex life-support eqp. Proportion of critical to hotel and of
numberoftypesof special care units increasing.
Special unitsincludecardiac, spinal injury, burn,transplant, respiratory,
neurosurgical, limb fitting, physical medicine. Usuallyformpartoflarger
hospitals (regional specialties in UK);verylarge hospitals may have all
ofthem.
Design considerations
Will patientbeconscious,requireprivacy,toilet,constantnursingattention?
Will location or configuration of unit help or hinder patient's recovery?
Can staff see all patientseasily?Is ratiopatients/staffstation appropriate?
Can staff get help quickly? Can they reach services (medications, uty
etc) and support (lab testsetc) quicklyand easily? Can they examine
patient easily? What about infection control? Can specialeqp be brought
quickly bedside in emergency? Can monitors, pumps, screens be
easilyread bystaff?Can eqpbe stored handilywhen not in use?
Bed unit basicspace module: numberbeds related to unit, decided by
usage or projected usage: 6—7 usual max. Unit must be sized for bed
(larger and larger as new features added orstructured), eqp (respirators,
pumps, monitors),people(manyasneeded duringresuscitation): common
today11—15 m2/unit.
Access fromentrance to bed unitand between critical. Spaces required
include: nurse/physician for supervising monitors, charting, consult;
support formedication station,uty; special use,egtreatment, procedure,
x-ray, based on patient plus staff/eqp 11—15 m2; amenitiessuchas rest
rm, locker, wc.
Keepdistance from control station or viewpoint to patient small so that
eqp can be read and patient actually seen. Bed unitmay be enclosed in
rm (eg coronary care, where patient conscious, or where infection
control or separation patient fromnoise necessary)or open (egfor max
visibility and quickaccess where patient unconscious).
Staff changing arrangementssimilar those foroperatingtheatres;visitors
if allowed, may be required change shoes, wear gowns and masks.
910203Gm
3264966
N
Punit intensivecare pavilionLongIslandJewish-HillsideMedicalCare
CenterUSA
1
2
Masterplan Temple UniversityHospital Philadelphia USAshowing
relationshipbetweenspecialtyunits Arch Perkins & Will
NEUROSURGERY
Because oflengthofeach operationand itsexactingnatureneurosurgery
units rely heavily on support services. Ratio of population to beds
1:100000. 2 theatres shown —(3) serve 60beds. Theatresegg-shaped
to promote smooth flow fully conditioned air (21 changes/hr). Heatfiltered theatre lamps set in ceiling and 1 wall. Monitoring eqp and
viewinggallery in mezzanine with viewing ports in domed ceiling. Each
theatre equipped with5-panel x-rayviewing box, oxygen, nitrous oxide,
suction, nitrogen for pneumatic tools, electro-encephalograph (EEC)
connexions, and CC1Vfortransmission ofencephalographrecordings.
Anti-staticflooring and flashproof el outlets required. X-ray rm attached
to theatres heavilyequipped for cranialand spinalradiography.Separate
lab forelectro-encephalographyand specialeye exam.Supportmeasures
includephysiotherapy with hydrotherapy pool.
Wards attached to neurologicaltheatres: mixed sex20beds (4 x 4-B, 4
x 1-B). Early ambulation of patients in need ofobservation reflected in
size of day and sun rm; patients encouraged to have visitors who can
help return normal life by using theseand adjacentflowerbay.
SPINAL INJURY
Care foryoung people, who suffer fromparalysisasresult ofaccidents,
eg motorcycle. Require 100%care: nearlyalways doubly incontinent;
because of shockto system can beaggressivetowardsstaff and visitors.
Occupational therapy, physiotherapy and study form vital part of
rehabilitation. Patients may take months recover; care can be divided
into 3 stages: patients bedfast: can only be moved for bathing and
treatmentin horizontal position; patients spend partofwaking hours in
wheelchair: therefore more mobile (after this stage some patients go
home and return forstage 3); patients begin move round on crutches or
with walking aids.
Stages 1 and 2 require 20—24 beds, stage 3 28—32 beds. Provide
approx 20% beds in 1-Bwards and remainderin 4- or6-B. Beds wider
than normal(1 000); allow mm bed centres of 3500. Provisionof nurse
working rm similar to that for physical/mental handicapped units,
—*pl 62—163.
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NeurosurgicalopertheatresWesternGeneralHospital Edinburgh
Scotland elevator 7med staff 12k 17domestic service 19eqpsto
21 sterilisingannexe 25stafftoilets 26wr 29secretaries 30staff
conferencemi 31 plasterrm 32eyerm 33dept/theatresister 34 EEG
35x-rayrm 36dark/work rm 37theatreha 38scrub-upar 39changing
rm 40anaestheticrni 41 opertheatres 42 preparation rrn 43scientific
observation 44stairtoviewing gallery 45stairtotheatreEEG
55engineeringplant
I
174
Community
Hospitals: special units
CARDIACSURGICAL
of care: intensive therapy and intermediate care. Patients
vulnerable infection: 2out of6018 beds should be in isolated bayswith
full height walls. Patients most vulnerable at immediate post-operative
stagewhen intransit and not attached to electricallyoperated ventilators
or monitors. Intensive care units must therefore be close to operating
theatres.
2 stages
Example illustrated —*(2) also shows area to be upgradedascoronary
care unit. Requires bio-chemistry lab; some research and staff areas
can be shared. Provide for relatives overnight stay close to but not in
unit.
TRANSPLANT
Relationshipbetweencardiacsurgeryunit,intensivecare,coronarycare,
nursing rm at St VincentMedicalCenterLosAngeles USA Arch Daniel
MannJohnson&Mendenhall
1
5
10
I
16
11m
48
LIMB FITTINGCENTRE
Considered advisable hold clinics in DGH (community hospital) save
patients, oftenelderly and diabetic, from having travel long distances.
All patients require rehabilitation for everyday living; walking training
should be provided for, either in centre orwithin wheelchair distance. If
centreprovides early post-operative walking training hostel type beds
may be required in or closeto it. Patientscometo centre for consult,
assessment,stumpcastingand limb fitting,and retumforstumpdressings,
limb adjustments and walking training. Provide workshops for making
limbs: if modular limbs mainly assembly process. Cosmetic covers
made on vacuum-forming machines fromhighly inflammable material;
special sto required for this and for paint. Forworkshops and sf0 areas
referto factory legislation.
15
I
32
For replacing damaged or diseased organs (usually kidneys) by direct
transplant fromdonor: needpaired operating theatres, one for donor,
one recipient. Patients nursed in 1-B wards in carefully controlled
environment (liable both toinfection and to infect others). When donors
not available kidneys may be obtained fromcold storebank (may hold
othersurgical spares required fortransplant surgery suchasskin, eyes,
bonemarrow, boneand blood).
(1
2
CardiacsurgicalunitStobhillEnglandGeneralHospital; conversionof
existingward tosurgical unit 1 oftforregistrars/research fellow 2k 3 sister
4wclsho 5womensward 6domesticservicerm 7eqpsto 8isolation B
9corr2000w 10intensivecare B 11 preparation rm 12nursesstation
13disposal 14sluice 15mensward 16wc/sho 17treatmentbathr 18day
rm 19dining ar ArchEPhillips
mirci
lJ
a
5
9
1
10
2
b
8ft
((°O
5k0
6
05
ii H k
0007
L
3
Nutfieldtransplantation surgeryunitWesternGeneralHospital Edinburgh
Scotland;mechventilationto asepticar, 1-B wards, cleancorr,auxiliaryrrn,
twin oper theatres, (designedforclose controlofairmovement pattern&
pressunsationtomm infiltration) 1 changing 2k 3sterilesupply
4anaesthetic 5recipienttheatre 6scrub-up 7donortheatre
8decontamination9P mi 10lab 11 Pbathr 12 disposal 13eqpsto
14elevator 15entranceha/waitingar 16conference rm 17secretary
18director Arch PeterWomersley
3
E]
0
5
16
10
2
15m
4ft
iol
2
F—-----
4
I0
Jc
—
17
12
1i
i
ip
1'6
32
24 Ft
1,5
4
64(1
4 Limbfitting centre 1 consultrrn 2prosthetist 3prosthetist off
4plasterrm 5fIttingrm 6rectifying 7toilets 8treatment 9domestic service
rm 10staff/seminarrm 11 medsocialworker 12walkway 13entryP/staff/
ambulance 14entryplant/largematerials 15entrygoods/materials
16wait 17workshop 18 sto service ArchEPhillips
5
Limb
centreconsultrm
afor4suites bfor2suites
layouts
cconsultfitting
rm dwalk, fittingrrn, plasterrm 1 walkway 2plasterrm
3fitting rm 4consultrm 5wc 6wr 7entrance 8admin 9courtyard
10from OPD 11 windowwall 12longmirror 13walkingrails 14 plaster
chair 15 Pwheelchair 16sk 17hb 18desk 19chair 20couch ArchE
Phillips
Community
175
Hospitals:special units
BURN UNITS
PHYSICALMEDICINE
Seriouslyburntpatients arrive byambulance; nursed onspecial beds in
Provides med,domestic and oftenindustrial rehabilitationtofit patients,
either return workor for active domestic life. Provide for inpatients as
well as outpatients: mm population forviable unit150000. Accn related
to type of population to be served; activities include physiotherapy,
remedial gymnastics, hydrotherapy, occupationaltherapy, heavy and
light workshops, consult and clinical resources, together withprovision
for speech therapists, disablement resettlement officers and social
workers. Because most attenders disabled accn should be on ground
floorwith carparkingcloseby (3000 wide baysallow disabledmanoeuvre
wheelchair fromcar)—p166(3). Specialprovision children uptoage 10,
usually within children's ward. Some patients attend for half or whole
day, othersfor 1 session/day; may be need for hostel accn for those
who have totravellong distance.
carefully controlled environment. Patients liable to infections which
prevent acceptance of skin grafts. Each has 1-bed ward with scrub-up
and gowning lobby for staff and wc and hb for patient. Visitors not
allowed enterward:viewpatientthrough fixedobservation window. Unit
hasown theatre suite fortreatment and skin grafting.
Gymnasium should be 10 x 20 x 7.6 m h (forball games) withbay 1 500
deepoff one side forstacking apparatus,and changing rm and wc(1.5
m2/P). Physiotherapy also involves individual treatment cubicles, walking and otherexerciseareas,waxtreatment rm(highfire risk) and splint
rm,withoffices,interview rmand linensto. Partoftreatmentarea should
have suspended below ceiling, at approx 2000above floor, reinforced
metal grid forconnectingslings and pulleys necessarytosupport patient's
paralysed limb during treatment ortraining.
Hydrotherapy pool —*(3) requires changing accn with clothes lockers
and sho, including 1 for wheelchair users, recovery areas with couch
(1 700 x 2200deep), utility area fordrying costumes and gowns, and
possiblywashing machine and drier. Provide apparatus bayfor floats,
cradles etc.
0
I
10
I
32
20
30
I
I
64
I
66
40
II
126
50m
I I
160ff
Occupational therapy workshops must complyfactory regs.
t850
Bums unitQueenVictoriaHospital EGrinstead England 1 wr 21-B with
wc 3nursesstation 4cleanutility 5k 6 sto 7weighing rm 8 clinical lab
9doctoroff 10visitorswc 11 sistersoff 13visitorsha&corr 14relativesrrn
& wc 15 ambulancebay 16resuscitation 17assessment 18admission
rm 19 staffdo 20surgeonsscrub 21 anaesthetic rm 22 opertheatre
23sluice 24treatmentrm 25theatrecorr 26nursingcorr 27rest rm
28dirty utility 29med gases 30airlock 31 disposalcorr 32interviewrm
33entrancetoplant rmunder 34courtyard Arch DonaldGoldfinch&
1
±800
t550
oo
drain
hooks
r
lockers
trolley!
wheelchairchanging
sho
recoveryj
lockers
Partners
111111!
sho
I
QD
staff
Deptofphysicalmed SouthernGeneralHospital Govan Scotland 1 plant
rm 2heavyworkshop 3timbersto 4 lightworkshop 5eqp sto 6duty rm
7utility rm 8finishedarticlessto 9bathr 10bedr 11 k 12senior
occupationaltherapist 13femalestaffchanging 14 malestaffchanging
15hydrotherapypool 16gymsto 17apparatusgym 18Pchanging
19activetreatmentrm 20apparatussto 21 preparationbay 22linensto
23 paraffinwax rm 24femalestudentschanging 25femalestaffchanging
26male studentschanging 27studentscommonrm 28staffrm 29 passive
treatmentmale 30passivetreatmentfemale 31 interview rm 32 reception/
records 33waitingspace 34 trolley(cart)/wheelchair bay 35consultmi
36med officer 37principal'soff 38uppergym 39 tank ml Arch Keppie
Henderson&Partners
c
baseJ
2
electric hoist
if necessary
c
71
U
ifnecessary-.._.-'
3
staff
apparatus
Hydrotherapypool
4
Physiotherapy&rehabilitation, 51.6m2
1 coathooks 3wall bars 4hb 5wheelchair
6papertoweldispenser 7benchseat 11 disposal
bin 13fixedbicycle 15parallelbars 16exercise
steps 17mobile mirror 18 mat 19clock
20adjustableshelving 21 wall hooks 22stool
23trolley (cart)/matsto box
176
Community
Hospita/s
PATHOLOGYLABORATORY, POSTMORTEM ROOMS
Pathogens classified in UK in 4 categories: A, B, B2 and C
Category A extremelyhazardous: includes lassa feverand smallpox.
Specimens assoon asidentified must besealed intospecialcontainers
and sentto regional lab assigned forpurpose.
Category Bincludebrucella spp, hepatitisB, m tuberculosis: all workon
thesemust becarried outin exhaustprotective cabinets.Lab should not
be less than 18 m2, must have lockable door with glazed observation
panel and also contain handbasin with bi-flow wrist operative taps,
papertoweldispenser and bin near door. Other eqp includes frig, deep
freeze,stofordisposable gloves, tissues, encasingjars etc, rowofpegs
near door forprotective clothing. Discardedspecimens must besentfor
autoclaving. Waste drainage frommostoftheseareasrequired to be in
separate runs.
Categories B2and C donot requirespecial accnbutadvisabledesign all
lab tocategory B standard.
Provision forchanging vital tosafety ofstaff: each lab mustcontainpegs
forlab coats and each unitmust store6setsprotective clothing including
bootsforeach staff member. Discarded clothing must be put in receptaclé for autoclaving. Each workr, off and reception area must have
handbasin near exit. Staff lockers for outer clothing and personal belongingsmust bein separate cloakroom. Staff visiting wards mustwear
separate lab coats forthisand thesemust bestored away fromlab. Iftea
and snacks notavailable nearby, rest rmwhere thesecan be mademust
be provided.
Reception area must have bench with impervious disinfection proof
finish and handbasin set as in lab (above), with racks for delivered
specimens and steforspare racksetc. Specificarea,notwithin reception
orlab, must be provided for patients sent to give blood samples.
Note: pathology lab must not be designed withoutreferenceto
pathologist incharge.
Laboratorybenches
6—-
a
U
$9oj.
I
b
4200
900
structuralceiling
servicesceilingntc!_i_
f900-
I
00
fixed benches
I
I
I
U
C
6450—4
4
I
II
CIII
Spfle
49
2 a'Nuffield', 24.8 m,fixedbencheswithfixedservicespinesalong
partitions:hasbeencriticised forinflexibility b 'Darwin',standard1 200
x 600tables associatedwith 150 x 2400movable servicespine: services&
drainhaveflexibleconnexionsto ceiling &floor points c Edinburgh', 24.5 rn2
providesfreebenches& fixedservicespinessupplied fromverticalducts:
givesgreaterflexibilityoflayout Arch Nuffield Foundation, Lab Investigation
Unit, EdinburghUniversityARU
1200.005
150 —
2000
II;
3 Typical benchwith rig&built-in
4
service
Fumecpd
46O420
_________________
_________________
6
:
7 Manestywaterstill
small size:output 1.11/
hr,weight 13.5kg
Deioniser
5 Autoclave
2
-n
1 Pathologydept EastboumeEnglandDGH 1 escape stair 2fireexit
3films 4laboff 5pathologist 6 hb& particle mixing 7 coagulation &
electrophoresis8ante-natal 9grouping 10pathologist 11 manual &
special 12sto 13packing 14centrifuge 15blood bank 16 reception
17wc 18wr 19exam 20 clerical 21 chieftechnicianoff 22sterilising
23outfItpreparationrm 24stacking 25mechsection 26balance rm
27chromatography&toxicology 28 chemical sto 29disposal 30workshop
31 microbiology lab 32mediapreparation 33printrm 34darkrm35studio
36records 37med photographer 38wc afemale bmale 39staff rrn
4ofluorescentmicroscopy 41 coldrm 42hotrm43 histologysto 44pathologist
off 45serology lab 46cytology lab 47Specinien cutting 48histology lab
49 staining&sections 50pathologygassto 51 recovery&wr 52wash-up
Arch SETRHA
mortuary
cleani
postrnorlernml
6
9
6
12
18
Sm
booth
24ff
Mortuary&post mortem rm: locate loading baywherenotvisiblefrom
main P orvisitorar;viewing rm notclinicalincharacter;hospitalchapel
sometimesusedforthis purpose; goodventilation needed topostmortem as
infectedspecimenshandled
8
177
Community
Hospitals
PHARMACY
T345666
:
PharmacyEastboumeEngland DGH 1 staffentrance 2 issue ar
3dispensary 4wash-upar 5bulkpreparation ar 6 dangerous drugs&
poisonssto 7bulk sto 8chargeable empties 9inflammable liquids
10incinerator 11 goodsentrance 12do afemale b male 13 asepticrm
14sterilepreparationrm 15qualitycontrol 16sterilising mi 17staffrm
18deputypharmacist 19chiefpharmacist20general off 21 reception lob
Arch SETRHA
1
LIBRARY
2typesof hospital lib, professionalformed and nursing staff, lending for
patients; libraries also—api 29 145—8.
Professional normally attached educational areas; medand nursing lib
traditionally separate. Both requirebookstacks (16 books/rn) with space
for browsing, work tables and, if requested, study carrels —a(3) and
securitybarriers at entrance and exit. Area140 m2for general hospital
with post-graduate med training and similar space for nurse training
school lib. Hospital without these activities will require approx 46 m2 for
each profession.
Patients' lib will serveboth ambulantand bedfast and openfor limited
periodsduring day. 600-bed hospital may have 5000booksinarea 65
m2. Provide bookstacks (26 books/rn), chairs and tables usable by
elderly and disabled —a(4)(5). Bedfast patients served at bedside from
book trolley (cart) —a(6). Adjustable shelving needed take large print
books. Permissible floor loading in theseareas should be checked as
bookscan weigh up to 30 kg/rn run of5 shelf stacks. All ib need small
workr(10m2)and book sf0with shelving (5m.
Many large hospitals manufacturepharmaceuticalsaswell asdispensing
them. Some hospitals serve satellite hospitals, health centres, clinics
and individual outpatients: check policies before starting design.
Because goods delivered can be bulky and heavy main loading dock
should beused;but because can beinflammable,explosive, corrosive,
fragile, require special environmentforsto: if (UK) DangerousDrug Act
(DDA) drugs, poisons, or other poisons liable to misuse, must be
delivered tospecially designed protected areawith accessforauthorised
persons only; ODA drugs must be transported in locked containersat all
times.
Stoareas should providefloorsto forlargeitems, adjustableshelving for
smaller items (300 for normal, 100 for small). Inflammable sto may
contain items fromother dept: must be isolated from main bldg (refer to
current legislation controlling design and use). Cool sto fordrugs must
be kept remote from any heat source, including sun; thesesto often
within security sto: should be internal with controlled access (refer
current legislation for design and use). Bulk sto: divide into liquid and
dry powder areas; allow for storing heavy items on floor; pallet and
fork-lift systems suitable for some items; allow ample room for
manoeuvring fork-lift.
Preparation areas include large floor-mounted mixers and steamheated pans for manufacture; small lab may be required for quality
control. Required also: machine to reduce items to unit packs; sterile
area to prepare and package material for autoclaving, which requires
inspection, labellingand sf0areas.Installautoclaves(largefloormounted
machines) againstwallsso can be maintainedfromoutside sterile area.
Stillsformanufacturing distilled water requirepiped connexion tosterile
preparation area. All sterile areas require special dust-free finishes
complywithstringent requirements of med inspectorate.Wash-up area
requiressink, washing eqp, drying cabinets and shelving for clean and
returned containers.
2100
r
pinboard
cassetterecorder
,/
aiiow680unobstnicledh
toundersideiffor
extrachair
t
ifrequired
wfreefohair users
3
Studycarrel,providedformed&nursingstaff; alsosuitableforPstudying
forexam
T' ;:!
10
iLLIAL1
2000
4 General lib: recommended mm
spacebetweenbookstacks
5 General lib: informallayoutof
table &chairs allowsforwheelchairs
1000
-t
Dispensing and messenger service areawith ante-rm foremptiesshould
have counter and security sto forpharmacy boxes awaiting distribution.
Hospitals which dispense toindividualoutpatientsneed separatecounter
and waiting area forthis.
450
rurr
tjiI Ii
1'
iij
•1 • P
III!I tII!I
II
liii!:
6
2x3u68201
oxygenmanitoid
213i
Lib trolley (cart)fortaking round
wards
5amp
spareoxygen
switchfuse cyiinders
heavy tab
manitoid
2spareNO
.,,u
a
m
cylinders
200diacyhnders
at255C/conmanifold
at230c/consparesracks
controlunit
b
2 a Manifoldrmforsmall hospital bcombinedmanifold&sto rm;gases
normallysto:oxygen,nitrousoxide, nitrous oxide/oxygen,compressed air—
mustnotbeput withhydrogenoracetylene;sto must beon ground level for
accessfordeliveryvehiclesfromopenair, notfromcor; singlestorey, noncombustible,1 hrfrmm, 2brickwallsorequivalent; sto normally takes
manifolds&racksforsparecylinders; typicalautomatic manifold with2duty&
2reservecylinders:1630 x 6lodeep:1 extracylindereachsidegives5lo
extraI;2 x manifold—3600
.con,mons
1.__
ganges
0 102030m
32 64966
7
LayoutofteachingcentreKnightCampusUniversityofRhode Island USA
178 Community
Hospita/s
avnumberofstaff on duty atany 1 time approx 20% oftotal employed. If
NON-RESIDENTSTAFFCHANGING
hoursworked bypart-time staff reduced, egto 30 hr/week, percentages
of staff on dutyslightlylower.
As proportion of part-time staff tofull-timeincreases percentageoftotal
staff on dutyatany1 time tendsto decrease. In allinstancesestimate of
staffonduty
%oftotalstaff
full-timestaffonly
1 full-time: 2 part-time
1 full-time: 4 part-time
1 full-time: 10 part-time
19
18
17.5
17
12lX0
basis ofallocation
i locker300 x 550 x 1800
ii locker200 x 550 x 1 800
b
d
S
N
0.43
I
0.5
I
T
I
I
&
LJ_L_IL
mirror
brushup
ar
-6olockers
Changingrm aforcompletechangeusinghanging basketsforclo sto—n(2),ar/P 0.48 m2, ar/Pwith
personallocker0.55 m2; bforstaffrequired tochangedowntounderclothes; locker300 x 500 x 1800;
1 changingspace:8sto lockers; cforstaffrequiredtoremove outdoorclothing;locker200 x 550 x
1 800; 1 changingspace:5sto lockers
I
25.92
6150
4500
II
I
0.41
III [liii!!
--
5
Layoutfor150 personallockers nearuser's
work station
tEIIL
I
.
F
I
I
!
I
I
u
-
6 Bulk sto for384 sets cleanunfiform
EJI
ILII] L. LIIIII
ILIII
LIII
IIIJ
I'
LIII
23.23
4
3 Ancillaryaccnprovidedonpeakusefigures
(peakuseby36staff)
S
II!IHThHHIHI
NI
2sho
Lockerforstaffrequiredto
changedowntounderclothes
egnurses
l2dlangU)gspaces
_J__1__L_J
4
0.55
0.34
2592
9
I
brusliup
a
0.48
chemical disposal bin
comfortable seating &
lowtables
mirrors
C
0.84
0.63
femalestaff 3 wcwith hb
2separatehb
2sho
informalarrangement of
tlIiiiLliLt
IiIIIIIIIIIIiiiI11111 Mliii II11111111 liii[11111 11111111 I
arrii
waitingar
(peakuse
by20 staff)
I
I-
acnn provided
2wcwith hb
3urinals
5separate hb
ii.
0.72
Spacerequiredbyeachemployeeforstoring &
changingclothes:only immediatecirculationar
included;entrances&maincorrvalyaccording to
location &numberof staffinvolved
malestaff
}
II Ii.i41j.UIIL]tft LLLL[IIIIJ
II
2
1
1
liii III
II I
111111 11111111
IlJ
0.81
ia withsmall permanently
allocated lockersadjacent
hangingbasketsallocated on
permanentbasis:sto ofbaskets
behindcounter,changing
separateoradjacent
i singletierhangingbaskets
ii 2-tire hangingbaskets
hanging basketsallocated on
temporarybasis:sf0 of baskets
behindcounter,changing
separateoradjacent
i singletier hanging basket
ia with small permanently
allocated lockersadjoining
ii 2-tier hanging baskets
ha with small permanently
allocated lockersadjacent
liii
12000
b lockersallocated ontemporary
basis,changing&sto combined
i locker300 x 550 x 1800
.4ljlockers.-
I.
a lockersallocated onpermanent
basis,changing&sto combined
c
.'i_i_L_L1
U)
approxtotal
--
bench
S
Max percentageofstaffonduty at any 1 time
1
-
IliIIiIi[iIWiiIHI]]iiIiilIiW
3600
7 Bulk sto forsupply&disposalbagsfrom au:
10—12disposalbagscater approx300staff/week
10 Lockerforstaff requiredto
removeoutdoorclothingonly
obstruction oflockerdoors
byseatedperson
8
lockerdoors
Clearancesforlockers
Smallpersonallockersnear
user's workstation
11
clearancesmustallowfor
12 Hangingbasket:loadedweighs
about8kg
Community
179
Hospitals
codeno
spaces
totalar
OFFICES
65
1
65
11
1
11
As in other industries and services demand for admin space grows
alarmingly. Can bethought ofashaving2components,1 which processes
untar
space
m2
business off; clerks
business off: manager
staff lockers
staff lounge
credit/collections oft creditmanager
credit/collections; off
accounting off: comptroller
accounting off; secretary
accounting off; accountants
accounting off; payroll
accounting/audit; conference
cashier; office
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
3
1
3
7
9
7
1
1
9
11
1
7
9
9
15
9
1
7
3
28
1
9
15
9
information and 1 which usesit. Processors: such deptasmedrecords,
data processing, accounting; users: suchdeptashospital admin, med
staff, financial control.Admissions combine both.
Space requirement for each component different: for processing dept
factors:volumeand typeof information and eqp used orprojected tobe
used:inputchanging rapidly asdata processing advances;foruser dept
peopledetermine spaces.
Individual office spaces similar commercial offices —3235—8.
People formprime design consideration:adminworkersgenerally spend
alldayattheirposts; pleasantenvironmentaccordinglyimportant. Patient
and med staff interface crucial. Privacy of interviews,particularly about
thingsmedand/orfinancial must be considered.
Typical space allocationsfor hospital offices in USA —e(1).
7
7
1
11
1
1
netarfotal
181
90
271
grossing factor (50%)
grossartotal
Offspaceallocations
1
goods
+
receiving
&shipping
perishables
special items
lambulant
P care
surgery!
divisions
IP dept
delivery
I
emergency
todIetary
to
maintenance
orpharmacy
central
general sto
,1\
+
bulkfoods todietary
*
from
US
deptH
to
requisitioning
dept
to alldept
admin
eqp
to
rinted form
,,
Supply
receiving &
ismantlina
(c'1
linen
to alldepl
supplies
neweqP
centralsterile
CGS
tolau
linens
.
3
leaning allitems
ssembling
packs
sterilising
toring
distributing
CSSDfunctionalrelationships
volatile liquids0
pharmacy
separatesf0 I
2
CGSallocations
number ofBserved
commodity
2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000 9000 10000
Sf0Sr
dry provisions
coldsto provisions
staff uniforms
Pclothing
cleaning materials
hardware&crockery
bedding & linen
printing & stationery
dressings
(excCSSD)
CSSD dressings
med&surgical
sundries
disposables
disposablebedpans
&urinals
es-localauthority
items
total
sto ar
non-Sb ar
basic totalar
recommended total
stoar
90
25
125
35
45
5
20
25
15
95
65
10
25
35
20
130
45
20
145
50
80
190
70
105
15
40
55
35
195
215
85
120
25
155
170
60
95
10
40
50
30
175
270
45
60
40
220
245
95
140
15
50
70
45
245
60
25
70
30
80
35
85
35
95
40
105
40
115
45
125
60
50
75
65
95
85
110
125
110
145
95
130
160
145
180
160
195
180
60
75
100
110
130
155
175
185
210
65
620
370
105
125
140
160
180
200
835 1030 1185 1330 1525 1710 1895
390 425 465
475 490 520
555
990 1225 1455 1650 1805 2015 2230 2450
90
215
2085
565
2650
1050 1310 1560 1770 1940 2170 2400 2640
2860
10
35
45
15
105
155
20
55
75
55
275
295
120
170
20
60
85
60
300
50
4
DHI-1Sguide to planning centralsf0:requiredsto ar in m2 withworkingh
between6000 &6500&sto upto5palletsh
permanent
use bedpans
&urinals
SUPPLY STORES& DISPOSAL
Nearly all goods, except sometimes pharmaceuticals and oftenfood,
received and disposed centrally. UK daily av weight goods handled in
600 B hospital 3000 kg, waste produced 1 200 kg. Considerations
relating to central general stores (CGS).
Function: receiving sto, distribution of goods, supplies and movable
eqp; inventory control.
Main planning options: useofdisposables orreusables?Systems for
materials handling, conveying and transport; remote sto possibilities.
Key space: service courtforvehicles, sizedforseparateaccessto bldg
entrypointsforvarious types service traffic—e(2). Receiving dockwith
levellers. Warehouse: special/secure stoareas.
Main design issues: separation of incoming goods from outgoing
material(supplies,eqp,perishables,trash,refuse,soiledgoods); separate
receiptand handling offoodstuffs; internally segregatedstoand control
ofgoods (central supply sto(CSS), pharmacy,engineering); special sf0
requirements: med gases, volatile liquids.
Items classified as fragile, or needing light, moisture or dust control,
needspecial arrangements. Items withhigh security risk (eg radioactive
material, dangerous drugs, inflammable gases, volatile material) must
be stored in accordance with legislation and reg. Guide to UK areas
required —(4).
Sto areas at point-of-use must allow for extraspace required during
public holidayperiodswhen portering staff not available.Usual holiday
(UK):72-hrperiod 4or5times/year—*(5).
Conveying methods vary fromhand-pushed trolleys (carts) toautomatic
conveyor systems; UK experiencesuggestsautomatedsystem, needing
trainedmaintenanceengineers, cannot be justified onsavings expected
in labour costs: suchsystems vulnerable to mech failure or industrial
action.
CENTRALSTERILESUPPLY
Whathappens: centralised receipt, cleaning, packing,sterilisation, sto
and distribution ofreusable supplies (UKcentral sterilised supplydepot
(CSSD)). Special sterileprocessing of goods used inpatient care dept,
particularly surgery, obstetrics, emergency. Functional relationships
Main planning options: closeness of relationship to other materials
handling functions: CGS, Iau against traditional ties to certain users:
surgery, obstetrics. Means of conveyance for sterile goods (dedicated
orgeneral usesystems).
Key spaces: decontamination, sterile processing preparation, stoand
issue.
Main design issues: strictseparationofdirt and cleanworkareas, use
ofsteriliserbank to formseparation; location ofsterilisation function for
surgical instruments.
loadw
cen clearw
1200
1100
1400
1300
1100
1000
900
750
600
450
300
24hr
48hr
72hr
90)
800
600
+
5Storequirementsatpoint-of-useover72-hrholidayperiodfordisposable
&permanentuse items: disposableitemsincrease spacerequired
6 wofload carriedrelatedtowof
corronsf0 ar
7
Reach&space requirements for
avwomancollectingsto
180 Community
Hospita/s
HOUSEKEEPING
What happens:regular,thorough cleaningallparts hospitalwith special
emphasis on infection control in patient care areas and with respect
related materials flow; refuse disposal. Option: linen handling.
Relationships diagram—v(1).
Main planning options: determine effecton workload ofcleanliness
standard desired, extent ofair-conditioning/airfiltration,ease ofcleaning
and maintaining interiorfinishes. Manual or mech means ofconveying
trash(eg pneumatic tube system)? Manner and meansoftrashdisposal
(—±lau/linen services).
Key spaces: housekeeping materials sto (ie maids/janitors cpd, eqp
sto); stafftraining area/admin.
Main design issues: size and distribution of cpd; centralisation of
eqp/materials sto.
LAUNDRY/LINENSERVICE
What happens: dirty linen collected at points of use, conveyed to
centralised sorting stations; washed,extracted, dried, mended, ironed,
stored. Clean linen distributed user dept according quantity and time
schedules, Ifoutside commercialserviceused linencounted andweighed
when sentand received; dirtycollection and clean distribution functions
remain unaffected.
Main planning options:linen load: operating policies on linen use
depend upondisposalsagainstreusables—epi 79(5).Dirty linen collection
DIETARYSERVICES
Most space-consuming ofall service elements.
What happens:meal service toseveralhospital populations:inpatients,
staff, ambulant patients, visitors. Procurement, diet planning, food
preparation, distribution to inpatients by transport means, others by
serving line and diningrm; dishwashing and cleaningof dirty returns.
Main planning options: form ofdistribution: bulk transportfromcentral
kitchentolocal stations in patient unitsagainstcentralised tray make-up
Key spaces: central kitchen: receiving and sto, preparation, cooking,
dish-washing, scullery, waste, trash and garbage disposal. Dining (for
staff, visitors, ambulant patients); service line, table seating; local
distribution stations; nursing floor kitchens or pantries.
Maindesign issues:meansofdistribution of inpatient meals.—uFunctional
relationships food services—v(3).
In UKtrend towards tray service fromkitchen asopposed bulksupplies
to ward—v(5): patients can choose menu day before. Food may travel
several km before reaching destination: insulated trays and plates on
heated carts/trolleys essential. Diet kitchen provides both med and
ethnicdiets.
Machinery noise and vibration can be disturbing, particularly potato
peelers, food mixers and central wash-up machinery.All ventilatorsand
grilles removable and washable. Floors and walls: impervious easy
clean finish; floorsnon-slip; floordrains must have grease traps.
system: handlingand accumulation at points of use, meansofconveyance
to sortingstation, infection control, volume of cart/trolley traffic, overall
cleanliness. Clean linen distribution: cart/trolley system to user dept,
sf0system in units. Inventorycontrol: preventingwasteful use,excessive
wear, lossfrompilfering.
Key spaces: dirty collection and holding: hamper packing,chutes and
vestibules. Lau: area, shape and height forefficient handlingof material
and for employee comfort. Clean linen distribution and sto: cart/trolley
parking, shelf-cabinet sf0.
Main designissues: degree of decentralisationin bed unitsof nurse
workareas and supplies/linen sto. Pneumaticsystem expense against
general cleanliness in patientunits and corridors.Functionalrelationships
9
..—.-—------.mainflowsofsb & food
staff
foodhom dayiarder
2crockerywashed 3centraiwash-up 4diningcrockerysin Sserviceeiovator
towards 6eqpsto 7cartJtroiiey8diningservery 9staffdr 10conveyorDeft 11 wardservery
l2barderraii l3dietk l4dietoff l5ia l6refusesto l7stuilrm l8sio lgteabar20chefoff
21 cio afemate bmaie 22 maink 23vegetabiepreparation24 vegetabiesin 25day ia 26 dry
goodssto 27 plantrm 28fish preparation29 mealpreparation30 pastrypreparation 31 pot
wash 32domesticsupervisor 33 corr 34 meatfresh 35 caienngofficer 36 ramp Arch Oxford
1 scrapingbench
At-IA
5
2
Lau/linenservicerelationships
Kitchen area Wycombe DGHEngland,serves650meals/sitting;
individualfood platesprepared forPon conveyor belt;tilledtray takenby
trolley to wardsby lift; usedtrays& crockery washedcentrally
4
Housekeepingrelationships
Hennepincounty
food preparation
service
typIcalgaflery
3
Foodservicerelationships
cartreceiving
HennepinCountyMedical
CenterMinneapolisUSAhas
automateddeliveryservices
includingmonorail-styletrack&
chain conveyornetworkwith moving
lockers&containersforcarrying
files, allkinds ofmaterials,medicine
&food,deliveredfrom separate food
preparationbldg Arch Medical
FacilitiesAssociates—General
Community
181
Hospitals
5
10
15
30
O
15
4
20 25m
oh 75ft
ClydebankScotlandHC groundfloorwith wingsforlocal healthauthority,
hospitalservices&GP,some amenities being shared 1 consult 2 interview
3 disposal 4waiting 5drugs 6wc 7treatment 8 lob 9test 10typist
11 sterilesto 12sto 13telephone 14switchboard 15secretary
16records&reception 17 entrance 18play centre
1
COMMUNITYHEALTHCARE
Community health care inUK, alongside general practitioner (GP), now
principally provided by health centre (HO). In USA 'free-standing'
ambulatory unitsfall into several categories, in addition to physician's
office, generally with twofold aim providing preventative medicine and
making available health care atlower cost than involved in full hospital
treatment. Each such unit starts with programme worked out meet
marketneeds within service area, community or region. Various types
unit include Health MaintenanceOrganization (HMO), founded some
40 years ago asalternative insuranceprogrammeforindustrialworkers,
primary care centres in rural areas tor emergency exam and treatment
(include pre-hospital beds), community healthand social centres usually
founded by local or regional government. Each of these may contain
some, all or more services than UK HC. Larger ones often attached
hospitals.
HC primary activities: consult, exam and minor treatment backed by
med records, reception, waiting and sto areas. Basic amenities must
include: pram and carparking, wcforpatientsand staff, changingareas,
rest rm with kitchenette forstaff.
Secondary activities forlargeHC may include diagnostic and treatment
services — physiotherapy, chiropody, dentistry, radio diagnosis and
pharmacy — and health clinics for education and assessment, off for
health visitors,domiciliary nurses, social workers etc.
Viable size for HC consulting resources for not less than 6 GP, but as
vital to place HO near population served may be smaller and less well
equippedin rural areas.
On basis 1 GP has approx 2500 patients, centre for 6 GP will serve
population
of 15000 and for 12 GP 30000. Assume health visitor can
coverapprox3500 and district nurse 2500people.
Sitesmust be near public transport routes; access fromroads and car
parks must be designed for wheelchair—p19 43 166 and pram users.
lp
9
15
3b
15m
455
2 CrieffScotlandHC 1 consult 2dirtyuty 3urinetest 4wr 5healthvisitor
6telephone 7k 8staff 9boiler 10disposal 11 do 12toilets 13reception
14 treatment 15entrance
Entrancesshould be protected from rain and prevailing winds and have
covered and well supervised pram park.Allow forprotecteddisposalarea
forwaste: check with local authorityor health authorityhow tobecollected.
Large centres may requireseparatestaff and service entrance; patients
entrance may need canopyhigh enough take ambulance—p166(2).HO
groundsshould beattractivebutsimply landscaped formm maintenance.
Manyrm in HO serve same purpose as equivalent rm in OPD: same
layoutcan be used with minor adaptations. Main difference: HO do not
deal with suchlarge numbers of patients; nor do they deal with acute
med and surgical cases needing sophisticated diagnosticand treatment
eqp. Rm which can easily be adapted for HO are set out —+p166—7;
most importantare: wheelchairwcp167(6),disposalrm, p167(8),dinette
& urine test rm, p167(5), ambulance dimensions, p166(2), automatic
doors, p166(4), disabled patients car parking, pl66(3).
Waiting
Provide general waiting area. Small forward waiting areas required for
each group of consult rm. Assuming appointmentsystem, allow 7.0 n?
waiting areaforeach suite. Seatingshould becomfortableand informal.
3200
3
Dentalsuite,2-man practice; dentalchair(165—200 kg),dentalunit
(51 kg) needfirm fixingtofloor;services required: water,waste,gas, el,
compressedair 1 hb 2couch 3curtain 4armchairs 5recoveryrm
6steriliser 7aspirator 8sk 9disposal 10dental chair 11 smalldental
surgery 12worktop 13dentaleqpcabinet 14operating lamp 15cartltrolley
16 anaestheticcart/trolley 17desk 18largedentalsurgery 19 gasoutlet
20benchwith benchpin 21 wastehole bin below 22dustextract 23duckboard 24 dentalworkshop 25filing 26 DDAcpd 27dentalunit
Med records
Med records in 2 sizes: standard 175 x 125, new A4 in folders 310 x
240. Sto may bein shelves, filing cabinetsorrotaryfilingunits. Including
access these methods require floor space 1 .5—2.0 m2/1000 records.
Shelves cheap butoffer nosecurity; cabinetsexpensive butsecure and
adaptable;rotary notsecureand expensive.Allow for increaseinnumbers
of records.
Dental clinic —(3)
Dental clinicfor2-man practice consists of 2 surgeries (1 large enough
for principal surgery), recovery rm with couch and basin for postanaesthesia patients, dental workshop and waiting area plus normal
central records and reception area. Allow 9.5 m2 waiting area for 2
surgeries. Surgeries should have NEaspect if daylight needed buttrend
towardstheatre-type operating lamps and more mobile eqp. Obscured
glazingrequired for windows.
Chiropodyroom—(4)
Should be on ground floor oraccessible by elevator.
4
Hospital references:
—*Bibliographyentries 013014017020022023024025054 218219
220262 294 296 303 315 336 337 341 349354 362 419 420 421 478
Chiropodyrm,11.0m2
525547551 559560576577578647
182
Commerce
Churches
celebrant's
chair highaltar
communion
CflOi,tl sidealtar
hafor
orchestra
vestry
sacristyflC
sacnsty
dom
i_tp1p1t I
pulpit
&
hafor
baptistryIf' 4N
towers
altar
communicant
choir
t
sarcophagus
DesignforBerlinerDom
(Lutheran)GermanyArchSchinkel
1
2 Typical Roman Catholicchurch
layout
entrance font
ladychapel
—i
high
with
lantern
over
pressionaI door
4
St Paul Bow Common (Anglican)
LondonEnglandArch R Maguire
and Russian), Reformed,RomanCatholic,separationbetween Orthodox
and Roman dating fromearliest history of Christianity, break between
Reformed and RomanCatholic from 16th century.
In Roman Catholic churches emphasis now placed onmass in common
tongue; altar usually raised. Reformed order of service depends on
whether 'high', 'low' or 'free'. Some likeness between forms of Roman
Catholic, High Anglican and High Presbyterian (Scotland and USA).
Free followCalvinist and Lutheran origins with emphasis on preaching
and communion carried out round 'Lord's Table', usuallycentrallyplaced
with nearbypulpiteither behind table orto left hand side. Baptists need
large heated water tank usually under removable floor for inititiation by
total immersion. Fonts used almost universally for initiation into main
groups and dedication into others. Many newer religious sects have
idiosyncratic requirements related to special forms and musical performances. In USA Protestantchurches have approx70million members,
Roman Catholic 50million, Orthodox4million.
Churches throughout world now have strong community concern;
planning often relates to weekday uses; keyword flexibility. Ancillary
accn, according to programme, may incorporate, eg coffee rrn, counselling rm, meeting rm, radio station. Car parking must be taken into
account. Centralised planpopular;but ritualistic, processionaland oblong
forms also used. However, importance ofpriest, pastororleader should
not belost; liturgical functions carried outbyindividualchurches of great
importance in design.
More recently new factors have emerged, among them security of
church property, adequate acoustic design (for music and voice) and
provision fordisabled.
high
sacristy communicants
altar sacristy
wc
9
side
tar
congregationa
chapel
font
pul
GENERALARRANGEMENT
Main divisions ofChristian churches today: Orthodox (principallyGreek
erPU2
5 Circular Protestant church
Roman Catholicchurch
Cologne-RietilGermany
Arch D Bôhm
6
0
EssenGermanyArch Bartning
'Iss,y
-
—
communion
—
—
pulpit.
pulpit
•
UI
II
Lrr
sacrlstry-
7
CorpusChnsti(RomanCatholic)
churchAachenGermany
Arch A Schwarz
"-i'
—altar
stage
chapel
J
10 OrthodoxchurchofSt SavaMcKeesport USA ArchPekruhn
wc
k(tea)
8 Church&parishha(Reformed)
1-lanweilerGermany
Arch R Kruger
¶ii
--4—
-
2
--f---FllI—i11
—
9 Notre Damedu Raincy(RomanCatholic)ParisFranceArch A Perret
key 1 sanctuary 2nave 3pulpit 4baptislry 5secondaryaltars
6confessional
11 StMichaelHatfieldHyde (Anglican) WelwynGarden City England Arch
Clarke HallScorer& Bright
key 1 entrance 2chapel 3vestly 4pulpit&lectern 5baptistry 6altarwith
baldachino
Community 183
Churches
seatw= 500-550
hathook
—
eso
INTERIORS,FURNISHINGS
a = 850—950
b = 50—140
a = 800—900
Seating
Seatw= 500—550
In some churches provision for worshippers to kneel not necessary
—(1); inotherssimple hassock or kneeler incorporated in bench—(2).
Most important measurement for benches with kneelers: distance of
outside edgeof kneeler, when foldeddown, fromperpendiculardropped
fromarm rest: approx 175—200.
I
350
i50fJt
160
Area/seat required: withoutkneeling rail 0.4—0.5 m2—(1); with kneeling rail0.43—0.52m2—(2).
_________________
heating
I
2
Seatingwithout kneerail
Aisles
Seatingwith knee rail
Dimensions —*(3)—(6). Cold radiation from external walls makes side
aisles advantageous. Centralaisle useful for processionalentryand exit
in larger churches. In UK aisle should be provided for every 8—10
persons length of bench (benches more than 10 persons long need
aisle ateach end— in USA more than 7persons). Including aisles allow
0.63—1.0 m2/P. For standing allow 0.25—0.35m2; on crowded occasionswall space and rear aisles may be used. Width of exitdoors and
stairs should complywithregforplaces ofassembly—*p401.
_____
T'
_________
I2__
T
J._________
4
5
Pulpit
_____
Requirements vary from church to church —(7)(8)(10). Usually raised
with steps; but growing practice also place on level of sanctuary or
raised 1 step. In RomanCatholicchurches pulpit nowlikelybe replaced
by2 ambos or reading desks, 1 ateach side. In 'free' churches pulpit of
central importance. In all churches essential preacher be visible to
whole congregation.
6
Altars—(9)
_________
_____
__________________________________________________________
3—6 Aisle
___________________________
__________________________
Roman Catholic and some Anglican churches have sacrament houseor
tabernacle (small decorated cupboardwith lockabledoors, bolteddown
and immovable: —*cataloguesof church furnishers): may be in side
chapel oron plinth behind main altar,some2000away. Separate side
chapel sometimes desired.
pulpit)
4t
lectern
altar
Sacristy
Font
pulpit
font
centrelineof aisle
_________________________
7 Pulpit&attarinsame axis
centre lineofaisle
_________________________
Pulpitsidewaystoaltar
8
—
9
Altar tableforsmall reformed
churches
In Reformed churches altar usually placed close rear wall; may have
passage at back. Many Roman Catholic and someAnglican churches
now have altar in centre ofsanctuary: priest orcelebrant stands behind
to face congregation forpurpose of worship.
Used for baptism; often symbolically placed in or near entry of church,
though in Protestant churches in USA sometimes placed conveniently
for baptism to formpartof main service. May be 1 or2 steps lower than,
and separate from, main body of church (baptistry —p182(2)(9)(1 1)),
with room for up to 30 people to stand during baptism. For Baptist
churches immersion tank—p182.
Confessional boxes
Best placed in aisles: separate compartments for priestand penitent
—*(13).Construction mustbesound proof.
10 Pulpit(microphoneshave
madesoundingboardunnecessary)
550
550
11
Lectern
12
Font
13
Confessional box
550
184 Community
Churches
GALLERIES,ORGAN
Galleries
viewovershoulder
&head
Increase seating capacity for same area; also improve acoustics if
suitable distance from pulpit: common in Reformed churches. Have
tiered seating so that congregation at back may see and hear better.
Convenient positions: opposite altar wall (for organ and choir) or
sidewaysopposite pulpit. Height of gallery determined by necessary
free sightofcongregation beneath itin relationto altar and pulpit. Stairs
and exits from galleries must comply with reg for assembly halls.
RequirementlP 0.7—1.0 m2inclusive ofgangways—(1).
viewover
shoulder
100—140
Galleryseatingtiered,riserswith
lighting:must be possibleseealtar
oratleastpulpit over headsof
occupantsofsecondrowinfront
1
Choir galleries
2
Smallorgan (Walckertype)with
15stopsforchurchha&smaller
churches
1300—1600
Infrontoforgan —*(5) have 100—150 high steps (increasingfronttorear)
and are 1 000—1 200wide.Ifdesirable choiron loose chairs arranged in
semi-circle infrontofconductor; if necessaryorgan console canalsobe
in front ofconductor with orchestra seats built upbehind toachieve unity
between organ, orchestra and choir. Next to conductor's desk and
organ console largecupboard for musicsheets; outsidegallery suitable
cloakrm forchoirmembers.
Organs
3 Chamberorgan (Walcker-Jahn)
with about275 pipesforha
organ
I
4
Organwith manualclosedby
rollershutter
I:
/
\
\\Lorganist
I
steps (Or choir V,organconsole
conductor
120h
orchestra
5 Organ &choir: organconsolein
frontofconductor,organdivided
'.W
organist
stepsforchoir
rgan
120 h
harmonium
conductor console
6
Organ& choirwith harnionium &
organ placedtoeach side,
otherwiseas5
7
SectionthroughVuoksenniskachurchImatraFinland withgallery&
organ Arch Aalto
1J ft
8
Each voice needs width of 2000—3000 and 250 depth. Each voice
weighs 200kg therefore 10-stoporgan needsarea (if 3000—4000)hof10
(3 x 250) = 7.5 and weighs 10 x 200 = 2000kg,therefore approx
300 kg/m2. But organ specialists ask for 750 kg/m2. Height determined by length of pipes. Largest: 32 ftopenvoicepipe 11 m high with
sounding board; is passed through several storeys or may be bent.
Determining factor: 8ftpipe, 3000high with sounding board. Therefore
storey height for smaller churches may be 3000—4000, for larger
churches 4000—5000. Organ may be divided —*(5). Bellows best in
separate rm if possible. Organ builder should be consulted at planning
stage, also regarding appearanceofvisual pipes.
m
main organbellows
I
music
do'—
I
sheets
j±4rgan
:j:
Specialist should be called in for organ installation (acoustic specialist
also important). Size oforgan (number of voices and stops) notsimply
relative to sizeof church asvolume variable, butgenerally:
smaller churches 200—300m3/voice
medium churches 300—400m3/voice
largerchurches 400—500m3/voice
Romancatholicparishchurchwith organ &choirgalleryat Wend Arch
Schwarz
In USAorgansoftenelectronic.
Community
185
Mosques
m,hr6b
wall
::;::::: :
i
i:::.:j
L±L
©
•
uL;: li
awt
flJL.
,4::::::::
entrance
1
Simple mosquearrangement:
Tlemcen Mosqueofal-Mansur
2
Friday MosqueIsfahan:
8th—I 7th centuriesAD
1303—1306 AD
-
-
I..
'
-
court
1•I..i
I..
m
______
32 64 tt
gateways
3
Mosqueof az-ZãhirBaybars:
1266—9 AD
4
Mosque&courtSehzade
MehmetIstanbul: 16th centuryArch
Sinãn
•
5
dorne53mh mrhrab
Holy mosque at Mecca, most holy sanctuary of Islam, to which all
mosques should preferably face (arrows in illustrations),houses ka'bah.
Ka'bah stands inhugecourtyard surrounded byarcaded precinct which
formspattern for many subsequent examples. However, mosques vary
extensivey throughout Islam from square village hall types to great
historical examples in Egypt, Syria, Spain, Iran, Turkeyand India. Few
purpose builtexamples in W: many sects, with varying needs, adapt or
rent existingbldg for Friday prayers and for the twoid celebrations,for
Islamic newyearand end of Ramadan.
3 main types oftraditional mosque: early open plan, usuallyto befound
arcades, colonnades and courtyards incorporating areas of water —
most important for ablutions but also for cooling. These elements often
used symbolically in designs and heavily ornamented or planned as
landscape features round mosques. Main architectural feature mihrab
basic to allmosques: setinwallfacingMecca (k/b/a wall),oftenemphasised
bywindows orby dome above. Monumentalgrandeur ofmosque came
largely through need to enclose activities in harsher northern climates
but also related to advances in vault construction in 11th and 12th
centuries AD; thus domed mihrab area was enlarged by single vault
prayer hall or 4 vaultiwansor //wans arranged symmetrically around
court. Tendency usethispatternwithopenorclosed courts according to
climate.
Minaret
'Call to prayer' toweroften attached to mosque: name derives from
'lighthouse'. After introduction of loudspeakers little used for calling.
Types varyfromnoneto cylindrical needle minarets inglazed tile with 1
I-+4
0 lOm
Early mosques characterised by wide and shallow shape —÷(1 )(2) to
enable ranked formation ofbelievers face mihrab wall.(Mihrab itself is
niche resembling door: highly decorated featurein laterexamples.)
in desertregions; central court, patterned after Mohammed's house at
Medina; opencourt, with 4vaulted halls (iwans) 1 oneach side ofcourt.
Mosque bldg have followed climatic needs for shade through use of
domedarc,vermihrb
.•...
Mosque place of prayer forMuslims: not necessarilybldg. Term derives
from masjid, meaning prostration. Prayer as community act not mentioned in Quran but derives from prophet Mohammed's Friday communal meetings. Friday sermon (khutba) set piece, made fromtop of
stairs (minbar), oftenincorporated as feature.
Suleymaniyecomplexincluding
mosque Istanbul; covers6000Cm2
& includesnumerousancillarybldg
Arch Sinän
high gallery, common in Iran; typewith 2—3 galleriescapped with wood
conesand based on polygonal plan in Turkey; often 2—6 minarets per
mosque in somecountries, depending on size.
Segregation
Male worshippers only in most mosques although gallery for women
oftenfound. Some sects, eg Ishmailis,fully integrated.
Ablutions
Requirement ofthefaith; modern western examples—e(7) include these
with other toiletarrangements in partof bldg nextto nearby congregation hall.
Planning
Because of ranked formation allow 680—1 250/standing P incongrega-
tion hall. Carpets and other floor coverings required as faithful are
barefoot: sto space forshoesrequired. Axial layout common butopen
courtyard forprayers useless inWclimates.
Decoration
Accepted generallyshould be non-representational
although notdecreed.
This rigidly observed tradition, however, allows free use of calligraphic
devices from Quran which forms valuablecounterpart to plain surfaces
and basic architectural forms.
b,ns
sunke
garden
0
5 10 15
21)
•244
makkarl
rn
It
Londoncentralmosque agroundfloor b lowergroundfloor
Arch Gibberd& Partners
6
_____________________
186
Community
Synagogues
No formal architectural precedent forsynagogues (literally 'assembly);
tend to followarchitectural styleof country in which built. Dual function
ofplace ofworship and of social orcommunity meetings tendsdemand
complex of bldg. 3 divisions of Jewry all require space for prayers;
conservative and reform Jews use choir and organ butorthodox Jews
donot use instrumental music.
Liturgical furniture consists of: ark, focal pointgenerally at E containing
scrolls; paroches, curtain-typecovering; candelabrumtoright;pulpit for
rabbi and cantor. Furniture mounted on berna, raised platform at centre
(orthodox) orendof hail (conservative,reform).
I
:
12
Second commandment proscribes 'making of graven images, so
ornamentation floral or geometric.
-
9
.
0
2
3b
3pm
do
3 Beth Israel Synagogue&schoolOmahaUSA:seats650 insanctuary &
extra 800in congregational assemblyha;courtyardprovides additional multiuseflexibility 1 congregational h 2synagogue 3rostrum 4stage 5k 6sto
&uty 7foyer Bcantor 9rabbi 100ff 11 chapel l2court l3classrrn Arch
Kivett&Myers
12
.7Ii
76
9 8 L6
2
9
1
1
0
5
45
Om
.3
don
4
14'
ic
1
0
KTISynagogueNewYork:accommodates upto 1000;noteflexiblespace
forsocial andlor religioususe 1 socialha 2sanctuary 3k 4entrancefoyer
Arch PhilipJohnson
1
2
JewishCentreWestOrangeUSA:allweeksocial, religious&educational
use; chapelseats250—350; multi-purposerm upto750onhighholy days
Arch David BrodyJuster&Wisnuewski
21
4
23
10 20
p 4 5 mft
odo9o1o
TempleBethElUSA:normalseating1000canbeextendedto 1600;bldg
includesprovisionforreligiouseducation, lib& dramaticpresentations
1 temple 2retiringrm 3chair sto 4classr 5supply&mimeograph rm
6off 7coveredentrance 8vestibule 9lob lotemplegarden 11 pool
12chapel 13socialha 14socialgarden 15ante-mi 16rabbioff 17women
18men 19 lib 20stage 21 k 22 dressing rm 23driveway Arch Percival
Goodman
5 Planofmain floor ParkSynagogue&community centreCleveland USA
Arch Erich Mendelsohn
Community 187
Mortuariesand crematoria
MORTUARIES
1
3l0—,
350
Dead kept in cellsseparated by partitions (usually sheetmetal, sometimes plants) —v(3). In larger mortuariesgangwayforbearers separated
from visitor's —(3b), from which relatives may see dead through airtight glass panes before funeral service. Protruding piers between cells
preventinconvenience to different groupsof mourners —s(3b). Usual
dimensionsof cells:
450—600
780—900
,
Urn &coffin
1
2200x 3500
750—1100
2500 x 3750
3000 x 3500
2
I
C'J
i
visitors
bearers
.1
:.
visitors
I
CJ
huH
LLIL!LLIL
a
:.
I
I
2°to 12°C; if it fell below mm figure frost could
expand corpses. This temp range maintained by central heating, air
conditioning and, specially in summer, ventilation. Floorsmutbeimpervious, smooth and easyto cleanse; walls best lime washed (frequent
renewal advisable). Larger mortuaries also need rm for guard and
bearers 15—26 m2 inclusive oftoilets and lavatories.Stand for hearses
also needed.
Tempin mortuary:
wneededbybearers
...
1
bearers 8
visitors
Mm
In city morturaries special rm may be set aside for unidentified bodies
with sto for their clothing, next to which locate post-mortem rm and
surgery—s(6).
bearers
(::..:.:::.i
250O
CREMATORIA
Furnace room
3
Mortuarylayouts
[acnn
wreaths
T
wreaths
j,_,Ob,,j
proiestani
priest
rails
catholic
priest
coffin
chapel
—
Plan ofinstallationwithfurnace
belowchapel
4
—
5
Furnacerm behindchapelwith
interveninglob
Should beeitheron lowerfloorwith liftforcoffins —n(4)orbehindchapel,
separated from it by lobby —v(5)(6). Horizontal transport with handoperated winches easiest, hydraulic lifts being necessary for vertical
movement. Lobby door orfloor trap designed to shut slowly as coffin
disappears through opening.
In furnace rm coffin taken from transport carriage and transferred to
chamotte grating infurnace. Cremation performed byspecial coke, elor
gas-fired furnace consuming 45 kW per cremation. Height of 2-storey
furnace 4300. Cremation completely dust freeand odourless by means
of900—1 000°C dry air; no flames reachdeceased. Furnacepre-heated
for2—3hrand cremation itself lasts 1—1 1/4 hrafter which ashesgathered
in iron boxforsto in urn. Cremation supervised through peep-holes.
Chapel
Cremation installations should ifpossible lie atrear ofcemetery chapel,
whichserves all denominations. Sizeof chapel varies: must be at least
100 seats and 100standing places; also 1—2rm forrelatives(which may
be addedto chapel rm) and such ancillary rm as may prove necessary
Administration
Conveniently close by chapel should be admin rm: 1 for director, 2—3
offices,coffin sto, flats forcemetery keeper and boilermanetc; nursery
can be located nearby, with greenhouse —+pl 11, rm for gardener and
landscape architect, worker's rm, stoforeqp and seeds, and toilets.
Urns & gravestones
Oftenlimitedin size by cemetery reg —(1); wall niches in columbaria
usually 380—400wide and deep, and 500—600 high.
I
drive
6
Layoutofmortuarywithcrematorium andancillarymiforlargecemetery
Religious buildings references
—Bibliography entries 005 070 072 160 184 311 312478579 620
188 Commerce
Shops & stores
SITUATION
each floor
stockrm
controller/buyer
Prominent sites in population centres served by convenient public and
private transport. Carparking standards in UK, 3.5—5.25 car spaces per
lOOm2grossretail area(3—4changesday). In USA max 150 cars/acre.
Access
admindirectors
personel
accounts
advertising
1
Pedestrians, vehicles and delivery traffic should be kept separate;
shopping centre best restricted to pedestrians, short connexions
(covered to protectfromsun and rain) linking parking area and shops.
Bus stops or underground railwaystations may be adjacenttoshopping
centrewith direct access. Max distance between shopper's car orbus
stop or station and principal shops should be 201 m and should be
withininnerdistribution road system.
taffaccn
canteen
lockers
training
rest rm
lecture rm
medical care
Plananalysisofrm& routesofcustomers &goods
Spaceallocation—*(l)
Large stores may have lecture and demonstration rm, restaurants,
cafes, kindergartens, banks, post office, travel agencies, cinema and
garden area.Small shops often grouped in shoppingcentre —*pl 99—201.
Design begins with allocating space to units, conforming to tire and
other reg, followed by subdivision into sales areas, internal service
areas, jointservices etc.
Sales areas
Should be immediately above one another and asnear entranceflooras
possible. Basement betterfor selling than additional upper storey, so
stock rm and staff rm best located on upper storeys, with offices on
highestfloor.
Storeyheights
2
Free standingmodularsheMng
units makeupmajorpartoffurniture
in modemestablishments
mainpassage
For largeunits, 4000—5000;forsmall units, 3000dependenton services
(UK practice). Unnecessary floor to floor heights deter customers and
are tiring to staff. Shop units do not rely on natural lightbut on artificial
lightingwith mechventilation.
Structuralgrid
i200N
mainpassage
EBEB1
§
E
3
Aisles
Recommended mm aisle width: 1 980, subsidiary aisles 990. Counter
heights generally 920. Systemmodulesvary accordingto type ofshelving
and bracketing used.
3
J13
—.
Column dimensions and centres determine lay-out of fittings. Recommended structural grid: large units, between 7300and 9000width
on frontage and 9150depth; small unitsbetween 5300and 6000width
on frontage, 18to 36m depth front to back.
mainpassage
20i-
40 +266 420-1
Ft I
Functionaldisplaystandsfor
differenttypes of merchandisewith
units running betweenequalcolumn
centres
f144
.
100
4 Arrangementof furnitureunits
5
Sectionthroughshopsalesfloor withaislewwhichhaveprovedpractical inuseforpersonalservice
14
T
LJ1
II 110
LI;
flH
_____
11I1
- 20
—iii 41
j
Commerce 189
Shops & stores
k::m;
cable
duct
L<j
from
MOVEMENTBETWEEN FLOORS
groundfloor
salesar
fl
Number and widths of staircases —xp408 Bib5Ol 628 and exits prescribed
by reg. In UK number of staircases relatedto travel distances, widths of
staircasesand exits relatedtooccupancy,eg UK practice calculates loadas
follows: ordinary consumer goods 1.9 m2 gross floor area/P; specialised shops 7 m2grossfloorarea/P.
11
1rl.dispiay
diy9w4
trmii
upperfloor
window
basement
Separateexitsfrom basement&
upperfloors instair well
1
2 Emergencystairsin multi-storey
bldg
r
3
4
Unimpededexit fromstairs
5°5
122
N
-..
30.5
Max distancefromenclosed
inUK
staircase
iii
41111111111111111111
lllllllllllll
IIIII
5 Back-to-backarrangement of
elevators
6
Combination of elevators &
escalators
-
Ancillaryrm onmezzanine level
Should be in groupsvisible fromentrance; in large stores in centre of
bldg not more than 50 m fromanypart ofsales floor.May be arrangedin
groupsback to back or incombination with escalators —x(5)(6).
Escalators—*p409
Essential when mm of approx 2000 P/hr must be transported; should
run in successive series (return flights) toall sales floors, both directions.
Best placed in centreof floorvisible from all entrances: pitch 30In UK
may need tobeenclosed tocomply with fire reg;normally open in USA.
Refreshment rm oftenon top floor with kitchen and hoist tosto.
2200
7
Elevators—xp4l 0—2
In USAelevators onlyused forcarrying goods; notcommon in new dept
stores: nearly all have escalator bands, parallelorscissor.
2200
.1
Different reg governmulti-storey stores and shops, and 1-storey small
shops. Except for 1-storeyunits UK reg require shop bldg to be divided
into compartments notexceeding 7080m3—xtire reg. This prevents use
of very largestaircases, makes use of escalators difficult and restricts
features suchas open wellsbetween more than 2floors—n( 1)—(4),
In USA determine total occupancy, consult national and local codes:
bldg classified by use and fire ratings; open floor areas subject to
sprinkler systems, fire curtains, specified exits etc.
Most customers use escalators; elevators availableforexpress service.
Numbers of customers to be transported fromground floor estimated
fromdensity x storey area x number of storeys (8O% on escalators,
20% elevators); this figure must be divided by capacity of transport
chosen to give number of elevators and escalators required.
Ancillary rm
8 Goods deliveryinparkingbays
Wc,telephone booths, staff cloakrmand lavatoriescommonly placed on
mezzanine floor —u(7); oftenplaced in basement in USA, alsobargains
—(10).
Goodsdelivery
NocTNNJNJ
sales
5000
luxurygoods
NfNJNJNJNJ
salesservice
5000
clothes
2500
fast sellinglines
5000
bargains
---I9
Separated from customer circulation, frequently in goods yard or by
delivery ramps. Delivery may be made to goods sto connected to
general sf0, perhaps with automatic conveyors. If delivery difficult in
busy street, parking bays recommended —u(8). Circulation through
receiving rm, sto rm etc, to selling positions —r(10). Refuse and waste
has to be handled from dept back to despatch through waste disposal
dailynecessities.
restaurant,demonstrations
2500
Intermediate stockrm floors
which take floor structure (in USA
stockdeliveredfromgroundfloor or
area.
10
Favourablearrangementof
goodsforefficientsellingon sales
floor
basement)
backwardsliding downward withhatch
frombasement
sliding
II><IDI2.
— 3000
11
—F-
3000
—4—
Singledisplaywindow
3000 —
[:i
1 12
4—
1
°°.
I
1000
-4 i—
L__J
t6o0
i.—
12 Continuousdisplaywindow
with movablecpdunits
1000
—
5000
-
•.
'iHT!
services cpd
—.—
—4
5000
13 Accessfrom behindcolumns
I .........
—-4
14
.- s
accessgangway
5000
Withaccessgangway
cpd
—4—-
190 Commerce
Shops & stores
--
SERVICEDETAILS
5000
—-1
Back-upstock
Either on 1 floor,preferably top salesfloor,or on each floor in separate
backstock rm areaoron low mezzanine floors—pl89(9).
2000
Goodstransport
hoist, chute, roller conveyor, conveyor belt,
ramp conveyor, spiral chute, fork-lift,palleted trolley.
By trolley (cart), goods
500500
—
I—
3400
Displaywindowextendedby
havingshop entrancebehindit &
staircaseto upperfloors set back:
internalw of shopmm 2600
1
500
5650
Displaywindows—(1)—(8)
—
2
Very deepshopsoftenpermit
extensivedisplaywindows,
impressiveeven ifshopitself quite
small
=
Separate fromcustomers,ifnecessaryinconjunctionwith goodsdelivery;
own stairs to cloakr, whichshould be 0.4—0.5 m2/P.Staff rm preferably
on top floor.
Shouldbeatmm rate of1 for25females, 1 forevery 25 males upto 100
and 1 for every40thereafter; however, ratio of 1:15 recommended,with
washbasins prorata. Staff should beprovided with drinking water, rest
rm, lockerrm, drying arrangementsforoutdoor clothes, control oftemp,
ventilation and lighting, seating (UKreg).
2300
6250
]
—-
---H
Building regulations
6001er
tI3500
Staff entrance
Staff wc
-H
--
Interchangeable fitments usual in dept stores. In designing window
spaceimportant give easyaccess to display, with mm loss of display
spaceat back—p1 89(13)191(1 )—(4).
3000 —i--- 3000
—
3
Deepshops mayhavewide
vestibuleswith displaywindowsat
anglestoentrance,attracting
customersawayfromstreettraffic
4
5 Fornarrowfrontagerecess
entrancetoprovidelargerdisplay
area&anglesofviewthroughoffsets
6 Byslantingentirewindowar&
Centraldoorssuitableforshops
6000—6200wide; countersmay
beinstalledonboth sides;shouldbe
cash!wrapneardoor
havingdoorsinsameline, ideaof(5)
isdevelopedtoitslogicalconclusion
Consultreg on construction, eqp and finishes ofshopsand stores. In
UK: openings inwall must beof appropriatefrconstruction and comply
with appropriate bldg reg. Division floorsmust be of approved fr construction with all vertical communication between floorscut off. Floor
heights usually governed bygeneral bldg height limits laid down byreg.
Sales areas should be mm 3000 high.
B
Properlyplacedfittingsallow
customerstomove fromentranceto
sales counter,cashdesk,issuing
counter&exit withoutreverse
circulation
9 Noseparationbetween
customer&sales staff:wholermat
disposalofcustomer(self-service)
i4
dispay'ndow
7 Automaticinstallation foropening&closingdoors(1-leafdoorwith 2-way
passage,entrance&exit coupled):aphoto-elcell &light barrier;
b contactmat
/
10 Shopforindividual consult,
fitting tables,egfortryingon
spectaclesin optician
11
Flowershop with largewindow
&display ar: rearofshopfor
arrangingflowers
Commerce 191
LJ
narrow deep
frontage
window
dressing ar
______
max windowat
frontage
j
narrow flat
frontage
[XI
Shops & stores
iDJ
wide frontage
yj
wide frontage
SERVICE DETAILS
Stock & despatch rooms
Sto and workshops to be separated from sales areas by fr walls and
floors(UK reg), thesetobe treated as separate sto areasand to comply
with restrictions on compartment size.
Entrance&exits
Inbldg ofover 1 500 m2usable floor areaallyards should have entrances
entranceto
separate
offover
____________island
showcase
max display
door access
__________________
[din
Li El
maxcustomeraccess
withshowcases
Shopfront layoutvariations: deepwindowplanssuitableforfashion,
furnitureetc,shallowforjewellery,books,stationeryetc
1
and exits sited as far apart as possible. Entrances and passages: mm
heightand widthclearance 3700on level ground—WK reg: access for
fire appliances. Turning circleforappliance 17 m. Roadsto take laden
weightof 10.1 t. Distance of any point from entrance max 25 m. On
ground floor exitsand main aisles for customerstobe 1070wide forfirst
200 people, additional 152 foreach additional 30 people. Where 2 exits
required each opening tobe wide enough for full number ofoccupants.
Exit doorsto openoutwards: nosliding doors —Bib1 17 601. Amounts
and type ofglazing controlled by reg.
Stairs—*p408
Preferably on outside walls with direct exit to open air or through
entrance hall etc (UK reg). From each part of upper floor mm 2 stairs,
withindistance of 30.5 m. Rm in vicinity of 1 staircase only must be no
furtherawaythan 15m.
Width for first 200 people 1070; additional 152 for each additional 30
people. Rise/going 125—250 mm (UK reg). Stairs to basements enter
directfromopenairorseparated fromstairsto other floors by lobbies.
shallowest
natural
Iighy.
beam 'a'
from(2)
L..E
2 Insufficientday orartificial
lightingreflectslighterbldgopposite
orviewer
3
Reflection
reduced
substantially
ifstronglightstrikes
backon display
aboveeyelevel of viewer
All rmforstaff and customers must haveemergency lighting independent
ofmain lighting. Forcirculationareas, stairs,exits etcspecialemergencylitdirection signs.
WINDOWS
Shopwindow'simpact determines itsvalue. Almost useless: dazzling,
reflecting panes, deepdarkwindows near bright pavements: goods for
sale can only beseen with effort —(1 )(2).
Shopwindows now rely forimpact on artificial light.
Sun blinds necessary to protect goods on all aspects except N facing.
Fascia totake sign:integral to shop front and relativeto sun blind.
Cold
Condensation and ice on frosty windows can be avoided for windows
connected with shop bywarm aircirculationoverwholearea,if necessary
by ventilator; forenclosed casesventilation slotsin shop frontwindows
required.
Provision may beneeded forfreshair intake intoslip through louvres or
mechintake over shop window or overdoors.
4
Typicalshop frontcomponents
I
:•::•::::•:•:-:•:•::•:•:•:•:::•:.:-.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:•:
WIOdOWS
above
stock
cpd
I
F
'
a
0
worlishopfor
small
alterations
chang
T1T{][
5 Bldg with side wing&backyard (typicallayoutofrentedaccninGerman
cities) suitableforshops:goodsforpassingtradeongroundfloor,on upper
floorworkshopsforalteration,fittingrm, stock rmetc; in basementdo,wc&
ancillaryrmforstaff a groundfloor bupperfloor
b
192 Commerce
Shops & stores
Fire
-ii!—
a
1
solid
glass
I
very good
Ip
Impactsiting: amaxfrontage&display;
excellent
Special fire precaution installations:smoke detectors,automatic warning
systems, sprinklers. Compartment size —p189 can be doubled where
sprinklers supplied.
Temperature & ventilation
16°C mm after first hour ofoccupancy (UK requirement). Ventilation by
extract/intake tans orair-conditioning in larger units. Necessarydesign
for heat build-up from artificial lighting and occupancy loading.
bgoodimpact; ceffectsofsiting
Shoplayout
Aswith display shop itselfshould be easy to take in at glance. Space for
customerand sales staff depends on commodity and number of customers; aim atsmooth quick procedure.Big store organisationsdevelop
systemplanning to suittheirparticular requirements.
Locationof shops
Varies according to type of business: determined by custom, eg convenience shopping and consumer durables.Trade of smaller unitswill
be affected by location of deptstores, variety stores and supermarkets
which act as magnets. These larger units should be sited to draw
shoppers past as many shops as possible. Shops should besituated for
max impact related to trade potential and should be seen fromas many
angles as possible.
Shape offrontage, shop sign (integral component) and protection from
weather should draw customers. Corner shops 30% more valuable
than shops in row. Each type of shop has its individual shop window
shape (shoe shopsneeddifferent displaysfrom butchers and jewellers).
Deptstores usually have flat frontages. Sizesof window vary with local
conditions even in new bldg. Size and design ofdisplay windows and
height ofstall-riser related to goods displayed, eg jewellery orfurniture
—p191(4).
Boutiques
Examples of 2 different concepts —n(3)(4)
groundfloor
first floor
2 Typicalshop layout (fish, fruit & vegetable sb)
key
1 entrance
2 cashdesk
key
1 entrance
toboutigue
2 entrancehatoapartments
3 displayplatforms
4 bItingml
5 sb cabins
3 showcase
4 dispiay cubes
5 ciothesracks
6 dispiay shelves
7 charrgingrm
8 mirror
9 stokiosks
ek
7 wc
8 cash counter
3
Boutique Istanbul Turkey: exampleoftroglodyticillusionist interior;
reflectingceiling makeshappeargreater,visitorleft guessing aboutshop's
extent Arch Mehmet Konuralp
4
BoutiqueChampsElysee Paris France: reflecting glass sets goodsoff
againstcomplexbackground; artificiallightingdirectseyetomost rewarding
points Arch IsabelleHebey
Commerce 193
Shops & stores
BREAD & CAKE SHOPS—(1)—(4)
I- staff
tlcursto
I-.
SS
breadsto
ftn
bakery
Circulationfor bakery: shopwellventilated,
possiblewith steamextractor
1
if
2 Plan of small bakery: breadsto withgood
connexiontobakery,shop &despatch
Generation ago small bakeriesproducedapprox
85% of household requirements of bread and
pastries,factory bakeries remaining15%: these
percentages now more or less transposed in
UK.
Sales in personal service shops mainly over
counter, which may containrefrigerateddisplay.
Freshly bakedgoodsrequiregood aircirculation.
FRUIT & VEGETABLESHOPS—*(6)—(9)
Fresh vegetables should be stored cool butnot
refrigerated: potatoes indark rm, carrots & root
vegetables in sand, fruit in dark rm at temp
1—5°C & 85—95%hum. Deepfreezersfordeep
frozensupplies. Walls tiled or washable.
Sale often from delivery containers (baskets,
crates, boxes) —e(7)(8). Dirt traps below sto
racks —s(8). Fruit & vegetable shops usefully
combined with flower shops.
woodengrille
zinctrough
3
Salescounterwith screen:bread compartments—u(4) vary with loafsize
4 Shelf arrangement:breadonslatted shelves
S.
(air circulation)withtins belowto catchflour
t
staff
c>
IlltlllllM
I aration
prep- I cellar
intake —
1
spices
\
_l
5
Circulationforgreengrocery: smallstockas
mostgoodsdelivereddaily
6
8
9
Counterwith standsforboxes&wire baskets,
drip pan &dirttrap
490(
I
I
H
55d
I
Planoffruit &vegetableshop: rmwith
machinesfor cutting &preparingvegetables
7
Typicalboxesforfruit &vegetables
Pavementsales fromtrolleys(carts) or in frontof shopwith attractive display
194 Commerce
Shops & stores
FISHMONGERS —(1 )—(3)
=:
r'
intake;
os coldi
Fish need cool sto (often marble) for display,
cold rm for overnight sto and deep freeze
cabinets in shop for deep frozen products.
Smoked fish must be stored quite dry in contrast tofreshfish.
peparation
sto
_______ ______
Shop must be well equipped with ventilation
devices. Wallsand floors washable. New UK
reg mayrequire glazed shop fronts.
_____________
u1T
Arrangements forreceiving largedeliveriesand
forrefusedisposal.
Ifdesired, aquarium for eye appeal—÷(2).
't,=z-_
——-7
1
Circulationforfishmonger
2
Seafood specialtyshopwithoutallied sales
BUTCHERS—(6)—(10)
Work procedure:
1 delivery, 2 cutting up, 3
manufacturing, 4 refrigeration, 5 selling.
Preferably on 1 level, if possible with rail and
wheel carriagesaspig halves and beef quarters
heavy: 75—100 kg. Manufacture and cold rm
1.5—2 times size ofshop.
Walls: tiles, mosaic etc, washable.
cr']
intake.__]— —[game
[:sta1_
_________
chiihngrm
—f
_________
F: prsparasorsJ_
—i deepfreeze.]
f
3
Fish counterwith coolingcompartment &drain
4
Table tops: marble, glass, ceramic.
Circulationforpoultry& gameshop
GAME&POULTRY—.(4)
Often together with fish. Similarin requirements.
Workr with plucking machineand game scraper.
Poultryabsorbs smells so must bestoredseparatelyfrom fish in shopand cold rm Table tops
and walls washable: marble, tiles, mosaic,
plastics.
Spacious refrigerated compartment or show
cases.
6
Counterwith marbleortilefacing
5 Butchers counterwith chopping block
7
Stairs
deplay
tocellar
Ij co"
meat counter
8
Circulationforbutcher's
9
__jII
1
pickling
Hooks & railsforhangingmeat
[9
n,achines
______ _____
oithngup
J_
— - — -- —
J
worI<space
stake
Large butcher'sshop
wdesececepassage
10 Counter in butchers shop—.also (5)
Commerce
195
Shops & stores
CHEMIST—(1)
Frequently self-service except for prescription counter. Will include
other merchandise, egphotographic eqp, cosmetics.Mm requirements
for accn and fitments usually laid down in special chemists' manuals.
Dispensary (with reg-type double-locked cupboards for poisons and
narcotics) subdivided according to activities. Prescription counter and
customers' section ofshopprovided with seats forwaiting.
Dispensary ofparamount importance;must allow undisturbedworkwith
goodview over drug shelves; must be well ventilated with tr ceilings,
acid-resistant table tops and floor coveringsand washablewall surfaces.
Ancillary rm and workrm ? twicesize ot dispensary.Med supply basement must not be connected with other basement rm; spirits, ether,
phosphorus etcmustbe kept in secure recessesorin cellars with steel
doors.
Planofchemistshop
1
adiustable
chair
Night dispensary may serve as office in daytime; alternatively night
counter may be provided in recess with illuminated sign and night bell.
services
MENSWEAR& FASHIONSHOPS—*(4)
For self-selection clothes displayed in free stands or wall racks; for
personal service in glass-fronted and hanging cabinets with special
curtain
3
2 Space-savingarrangement
round servicecore in hairdresser
Standardshampoounitwith
backwash for beautyparlours&
displays. Arrangement must be flexible, with movableeqp and fitting rm
1500 x 2000.
hairdressers
SHOE SHOPS—i.(7)--(9)
aJIllhJftEIfl
bfl2V
Medium size shop, personal service: 8000—16000pairs; polish, stockings, socks, tights also available. Allow 1 footrest/2 seats, 1 stool/2
footrests for salesassistanfs —*(9). Carpeting desirable; low level and
wall mirrors should be provided. More convenient ifstockand sales on
same floor. Forward open sfock or hidden stock at rear. Adequate
forward open stockpreferable for quickservice but selt-service shops
followgeneral pattern, with specialdisplay racking.
FASHIONFABRICS—*(5)(6)
4
Organisationof atailor'sshop
5 Arrangementsforstoofcloth:
ashelfsame waslotbale
bobliquestaggeredsystem(for
shop) c pairedshelves,eachof
bale w
Often sold in conjunction with ready-to-wear clothes, lingerie, fashion
accessories, wovengoods, haberdashery.Merchandise required to be
attractively arrangedwith lighting toshowtrue colours—np25 398.
Shelves not higher than 2200 so that they may be reached without
steps; optimum height 500—1 500. Surfaces smooth so that material
slides easily and does not catch. Counters for standing customers
850—950high, forseated customers 550—700; counter width700—850.
Forready-to-wear clothesdept provide changingcubicles 1100 x 1150
and fitting rm—*(10)(11).
36O—i
Jt
a
6 Displaycounterwith shelfabove for materials
men
330 180
110
women 300 160 100
children 300 160
9
90
Combinedfoot-rest&assistant'sseat
r4-r-—1 473—-664-
_
JLNLli
NH
I—i 473—1—864-J---1
7
Organisationofshoeshop
8 Shoe shop
10 Typicalfitting rm
L—1 524—1
11
Betterdressesfitting mi
196 Commerce
Shops & stores
SELF-SERVICE
customer
lEle
Self-service stores mostly forfood shops, drug stores and increasingly
for other types of convenience goods. Staff mainly for advice, assistance, checking out, replenishing, possibly for quick service ofmeat and
preparation rm
coldsto
delivery
waste
stock
goods lift
dairy foods. All goods prepacked and clearly displayed and ticketed
(exceptsometimes fresh foods).
Proportion ofancillary accn mayvary between 60% sales 40'/ ancillary
and 48% sales52% ancillary.Width of aisles 2200—2500. Entrancevia
basket stands ortrolleys(carts); exit via checkout points. Replenishing
byassistants.
Wall shelving up to reaching height (top shelf 1 650, bottom shelf300
above floor level) .—(8)(9). Free-standing sales display suitable —*(4).
Checkout points —(5)(6) laid outto suit frontage ofunitwith counter top
forpurchases, cashregister, wrapping space with paperbags, spacefor
parking basket ortrolley. Surveillance point essential.
staff restrm
staff toilets &do
unpacking
.-Hoff
1
i
Circulationforself-serviceshops
in
flout
out
2
Number of checkout points varies with unit scale and is related to
turnover/m2, as controlled bytrading policy —4(2)(3).
For each 100 m2 shop area: 50—100 baskets and 10 trolleys (carts).
For each 200 m2 shop area: 50—200 baskets and 30 trolleys (carts).
flOut
o
out
Typicalself-serviceshoplayoutsshowingcheckout pointsrelatedto
frontagew
basket stand
—
____
display counter
display cash
rack
ister
r
___
I
sndardw
1600-1
0
N
j1
800—H
baslcetsheff
1194 6001 1194 600p 1194
991
991 500 991
T
0
N
C.,
checkouts
—
Planofcash deskwithmm
dimensions
—minw
6
checkouts
7 Stackablebasket&trolley(cart)
customers basket packingar
shopfront
3
pelmet with ticketing
& lighting
Layoutofcheckoutpointsshowingdimensions
—900-1 400—
ventilation'
—
dirttraP\
1-600--I
4
Salesdisplaywithstacking
compartments&concealedlighting
Sectionthroughsmallcashdesk
4—864
Wall shelvesforbottles
I—
9 Wall shelvesforfruit,vegetables
& unpackedgoods
I—762——---l
I
10 Self-selectionunit: Ivaries;
specialmerchandiseneedsspecial
inserts
12 Free-standinghangingrack;
hangingrack 11525
11
Backfixturewith shelvesonly
13 Millinerytable
Commerce 197
Shops & stores
SUPERMARKETS:EXAMPLES
[
30
sto ar
oilheating
1
2 air-conditioning plant
3 airshaft
4 refrigerating plant
5 coldstofats
6 deepfreezing
7 coldsto meat
8 minced meat
9 ante-mi
10 meat
11 coldmeats
12 fish
13 deepfreeze
14 coffee
15 fats
1
16 vegetables
17 twit
18 checkout
19 flowers
I 15I15I1516I16j16j17I
20 trolleys (carts)
[;1
21 wr
22 changing rm,women
23 changing ml, men
24 wcwomen
25 wcmen
26 fruit&vegetablepreparation
27 fruit&vegetablecooling
28 empties
29 bottle reception
30 heatingoiltank
C
171
____ 20[
1
13
111111
customer self-servicear
1IIiIIIIIlIl
!!lh1!IIIIII1III
rwtEJ
Germansupermarket Arch PeterNeufert
—— -
4800
55.12
2 Swisssupermarket
0
O
II
c)
=0
II
II
0
0
II
II
II
I
II
260
4800
3 Cross-sectionof(2)
groundfloor
carpark
II
II
II
ii
_____
II
4800
I
4800 —4
4
Siteplan of (2)
t
4800
198 Commerce
Shops & stores
HYPERMARKETS
Basically single volume transfer shed, grossarea 10000—50000m2: 1
trader under 1 roof, using self-service methods to sell max range of
convenience and durable merchandise at low prices; goods delivered
directfrom manufacturersto largeon-site warehousing areas.
upper partof
durables warehouse
Location
Out oftown on perimeter of city, townor district centre. Mm catchment
area 80000 population; 25 minutes driving time out of town; 10—15
minutes frominnerzone:siting related to road patterntoallow this.
Carparking
roofover
5.25 cars/100 m2 gross area (av shopping trip 1 hour). Provision for
trolley (cart) collecting. Separate provision for service vehicles and
refusecollection (perhaps with incineration or compaction). Discount
petrol and tyre service forcustomers only.
Planning
Up to 50% gross
area for warehousing, cold sto, food preparation,
offices and staff. Main sales on1 floor,mezzaninecould houserestaurant,
hairdressing, offices, toilets, staff accn and some warehousing. Staff
numbers related to sales area: say 3 staff to 350 m2 sales, with shift
working.
Warehousing
& ancillary accn
mezzanine
Stowill be open 24hr/dayforrestocking outofhours,cleaning,servicing
etc. Deliveries and restocking using mech aids, eg forklift transfer in
warehouse to palleted trucks forrestocking shelves; warehouse racking
may be high (groceries) orlow (textiles). Large food preparation areas
needed forfreshfoods, butchery,baking, preferablyvisiblebycustomers.
Sales area
Self-service principles apply generally—p196. Aisles must bedesigned
for palleted trucks, with 1 800—3500between racking.
Construction
For flexibility wide spans and max column spacing (say 8 m x 12 m).
Firstfloor must be designed for heavy loading if used forwarehousing.
Compartmentation of warehouse areas essential: controlling factor in
design may be insurance requirements. Waivers may be needed to
allow max opensalesarea.
Service
Air-conditioning, high intensity artificial lighting, throughout. Cold sto
refrigerator.
Services —vp383—97
Floors must be hard wear, easily cleaned tiles.
Fireregulations
Consultreg. Subject todistance ofbldg fromboundary, frand compartmentregdo notapply inUKto 1-storey hypermarkets: meansofescape
provisions mustbe approvedbylocal authority.In2-storey areasnormal
compartmentation reg do apply, subject to possible relaxation by
appropriate authority. Sprinkler essential.
groundfloor
I
Diagrammaticplanoftypical hypermarket
181.5
key
1
battery,caraccessories
I
adm&oftover
—1
softdñnks.winesetc
2 groceries
3 pharmacy & cosmetics
4 dairy
5 fruit &vegetables
6 children'sclothing
7 clothing
8 householdgoods
9 fancygoods
10 shoes
11 elgoods
12 fumiture
13 fire-fighting& sprinkler
installation
14 etsub-station
15 butchery preparation
16 cookedmeats
17 fruit& vegetablepreparation
18 balieraapastryshop
19 changingnn
20 lay
21 boutique
22 aftersales service
23 furriiturerepairworkaliop
2 Layoutoftypicalhypermarketwithapprox20000m2 selling space
Commerce 199
Shopping centres & precincts
Increasing trend in Europe and USA during 1970s plan large retail
complexes in innercity areas. Despite their large size restricted space
forms primary design factor. High site rentsoftenmeanthesecomplexes
incorporate office space; also sometimes residential flats and condominiums but less frequently. Aswith convention hotels —p221—3 large
internal spaces allow separation of interior circulationof public fromthat
of service and store personnel. Traffic patterns which maximise retail
display and access to retail unitsgenerally mechanism by which high
rent unitslet.
2
Bullock'sSouthCoastPlazaCostaMesaCaliforniaUSA a second
floor bfirstfloor c groundfloor Arch WeltonBecket&Associates
200 Commerce
Shopping centres& precincts
EXAMPLES
a
:
liii
II
•
I
marshft7d&cO
b
tlLlord&taylor
—.
Lk
::::::
-
________
•
-
____________
T
tmh18co
2 Water TowerPlaceChicagoUSA agroundfloor bmezzanine floor cfirstfloor dsecondfloor Consultarch
WarrenPlatnerAssociates Arch LoeblSchlossman Bennett& Dart
*
lord &taylor
_________________
Commerce
201
Shopping precincts & centres
EXAMPLES
b
a
C
d
streetlevel
1 CiticorpCenterNewYorkUSA asection btypical mid-risetowerfloor cconcourselevel dstreetlevel Arch Hugh Stubbins
Shops aridstores:
—Bibliography entries 116 117306340341369 374 450477552 601
202 Commerce
Restaurants
1
PLANNINGFACTORS
wall 200
ei
S
a
waD
0
900
4.
2300
U
4o I I
a
50
-S.
squaretables:diagonallayout
local density0.92
squaretables,squarelayout
localdensity1.4
circulartables:diagonallayout
local density0.82
+—36s0---$-500
2350M
I
_____
4j
largeboothinrecess
local density0.86 itseating10 people
orl.1itnnly2peoplesitonbenchseat
banquetteboothseating
localdensity0.8
counterservice
localdensity1.26
dimensionsA& Bincreasedwhere2
waitersemployed
Layoutarrangements
1
4diners
750
Restaurants should be planned sothat variety otseating arrangements
can be achieved, eg tables tor2 and 4 and placing together oftables to
provide 6, 8 and 10 places. Consider also banquette or booth seating
—u(3)(6); but theseshould be supplemented by normal tables to give
flexibility.
—*(1) shows typical table and counter layouts and local densities.
Columns best situated near group of tables or at corners ot table.
Provideacoustic lobby toservice doors between restaurantand kitchen.
Accessforguests should beplanned sothat notconfusedwithservice.
it
1person
2diners
+700+
+450+900 +
tt+
2persons
Ttaso
2
guide:
: 1 waiter/waitress per 12—16 covers
restricted menu
: 1 waiter/waitress per8—12 covers
typical menu
a Ia carte &deluxe : 1 waiter/waitress per4—8covers
Aislew
+
3
1650-1900
1
Typical banquetteseating
I
I
DLI
H
111
DO DO
28seals
22m2
DODD
Service aisles —'(2) not less than 900—1 350 if to be used by both
trolleys(carts) and guests.
Waiterstations should be located so as not to disturb guests: number
will vary according to standard of service but following may be used as
fl
_
Ambience an important tactor in restaurant design: decoration, lighting
should be integral part. Large regular spaces should be broken up into
smaller more intimate areas, if necessary by means of screens of
various heights or decorative features. Changes of level not usually
favoured by caterers butacceptable providing they make positive contribution to design, donot involve morethan 2or3steps and main partof
restaurant on same level as kitchen. Where changes of level occur
seating areas should be protected bybalustrades.Cash deskmay beat
entrance or by service doors or within kitchen area depending on
cashing system operated bymanagement.
Provide head waiter stand in a Ia carte or de luxe restaurants. Hard
wearing floor service in area around service doors. Traditional and
specialty restaurants frequently have aperitif bar associated with them
tor waiting customers and drinks before meal. Such bar should be
planned sothatheadwaiter cantake orders and call forward customers
whentablesready.
Dance floor in restaurant: allow 1.0—3.5 m2/couple.
D
k::::::1[yffffIi
5600
layoutforpartof restaurant: local densityexcludingmaincirculation &
wafterstations& serviceareas
4
Mm
5 'Staadtler'table to seat4:with
flapsextendedseats6
6
Banquetteseatingbooth:table
must bemovedtogainaccessortop
may bemovable
Commerce 203
Restaurants
SPACEALLOWANCES
(EXCLUDINGCOOKINGAREAS)
Snack barservice
Usually restricted tolightmeals, served atcounter ortaken bycustomer
to table. Food normally cooked withincounter area but back-up preparation, wash-up and sto required. 1.50—2.20 m2IP including counter
and cooking.
Cafeservice
0.83 m2/P: limitedmenu, usually family type of business, designed on
traditional lines with kitchen separate from dining rm. Food may be
collected bywaitress fromsmall service counter orhatch tokitchen.
Self-servicecafeteria
1.4—1.7 m2/P, long self-set-vicecounter, provide good circulationspace.
Space for clearing trolleys (carts) required. Self-service counters
—p206(2).
0
1
2
3 4rn
Coffeeshopservice—*(3)
1'2ft
1
1.2—1.4 m2/P, usually waitress service, oftenfromforward cooking area
withcounterwhichmay be decorativelyscreened. Main preparationand
wash-up at rear. Counter servicesometimes included.
Specialtyrestaurant
Traditionalrestaurant: 110 seats
Space requirements vary widely. Display cooking, grill, dance floor,
special decor effects may be required. Bar may be included within
restaurant.
Traditionalrestaurant—(1)
1.3—1.9 m2/P according to type of business. Should have space for
display table, flambé work, generous seatingand spacing oftables.
Carvingtablerestaurant—*(2)
1.6 m2/P including space for carving table. Display table with hot and
cold positions for self-service of Joints, vegetables and sweets. Preparation, cooking and wash-up donein main kitchen.
01
I
2
2345678
I
I
I
12
servioe
I
1'S
Restaurantseating124with self-servicecarvingtable
W =waiterstation
012345678
I
I
12
I
I
I
15 18 21 24
rn
ii
I
I
rn
iI 1 24 ft
204 Commerce
Restaurants
Table sizes vary according to typeofrestaurant; mm forcafeterias etc:2
persons 600 x 600, 4 persons 600 x 1100. Diagrams show tables for
goodstandard of restaurant.
TABLE SIZES
r
110, preferably
150—200
600, preferably
65O750
I
I-— 380—f-—--
800
—f-- 450 —+—
—!--—
550
850
-H—
—i——
750
—H
lottable/P
I
T knee h600
man
woman
4
4
II
00
2
II
1Jj
waiter
6
for
TiI- 1450
ii
P
12
8
iU\JU
-
-
6
2050
—
—
8
ci[
2700
H
I35°
- :2500j
-1
avdia of circular
3300
12
10
5
dining tables for
16
U
'000 0000 .n0,0Ip
\IIU
average Iof tables
with chairs at eitherend
getting
eating
sitting
down
14
12
10
P
Commerce 205
Restaurants
SNACKBARS
1 250
C.)
Barstool
1
service
—
F.
2 Bar stools:normaldistance
diners
--4-1300--
fl4500-4-i
+ 2100
500
rT2 1r'
I
--I--
4
I
_.I
.C.
service
diners
normal —
2700
1300 -I
30
stoolh -7501- 1200 -f.75Q.4
500
r1
od
mediumh
Wt.:.Tui
,- hstool
High densityarrangementwithsmall tables
T
0
_____________ 00
_________
700
T
r
Cli
Typical U format with 12 seats mm length 600/P = 7200. This length
may beserved by 1 waiterifmeals pre-cooked; ifmeals and drinks have
to beprepared atcounter further1—2waiters necessary—(7)(8)(9).
Areas required
Per seat 1480—2150
Ratio ofservicearea to total area25—50%
Netkitchenarea 15—25%
24.0
-fX1
Kitchen& wash-up
se;ice!
shi
Preferably at same level as restaurant,kitchen area divided into:
servery
area ofcooking, frying, grilling and preparationofsoups and vegetables
cold buffet (meat, salads, fruits, fish,sweets and desserts)
wash-up area
—*Bib2l 7
ShortU-formatcounters
I—.
customers. Counters with stools less economical ofspace than closely
spaced tables but ensure speedy service and quickturnover. Avsitting
time20minutes: 3 occupants/hr compared with perhaps 1/hrin normal
restaurant.
Format
C
LongU-formatcounter
J
Refrigeratedshowcase
Situation
In centres of cities where accn expensive must be max turnover of
°9P229P!JjJ
lllll'..
6
5 Widertableswith more space
15.0
7
3 Mediumh bar stool
Other requirements
20.0
—4
IT
service
ar
U)
C\J
Toilets for customers, staff toilets, staff cloakrm, small office, food sto
including refrigerator and deep freeze, liquor sf0, boiler rm, airconditioning plant if required. For scale of sanitary fittings —*reg.
Public cloakrm not normally required forthistype of restaurant,hdtand
coat stands or coat rack on wall sufficient. In large snack bars separate
entrance and exitsdesirable. Cashier near exit.
CC)
C'J.
tray slide
rail
50
*—750 +
9
PairedU-formatcounters
10
1150
Self-servicecafeteriaservice
750
206 Commerce
Restaurants
Drive-in restaurants supply food and drinks
DRIVE-IN& SELF-SERVICERESTAURANTS
direct to cars so that guests may eat without
leaving vehicles. For access and serving pro-
3 6 9
O
16
vide canopies and covered ways; dining hall
should be separate, with parking space close
to drive-inservice. 1 waiter can serve 6cars.
12 15 18 21m
7 36 45
4
ft
Self-service advantageous for snack barsand
to overcome staff shortages. Smooth-running
system (entrance-trays-counter-cashier-dr-exit)
more important than comfortable atmosphere
because diner's stay much shorter than in
ordinary restaurant.
1
Drive-in restaurantCalifornia ArchLauter
1
backfittings& hatchesfran,k
I / / // il 'i ,
IIi.i111
9
:1
J J•1• U.U1.
I
fl
trayslide
=Sat
9.0—11.0
2
Typicalself-servicecounter toserverangeof 2/3 choicesto80/90customersin 10minutes
22
J
1
21
1icf1,c
fiat
13 ter
14 restaurant
2 coldsto
3 day sto
4chel
5 wash-up
6 bakery
7 meat preparations
8 sk
9 coldbuffet
l5ha
9
16 newspapers
17 beerbar
18 maincold5*0
19 deepfreezerm
20 chiP no
6
12 15 18 21
18 27 36 45 4 3
1
2 trays
coldbuffet
3 beverages
4 hotmeals
10 hotmeatpreparation 21 preparatiOn
22 wodishop
11 wafter'sgangway
12 café
23garbagebins
24 carport
S cheese& desserts
6 cashier
7 refrigerator
8 beverages(cpd)
2
9
iCe
10 hotcpd
11 streetsalescounter
3
Self-servicerestaurantParis ArchPrunier
Restaurant references
—*Bibliography entries 016 043 045 049 096
4
Restaurantonmainhighway:restrm &layon lowerfloor,wheretheycanalsoserve motel
Arch Neufert
097147153156176217226243282319341
439441 442477583
Commerce207
Restaurantcars: using minimum space
10.7
—1
UUF
I
LJf1c1DflcTTj1flLtJflODr1L1flflcIjoflc1___)I
1
Tram restaurantcarofRhinelandRailCompany
1.49
550-'- 950
3
550—480'-
480
70
Space needed for dining services in long-distance trams and motor
coaches —s(1)(2) modest compared with train dining cars—s(9). DimensioningofGerman dining cars result ofmany years experience; present
systemafter numerous design changes. Diagonallyplaced tables tried
out in recent years found unsatisfactory and not illustrated here.
Kitchen arrangementsrepresentmax useofavailablespace; this applies
both to width of doors and service hatches and to refrigeration units,
whichare exceptionally large—(8).
All disheshave to be washed up in kitchen between 2 meal services
(main and snack lunch). Service in dining car made easier because
number ofcustomers limited to number ofplaces—s(8).
+
-1550
3100
-I-
+ 1651) ±
3430
1327
H
I
Detailsof1; diningtablesonly halfaswideasinrestaurantcars:noserving
pantry; kitchenlocated almost in middle of vehiclewherespringingmost
effectiveto lessenjolting
9
3
4
SectionA-A—u(8)
-
Groundplan of Germanrestaurant car—.(6)(1O)
4
Section B-B—.(8)
biing
b
1485
615
Cf)d
hratirig
air-conditioning
1740
0
1015
1600°
for railwaystaff
corr
fulng
e[] tcpd
conductorsseat
5
6
SectionC-C-.(8)
Transversesection—u(1O)
12 Sleepingcargroundplandetail
—u(13)
7
Section D-D—*(B)
1650
1—
ksy
1 provisions
2 ck
3 switctrcpd
4 refuse bins
5 trig
9 sideboard
-
13 warrningcpd
6 staffconipartment
14 deepfreezer
10 trig
7 foldingseat
11 preparation
15 k
8 door
12 sk
16 sk
8 Ground planofkitcheninGerman restaurant car: section(3)—(5)(7)
tr
15 'Comet' articulatedtrain double
compartment
13 Crosssection—.(12)
208 Commerce
Hotels
C)
2
Location is one of most important factors for commercial success.
Depending on market orientationhotels should generallybe conspicuous
and sitednear main road ormotorway intersections,airports,commercial
and business centres or resorts.
CD
Site
C)
Following points should be considered: height and plot ratio requirements, ease of access, adequacy forparking either on ground or within
bldg, viewsand aspect, relationshipto adloining bldg, levels.
0
2
CD
conventionhotelwith largeconference
rm, night club,shopping
citycentrehotel
motorhotel
resorthotel
low-mediumtariff hotelwith private bathr
but mm catering
hostels: singlerm & mm service
Types
Marketorientation will dictate type of hotel. Construction of new hotels
of less than 70—80 bedrhardly viable unless they can be run on family
m2/mi gross
type
1
55—65
45—55
35—45
40—55
20—30
18—20
Grossar/miforvarioushoteltypes
basis.
Citycentre: includeluxury, convention and citytourist hotels. Charac-
section
tensed by high plotratio, high riseconstruction,frequently largefunction
accn, inclusion of shops—.p222or offices —*p223 in development to
improve viability.
Motor hotels: cater mainly for people en route by car or motoring
locally, therefore sited at important road junctions and on outskirts of
cities. Land cheaper therefore sites fairly large allowing large car park
and low or medium rise construction. Generally contain all usual hotel
services but on modest scale. No rm service.
residential
bedr
corr,elevators, stairs
service ar
Airporthotels: similar planningto motor hotels butcatering specifically
for airtravellers therefore require all night receptionand possibly some
totalresidential
public &servicear: frontofhouse
lob &circulationincluding P
international companies.
reception,do, reservations off,
nightcatering. Sometimes have convention services forconvenienceof
intake at weekly orfortnightly intervals. Restaurantshould accommodate
all guest. at 1 sitting. Require spacious lounges, games rm, bars,
possiblyalso swimming pool, beachand sports installations.Conference
rm can also be included encourage off-season business.
Motels: .—p219220
Convention hotels: —*p221 —3
Condominium:development involvingjoint ownershipwhere individual
owner has full benefit of rm, suite, villaforown useorletting butshares
costscommon to whole development which may include all usual hotel
24
3.2
0.6
26.5
9.3
0.7
27.8
36.5
0.4
0.3
0.5
0.4
1.1
coffeeshop
bar 1 includingcounter, sto
bar2includingcounter, sto
lounge
toilets
functionrm
pre-functionar
furnituresto
privatedining/meetingrm
0.6
0.8
0.5
0.5
0.4
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.3
0.3
1.1
1.3
—
0.5
0.2
0.9
0.2
0.1
0.4
—
stO
workshops& maintenance
Iau, linensto etc
staffcanteen,lockers,toilets
8.2
7.8
3.8
0.9
0.8
0.3
2.5
0.9
1.0
1.1
0.3
0.8
0.5
0.4
0.7
offfor personnel,
accounts,
control,housekeeper etc
circulation,serviceelevators etc
total backof house
separation of guestand service areas: no cross circulation; distinction
between frontand backofhouse
tobare mm of reception,office, breakfastrm, bar and supportingservices.
m2/rm
switchboard, luggage
admin
restaurant
k&ksto
Diagram—p209 shows typical relationshipofpartsofmedium size hotel.
Points ofprinciple tonoteare:
serviceand finishes; de luxe hotels have larger service areas, more
service elevatorsetc; ineconomy hotelsthese areasreduced,sometimes
m2/rm
totalfrontofhouse
public &servicear:backofhouse
Functionalrelationships
Space allocation& standards
—.(1)guidetogrossar/rmfor varioustypes of hotel.
(2) shows space allocation for 2 typical contrasting hotels: figures
assume mosteconomical layout. Quality of hotel mainly dependent on
500bedr
citycentrehotel
1.8
shops
services.
all catering outlets ifpossible beon same level askitchens: ifnot, main
restaurant directlyrelated to kitchen; other restaurantsand banqueting
rm should have service rm connected by elevators and stairs main
kitchenwhere bulkcooking is undertaken
organisation ofbackof house such that staff and goods are separatefar
as possible and control can be maintainedoverboth.
b
200 bedr
motorhotel
1.6
elevators
Resort hotels: at seaside or mountainresorts orspas. Usually planned
to cater for package holidays with reception arrangements for large
a
total
boiler houses,plant rm &car parking excluded
2
Space allocations
0.9
7.9
7.0
43.5
51.7
Commerce 209
Hotels
service entrance
guest entrance
Flowdiagramoftypicalhotel
210 Commerce
Hotels
or variations of these arrangements would
have
to be
PLAN FORMS
combinations
adopted.
Bedroomaccommodation
A Compact
arrangements:
bedrblockoverwide spans.
B Bedrblockadjacent topublic rm block: considered to beeconomical
because optimum structure and services can bedesigned foreach part.
Suitable formotorhotel development on large site.
C Open layout with public rm and service blockcompletely separate
from bedr which may be in groups scattered about large site. Suitable
for motel and resort type hotels where plenty of land available and
As bedr formsgreater proportionofhotel constructionkeytoeconomical
design largely in layout of bedr block. —*(1) shows some possible
Double-loaded block (A) capable of development into L U courtyard
plan; requires only2stairs; considered most economical layout.
Double-loaded Tshaped block(B)capablebeingdeveloped intocross;
also economical but 3stairs required.
Single-loaded block (C) capableof being developed into L U or courtyard plan: not economical solution but may be desirable, perhaps
combined with A take advantage of site conditions; ifdeveloped form
centrecourtyard can beused provide atrium effect.
Square block (D) with central core containing all vertical services,
maids' rooms etc, compact and useful for small sites where tower
development may be required.
Y plan (E) requires 3 staircases and has more complicated structure
than straight blocks; structural system may cause problems in public
areas.
Triarc(F) similar to E but more space taken up by circulation; concave
curveresults in bedr wideratbathr end providing opportunity forlarger
bathr and dressing area.
Circular (G) requires careful handlingavoid awkward and inward facing
rm; notcapable ofextension.
Circular with centralcore (H), similarto D; also requirescareful handling
avoid awkward rm. Convex curves inGand H result in bedr narrower at
bathr end, causing cramped space forbathr.
development of bedr block superimposed on podium.
Suitable forhigh risedevelopmenton city site. Problemsarise frombedr
services having topassthrough public rmand fromprobableneed carry
landscape conditions dictate.
VERTICALCIRCULATION
Hotels of more than 2 storeys should be provided with passenger and
service elevators (—(3) —p41O—2). Except in small hotels all elevators
should be duplicated provide efficient service and standby in case of
breakdownor repair. Numberand speedofelevatorswill depend on height
and populationof bldg and for largeinstallations should bebasedontraffic
studyby specialist.
Service hoists ordumb waiters notadvised owing need have 1 person
each end: bettermake service elevators largeenough take trolley(cart)
plus personnel.
If possible plan all elevators in 1 bank or towerwith service elevators
opening to kitchen area and passenger elevators opening directly to
guestlobby. Separatebaggage elevators not required except in de luxe
hotels; but may be desirable to have 1 elevator available for manual
controliflargeamount baggagehandled. In high bldg much depends on
qualityand speed of elevator services as regards both guest elevators
and serviceelevators: not wiseto skimp this aspect.
In addition goods elevators may berequired inbackareas: should be of
large capacity and of sturdy, easily cleanedconstruction.
Relationshipofbedroom blockto publicroomareas
Many ways in which bedr block mayberelatedtopublic rm and circulation
but can be illustrated by 3basic arrangementsshown —.(2). Likely that
A
B
1:
service
circulation &
services
A
J
L
guests
service
-.1
C
B
servKe
c
.vemflcal
circulation
bedr
Dsemvice
1
Plan formsforbedraccn
2
Relationship of bedrtopublicmi
3
Typical verticalcirculationcore for500bedr
hotel
Commerce 211
Hotels
PUBLICROOMS
Restaurants
In medium and large hotelscommon to provide more than 1 restaurant
give customer choice menu and price. Cheaper restaurant usually
coffee shop or cafeteria: more expensive a Ia carte. Large hotels may
have additional specialist restaurants.In certainsituations,eg citycentre
hotels, cheaper restaurantmay beaccessiblefromboth hotel and street
to attract non-residential business.
Seating capacitiesrestaurantsvary accordingsize hotel, amount potential
outside business, location in relation other restaurants, duration stay
guests, amount breakfast rm service to be provided.
In resortand other suitable locations provision should be made serve
meals in open air either by extension of 1 restaurant or by separate
service.
FurtherdetaIls—up202—7;kitchens—vp213
Bars
Cocktail or aperitif bar (if required) should be planned as comfortable
others. Service of drinks, tea and coffee should be provided from
dispense orfrommain kitchen. Separateresidents lounges notnormally
required.
Recreation rooms
Card rm, table tennis, billiard rm etc should be considered for resort
hotels.
Functionrooms
Multi-purpose rm for meetings, banquets, balls, parties, exhibitions
valuable asset. Design considerations include: separate access if rm
large; divisible by movable partitions; separate access for guests and
servicedesirable; audio-visual eqptobeprovided. Large span required
precludes this rm being planned beneath bedr block except on costly
city sites.
Space allowances:
i.i—1.3m2/P
banquet style seating
0.9—1.1 m2/P
meetings: table groups
theatre style seating 0.5—0.6 rn2/P
intermediary waiting area between hotel lobby and main restaurant;
Other requirementsforfunctionrm:
ante-rm, preferably approx 1/3rdarea offunction rm, with dispense bar
Main bar will provide chiefdrink service of hotel. May have external
entrance to encourage non-resident business. Fairly long bar counter
supported by bar sto with ice making machine and bottle cooler should
be provided: section may berequired for service ofsimple meals.
furniture store0.5 m2/seat easily accessible fromfunction rm
servicemay be by waiter: long bar counter may not berequired.
Possible otherbars: rooftop,pooi side,beach, club areas.
cloakrm and toilets (depending on proximity of hotel toilets): provision
of wc and urinals as for public areas—vp212 unless music and dancing
licence required, in which case should be as for concert halls, theatres
etc —vBib36i 604.
All bars capable of being shut securelyduring non-opening hourseither
bygrill or shutterat bar counter orbyclosing rm. Former has advantage
rm can be used aslounge when bar closed. Should be possible service
Movable partitions should be full height and fold completely away into
pockets. AvdB reductionof45—50 sould be achievedthrough partitions
and between function rmand kitchen.
bars without passingthrough publicrm. Barsshould comply with licensing
laws.
Space allowance forbars excluding counter:
cocktail lounge (comfortable)
1.8—2.0 m2/P
general bar (some standing &on stools) 1.3—i.7m2/P
In large function rm consider separate access for heavy exhibits. Allow
510 kg/m2 floor loading.
Meetingrooms
In addition some meeting rm, preferably associatedwith main function
rm, may be required. May vary in size; should all be capable being
serviced fromeither main kitchen orpantry.
Lounges
Reasonable provision should be made for people waiting and relaxing
either in relation to lobby or circulation areas or to revenue-earning
areas suchas bars. More lounge space required in resort hotels than
Fireprecautions
Alternativeexitroutes must beprovidedforall publicrm. Travel distances
toexits,flameresistance ofmaterials,fire and smoke resistantcompartmentationmust be in accordancewith regulations —up216408.
service
elevator
ptr
elevator
S
freight
elevator
Ia
banquetrm
600seats
—
L_
I
Spacerequiredforbanqueting for37allowing
forservice
-
2
a
Si
Space requiredin
dr for14 allowing for
service:2.0m2/cover
,—
a
E
l4
royal
bar
bar
pre-functionlob
do
1600 people
I
I
a
a
n
-.—.t-
-
—-
vest
•
o
II
I
r---1
Banquetingseating at tablesfor 10: typical arrangements forlarge
banquets:1.2 m2/cover
3
4
5
10
15
20m
r:
r
:
0
0
=a
0
___
vestibule
1
royal
salon
I
standing
E
banquetfoyer
8500
Idre stairto
I__________________
t5
30
45
605
of
suite
forlargehotel
Example banquet
vestibule
S
a
projection
booth
212 Commerce
Hotels
FRONT OF HOUSE
Entrance
Arrange drive-insocars can pull off road and with space forwaiting cars
and taxis: waitingspace for coachessometimes needed. Providecanopy.
In exposed positions provide draught lobby or revolving doors (require
pass doors for fire escape and baggage). Where traffic heavy with
guests carrying own bags automatic doors. Separate door to baggage
rm in high class hotels. Special provision for baggage handling for
hotelsexpecting people in largegroups.
Receptionarea
Reception desk —v(1) near and visible from entrance with porter,
receptionist, cashier close by. In largehotels separatedeskfor porter
(mainly supervising baggagehandling).
Hall porter's desk
Lengthof counter arranged so porter can go freely into entrance hall.
Depending on size of hotel should be fitted with alphabeticalguestlist,
Reception& porter'sdeskfor400-bedr hotel: receptionists, porters,
cashiersnotnormallyseated,therefore worktop heightforstanding
1
backelevationofdesk
message waiting indicator, working shelf, drawers. Site key rack —x(3)
with slots for keys and letters corresponding with number of bedr in
easyreach receptionists. Am behind forshorttermstosmall items, post
box and slot.
Receptionist'sdesk—v(1)
Fitted with sloping rack not visible by guests for rm states (usually
manual card system but may beelectronic in largehotels), worktop and
countertop for guests registration,section at normal height forclerical
work, shelving, cupboards. Provide alphabetical list. Behind reception
desk reservations office with direct access for receptionists: should
have wall space forcharts and telex(ifany).
Cashier'sdesk—v(2)
In small-medium size hotels may be partreception desk. In largehotels
normally partitioned-off section ofmain reception deskwith small office
at rear for chief cashier. Desk office for: 1 or 2 cash registers, bill tray
spaces alongside registers,lockablecashdrawers, shelvesand drawers,
guestsafe deposit boxes—n(4),deposit boxes for staff floats,telephone
meterdisplay board, airtube system terminal ifrequired, safe.
Telephone switchboard—(2)
Often placed near reception counter so receptionists can operate at
off-peaktimes. Otherwise in separate rm, possibly with hatch to public
lobby and public telephones nearby.
Fire alarm panel: at reception deskorsomeotherpointwhere all night
attendance.
Typical counter lengths fordifferent sizes hotel:
counter length
noofrm
50
3000
100
4500
200
7500
400
10.5
Hotellobby
Consider supplying in or nearlobby: housetelephone, publictelephones,
television security monitors, clocks and calendars, news teleprinters,
information desk, travel agents, airline and car hire desks, kiosks and
shops, lounge and waitingareas,guest secretarialand businessservices,
public toilets.
2
key
Typicalcashdeskfor400-bedrhotel
1
safetydepositboxes
2 key & messagerack
3 rmstatusrack
4 roiaryaiphabeticaiindex
5 currencyinformation
6 cash register
7 cashier
8 reception
9 concierge
10 switchboard
11 frontoff manager
12 fihng
13 telephoneswitches
14 ielephonemeters
15 tapestry& decorativeclock
16 pagingrecievercharger
17 flreaiarmpanei
18 reservabonsoff
19 safe
20 chief cashier
21 clock
22 advancereservationsrack
23 tapedmusic& pagingeqp
riomiai teieptione
fs servicestationteiephone
d drawer
cd cash drawer
shelf
cpd
—
t
4
Typicalbankofsafety depositboxes:
varioussizes should be provided
Cloakroom&toilets
In small—mediumhotels where noteconomicalemploycloakrmattendant
space may provided for coats and bags under eye of porter or receptionist. Otherwise provide cloakrm formain lobby, restaurants,function
rm: sited discreetly, if possible together for ease of supervision. Plan
cloakrm for large function rm so asensure easyflow and quickissue of
coats. Provide recessed area atleast1200in front ofcounters to avoid
encroachment on main circulation. Counter lengths: generally 1 000/
100 P.
Publictoilets:number ofwc, urinals,wash basins usuallydetermined by
local reg. Forwomen'stoilets vanity top, mirrors, good lighting. 1 wcfor
eachsex fordisabled persons.
swilcfl
reservations
Cf0
& bags
key rack
panei
U
telephone
work Fm
cash
top rack register
&work top
5 Typical frontofffor120-bedrhotel
Commerce 213
Hotels
KITCHENS& FOOD STORES
Should be planned on one level ifpossibleto serve allcatering outlets. If
not possible main kitchen should be on level with main restaurantwith
preparation and stoon differentlevel. Foreconomy 1 wash-up desirable.
Banqueting and any otherfood service area not next to kitchen should
belinked byservice elevators (preferablynothoists) and stairs and have
own forward service eqp. Kitchen, cold rm and food sto area should be
planned to be locked offfromstaff when not in use. In large hotels food
and drink sto should be under control ofstoreman.
Approxspace allowances forkitchen planning including food sto, cold
rm, wash-up,chef'soffice:
main restaurant kitchen area
1.4m2 x no of covers
0.2 m2 x no ofcovers
banquet kitchen &servicearea
coffee shopkitchen
0.3 m2 x no ofcovers
separate independent coffee shop0.45 m2 x no ofcovers
Increase or reduce theseallowancesaccording whether fully traditional
orconvenience foodoperation envisaged.
1
Allowapprox500/c extraforstaff toilets, changing rm, canteen and other
sto (see below).
k&food sto flowdiagram
Specification notes for kitchen areas: floors non-slip tiles, draining
to gulleys with wide radius coved skirtings; sloping floors to have
gradient not more than 1:20. Recessed area at restaurant doors for
ribbed rubber matting or other non-slip cleanable material. Plinths re-
L=1L1
+—--+
1350k
surface. Corners protected. False ceilings offr tiles with access panels
to inspection covers, fire dampers etc. Openable windows to have fly
convenientfor
heavyItems
max reach
f....
quired for some eqp. Grease traps outside kitchen if possible. Gas,
waterand plumbing supplies to be run towithin 1 000ofappliance: final
connexion by specialist. Walls in kitchen tiled up to 1 800. In sto walls
fairfaced or plastered and painted. Dwarf walls tiled with inclined top
screens. Where mech make-up air provided windows non-openable
except forcleaning. Doors to havevision panels and metal kick platesor
automaticopening devices.
.
Main cooking eqp should be eitherin island or againstwall with extract
canopies extending about 250over. Extractvelocity usually 7.7 to 10.2
m/s. Should preferably have vertical sidesextending to ceiling. Height
tounderside 2150.
1•5o
2
Mm
spacesbetweeneqptoallow
forcirculation
convenientfor
heavyitems
Limitinghforsto shelving
3
-t6Th---
8O
I
A
cleanlinenracks
B table
C
0
4
A
C
B
tubs
extractor
D washer
E table
5
t
0
D
A tumbler
C
dryers
washers
Non-ironIau for120 bedrhotel
Sizesof kitchen sto will depend on type of hotel, location,frequency of
deliveries, type of food, ie whether convenience food. Cold rm temp:
deepfreeze—20°C, chill rm2to 3°C.
max reach
press& board
shakeOuttable
H four rollironer
J soiledlinenur
I foldingtable
F
G
La ufor200 bedr hotel
Other stores
Furniture sto with adjacent workshop, paint shop etc: 0.2—0.3
depending on amount in house maintenance
m2/rm
Cleaning materials: 0.2—0.4m2/rm
Glass, silver, china: 0.1 m2/rm
Liquor:0.2 m2/rm, divided into areasforbeer and mineral bottles, kegs,
redwines14—16°C, whitewine 10—12°C and spirits
Empties: closetoloading dock
Refuse:planning will depend on method ofsto and collectionsiebinsor
compactor. Allow space for vehicle backup to receptacles. Providefor
washing down refusearea, bins etc. In warm climatesprovide refrigerated
refusesto.
Linen: area depends on type of hotel. Typically 0.4m2/rm: may be less
if inhouse laundry provided. Shelves at least 600 wide open lathed.
Allowspace forsorting and worktable for repairs.
All above areas for 200 bedr hotels, do not necessarily increase or
reducepro rata according to number of bedr.
crockerycpd
Laundry
For 200 bedr hotel space ofapprox 140 m2 required excluding linen sto,
steam boiler, chemicals sto, office. Ifnon-iron linen used space can be
reduced to 40—59 m2. Ventilation ratio should be 15—20 air changes/hr
with separate extraction for steameqp and dry cleaning.
Servicebay
communication
6
Standswithopenshelvesfor
goods
7
Waiter's servery& sk
Should be arranged in such way that incoming goods can be kept
separate fromoutgoing refuse and preferably with separateentrance for
staff all undersupervision ofcontrol office. Vehicles back upto loading
dock. Providewashdown, weighing scales,staff clock-in. Allow sufficient
heightand turningspace for large vehicles. Columns and corners to be
protected fromdamage byvehicles.
214 Commerce
Hotels
KITCHENS& STORES
meals/day
2 Totalstorequirementsforconventional kbasedon numberofmeals
prepared/day
staffar
wash-up Sr
serveryar
cookin9ar
preparationar
25
stoar
55
meals/day
1
Kitchenlayout of largeroadsiderestaurantCaliforniaUSA
3 Arrequiredforsto k,servery&staffarusingconventional methodsoffood
preparation
4 Exampleofktoserve4restaurants: coffeeshop 120covers; mainrestaurant100covers; specialtyrestaurant
100 covers;staffdr80covers; mainfood sto inbasement, alsoservice&ktofunctionrm
Commerce 215
Hotels
ADMINISTRATION
hotels office accn may be limited to general office behind
reception desk, manager's office and chef's or control office at rear.
Larger hotelswill require all or some offollowing:
At front of house associated with reception: reservations office, front
office manager, chiefcashier, sales manager,secretary.
General admin (preferably nearreceptionbutcanbeelsewhere): general
manager, 2 or 3 assistant managers, secretanes, chief accountant,
accounts' dept,duplicating rm, archives.
In small
At back of house: control office at service bay, storeman, personnel
office,secretary and clerk, waiting rm, chief engineer, security officer,
chef (within kitchen), housekeeper, training rm.
Space allowance for offices (UK): 0.3—0.4 m2/rm orin accordancewith
statute(Bib346347).
Staffaccommodation
In large hotels provide staff canteen for approx 1/3rd staff with own
kitchen. Canteen should beaccessiblewithout staff havingtogothrough
kitchen. Senior staff diningrm may be required. In small hotels senior
staffmay use restaurantand junior staffdining rm may be supplied from
main Kitchen. Provisionofstafftoilets—Bib341480.
1 full height locker for each member of staff should be
provided: space allowance0.36m2/P excluding bench space: 1/2 height
lockersmay be used for certain grades of staff. Assume equal number
male and female staff unless otherwise informed.
Lockers:
Staff sleeping accn depends on location and management policy.
Manager's flatmay be required.
Technicalareas
Maintenance engineer's workshop and sf0 required adjacent plant rm.
May include, according to size of hotel, furniture sto, engineering eqp
sto,carpenters shop, paint shop, printingdept. Allunder chiefengineer's
eye. Accessfor replacement of heavy plant to be allowed for. Space
also required forel sub-station and switch rm.
1
Servicear&staff accnforlargehotel
Exampleofadminoffforlargehotel: except forfrontdesk,reservations&
cashierthese may also besitedelsewhere, egonmezzanine
2
216 Commerce
Hotels
GUEST BEDROOMS
Bedroomcorridors& stairs
Bedroom sizes —(1)
In medium tariff hotels 2-B rm typically approx 15—17 m2. High tariff
hotelsmay have rm upto28 m2, excluding lobby and bathr butincluding
Corridorsnot over-long; may be 1 200—2000wide according type of
hotel. Corridorflowcapacity—vp407. Wherewidth lessthan 2000consider
modulating corridor by recessing bedr doors. Ceiling void often used to
house engineering services: heighttoceiling notless than 2250.
Direction signsand numbering of doors to be clear and well lit. Protect
corners from damage. El socket outlets at 12 m intervals. Provide
emergency
lighting. Carpet floor for quietness. Space
forshoecleaning machines, drink dispensers and ice machines may be
required in corridors or lobbies.
sitting area.
American sizebed: twin990 x 1 900;double 1 370 x 2030; queen size
1520 x 2100; king size 1830wide.
Most hotelorganisations buildbedrsized totake twin or double beds in
order provide flexbiIity and avoid built-in obsolescence as standards
raised in future. Some rm may have fold-away beds so that they may
also be usedassitting rm or small meeting rm—.(2).Murphy beds fold
verticalclosedwith wall panel.
Fireprecautions—(4)
Follow national and local fire codes.
Floor to ceiling height 2500 (mm 2300)with lower ceiling of2000over
entryto allow for mechanical services.
Except at resort hotels balconies not usually favoured
because ofcostand maintenanceproblems.
Doors to bedr tobeself-closing with mm halfhourfr. Partitionsseparating
guest rm from corridors to have 1 hour resistance unless automatic
sprinklers installed. Mm fire ratings for separation of exits such as
staircases normally: bldg up to 3 storeys 1 hour, 4 storeys or more 2
hours.
by hoteliers
Proportion of rm (approx 20%)with communicatingdoors. Should be2
doors, preferably with rubberor neoprene gaskets to reduce sound
transference. Sound transmission between bedr and between bedr and
corridors should beminimised bydBreductionof45—50. Where external
noise fromheavytraffic oraircraft provide double glazing for reduction
40—42avdB.
In UK self-closing smoke stop doors should be provided every 18 m in
corridors and at all exit staircases. Max travel distances to exit stairs
shown in diagram. Linings to corridors and stairsshould have class Aor
B rating forsurface flamespread.
All exit stairs must be at least 1 050 wide, be of fr construction in fire
protected enclosure having 2 hour rating. Access must be through
vestibulefittedwithself-closing doors at least 1000wide. Lockeddoors
should beprovided with panic boltsorbreak glass system.
For greaterprivacy and sound insulation additionaldoor may be placed
between entrylobbyand bedr.
Privatebathrooms
Bathr normally contain wc, washbasin orvanity unit with mirror over,
bath with shower. Insomedeluxe hotels and in most SEuropean and S
American hotelsbidetnecessary. Showers in placeofbaths savelittle in
cost or space, therefore not often provided. Shower compartment in
addition to bath sometimes provided in de luxe hotels, as also separate
orscreened off wc.
Floor service
Bathr should be carefullyplanned in relationto plumbing and ventilation
ducts. Theseshould be located in relation structure and ease ofaccess
formaintenance.
clean linen racks and rubbish sacks. Depending on class of hotel and rm
servicesystempantry may alsobe required: should contain shelves for
setting out breakfasttrays, sinks and worktop, refrigerator, ice maker,
boiler, toaster, space for trolleys.
There are arguments for and against linenand rubbish chutes. Need
should bechecked with operator.
Every floorshould also have sto space for cots, extra beds and spare tv
sets.
Numberof rm perfloorshould ideally be related to number of rmwhich
can beserviced by 1 maid: willdepend on class of hotel, productivity of
staff and size ofrm, butwill comewithin the rangeof 12—18 rmpermaid.
Maids' rm should becentrallylocated and close to serviceelevators.These
should contain space forservicetrolleys(carts),soiled linen hampers,
Following additional features should be included: glazed tiling round
bath tub (at least), grab handles for bath shower and bath, shower
curtain and rail, soap tray, removable bath panel foraccess toplumbing,
shower, mixervalve preferably thermostatically controlled, adequate
towel racks in accordance withclass ofhotel, good shelfspace if vanity
top not provided, el shaver connexion, bath mat and non-slip surface to
bath/shower, toilet roll holder, clothes hooks. Other items to be considered: tissue dispenser, bottleopener, hook for shoe duster, waste
basket, sanitary bin, stool. Good lighting over mirroressential.
1
bed size
rm ar
x 2000
1500x2000
1000 x 2000
8.75 m2
1 000
single bed
double bed
twin beds
accesspanels
12.5m2
13.5m2
Basic mm rrnsizes (excluding lob &bathr)
[!61
In hotels where maids cannot get from bedr to staff toilets without
passing throughpublicrm, eginmotorhotels and motels, provision may
be madeforstafftoilets andchangingrmIn bedrblock.
biT
corr
corr
access
144
328
42h
3
single
double
access
Typicalarrangementsof bathr&ducts: access
panels toductsshouldbet/2 hrfr; ductsshould
have firestopsbetweenfloors;sizesvary with
heightofbldg; 'a'isbestforaccesstoductbut b &
'c' providemorespaceforvanitytop
maxtam
trolleys(Carts)
under
worktop
L_]
serviceelevatorlob
spaceforrabbisf
tray& china
sacks
sk
shelves
over
-
desk/work
boiler ..._—..——
I
ptr
II
I
hampers
LJL IL
toaster
cleanerssk
soiled linen
±
trig
maidstrolley cart)park
maxl8m
5 Typicalservicearfor50—60 mi/floor;
note: aprovisionofptrdependsonclassofhotel
and rm servicearrangements in k blocal linensb
orcpdmay berequireddependingon method of
control cfloorsto forbeds,cots notshown
ij1ffli
1Jbedr
b
sometimes communicating
toiletonly
doors
2 a basicbed requirements barrangement of
sittingrrnbetweenbedrprovidesmaxflexibilityfor
suites;suitescanalso beformedat corners ofbldg
orwherestandardisationofstructuralgrid not
possible;luxurysuitesmayalso beplannedas
penthouseorvillasin grounds
maa allowabletraveldistancefrom
4 stage 2escape;no furtherthan 18m
dimensionshouldexceedSm
3 inmuftl-rrttsuites anyassocIated
privatecorrshouldnot eaceed 7.5m
inlength
5 dead endportionofany escapecon
mostremotecornerofrmtodoorway
2 inmulti-rn,suitesno singlecross-ire
4
Fire:max traveldistances
allowedfromexitdoorofmito
entranceofprotectedroute
should
notexceed7.6m
Commerce
217
Hotels
GUESTBEDROOMS
1
Guest bedrdiagrams
Diagrams —(1 )(2) showconfigurations for bedr and bathr. Most new
hotelsplanned with private bathr attached to bedr; examples without
private bathr therefore not included.
a Typical twin bedr in common use: 3600 rm width optimum for
economy/comfort; wardrobe in lobby
b Similarbut reduced in depth for single or double bed
c
Narrow frontage scheme againstbathr
d Width of rm increased allow possibility of dressing area & walk-in
closet
e Bathr placed between bedr allow one bathr have natural light
Layout provides for separate wc compartment with bidet if required;
angled window can be applied to any of theseschemes & allows for
extrasitting area &directional view
g Luxury bedr withvanity unitseparated frombathr
h Staggering wardrobes in partition wall can savespace
-rubbish
4 Chambermaid'strolley(cart)
C
2 adressingtable unit bnighttable &bedhead with wallhungtelephoneto
leave table clear:table maybesplayedtoalloweasymovement of bed
ccombineddressingtable, luggagerack&tvunit; may becantilevered for
ease ofcleaningbutifsomustbefirmly anchored totakePsitting;upstand
should beprovidedatbackof fitmenttopreventdirtmarksonwall;luggage
rackmaybereplacedbyteamakingunit; lights shouldbeplaced toilluminate
worktop& both sidesofface evenly
3 Typicalcombinedunitwa: where
hangingspaceonly allow 500 rail/P;
some luxuryhotelshavewalk-in
closets&dressingrm
5
Linen trolley (cart)with removal
fabric
218 Commerce
Hotels
BUILDINGSERVICES
—(1) shows salient features of bldg services design (—p383—97)
but
following additional points should be noted:
Emergency electrical supply
Centralheating
Ifair-conditioning (normal USA) not adopted bedr should be heated by
radiators with individual controls designed for quickresponse. Public
rm, particularly restaurants, should be provided with controlled mech
ventilation tobalance kitchen extract. Bars should have extract fans.
Certain essential services must be maintained in event of failure of
mains supply. Generator willbe required maintainfollowing: fire exit and
emergency lights, approx 20% of public area lighting, cold rm and
refrigerators, fire pumps, cash registers, fire alarm indicator systems,
telephone communications, sumpand sewage pumps.
Bathroomventilation
Firealarm systems
Lighting
Following essential: manualbreak-glass contacts and automatic smoke
or heat detectors with audible warning throughout bldg; automatic
recessed hose reelsthroughout, hoses to becapableof reaching every
bedr; external fire hydrants; portable fire extinguishers at strategic
locations; asbestos blankets in kitchen; fire dampers.
Airconditioning
Central system generally preferred to individual rm units. Should be
capable of being controlled by guests in bedr. Public areas must be
zonecontrolledto copewith peak loads and foreconomy when certain
areas not in use. Good maintenanceaccess toallunitsessential.
Generally extract system should be ducted tofans on roofwith individual
bathr connected to main riser by shuntducts to minimise sound transmission between bathr.
Bedr lighting systems to be arranged so that at least 1 main light
switched from door and bedhead. More elaborate switching arrangements maybeadopted according totype ofhotel. Fluorescentlighting in
bathr to be of quick start' type. Each bedr or pair of bedr to have
consumerunitwith isolating switches. Corridor lighting should be time
switched sothat sections canbeturned offatcertainperiodsforeconomy.
Public rm should be switched in zones and special consideration given to decorative effects. Main switches should be located
where public cannotreach them.
Shaversockets
Thereshould be dual voltage (single voltage USA) shaver sockets in all
private bathr and male public toilets.
I 114
coldwater
sto 140 I/guest
screen
plant onroofmust
be well insulated
bathr
extracts
•separate flues
foreach boiler
zone forservices
airhandling
plant sited to
minimise nuisance
1000 zone for
o
3
9
6
18
I9
27
12m
I
LEEJ— sto
3611
boilers: at least2
each capable of 2/3
total heating load
water softener probably
required
I
Section showingsalientfeaturesof bldg services design for hotel
Commerce
219
Motels
Location
6250
On major highways, often near largetoxins,
excursion centres and holiday resorts, and
convenient for supplies (water, el, gas, fresh
foodand laundry). Restaurant, petrol and garage
services need not be connected to motel but
should be available nearby. Self-service
restaurant —p205 206.
Sited so thatpassing headlights do not sweep
bldg: avoid hilly terrain because of noise of
vehicles braking and changing gear.
Approach
Take into consideration stopping distance of
cars: 100 kph— 150m.
Entrance: leads to reception (short stop), then
to parking area (carport or garage) near as
possible to rm. Exit through reception (control
and return of keys).
Size
Unitopen to 1 side only;3different layouts
Arch Polivnick
1
Motels generally 1-storeyand spreadout since
land relatively cheap.
2
Unitwith daylightfrom 2sides (difficultto
control) Arch Roberto
If run by couple withouthelp10—i2unitspracticable; 1 helper required for every additional
10 rm.
If affected by seasons,divide motel intosmaller
groupsof 4—8rm with stop-cocks forwater, el,
gas etc. Single bldg cost more than terrace
housing.
If trucksto be excluded construct low canopy
over passage atreception.
3
Carportsbetweengroupsof3or 6units Arch Duncan
4
Unitswith coveredcarportsas3but in fours ArchTibbals-Gramley-Masson
b
5
Layoutofmotel withparkingarforeach block&restaurantas
independentestablishment ArchFried
3
6
2
1!D
2D
410
18 m
6ft
Motorhotel RevereMassachusetts USA aunitsinblocksof 12with
accesstoparkingatendeach bldg bcatering &adminbldg provides for
entertaining,dining,conferring Arch Salsberg &Le Blanc
6
220 Commerce
Motels
Staggeredlayoutofresidential
unitswith reception&caretaker's
flat Arch Williams
1
2 2 doublermwith lob(forcold
Provide large central rm for all guests, with
recesses for writingand reading, card tables,
radio, television, souvenir shopsetc.
season)and cabin (forch)whichcan
beused separatelyorwitheitherrm
Telephone boxes should have provision for
sitting and writing, and have maps, directories
etc available as mostly used for long-distance
calls.
Roomsize
forcity hotel:approx 4000 x 4000
upto 5000 x 5000,withbathrand ifnecessary
Large than
kitchenette, even if only 1 bed.
Provide inter-communicating doors between
unitssothat suites may beformed.
Since90% guests stay only 1 night cupboards
and chests unnecessary: provide large coat
racks on wall instead, where belongings hang
visibly,soless likelytobeleft behind.
Ancillary rooms
1 centrallysituated linenrm with 5 sets linen/B
(1 being used, 3in sto, 1 in laundry). Cleaner's
rm accomodates trolley (cart) with compart-
ments forclean and dirty linen, soap, bath salts,
toiletpaper, vacuum cleaner, broom,floorpolish
etc.
If possible direct access from rm to car park.
Efficient drainage ofapproaches, parkingareas
and paths, as guests enter rm straight from
outside.
Entrancewith b/wc, betweencarpark& guest
rmforsoundinsulation Arch Hombostel
3
4
Staggeredlayoutwith approach from 1 side
only Arch Thompson
Play areas some distance away to avoid disturbingresting guests.
restaurant
resdeflta
units
approachfroni fillingstation
hrhway
Layoutof3 with restaurant Arch Hornbostel
6
Establishment withefficiententrance &exit control
Commerce 221
Convention hotels
m2
595
280
restaurant
parlour&cafe
400
185
370
200
175
93
520
185
75
375
520
390
ballrm
425
185
space
foyerspace
Planning and design concept which absorbed large proportion of hotel
investment in USA during 1970s, often as part of efforts regenerate
innercity areas. Basic characteristic:large amount ofspaceavailable for
convention business activities such as meetings, exhibitions,seminars.
Conventions entail dense traffic:400-rmhotel can have population 800
ormoreat height ofconvention orconference.
occupancy
meeting
banquet
800
600
400
3750
5785
5.40
758
7148
4660
Flexibility
300
2900
880
3580
740
5390
meetingrm:
00 P
of space
essential —v(1)(2). Spaces for eating capable of
beingserved independentlyatall times butkitchens should utilise same
70
7930
parking)
central supplies (eg water,gas, drainage).
Staff servicing guests orworking behind public spaces should notcross
or impedepublic areas —v(2). In addition to segregation of personnel,
main public and meeting areas require large outside halls for security,
check-in by conference organisers, provision of coffee, literature and
exhibition stalls etc.
Large numbers involved make necessarycontrol oftraffic inand between
main convention spaces. Use of atrium as unifying design concept
—p223(1) groups ballrm, meeting rm, exhibition spaces, shops, bars,
restaurantson 4 levels. Service functions ofoffices, laundry,sto, loading
thus contiguous with space they serve but out of sight; segregation of
vehiclesalso obtained.
Conferences and conventions generate need for bedr with space and
eqp for daytime business meetings. Small kitchen, tables, easy chairs,
adequate lighting required —vp222(ld). (Rm thus equipped termed
suites insomehotel chains.)
58
520
432
1010
employee employee
telephone lockers
dr
a
linen
lau
I)
LL.,...
I
I
L
I
'
above
•!.
banquet
meetings
d
:
:
ptr
;i1ç.
foyer
ballrm I
StO\
1sto
b
entrance
PhoenixofAtlantaHotelUSA abreakdownof publicar(totalof2058
guestrm) b mainlob floor c lowerlob floor Arch AlanLapidus
key imainlob 2loblounge 3regetration4admin6shops&agencies
1
7checkrrn 8restaurant 9coffee shop
10 news stand 11 bar/cocktail lounge
I2discotheque l4grandballrm l7meetingrrn 2Oreceivingk 21 maink 22k 25rrn
service 31 rnech 34 snackbar 35main entrance 36convention foyer 37 reception & control
38 openlightwell 40 convention entrance
0 6
12 1,8 24 m
o 40 t0 ao ft
Smallconventionhotel(400rm) asecondfloor bmainfloor:showing
segregationofhotel &convention business vehicletraffic& tightcontrolof
service& personneltraffic inside
2
222 Commerce
Convention hotels
EXAMPLES
9
a
6
12m
20
40 ft
summitrestaurant
hoteiguestfloors
ofttower
C
iuflior balirmIeve
ballrTn
veI
-podiumbael
_—otttower Wnmediate level
Streetlevel
I,
--.,---
a
01.53m
5 lOft
Hyatt RegencyHotelHoustonTexasUSA
bfirstfloor ctypicalguest rmfloor
dexamplesofbedr suitesshowingprovision of
meetingspace;note possibleuseof dividingwalls
to createsmallerrm Arch JVIII
1
a lob floor
2
RenaissanceCenterDetroitUSA:convention
center & 1400 mi hotelwith 2650m2 ha,
13 restaurants,offspace, commercial retail space
&rentableflats(orcondominium) asection
b streetlevel plan ArchJohn Portman
d
9
9 9
12m
10 20 30 40ft
Commerce 223
Convention hotels
EXAMPLES
E Jcrc.
?
r
pool°°
:
___PIaZa__1 fastfood'
r
restaurant
ew
IL
036912
dr
U'.•
/5\
I:
I
bac
I bei<'
ow
b
m
10203040ft
b
9
121824m
204b600 ft
2
BonaventureHotelLosAngelesUSA:atriumdesign incorporating 4cylindricaltowers&central
tower a retailfloor blobfloor ArchJohn Portman
Hyatt HotelBostonUSA:atriumdesign with
addedfeatureoforientation over riverproviding
viewfrom publicspaces&guestrm aground
floor btypical guest rmfloor ArchJohn Portman
1
Hotel references:
—Bibliography entries 001 011 043 049 050 147 176217223226243
255 272 273 274 319 324 341 346 347 363 377 439440 441 442 477
480583645
224 Commerce
Public houses
English pubsfamous associal institutionsthroughout world; very difficult
create afresh. Being increasingly copied as special attractions in large
European and Americantowns. (Evenprefab pubs availableforexport.)
Few moderndesigns have satisfactorilycaught right atmosphere; many
originals have been brutally altered, often first to so-called modern
design, then back again to spurious Edwardian. Constant feature of
successful pubs seems to be breaking up of space into small intimate
rm whichnevertheless retain feeling of bustle all round. Traditionalway
dothis centralservery with bars radiatinground. Good pub hassomething
oftheatre about it: good taste should be used sparingly; brashness and
vulgarityhave place in interior fittings.
Regulations
b
Apartfromstatutes, for purposeof firesafety UK pubs mainly controlled
underliquorlicensing law. Applicants opening pub must apply to local
magistrates for licence. Must also notify fire authority,whichhas power
inspectpremises on questions of adequacy offire separation, between
such areas as kitchens and bars, and means of escape. Fire authority
inspectorhas power objectgranting oflicence ifdissatisfied.
For pubs catering for less than 50 people 1 exit generally considered
enough when pub 1 -storey. Elaborateformula,takes into accounttravel
distances, door widths and numbers of people, to calculate number of
exits needed for pubs serving more than 50people.
Unless pubs employ more than 20 little affected by (UK) Shops &
OfficesAct; but ifpartsof larger structures full rigour ofbldg reg apply;
could dictate, eg, provision of sprinklers at base of multi-storey block.
Finishes on wallsand ceilings also controlled by reg to prevent flame
spread.
Lord HighAdmiralLondon England: entirely modern pubwhichrecreates
atmosphereoftraditionalEnglishdesign,containedwithinlargescale
housingscheme;bars separated, varyingindesign &comfort: aground
floor bsection Arch Darbourne & Drake
1
Amenities
Scale, siting, quality, cleanliness of lavatories most important aspect
of successful pub; can be decisive in keeping or losing customers;
particularly important when renovating old pubs.
Most pubs nowalsoprovide some snack bar service thoughnot usually
with stooPs —p205; provisionof heatingand cooking eqp suitablefor bar
counterimportant. Quick restaurant service for lunch time trade now
common in town pubs, necessitating some kitchen and food preparation
area.
Do not forgetprovision for pub games, generally darts, dominoes but
somehighly Pocalised.
For modern cellar techniques and installationsconsult clientand/or (in
UK) Brewers' Society.
2
Groundfloor plan TheFanciersNorthampton England; bright&breezy
workingmen's club;colourfuluseofmaterials, stripedglass panels &
curvedcorners Arch Roscoe MilnePartnership
first
floor
plan
1st floor plan Foxhillsgolfclub Chertsey England
Arch BuildingDesignAssociates
3
b
4
MarkhamArms ChelseaEngland; sympathetic conversion of existing
Victorianpub; originalbowfrontremains;addition hasbeentackedonat back;
geometryof bow repeatedin built-in seating; a ground floor b section
Arch RoderickGradidge
Commerce 225
Office buildings
BUILDINGTYPE
Office bldg either custom builtto meet particularsetof requirements or
speculatively toattract largest possible range oftenants.This distinction
has led towidedifferences in bldgform. In theory should be no difference
at all because same fundamental principle applies to all office design:
organisations change far more rapidly than bldg. Distinction managed
bydistinguishing between design for4scales oftime:
Shell last at least50 years: must be designed to meetwide variety of
organisational needs —.(1).
visual and acoustic separation and decoration now frequently achieved
by furniture. Second, becoming increasingly difficult distinguish office
function from allied activities such aslab, industrialprocesses,education
Services become obsolete as office technology changes and must be
replaced at least every15 years —.(2).
Scenery: fitting out of office interiors to meetprecise organisational
needs; sceneryneedlast onlyso long aslease, usually5—7years—o(3).
Sets: positioning and repositioning scenery elements such as desks,
chairs, screensand partitions to meet immediateorganisationalneeds
perhaps evenevery3 or 4 months—*(4).
2 fundamental developments in office bldg in recentyears. First, significance oflong termshell diminishing as shorttermscenery,particularly
primarily involves handling information and making decisions based
upon information. This definition hides enormous variations in size of
officeorganisations, office technology and styles of management.
furniture, absorbs more and more functions. Carrying services,
1
OFFICE FUNCTION
Most employees in advanced economies workin offices. Office work
Range includes multi-nationals which employ thousands of people in
only 1 of many bldg to 1-man enterprises.
Much office worksedentary but offices also include spaces for machinery, canteens, meetings, filing, libraries and other ancillary activities
whichcantake up 1/3 ofspace needed byorganisation—e(6).
Office organisations changing rapidly and in every respect. Extreme
care should be taken toavoid building obsolescence into new bldg.
iHi
Shell
r-
1'
1'
1'
1'
-I
2 Shell &services
asconstructed
5
after15years
after45years
after30 years
Relativecost comparisonof shell, services & scenery over 45years
anciIiay
workplace
3 Scenery
primary
circulation,coreetc
I
I
1
I_j
I
I
I
I
I
I
1
4
6 Comparisonofspace requirements in4bldgshowingvarious
Sets
relationshipsofworkplace/ancillary needs
I
226 Commerce
Office buildings
DEFINITIONSOF OFFICE AREAS—(1)
a
a
Efficiency of office bldg usually measured in terms of ratio of usable
office area to grossarea of bldg. Real estate definitions vary but basic
unitsalways same:
(a
—
ead,oftfloor
thicknessofexternalwalls
columns
staircases
lifts
lax
ducts
••
•S
••
S
S
•S
plantrm
circulationwithincore
publiccorr
privatecorr
internal walls required for
bldgpurposes—not influenced
S
byspacease—
internal walls tenant's own
subdivision
floor recephon
oft space/deskar
wtelddg
bldgplantrm
bldg reception
coveredparking
sf0forwholebuilding
eginbasement
*t
•S
•
••
••
S
••
S
••
ia5
fl,e
,
B
S
S
S
S
I•
S
option
S
S
S
5
S
S
S
S
•S
•
•S
S
Workplace area (oruseablearea): spacesin which possible forpeople
to workatdesks;includes secondary circulation,
Primarycirculation: circulationessential toprovide accessand means
ofescape to workplace areas,
Special areas: space which cannot be used for office workers but is
dedicated to particularfunction, egarchives, restaurant.
Core:space needed forsupport of bldg, eglifts, stairs, ducts, lavatories,
Gross outside area (GOA): —a(2a)(2b) sum of all constituent office
areas including core,structure and perimeter walls,
Netusable area(NUA): —x(2c)(2d) what remains when core,structure
S
•S
•
S
•• S
iienclosed) (if
• S •
S
optionifsingleletting
subjecttoseparaterentalcalculation
,-
,5d
enclosed)
S
S
S
S
S
S
*
•*
t
t
*
•
*
Upartiallyincluded
S whollyincluded
Definitions of termsusedtodescribeofficear:precisedefinition
sometimesdifficultbecause of differentusages, variations in bldgdesign
(eg slab &centrecore), differencebetween letting floors,partsof floors&
wholebldg
1
and perimeterwalls subtracted fromGOA.
Core in multi-storey office bldg should occupy no more than 20% of
GOA—4(2e). Obviouslysmallercore more efficientbldg—xp228—9.
Primary circulation usually takes up between 10 and 15% of net usable
area. Special areas vary enormously depending uponfunction ofoffice
organisation —v(3). NB in multi-tenantedbldg primary circulationsometimes excluded from 'rentable' area.
Special areas should be convertible to workplace area. Not all work
place areaequallyvaluable. Common design faults—x(4)whichresult in
insufficient use ofspace:
columns too closeto perimeter walls
wasteful modules
dominant columns fixingprimary circulation routes
space ofwrong depth
provision of services onlyat perimeter
2 a forplanningpurposesgrossfloor aristotalof
bldg measuredfrom outside edgeofexterior
walls b forcost purposesgrossfloor artotalof
bldg measuredfrom insideexternalwalls
C NIJA:UKpracticeexcludesallcorr between
tenancies d NUA:USApracticeexcludesonly
circulationincore e bldgcore:example has
major& minorcore
a
DE.
C
in
-0
L±L
d
wasteful
module
e
intrusionot
structureintowork place
badlypositioned
radiators
IJ
/I7\
pesmeterserocesonly
wastedspacearoundcolamns
,1
oft
toodeep
/
,.--——'
\
"—....—
/
-'
11wrongdepth
space—
'.\ difticubto
adover
(
—pnmaty
3
Analysisof space usein4 projects showingvaryingspace requirements
4
circulat: fixed bycolamns
Commondesign faults
\\
entranceto/
Commerce
227
Office buildings
Positions of primary circulation: fixed? does it serveto 1 side or 2
(single ordoubleloadedcorridors)?
TYPESOF OFFICESHELL
3 factors determineshape offloorofofficebldg —s(1):
Depth of space: depth of any work place area measured
Position of core: placed centrally, orat 1 end, ordetached.
between
perimeter orcoreand primary circulation.
11111111111110
for3—5open plan workplaces
II
11
3 major bands ofofficespace depths can beidentified —*(2):
narrow, 4000—6000: suitable for single office rm or for 2—3 open plan
workplaces
medium, 6000—8000: suitable forenclosures larger than single rm or
oflspace
cellular
open
structured
deep, 8000 + : more than 5openplanworkplaces deep
These depths can be combined in various ways and together with
position of core and circulation generate wide range of office shell
configurations —*(3).
CELLULARISATION
1
Greatest test of office bldg capacity to accomodate various kinds of
organisation: degree to which can be divided upintormofvarious sizes.
Not all organisations require large number of small rm and not all can
use high proportion ofopenplan space successfully. In life of organisation demand forcellular and openspaces will fluctuate. Consequently
capacity of office bldg shell to provide range of rm arrangements must
be measured. Should be remembered that small rm not just required
for individual office but increasingly for other functions, eg noisy or
confidential machines such asterminal printers ortelexes. Capacitycan
be measured by number of rm of various sizes which can be provided
in given shell —s(4): this can be matched with demands of typical
organ isations for rmofvarious sizes _a(5).
Determinantsof shape
shallowspace
4000-6000
X2000)
/)
I-Ii =
integralcore
shell
rne&urnd6000-8 000
detachedcore
I
1K2000
\/
I \'__/I IN_JI
/
()
\
(
'\}
(-
,iN
K— —-
deepspace6000+
/
/__
\\
-
__/
\
(/
/I
0
___
rn
X2000
' ) :_)
/
f
\_//
______
0
\_/
4 Shell array
2 Spaced
o indivkiualenclosed
rrn
O groupsharedenclosedrm
0 open
shallowspace
lOO%fl
100%
mediumspace
Ill Ill
III
11111111111
I
67%
67%
::
33%
33%
100%
deepspace
Ill I
f111
3
5 Capacityof3shells, showing max amounts of individual
Spaced
and differentways of organisingspace
cellulansation
228 Commerce
Officebuildings
CORE
Office bldgcore—.(1)(2) p229(l )(4) must providetor:
Elevators: number and size depend upon population ot bldg, number
of floors, and required waitingtime. Elevatorsshould begrouped sothat
availability ofanyelevator in bank on anyfloorcan be easily observed. In
tall bldg elevatorsusuallygroupedtoserve 10ormore tloors—.p410—12
Ducts: vertical ducts required forheating, telephone,electrics, drainage
andwatersupply; alsoin air-conditioned bldg forairmovement. Provide
on generous scale, particularly for increasingly important electrics and
telecommunications, In large multi-storied air-conditioned bldg allow
for.
vertical air movement
el
©
telecommunications & telephone
drainage
watersupply
Services p383—97
Lavatories:Proportion men and women on each floor may change:
desirable that male and female wc be adjacent so that replanning
possible using sameducts—(3).
Cleaners' cupboards: oneach floorof multi-storey office bldg provide
cleaners' cupboard (mm 2m2)containing sto and slop-hopper.
Stairs: width of stairs determined by reg on means of escape and in
particularby numbersofstaffto be providedfor—.p407—9
©
AmericanExpress BankingCorporation
London England Arch DuffyEleyGuffone
1
Worthington
SW ElectricityBoardBristolEngland Arch
SWEB PropertySection
2
ii
nals
male
9
female
3 Groupinglavatoryprovision toallowfor
changingproportionsofmen&women
Commerce 229
Office buildings
CORES: EXAMPLES
DobsonHouseKillingworth NewTown England Arch Faulkner-Brown
Hendy NatkinsonStonor
1
2
Deptof Environment LondonEngland Arch PropertyServicesAgency
/
/
/
\
/)
3 GreaterLondonCouncilislandblockLondon
England Arch GLC ArchitectsDept
4
EuropaHouseStockportEngland Arch John
Caytten&Partners
230 Commerce
Office buildings
/7/77/"C
I,
_
RELATIONSHIPS
Office bldg can be designed provide best relationship between parts of
organisation;travel distancesboth horizontaland verticalcan be reduced;
visual links between component parts can magnify sense of close
relationship. Other bldg forms can be used toachieve preciseopposite:
max autonomy of component parts—(1).
INTERFACEWITH OUTSIDEWORLD
1
Ideally office bldg, whether speculative or custom built for 1 user,
designed with 1 entrance so that contact with outside world controlled
for security, to present unitedface to visitors, and tomake finding one's
way inside bldg obvious as possible —+(2). However, different policy
which allows for more than 1 entrance can be adopted if organisation
does not value security so highly and wants to allow tree access to
several internal functions —(3). Another condition when major user
wants sublet space. Proportion of sublet space may change: could
cause severe design problems.Third problem:when officebldg designed
to be lettoverylargenumber ofsmall users and easypublic accesstoall
partsof bldg becomes a malor objective.
Connexions
2 3 Organisation'sinterfacewithoutsideworldreflectedinhow
approached& degreeofpenetration allowed topublic
/
4
Typesofaccess:depending on typeoforganisation, boundary shown
betweenvisitor&companyar may fade &2spacesbecome1
Commerce
231
Office buildings
MEANS OF ESCAPE
Means of escape important determinant ofoffice bldg shell.In bldg over
2 storey travel distance from any point on office floor to escape stair
strictly regulated (30 m). Alternative means of escape on each floor
usually demanded. Design ofaccessfrombldg tostreet controlled. Reg
also affect scenery planning: eg rm may not openoff rm. Each space
must have direct access to means of escape —*p(1)—(3) —p91 —
Bib346 347.
1
Altemativeescaperouteswith limitedtraveldistancemustbeavailable
fromfiretoprotectedzone
2
Traveldistancefrom anypointonground&firstfloor to protected zone
mustnotexceed30.5 m
3
In some bldgover 18.3 m hsomestaircasesshould beconstructedas
fire-fightingstaircases,withsmokeoutlets, vents& frself-closing doors
232 Commerce
Office buildings
OFFICE SERVICES
Demand for services in offices increasing. Each work place must be
next to outlets for power and telephone. Coaxial cable access for
1
Perimeterservicing
2
Floor grid
3
False floor servicing
4
False ceiling servicing
terminals frequently required: with increasing automation and telecommunications will become common seeworkstations with 6 oreven
8wiresofvarious kinds. Already some organisations provide 1 terminal
for every 2 work stations. Precise need for connexions cannot be
predicted: essential provide grid to whicheach workstation can have
easy access without dangerous, trailing wires. Such grid can be provided infollowing ways:
distribution at perimeter and through partitions
distribution throughfloor grid (usually 1 800—2000centres)
distribution throughfalsefloors(height should be 50—500)
distribution fromceiling (NBproblem with safety)
distribution throughfin walls (points at desktop height)
5
f
Distributionthrough inwalls
Commerce 233
Office buildings
INTERNALENVIRONMENT
A
Quality of internal environment become major consideration: rising
energycostsmainly responsible, leadingto reconsidering design of:
C medium, 14 m deep, mech ventilated
D deep, 50 m deep, mech ventilated
ventilation (natural— mechanical—air-conditioned)
lighting (highgeneral levels—tasklighting)
heating (single source — optionalsource)
—.(1)tor difference in energy use before and atter energy crisis (c1974).
Environmental system should allow for:
Adaptability: servicing systems may beexpected tohave liteotapprox
15years. System should be adaptableto
varying degrees ofcellularisation and screening asoccupant changes
possible changes in tuel sources
changing expectations and standards
Control:individuals may be able control their immediate environment
according to nature of work: providing some control over lighting and
ventilation can help. Acceptable level ot lighting and ventilation in 1
location must not create glare or draughts in another. Solution must
recognise no 2 people equally comfortablein single environment.
Management& maintenance: environmentalsystems shouldbesimple,
maintenance tree, easyto change. Depending on size, bldg manager!
supervisorwill probably be needed, ideally appointedduring construction
and betore commissioning
Economicfuelconsumption:flexibilityto adaptto alternativeeconomic
tuel sourcesin future. —.(2) for comparison of energy use in 4 generic
bldg:
shallow, l2mdeep,naturallyventilated
B shallow, 12 m deep, mech ventilated
Each bldg form has same gross floor area, construction and amoint of
glazing, with vertical dimensions adjustedto suit each.
Requirements for heating each plan form shown separately. Can be
seen that relatively little difference in energy consumed with respect to
variations in form, increased energy going into lighting as depth of
space increases, compensatingtor reduction ot energy tor mech plant
because of more compact shapeof bldg.
Each plan formtested tor2different overall lighting levels: 400 lux, 700
lux. Can be seen lighting and fanpower canaccount for approx 70% of
energyconsumed.
If prime oblective conserve energy attention must be paid to reducing
artificial lighting requirements by:
providing mm overall lighting level of 400 luxforoffice work
reducing lighting further and introducing task lighting
making greatest useof naturaldaylight and providing localisedswitching
Fanenergyusemay be reduced byattention to design ofmech systems
and byusing low pressures and velocities for distribution of air.
Any economic environmental system must be designed for specitic
bldg toensureenergy usage kept low aspossible.
However, first2 questions any user must ask are:
whatoffice plan formis required?
does this form orits location make air-conditioning necessary?
beforeenergy crisis
0
0
N-
high overall illumination levels
(1000 lux)
mm task lighting
complexcentralised control
mm externalglazing
heat recovery
highthermalcapcity
excessheatsto
singleenergysource
deepplanbldg
afterenergycrisis
loweroverall illumination
E
levels
task lighting
moreindividual control
moreexternal glazing
heatrecovery
lowerthermal capacity
excess heatsto
possibility ot additional
energysources
variety of bldg torms
Changingenergyusebefore&
afterenergycrisis
1
Em
a
NB 10.76Ix = 1 foot-candle
2
Energyuse in4 genericbldg
0
0
0
0
N-
ii
234 Commerce
Office buildings
OFFICE CONSTRUCTION
3 critical constructional elements affect office layout: partitions, ceiling,
window module. 2 basic choices: complete modular integration and its
opposite, avoiding precise modules—.(1).
Test of any office planning: how well range of small rm sizes can be
accommodated. Small rm usually found in following approx sizes: 15
m2, 20 m2, 25 m2, 30 m2 (smallest size USA: 7.4 m2). Single rm depth
should not exceed 6000 otherwise unusable space created towards
backofeach rrn. Acceptable rm proportions should not exceed ratio of
1:1.5. Thusif strictmodular grid thought necessary, 1 500mm feasible
grid —(2)(USA 1220—1524).
Ceiling grid can affect single rm design in similar way. Single most
critical dimension: standard size
2400; USA 1 220, 1 830, 2440).
of fluorescent
tubes (1 200, 1 800,
Wide variety of possible types of ceiling: lightfittingssetin ceiling
diagonal patterns
movable fittings
waffle grids
largecoffers
All can be made compatible withplanning small rm. Discipline of ceiling
grid relaxed when task lighting used because fewer lights needed in
ceiling.
1.2mgrid
5m
whole bldg
grid:
structure
services
ceiling
partitions
30m2
24m2
.5 m grid
5m
18m2
12m2
___________
22.5m2
30m2
15m2
modular Integration
1.8 m grid
_______________ _______
noceiling grid
perimeter or
floorservices
5m
36m2
27m2
18m2
partitions can fitagainst
walls&ceiling as required
within solid wallzones
1
2.4mgnd
_____________
Non-modular&modularintegration
5m
24m2
36m2
12m2
2
Rangeof rmsizes at constant5000depthwith
variouswindowgrid modules
I1HHH
3 Nogrid, smoothfinish,exposed concreteslab
ordirect finish ceiling,surfacemountedlight
fittings
6
2-waygridded suspendedceilingwith
recessedlight fittings
IIHIIHHHI
4 Nogrid, smoothfinish,suspended ceiling,
5 Lineargrid, drysuspendedceiling, continuous
7
8
surface mountedlight fittings
2-way small structuralwafflegrid
1-directionaliecessed light fittings
Largecoffer/baygrid
Commerce 235
Office buildings
SPACESTANDARDS
workplaceare
Am sizes determined by space standards which allocate area
knownanciiiary
(egcomputer)
popsiatron
and
enclosure todifferent levels ofstaff. Manycompanies usesuch standards
10%aiiowanceforanciiiary
but widevariation in:
numberof levels ofstaff
at which level enclosure required
nettasabie
allocation ofspace to levels
Thesefactors, and even greater degree of variation in ancillary needs,
make extremely difficultpredict amount of space/head whichshould be
+primarycircuiation
used to calculate roughly amount of space needed to accommodate
given number ofstaff. Certainly 10 m2NUA!head very low; 25 m2/head
high. Any figure in between could be relevant to given organisation.
nettrentabie
1
UK statutory mm of workplacearea excluding anyancillary approx 4 m.
(No statutory mm USA.)
+aiiowanceforcore,stairs,Uty,corr,iobetc
gross
CALCULATINGSPACEREQUIREMENTS
Office area requirements calculated in 2parallelways:
people space (le individual space standard x numbers)+ allowancefor
immediateancillary + factor(usually15%) forprimarycirculation;
non-people space, eg machine rm, libraries, which depend more on
eqp than on staff numbersfortheir area should be calculatedby informed
estimatesbasedonexistinggood practice or comparable examples:
again factor must beaddedfor primarycirculation.
Methodofcalculating spacerequirements forwholebldg; adjustments
should be madeforsharedcommon spacesinmulti-tenanted bldg
3
a'
+
daie
a
E
department
comments
.L
°
a
+
a
aworkplace
1 manager
2perSonai assistant
CALCULATINGRELATIONSHIPS
3secretary
4
5
6
To prepare stacking plans te relating 1 department to another in an
existing bldg. or even to work out configuration of new office bldg.
interconnexions between parts of organisationcan be studied by more
totai workpiace
bancillary
1 tiieS
2iib
3
or less detailed surveys of communications.
totalancifary
totairequirement
4 Exampletabulation sheetusedforrecording existingspacerequirements
&future predictions
5
Stackingplan example
HE.
2
Comparativespace standards in4 companies
6
Interrelationships
236 Commerce
Office buildings
ventilation
loading
servicing
access
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
**
**
*
computer
lib
meeting
presentation
k
restaurant
1
Requirementsofspecialar
11111
receç,on
II IUIThU
tIIIIII
SPECIALAREAS
Offices contain largenumber of special areaswhich may need:
ventilation(orair-conditioning)—p392
superior floorloading
to beplaced away fromwindows incentre ofbldg
special servicing even toextent ot suspended floors
greater height than normal office dimensions
special access topublic or goods
cnmssoeares resteroi
p41Øfl;.
companies
board1
UU
recephOn
desk
1Bn1
data
+
O
2
Examplesshowingdifferentstyles of reception
3
identical
controlted
environment
Computerrot
Commerce 237
Office buildings
SPACES FOR MEETINGS
also —p238
typeofspace
number
ofP
typical space
required
type ofuse
provision ofeqp
shortdiscussions brieting
1
2visitor's chairs atwork
station
location
perP
provision atworkplace
meeting atdesk
2—3
m2
2 0—275
subordinates, personal
interviews
or
C
0
meeting ur
1.5—2.5
C
cOo
0
working discussions with
members otntsff or
visitors
conference table &chuirn;
related eqp pinboard,
chalk board
working sessions
between members within
group otpersonnel from
outside involvedwith
some prolect. may last
severalhr
conference table & chairs
withsome screening from
surrounding workstations;
related eqp: tipchartn, pin
up space, chalkboard;
provision otpermanent
notice board orchart board
foruseotgroup
tocuted ingrouparudtucent
toprimary circulation, to
limitdisturbance of
individuals
interviewing personnel or
salesrepresentatives;
discussions withmembers
olpublic shortperiods of
use up to ¾ hr
aural & visual privacy
required
clone to mum entrance &
deptwith malor usage; may
require waiting uradtacent
ifused frequently
slides, overheadprolector,
flipcharts,dimmer lightn,
good ventilation; sto for
drinks, audio-visualeqp
ease ofaccess toatt dept
easily serviced with
refreshments; access for
outside visitors without
going through workar;
costs arclone by
vending machines,stand-up
counters, lowtables & easy
chairs; diuplayboard;
screeningfromworkar
adlscent todo, wc &rest
rm; equally accessible to
allpersonnel on each floor
provision forgroupof
workplaces
meeting ur
6—6
t 5—2.5
provision foraltmembers
of staff
interview rm
2—3
t.5—2 0
8—t2
t.5—20
meetings withoutside
visitors orinternatpolicy
making & planning meetings 2—3 hrmeetings
12—t8
225—4.0
primarily used brrefreshment breaks, but may also
be urwhere general
notices, scheduling
channetc can be
displayed;may become
importantpoint forenchange ofinformation &
ideas;aned throughout
dayforutortperiods
infrequent meetings:
involvement ofallstaff
formal board meetings;
signing ofcontracts;
managementmeetings;
business lunches &
entertaining: 2—3 hr
meetings
rm
k 0UU0 cu
rent ar
assembly ar
100—150
bourdrm
16—24
1 5—2.0
conference rm
15—20
t 5—2.0
lecture rm
50—100
1=
I
OL ITJD
DUO
K°°00
1
I
04
located in screened urif in
planned open off
environment
presentation; working
discussions with outside
visitors
large conferences,
presentations, lectures &
training sessions
Typesof meetingplaces,characteristics & requirements
formal layout; audio-visual
eqp:good ventilstion
essential; telephone
eetension; space & eqpfor
stenographer
audio-visualeqp; dimmer
lights&black out; uto for
eqp & furniture, allow
satficient spacefor
alternative layouts
closed circuit tvsystem,
control rmfor prolector,
lighting, curluins,tv&
audio systems, stospace
forfurniture display systems
may use cafeteris or
recreation npsce
anterm (forrefreshments &
leaving coats) attached;
easyaccess forretreshmentn: 2visits
easyaccess forvisitors
adlacent ar foraudience to
assemble beforemeeting;
several entrances
238 Commerce
Office buildings
SPACES FOR MEETINGS
space allocation expressed
supportspaces
also —.p237
avof all
av of off I av of
off
using
'Kew'
furniture
other
general'
off
drawing
off
%
%
%
%
3
4
5
2
3
4
4
6
6
2
4
—
—
meetingsi5aces
sto
refreshment/rest
do
generalservices
Percentage of space allocated in
1
openplan offformeetingaras
percentageof total net ar
as% of total netar
3
2
7
7
circulation
18
total supportspaces
31
15
34
av of
2
2
19
8
15
29
31
headquarters accn for
engineering organisation
Ipopulat ion 1 2001
manufacluring admin
organisalion
populat ion400)
headquarters accnfor
clerical organisalion
Ipopulation 1400)
consultancy organisafion
)populafion80)
2
Meetingarprovisionfordifferent
typesoforganisation
1 per 1200
1 per 1200
1 per60
1 per200
none
none
1 per 15
1 per 10
office stall
office staff
office Stall
1 per40
oflicestall
1
per 12
office staff
1 per 80
1 per 45
office staff office staff
none
1 per18
officestaff
1 per 26
office stall
1 per400
1 per55'
office stall officestall
1 per 280
office stall
1 per230'
officeslaff
1 per 1 400
officestaff
none
I per 16
officeslaff
1 per 20
office slut)
none
none
1 per80
none
none
officestaff
clficestaff
none
office slatf
oiliceStat) officestaff
office staff
apporlioned toseparale companieson each floor
informal situation probabledifference in status between parties
.9
.9•
3
involved interview orbriefwith subordinate
48m
4.0.formal interview
—2.7rn-4
!
-.-—3m-— —3m-—i- j—3m----4-
1
4-245m+
T±
UU
I
E
in)
U
L_J4
L
J
i!
I
L
L
UU
-it
'E
L
J4-
•
I
•
1
LJ L1
I
I
•l
•
-it
I UflU
I
IE
lU L]U
• aijI
1_____j
1'4'
•l—l
II
l,IaIl
f
•I
I
U...
.
IUI!UlI:
•
I
•fE
-+-
U______
U
l
• III
$fl
,
•na
UI II
lSII•l
lUll1
•UIa
I
I
I
I
I •i
U U
I
L
SLJUII
•
L
•
J$_
E
Ut
I
L
U
-J
•
________
• ______
• U...
______
7,2m
•
1
•.1II•m
UIIUIE
a
Uf
I
•I
I.
.1
..
I
•
U I_____ •
• ______•lI
-L__UUa
I
I
•
•
-t-f••'U • U •
•••••••...
.1
•
1
1+
I
E
Meetingtable space requirements
5
J L!Jt
L
4—31ni—-j
I
.
1
-4—3.1 m—4-
4—3.lm--4
I)
I
lll
'.
I
•
I
&4
&2J.
•
.•
: •••• 1'T
1
3.1m
4-31m
-- IU .IE
•flUIE
I.
IU
l
4—3.5m--—4-
+-365m-+
a.
•
-t
•
-1-4-
. L
_il
'U..
I
-1+
If a Ill
rajit: 0• iuOu
II
•
iE1u1 I •
-4-2 2m-4
3
lecture i'm
100—150P
seating arrangement & condition
informal situation with both parties working on equal basis
1
2
t per 120
1 per 280
office staff
1 per80
conference
i'm 22—28P
meeting irs meeting rm
12-16P
16—20P
meeting rrn ounge/
meeting atat meeting ar
workplace
restar
serving group 6—BP
ofworkplaces
••
••
••
•
.•
•U
U
•
UU•U• UUUU
U
o
U
Commerce
239
Office buildings
OFFICE FURNITURE
Once simply element in workstationsforclerical
staff and managers office furniture has become
more specific and also means of controlling
use ofspace, eg:
screens to separate
linking unitsto allow workplaces to be ganged
in various ways
services carried byfurniture
use ofvertical surfaces for sto
use ofsto tosub-divide
fin walls
1
Typicalclericalworkstation
3
Supervisor'sworkstation
4
2
These developments have beenbasis formany
proprietary furniture systems. Many types of
layout possible but principal controlling factor
density. Densities in openoffice planning at 8
m2lhead, 12 m2 and 16 m2—.p240(3)—(5) give
someidea of range of possibilities.
Secretarialworkstation
6
Gangedworkstations:screened (carrel)
7
Free standing enclosed
Gangedworkstations:open
5
Free standing
furniture
240 Commerce
Office buildings
OFFICE FURNITURE
1
Furnitureused to controlspace: finwalls
2
Furniture usedtocarry services
3
Officelayout8rr/head
4
Officelayout12 rri/head
5 Office layout 16r1/head
Commerce 241
Office buildings
STORAGE
Filing cabinets still predominant method of storing office paper: but
manyother possibilities, including suspended and lateral filing, which
can be considerably more efficient in space use—*(1).
Microfilm—p7 can be used to reduce bulk of paper held in offices: may
not always be acceptable substitute because of:
rft
complexity ofinformation stored
frequency of retrieval
hanging
files
cost
legal requirements to keep original copy
Drawer type filing cabinet still predominant type of sto unit but not
always mostefficient in space use —(3).
Spacerequirements
box files:
ledgers
onshelves
Deeper the cabinets, wider the passage required between them. High
shelves not easily serviced: time saved because access easier to
vertical sto. Hanging files utilise wall area87% more efficiently than box
files —*p242(1). Filesmay have betransportedby conveyor;desks in filing
rm should have shelves for sorting; provision ofsmall tables and chairs
on castors for convenience ofclerks desirable.
Registry (document entry) should be centrally situated. Since clear
height of 2100 only required, 3 storeys of registry could be fitted into
equivalent of 2 normal office storeys. Dryrm essential. Deep registries
more economical. Provide writing on reference surfaces next tostacks.
Trolleys may be needed for moving files. Moveable registries make
possible 20%greater utilisationofspaceby doing awaywith intermediate
passages—*p242(3)(4). Layoutsnotstandardisedbutadaptedtodifferent
needs, such as archives, lib, sto. Paperstovery heavy; can createacute
floor loading problems.
shelves
hanging
planhanging
Space required and capacity of 3 types of filing system compared
—*(3)(4).USA dimensions filing cabinets, lockers, sto cabinets—*(5)(6)
p242(6).
900'
480'
1
65;
Filing
600
4
3O0'
500
7Q()
Comparisonofcapacityoffiling systems
a
ii,,,
,rlIIIIrIIup,,Ili,ln,
b
P!II!I!fl!!!
iI,j(I
1
c
,
i,,i
TI
d I,,,J,,
i,,,,
5 USAstandardclearances forfilingcabinets apassage drawersclosed
only bpassagedrawersopen ccabinetsfaceto face passage drawers
closedonly d cabinetsfaceto facepassagedrawersopen
3100
3100
2
Ff M44Tht
Exampleofrelationships with registryin insurance firm
deskh counterh extrah standardh
4-drawerfiling lateral filing open
cabinet
theoretical capacity (linearm) 2.4
2.0
capacity in use (linearm)
capacity/unitar (linearrn/rn2) 2.7
cabinet
shelving unit
plan
4.5
4.5
5.5
5.4
5.4
6.0
::::::::::
:::.::.::::t
3 Comparisonof space requirements of filing systems
-
i
drawers
extended
/
plan
Er o.j__
rj.r::::::
::::::::::
-71 1-+—686-'l--660.4-6864-71
762
6
FilingcabinetdimensionsUSA
1-
762
t
242 Commerce
Office buildings
STORAGE
3rowsoffiles
6rowsoftiles
;ii 1i41f
—1T——-r——T-T
I
i1Lt;;Ii11
11
11T1Tm—T—i
[.
0
Wall space comparison betweensuspended&
boxfiles ofsamecapacity
1
4
Movableregistry(document entry)
vertical &suspended tilingin
folders, pigeonholes65/78/200
flatfilingin
library filingin
loose-leaf
index in rollbinder on open front cpd
shelves 35/200 40/125/220
10000tiles
Continuous
cpd/cabinet
floorarmcI
operalion but
exclside
passages
approx 2mm
thickwithout
holders,
approx 25
sheets
11
5
T
ml
UH
L
—
II
I
I
II
II
=
2
1
lockers
plan
2
[
I
=
1300
a
Largedocumentchest: section& plan
3
<ITTi
a
EJ EJ U
officespace saved
3
Comparisonof space required formovable &ordinary registry
2
3
524
1830
762
914
1067
305
229
to
610
229
to
457
305
381
305
to
533
305
381
305
381
1
—
H
W
—
D
—
1
:.::::.:.:.::.:ID
UUU
U
U
UUEIIEJ
36m2
lockerdimensions
-
plan
ir 1
825m
5.92 rn-
twi
w
rri
HI
(0
2.4 m
-
Proportionof gangwayspace totiling cabinetspace
w
Co
11 Ow
7.25 ni
cabinetdimensions
stocabinets
6
gl4maxfor 1 drawer
H
W
D
C
Locker&sto cabinetdimensionsUSA
762 1067 1676 1981
457
610 914
457
559 610
457 max tor2drawers
Commerce 243
Office buildings
OFFICE EQUIPMENT
Office eqp increasing rapidly in complexity and scope as information
technology develops. Use of office automation growing rapidly and
expected be single most important use of information technology in
longterm.
power telephone
supply connexions
eltypewriter
telex
word processor
copier
terminal
telecopier
micro-computer
microfilmviewer
telephone
vendingmachine
video/tv monitor
1
.
.
.
.
.
.
e
.
.
.
heat
noise water
extract
.
.
.
.
e
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
supply
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
5 Telex
.
h = 500
w= 500
d= 600
Basic requirementsofofficeeqp incurrentuse
6
Microfilmviewer
h = 1200
w= 1700
2 Elgolfball typewriter
d=
680
h=350
w=600
d = 450
7
3
Large(15 collator)copier
Smallphotocopier
h = 125
w =550
d = 375
4
Telecopier
8
Wordprocessorwith hardcopyonly;visual display unit(VDU)commonly
used in addition
244 Commerce
Office buildings
OFFICE EQUIPMENT(cont)
distribution
frame
I
I
I
I
rectifier unit
N
4
Small(4line) telephoneswitchboard
battery
h
maintenance
workbench
1,
1
I"
4000
Privateautomaticbranchexchange(PABX) rmrequirements
5
Mediumsized telephoneswitchboard (20 linesPABX)
h = 950
w=600
d = 360
2
Terminals
Small vending machine
h= 1850
w= 780
d=
650
printerh= 150+w = 400÷d= 380-I-
7
3
Large treestandingvendingmachine
Microcomputer
Office buildings references
—*Bibliographyentries 069 177178222241 249 257 259260 341
346347363 364 366 374 389 429 465 479480540 541 542 545
554 564 565 566 570 580 592 601 614
Commerce 245
Banks
ecu
"
bankingha
eflirance
partition
commussionaire
securitiesdept
bankingha
(
writingdesk
deposiiboxes
desk. iedger clerk
I
cashcounier
2
Customer'sroutesin major
Europeanbanks
1
siairstostrongrm
'---
partitinri
ieadin9tosirOng en
4$]iob
Routestostrongrm
Different design requirements according to whether private bank with
primarily mercantile interests, major bank, savings bank, mortgage
bank; but ingeneral banks places where money paid in orwithdrawn by
customers. Procedures needbe transactedquickly, securely, simply as
possible. Mech conveyance and similar systems notnecessary orworth
while except for really large institutions.
Route followed by customer: from street outside through lobby into
banking hall, sometimes fitted withbench seats or chairs forwaiting and
writing desks forcustomers, andvarious positions forpaying in, drawing
out, security, savings and (in Europe) giro transactions,or 'uniqueue'
Desks for accounts and book-keeping (check on state of drawer's
account) usually behind cash counter—.(1).
Other offices serving customers, eg manager, credit dept, auditing
dept, usually next to banking hall with separate ante-rm, or on upper
floor—.(3).
Route to deposit boxes (often in basement): frombanking hall through
partition into passage, usually past securities dept and safe custody
deptdown stairs to protective grille in front of lobby leadingtostrong rm,
where customers' deposit boxes and strong rm door; sizes ofboxes: for
stafisideentrance
lpersonl000xl500uptol500xl500,for2persons2000xl500
Larger institutions normally have separate bank strong rm next to
customers' strong rm, while safe custody dept has offices in front of
entrance to this, with separate staircaseto banking hall or special cash
elevators —.(3).
Basement reached by separatestaircasecomprises cloakrm,sto space.
heating plant, plant for operating elevators and pneumatic despatch
tubes, elecfromech communications eqp and so on, as well as registry
and elevator for documents.
In mortgage banks must be possible for all mortgage business be
completed conveniently onground floor.
3
Relationshipsofrm inbig bank
—.
a
directors
—
—
world
savings
\
[
u
un
parkinglot
i,/
'z
Li
LIII
0
machine rm
L
clock
tower
0
I
10 20 30m
326498 ft
sf0
[
'I
b
9
\,
',
?
è
'
12
6
18
24ff
bankingrmN
couporbooths
I
_entrance
conference teller counter
C
1entobelow
4
WorldSavings& LoanAssociation SantaCruzUSA; main banking rm
extendsupwardsthrough2 storeys litby skylights &clerestorywindows asite
plan b groundfloor cfirstfloor Arch EsherickHomseyDodge &Davis
p
5
TannersNationalBankWoburn USA:conversion of originallysquare
rectangularbldg byadditionof2 corners enclosing respectively staircase&
off a lowerlevel b main level Arch Architectural Resources
246 Commerce
Banks
Strong rm doors and armoured doors pivot gently on
steel hinges
withoutdropping; canwithstand anyattackand fitted with unpierceable,
indestructible steel plates, with fire-proof and non-melting reinforcing,
with additionalfireproof, non-melting and unpierceablecompound casting. Total thickness approx 270—300. No keyhole: elaborate locking
device (eg miracle lock, remote-control lock) and el-operated alarm
system, whichsounds atslightest vibration ofdoor.
Cashier positions —(2)—(6) nowadaysin Europe usually completely
250 thick.
protected with bullet-proof reinforced glass, 4 panes
Similar protection oversunken drawers. Alarm system operated byfoot
or knee.Underneath counter normally standardtype steel cabinets.
Exceptions still exist,particularly in USA, in bankswishing foster informal
'non-authoritarian' image. In USA many banks still retainteller positions
either behind grilleoreven open.
1
Strong rmwith innerdaytimedoor
Customers
Customers
EJ ET1
bankstaft
rufL
lo
bankstaff
(0
3 As—(2)with desks
2 Parallelcounter arrangement
r(01-r
Intercommunications system now more usually by means of televisioninstead ofby pneumatictubes, belt conveyors etc.
Drive-in banks: to save time customers do not go into bank butdrive
up to cash point—(8). No parking problems: cash points can be incorporated in bank bldg —(10)(11), separate islands —.(12)(13),orbelow
pavement level, with shaft by kerb containing reflecting mirror, loudspeaker and cashconveyance device —.(9). Each cash point can serve
up to 250 customers/day. (Eachtransactiontakes approx 60 seconds.)
Not all banking transactions can be at drive-upcashier's desk: even
where this system operates normal banking ha also needed for
lengthierbusiness.
NB diagrams this page apply totrafficcirculation on right
10
II
5OO
4
Sawtoothcounter arrangement
with desksatsides
ii
f!
çi
Ei;i
ci
T_
10 Drive-upcashpoints
H-L
5
Germancashdesksas in big
Berlin banks
6
Swedishtype cashdesk
11
microphone
a-b
bullet
12.0
.1
--L]1--i-{
::
Cash points incorporated inbankbldg
28.0
8.0
I
7
Drive-upcash point,noparking
12 Twin cashpointsasislandto easetraffic
8 Drive-upcashpoint inkiosk
9
Cash point belowpavement
with shaft forcustomerservice
3parkingplacesneededfor
uninterrupted&smoothservice
(Snorkelbank)
13 Cash points as—(7)(8)forthroughtraffic
Commerce 247
Banks
EXAMPLES
9
1.5
a
3m
loft
Bancocli NapolibranchNewYork USA;interiorplan conversion of1070m ground flooroffspace in offtower
block Arch SkidmoreOwings& Merrill
1
key
1 conference 2reception 3lob 4elevator
5toilet 6lunch rm 7do 8lockers 9refuse
10 planting bed 11 tellercounter 12 strong rm
13 safedeposit desk&booths 14chequewriter
l5fountain l6newaccountslldistrict
manager 18coveredentrance
6m
5101520tt
b
2 WorldSavings&LoanAssociatesSantaAna USA afirstfloor bgroundfloor ArchKamnitzerCotton
Vreeland
a
m
10 20ft
4
unid
Albany SavingsBank: smallbranchbank
NewYork USA agroundfloor b firstfloor
Arch Feibes&Schmitt
3 FederalReserveBankBostonUSA,
arrangementof aexecutiveoff32ndfloor
bexecutivedining &meetingrm 31stfloor
Arch Hugh Stubbins
Banks references:
—*Bibliograhpyentries 007 249 254 374 477
248 Commerce
Vehicle services
CAR PARKS
0
a
c,J
I
With growth in motor transport separation of moving and stationary
trafficessential.
Results of traffic research suggest different parking layouts on basis of
local conditions:
Population: desirable parking area in mid-town = 0.5_lob of population ofwhole built-uparea.
2
Parkinglane alongside footway
c'i+
Parkinglane eitherside road
divide
Number of cars: 1 parking space on towncentre for every 5—8 cars
kept in built-uparea.
Visitingtraffic:parking space for 7—9% of vehicles regularvisitors to
town centre.
-
Parking space needed (including drive in) 20—25 m2/car.
Parking areas within roadway limits
Kerb space requirementsfor longitudinal parking—a(1)—(3)(7)(8).
LL
4 Double parkinglane down
3 Parkinglane downmiddle of
roadway
middleofroadway
Parking lanes: oblique or right angle parking lanes for various road
widths —a(4)(5)(6). Parked vehicles must not restrict visionof moving
vehiclesatcorners; therefore gap betweenendofparking lane and bldg
line 6000; 10000 preferred —a(1)—(4).
Avoid rightangle parking (dangerous for passing traffic).
Safety strips 500 wide recommended between parking lanes and
moving traffic.
---------*
± 00
roadway
+ 0.05
parkinglane
+ 0.16
footway
-
3.0
o5r
roadway
NB diagrams on this page apply to trafficdrivingon right:data
based on Germanpractice
2.32.3'
relationto streetedge
5.0
parking bays
footway
edge of premises
5
43cars/i00m
9
Parkinglanesformotorcars
Rightangledalignment
a
3.5
3.0
\\\\N
Ipumps
footway
6
Obliquealignment
—
14 cars/i00m
7.0
7.0
——
1DL
7
-- 5.0 --
5.0
-
LDLcD
- 4.75 -l--- 4.75-
I :içf
Segregatedapproach& departure
L
10cars + 9spaces
Ii
-
500
— 5.5 —'
59.5
500
5.5 ——
5.5
-
1—
500
IT!! r1
11111111 [1 1
s—
L
b
H
footway
Enclosedparkingspaces a neighbourhood garage barrangement for
narrowsite c road at anglegiveseconomical useofspace fordifferentcar
sizes, savesapprox 10% floor ar
10
8
lit 1111111111
Settingdown: continuousapproach &departure (eg theatres, taxis)
Commerce 249
Vehicle services
CAR PARKS
USAstandards —op250
Off streetparking
In permanent car parks, lanes and baysshould be clearly marked with
safetystrips for pedestrians —(10)(13). Enclosed parking spaces also
—*p248(10).
Spacerequirements —(8)—(15)
Space/car withdriving lanes but without main access and exit:
±
7.5
44—
10.0 1
7.5
800
14
44-
5.5 -s- 7.5 1-5,5-44
800
600
2
45°parkingforbuses
1
3
Truckwith trailer
Smallbuses
90° parking approx20m2
45° parking approx23 m2: usuallypreferred forease of parking.
Parking bays—(8)—(10)
Space/car (medium—large) 5000x 1 800. Forcarparkslargerthan 800 m2
provide20% baysfor larger cars (6000 x 2100) if park attended. Provision for motor cycles, bicycles,disabledaccordingto localrequirements.
4.0
Truck & bus parking
Fixed bay sizes advisable because vehicle size varies greatly. For
truckswith trailers provide for parking without reversing —.(1)—(6). For
articulated lorries reversing usual.
— 12.0
4
-4-———-
12.0
±
5 300 parkingfortrucks
withtrailers
16 0—22.0 -4- 15.0—20.0
7
+
i
—4--
12.0
NB diagrams on this page apply to traffic driving on right: data
based onGerman practice
—4
90°parkingfortrucks
4—15.5-—.4
oc:
6.0 -'4- 6.0 -,
I
—
—
— 12.0
—4
90°parkingfortruckswithtrailers
35.0
-'o 6.0 145.04-5.0
For long distance traffic provide yards at town approacheswith driver
accn, workshops, filling stations etc.
—1
90°parkingfortruckswithtrailers
4-150—20.0
6
—4—
20.0
i
T2.3
—
12.3
I
I
—
4— 125 —t— 8,25 —°
soo
500 500
4435,4- 8.0 —443.544—6.0 —4
1— 12.5 —'
soc soo
45,0-ir-4.5ii- 5.04
44,5443,544-
8.0
500500
—443,544-4,51
'
.°
3.0
,0
—
:—
'44
—
-carsize
¶
jjj_
parking
I
-
bay
b
a
8
90°parkingformedium& small
cars a &verysmall cars b
390
'
500
500
soo
sco
13.54'--10.25—143.544-—10.25-—143.5°-6.0 -II
9
Wider baysfornarrowdriving
lanes
500
43.544-- 8.0
26.5
soo 500
—443544—-
500
8.0 —44354
10 45°parking
11
45°parkingforcarsa, vansb
_____ 21.5
2.5
45
2.5
M
2.5
12 45° parkingfor largecars,
13 45° parkingformediumcars,
reversing
reversing
14 450 drive-throughparkingfor
15 45°drive-throughparkingfor
mediumtosmall cars(no reversing) largecars (no reversing)
250 Commerce
Vehicle services
PARKING:USA STANDARDS
public road
a
[
—
lL1_L'[I
II
H-H
I III
2.43
dayparkeruse
standarduse
&
Lse
2.74
3.05
Ill!II
—(2)givesUSArecommended (—aBib513) parkinglayouts, stall widths
and parking dimensions for 2 most typical car sizes. Recommended
smallcar dimensions be used only in car parks designed forsmall cars
orwith entrance controls which admit onlysmall cars; putting small cars
into standard car layout not recommended: standard dimensions will
take all normal passenger vehicles. Withlarge car dimensions parking
easier, quicker: recommended for elderly, high turnover, luxury. With
parking angle 600 or less may be necessary increase bay width by
75—162to give room for users walking toand from parked cars. Always
consultlocal zoning reg.
3.35
I
I
Turning dimensions
I
I
of private with public
roads. 'U' drive --a(3) illustrates procedure for designating any drive
configuration given vehicle's dimensions —vp2l(1) and turning radii.
Tangent (T) dimensions approx mm only: may vary with driver's ability
and speed.
—v(1) shows USA dimensions at intersection
I
luxury elderly
supermarket& camperuse
Ihandicappeduse
nunrequirements=1 or2/100stallsorasspecifiedbylocal,state,ortedemallaw;place
convenienttodestination
Roadways —vp2l
NB: diagrams onthis page apply totrafficcirculation on right
b
doubleloadedwail to
sungle loaded
waNtowafi
(with burquers)
dqubleloadedwall
toltiwfttlsawtooth
concretekerbi
wali(withounhinuous
concretekemb)
C
l
0$bayor
edgeo$walk
doubleloaded
ittoltiortt
towalk
edgei
dangle of park
SW
2743
w 450
1
2
3
4
2896
1
2
3
4
9.75
15.03
14.12
13.61
50°
550
600
9.98 10.36 10.77
15.54
14.88
14.17
9.75
9.96
14.99
14.33
13.61
15.39
14.68
13.97
16.2
15.65
14.94
10.36
15.8
15.19
14.48
16.91
16.41
15.7
10.67
16.31
15.7
15.19
65°
70°
75°
80°
85°
900
11.43
17.63
17.07
16.46
11.23
16.87
16.43
16.0
12.09
18.29
17.88
17.37
11.84
17.68
17.37
16.99
12.8
18.85
18.59
18.19
12.65
18.44
18.19
17.9
13.51
19.61
14.07
19.74
19.66
19.56
14.02
19.66
19.58
19.46
14.63
20.12
20.12
20.12
14.63
20.09
20.09
20.09
19.2
18.9
13.31
19.1
18.9
18.74
NOTE' IIangles greaterthan70°have aisle w for2-way travel
2 Parking a recommended stallw b layouts Cparking dimensions
vehicle
R
Ri
T
small car
compactcar
6.05
6.55
6.83
7.01
16.76
16.3
13.26
3.28
3.61
3.84
3.84
10.06
3.7 3.05
4.57 3.3
4.57 3.4
4.57 3.66
9.14 6.86
10.1
9.14
9.1 4
7.62
standard car
largecar
intercitybus*
citybus
school bus
ambulance
9.14
7.92
5.72
D
6.86
5.92
4.04
C
0.15
0.18
0.2
0.23
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.3
* headroom= 4.62
Lb
small
F
A
B
Ra
Rb
La
Lb
15.52
46.71°
273.42°
9.75
large
26.59
35.58°
251.15°
11.58
7.95
30.48
15.24
18.8
55.27
66.8
NOTE Rvaiues brvehicles
intended to usethesecuis-desacshould not exceedRb.
3 a'U'drive diagram withtable ofturningdimensions bcul-de-sacwithtable ofdimensions& angles; largevehiclel—np21(1)
Commerce 251
Vehicle services:multi-storeycar parks
DESIGN GEOMETRY
'Standard designcar'—*(l)
UK 95% of all new vehicle registrations: USA large car dimensions
column 2:
A
5500
2030
G
4750
1800
1700
500
2900
900
1100
H
J
13000
14000
6550
7010
K
100
w
B
h
C
dooropening clearance
D
E
F
wheel base (worst cases)
turningcircle (dia)
kerb
wall
ground clearance
1630
3250
890
1350
1
220
Recommended parking dimensions (90° layout) —*(2)
stall I
stall w
standard
shortstay
long stay
disabled persons
roadway w
1-way
2-way
standard bmw
headroom (mm clearance)
1
L
5500
2400
2750
2600
2750
3050
2300
2500
3000
N
6000
6950
15500
2050
P
Recommended rampdesign
upto 1 500rise
Standardcardesign'
4750
M
2130
in 7 USA: ramp1< 19.8 m
in 10 max slope 1 in 7
1
morethan 1 500rise
used forparking
9150
10700
20100
1
in2O
1
> 19.8 m ramp I
max slope 1 in9
L
N
L
:1
gradients, max, on helical ramps:
upto 3000rise
morethan 3000 rise
in 10
in 12
1
1
w, mm, straight ramp, noturning:
between kerbs
clearance, kerb to structure
w, mm, curved ramp, turningtraffic:
1-way
2-way
central kerb, 2-way
3000
4000
300
75
3650
5200
9150
150
7000
500
turningcircle, outerkerb radius:
recommended
12000
mm
clearance kerb, to structure
2
Recommendedparkingdimensions
9000
6600
6600
600
46O
Useofangled parking layout—.(3)
parking angle bin w
mm
900
15500
80°
15400
70°
15300
45°
13700
av ar/vehicle USA
rn2
m2
24.0
25.0
27.0
34.0
27.0
27.9
28.0
35.3
Most efficient parking angle 90°; lesser parking angles not normally
used in UK.
CAR PARK ARRANGEMENT
2 parallel bins normally used provide circulation arrangement with 1-
way trafficflowshaving upwardand downward routes separated;makes
possible best traffic capacity. Dynamic capacity reduced if2-waytraffic
flows or mixedupwards and downwards circulation used. Cul-de-sac
driveways undesirable: should not exceed 6stalls in length.
Economy achieved byusing longestpracticable bin lengths. Downward
route should be shortexpedite exit; upwards route devised give best
possible search pattern for vacant stalls.
3
Typicalcarpark arrangement(NBlefthandcirculation)
252 Commerce
Vehicle services: multi-storey car parks
Barriercapacity
2 barrier typesavailable:rising arm orrising kerb,having recommended
DESIGNGEOMETRY(cont)
Split level layout—*(1)
capacities:
Arrangement widely adopted.
2 bins soarranged thatadjacent parking levels separatedbyhalfstorey
height.
Shortinterconnecting ramps used between levels.
Warped slab layout—x(2)
entrybarrier
exitbarrier
groupA
groupB
400vehicles/hr
250vehicles/hr
400vehicles/hr
LIGHTING
Parking levelsconstructed with uninterrupted horizontal external edge:
steady transition of gradientsconstructedgiveinternal interconnexionof
parking levels. Compared with splitlevel layout need forramps ateither
endof bldg eliminated, gradients reduced.
Parking ramplayout—*(3)
Parking level constructed as long ramp: has significant effect on elevational appearance; to keep to acceptablegradients long bldg required.
When necessary exit can be speeded up by adopting external helical
ramp.
Flat slab layout—*(4)
External ramp usedto interconnect level parking areas.
Mean serviceillumination forpublic should be (Ix):
parking areas
driveways
ramps
roof
entrance & exit
20
50
70
20
150
FIRE PROTECTION& SAFETY
USA: check applicable codes and standards.
Structuralfire resistance
Construction of non-combustible materials with structural fr 1 hr. In
specified restricted circumstances requirement for structural fr may be
waived for bldg less than 15.2 m high.
VEHICLECONTROL
Feecollection
GroupAdriverpayment:
Means of escape
All parking spaces within 45.7 m of escape stairway having
fixedor variable charge payedon exit
Adequate alternative meansof escape.
GroupBpedestrian payment:
fixedor variable charge by purchaseoftokenorticket
hr fr.
Fireprecautions
Adequate fire brigade access, dry rising main, fire points plus any
specificrequirements of local fireofficer.
season ticket
pay & display ticket
highwater372.5
a
1
221
2.21 ___________________
2.2!
iowwater37O.55
_____________________
2
emergencyexit
3
NB right handcirculation
4
FIatslablayout
5
Underlake carpark Geneva Switzerland
asection b siteplan c plan offirstfloor
DesignCZschokke
Commerce 253
Vehicle services:petrol stations
Self-service station nowdominating influence on design,as result partly
of high labour costs, partly of availability of new electronic pumping
systems with memories for storing pump information at control counter.
In UK self-service basis adopted by oil company petrol station networks: approx 75% of petrol sold in UK through self-service. Practice
spreading rapidly in continental Europe. Proportion lower in USA but
growing; motorway and inter-state stations increasingly self-service
operations. Whether self-service or mannedpetrol stations usuallynow
include shops or selling areas exposing customers to wide range of
goods as they pay forpetrol.
DESIGN& LAYOUT
Basic principles same whether forselforattended service.
Preliminary
Tradingarea: detail study will establish needfor site.
Road pattern: whether single, dual or three lane roadway will determineease of entryinto site.
Traffic flow: number of vehicles passing site per hour per day to be
established.
Vehicle roadspeed:will influence frequency of customers visiting site.
From these factors estimate number of vehicles/hr/day calling at site
and ofexpected peak periods forwhich site will have toprovide.
Basic
Initialcommunication:visibility; pole signvisible atleast 300 m before
siteentrance —*p254(2).
1
Typical startinggate' layout allows2 carsto enteratsametime
Visibility:pricesign readable 100 mbefore siteentrance.
In and out: easysteering on to site and space for cars to line up while
waiting for place at pump; easy steering away from pump with no
blocking ofexit and goodvisibility fordriving out onto road —*p254(3).
Site traffic: 1-way flowonlyon site.
Pumps: thinkin terms offilling positions —(1)(2)p254(4):
consider filling at peak periods, usually 2/day, morning and evening;
note that car is at pump site before starting filling for 4.5 minutes, and
actual filling for 1.5minutes;
memory system atcontrol counter imperativeto allow forquickrelease
ofpump;
capacity of1-hosepump with allgrades offuelavailableapprox 3201/hr.
Pre-payment:consider whether volume of cars at peak periods or at
night warrant money acceptor or card acceptor unitsto relieve control
counter operator.
Shop: commonly 20—40 m2depending on retailing activity envisaged.
Control counterareaadditional 4.5m2: sited to supervise refuelling area
and shop activity.
Air, water: site away from pumps with adequate parking spaces
according to size ofstation.
Other services: should be kept separate from petrol filling area, eg
dervfilling, carwash, sale of liquefied petrol gases.
NB diagrams on this pageapply totrafficdriving onleft
2 Typicalechelonlayoutsuitsnarrowersite
254 Commerce
Vehicle services:petrol stations
SITE ESSENTIALS
8000
Accommodation:shop and control counter,office,toilet(s), sto, perhaps
staffarea—p253(1 )(2).
Petrol sto: underground steeltanks cased in sulphate-resisting concrete 1:2:4 mix. Consult local codeforthickness ofconcrete surround.
Tanksizes (UK) vary 13000—360001,in 45601 increments.
Discharging must
Supplytanker: easyroute todischarge pad on site.
not obstruct cars. In case of emergency tankers should be able drive
directfromsite. Lighting required for night deliveries.
Canopy: required to coverallfilling positions with approx 3500projection beyond pumps on both sides: height above filling area 3850. On
lightingfor night time retailingconsultcodes; in UKzone2type (vapour
proof) if fittedtocanopy ceiling; zone 1 type (flame proof) if fitted within
750ofpumpsightglass; USA requirements similar.
Levels: avoid variation ri level beyond 1:80 on filling area and tanker
discharging pad.
Hioo1-8ooo
Forecourtlayoutofpumpsiteswith preferred dimensions
Drainage: consultcodes; in UK from all areas within 4250 of petrol
source (ie pumps, tanks) ventsto be taken to 3-chamber petrol interceptorbefore processing to main foulsewer.
Site size: dependent on number of filling points and future marketing
needs; preferred sizes—(4)p253(l)(2).
NB diagrams on this pageapply totrafficdrivingon left
site
I
boundary,1
•l3000---imin
—
—'7/
sight ilne
I.
50
40—70mph road
min6l.0-
outa
40—70 mphroad
2
Areasofvision: I mainpole 2canopyfaciasigns 3secondarysigns
NBhigherroad speedsreducemotorist'sangleof vision
3
I.—mln61
Entry&exit sightlines
4
Typicalfoursquarelayoutsuits
deepersite
Commerce 255
1— 12 0 —4—-—--- 200 —-
-'
1
i—1I}[]
Li
32.0/trucktrain
ii
FORMSOFPLATFORM
— 12.0 —1
r1T3Ji5500
110
Vehicle services: bus stations
1....
-
Buses increasingly taking over from trains, demand ever increasing
attention in relation urban traffic. Need take corners especially wide:
turning spread needs special watchfulness—*p256(1). Bus parks large
and small an essential partof traffic planning. Forms of platform—*(1)—
(18). Bus stops should be under cover —+(19)(20). Consult bus
companies ondimensions.
Town centre squares should be designed or adapted serve as bus
stationsaccording natureofrequirements—np256(1O)—(12).
1
wayin
Parkingarlayout parallel to directionofarrival
500
i8
500
scratchkerb
linemarker
350k
8000
F0
'
8000
8000
r,s
5000
500
End ramps and convenient boarding steps of300—400—e(1O)—(11) and
forloading baggage tofloor level.
Service rm needed in connexion with bus stations —np256(1O)—(14).
Provide space for temporary car parking —ep256(9). Keep in mind
possibilitiesofextension—ep256(8).
NB diagrams on this page apply to driving on the right (German
data)
500
2
Parkingplacesofvehicleswith
trailersorcoaches
3 Obliquely(45)todirectionof
arrivalforcoaches
----l
I
>
ri
-
I
36.0
12 Platformalignmentwith passinglane
500
14.0
3.6
parking
—IL_______
L
--4
24.0—36.0—
10
14
13 Withoutpassinglane
Rightanglestodirection ofarrival
forcoaches
14 Obliqueplatformalignment
5 Forvehicleswith trailersor
coaches
8.0
/
3500
4
/
3030
2
3500
4Otn]40[1
-28.0 —F-16.0---4
6
Obliquelyiodirectionofarrival
7
Platformalignmentparallelwith
directionofarrival
-- 1_
16 Departureatright
15 Longplatforms
with passinglanes
angles;arrivalat
obliqueangle
17 Departureat
obliqueangle
-3030:
1.5j
0
24.0
i6.5 65— r20
ri'iiith
1111111
1.51
jJ-
-
14.0
Longplatformat45todirection
ofarrival
8
.
0"\ggage\
9
At right anglesto direction of
arrival
18 Positionatrightanglesto
directionofarrival
'
iii Lii
±0.0
J
glasswindscreen
2250
,sathkt
5400,
_________
55°
+300—400
3000
10 Standardverticalinterlocking
layout (USA)
11
Radiallayoutproviding more rm
infront (USA)
19 Shelterforunilateralloading
platform
!1EE
4000—
20 Forloadingboth sides
—
256 Commerce
Vehicle services: bus stations
TRAFFIC ORGANISATION NB diagramson this page applytotraffic drivingonthe right (German data)
—30.0—————
"-
-
reintorcedl—
,R1=7.0
surtace (
Ku)
rein-
•
3,5
1
60f
42,0
/,
2Ttñ
a=7.5 3.5 4.0
'7.0
Roadwideningatrightangletum
6
2
3
Turningcircuit
4
Smallturn-round
Platformoutside
turningloop
station
Semicircular
platformiype
platformoutside
loopwith noP
crossingover
withoutpassing writrpasiving lane
relationtolineofarrival paralle
at4&
at90
lane
relationioline
otamnal
32
leachparhisgplace)rrr)
b
o
b
roadway
24
plattorsiw)m)
3
3
Semicircular
platforminsideloop
accessibleonly by
crossingroad
no ofloadingporrts
a coacses
2
2
2
2—3
1
1
1
1—2
2—3
1—2
2—3
1—2
138
170
189 293
296
313
bvehicleswith trailers
arviplatform& arrival
fl
vehicles
withtrailers
8
ni
12
tU
3.5
35
35
warrivalspur irs)
4.0
80
8.0
r
a
ar
weachparking place(ml
arwith
roadwayirs2)
avehiclewdhtrailer
bcoach
24
a
a
a
22
§
3b
14
35
14
parking
spar (m2)
a coaches
24
12
a
parking
ophors
e
24 36— 36— 36—
60 60 60
3 35— as— 30—
40 4.0 4.0
24
plattormllrnl
7
5Platfomiinsideturningloop
276 340 378 439 444 470
Space requirementsforplatform ar
176
68
135
178
89
182
140
91
9 Space requirementsforparkingplaces
town
rightofway
centre
sales605k
V
0
-A-
11121314151
6
-'-'it
'•-,,ftV'
®.;r-i
mainroad
1
=supervisors
2= restrm
1 drivers wc 2rusrringrepairs 3petrolstation 4eqp
5supervisor 6maltcollection& deliverypoint
3 = petrolstation
10 Largetransitstationwith parkingar
Large transitstationwith separate departure &arrivalplatforms
11
1
departurePentrance
2 amealP esit
3 vestrbule
4 baggagedespatck
5 arrival Pentrance
6 baggagein arrival
7 departurePexit
8 baggageoff
9 baggage deposa
mainroad
10 managersoff
11 off
12 intormatron
&airtidrets
13 an
Groundfloor KLM busstation
Arch Brook&Bakerna
13
1
fromparking
12 Transitstationwith separatearrival &departure platformspositioned
obliquely,parkingarinseparatelocation
wcrnes
2 wcwomen
3 nursery
4 do
5k
6 canteenstaff
7 drivers'rm
8 metercpdsto
9 registry
10 pumps
14 BasementKLM
Commerce 257
Rail stations
PASSENGERDETAILS
HiH
2200
Tempbooking hall 12°C
1/5 surface area
Daylighting
-
1100
'
60O
H
1 to 4 Space taken upby people
Ticketofffrom 1 500 x 2000upwards
Typeofsurface: rough, hard sintered clay orgranitictiles
Walling up to 1 750 high with impact-resistant lining: tiles, hard plaster,
boards
Baggage deposit: doors for baggagetrucks 1 900—2300wide: alldoors
preferably steel to withstand heaviest demands. Opening at deposit
counterupto 1 200high; sliding window or protected bygrille.
Baggage despatch cabin 2000 x 2250
Arrangements for storing bicycles verysimple and space saving: hung
up neatly by front wheel —(12)(13)
Easy to hang up if first raised on rear wheel, then liftedup with knee
behind saddle
fN f/I
iooc
iooo-4
—1000+1000-4-1000-4-
6
Cabintrunk
1
30
I
turntable
850nomiat h
train
14 Bookingoffsection—.(16)
scheduta
7
At train schedulestand
8
Luggagetruck
15
Baggageoffsection—.(17)
dmphragm
lT \j
__
3750
1500
10 Baggagestand
1500
11
-—
16 SectionA-A
1350
T
I— 1100+
H
1500
3700
Bicyclestands
r1
17
Section B-B
—1
Baggagerack
500500i
530
T
11
1
100
530
ticketmachine
*
T
±1
100—I
H
j
tt
1-600 -600-
Abreaststaggered
1
18 aStraightbarrier boblique
barrier
Vehicle seivicesreferences:
—aBibliography entries 086 225 276308348424435513555567
636650
258 Commerce
Airports
-airport boundary
approachlight
system
Primefunctionprovidepassenger airtransport.
During short history has had respond tremendous growth and technological change.
Should be plannedand developedprogressively
meetchanges and newdemands —(1).
future
,_/runway
crash/tire
structural expansion
rescue serviceroad
PRELIMINARYWORK
Planning and design of airport should evolve
according to sequence:
preliminary study; examine indetail whatexists
and identifyconstraints
physical: land boundaries,topography, geology
access: airside and landside
environment: noise, pollution, landscaping
resources: finance, labour, materials
assess economic, demographic characteristics
of population: gauge impact onairport; forecast
traffic demands 5—10 and 20 yearsin future,
showing annual and day, peak month, peak hr
trafficforpassenger boardingandaircraft movements—(4)(5)
developmaster plan forwhole airport
develop plans for each component airside/
landside:
cross overtaxiway serviceroad
runway
Airport layoutfor parallel runwaysystem
1
airside:
runways,taxiways —*(3)
landside:
runLay
140.0
216.0
152.0
237.7
259.0
Passengerterminal& aprondistancesfromrunway centreline forvarious bldgh; 1:7 = imaginary
surfacecannotbe penetratedbystationaryobjects(aircraft atgates)orfixedobjects(bldg)
2
passenger terminal with apron (1)(2) —*p260(1)
ground transport
air freightterminal with apron —*p262(3)
aircraftmaintenance with apron —p262(l)
aircraftcatering —*p262(2)
other components: car rental, hotel, motel,
offices
surface access:road systems,fixedguideways
Reg standards,
394395396.
single apron taxilane
spacing forDC-10/L-1O111B767
118.9withlimited B-747 positions
spacing forall B-747 positions
131.0
290.0—305.0
combinationpier/satellite
dual apron taxilanes
8-747positions at satellite
note
dimensions will vary for
each airport
3
1
Runways&taxiways
2000
3.6
O
H
phaseIll
284
1600
.514CC
phasel
visitors
IfTfJ[fJTIf
.I-
0.7
yr
4
0
•
'\
,-
/'
'%
2OC.
hr 020406081012141618202224
5
Planning&projectdesignschedule: start
planning4yrinadvance forecastupdate: 1 start
design &working drawings 2revise3defer
'
passengers
total
5
Derivepatternav/day peakmonthdepartingP
and visitorsfromsurveys;preparesimilargraphs
forarrivingPand visitors,groundtraffic etc: major
data fordetermining sizeofbuildingar
mm
criteria —8ib391 392 393
Commerce 259
Airports
AIRSIDE
________________
:— ±:::
_________________
ill b
+-.—.--.—.—-.4
______
______
_______
._.!1L_÷
:"7
Runwayconfigurations(airportboundaries notshown) acloselyplaced
parallelrunwaysforsmalltomediumvolumes: parallel access road system
limitsexpansion bintersectingrunwaysformediumtolargevolumes:
terminalexpansionlimitedwithintriangularar cparallel runwayswith
simultaneousaircraftoperating1 280m spacingforlargevolumes: expansion
capabilitiesalong axis (crossovertaxiwaysnotshown)
1
Runways&taxiways—*(1)
Length ofrunway depends on prevailingweather, topography, altitude,
temp, environmental restrictions, aircraft type and weight expected
operate fromairport.
Orientation of runway in direction of prevailing wind. Modern aircraft
canusually land and take offwith crosswind upto20knots. Light aircraft
seriously affected by wind: if airport to be heavily used by this type
additional runway may bejustified.
Utilisation: aim should be for airport be usable by all aircraft for mm
97% oftime.
Single runway can handle up to 50 movement/hr (1 movement = 1
landing ortake off), depending on mix ofaircraft, when operating under
instrument flightrules(IFR).2 parallelrunways 1 310 m apart canaccept
upto 70aircraft movements(USA reg) under IFR. Number ofmovements
higher undervisual flight rules (VFR). Where large and small aircraft
operate to same airport specific separations required in air, atlanding,
take
off and
taxiing because trailing vortices from large aircraft will
reducecapacity.
Taxiwaysystems should bedesigned allow aircraft clear runway soon
as possible and provide shortest route betweeen runway and parking
______
ILinner taxiway
r—i
I
lane
:
aprons.
Layout & design of runways and taxiways: essential consultexpert
advice.
I _<. ___j_ar&tParkmn
-I_-satellite
LANDSIDE
Passenger terminalconcepts
--
——— ___________
-- _________
--
-
—
_______________
sateilite &terminal
—serviceroad
_________—concourse connecting
I
—
_____________________________
—
terminal units
terminal
ierminairoadsystem
2
Aircraftgate configuration and way aircraft gates connected with one
anotherand with main terminal dominantfeatures ofterminal concepts,
of which 4 can be distinguished. Concepts nearly always occur in
variations andcombinations.
SateIlite—(2):aircraft parked in cluster surroundingstructureconnected
with main terminal bypassengercorridor orconcoursepositioned below,
on orabove ground level.
Satellite structure cantake severalgeometrical shapes.
Satellite
—-- —-.
-— -
—]
"—inner taxiway
———aircraft manoeuvnnglane
—
)_j)._
I
J_L_.
aprontaxilane
aircraftparkinglimit line
concoursepier
.44
+1
+
-
——-concourseconnectingunits
____________
terminal
_________________________
Pier—(3): aircraft parked in line ateitherside of structure. Passenger
corridororconcourse attached to main terminal.
(In both theseconcepts passengerticket,inbound andoutboundbaggage
handling usuallyceritralisedin mainterminalbutvariationsand exceptions
occur.)
Linear—(4):aircraftparked in single line at structure,passengercorridor
connecting functional elements ofterminal. Formerlywith aircraftparked
in line on apron functions centralised in small terminal. In past 10—15
yearslinearconcept developed provide passenger handling functions
and ground transport forindividualaircraftpositions.In sucharrangement
terminal functions decentralised.
Transporter—*(5):aircraft positions placed at distance fromterminal;
passengers carried byvehicles betweenterminal and aircraft. Passenger
handling centralised in main terminal.
—-—terminalroadsystem
3
Pier
— -. —.- —--— -- —-- ,taxiwayoraircraft
—---—---—
4+ I
innertaxiway
-
manoeuvring lane
C_aircraftparkinglimitline
l—aircratt manoeuvringlane
I
L_aircraftparking
I—flightline
—groundhandling
I
L_light line
terminal
1
1
-
CODO
—terminal roadsystem
00
transporters(busesetc)
—'--terminai
terminal
road system
4
Linear
5
Transporter
260 Commerce
Airports
FLOW& FUNCTIONS
Flow of aircraft, passengers, baggage and vehicles can be shown in
compositeandsingle diagrams, used toidentifysequence of functions
for preparation of schemes in plan and cross section —*(1). Series of
diagrams can be developed asgraphic model to identify effect ofchange
in events, testdifferentarrangement offunctions orsub-functions.
Flowinterminal complex takes place in 3major areas:
apron: area between runway/taxiway system and terminal; serves
aircraft flow toand fromgates and flow ofaircraft ground handling eqp.
terminal: area between aircraftgate positions and vehicularkerb; serves
flow of passengers and baggage.
ground transport:area located between terminal and points ofaccess
at airport boundaries; serves 2 flows, ie passenger vehicles, service
vehicles.
Flow of passengers & baggage
Both domestic and international can be divided into 3 categories each
requiring sequence of operations as below (based on USA practice):
outward (originating) passengersarrive atterminal byground transport forwhichmajor operations:
kerbside baggage check in for passengerswithtickets —n(2)
ticketprocessing at counters with baggage check-in —(2)(3a)
outbound baggage —n(3b)
security check—*(2)
passport control forinternational flights
ticketcontrol ataircraft gates; passenger waiting rm—*(4)
aircraft boarding stairs, loading bridge etc—*p261 (4)
inward(terminating) and transfer passengersarrive at terminal by
aircraft; major operations:
aircraftdisembarking (stairs, loading bridge etc)
immigration control (international)
customs control (international)
baggage claim
ground transport
transferpassengersfrom1 flightto another; inter-line from1 airline to
anotheror intra-line on same airline; baggagehandled byairline except
for passengers transferring from international to domestic flight who
must claim baggage and pass through immigration and customs
inspection.
Outward and inward passenger traffic generates visitor traffic. Visitor/P
ratios vary byairport;need be establishedas partofquantifyingpassenger
flowduringpre-determined times ofday.
Transfer passengers seldom metbypeople at point oftransfer.
Through passengers continuing on same aircraft domestically rarely
disembark except, eg, occasionally fortelephone calls.
Secondaryflow—p262
Airfreightflow between freight terminal and aircraftpassenger terminal/
apron.
Mailflow between mail depot and passenger terminal/apron.
Catering flowbetween catering serviceand passengerterminal/apron.
Fuel flow between fuel depot and passenger terminal aircraft apron:
takes place increasingly by pipeline (hydrant fuelling), eliminating large
fuel trucksand requiring onlyhydrant pump vehicles on apron.
19 8—22.9
tL
é98
tr
co
79855-6.1t
DG
minute telephones
Clast
Dbaggagedrop
sign;tobagclaimterminal&
groundtransportation
4 Pwr at aircraftgates,capacityfor200 seat
aircraft,80% loadfactor,boarding10—15minutes
before scheduleddeparturetime:grossar 180m2
excludingfirestairs,net150 m2
—b
———,
2 Schem ticdiagramofdepartureleveloflarge
terminal: 1 countercheck-in ()security check
a
Diagramof2levelterminal asecondlevel 1 carparking, kerbsidebaggage check,ticket lob
2 securitycheck 3Pwrwithticket andbaggageprocessing capability 4parkingatgate positions
bgroundlevel 1 carparking 5outwardsbaggage make-up 6baggageclaim 7off,groundhandling
3
Airportflow diagramsbasedon USA
procedures adeparture barrival: brokenboxes
indicate internationaltrafficfunctions
1
b
operation
Commerce
261
Airports
Baggage handling
jirculation
rn
a
•
U
baggage trolleys
canbearranged
perpendicularor
parallel to belt
2.
circulation
2
_____________
7 - 52-6.
7.9
Baggagemake-up/outward(outbound) —.p360(3b)
Aircraft parking
1 Baggageclaim/inward(inbound)—p26O(3b)
___________ ________
9.1
ground level
gatecheck
3
Terminals
iL
—
Aircraftparking
I
ticket lob
parkinggroundlevel
kerb
L.concourse
Lbaggageclaim
boarding
landing
outward
baggage
a
DC-b
structural
gar
b
4
I
L
claim ar
space for
ground transport
systems present
& future
Terminalcrosssections asmall 1-level
blarge2-level : aircraft& boarding deviceshownperpendicular toconcourse
DC-9
262 Commerce
Airports
SECONDARYSERVICES
UHIIIHIIIIIIHIIIIU
carparking
flIHIIIH HHIIIHIIfl _________
1lIlIIIIIIIIIIlIiJ
flIIIIIHIHIHIIIHIn
=-.—-—.
—.—
ticp
-—.—
—_ —_
150
—i-i:
runway
1
Aircraftmaintenance
2
Cateringbldg
FREIGHT
Freight carried byairline operating
both passenger & airfreightaircraft
consistsmainly ofinbound & outbound flow —v(3). Freight also
transferred from 1 aircraft to
another. Handling takes place
inside & outside bldg. Procedure
varies; to large degree depends
on type & volume of freight
handled: size, percent loose,
percent containerised; type ofaircraft in use: single deck, double
deck, side door loading, nose
loading, tailloading, combinations.
Such factors influence degree of
mechanisation required. —v(3)
shows 1 B-747position, nose-in,
push-out, side door loading by
trailers, & 1 B-707position, side
door loading mechanised.
trailer&
staging
ernployeeT]
parking
I
preferably+
acrossroad
3=
arfor
future
freight
expansion4
trucks/cars
dmery/PICk-Updocks
4—
each
a lane
0 =0=
0
0=0
=00
0 == 0 0
ry'TrT
3
dockhapproa 1170
clearS vanes
4.22 Smallterminals 544—610 largeterminals clearhvanes
Airfreight
Airportsreferences:
—vBibliographyentries 048 067 165 186341 370 391 392 393 394 395
396653
Outbound flow —a(3) 1 loose
freightdelivered at truck docks &
processed through bldg; 2 containers delivered at truck dock',
processed & loaded outside bldg
by mech systems; 3 percentage
of all freightcarriedon passenger
aircraft (as high as 70%) & dispatched from freight terminal by
truck,cart ortrolleytoair passenger terminal to be loaded at gate
position.
Industry
263
Industrial buildings
SITE SELECTION
DEVELOPMENTOPTIONS
Assess area requirements fromclient'sbrief forfactory orwarehouse,
including:
expansion potential
parking: visitors, employees, trucks
external sto area
landscaping
road, railway orbarge access
Checknational and local legislation,zoning ordinancesand codes for:
permitted sitedensities
useofpublic utilities suchas (forprocess and personnel consumption)
water, power, gas, effluentdisposal
accesson public and private roads foremployees, goods vehicles and
trucks
Rehabilitate existing site/bldg
Infill + rehabilitate (including in townsites)
Newbldg on existing site (including phased redevelopment)
Newbldg on newsite
Each will be defined by:
Zoningordinances, reg USA
Suitability of site size/shape; boundaries
Suitability of bldg size/type/shape (as briefed)
Geology
Topography
Public utilities
Statutory permissions
Access forindustrial vehicles and workpeople's cars
Rail or water access
Airport proximity to site
Labour resources ofarea
Finance: development costs or subsidies, operating costs including
taxes/tax relief, loan interests
Assess environmental impact of heavy industry, light manufacturing
andwarehousing onsurrounding community; in USA fileenvironmental
impact statement withauthority. Consider:
noise:machinery and vehicles (particularly at night)
vibration
light (external circulation, marshalling,shipping and sf0areas at night)
fumeand dust pollution
effluentintowaterways orground water
hazards of possible explosion orradiation exposure
Investigate assistance for development finance from central government (Assisted Development Areas in UK) and local authorities, city
development corporations (State Development Commissions USA)
etc.
SITE DEVELOPMENT
Building plot ratio & sitecoverage
Plot ratio of 1: 1 should be regarded as max on all sites inclusive of
industrial and ancillary office bldg. Site coverage should not exceed
75% of site at ground level. Likely that site coverage ofapprox 50—60%
can be achieved. Site area forplot ratio calculationpurposes excludes
anypart of adjoining streets (except where theseto be closed).
Car&truckparking
Typical car parking requirements for industrial accn (check local
standards):
UK
USA
m2
spaces
4
a total employees on max shift x 85%
lessthan 92.9
lessthan 232.26 5
(15%absent x percent whoarrive by
lessthan 371.61 6
car) dividedby avcar occupancy =
lessthan 510.96 7
parking spaces required
b 1 space forevery2 employeesduring
lessthan 656.32 8
shift of max employment & 1 foreach
lessthan 789.67 9
truckto be stopped simultaneoulsy
lessthan 929.92 10
lessthan 1 021.92 11
lessthan 1114.83 12
Lorry parking requirements will depend on needsofparticularusers and
local reg.
—
stage 2
F'
Li
factory
V//47/I
-_J :_
Locatefactories&warehousesonsite to allow expansion, preferably in2
directions:considervehicleaccessduringphased expansion
1
'Nursery'unitdevelopmentsshould alsoallowforexpansion butwith
urbaninfill sitesthis may haveto beatexpense ofyard ar
2
264 Industry
Industrial buildings
BASICBUILDINGTYPESELECTION
AREAS FORSOME INDUSTRIALOCCUPANCIES
Factoriesand warehouse bldg types only economicallyand operationally
interchangeable where structural frame has column spans that will not
conflict with spacing of pallet racking, clear height permitting use of
modern mech handling eqp, roof structure that can accept loading of
production and environmental services. This normally only economic
forsmallscale bldg orwhere companyhasmixed stoand manufacturing
useson site likelyto change.
For feasibility studies before detailed brief (program) from user these
areas can be used asapproximatebldg areas.
Keyfactors in buildingtypeselection
Factories —p266—8:
operationalflexibility for rapidresponseto changingproductiondemands:
clearheight column spacing,roofand floorloading,roofconstruction for
services routing fortype of manufacturingprocess involved
energy and environmental control: natural or artificial light; environmental needs of/from process: good working conditions forlabour
durabilityand firecontrol: selectionofmaterialsforstructureand envelope
related to fire riskand anycorrosive effects fromprocess
resale potential
promotional value for user company
Warehouses —p269—72:
structure commensurate with sto demands: structuralspans tosuit rack
spacing and height and floor strengthto allow more than 1 arrangement
energy and environmental control: to keep stored products in good
condition: insulation and cooling in somecases, ventilation in others;
good working conditions for labour (eg avoiding loadingdocks tacing
into prevailing wind)
fire control:compartmentationtominimise fire spreadassessed against
hindrance to stoand handling and cost ofsprinklers
Selection strategy
Single ormulti-storey development
modern production and stotechniques make full use of bldg cubewith
inherent multi-level characteristics
multi-storey development (or conversion) can be efficient for lightand
high technology industry, particularly where landcostlyin urban areas:
consider personnel circulation and escape, national and local reg, fire
control, goodscirculation and process, services routing and trucks and
private vehicle access and parking, particularly in dense developments
consider cost and environment impact
a
4
—
.7,7,,r,/7,,,///z,//'
Manufacturingindustries
Av 28 m2/P; range 22—33(33m2/P under 664.5 m2)
anodising
sheetmetal work
polishing
furniture manufacture
shop fitting manufacture
clothing
textile (made up)
Distributivetrades
av8Om2/P
builders merchants
timbersupply
books & magazines
machine spares
electrical goods & spares
antiques/furntiture
upholstery/textile
Average area/worker
clothing
research & development
electrical components & assembly
surgical instruments/appliances, scientific instruments
miscellaneous manufacture(eqplastics products, musical
instruments)
leatherwork
metal goods, cutlery, jewellery, forging, small tools
made uptextiles (egbags)
packaging, stationery, printing
pottery& glassblowing
motorrepairs, reprographic services
joinery, furnishing upholstery, shop fitting, timbergoods
m2
11
13
17.5
19.25
23.5
24.0
24.25
28.75
32.5
36.75
45.5
46.75
Typicalarea distribution
production
sto
off
amenities
0
60—70%
(decreasesas size increases)
20% & less (increasesassize increases)
10—15%
(increasesassize decreases)
5—9%
(increasesassizeincreases)
Distribution
I4i
o
b
0
00
00
builders
engineering contractors (eqmachine tool movers)
appliance repairs
instrument repairs
reprographic services
printers
machine tool repairs
Manufacturing
00
o
15 m2!P (smallest) to30 m2 medium size
el repairs
Includes circulation space
—ir4-01
Serviceindustries
Key: 1 verticalservicesrisers 2goods
elevator 3access&escapestairs(check
local reg formaxdistances) 4 plantar
Multi-storeydevelopmentor
conversioncanprovideefficient
accnforlight &hightechnology
industry,particularlywhere
differencesbetween production, lab
&adminhardtodefine:example
shows potentiallydivisiblespace
1
sf0
off
80% +
10—20% (greater need in some types ofdistribution)
amenities 0—5%
Industry 265
Industrial buildings
0
0
i:
:
0
:[:
:
0
Building shape inplan. Selection ofplan shapeis function of:
demands of production or sf0 system
C')
climate, size, shape,
topographyand geology ofsite
location ofutilities
expansion potential ofprocess in relation to site _-*p273(l)(2)
p4
ground level
p
SELECTIONSTRATEGY
•____
Some production processes can demand long, narrow bldg:
intensive line production methods, eqmetal rolling, papermanufacture
factories using overhead gantry cranes, eq heavy engineering
high-bay automated warehouses: function ofeqpmovement efficiency
multi-storey development, flatted workshops for natural light and
ventilation
Majority ofother industrialusescan beefficiently installed in rectangular
plan with proportions 1:1—1:4, typically 1:2/2:3. Modern mass production methods capitalise on mech handling techniques no longer
literally interpreting line production'.
-
production
Increasing demand forbldg which will notrestrict location ofproduction,
stoand admintoclearly definedareas, butwhich permit rapidreallocation
withinbldg envelope.
Structural bay sizes suited to process and location of access equal
shape in importance.
level
IDENTIFICATIONOF BUILDING REQUIREMENT
N1N.
2
I
I
I
I
I
I
——
Key: 1 groundlevel: goodsin,despafch,parking 2 production
level 3 intermediate process plantlevel 4principal
environmentalplantlevel
1
Mulfi-storeyfactorieseconomic forprocess-based industries (eq food,
pharmaceuticals,tobacco)wheregravitycanbeusedinprocess andenergy
beconservedbycompactplanning
Factories:
should be designed to serve variety of useswithin their life: frequent
problem inefficient factory stock through structural obsolescence —
insufficient services support capacity of roof structure, insufficient
headroom, shortspans.
should not be considered merely as weather-proof envelopes round
production process. Formand dispositionoftheir structurefundamentally
influences essential freedom to optimise production layout and route
services equally freely to serve that or any future production layouts
withoutdemanding long periods ofdown time foralteration.
Selection of structure is key factor in providing efficient and flexible
operation. There is range of structural types that have proved efficient
and adaptable. Buttechnological innovation mayadd to these types, eq
stressed skin construction requiring only minimal frame support for
envelope.
Assess roof structure for:
servicecarrying ability in each direction and easyaccess for relocation
abilityto accept point loads and flexible location for materials handling
eqp, eq overhead hoists, conveyors
natural lighting: consider glareand insolation/heat loss
durability and maintenance: performancein fire and need forcleaning/
repainting, particularly in clean areas
Industrial bldg designed to be closely matched to initial process or
layout can prove as inflexible and costly tooperate inlong termasthose
designed to minimise capital cost (to exclusion of consideration of
operating costs and operational flexibility).
2 Mass production does not usually demandlong narrowbldg, ie formal-
isationof flow diagram:typicallyprocess is loopedbetween common vehicle
access& sf0 zone
a
±
4
[Z1
[Thi
Key: 1 offar 2labar 3amenity
Z2
:::7:.
7
I
I
L±_L1
!H! JW
L
J
ar 4 production ar
5testing & inspection 6wet servicecore 7expansion
3
r
In light & hightechnologyindustry production research &adminarare
becomingless & lessdistinct: deptwillneedtoexpandorcontractfreely
--'-i- _o--
4
Factorystructuresmusthavespanswideenoughinbothdirections to
allow user optimiseproduction layout: traditional batchproduction linesof
similarmachines,a, may needtobereorganisedintointegrated cell' to
exploitmodernmech handling techniques, b
266 Industry
Industrial buildings
FACTORYBUILDING TYPES
Separate bldg types can be identified as most efficient in meeting
operational demands ofcertain methods of production. Spans, type of
structure, clear height, roof and floor loadings function ofhow product
manufactured or stored rather than what product is. Industrial bldg
should be designed to serve broad range of useswithinthat general
production sector.
Basictypesto be identified are:
Lightduty
2
Impliessmall scale (also —p285—90workshops). Industrialbldg where
operational demands of production or sto process place few demands
on structural frame or floor. Interchangeable between light production
and distribution duties. Typically up to 1 860 m2. Light metal work,
packaging, clothing, consumer durable repairs, small printers. Distribution of el goods, builders' components, sub-depots for local retail
distribution.
Mediumduty
Principally batch production orsto duties where process and supporting
services implysomedemands on design of bldg structure, shape and
floor, allowing potential flexibility of production and sto layout. Sto and
production bldg types not interchangeableunless roofstructuredesigned
with production services support capacity.
—
Light dutyindustrialbldg mainlyforsto purposes:portalframedstructure
typically4.5mtoeaves;spans mm 9m,typical12m;roofloading0.35kN/m2
(no hoisting);floor loading 16kN/m2
3 Mainly light production: trussedframe;eavesh &spansas—.(2); roof
structuralloading(services)0.5kN/m2(up to 2thoistloadsdistributed!
structuralbay)
4
Typicalprocessflowdiagramfortraditionalbatch production organis.tion,
eg engineering
components
ru L . .-i -
-
n.
.-
,
V
5
Typicalprocessflow diagram forhigh technology industry, eg electronics
material
1
Lifi
Mediumduty industrial bldg: 6.5m preferred eaves h(toallow
mezzanine),mm 5.5m;spanstypically12m x 18m; roofstructuralloading: to
accept point loads2 monorailhoistlbayorupto5 tsuspendedcraneloads
distributedover bay; floor loading 25kN/m2forstackedsto
t
Industry 267
Industrial buildings
FACTORYBUILDINGTYPES(cont)
C
(I)
Heavyduty
Designed to accept large scale batch or mass
production systems, which have intensive
demands for overhead productionand environmental service and materials handling, and
dense floor layoutswith some heavy production
machinery and inter-process sf0 areas. May
need high bldg to exploit multi-revel ability of
materials-handling eqp. In heavy engineering
sector somespecial types to exploit heavy lift
overhead gantry cranes.
1 Heavy duty industrial bldg: 7m mm general
purposeeaves h, 9m forracked, sto &overhead
handlingsystems a; 12m forbulkprocessing
plant b;spanstypically 12 m x 18 m butcan be
lessforheavyroofloadings(9m x 12m)orgreater
forlighterloads(20 m); roofstructural loading: 5
pointloads& lOt beamloadsdistributedoverbay;
heavierloadsneedgantrycranes&additional
structure; floor loading:15—30kN/m2withsome
specialbases forheavymachinetools
possibleparallel
sub-assemWy
process
may be multiple
subassembly
stages
2
Typicalprocessflow diagram fortraditional
massproductionline: modern developments tend
tosplit assemblyfunctionsoffline into teams
268 Industry
Industrialbuildings
FACTORYBUILDINGTYPES(cont)
structuraltype
Hightechnology
2
1
Demanding high quality process and/or personnel environment. Small
hght duty
S CST S S
in roof zone; can also be requirement for under floor servicing. High
content of bulk handling; powders, liquids, gases. Interchangeability
mediumduty
S
or large scale: similar design demands. Provisionfor intensive services
between production, lab and admin areas: rapid change demand with
technological innovation and volatile markets.
0
possibleseparate
secatdary processsto
secondaryprocess(maybeondifferentsite)
STRUCTURALSELECTION
Check nationaland local (state) reg forconstruction and performancein
fire relating to required occupancy andwith client's insurancecompany:
thiswill affect materials choice —sp277.
SERVICINGSTANDARDS; STATUTORY
REQU IREMENTS
Forgeneral servicing standards in industrial bldg —up383—397.
•
S
S
S
S
S
heavyduty
S
S
O(b)cS
S
S
hightechnidogy
S S
CS
smallscale
S CST
generalpurpose
S
• CS
•S
S CS
.S
3
appropnatestnicture
appropriateslnicturein
notedcaseonly
A
aluminium
C
concrete
S
steel
T
timber
a
multi-divisiblespaces
b
withoverheadgantry
cranesonly
C
widespans on irregularsite
S (a)AS
S)c)AS
S
AS
S CST
• ••
CS
6
5
S AS
0(b)CS
C
largeplant, 10—15kN/m2forhighlabouruseassembly
4
S AS
S
1
Typicalprocessflow diagram forprocess-based industry, eg petroctientical,rubber
2 High technologyindustrial bldg: mayrequire undercroft for bulkprocess
access& servicesrouting; 7m preferred mm eaveshover process plant
a&forpalletisedsto b; 4mmm forhightechnology assembly environment
C;roof structura'loadingsupto 1.2 kN/m2, distributed,forservices, hoistloads
upto5tdistributedperbayforplantremoval; floor loadings 15—20kN/m2 for
3
CST
S
termerhate
.
•
4
S CS
S(c)AS
Factorystructuraltypes
Structuraltypes: asingleaxis
solid beam,long span purlins
b singleaxiscastellabeam,long
spanpurlins:forservicerouting
cportalframe forusewhereservice
loadingminimalorgantrycraneage:
typical pitch6°, rooflightsbuilt into
pitchorridge d flat orcambered
truss, 1 or2axes emonitorroof,
evenlydistributedlight,singleaxis
spaceframe: forverywide spans;
wherecolumnscannotbeat equal
spacing;wherehighdegreeof
servicingfreedomrequired
Industry
269
Industrial buildings
WAREHOUSES
Warehouse bldg selection depends on scale and type ofsto operation.
Different methods of sto unit loads imply various levels of efficiency in
filling bldg volume and accessibility to load. Equally these decisions
affectselection of mech handling eqp —vp278(4)(5).
Warehousing operation usually involves bulk sto and order selection
functions. Thesetendhave dissimilarstoand materialshandlingdemands
except when small scale installations: typically high dense sto for bulk
stockto exploithandling techniques with lower 'active stock' areas for
orderpicking. Typical proportion divides warehouse: 1/3 high bayarea,
2/3 lower area for order picking and assembly and loading bay zones
—v(1), ie can combine 2 of bldg types described below. Because of
densityof stock bulk sto area may not needto expand so rapidly as
processing zones.
Key: ahigh bay palietsb efficientmechhandling blow
bayar:Order picking&load assembly cloadingbay
I
Typicalproportionsofhigh& lowbayarfordistribution warehouse
WAREHOUSEBUILDING TYPES
I,
I?
L
U
I
_in1
U
check-of1/
sort
[
check-off!
sod
[
bulkstock
I
activestock!
orderpicking
[
U
[er
Small scale
—vp266lightdutyfactory and —vp268(3) entries 1 & 2.
General purpose
Forfork-lift,reach truckand narrow aisle stackeroperation. Bldg acts as
weather-proof envelope to sto operation. Importantthat spans, height,
floorstrengthallow forflexible installationofsto methods —ep272 types
3—6, 7a & 8a; also—ep266 medium dutyfactory types and —*p272(1 0).
Intermediate high bay
Independent bldg structure for intermediate height narrow aisle sto
systems. Up to 14 m bldg height (12 m sto height). Allows variationsin
sto layout and possibility of other later uses; also —p267 heavy duty
factory.
U
assembly
U
k-outloadirigi
despatch
2
Typicalstoflow diagram: repository,
componentsb foradjoiningproduction
process
3
Typicalsto flow diagram:
egcold sto,steel
stockholding
repository,
4 Generalpurposewarehouse,typicallyfor7500 stackh: 8000to eaves; spans 12—18m;
floor loading25kN/m2mm NBconsideralsoflat roof
5
Intermediatehigh baywarehouse, typically14mto
eaves:spans 11.1—20.5 m depending onaislewand pallet
size; floor loadings50 kN/m2 distributedloads
ci
c
C,)
270 Industry
Industrialbuildings
WAREHOUSES
High bay
-.p271(1l—13)
Integral rack structure: for sto heights to 30 m to exploit automated
handling techniques —o(2). Economic land cost high, labour cost high,
expansion potential limited. Sto rackingforms bldg structure, with root
and wall cladding attached to it. Very strong floor and foundations
required so poor ground can preclude concept.
S
r
supphersgoods
U
3
Wheresf0arlimited&throughputspeednottoppriorityintense useof
volumecanbemadewith mobile racking; double-sidedrackingmounted on
rail-bornecarriers: racksnestfacetoface, only 1 aisleopeningat time;
imposeshighfloor loadings
f
+
+
1-
-1-—
4
Blockstacking3—4palletsh: aislemoves through stackto providefirst-in,
first-out rotation; aislewrelatedto type of fork-liftused—'p271
1
Typicalsto flow diagramfordistribution warehouse, eg retailfood
distribution
f
ii iii Hi
ii IIi[IIHU
a
7zzfr2
a'
lii
I
1(
1:
[Cflbfl
5 Forbulkpalletstoin long aislesstockshouldbearranged innotional arso
[—snj
that fastestthroughputstock closest toassemblyar: noterackorientation at
900to assemblyzone
—
BB'1
__s 2b
—
—
.
p
p7
—
2 High baywarehouse, bldgstructure
•
[3
_
.
0 0 0
—
integral with palletracking; h 30m;
floor loadingscan bemorethan 60kN/m2distributed
loadassently
6 Fororderpickingdiversestockrackingarranged parallelwith load
assemblyzone with rackardevotedto stockwithvariousthroughputspeeds,
fastest nearestassemblyzone: reduces slowmoving pickingmachinery
blockingmovementofothers
Industry
271
Industrial buildings
WAREHOUSES
C
Fork-lift dimensions
In design for best use of sto space note interaction between aisle
spaces and fork-liftdimensions: decision on stacking may decide size
and make of fork-lift, choice of fork-lift may decide stacking. Relevant
details for somefork-lifttypes and pallet sizes —(1 )—(6).
/
type offork-lift
Counter-balanceforkliftcapacity 3000kg: stackingaisle90°with 1220
squarepallet3670; intersecting aisle (dotted) 2000;Iwithoutpallet3150,
w1100
1
counter-balanced fork-lift:load capacity
2500kgat 610 load centre
I withoutpallet
wwithout pallet
h: mastlowered
weightwithoutload
wheel loadsladen1: front(drive)
rear(steer)
90°stackingaisle (1 200 pallet)
turn-out aisle (1 200 pallet) (dotted)—(1)
/'\l_____
./ \-
/
/
//
1
/•/
dimensions weight
kg
3246
1118
2286
4500
6000
750
3480
2000
fordistributedrollingloadsdividebywheelcontact ar, available from
trade literature
4
Counter-balancedfork-liftdimenskns&weights: palletsizesUSA 1220
x 1220, 1220 x 1 830; somepalletshavesides1220h
typeoffork-lift
dimensions
weight
kg
extendingmastreachfork-lift:loadcapacity
2040kgat 610 load centre
Iwithoutpallet
wwithoutpallet
h: mast lowered
weightwithoutload
wheel loadsladen1: front (mast extended)
rear(mastextended
90°stacking aisle(1200 pallet)
turn-out aisle(1200 pallet) (dotted)—.(2)
2 Reachfork-liftcapacity1 500kg, palletcarriedwithin wheelbase;stacking
aisle 90°with 1 220 squarepallet2400;intersecting aisle (dotted) 1 900;
Iwithoutpallet 1 600, w 990
1
1 930
990
2667
2722
4282
481
2362
1 905
fordistributedrollingloadsdividebywheelcontactar,
available fromtrade literature
5 Extendingmastreachfork-liftdimensions&weights
type offork-lift
dimensions
weight
kg
poweredP-controlled palletfork-lift:load
capacity 1815kg
Iwithout pallet
w withoutpallet
h: mastlowered
wwithout load
wheelloads
90°stacking aisle (1200 pallet)
turn-out aisle (1200 pallet) (dotted) —(3)
/
\
3
PoweredP-controlledpalletfork-lift: stackingaisle90°with 1220square
pallet1 750; intersecting aisle(dotted)1 500;Iwithoutpallet1 820,w787
6
1 854
762
notapplicable
notapplicable
1 752
1
498
PoweredP-controlledpalletfork-liftdimensions&weight
372
(I)
272 Industry
Industrialbuildings
WAREHOUSES
Storageefficiencywith varioushandling methods
Takingtypical stacking areas 33m x 33 m, volume efficiencyassessment includes 1 repositioning
aisleat end of rack runs; pallet size: 1200x 1000 x 200 tall—*(1 )—(9); figures in column 2of (10)
relate to numbers ofpicture captions. USA pallet sizes —*(11) and p27l(4).
Fork-liftinblockstack:3SOOaisle;3600stackh
(4.5m bldgh dotted)
1
LE
±E
E
E
Fork-liftin palletracking: 3500aisle;7500
stack h
2
3
Reachfork-liftinblock stack: 2600aisle;3600
stack h (4500 bldg h dotted)
4
Reachfork-liftin palletracking: 2600aisle;
j
uflu
7500stackh
F_______________________
5
9
Reachfork-liftindrive-inracking, drivesinto
stack betweenframes:7500stack h
typeof sto
eqp
access sto increase
stack pallets volume
h
stored efficiency
overfork-lift
equivalent
%
Reachfork-liftindoubledeepracking, has
extendingfork attachment: 2600aisle
6
Automatedfixedpath stackercrane: 1 400 aisle; 24 m stackh; integralrackstructure
fork-lift: bldg h Smto
undersideofstructure
2 beam pallet
reachfork-lift: bldg
h8m to undersideof
structure
narrowaisle stacker:
1452
1 200
24
20
poor
100
3 blockstack2
4 beam pallet
3
1 584
28
poor
9
racking
Sdrive-in
racking
6doubledeep
racking
7a beam pallet
racking3
beampallet
racking4
8a double deep
racking3
5
5
1400
35
58
100
17
2400
blockstack1
racking
lb
7
Narrowaisle stacker,movesparallel with rack:
astackh7soo bstackhdottedlo.5m
%
3
5
1
laat out
5
2400
49
50
5
1800
46
100
50
7
2520
46
46
110
5
2400
59
50
7
3360
60
50
32
100
8bdoubledeep
racking4
automatedhigh bay stacker 9beampallet
crane,rail guided:bldg
racking
ft 24 m toundersideof
roofstructure(can be
istin
15 5400
30m+)
'volumeefficiencyincreases iflowerbldg used (4500 mm) 2 volume efficiencyincreases
iflowerbldg used bldg fttounderside roofstructure 8000 bldg hto underside of roof
8
Narrowaislestackerin doubledeepracking,
l600aisle: astackh7soo bstackhdotted 10.5
m
structure11 m
assectionof longeraisle: typically 100m+
10 Stoefficiencywith various handling methods
Whenusingpallets1220 x 1 830(frequent inUSA)preferred aislew3600;4270run of rack
accommodates3pallets1220 x 1220or2 pallets1220 x 1 830
11
Industry
273
Industrial buildings
key: 1 off 2goods inwards 3rackedbulkpallet sto
4order pickingar 5order &despatchassemblyar
6repackaging& processingar 7expansion
SITE LAYOUT
Site layout for factories and warehouses
determined by:
shape and size ofbldg
expansion potential
services running through site, eg gas mains,
powercables
topography: affecting accessforheavy vehicles
andbuilding economics (cut and fill)
energy conservation: exposure to prevailing
and storm winds
ground conditions and drainage, eg avoiding
pilingor potential flood areas
surrounding neighbourhood: keeping noisy
external plant and loading baysfromresidential
area
vehicle (road and rail) manoeuvring and
marshalling area in relation to loading bays
—p282—3.
Economics
1
Option 1: lowrise 'conventional'sto; minimalsite works
Comparing alternative site layouts will usually
resultin trade-offbetween conflicting factors.
Exampleshows alternativesforsiting distribution
warehouse: important cost factor involves
expansion potential and linked mech handling
eqp investment decision
First option —+(1) minimises excavation by
exploiting fall of land to provide raised loading
dockat infeed: distribution vehicles were to be
side loaded fromground level. But goods inwardsloading bay would face prevailing wind,
energycost, and circulationround site required,
needing relocation in event ofexpansion.
Secondoption—(2)accepts some excavation
forraised dock: in leeand exploits fallof site to
sink part of high bay stacking area for less
environmental intrusion and increased handling
efficiency. Revised axis of bulk sf0 area allows
much increased expansion potential without
affecting operation of existing installation.This
combined with improved sto and handling
economics more than offset any increase in
capital costof construction.
Planning grids
2
Option2:narrowaisle highbaysto:trade-off= costofsiteworksagainst increasedoperational
flexibility& lowerenergyloss
To coordinate building's structure,services and
circulation in formulating siting and expansion
strategy and to integratetheseelements during
bldg design, discipline their disposition by
employing planning grid.
3 Tocoordinatestructure,services& movement
indevelopmentstrategyworktomastergrid;note
3-dimensionalimplications
274 Industry
Industrial buildings
LAYOUTOF MULTIPLEUNITDEVELOPMENTS
& ESTATES
Small scale nursery' and 'seedbed' units: meetneedto integrategroup
of units into existing urban or rural community. Illustrations —(1)(2)
show small 'seedbed'group combined with landscaped open space
and 'nursery'unitswith expansion capacitywith grouped goods access.
Speculative developments forrental: built in variousforms ofterrace to
allow flexible space allocation. Note:
sufficientheavy goods vehicle manoeuvring and parking area (see also
loading bays)
car parking for workpeople and visitors (check local standards)
off and amenity accn: either integral within volume of bldg (where site
area restricted) or as attached block (where developer requires max
rental fromproduction/sto area)
mixture ofsizesofunit in estatecan beachieved byvariable location of
cross walls in terrace or by providing 2 or more groups of bldg of
increasing size: decision depends on scale
Trade mart concept may be used to revitalise urban areas: divisible
space undercommon roofallowing high degree of planning flexibility.
// ////
41V
3
key: 1 yard 2 public
12
39
24rn
785
—i:
wt
key: 1 goods vehicle parking/loading 2cross
open space
routes 3atrium pedestrian route 4retail
use 5service use 6craft use 7lightproduction
'Nursery'& 'seedbed'industrial unitscanbe integrated intorural
community,bringreliefto crowded innercity
1
9
'Trade mart' typedevelopment, attractiveinnercitypossibility mixinglight
industrial,craft & retailuserstostimulate workingcommunity: common
envelopeprovidesmulti-divisiblespace
3
key: 1 'nursery' units; rental 2mediumsized divisibleunits: rental 3largerdivisibleunits: rental
4purpose-built units(lease-back) 5yard/loadingar 6carparking(grouped) 7 landscapedopen space
tOrn
14 ft
2
Typicalmixed useindustrial estate with rangeof unitsizes forrentaleachhavingexpansionoptions(by extendingintoadjoiningunit):openspace &
grouped, shieldedparking& yardsforeachproperty;landscaping improveswhatcan tooeasily bedesolateenvironment
Industry
Industrial
275
buildings
ci
INDUSTRIALPARKS
C')
railroad spur
sewagetreatment plant
'
\\-it
-
/
,/-'
1
—:-
2
)
//
"\
—'-
—
-
—
/
I
t
/'I
1)1/I
hillwaterS
diversion
channel &
lakeoutlet
Siteplan EarthCityindustrial parkSt LouisUSA:developmentinflood
plain of Missouririver necessitated systemofdrainage lakes&diversion
channel,with leveebetweenEarthCity&river
IndustrialAirparkSpiritWestSt LouisUSAhasaccessfromairportto individual sites in park through
taxiwayeasement& also fromChicago-Rock Island railroad
3
276 Industry
Industrial buildings
BUILDINGENVIRONMENT
Rising energy and labour costs make bldg environment increasingly
important contributor to operating costs and productivity. Factors to be
considered in providing goodconditions atworkplace include:
dust and fumeextraction
ventilation in hotweather
heating in cold weather
natural and artificial lighting
noise control
As rough guide 5 I/sIP: conventional air change rate of 1—1.5 air
changes/hr may resultin more than 50 times this requirement,wasting
much energy.
Heating
19°C
16°C
13°C
light requirementIx
engineeringmachineshops
manualwork
benchwork
carefulbenchwork
precisionwork
200
300
500
1 000
engineeringinspection&testing
mediumdetail
fine detail
minutedetail
sheet metal
benchwork
stamping,pressing
spot welding,general
precisionwelds
assembly
mediumdetail
small detail
very finedetail
storesissue counter
Ventilation
sedentary work
active (bench) work
very active work
place
66°F
59°F
57°F
For many companies with processes involving heat, energy can be
recovered and waste heat transferred to contribute to work place
requirements: considerable cost savings possible. Warehouses with
refrigerated orchilled areas can also benefit, heat being recovered from
the chiller's compressors to warm areas where people work.
paint shops
paintdips
Heating and ventilation demandsalso function ofstandardof insulation
and quantity of glazing provided. In UK factory and warehouse bldg
mustbeinsulated to0.7 W/m2 °C, with single glazing limited to 20% of
roof area and 15% of wall area. These areas still high for energy
conservation: 1O%ofwalland roofareausuallyconsidered appropriate.
warehousing
loading bays
palletpicking
order pickingsmallitems
packingstations
Natural lighting
Demand for natural roof lighting influences selection of roof structure.
1
1
Escaping noise also troublesome outside bldg: place external plant
awayfrom direct lines with surrounding users; screen and suppress
source.
300
500
1 000
150
200
300
500
maxexposuretime
hr
102
105
108
111
Noisecontrol
Reduce noisebefore reaches workplace byabsorption (walls, roofsand
pendant absorbers) and/or bymodifying backgroundnoise.
Reduce noise effectbyisolating workers in noise reducing enclosures.
500
1 0001
1 5001
300
Artificiallighting:typicalrequirements
85
87
90
93
96
99
—.p398—400;—*(1)
Reduce vibration at source by mounting machineryon resilient pads or
special foundations.
10001
also needstask lighting
soundpressurelevel dBA
Artificial lighting
Reduce noise at source bydesign ofeqp, screening and enclosure.
750
500
500
spraying
colourmatching
Compared with the insulated roofwithoutanyopenings 20% permitted
glazing will increase both heat loss by4 times and ventilation demand
through insolation: in highly serviced environmentsuncomfortableglare
canresultfrompipe runs crossing bright roof lights.Outdoor illuminance
varies from 5000—25000 lux fromovercast to sunshine conditions in
temperate climates: therefore 3% DF will provide equivalent of 150—
750 lux at work place; 10% roofglazing will result in av DF about 5%.
Flank glazing must alsobe carefullydesigned toavoid glare, particularly
athigh level. Natural lighting inwarehousescan bepositivedisadvantage,
sunlight raising tempand causing package fade.
Noisemajor pollution and limit on working efficiency: noise damageto
hearing, humansensitivity tovibration —p18; max levels inworkplace
500
1 000
1 500
24
16
8
4
2
1
minutes
30
15
71/2
33/4
continuouslevelsover 85dBA should be avoided
2
Maxexposuretonoise
Industry 277
Industrial buildings
PLANNINGFORFIRECONTROL
BUILDINGREGULATIONS
Designing factory orwarehouse to meet potentialfire hazard involves:
measures to limit spread of fire within and outside bldg by compartmentation, detection devices, sprinklers and choice of materials for
structure and cladding
providing readily accessible and identifiable means of escape with
alternative route in everysituation
providing ventilation in roof to reduce heat and smoke build-up to
prevent fire 'leap-frogging' underroof cladding and enablefire service
rapidly vent smoke: typically 1 vent per structural bay, with curtains of
non-inflammable material forming smoke reservoirs in roof space
extinguishing fire or at leastcontrolling seat of fire until brigade can
extinguish it, by means of sprinklers, high expansion foam or gas
drenching
Firedesign decisions involve consultation with:
user: compartmentation may significantly affect layout of process or
warehouse
fire chief/officer: local reg and practice, particularly on fire appliance
access, water supply and means ofescape
user's insurance company: predominant influence on fire control in
USA. Insurance company can demand compartmentationon basis of
calculated maximum forseeable loss' (MFL fire wall). Reduced compartmentation can be negotiated against designing roof structure of
greater fr and installation of sprinkler system. Insurance companies
usually allow 50% premium reduction for sprinkler system.
UK bldg reg relating to compartmentation for fire control and cubic
capacity of bldg, covering eg rules for measurement, periods of fr for
elements ofstructure —Bib116590592593594601.
In USA areas, construction types, egress or exits, compartmentation
and all matters concerning fire safety and fire control are regulated by
bldg code administered by city or municipal inspection dept (—*Bib027
505 509 510). Matters concerning fire insurance ratings of hazard and
bldg covered
bystandards ofNational Board of FireUnderwriters.
Statutorycontrols
On national or state basis. In UK controls affect max cubic capacity of
compartments for single and multi-storey bldg and fr of elements of
structure forfactory and warehouse bldg of certainfloorareas.
Warehouses
Warehouses with pallet rackingcan provide particularfire hazard,aisles
acting as flues. Reg forinstallationofsprinklers,accountingforfrequency
ofoutletand flowratesbasedon degreeof hazardforstored material. In
USA apply rules from National Fire Protection Assocation and client's
insurer. In UK Fire Officers' Committee Rules forAutomatic Sprinkler
Installations should beadhered to.
Site planning
Control offire spread canalsoaffect location offactory orwarehouseon
site, particularly in relation toadjoining users. This can affect bldg costs
as there are rulesset down formaterials and frof walls when adjoining
otherproperty at particulardistance. ForUK—unprotectedarea requirements in Bldg Reg ES (Bib592); for USA —*state bldg codes and
requirements of American Insurance Association (Bib026); in general
codesprovide fire safety for people and underwriters protect bldg.
IIIII
Factorieswithoutsmoke ventscan become
rapidlysmoke-filledwith fire spreading under roof
1
surface
Withvents& smoke reservoirsfirecan be
quicklycontained&controlled
2
:3
C')
278 Industry
Industrial buildings
V
,P
ENVIRONMENTALCOMPARTMENTATION
V
V
Compartmentation, so long as compatible with handling and services
demandsof production and sto process, can be used reduce both
energy loss and certain hostile environments, such as fumes, heat,
noise and dust, aswell as limiting fire spread.
Hot, dirty processes can be grouped to exploit energy and material
recoverytechniques. Proportion ofarea/volume of factory affected by
processwill indicate strategy; high proportion of area affected, group
processes into compartment;low proportion,enclose separateelements
of processwith local extraction and controls. Alternative increasingly
attractive with high energy cost: segregate those whoworkin production
area into environmental enclosure, exploiting automation, and only
-11*
1
minimally temper malority ofarea. Parallel with warehouses: automate
main stosection, limiting environmentalcontrols tozonesofhigh labour
use fororderpicking and assembly.
In unitsconstructedspeculativelyforrentingoff& amenity accnprovided
in stripforflexiblespaceallocation
WORK PLACEDESIGN
Design ofworkplace fundamentalto achievinghigh levels ofproductivity:
alsoinfluences labour relationsand absenteeism.Work placecombines:
Ergonomics
Work people's relationship to machinery and work actions to reduce
fatigue and increase safety.
Mechanical handling
From most basic, low cost handling devices, scissor lifts, hoists and
counterbalanced manipulators,whichcan revolutionise manualwork, to
accumulating conveyors, automatically routing mobile work stations
and robotassembly machines.
Work organisation
Grouping people for certain tasks. Traditional isolation of machine
operatorsand line assemblyorganisationunder reviewin severalcountries
in Europeand in USA; team organisationcanoffer greatercommunication
and production flexibility.
Environment
2
Environmentalfactorscanbeconsidered forpurpose designedfactories:
with noisy &dirty processesoff andamenityaccncan besegregatedfrom
productionzone
Positive demands:
temp suited to activity—USA: AmericanSocietyof Heating,Refrigeration
& Air-conditioning Engineers (BibO3l), UK: Institution of Heating &
VentilatingEngineers (Bib164)
airflowand air cleanliness
lighting: backgroundand task —p398—4OO
Defence against:
glare
noise
vibration
harmful gaseous or dust products: explosions
key: 1 lightmaterial:low usage,infrequentoperation 2frequenthighlevel
controls orlightpositioning 3 convenientcontrolzone: standingmanipulation
4seated control zone: light& medium-heavylocation 5infrequentzone of
heavy material
3
Manualwork& sto involvesomecriticaldimensions: mostcommon
working &manipulativezone is in2—4band
IQDL
II
4
II
Hli
Li2
II
Simplehandlingaids suchasscissorliftcanimproveworkingconditions&
productivity
5 Counter-balancedmanipulatorcanenableoperatorplaceheavy loads
accurately
Industry
279
Industrialbuildings
WORK PLACEDESIGN
Amenity
Washing, changing, wc and smoke/rest provision related to workplace.
Location and scale depend onworkorganisation—.(4):
traditional line production will require centralised services accessibleto
numbers of people
team organisationimpliesamenityaccnclose byorlocaltoteamoperating
area; with changes in production organisation depending on manufacturing methods and volume, both are likely to change with increasing
frequency.
key:a1000 b2400 c800
1
Typicalmanualorder picking frompallets&shelf,replenished by reach
truck; simultaneouspickingfromeach sideforhighthroughputinstallation
key:a 1000 b1800
2
Slowerthroughputpickingoperation with 1-waytrolley access:
replenishedby narrowaislestackerorfrombehind rack
uiu
a
b
c
a
key:a800 b75 c150 dllOO e250
3
Typicalrack& shelfhforfloorlevelorder picking
4
Wet services,washing& rest ar: a small divisibleunitsas stripalong
boundary bmed & largesizefactorybldgwith 2possiblezonesforplacing
wet services,eitherallowing freelocationineachzoneorgroupingintoflexibly
positionedbutdistinctwet serviceunits,egforteamaccess cforlargescale
factoriesanotheroptionisislandwet serviceand amenity ar; advantages:
singleundergroundservicesrun &accessibility fromall sides
c0)
280
Industry
Industrial buildings
HYGIENE
,'
1••••
unnals
washtrough
—i
ii,
Washing general
UK law requires that adequate and suitable facilities for washing,
conveniently accessible,beprovided and maintainedforuse of employed
persons in allfactories. Where nospecialorderofficial recommendation
not less than 1 washbasin/20P doing clean work, 1/lOP doing dirty
work, 1 /5P handling poisonous substances.
Provisionofwashbasins—vBib6O8
Lavatories
UK factory laws do not specify numbers of lavatories: provision considered 'suitable and sufficient' foroffices, shopsand railwaysequally
relevant for factories—vBib346 347 604.
Lockers
1
2
Layoutofdo, washr, drinfood
Changingmiwith strict
separation ofclean&dirtyclothes
productsfirm
Changing areas
ocher sizes
IhwdI
I
Forclean trades 1 locker/P must beprovided; fordirty 1 double locker/P
to keep workand street clothing separate.
Mm
I
changing area0.5 m2/P
Ambulance rooms
Specificationforambulancerm:
11750130013001
11850130013001I
118501 3501 500
Floor space not less than 9.29 m2 with natural light and ventilation.
Should contain: glazed sink with hot and cold running water, table with
smooth surface, means of sterilising instruments, adequate supplyof
suitable dressings, bandagesand splints, couch, stretcher, separate rm
for male and female, qualified nurse always available.
I
timber
120001 400 I 500I
12000140015301
vents
3 2-tier rowoflockersformultiple
shift firm: orlower lockerforwork
clothesupperforstreetclothes
shell
—
4
Doublerowofventilated clothes
lockers:benchesinfront
*
1120
towelholder
5 Hbwith tapsand adequate
dimensions;washingtroughs
narrower(up to 940 deep)
6
Washfountain(Bradleysystem):
25% saving in spacecompared with
rowsofbasins;waterconsumption
10P/15—391: water pressure
atmosphere
7 Continuousbasin: Rottersystem
Fountainonwallwithdrinking jet,
controlledbylever
8
o•
11
Sho cubicleswithclotheshooks outside
iri
9
Seriessho eachfor4P
10 Continuousshoalongwallswithfootsho
12 Sho cubicleswith clotheshooks inside
Industry
281
Industrial buildings
SANITARYINSTALLATIONS
;7N
ID
iD 7
__
D
—125—"———1.55—i
___________
i— 1.5 —"-—1.15—-,
LDH
h
Singlerowclosetsdoorsopening
outwards(above),inwards(below)
1
—1.25
H
is......
\N
h ZN
D
Sanitary installationsaccording to German standardgiven here. 1 tloor
outlet with smell trap per closet and 1 tap connexion with 1 socket
spanner and hose union. Cleaner's sink. Floor surface non-slip, water
resistant, easyclean.
Walls washableupto2000high. Floorand wallssealedagainstmoisture.
Rm temp mm 15°C. Wc partitionsto ceiling height; space outside well
ventilated; 1 washbasinand handdrierper 5wc.Where soap dispensers
titted 1/2 basins. Mm 1 mirror for2—3 basins.
—t
1.5—44———1.55
Iii
Singerow closetswith urinal on
oppositewall
2
7N {D7K
7i\
:
r
h
l.25
2.05—
500+— 1.1 —t-600-
:*
1
ZNT
—1.5—it-——125—i
3
Singlerowclosetswith bowl
urinals opposite
4
h5004900
F500+S1Xii
12 Changingarwith hanger
Changingarwith simplehook
tittings:unattended
11
fittings:unattended
Doublerowclosets
iockerswdh
benches
locker
bend,
HHHH
locker
L
11
350
1
Lit '—
Al
wwstodssickngunder
ftj
H±H
5 Washrwithhb
6
Washrwithtrough
13
Mm
1.0
slo4ffl
DH[IIE E±1:d
i—9-H
450s-ô--r--6OO-i—6OO-i
—5Xi—4
[I] HI U
1.0
t—500—4
1.3
r IL
1.0
—900-i
I
I
i—900—4
1.0
[Istool
I—
9—
dimensionsforchanging rm
_—105 —500
4
'a >2,05
Al
7 Washrwith tootbaths
8 Washrwith foot-trough
1.05
14 Depositdo, singlelayout with pegs, duallayout with hangers
do): attended
I
closedsho wrlti
—1.05—4550: changingcubicle
__Ff14
1.05— 1.5 —±1.05*1.05°--1.1-'
3.6 — -°2.15 -H
9
Gullydrainage,individual
drainagetorhalf-opensho
compartment
10 Bath cubiclewith changing
alcove:mm dimensionstorsho&
bath units
720-800-'
15 Vendingmachines
(theatre
a
C
C',
282.Industry
Industrial buildings
LOADINGBAYS
Link between production or sto process and distribution system. Much
effort toreduce production costs can bewasted throughdelayed vehicle
turn-round and increased manning if loadingarea notcarefullydesigned.
Decisionsin loadingbayplanning
Raised orgroundlevel dock?Generally, forend-loading containersand
box bodies vehicles, as in retail distribution, raised; for side-loading
curtain sided and flat bed vehicles, ground level.
Separate loading baysforincoming and despatch —v(1): separate bays,
together with vehicle marshallingareas, where manufacturing system
involves differentcharacteristics between raw materials and finished
products, with raw materials calling for side handling at ground level and
palletised for despatch needing end loading. Similarly for large distri-
bution warehouse: bulk loads of single product delivered, mixed loads
oforders despatched indistributors' ownvehicles; here segregationfor
traffic management and materials flow in warehouse, particularly as
vehicle handling peaks may coincide.
Number ofloading bays, spacing and layout:
loading bays must never be considered in isolation; mustbe related to
circulation and check-off area behind them. Decision on numbers
question ofthroughput patterns and availablearea next todockfor load
preparation. Clearly ifvehiclescan behandledfasterwith pre-assembled
loads, less loading docks required than for slower turn-round with
material being assembled as loadingoperation continues.
loading bay spacing and layout influenced by depth of manoeuvring
area available and depth of load accumulation space behind dock.
Choice of which should have more spacemust be basedon assessment
of individual throughput demand.
It
o 10203040 m
I I
3366 99132 ft
inwards:suppliers'bulk
key: a
loads bhighbay bulkstockpaflelsto
Cpalletbreakdown& repacleng er dorder
selection& loadassembly edespatch
loadingbay: users'disbibutionvehicle
fl-way trafficflow glongtermtruck
ar
parking& users'maintenance
ods
2 Manywarehousescanusedockforincoming &
despatch goods; in factories sharing type of
loadingbay maynotbepossiblebutgoodsvehicle
manoeuvringarcanbe common
1
Large retaildistributioncentrewith separate goodsinwards&despatch
loadingbays
key:
longwheelbasengbichassistruck
a2.8m b3.9m c4.7m d5.5m
e5.lm f4.6m g26.8tntsmingcircle
4smmninparfdng:3mcentres
3
_-"n
reinendloading:3,3 mcentres
35 mpreferredmm spacing:3.8 mCentres
33mnabsolutemmnal3.8mcentres
4
5
3omdat5timcentres
6
I
15marticulatetruck
a4.7m b5.7m c7.3m d8.3m
efl.8m t7.8n1 g27miunmingcircleat
900fulllock
23 m(75 6
neverless than20nidepthevenifspacinggreaterthan tOrn
I
20
25
30
35
40
45n1
ntis distancefromface ofloadingthktoboratdary
ofrnanoerenngarforsinglemovementtum-c&d
3
Calculating yard depth& loading bay spacingfor 15 m articulated trucks
parked at 900 to dock
122m1n(for
tTaflicflowA
c0unterclockwise
19.flforlfl.8tractor/traileretc
168 for168tractor/trailer
VIA
V I
A
V
t'
manoeuvengyr
loadingar
————
- -ltorclockwise.
trafficflow A)
5
Typicalturningdimensionsforrigidchassis &articulated trucks
maalo7kerticul
c
A
tractor-trailerI
B
c
posftion w
'apron' space
10.7
3.0
3.7
14,0
13.1
122
3
146
43
128
A
£
£
-—
b
4
I
137
13,4
30
174
4.3
14,9
14.6
37
waitingar
Truckloading& manoeuvring, USAdimensions a loading, manoeuvring andwaitingar b& C apronspace requiredfor 1 move intooroutof
position
Industry
283
Industrial buildings
LOADINGBAYS (cont)
Spacing
Directly related to yard depth; conditioning factor: distance closely
parked vehicles have to pull out before turning —.(1). Angled, raised
docks reduce yard depth at expense ofnumber ofvehicles handledat 1
time: ground level drive-through bays reduce circulation width but
increase length. Finger dock compromise for side and end loading
where manoeuvring area limited.
Loadcheck-off/accumulationspace
Behind cross circulation aisle load handling zone (dock levellers with
raised docks). Should have capacity of 1 .5 vehicle loads. Remember
space for broken pallets, relected loads, rubbish: at least 1 load area.
Crosscirculation aisle4000 allows 2 fork-lift pass and for turnout from
docklevellers. Keep thisarea clear ofcolumns.
end-loadingraiseddock:
drawforwarddistance
Raised docks
Equip with docklevellerplates accommodate both changes in vehicle
bed height as they are loaded and different types of vehicle. Standard
loading dockheight in USA 1220, common with 1 200 in Europe: with
European vehiclesgreater variationsinbed height.Dock levellers should
not exceed gradient of 1 in 10withhighest orlowest vehicle.
Energy
Do not face loading bays into prevailing wind. Raiseddocks: use dock
shelterswhere vehicle forms hermetic seal with bldg and segmentalor
roller shutterdoor closes on to leveller when vehicle leaves. Ground
levelor finger docks can be completely enclosed (straightthrough flow
ortail in). Alternatively, hot orcold air curtainscan beused butthese not
substitute for enclosure.
Security
Drivers should not be able gain access beyond dock, except in some
distribution operationswith company'sownvehicleswheredriver arranges
order of loading. Generally, raised docks with dock shelters provide
inherent security: separate lavatoriesand access totraffic office should
beprovided forvisitingdrivers.
finger dock: raised
end& sideleading
Weather protection
If docksheltersor enclosed dockcannot be installed canopy required
overloading area: should allow at least 5000clear height.
Gradients
Ground should beflat(except forlocal drainagefall) for lengthofvehicle
in frontofdockor mm oflength of articulatedsemi-trailer.
checkoff
buffenat
1.5toad
Heavy goodsvehiclemarshalling & circulation
Segregate light vansfromheavygoods vehicles: to use differentdocks!
partsofthe dock
equivalent
gafew foraccess
frombothdirections
,I' \
Provide heavy vehicle waiting bays before loadingbayarea and clear of
manoeuvring space
Provide parking baybefore exit for drivers tocheck load security
Circulation should beclockwise inrighthanddrive countries, anti-clockwisein lefthanddrive: iereversing into loadingdocks alwaysondriver's
21.5
------- __J
Themore angleofvehiclefromloading dockreduced greaterreductionin
yard depthbutlower numberof vehicles handled simultaneously in space
1
sid
7mcanopy
L
:—-------
_
3800 mm
-
5000 nun
1100—1500
K
12.0 levelsection
(55 ftinsomeliSAslaten)
2
-
II
ml
1220standard
3000typicalfor4000laming/passing
levellerplate
aisle
Sectionthroughraisedloading dockfittedwithdockshelterforenergyretention: canopy(dotted)only
ifshelteromitted
needed
284 Industry
Industrial buildings
LOADINGBAYS: USA RAIL
1
Typical rail track spacingrequirements USA
fence(if required)
leadtrack
J2.2railrightofway \ 3050
9140min
___
m1n_- __
rail servicedoor
7'
tspurtrack
21
3
r
!,
C-
a
61.0
truck
loading
bldg
-'
parking
1 520 walkway
orlandscaping
I
0
F
______________
V
//
b
91
23.0—
12.2railright ofway
tWCI(
6100min —
rail spurinside bldg
2590from inside wall
bldg
parking
loading
1
n
5,
CS1I
co
c
j___________
520walkway
orlandscaping
J9l4osetback(Iandscaped)
street right-of-way
bldg
91.4
parking 9.
.
1 520 walkway
orlandscaping
street right-of-way
:
Sm!
.1111,!
25gOfrominsidewall
I loading
-.j F
—
bldg
parking
0
1520 walkway
orlandscaping
I
5,
V
Il
21 3 1
c
Is,
IC)
61.0
stH
H
eli
railspurinside bldg
23—
I
f9l4osetback(landscaped)
Railservedbldg layoutsUSA arail in right-of-way, bldgset back,spuralongsidebldg brail ineasement, bldg
set back, spur alongsidebldg, note:spur layoutrequires easement onadjacentproperty: canbeeliminatedby
movingeastwardrail servicedoor &consequently point of switch crail in right-of-way, bldgonpropertyline,
spur insidebldg d rail ineasement, bldgset back,spur insidebldg
2
2590 (typic&) -21.3
___________________property line&centreline
of lead track
12.2 raileasementi
I
•
21
1
61.0
r1tZii!
146 setback (landscaped)
streetright-of-way
23
I
.l
\
rail servicedoor
truck
61.0
loading
19146setback(landscaped)
leadtrack-
property line&centerhneleadtrack
rail easement
iit)mm spur track
j_
_______________
2590(typical)
(—23.0—
ii.
—
—
Industry. 285
Industrial buildings
ci
Rental unit
WORKSHOPS
Great variety in shape and size: workshops classifiedhere by location,
circulation requirements —*p286, tenancytypes —p287, and technology
theycan accommodate—*p288. Most ofdetailedstandardsand examples
given thoserequired fortypical inner cityflatted factory (rental unit).
C')
Most common locations —.(1)—(5).
Domestic
1
garden
IK
1
1
or2 peoplecarryingonhobbyorpart-timeoccupation inextension
of
home
Educational institution
4
Standardunitswithsharedaccessinmulti-storeybldg
Ancillaryto large factory
2
Repetitiveprovisionforclassorgroupof 20—40 people
production
Small industrial estate
wc
off
workshop
sto
I
I
I
photo
lab
I
Groupofnon-specificunitsfor range ofverysmallbusinesses
wood
workshop
metal
workshop
I
onference
I
3
—
5
gar
Specialistworkshopsforusebystaffmaintaining company'splantorbldg
itself
286 Industry
Industrial buildings
WORKSHOPCIRCULATION
spaces/floorar
innercity suburbs&rural
distribution
heavy goodsvehicles
light commercial vehicles
m2
m2
Parkingoutsidebuilding
1/1000
1/1000
Elevatorsinsidebuilding
cars
1/400
1/500
1/500
1/1 000
light industry
heavygoodsvehicles
light commercial vehicles
1/4000
1/2000
1/1 000
1/200
1/500
1/50
1/1 000
1/150
1/500
1/30
cars
Standards depend on location as well as on type ofuse—.(1).
Related toexternal parking and totenancies —.(2)(3).
Circulationwithin workshop
Derived fromtechnology used aswell astype oftenancy —+(4)—(7).
offspace
light commercial vehicles
cars
1
Parkingguide lines: USAstandards—.p263
4
Straightline: goodsin&outoppositesidesofplant; requires bldg with
good accessboth sides:common inmedium-sized firms
5 Overlapping:similarto4 butformuchlargertypeoffirm
2
Goodselevatorservinglargegroup of tenancies: centralmanagement
may neededtomaintainfreeuseofelevators at peaktimes
6
U-shape:goodsin&outsameside of plant; possible in bldgwithonly
limitedaccess:commonwith verysmallfirms
3
Severalgoodselevatorseach of whichservesseveral tenants,whomust
cooperatein its use
7
Convoluted: goodsin&outon same side of plant;sometimes necessary
in bldgwith restricted access
forlargefirmswhen accommodated
Industry
287
Industrial buildings
WORKSHOPTENANCIES: BUILDINGTYPE
ci
Indirectaccess—(1)
Typeofbldg: shallow ormedium depth with cross wallstocreatevertical
C')
compartments.
Type of management: individual firm's name displayed and each has
unitwithownservices. Managementcould take 1 unitover forown use.
Type ofuser. small well establishedfirms requiring own identity.
Subdivision: units have street (or yard) frontage, may receive visitors
directly and have own stairs,elevators.
Compartmentation: each bldg contains several tenancies divided by fr
walls.
Escape routes: each tenant has fr stairway: if area of high fire risk
alternative means ofescape required.
Open plan —*(2)
Type of bldg: shallow or medium depth with central corridor on each
1
level.
Type ofmanagement: common receptionist: lifts/stairs/corridors from
intermediate space to be maintained.
Type ofuser: small firms needing some security but less concerned
withpresenting individual identity.
Subdivision: unitsreached through internal stairsorcorridors common
to several users.
Compartmentation: each tenant separated from adjacent tenants by fr
floor.
Escape routes: each individual tenant has door to shared fr escape
corridorwhich leads to fr stairway, second means of escape normally
alsoneeded.
Indirectaccess
Shared spaceI —(3)
Type ofbldg: deepplan.
Type of management: tenants share services and participate in
management of accn.
Type of user: small expanding firms with compatible uses: allows for
rapidchanges in sizeand staffing.
Subdivision: unitsas suchdo not exist but tenants take space within
largeenvelope having single front door.
Compartmentation: each open area surrounded byfrwallsand floors.
Escape routes: each compartment has directaccess or 2 or more fr
stairways: may be necessaryprotect relevantdoorwayswith fire shutter.
2
Open plan
3
Sharedspace
Shared spaceII—*(4)
Typeofbldg:any building type.
Type of management: head lessee relinquishes no responsibility for
space: may provide telephone, secretarial services on time sharing
basis.
Type of user: newly founded tiny firms (1—5 persons) requiring low
overheads and mm commitments.
Subdivision: space rented from another firm usually on somekind of
licence.
Compan'mentation: separate subdivision only required if sub-tenant
represents high riskof fireorexplosion.
Escape routes: considered same as for main tenant unless special fire
risk.
A
J
4
Sharedspace
288 Industry
Industrial buildings
type
machine
passengers heavy light
goods goods rrn
pit
elelevators
yes
yes
yes
yes
yes
no
yes
yes
yes
yes
no
no
yes
yes
yes
yes
yes
yes
no
no
no
no
no
yes
no
yes
yes
yes
yes
yes
yes
yes
yes
no
no
no
no
no
no
no
yes
no
yes
yes
yes
no
yes
no
2sides
no
yes
yes
no
no
yes
2sides
no
rio
no
yes
no
no
yes
yes
yes
no
no
no
no
no
no
yes
yes
mobile
4sides
4sides
hydraulic lift
manually
operated lift
platform hoist
elservicelift
scissorslift
dock leveller
elbelt
conveyor
gravity
conveyors
elwinch
manual winch
manual floorcrane
1
external
fittings
access
3sides
3sides
3sides
3sides
WORKSHOPS:EQUIPMENTSPACE
—(1) shows requirements for some suitable handling eqp for small
premises. —.(2)(3) showtypical space needed per machine in tightly
planned layout: does notnecessarilyallowforgeneral circulation,process
sto or initial installation of machinery. —v(4) shows percentage of total
area required foroperations invarious types of workshop.
4 sides
2sides
2 sides
mobile
Suitablehandlingeqp forsmallpremises
A
2
4 Space budgettingbytechnology
Eqpspace—.(3)
eqp in commonuse
types
Ax B-.(2)
workingspace
per item
metal work
machiningcentre
jig boring& milling machine
turret drill
surfacegrindingmachine
capstanlathe
bar & billetshears
press brake
engraver
diesinker
weldingplant
toolgrinder
shaper
power hacksaw
punch press
sliproll
nIbbler
shearclamphead
bandsaw
workbench
plastics
extruder
vacuumformer
blow moulder
acrylic saw
heatingoven
6.0 x 4.0
3.0 x 3.0
2.6 x 3.2
2.6 x 2.2
3.0 x 4.0
2.5 x 3.0
3.0 x 6.0
2.2 x 3.0
1.8 x 2.2
2.8 x 2.5
1.1
x 1.2
1.7 x 2.1
4.0 x 1.2
1.5 x 1.3
x 2.1
2.3 x 1.2
2.1 x 1.5
2.3 x 3.1
1.1
2.7 X 1.9
2 8 x 2.8
2.8 x 2.8
3 ü 4.5
3.0 x 50
06 x 1.1
woodwork
bandsaw
circularsaw
surfaceplaner
knot holedrill
milling machine
slot boring machine
dove-taller
jointer
scroll saw
drill press
woodshaper
radial arm saw
beltsander
veneerpress
lathe
polisher
carpenter'sbench
printing
lithographicpress
plate maker
folder
drill
3.0 x 5.0
4.8 x 7.9
2.6 x 5.0
2.2 x 4.2
4.0 x 5.0
2.2 x 5.0
2.2 x 4.3
x 8.3
x 1.9
x 1.6
2.9x 1.6
6.5 x 1.8
4.4 x 4.8
5.0 x 4.2
nailer
sole press
heel press
shapingmachine
leathercutter
patternstamper
1.5 x 2.2
1.5 x 2.2
1.5 x 2.2
2.Ox 2.5
3.0 x 3.5
1.5 x 1.7
2.0 X 3.0
2.2 X 2.6
3.0 x 4.5
electronics
instrumentbench
1.5 x 4.5
motor repairs
each bay
30x 60
general
compressor
0.75 x 1.2
2.5 x 5.0
1.5
x 1.8
1.2
1.2
1.5
1.5
1.5 < 3.0
2.0 4.2
photographic
developingtank
2.4 x maxlength
print
1.5 x maxlength
print/2
3 Typicalspace requiredper machineintightlypackedlayout
footwear
7.0 x 14.0
1.2 x 2.2
2.0 x 2.0
2.0 x 2.0
1.2 x 1.2
1.4
1.6
1.6
guillotine
gluing belt
enlarger
clothing
layingup machine
sewingmachine
steampress
ironing bar
steamboiler
x
dustcollector
furnace
hot dip tank
dryingcabinet
upholsterypress
forge
kiln
potter'swheel
x 2.0
x 3.0
x 2.2
3.0 x 7.0
2.5 x 3.5
0.9x2.1
0.9 x 2.1
1.8 x 1.7
1.5
1.5
1.7
Industry
289
Industrialbuildings
3 Mixed workshop:
WORKSHOPEXAMPLES
1
die casting; employs15;approx 150m2
Benchworkshop: furskins;employs2; approx 75m
4 Repairshop: electronicsrepair;employs2;approx47m2
2 Craftwork:
organ building & wood furniture; employs2;approx
175m2
.
general
woodwork
sander
ri
U
organassembly
& wiring
ii
—V
5 Machine workshop:
lithographicprinting; employs3;
approx93m2
6 Small factory:
women'sshoe manufacturer;
employs47;approx 370m2
ci
c(I)
290Industry
Industrial buildings
Workshopdesignfactors
Factors affecting fabricdesign and services requirementsforrepresentativecategories ofworkshop —(1).
factorsaffectingfabricdesign
Service requirements
E
Factors affectingfabricdesign&
servicerequirementsforworkshops
1
z
ma
a
poBe
A
B
C
D
rjsssDiowniri
timber furniture
film production
furs, skins
film processing
electronicrecording
engraving
toys, musicelinstruments
metalwork,plating,casting
clofhrig
tight engineering
valves,tools
deskaceessories,plastics
food processing
pnnting
E
rnenufacturing
stationery
brewing
spinning
F
electronicrepairs
motorcar repairs
bicycterepairs
meamcaiprops
SERVICINGSTANDARDS
Check all applicablebldg codes and municipalplanreview requirements.
Fornew industrial bldg following standardsapply:
Electricity
UK: Each unit to be provided with separate 415 V 3-phase supply,
including, sitednormallywithin production area,main distribution board,
ofadequate capacity fornormallyanticipatedunitneed ofabout 70kVA,
fitted with fused switchboard. (70 kVA units in range of 1 000 m2 and
upwards need separateloadcalculations.)Lightingcircuitsto beprovided
within offices and lay in appropriate locations. Power socket outlets to
be provided in offices. Fused switch socket outlets to beprovided in lay
where el sto heaters used. In offices —vp234 lighting wiring should
followlikelyoffice subdivision and should finishwith fluorescent fitting
but in lay and do should be batten ceiling typefitting. Provide external
flood lighting atbackof bldg over service door wired to each individual
unit to illuminate rear service area: may be supplemented by street
lighting where layout permits.
Note: no provision to be made in standard specification for lighting
trunking or 13 amp ring main in production areas.
USA:currentcharacteristics ofservice vary with process. El eqp forair
conditioning may be required for some processes orlocations.
Telephone
Underground service ducttobeprovided intoground floortoallow easy
cable connexion.
Gas/gascentralheating
Services to be carried into bldg and sealed off in production area.
Supplycapacity to be designed toallow provision ofcentral heating to
production and office areasto normalworking standards.Centralheating
to be provided only when required at landlord's cost: may be in office
areas for larger units using conventional hot water radiator system
incorporating provision for hot water for domestic uses. Boiler to be
sitedin production area.
Watersupply/plumbing
Cold water supply for domestic needs only to be carried into bldg;
tenants'process orsprinkler requirements notallowed for: supplementary serviceto be laid if excessive need indicated. Cold and hot water
supplies tobe connected to allwashing installations: hotwater supplied
from either wall mounted el 3 kW sf0 heater (capacity54 I) or if more
economic central hotwatercylinder having capacityapprox 351/basinor
sink. All stotanks tobe adequatelyinsulated.
Drainage
Surface waterdrainage down pipes should have traps accessible from
ground floorlevel and be locatedinpositions to avoidaccidentaldamage.
Ample external surface watergullies should be provided in service yard
to avoid waterstanding and grid channels should be provided across
serviceyard entrance where levels ofyard could allow surface water to
run off into bldg. Foul drainage should allow for domestic demand;
sealed gully in production area for process effluent. Trade effluent
certificate required for individual trade needs.
Ventilation
Mech ventilation tobe provided forwconlywhere layout makes impractical natural ventilation. All offices naturallyventilated. Productionareas
needonlyhave separate provision for manuallycontrolled roofmounted
extractors where chosen form ofheatingwill notachieve this result.Any
extractor fans to be completely weather proofed and capable of being
serviced at roof level.
Fire alarm
Alarm systems to be installed toeach unitthroughout office production
areas. El operated systemwith manual initiation. Supplementary brief
(program) to advise if provision to be made for sprinklers, smoke
detectorsor emergency lighting. Hosereel pointsonly to be provided
whererequired by reg or statute.
In USA sprinkler design approved by state insurance commissionorfire
marshall's office.
Industrial buildings references:
—eBibliographyentries 031 036 052 053 164 177 178257280284301
305 331 332 333 338 341 346 348352 354 363 374 382 387418456
470 477480 481 486 505 534 539 590 592 597 600601 602603604
605 606 608 616 627 634 642651
Industry 291
Laboratories
________
CLASSIFICATION
Lab differwidelyin layout and service requirements according to use.
linkto adjoiningunit
&/orfireescape
aM
IL]
eH
Classificationcategoriesincludetype ofdiscipline(eg chemistry,physics,
biology), level ofstudy(eg routine, teaching, research),provision of eqp
(egbenches, rigs), level ofservicing (eg wet, dry).
Hospital lab —+p176
bE2]
TRENDS
In past lab designed for specific, fixed use; now growing tendency
advocate 'multi-purpose' where worker has permanent station. Rapid
changes in technology create new fieldsof study and demand costly
sophisticated eqp which must be fully used: consequent need for
adaptable labspaces which may bechanged during life ofbldg.
Most difficulties in adapting to change arise because lab benches, sto
cupboards and piped services aspermanentfixtures can only be moved
with considerable effort and disruption. 1 approach is design main
structure and standardservices asfixed items with more specific variable
items,including furniture, movable.
dE2i
ii
Comparisonof square&
rectangularlab unitsofequalar
showinggreaterflexibilityoffered
bysquare layout arectangular
unit (24.8m2) bsquareunit(24.5
m2)C2workers& sharedeqp
d3workers&sharedeqp e4
workers&shared eqp in centralar
2workers&largerig
1
PLANNINGPRINCIPLES
Most significant recent developmentsin planning:
adoption of square rather than rectangular modules —÷(1) allowing for
greater flexibility in bench arrangements with introduction of island
bench unitsand freestanding eqp;
use of movable table tops rather than permanent fixed bench units:
variations in work top height as well as grouping of tables can be
achieved to suit particular needs;
f
2 a banthropometricdata
governingbenchspacingforboth
teaching& research
type
bench
h
seat
h
w
kneehole
mm
vertical
distance
mm
floorto
underbench
sittingonly
sitting& standing: women
sitting& standing: men
3
700
850
900
425
625
675
575
575
575
606
800
850
INDIVIDUALSPACEREQUIREMENTS —*(2)(3)
Ideally conditioned by critical anthropometric dimensions, eg depth of
work top being based on max convenient reach; may be some 600 in
theorybut in practice worktopmay vary between 610 and 840. Work top
length similarly may vary between 2100and 4600for researchstudent,
depending on discipline and particular research requirements; can be
reduced to approx 1 500/P where groups of workers share eqp. Work
top heightmay varybetween lowchemistry benches at450above flocr
level and 900 forbenches at whichworker stands.
Typical rangeofbench&seatI
_ILLIIJLL±IIILIJ
r;i
arrangement of heavy eqp, fume cupboards, wash-up etc grouped in
central servicezones.
PLANNINGMODULE
Working unit (group ofworkplaces) forms basic planning bay ormodule
—(2b). Normal workplace can beconsidered as being approx 1600 x
800. Modulewidth may vary from 2600 to 5250; av approx 3000 to
3600, which allows 2 parallel rowsof benches with centre gangway
giving room to pass between 2workers.
= 2workspaces + centre passageway
Modulew
2 x 800
3000—3600
I.
hiflfTTTTTflrfl
FtiIiiIL
Li:'1
!Tn1T1t
1400—2000
Typical bldg dimensions include:
modulew
3000—3600
moduled
5000—8000
corrw
2000—2500
3600—4200
storeyh
L.
4
Typical plan showing flexible lab with grouped central services (preclinicalsciencesSouthampton UniversityEngland) ArchJohn S
BonningtonPartnership
key 1 teachinglab 2post-graduate & research lab 3preparation&
servicemi 4rmwith specialisteqp
5
Typicalplan showingrelationship of centralworkspace tolab unit
(zoologydept Edinburgh University Scotland) ArchArchitecture Research
Unit Universityof Edinburgh
key 1 lay 2sto 3culture 4 research lab 50ff 6cold mi 7lecturelab
8instruments 9 post-graduate lab 10chromatology 11 centralworkspace
l2warmrm l3darkrni l4secretary l5labl6radioactiverml7media
preparationmi 18wash-up
I
16
ip
I
32
15
48
20m
I
64
ft
292 Industry
Laboratories
SERVICES DISTRIBUTION
—ip383—4
Sub-main distribution can be either offvertical ducts serving individual
orpairs oflab ateveryfloororoffhorizontal ducts serving group oflab on
everyfloor.Vertical ducts can be integrated with main structural frame,
provideready access toservices onfloorthey serve, eliminate problem
of fumecupboard ducting; butcanprove expensivestructurally if service
potential not fully utilised. Horizontal distribution of sub-mains
usually cheaper initially; but has not same adaptability and requires
numerous connexions infloor.
Several methods of servicing individual benches available; need for
adaptability led to development of movable and pre-plumbed services
connected flexiblyto floor points. Central service spine permits backto-backlayout of benches; service bollard allows benching laid out in 2
directions. However, studies of relocatable spine systems show new
layout ofteninvolves extra costand disrupts activities in rm below since
live supply of services to all possible connexion points prohibitively
expensive.
Overhead servicing by mast and/or flexibles more convenient and
economic arrangement. Perimeter,peninsularand island layoutscan be
serviced in any combination and spacing required. Access for main-
tenance and adaptation can be achieved with mm disruption offurniture
and eqplayouts and confined tofloorbeing served. Valuablefloorspace
can be saved since traditional floor-mounted service spine between
benches removed. Furthermore, tendency overprovideto compensate
for lack of flexibility in layout reduced.
DISPOSALSYSTEMS
Drainage problem with overhead servicing: gravity ratherthan pumped
systems simplest, with permanent grid of floor
points. Lab wastes may carry corrosive agents orbe ofvery high temp.
Drip cups, bottletrapsin borosilicate glass and chemically resistantptfe
flexible tubing to outlets normal methods of dealing with suchrequirements. In any case waste runs should be immediately visible and
accessible in rm towhichtheybelong.
or vacuum-assisted
Solid waste normally put in bins; but in hospital research or animal
experiment lab incinerationofsoiled materialorcarcassesobligatory.
STORAGE
Growth in project work and use of multi-discipline lab has increased
amount and type ofsf0. Recent developmentstowardadjustableshelving
and trays: movable sto unitsundertables more adaptable than fixed
bench sto.
Pressing needfor further space makes organisation and management
ofsto major consideration. Categories include:
central: special sf0 often centralised (eg workshop sto, inflammable
solvents, explosives, poisons); best for large scale and/or expensive
eqp; staff organisation and checking control important;
local: frequent use of items necessitates regular local sto, limited in
capacity;
workplace: essential forpersonal eqp and project work material.
Flexiblelab arofscienceblock
WellesleyCollegeMassachusetts
USA Arch PerryDeanStahl Rogers
1
key
h
hotwater
coidwater
main
waste
g gas
twp rainwater
m
W
wvp waste ventpipe
te telephone& at
le iume extract
I
lightingtrunking
heatingpipes
as air suppiy
3 Zoologydept EdinburghUniversityScotland: leftintegration ofservicesandstructure
right sectionthroughdeptextension showing repetitive verticalsub-mainsducting
2
iFmn
400
-
wUP .
LjL oljHlL
worktop
sto
cpd
o
4 Overheadflexibleservicinginpilot project
LeicesterPolytechnic EnglandArch Leicester
EducationAuthority
400
5
Sectionthroughscienceslab Polytechnic Sunderland England showing detailsof overhead
servicing& its integration withinstructure ArchJo4in SBonnington Partnership
Industry
293
Laboratories
SPECIALREQUIREMENTS
Some operations need special eqp or techniques calling for particular
controlled environment not availableorappropriate ingeneral lab areas.
These include:
cold sto & lab
warm & incubator rm
sterile/dust free rm
dark rm
fumeproducing techniques
chromatography rm
chemical distillation
steam production
vibration/noisy eqp
animal rm
radiation & x-rayrm
temp control important
air locks & cleansing provision needed
entrycontrol needed
cupboardsusuallysufficient: largescale
need special rm
special rm: fume extraction
extraction needed
structural & plan isolation
environment & security control
screening & security
RELATEDSPACES
1 Detailsof lab benchesinscienceblockWellesley
Space for related activities needed in addition to general lab provision:
staff, seminar, small off, lib, do, sto, plant, preparation, some or all of
suchrm will be needed
College
Massachusetts USA
FINISHES
Floor: durable, easy clean and maintain, resistant to most chemicals
likelybe spilled; ideally should be lointless or have mm jointspossible.
Such traditional finishes aswood blocks still preferred by users buttend
to high cost. Sheet linoleum, pvc or rubber with welded orsealed joints
and coved skirtings now more common.
Walls &ceilings:special protection notgenerally needed. Suspended
ceilings provide smooth, light-reflecting surface with acoustic properties to whichpartitions can be abutted. Walls need to be washed down
from time to time: blockwork should be plastered and decorated or
sealed with sprayed plastics finish.
Worktops: traditionally solid timber, teak or iroko; laminated plastics
faced board cheaper. Aswith floor multitude of finishes frompvctiles or
sheetto vitreous tiles can be used, depending on type of work being
carried out.
2 Mobile fumecpdshowingserviceconnexions
3
TypicalteachingarTeacherTrainingCollegeTeesideEngland
Laboratoryreferences:
—.Bibliographyentries 039 122
206 278 283 336 337 341 349
354362 524571
a
ci)
294 Industry
Farm buildings
PURPOSE
partsper million
hydrogen
sulphideH2S
I
upper limitconsidered
acceptableforman to
breath duringworkingday
carbon
ammonia
NE-I3
dioxideCO2
5000
10
25
Design data presented here are based on human and animal requirements, animal housing technology including labour use, crop sto and
processing, waste handling and legal controls.
Toxic gas limits
illumination (lx) —.p25
2050*
stockyard
calf nursery
sickanimal pen
pig/poultryshed
HUMANWELFARE
50
50
Man: environment
30_50*
milking ar
Dust concentration not more than 10 mg/rn3ofair
100
100
dairy
Toxic gases —v(1)
Noiselevel not more than 90dB (A) per 8 hr-day exposure
Avoid contact with dirt ifpossible
Illumination levels —+(2)
20_50*
2050*
20_50*
vacpumprm
barnetc
tractorimplements
farmworkshop
100
* higherfigureapplieswhen nonatural lighting
CATTLE:BASICDATA
Illuminationlevels
2
Function of farm bldg to modify effect of climate on livestock, crops,
agricultural eqp and man atwork. Housing also allows easier handling
and storing of feeds, products and waste materials. Decision to erect
farm bldg may also be influenced by other considerations, eg investment, taxation, personal motives etc.
Thermal requirements
Under UKclimatic conditions allclasses ofcattle can be housed at temp
equivalent tothoseprevailingoutside. Protectionfromrain notnecessary
forolderanimals (180kgliveweight) ifanimalperformanceonly criterion.
But combination of rain, wind and lowtemp may lead to fluctuation of
food intake. In high rainfall areas rainwater entering waste sto system
can be excessive.
USAwide variations inclimate meanall classescattle cannoteverywhere
be housed at temp equivalent to that prevailing outside. Except in
temperate areas milking cows need protection in extremes of cold and
3
heat. In blizzard areas cows calvingand beef cattle up to 14—16 months
old need shelter.
DimensionsofFriesiancows
type
age
weight
kg
youngfemales
(heilers)
cows lightbreeds
medium-heavy
heavy
withers
body I
neck I
35
700
650
6rnonths
175
1000
1101)
—
—
1year
2year
1150
1 250
1 250
1 450
—
—
3year
300
450
575
1300
1600
mature
mature
mature
350—450
500—550
600—650
1140—1350 1 390—1620 600—620
1 320—1380 1 530—1650 630—650
1 350—1440 1 620—1680 650—700
atbirth
calves
hto
4
—
Typicaldimensionsofcattle; recently USAbeefcattlerevertedto longer
back
animal I
1100
1300
1500
1 600
1 700
1800
5
reachof mouthforvarious h
of feed table abovestance
0
100
200
300
400
750
800
850
800
840
880
900
920
940
840
910
980
1 020
1 060
1080
910
960
1010
1030
1060
1080
940
990
1040
1070
1090
1120
880
900
930
Reachofmouthofcattle
Animaldimensions
Typical dimensions ofFriesiancows shown—v(3); otherclasses ofcattle
Reach ofmouth basic criterion fordesign offeeding barriersand troughs
—v(5).
Feed &waterintake
Cattle in UK consume 30—60 kg of forage or silage depending upon
energyand fibrecontentof ration, and drink 35—601 ofwater per day.
In USAwider variation in normal feed and water intake.
295
Industry
Farm buildings
a
CA1TLE
Wasteproduction
Cattle defecate and urinate indiscriminately:canonly be madetodeposit
waste in particular places by useofphysical restraint,egcubicles. —*(1)
showsquantities ofwaste produced by different classes of cattle
1200kg/rn2deadload
200 kg/rn2 live load
HOUSINGELEMENTS
Housing systems canbeclassified bymethod ofcollectingand handling
waste products. In slatted floor systems waste passes through perforations in floor to be collected and periodically removed from cellar
beneath. In straw-bedded pens dung and some urine absorbed by
straw. Resultant farmyard manure must be removed periodically. In
cubicle systems use made of inability of cattle to walk backwards up
step.Raised cubicles can thereforeonlybeentered headfirst; dungand
urine deposited into cubicle passage, scraped regularly, or may be
slatted.
Slatted floorpens
Slatted floorsystems eliminatebedding and save labour. Proper space
allowances —(2) should be maintained to ensure sufficient animal
treading action. Totally slatted floors normally used for beef cattle or
suckler cows only. For dairycows useofslats limitedto cubiclepassages,
feeding stances and circulationareas.
3
Reinforcedconcreteslatsforcattle
4
Slurrydraw-offpoints
125 slat laid with 40 gap suitable for all stock above 200 kgliveweight or
6—8months —*(3).Foryounger stockqualityand conditionofslats more
critical: 25 or 30gap preferable.
Slurry cellars should be flat floored with draw-off points orreceiving pits
for vacuum tankers orpumps at gable ends orperimeter walls. Sluice
gatesliftedorpusheddown allowing slurryto fill receiving pit; overflow
lip system —.p304(4) also used. Sometimes necessary agitate slurry
before emptying. For this purpose slats may have to be removed for
access with recirculation/agitation pump. Some designs incorporate
suspendedcentral passage with several access points. Some pumps
require 0.5 m sump to work efficiently. Examples of slurry draw-off
points—*(4).
Sto capacities of slurrycellars —(5). Externalwaste sto—p301 (3).
animal
calf
calf
store(stock)
dairyheifer
beef
age (month)
0—3
3—6
6—15
6—15
15—24
15—24
dairy heifer
beefcow
24+
dairycow 24+
1
wasteproduced
(kg/day)
(m3/day)
5
7
14
14
0.005 (O.17ft3)
21
21
28
45
0.007
0.014
0.014
0.021
0.021
0.028
0.045 (1.6ff3)
Avquantitiesofwasteproduced bycattle
floor ar
weightof
approx
animal (kg) age (months) (m2/animal)
200
300
400
450
500
550
2
7
12
16
18
20
23
1.1
1.5
1.8
1.9
2.1
2.2
Spaceallowanceforbeefcattleonslats
weightof
beast (kg)
floor ar
sto capacity (m3lbeast) forvarious
cellardepths(m)
(m2/beast)
0.9
200
300
400
450
500
550
1.1
1.5
1.8
1.9
2.1
2.2
1.2
1.5
1.8
2.1
0.99 1.32 1.65 1.98 2.31
1.35 1.8 2.35 2.7 3.15
1.62 2.16 2.7 3.24 3.78
1.71 2.28 2.85 3.42 3.99
1.89 2.52 3.15 3.78 4.41
1.98 2.64 3.3 3.96 4.62
5 Stocapacitiesofbelow-slatcellars
2.4
2.7
3.0
2.64
3.6
4.32
4.56
5.04
5.28
2.97
4.05
4.86
5.13
5.67
5.94
3.3
4.5
5.4
5.7
5.3
6.6
(I)
296 Industry
Farm buildings
numberof
animals
capacityofurinetankrequired(m3)
CAULE
540 kg
beef cows
360 kg
450 kg
beef cattle beef cattle
50
100
150
200
22
44
66
88
19
22
38
57
76
44
Build-up ofslurryatrecommended stocking densities 300—400/month,
depending on type and level of feeding. Hay fed animals produce thick
slurrydifficulthandle with pumps. In suchsystems high-level slats can
be installed allowing tractor access for mucking out. Urine drained off
throughdrainage shafts intourinetank. Urine tank capacity fordifferent
numbers ofanimals —(1).
66
88
Tankcapacityrequiredfor2monthsstoof urinefromhigh level slattedbldg
1
Fortypical arrangement ofhigh-level slatted systems —(2).
Straw-bedded pens
Resting area bedded with 2—4 kg
allowance/animal —(3).
2
Mucking out usually doneonce during and at end of housing period.
Build-up of bedding overhousing period .—*(4).
Walls mustbebuiltwithstandpressureofmuck and stock:225 blockwork
with piers at3000 centres rising to height of 1 400 above max level of
muck build-up suitable. Height should preferably be3700(mm 3000at
eavesto allow tractor headroomformucking out.
High levelslats forbeef cattle
weight(kg)
(months)
200
300
450
500
550
3.0
3.4
4.0
4.2
7
12
18
20
23
lot housing
period (months)
Space allowances
forcattlein bedded
pens
build-upof muck(m)
3.4 ma/beast 4.0m2/beast
2.1
5
4
3
2
1.75
1.4
1.05
0.7
0.35
5
3
4.4
6
1
Whereverbedding next to feeding trough step or ramp should
total ar, lying
&feeding(m2/animal)
approxage
of straw/animal/day. For space
be
provided allow cattle reach trough comfortably —(5). Floors should
preferably be concreted butrammed hardcore may be used.
Ifliquidto bedrained fromunderbedding concrete floor should have fall
of 1:20. Concrete feeding stance above level of bedding area provided
in part-bedded pens: saves some straw. Cattle may also be given
access concrete area cleaned by scraping in self-feed silage systems.
Silo floor should fall 1:30 away from feed face. Open scraped areas
should fall 1:30away fromtroughs and covered areas. Urineand faeces
together with bedding and feed residuals scraped to external slurrysto
(midden). Tractor mounted orautomatic scraper blades normally used
remove slurryintosto.
Cubicles
1.8
1.5
1.2
0.9
0.6
0.3
4
Build-upofmuck
at2stockingdensities
(not USApractice)
In this system small quantities bedding (500 g/daychopped straw or
sawdust) spread over resting area equipped with cubicles and raised
150 above passage. Cubicle divisions —(6) should not hinder lying or
rising movements ofanimals orallow animal to gettrapped orentangled
in cubicle frame. Cubicles not often used for beef cattle. Keeping
cubicle bed dry more difficult with male animals. Problem accentuated
by fact that animals are growing. Cubicle system not suitable for bull
beefproduction.
Cubicle must notbe sowidethat smallestanimalto use itcanturn round
and dungin it; but must be wide enough allow animal lie comfortably.
Cubicles must be short enough ensure dung falls in passage: but
cubicles too shortwill not be used as animal will lie over heelstone or
kerb. Adjustable head or knee rail used to reduce effective length of
cubicle;adjustable side rails accommodatedifferent sizes of beast.
Cubicle dimensions should be related toanimal weight—(7).
Step orramponbeddedfloor
Cubicle passage widths (mm): slatted 1 800, solid scraped 2100. If
passage serves also as feed stance, mm widths 2500 slatted, 3000
scraped. Cross-passes 1 800 should be provided if more than 25—30
cubiclesin line.
Calf pens
Mm
space required —(8).
Divisions forindividual pens can be constructed from demountable and
adjustable rails,or boardswhere completeseparationrequired. Divisions
should bedemountable and easily cleaned and disinfected. Alternative
to individual penstethered feedfence—.(9).
6 Cubicledivisionsforcattle
612
7 I& w cubicles as
relatedtoweight
8
pen type
age (weeks)
mm
individual
upto4
1.1 (1.5
group
uptog
upto8
Mm
uptol2
space (m2/calf)
180
-i
640
x 0.75m)
3660
1.8(1.8x 1Gm)
6casT
L1&
1.1
1.5mm
space requiredforcalf pens
9 Tetheredfeed fence
4270
Industry 297
Farm buildings
CATTLE
C
Calf pens(cont)
In grouppens with bucket feeding pen front oftenequipped with simple
manual trapping yoke.
1
Alternativeto buckets cascadetrough: allowssimplified pipeline delivery
of milk with individual rationing.—(1)shows details ofcascadetrough:
system suitable for larger scale operations where labour spent on
feeding tasks often reduced to mm. Self-trapping yoke installed to
control calves during feeding reduces subsequent cross-suckling.
'Automatic' feeders mix and supplymilk substitute feed to groups of
10—15 calves on adlib basis: allow more flexible labour routines but
feed consumption (and hence cost) higher.
Cascadetrough
formilkfeeding
calves
Feeding
weight (kg) approxage
150
2
Troughspacefor
restrictedfeeding
300
400
450
500
550
mm
troughspace
(months)
(mm/animal)
5
12
16
18
360
520
600
20
23
620
640
660
J:L__ i5 jpj
300:otoer stock
250:youngerstock
130°
500 180
3
nmn
Feeding barriersforcattle
25
When feed rationed or restricted sufficient trough space must be provided for all animals feed simultaneously. Trough space requirements
When teed continuously available (ad/lb feeding) notall animals require
teed atonce.Trough-space/animal depends on typeof feed aswell as
sizeofanimal. Lessspace required forcereal feed than forforage:
grainor concentrates: 75—100/animal
self-feedsilage: 100—175/animal
mechanically-filled trough maintainedfull: 175/animal
Feeding barriers —(3)essential prevent feed wastage.
Self-trapping feeding barriers (yokes) designed prevent animal access
tofeed,or restrain or releaseselected animals—*(4).
Dimensions of trough and feeding passages for mechanised cattle
feeding —*(5). Inclined floortrough allows animals reach further; subsequently less secondaryhandlingoffeeds required—.p294(5). Forunits
housing over200animalsflat floor feeding passage4400wide preferred:
feed left outside reach of cattle can be pushed forward nearer to them
using specialised tractor mounted plough or brush attachment. Feed
residuals can be also removed using this machine. Feed bunkers for
complete (mixed) diets—*(6). These hold2—3days' supplysince denser
feeddeteriorates less rapidly.
j
Self-feedingbarrier
6
5
Passagesformechanised feedingofcattle
1600
:/LZ,//k
,
4
120
Feedbunkersforcomplete(mixed)diets
(1)
298 Industry
Farm buildings
passages). Lower (inlet) area twice this. Ifdifference in height between
inletsand outlets different from1 000, areas multiplied by height factor
obtained from—(3b).
CATFLE
Feeding (cont)
Typical dimensions
ments —*(2).
ofmobile feeding eqp —(1);
turning space require-
Feeding stances should allow space for animals pass behind others
feeding. Foradult cattle allow 2400mm forslatted stances,2700mm for
solidscraped stances.
Watering
Should be 10—30 animals/water bowl. Water troughs should provide
0.02 m2 of water surface/animal or 300 of water trough frontage for
40—50animals. During winter water should be heatedto 10CC.Provision
to prevent cattle fromdefecating intowaterdrinker required: install floor
curb200highor rail about 300 fromdrinker; ordrinkers can be recessed
into wall or covered with cattle operated flaps. Water bowls ortroughs
usually installed at height 700—1 000: should be located where do not
obstruct otheranimals feedingor movingto and fromfeeding area, and
preferably wherespillage will notwetbedded lying areas.
Ventilation
Natural ventilation suitable for ventilating all cattle bldg, including calf
bldg. Fan-assistedventilationsystems only justifiedinexceptionalcircumstances eg USA in heavily fly infested areas to supplement fly spray
system; exhaust fan system not continuous running but worked on
times.Sizesofopenings fornatural ventilation basedonbldg floor area,
weightof cattle and difference in height between airinlet and airoutlet.
—*(3a) used to obtain area/animal of upper opening (outlet) from av
weight of animal in bldg and total bldg floor area/animal (including
Example 1: 30 x 100 kg calves in bldg 750
difference between inlets& outlets
floor ar/calf 75/30 = 2.5 m2
outletar 0.042 x h factor 0.7 = 0.03 m2/calf
inlet ar double this = 0.06 m2/calf
x 10000 with 2000 h
Example 2: 100 x 400 kg cattle in bldg 10 x 30 m, 2500 h difference
between inlets& outlets
floor ar/animal 300/100 = 3 m
outletar 0.087 x hfactor 0.57 = 0.05m2/head
inlet ar doublethis = 0.1 m2/head
Design procedures also available for bldg with single openings, eg
open-fronted bldg, and slotted roofs (—+Bibl08). Type of ventilation
opening can be chosen suit method of construction and size required.
Simplest has continuous opening at eaves and open ridgeformed by
omitting ridgecapping—(4).
Mechventilation should notbeneeded ifnaturalventilation designed for
in newworkorconversions. If required, provide capacityof 1.4 m3/h kg
live weight= 0.39 I/s kg live weight. Design openings to provide inlet
speed of0.5—1 rn/s.
Animal handling&veterinarysystems
Efficient handling systems essential for speedy and safe restriction of
animals for veterinary, breeding or management purposes. Important
elements ofcattle handlingand controlsystemsare shown—p299.
E
S
E
'0
t0
S
0
1
Dimensionsoftractorwith fore-endloader&of forageself-emptywagon
a
b
hd,ffe(er'ceinIe&outlet
3 a arofridgeopeningasdetermined byweightofanimal &stocking
density; bhfactorforcalculationofventilationopenings
+24t
t/////////////Z '/,'2'
2
Turningspacesforfeedingmachinery
4
Open ridge:USA ventedridgepreferred
tff
8000
race
Industry
Farm buildings
CATTLE
Animal handling(cont)
________
33°E1____
__________
330[H____
255El __________
l75:1 _____
torcingpen
IiII
Li
iii iiii
iiIi
'
I
it
I2I
II
Li
U
Isolation pens forveterinary treatment,disease diagnosisetcshould be
provided. Pens (3000 x 6000) should be bedded: feed should be
delivered totrough fromoutside pen; for dairy cows milking line should
beinstalled. Drain separatelyfromother animal areas.
Calving pens should be separate from main resting area; floor should
be bedded; tractor access for mucking out required. Pen size 4000 x
4000adequate.
Holding pens space requirements: beef cattle 0.95—1.4 m2/beast mm
adult cattle 1.7m2/beast
cows and cattle 1.85 m2/cow and calf
IiIi
IiLi
______________
:TT60
Forcing penleads fromcollecting pen to race;should befunnel-shaped
and should hold not less than 12 cows plus calves or 15 adult cattle.
catwalk
crush & vetgates
vet
gates
race
Single sided splay preferable, with 30 angle.
Race(chute): 18mlong 680 wide internallyand 1 680 totop rail will hold
10—12 cattle. Catwalks should be provided on both sidesof race 760
above ground level and not less than 300wide.
—
crush
J_______
J
3—way shedder
299
______
pen2
pen
3
Crush (squeeze chute): race terminatedbycrush which may be metal
proprietary make orconstructed in timber. Weighcratesometimes used
ascrush. There should be goodaccess at bothsidesto head,neck, feet,
underflanks and rear ofanimal. Crush should beunder cover with good
daylight and artificial lightand provisionforhosing down whole area.
Shedder gate: should be installed after crush wherever need to sort
animals for weighing, separation for pregnancy, loading etc. Gates
should be installed at far end of all holding pens allow recirculation of
groups or individual animals. Dimensions of cattle handling systems
—v(1), typical Iayout—*(2).
race
recircijlationalley
catt race
1 Cattle handlingsystems: dimensions
Milking
In loose housing systems cows milked in parlour. Milking in cowsheds
using bucket or pipeline not practised in new dairy units because of
access
2
hygieneand high labour requirements both in milking and cleaningeqp.
Examples oftypical milking parlours—v(3).
Basic considerations which will determine type and size of milking
parlour:
max size of herd (allowing for future expansion)
time allowance formilking (max2hours)
max mean peakyield
concentrate feeding policy
use of dairy labour (1 or 2 men)
capital available
Automatic cluster removal essential in 1-man operated rotary parlours
toavoid serious overmilking ofcows. In UKsecondoperatorconsidered
wasteful of labour since not fully occupied during milking. In USA
second operator required forhandstripping.Selectingnumber ofmilking
units complex matter: for advice consult local agricultural advisory
service.
Cattle handling systems: typical layout
Design of parlour pit for operator should respect ergonomic limitations
of operators. Location of milking jar should not hinderroutine tasks or
obscure viewofcows.
3 Typesofmilkingparlour
abreast
hernngbone
r
I
LI
II
tandem
III
1
chule
tandem
''
300 Industry
Farm buildings
CA1TLE
length'A'
noof
Milking (cont)
Pit depth —(1 )(D) ideally 950 for tall milker, false floor being used for
shortermilkers: compromise depth of750oftenused.
Pit width—.(1 )(C) for2stalls/unit mm 1 515, for 1 stall/unit 1 515 mm for
1 operator and 1 828mm for 2operators.
cows
6
8
10
12
14
Use only high-level jars in pits less than 1 515 mm.
16
Parlour length —e(1)(A) 3050 + 500/rn standing.
20
22
24
18
Rotary pariourdimensions vary between individual manufacturersas well
as with type and number of standing.—n(2) gives guide; use manufacturer'sdata fordetailed design.
Collecting area: before milking cows moved from resting and feeding
area tocollecting areanext milking parlour.Space allowancein collecting
area should be 1.35 m2/cow, but 1.1 m2 usuallyadequate with straight
herringbone parlours where initial batch of cows removed almost
immediately. In rectangular yardswidth usually equal that of parlour.
Cows should enter at farther end so that all movement in 1 direction.
Circular yards make backing gate easier install: usually either full or
three-quarter round. Capacityshould be coordinatedwith size of herd
orgroup. When at grazing in summer herd maybegrouped differently or
not atall.
6050
7050
8050
9050
10050
11050
12050
13050
14050
15050
Dairy: normally attached milking parlour reduce length of pipe runs.
Should be sitedso that rear of milk tanker can be parked within 3000of
door; adequate tanker turning space must be provided.900clear space
should be left all round bulk milk tank(s) (mm 600). Space must be
provided for working and for eqp as required: washing troughs, water
heater, cupboard, cleaning products etc. Ifexpansion of herd may take
place space should beprovided for replacementoftank by largerone, or
installationof second tank. 2600mm ceiling height may be required for
use of tank dipstick. Wide external doorway (2000—2500) with no
astragal should be provided for installationor replacementoftank.
Tank capacity can be calculated by taking av daily yield and adding
40—50% to contain fluctuations and possible future yield increases.
Alternatively, workfromfigures of 181 asdaily yield, to which 20% may
be added to allow forall cows reaching peak yield at same time.
Internal finish of dairy must be smooth and easily cleaned eg walls
cementrendered and paintedwith chlorinated rubber or epoxy paint to
height of at least 1 400; non-slip concrete floor draining to trapped
gulley; rooflinedon underside ofjoistssothatitcanbekept freeof dust
and cobwebs.
Dairy must be lightand airy: windows one-tenth of floor area; opening
windowsorventilators fly-proof; illuminationof 100 lx required. In USA
reg require screened openings; lobbytype entryalso necessaryprevent
flyspraymist contaminatinganimals' feed or utensils.
Motor rm should be separate from dairy, area 3.5—4 m2. Provision for
tractor pto to operate vacuum pump in power emergencies may be
required.
Office to accommodate table, wall charts etc should be sited with clear
viewofparlour and area next to unit. Modern dairy unitshould have wc,
changing rrn and rest rm for staff.
Feeding: concentrate often fed in parlour from automatic dispenser,
oftenfeed stored in loft over parlour. Sometimes bulk bin set outside
and feedstransported to parlourbyauger.
Footbath:provide forfootbathfarenough away from parlourexit prevent
slow flow of cattle leaving parlour. In such situation footbath does not
require to be more than 1 200 wide butto be effective should be at least
3000 in length and have drain outlet. Possiblearrangementof services
in 120-cow dairy unit—*(3).
I
Herring-bonemilkingparlourdimensions
type
tandem
tandem
herringbone
herringbone
abreast
abreast
abreast
numberof standings approxdia (m)
16
12
18
7.6
13.5
7.0
9.2
14
6.1
20
30
7.7
11.4
8
2 Rotary milkingparlours: approxdia
3
Servicesin 120-cowunit
Industry 301
Farm buildings
CAULE
:3
Bull pens
C
Pen can be sitednear collecting areasothat cows ontheirwaytomilking
parlour may see bull. Stockman can thus observe cow behaviour and
look formanifestation of heat' or readinessto mate.
Feeding and watering of bull mustbecarried out from outsidepen. Wall,
gatesand feedersmust beofsubstantialconstruction. Cowservice area
should be incorporated within pen layout. Dry lying areashould slope to
drain, usually raised by 50 from concrete floor and well bedded with
straw or sawdust. Feeder should be provided with strong trapping yoke
to restrain animal for routine veterinary treatment or restriction during
cleaning. Refuge' must be installed ineach corner of pen—.(1). Tethering
ringenables bulltethered independently ofyoke.
Exercising yard (unroofed) oftenprovided next to bull pen (20—35 m2).
Service pen should include foot rests to take weight of heavy bull
especially when used with young heifers. Footrests are 2sloping timber
ramps 225—300 wide, fitted to inside of pen walls. Length of rests
approx1 500, height 530atrear to900 at cow'sshoulder. Typical layout
and dimensions for twin bull pens —n(2).
External wastestorage
1
Slurry sto —ep295 304 requiredfor wastefrom scrapedareas in cubicle
units oras extrasto for slatted units with shallow channels. Slurrysilos or
tanks (above and below ground) lose moisture ony by evaporation.
Dungsteads and middens designed drain off excess liquids and used
for more solid waste, or help solidify semi-solid wastes(not used USA,
where muck collectedbycontractors). Examples—n(3).
Bull pen refuge detail
Dairy cow housing
Examples ofdairyunits—r(4).
2935
2 Bull pens:typical layout&dimensions
4
Dairyunits:typical layouts
lagoon
dependson lagoon
Capacity
310
IT
I
4—
channei\
\
,.f//fl/7
25
/////Z/ZZt7f///Zi/Z/////////
tank
3
spacing
Externalwastesto
ramp
//
flZ/ ///Z.
core
///////// /
/
/110ramp
300
butylsheet
melden
(I)
302 Industry
Farm buildings
Sucklercow housing
CATTLE
Beefcattle housing
Beef cattle normally housed in slatted, bedded or part-bedded pens,
occasionally in cubicles. Linear plans usual, with pens arranged either
side feeding passages. Pen depth determined by ratio of floor space
—np294(5) 295(2) to feed trough length animal —.p297(2). Typicalplans
-a(1).
In some low rainfall areas possible house and fatten cattle in roofless
unitson sheltered sitesorwith sheltered wall. These units have slatted
pens or sometimes cubicles. Slurry sf0 must have additional capacity
for rain falling on unit.
Ifentiremale cattle (bull beef) kept pens must berobust with divisions at
least1 600high: cubicles should notbeused. For safety ofstockmen all
fittings, eg waterbowls, should be accessible from outside pens and
goodanimal handling and loadingarrangements(race (chute) etc) must
be provided: example of bull beef housing —.(2).
NB: beef cattle not normally housed in USA apart from loafing
barns—.(6)
Calf production from suckler cows usuallyrelies onsmall, early maturing
cow,well adaptedsevere environments.Provisionofcalf creep (nursery)
pens (where calves receive food without competition from cows and
rest)major design point of difference fromother formofbeefhousing.
Cows housed in cubicles, bedded pens or slatted pens. In slatted pens
allow 2.5—3 rn2/cow. Cowareas communicate with calf creep pens by
creep gate through which only calvescan pass.Creep pens dimensioned
according avsizeof calf, which depends on calving date—o(3).
Should be visual contact between cows and calves in creep; inspection
of and access to creep pen for supervision, feeding, cleaning waterbowls and mucking out (in bedded pens) should be good. Provide 1
waterdrinkerforevery12 calves.
If cows tocalve indoors, provide separate calvingarea, preferably straw
bedded pen.
Typical arrangements of suckler cow housing—.(4).
Calf housing
General arrangement of calf housing units—.(5).
e
I,
tM14
126
3000
5400
4
I
1....
i,
36
_____
Beef housingunits:typical layouts
1
Vslattedpens
creep
j
'L
I
J
J
J
I
cainp
pen
4 Suckler cow bldg: typical layout
2
Bull beet unit layout
calvingdate
bedded pen
(m2/calf)
slattedcreeppen
(rn/calf)
springcalving
continuouscalving
1.1
1.4
autumn calving
1.7
1.0
1.2
1.4
3 Sizes ofcalf creeppens
385
space
kiI
1f,anei r
6
Loafingbarn
5
Calf housingunits:layout
81
—
tractoraccess
.1•
Industry
303
Farm buildings
Thermalrequirements
Outside thermoneutral range of tempanimals either too hot, or will be
wasting feed keeping warm because too cold. Thermoneutral range of
different classes of pigs depends on level offeeding, type offlooring,
number of pigs/pen and air velocity. —(1) shows ambient air temp
related to 3 floor types, 3 times maintenance level of feeding and air
velocity not exceeding 0.15 m/s.
Thermoneutral zone of sows pregnant for 112 days, live weight of 140
kg undersame conditions as above: 11—25° for thin and 7—25° for fat
animals.
Pigs on low feeding levels should be kept at2—3°C higher airtemp than
thoseon high levels. —*(2) shows relationshipsbetween feed,floorand
mm airtempfor65 kg pigs.
Thermalinsulation—p393—4
Animal dimensions
—°(3) givesbodydimensions ofdifferent classes ofpigs.
Behaviour:buildingimplication
Eliminatory: pigs defecate in discriminatory fashion,iewithin selected
area usually determinedby location of water drinkers —p304. Every pig
tends defecate in own area within eliminatory zone. Important allow
enough space ineliminatory zone, sothat atleast3pigs maydefecate at
same time. Should less space be given likelythat some excreta will be
deposited elsewhere, eqin lying orfeeding area.
Sexual: newly weaned sows should be housed near boar in orderto
encourage sexual behaviour. Partition between sows and boar should
be perforated, allowing visual and bodily contact.
Resting, eating & general movements: piglets spend approx 10—
20% of time suckling (15—25 times/day). Fattening pigs on dry ad/lb
rations spend 5% of time feeding (8—12 times/day). On wet feeding
only 3% of time spent at trough (4—8 times/day). In general fatteners
(75 kg) would spend 80—85%of time lying, 15—17% moving about in
pen, 3—5%eating.
Abnormal behaviour: aggression amongst growing pigs manifested
bytailand earbiting, sometimescannibalism.Savagingmore predominant
among adult sows. Bldg designer can influence behaviour pattern by
changes in stocking rate, group size or housing systems. Abnormal
behaviour can be also caused by nutritional factors, genetic susceptibility, disease states, teething problems etc.
floor type
thermoneutralrange(°C) forvarious live
weights(kg)
concrete
perforated
bedded
34—5
31—5
30—5
1.5
20
17—30
16—30
10—30
40
60
age atfirst parturition
litters/sow/year
number/litter born alive
number/litter at 3 weeks
avweightof piglet at 3 weeks
number ofpigletsstillalive at 8 weeks
avweightat 8 weeks
total weight ofweaned pigs/sow/year
farrowing index = daysbetween birth of 1 litter & next
limit to larrowing index
national avof farrowing index
10% ofUK producers with farrowing index
length of lactation = anytime upto85 days
403days
2.0
10.5
9.0
5.9 kg
8.7
18.2 kg
300kg
133 days
195 days
230 days
pigsfattened as
40—90 kg
porkers
baconers
90 kg
heavy hogs 120kg; USA 147—180 kg
Illumination
Keep pigs in dim light: but at least 5 lux —4p25 should be provided for
management and servicing tasks.
Feeding systems
Pig can be fed wet or dry meal either in ad/lb or rationed form. Typical
systems shown in following scheme:
,bags—hoppers---trough
ry m wheelbarrow—+handscoop—trough
automatic conveyor—÷hoppers-—trough
"automatic conveyor—+hopper/dispenser-—*floor
Trough-{
1automaticpiped—*trough
tank—.trough
meaLm0be
closecircuit communaltrough
"(river feeding)
ea\
/
et
\
Waterconsumption
Adequate supplies of fresh water should be available at all times.
Following waterallowances should begiven:
Growing pigs
il/dayat15kg liveweightincreasingto51/dayat
90 kg liveweight
sows non-pregnant 51/day
sowspregnant
5—8 I/day
sows lactating
15—201/day
2 days sto ofwatershould be providedto ensure continuity ofsupply in
emergencies.
animal
1(m)
w(m) h(m) rumpto
approx
weight(kg)
breed
shoulder(m)
100
boar
1.95
0.32
0.85
1.1
135
Iargewhite
13—29
13—29
11—29
12—29
10—28
11—28
sow
1.5
0.75
0.85
1.1
135
landrace
1.85
0.35
0.4
1.2
158
largewhite
7—29
5—29
4—28
fattener
1.28
0.3
0.7
0.95
77
largewhite
weaner
0.9
0.2
0.42
0.7
50
0.72
0.17
0.33
0.58
40
largewhite
13 weeksold
argewhite
11 weeksold
0.4
0.09
0.22
0.23
1 Thermoneutralzoneofpigs
piglet
3
2
:3
Pig husbandrydata-check list:
PIGS: BASIC DATA
Feed—floor —airtemprelationships for65kgpig
Approx pig sizes
2.5
7daysold
a(n
304 Industry
Farm buildings
but also sawdust, peat, woodshavings etc, to faeces and urine. In
general housing systems based on solid waste (farmyard manure)
demand more labour for bedding tasks but no problems should occur
where access, sto areaand run offdrain properly designed.
PIGS: BASICDATA (cant)
Watering
Forvarious typesof drinkers and theirrespective water wastage—*(1).
There should be 2 drinkers/pen in case 1 gets blocked. In general 1
drinker/6 pigs required. Bowl type drinkers should be sited where
Bedded systems
Straw bedding oftenused for pregnant sows (1.0 kg/day), boars and
weaners (500 g/day)
Bedded pensshould be at least3000wide.All internal partitionsshould
be removable to allow tractor access for mucking out.
Floors should be sloped 1:20 towards drain leading to sumpat side of
bldg accessible for slurrytanker.
Some bedded unitshave chain and paddle manure conveyor including
loading elevator at one gable end. Manure removed twiceweeklyinto
muck spreader and then tofieldsor sto(not usualinUSA).
faeces contaminationminimised.Pig-operatedflapscan be used prevent
contamination.
Variation on trough drinker sometimes used: 50—75 pvc pipe set in
raised concrete floor and top cut open, discharging water into shaped
concrete within concrete floor: water supply controlled with ballcock
valvelocated atbeginning of line.
PIGS: WASTE
Wasteproduction
Slurrysystems
Pigs fed dry meal with adfib water produce quantities ofwaste asgiven
Pigs housed on perforated floors, eg slats, expanded metal ormesh; or
dunging area onlyeither perforated orregularly scraped toholding tank.
Faeces and urinestored inchannels below perforated floors. Channels
emptied eithercontinuously oronce in 3months intoexternal slurrysto.
Channels emptied periodically have sluice gateand receiving pit.
Flushing system where liquid fraction of slurry pumped into tipping
buckets holding several hundred I sometimes used. Flowremoves solid
faeces and feed residuals intoexternal sto. Some slurrychannels have
sump at end directly emptied with vacuum tanker. This system not
recommended as oftendifficult remove solid sedimented at far end of
channel. Continuous emptying ofslurry channels intoexternal storelies
on hydrostatic pressure gradient which causes slurryto slide over lip
into pit. Only narrow (1 000) channels not longer than 20 m should be
used. Depth determined fromequation given —(4).
Wastehandlingsystems
Typicalsystems —(3).
Solidwastes produced byadditions of bedding material, usually straw,
type ofdrinker
% of waterwastage
indirectnipple (bite type)
directlyoperatednipple
bowl
46
56
6
12
trough
animal
live
weight
kg
15
piglet
weaner
growing—finishing
growing—finishing
boar
Waterwastageof
drinkers
waste
produced
kg/day
1.04
1.9
30
70
90
4.4
5.8
4.03
125
170
160
drysow
sow&litter
1
2
Waste (urine &
faeces)producedby
pigs
14.9
4.9
4
Continuousoverflowslurrychannel
y
1
6
1
2
2
2
1
2
2
2
38 1
1:
51 22 <
slurry handlingsystem
lending
system
I
a
I
c
b
d
e
I
g
S
3
7(Th
24
40
15
I
feeders Illliquidfeedingfronr
fendingsystems: dry feedingon floor IIdryfeecting fromautomatic
trough&bowls dry feedingfrombowls Vdry feeditrg fromtroughs
iv
3
Typicalwastehandling &feedingsystems
manureremovalsystems a partfyslattedIloor overslurry channelbdoabledungnigpassages
with sohdfloors ccentraidungung passagewithsolidfloor dservicepassageovercentralscraper
channel epartlyslattedfloor(gaps:251 overcentralscraperchannel partlyslattedfloor (gaps:
25>over sidescraperchamels 9partlyslatted floor (ranied 100>oversidechannels hpartly slatted
fkjor(raised 100>over centralscraperchanrid
I
Industry 305
Farm buildings
Sow & boarhousing
PIGS: MANAGEMENT
Ventilation
Forced orfan ventilation should be designed according to mm and max
ventilation rate required, inlet air speed and subsequent air jet and air
distribution pattern withinbldg. Free airoutput offans can be found from
manufacturers' data sheets. Allowance should be made for resistance
of ventilation ducts, usually 0.5—0.7 of their free air output. Inlet air
speed or jets can be used to determine air movement within house:
specialised technique and assistanceofspecialist should be sought.
Pressurised systems usually blow air into roof space and use false
ceiling ofglassfibresupported on netting foreven distribution ofair. Air
outlet often below slat level thus removing most air pollutants. In air
extraction systems fans housed in central shafts terminating above
apex or alternatively in side walls suitably baffled and terminated in
neutral pressure area to minimise effect of wind. Location, area and
numberof air inletswill determine air distribution and air velocities in
bldg. Manufacturersoffans who specialisein animal housingapplications
oftenprovide design assistance.
ventilation rateshould be0.000052 m3/s per kg liveweight, summer
ventilation rate 0.0003 12 m3/s per kg of live weight. Max airvelocity at
pig level to be 150—200rn/s.
Mm
—(3)(4) showexamples ofdry sow housing and service bldg.
Sow stalls:
w: 600—650 (if divisions open to 150 above floor level) or 700—750 (if
divisions solid fromfloorlevel)
I: 2000, with orwithout trough according todesign
h: 900
gate forentryand exit ofsow: usuallyat rear
floor:rear halfusually slatted.
Boarpens:
should extend to at least9 m2; 1 side of pen should be approx 2500
long; divisions should bevertical tubular railing 1 400 high, allowingboar
observe other animals and general activities within bldg; vertical
arrangement of railing prevents boars from climbing and jumping on to
divisions.
Farrowing:
—a(5) shows farrowing crate and creep area for piglets. Function of
farrowing crate prevent piglets from getting injured orcrushed bysow.
Creep for piglets ofupto5weeks ofage should be 1.3m2 mm and from
5 to 8 weeks 1.75 m2. Mostof farrowing accn designed for weaning of
piglets at5weeks ofage. Approx 1.0m2ofcreep areashould beheated.
Farrowing house —*(6).
Withnatural ventilation systems air inlet area should betwice as largeas
air outletarea. Air outletcan be either open ridgeor several chimneytypeextractors withflatcapping. Air enters through baffled inlets round
wall, at least 1 000 above pigs. Ventilation extraction area should be
3.6 cm2/kg live weight. Air inlet area should be 7.2 cm2/kg live weight.
Typical ventilation systems—(1).
Handling
Pigs, particularly fatteners, regularly weighed, usually by mobile crate/
weigherin feed passage. Some arrangements have permanentservice
area for weighing, cleansingand veterinary tasks with holding area. Pig
movement should be controllableby 1 man.
I
Pigs canwalkthrough 600 widepassage.With 700 baconerswill be able
turnaround. Mature sows and boars require 1250—1 450wide passages
to turn round. Corners should be wider (900).Wherever pigs, particularly
sows, required reverse round corners passageshould be increased by
300—.(2).
For loading and unloading into animal road transporters provide ramp
(1:7) with battens or deepgrooves toprevent slipping.
30.5
3500
250
4
I
r
Dry sow housewith boarpens&food sto
0
3
heated
Cr]_,
ii
LJ
1
600
950
U
Typicalventilationsystemsforpig housingunits
j
1200
2750
5
Fan-owing pens:dimensions&layout
I
I
-•
JiHHI
HI iii
HI
I
11.6
ih111I
4200
1450
2 wofpassagesforsows
3
Drysow housewithboarpens
6
Farrowinghouse
11.6
C
(I)
306
Industry
Farm buildings
liveweightkg
totalarm2 daily consumption of beddingkg
10—30
30—90
0.75
Group size & pen shape
0.3
0.5
1.2
11
sows
PIGS: REARING& FATTENING
2.5
Formation of stable social hierarchydesirable. Fattenerson ad/lb floor
feeding should be kept in groupsof 15—20. Pigs lying down should
coverfloor area, so that excreta will be deposited elsewhere (dunging
area). With part-solid, part-slattedfloors, pen should be twice as long as
widewithapprox900 wide slatted dunging area.
Individualspaceallowances &strawconsumption
1
08
c
Troughspace
B
07
O
o
0, 04
6
2
..
— .—. .—-..-D
.—- .—..
-_
—..
—-
.—
-.....
03
.... —.
02
.—
.—
Trough space/pig for ad lib feeding should be 100 and for rationed
feeding300.
Spatial requirements
—.(1) shows individual space allowances for bedded systems, ie total
floor areadividedbynumber ofanimals occupying it;—.(2)shows space
allowances for systems with solidfloorand slatted dunging area.
—.(3)(4)showexamples of rearing and fattening houses.
,
01
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
00 110 20 130 140 (kg)
IveweiglrI
coverage 01 floor
A oplimuni tourcoverageby 5019pigsitattenersi12-18 caIrtemp. B loose
aboveabove26 c
c& duringsummertempup1026c
0:floorcoveragebelow 12 c
12—18
ett
c floorcoveragedurrngtemp
note dunqlngarentraat0 15—02 rn'/pg
2
I
Spaceallowancesforfatteningpigs
a
1
___k1
leedpassage
I
200k
1800
1000
l500
1800
000 j)
00
.
01L
3000
2O0,
[IHili
1100 1100 1200
1200
3
Rearingaccn
4
__L20
__
tng
4
wallsto
_— ceIlIng --.-,
Fatteninghouseforpigs
ar
_________
6000
4900
________
6000
an
Outlet
Industry 307
Farm buildings
SHEEP
Feeding
Housing ofsheep prevents poachingofland, allows better management
and labour use, can lead toincreased stocking rate on land, may release
pasture for cropping and can reduce lamb mortality during lambing
period.These potential benefits are offsetby high cost of housing as
well as costof providing additionalfeed.
Space requirements
Individual floor space allowances forsheep —v(1).
Solid floor
Sheephoused on bedded floor seem to have more foottroubles than
those kept on timber slatted floors. Solid floor should be well drained
consolidated hardcore with 150 ofstraw.
Hayracks and concentrate troughs required. —v(3) shows recommended trough length. Simplewooden trough with hayrack —÷(4)
sufficient.
Water
Sheep prefer running fresh water. This can be provided by trough
equipped with overflow to drain: 600 x 300 water trough surface
sufficientfor up to80ewes.
Ventilation
Natural ventilation system based on 450 open ridge and 1200 deep
spaceboarding with 100 boards and 25 gaps satisfactory. Sheep in
open-fronted bldg can be protected bystraw bales.
Illumination
Slatted floor
Pressure treated timber slats rangefrom63 x 32to38 x 25with 20gap
forlarger sheep and 16gap forsmallerbreeds. Slatsusually arrangedin
removable floorsections 1200 x 2400. Slattedpanelscanbesupported
on dry blocks for easy removal and so allow easy tractor access for
mucking out. Floor panel joists 75 x 50should besplayed foreasierself
cleaning and set at 450 centres. Depth of500 issufficient for 1 housing
season waste sf0.
Illumination of20 lx—.vp25 required during lambingperiod.
Feedstorage
Feed sto area at gable end or close by should be provided to minimise
handling time.
Sheep housing
Example ofslatted pole barn type sheephouse for 320 ewes—v(5).
Layout
Ewes preferlamb in groups rather than individual pens. Creep area for
lambs after lambing can be provided. Feeding should be carried out in
pen passages. —v(2) shows 2typical layouts.
spaceallotment
type
largeewe (68—70kg)
largeewe&lamb
smallewe (45—69kg)
smallewe&lamb
ewe hogg
(m2)
slatted floor
solid floor
0.95—1.1
1.2—1.7
0.75—0.95
1.0—1.4
0.45—0.75
1.2—1.4
1.4—1.85
1.0—1.3
1.3—1.75
0.65—0.95
Floor spaceforsheep
1
4
Dutchbarn
Troughforfeeding
hay&concentrate
polebarn
675
.1'
slaa
spaceboarding
ding
9500
1600
i
—
frOugh
a
— I
I
//
I
individualpens
2
Typicallayoutsforsheephousing
typeofsheep
trough1*
largeewes
smallewes
475—500
375—425
350—400
hoggs
4800
1200
1
L
4800
4800
21.6
*
onself-feed silage100—250
adequate for allsheep
3
Recommendedtrough I
5
Slattedpolebarn sheephousefor320 ewes
12
4
308
Industry
Farm buildings
SHEEP (cont)
j
46O
5000
900
1staggeredshedding(spieer)gates
[th
deco
--_________
8
anti-wavegroove
thu1?ifi
3bath
controlisland
ft
-Jllffii
—
dimensions
0
E
F
A
B
C
0
610 1168 381 2743 1219 305
686 1168 381 2743 1219 305
686 1245 381 3200 1372 229
955
1090
1365
Sheep handling
Sheepshedder
Handling eqp usually constructed from 950 high, 125 x 125 timber
posts set at 1 500 centres with either complete dressed boarded sides
or4 x 100 wide timberrails. Should consist of following:
(splitter)
1800 2100
appros
capacityQ)
2
1
holdingpen: spaceallowance/eweand lamb 0.65 m2
shedder (splitter): width 460 and length 3000—5000; should have 2
A
staggered gates —v(1).
Sheep dip
Sheep dip bath and swim-around dipper often used when sheep enter
bath on side-slideprinciple and walkout on ramp. —v(2) shows dimensionsand layout of such dips.
Drainingpen
2draining pens required side by side with shedding entryand guillotine
exit gates —v(3).
Forcingpen
2 forcing pens or circular pen leading to dip with exit shedder gate
Sheepdip
required. Forcing pen usually8000 long and 900 wide with solid sides.
6700
Footbath race(trough)
Footbath race should be 10—12 m long, 900 wide at top and 350 wide at
bottom —v(4).
Typical layout for handling 200 ewes and lambs —a(S).
3
4
Sheepdrainingpen
/
-I
/_
drattingpen
pens
taading pen
race& tootbath
holdingpes
5
Sheepfootbathrace
-
Typicalsheephandling layout
POULTRYHOUSING
Poultry houses should be well insulated (0.6 W/m2°C), equipped with
fan ventilation, feeding,watering and mechanicalwasteremovalsystems.
Deeplifterhouses suitable foralldomestic fowl. Layers normally kept in
cages. .—a(6)shows typical designs for poultry houses.
Light requirements
Light levels of 0—20 lx —ap25 required; for most poultry control eqp for
manipulation of artificialday length required.
Ventilationrates
category
pertorated
f
6
-7600
pullets&hens
1.2
2.5
3.5
broilers
0.05
0.9
1.8
tkrorhosse
22
Typicaldesignsofpoultryhouses
turkeys
tan
naturalventilation eatractventilationsystem
gabletan
pertorated pvcdad
pentorated cmimg
_1'"<11_ .t"lii(k
orate __________ __________ outlet
7
Typicalventilationsystems, poultryhouses
weight max rate mm rate
nit/h bird rr?/h bird
kg
0.5
2.0
5.0
11.0
10
14
15
0.8—1.3
1.5
2
0.1
0.8
10
14
12
6
12
15
27
0.7
1.7
12
1.5
2.7
Ventilation systems &controls
Poultry house ventilation systems consist of light-prooted airinlets, air
distribution, outlets, fans and controlgear.—a(7) shows typical ventilation
arrangements.
Industry
309
Farm buildings
POULTRY
Space requirements: hens
a-
deeplitter
0)
system
density(live weightper unitof
floor ar)
qualifications
rearing birdsfor laying
(age 16—20 weeks)
19.5kg/rn2
floor artoincludethat occupied
byfeeding&wateringeqp
upto3.2kg liveweight
over 3.2 kg live weight
14.7kg/rn21
17.1 kg/rn2J
floor artoincludethat occupied
byfeeding&wateringeqp
broilerproduction units
34.2 kg/rn2
floorartoincludethat occupied
byfeeding&wateringeqp
system
density(liveweightper unitof
floor ar)
qualifications
rearingbirdsfor laying
39.1 kg/rn2
densityrelates to cage floor ar
adult batterybirds
3or more lightweightbirds/cage
3or more heavierbirds/cage
2birds/cage
singlebird cages
39.1 kg/rn2
44 kg/rn2
29.3 kg/rn2
19.5kg/rn2
densitiesrelateto cagefloor ar:
rnintroughspace 100/bird
system
density(liveweightper unitof
floor ar)
qualifications
rearingbirds forlaying
9.8 kg/rn2
floorarto includethatoccupied
byfeeding& watering eqp
layingbirds
8.3 kg/rn2
floorarto includethatoccupied
byfeeding& watering eqp
laying birds
cages
strawyards
Space requirements: turkeys
rearing
system
density(liveweightper unitof
floor ar)
qualifications
broiler-typehousing
39.1 kg/rn2
floorartoincludeany aroccupied
byfeeding&wateringeqp
tierbrooders
19.5kg/rn2
carry-oncages, hayboxes
raisedonwire orslats,
34.2 kg/rn2
verandahs
pole barns
24.4 kg/rn2
enclosedrange ar
10m2/bird (987birds/ha)
floorartoincludeany aroccupied
byfeeding&watering eqp
breeding
density(liveweightper unit of
floor ar)
system
on floors
hens kept for insemination, hens 19.5kg/rn2
&maleskept togetherfor natural
mating
maleskeptforartificial
qualifications
floor arto excludeanyfloor nest
boxesbutto includeallothereqp
0.84 rn2/bird
insemination
in cages
29.3 kg/rn2
0.84 rn2/bird
hens
males
in enclosed
range ar
16.7 rn2/bird (617 birds/ha)
hensshouldbe housed
individually
310 Industry
Farm buildings
SMALLDOMESTICANIMALS:DOVES
hayracksshould notexceed 20.Metal orceramictroughs used forwater
and grain concentrate: should be fixedto prevent overturning. Trough
Specification
frontage 50—60/rabbitsufficient.
space requirements 0.4—0.5m2/pair
dry and clean
protected fromexcessive sunshine, windand rain
safe from predators
demountable forcleaning
goodaccess for keeper
Pens
Location
Fur rabbits often kept in pens (2 m2/pair) constructed fromgalvanised
netting —÷(3). Side netting should be sunk about500 belowground level
to prevent rabbits from burrowing out. Pens should have sidesabout
600 high and be covered over with netting. At 1 corner of pen box
consisting of 2 compartmentsforfeeding and nesting.In some instances
penscan beraised 800above ground.
on SE-E facing wall, usually underprojecting eaves behind perimeter
walland in roofspaces.
DOGS
Construction
Dressed T&G boardingwith waterproofroof, internally2compartments,
40 wide top for
roosting. Floor level 100 below entrance to prevent young fromfalling
out. —(1) shows layout and dimensions ofdovecots.
1 with nest. Partition between compartments with
RABBITS
Spacerequirements
breed
spacear
small
medium
0.56
0.72
large
1.2
Domestic kennels should be roomy enough allow dog stand upand turn
round. Construction usually dressed timberwith waterproofroofing, eg
roofing felt. Kennel should be demountable for easy cleaning. Floor
should be raised 60—100 above ground level, often bedded with straw
or wood shavings. Floor and roof can project in front of entrance,
forming sheltered lying area. —.(4) shows typical design for medium
sizedog.
Professionalkennels—*p31 1
SMALL POULTRYHOUSES
hofcage
Poultry houses for layers should be situated in sheltered locations
surrounded by fenced area allowing 15—20 m2/layer.
500
550
650
Design ofcages
Depth should be 800 for easy cleaning or catching rabbits. Cages
usually arranged in 3tiers, raised fromground level by 150. Single tier
cages should be800above ground level. Height oftop floorshould not
exceed 1600. Floorshould beslattedwithtimberslats,30wide with 10gap:
waste collected on sloped floor underneath, urine stored in collecting
tank or bucket. —(2) shows details of 2-tier rabbit cages. Cages for
nesting should have front half of floor area solid. Frame and walls of
rabbit cages usually dressed timberprotected with timber preservative.
Felted roofshould have good overhangsforweatherand sun protection.
Feeders & waterdrinkers
Hay racks with small trough below usually fixed on front gates but
should not occupymore than 1/3 of gate area to maintain good lighting
and ventilation. To prevent young escaping gaps between wiresand
Internal space of 1 m2 sufficient for 3—4 layers. Volume of 0.65 m3
should beprovided per hen, with at least200 oflinear space on roosting
rail. Rail should besituated about 1 600 high with gaps between rails of
400. Below roosting rail is waste collecting board which is periodically
cleaned. Nests should be 300 wide and 350 deep; often located in
groups along wall. Nests bedded with straw; if production
control required, folding, self-trapping flapsfitted tonests
Feeders &waterdrinkers
Hoppers or feedingtroughs with wire above trough to prevent hens
defecating into feed. Drinkers usually heavy containers 400 high with
rail round.
Construction
Hen houses oftentimber-built with felted roof and resting on concrete
base with DPC throughout. Structure should be insulated; provide
proper opening for air inlet and outlet for natural ventilation. Typical
layout and dimensions ofsmall poultry house —.(5).
.—\
k
i
hay
'IS
II
_______
________
S
j
2000
550
______
Ji,
1000
hay
Layoutofdovecots
Ing
art)
I
Li
4
td
850
Dog kennels
840
4
L_J°°
1
1000
3
2 Tierrabbitcages
f
sheltered
______
I
__j
bed
S Smallpoultryhouse
pen
water
Furrabbitcages
Industry
311
Farm buildings
KENNELS
concreteblock
Professional kennels include sleeping quarters in conjunction with
adequate exercise runs. Area of individual runs varies according to
breedand size of dog.
Where individual independentdog housesused in each run construction
should be wood with demountable roof (centre-hinged if large) for
sanitary purposes. Floor should bewood mm 75 above ground with full
ventilation between ground and floor. Burlap bags provide washable
bedding and may be stuffed with cedar wood shavings for severe
weather protection. Dog house entrance should be baffled against
directwind draughts and driving rain, snow.
Kennels with common shelter bldg, perhaps incorporating grooming
and minor med services can be constructed economically of concrete
blockwith poured concrete floor, which should be sloped to gutter and
drain, providing easy wash down. Wood pallets with loose washable
rugs serve as beds in eachenclosure—n(1 )(2).
Fencing for exercise runs mm 1680 high should be fully fenced across
top unless sides 8440 high. Gravelsurfacepreferedforruns but concrete
more easilymaintained and offers better sanitation. All exercise runs
should have full man gate with patentedkennel hardware. Mm run 1 070
wide and 3050 long. Food and water dishes stainless seamless steel
mounted on runfencing with steel bands.
_______
}(}4
.
run
fUfl
1220
run
run run
t
run
run
•
tredraln
gutter
__________________________________________________________
Layoutplanofkennelswithcommonshelterbldg
;IH
__________________________
___________________________
4__
Lj4I
2 Kennelswith commonshelterbldg aelevation
bsection
7000
1L
°hy
— '
workbench
DUCKS
§
]
______
I
_______
Sb
ru
extrac/_lJ
_______________
__________________________________________________________
3 Layoutofsto&honeyprocessing rmforup to 100 beecolonies
__________________________________________________________
i
GEESE
Design similar to houses forducks: space allowance of 0.4 m2/goose
required. Floor should be sloped to drain, damp-proofed and lightly
bedded. Nests should be 600 x 650 and nest partitions 300 high.
Entrance should be 500 x 500 equipped with doors orcurtain. Layout
and dimensions of goose house for 30 geese or 3 geese and young
run
I
concretewalk
honeynpening
&bottling
x
run
..
* ittgatesoperatebyinteriormechanism
Example of timberbeehouse set on stoneor concrete foundations for
small bee-keeper —(4). Beehouse could be insulated for operator
comfort.
Ducks sleep on floorswhichshould be dryand sloped todrain foreasy
cleaning. Floor should be damp-proofed, lightly bedded with straw and
open drain covered with timber slats 40 wide with 20 gaps. Space
allowance of 1 m2 required for 3—4 ducks: 1 duckhouse should house
nomore than 20ducks and 4drakes. Entranceintohouse should be300
wide and 400 high. Ducks must have accessto water. Nests should be
450 450 with 300 high partitions and placedonfloorwith no bottom so
that ducks do not damage eggs as they enter nest. Good natural
ventilation and lighting required. Water trough should be located near
slatted drain. Structure maybe insulated.Typical layoutand dimensions
of duck house—n(S).
fioorriraunU
!
Iift
_____
Though bees normally kept in hives beehouses equipped with sto and
honey extraction and bottling rm sometimes constructed. In general 30
and more bee colonies would justify provision of sto and processing
area. Sto area3000 x 4000should benext tocovered loadingentrance
or patio. Honey processing area (6000 x 7000) should have outside
door. Layoutofworksurfaces—n(3).
4
2700
6300
—/
I
I
I
nests
I
I
3000
5
JlOOO
2300
Beehotisefor20beecolonies
sleepingar
Housefor30geese
LI IT[1d09
gutter
BEEHOUSES
6
sto I
I
Housefor20ducks
—
312 Industry
Farm buildings: crop storage
GRASS
Towersilos
Glass coated steelorconcrete,hermeticallysealed sto torshortchopped
(10—12) wilted grass (35—50% moisture content). Rapid tilling and
emptying possible using blower-loader, cutter unloader, auger and
delivery conveyor belt. Av density ot silage 1.2 m3/t. Estimated losses
10—15%. Silo dimensions vary from 5500—9000 dia and 12 to 21 m
height. Site requirements: adequate soil load-bearing capacity, space
for dump-box, access for tilling and turning of tractors, trailers and
elevator loaders. Animal handling, feeding and waste removal should
not be affected by tower filling operating. Space for future expansion
may berequired.
Clamp silos
Usually openconcrete pools withdrainage ofslurry liquor topitholding
150 I/f of silage. Walls capable of withstanding lateral pressures of
unwilted shortorlong cutgrass. Lateralwallsofrailwaysleepers (orties)
held by vertical steel shores or columns, mass reinforced concrete or
sloped timber. Detailed designs should be by structural engineer. Cut
grass deposited onconcrete apron stackedwith tractor mountedloaders
and compacted by tractor: compacted density 1.1 m3/t. Silage depth
2000for self-fed cattle upto3500fortractor cut-and-cart to cattle.—u(1)
shows examples ofopenclamp and towersilos.
STRAW
Baled straw avvolume 1.4m3/t; bales 1 000 x 600 x 500 weight 22—27
kg.Simple open-sided Dutch barns with dry floors positioned near
livestock bldg with vehicular access adequate. Sometimes bale stacks
orroundbig bales leftoutside. Loosestraw can be blown into barnswith
space-boarded open sides. Mechanisation of handling difficult: av
volume of loose straw 23 m3/t.
taneous combustion. Mechanisation of hay feeding difficult unless
chopped, driedand ted as processed teed with other components of
ration.
Barndrying: cold or hot air reducing moisture to 20% used to ensure
good quality hay during rainy weather. Hay in bales or blown loose
stacked on wooden slats ormesh over main and lateralair ducts (600 x
800). Overall height ofdriedhayupto 3500in barnswith space boarded
sides.
POTATOES
Bulk store
Bldg usually portal frame, 4800toeaves, insulatedto 0.5W/m2 °C with
thrust-resistant wallsforbulk sto. Concrete floor with DPCstrong enough
support heavy vehicles; doors normally sliding, insulated (4500 x
4500) with personnel door. Ventilation system based on under-floor
lateral ducts(350 x 350) at2000centres running at right angles to main
air ducts. 75thick spaced timber slats used to coverducts. Surface 'A'
frameducts cheaper but inconvenientduring unloading.Fanstosupply
air flow of0.02 m3/s pert stored including mixing chamber for recirculation and thermostatic control system required. Bulk sf0 volume 1.5
m3/t; height up to4000.
Pallet box store
Suitable for sf0 of different
lots, varieties or seed crop potatoes. If
potatoes harvested directintoboxes less handlingdamage totubers.
Bldg specification similar bulk sf0 but6000hightoeaves and of narrower
span. Because nothrust on walls, timber frames and panels oftenused.
Ventilation based onfloor level ducts forair distribution and extractfans
located at 1 gable end opposite air intakefan. Recirculation duct required
to maintainair recirculationduring periods oflowventilation rate: usually
of plywood suspended from ridge, fitted with adjustable apertures.
Ventilation rate of 0.01 m3/s per stored adequate. Pallet box 1 200 x
1 800 x 900deepwill hold
Boxes often stacked 6deep. Allow 3000
freefloorspace at 1 gable end.
it.
HAY
Bale sizessimilarto straw. Av volume 9 m3/t; loose hay 12 m3/t. Dutch
barn or pvc heavy duty sheeting required protect hay from rain. Good
ventilation and moisture content below 2S% required prevent spon-
..eutemaichute
f
Goodsf0 management required to minimise:
bacterial rot& loss of colour
moisture loss
loss due tosprouting
loss ofcooking qualify, and
to prevent frostdamage
—u(2) shows examples of bldg forbulkand pallet methods of sf0.
topcutter—auger
recircuiation
unioader
conveyorbeft
§
j .11
biower
ioad
:
1
E
8
0
Ca
".>_siiaeiiuortank
tO—40m
TI
1
Tower &openclampsilos
I
1
I
2
Bulk &pallet boxpotatosf0 bldg
4i2.O
+
Industry
313
Farm buildings: crop storage
GRAIN
top
[conveyor
lop
conveyor
evator
I
I
elevatoi
L_
—
1 1
—r
outlets
-,
--
[T
n
portabie
augerin
tube
S
h1
_______________________
bottom
conveyor(in trench:binoutletsover)
longitudinalsections
(alternativegrainflow)
top conveyorwith outletstoeachbin
trench
squarebins
square bins
Layoutsforgrainsto bins
nomial mm
3000x3000
,
4500 high; slotted metal floor over
plenum chamber approx600 deep (special slots canblowairtoliftgrain
withoutmanual workintobottom conveyor)connected tofan rm(eloroil
fired) by airduct, usually combined with bottom conveyor. Some circular
bins have perforated sidesand central plenum vertical duct of < 1 000
dia —v(3).
(ii) predrying: mostly by continuous floworbatch driers (el or oilfired)
for < 10 t/hr. Former may need 10000 x 3000 x 2500 high plus
perimeter access and Iatter3000 x 2500 x 4000 high. Intakepit—v(4)
(from bulk tanker truck) slopes to elevatorwhich raises wet grainto drier
(possibly through pre-cleaner) and/or to sto. Work space for drierand
eqp may need 80—lOOm2. Elevator will need 2000abovetop conveyor,
probably as penthouse (vented). Driers need dust extract pipe(s); intake
doors should be 3500 x 4500high.
(iii) refrigerated: betterquality ifgrain kept at 4.4cCbymeansofcoldair
blown through bulk or bin sf0. Most layouts similar to warm airdrying:
some have lateralducts at 3000centreswith external mobile refrigerator/
blower connected to each in turn.
—v(2) (more normally predried)
i)
trench
blower-auger or overhead conveyor and emptied by portable auger;
uninsulated roof; small gable vents; artificial lighting; doors 3700 x
3700.
(ii) bins: (mostly for small quantities orvery mechanised units) —(1),
square or circular thrust-resistant steel ortimbersides seton3500grid
and 3800 high; usually bins support roof; filled byconveyor under ridge,
emptied by gravity and shovel into below ground conveyor or by floor
sloped at35°.
(iii) hermetically sealed bins: using glass-fused steel or reinforced
9 dia x 12 m
plastics rings for wet grainof 25% moisture content;
high (sometimes 18 m); reinforced waterproof concrete base; filled by
blower throughtop dome, emptied by bottom outletauger.
Drying
(i) insitu: forbulk, in principle generally asforpotatoes —vp3l 2; for bins
bottomconveyorin trenchorlunne
crosssections(binsmay nothavesloped floors)
circularbins
Sto: wheat 13, barley 14, oats 2 m3/t.
(i) bulk: withinthrust-resistant walls, usually steel, approx 2500 high,
plus asbestos-cement sheets to eaves 1 200; waterproof floor, with
grain coned upat30°to centre ofbldg; normal spans 14—18 m; filledby
normalmax
4575x3800
asbestosi
roof
3 Grain drying&sto: radialflowbins inbarn
2 Grain drying&sto: nestof binswith roof: section
4
Intakepit
c(I)
314 Industry
Farm buildings
MACHINERY& IMPLEMENT STORAGE
Circulationroundstationery machines
automotive machinery space allowanceto side 1000
"
"
toside 600
high machinery
low machinery
all machinery
all machinery
"
"
"
"
"
toside
tofront
to rear
Machinerysheds
Open-fronted shedsadequatefor simple implement sto. Tractor, combineharvester and self-propelled machineryrequiring some daily maintenance should be kept in sheds equipped with sliding door, el light,
watersource and preterably concrete floor.
500
500
500
Workshop
Static space requirements offarmmachinery
description
h
w
I
tractor
2600—3000
1 400
1 800
1800
3200
2200
2200
2300
3500
2500
4000—6000
trailer
manurespreader
crawler
combineharvester
truck
slurry spreader
baler
drill
mountedplough
disc harrows/roller
hayturner
2300
4000
2900
2200
2600
2000
1 800
2800
3200
1 200
1 400
800
1200
4300
2800
5500
3800
9500
8600
3600
6000
2800
2400
2400
2500
Fully enclosed, insulated bldg 4000 to eaves, equipped with sliding
door, watersource, el light and power points, forge with chimney or
point torel forge, operating pitwith gantry beamover, racks abovework
benches. Outside concreted drained turning area and floodlight
Fuel store
Oil-tanks to workshop
and turning area, raised on concrete walls to
allow gravity filling ot machinery. Catchpit holding content of tanks
desirable. Fuel stored in separate sf0 complying with conditions of reg
and codes—*(1) shows example ofmachinery shed and workshop.
concreted
turningar
1
Stofortractor & implements with workshop
Farmbuildings references:
—÷Bibliographyentries 108115118137288325333334335340341 347
348351 352 356357358359360363364365 415 582 589 601 646
Leisure
315
Sport
STADIA:GENERALDESIGN
CD
Sportsdata on following pages compiled with
help ofBritishSports Council TechnicalUnit for
C')
Sport: basic technicalinformationgathered from
governing bodies ofsports and gamescovered.
CD
C
Activities divided into 3 categories: outdoor;
those which can beplayedin common spaces
indoors; thosewhich essentiallyneedseparate
orexclusivespace. Governingbothèscommonly
specify dimensions for 3 standards of play:
international and national; county and club;
recreational. In some instances standard
dimensions available for olympic competition
and forsports fordisabled:forthese dimensions
forall standardhave not been included; unless
specified they are inadequate for national
1
USA: segmental
2 Amsterdam:semicircular
3
Rotterdam: sides& corners curved;
4
standards.
Several sports subject tostatutory requirements
for lighting, temp, playingsurfaces and eqp:
always refer to Technical Unitfor Sport and to
governing body.
NB for UK stadia, terrace and seating
design, reference must be made to Guide
toSafety at Sports Grounds (Football)
Combined soccer pitchwith running track roundit
conforming to recognised international athletics
standards may determine size of sports area:
basic shape ellipse—(6).
Stadium usuallypartexcavated:earth so gained
built up all round. Combination of grandstand
with changing rm, shower, first aid rm and provision for police, fire service, admin, press,
broadcasting now usually avoided (economy
and hygiene). Dormitories fortraining courses
in separate bldg.
forfootball only
Townplanning: stadia should be well integrated
with surroundings, with easyaccess for traffic
and supplies (rail station, bus stops, car parks
etc). Neighbouring industries with smoke, smell
and noise undesirable.
Group together covered and open-air installations for different sports: if possible in town's
5 U-shaped plan
greenbelt.
6
StadiumatHanover Arch Hillebrecht Goesmann
Budapest:horseshoe shapeabouttransverse axis
316 Leisure
Sport: stadia
SIGHT LINES
In Europe axes
of stadia
usually NE-SE —(1) ensure most spectators
havesun behind them. According toVitruvius (1st century BC) rowsof
seats and standing terraces should rise atsteady rate 1:2 for acoustic
reasons also.Today useofamplifiers makes good viewonlycriterion for
tiering. For staggered seat arrangement every other back row should
look over heads of corresponding front rows: gives parabolic curve
—(26)starting with rise of 380 and ending with rise of 480. Best
views on long sideswithinsegment; hence stadia of this shape, first
built by Hadden (USA), whichgive new and convincing impression.
2 Designforgrandstandofstadium for100000spectators(Nervi) asection
bconstructionofsightlines
Visibilitydetermines sizeofstadium
1
2rows 2 rows
—
a
-4-
-1
b
150 for peoplewithhats
100 for peoplewithout hats
edge of
arena
+22.3
constructionof
sighttinesfor(a)
+12.7
+6.7
TRAFFIC
Stadia should be near traffic arteries, accessible by road and rail, with
projecting turnstiles sothat spectators candivide intostreams fordifferent entrances. These usuallyat half heightofgrandstand, giving access
to rows higher and lower by ramps or stairs —(2). Calculate widths of
passages and stairs according number ofspectatorsleaving stadium as
all leave at same time in contrast to gradual arrival. According van
Eestern's investigations 5000spectators at Amsterdam stadium need
420sto leave by 9500stairways (Los Angeles 720s Turin 540s).
To determinestair wtoevacuategiven numberof spectatorsfromstadium
number of spectators
withingiventime: stair w =
departure time ins x 1.25
Stairs and corridorsflow times—p407—8
Check applicable codes and standards.
9500x420s= 0.8sor
1 spectatoroccupiesl000stairwin
in 1 S
95O002o
5000
= 1.25spectatorsoccupyl0000fstairwayw.
Heisinki
Rio deJaneiro
3
Circulationroutesin stadia
Fiorence
Arezzo
Leisure
317
Sport: stadia
Standing terraces: proportion w: h400:200—v(4)—(9)
Seatingterraces:proportionw: hfrom 800 : 480—v(11)—(1 7)
CD
C,)
After5 steps firm railings (crush barrier)
Lower passageway all round
1
CD
250wide
Doubleand treble standing terraces nolonger built
spectatt_
_____________
1
natural
ground level
3
Sectionthroughstadiumwith
partialexcavation,earthmound&
superstructure
SectionthroughOlympicstadium Berlin ArchMarchBrothers
-
SEATINGTERRACES
—
-
11 Woodenbencheswith plank
--
8000
-
6370
4-
6860
-.
6860
— 29.44 -—_______
-4
step
4—
2
900
780
—4
SectionthroughViennastadium
31
—i
780
i—
0
470
STANDING TERRACES
400
4—1250-—.-—4-—I
400
43304450
12 Woodenseatsonconcrete
Ox70
4 Steps withtimber reinforcement
I—
5
—-
330-450
I
1
760 —4
Angle steps
7
700
—4
450
14 Seatingtiers:d750 h450
w 500
6
I—
4-260-4---440 —.
per person
330—
13 SlopingRC deckwith stepsin
concretetopping
uprights
Movableconcreteunits
I—
760
15 On timberframe asatStuttgart
—I
330—450l
I330—4504
9.
8
Reinforced concretewith fallsto
drain
16 On metal bracketsset in
9
PrefabricatedRC unitsonsteel
joists
concrete
17 Seatingwith backs
GRANDSTANDSECTIONS
--i i20—.-72O--72O
_______________________________________________________
10 Standingramp,slope 10%,6P/i 000 mm2
18 Normalrise,upper steps
19 Normalrise, lowersteps
USA risers 152—460, treads610—762(660 usually satisfactory)
318 Leisure
Sport centres
CD
ORGANISATION
(I)
crcuiar
track
CD
7—
1
2
Dispositionofspectators
large
scale
sports &
large
scale
sports
medium
medium
small
Spatial patterns &circulationindrysportscentre
small
scalewet scale
sports community
&dry
dryonly centre provision
leisure/rec centre sports/rec sports/rec
centre
centre
(wet& centre
dry)
S.
pools
50m
25m
o
•
••0
20m
tree shape
learner
diving
..
•
sportshall(s)
large
medium
o
small
small community
ancillaryindoorsportsaccn
practiceha
weighttraining/conditioningrm
projectileha
squashcourts
climbingwall
indoor bowls
billiards/snooker
ice rink
theatre/multi-purposeha
ancillaryaccn
changing
spectatorseating: fixed
occasional
informalviewing
club meetingrm
firstaid
firstaideqp
crechesto
creche(alternative use, sto)
saunasuite
refreshments
cafeteria
bar
vendingmachine
IS
•
0
..
•
outdoorgrounds
grasspitches
hard porous/syntheticpitches
floodlitpitches
tenniscourts
possible
5
0
•5
S.
staffrest rm
staffchanging
0
••
••
0
•
I0
reception
off
SI essential
0
0
0
S
staff& management
key:
••
•0
•0
0
0
0
0
S typical/desirable
••
••
o
.
..
0
0
0
0
.•
•.
S
0
o
0
5
S•
••
.
••
o
•o
0
0
0
0
•0
••
••
SI ••
0
S
•
0
IS
55
0
0
0
55
I0
S
S
•
55
••
0
0
IS
S
5
0
••
•S
••
••
5. 0
S.
0
.5
..
.
..
.0
0
.0
0
0
•.
•.
•.
.•
S. •S
I•
0
•1
S
S
S
•
. .
0
•• •I
0
..
.0 I
••
0
o
I 0S
••
S•
.
0
0
0
o
o
o
o
0
0
a
a
0
0
0
0
SS
•
••
S
Mainfeaturesrequiredfor6sizes of sports
bldg:general recommendations onlyallbldgbeing
influencedbyarserved,population &other
resourcesavailable
3
Leisure
319
Sport centres
EXAMPLES
bowlsha
iti
-J
1
Dry &wet leisurecentreonschoolsite DunstableEngland
Sports centres for disabled —Bib639
2
SportscentreBridgnorthEngland:circulation &socialspacesspatially well
conceivedegin entrance haglazedscreenallowsviewsintoswimmingpool,
betweensportsha&squashcourtsglazed bridgeoffersviewintoeitherar
3
LargecomplexHarrowEngland comprises indoor&outdoorsportscentre,withpoolalongside&outdoorbowlsground
320 Leisure
Sporthalls
USE OF UNDIVIDEDSPACE
courts of same kind;critical heights which in some instances degrade
standard for which otherwise floor space adequate; need for some
additional tree circulation space inside hail entrance.
—'(1) shows number of sport playing courts or other spaces which fit
into various sizes ofsports orcommunity halls. Number ofspaces given
foreach sportoptimum willfitintoundivided hall spacefor3 standardsof
play:N internationaland UKnational;CUKcounty orclub;R recreational.
Required mm space allowed for each takes intoaccount not onlyactual
playing area but: necessary run-outor safety margins, team bench and
officials'space round playing space which amount to overall areasused
forassessment; where practicalsome overlapof marginbetween parallel
36.5x32x 32x26x
91
7.6—9.1
bowls)portablenoncompetitive rinks)
boxing)trainingr'ings)
32x23x
32x17x
7.6—9 1
754 m2
6.7—9.1
736m2
67—76
554 m
)105x75
(105x56x )97x54x )85x54x
)92x54x
3995ff2
12600ff2
8925ft2
8175if2
7770ff2
5880ff2
5238ff2
nostandard
nostandard
nostandard
nostandard
nostandard
nostandard nostandard
2
C
±3)1*) R
2
N
3)1*) n
N
4
N
4
N
C
25—30 if)
22—25 if)
25m
18m
2Oyd
8
N
525m
18m
2Oyd
5
Nt
2
N
7
A
18m
20yd
2Oyd
3/4Nt/c
4
A'
4
6
N
4
C**
A
N
A'
4
A
3
A
3
A*
6
C
C**
9
N
N
4
N
6
C
A
12
A
9
R
8
N
A
3
12
6
A
3
5
1
C
—
1
C
1
A
—
6
N
6
C
S
N
4
C
4
N/C
A'
—
7
8
N
C
6
8
N
C
3/4
2/3
N
1
C
1
A'
1
C
1
A'
2
A'
N
—
C
—
C
1
1
2
—
1
N*
1
—
P
A'
1
C
C
—
1
A'
C'
1
A
1
4
6
N
2
4
N
C
4
N
A
1
A
A
1
N
C
2
4
N
4
2
N*
2
6
N
1
2/4N/C
6
A
4/6C/A
4
6
N
A*
2
4
N
C
1
N
1
C*
1
1
A'
—
1
N'
2
A
microkorfball
1
C
1
C
netbat
1
N
1
A
2
C'/A
10
15/21
12
N
6
N
C/C 10/15 C/C
N
A
8
FtP
12
A
C
2
4
1
—
N*
A
1
A
2
4
A
1
2
A
)56—65x41 )56x28x
x 22 if)
22It)
2850—3455ft21555if2
nostandard
1
N
lSyd —
—
N
2
3
N
A
C''
1
C"
2
6
N
A'
C*
N
1
C*
N'
C
2
1
A
—
A
—
2
N
1
Nt
1
Nt
C
A'
2'Nt/C
A
2
3
2
A
2
C
—
1
3
1
nostandard
—
7
C/C
A
12
A
10
4
C''
4
—
A
—
A
C
C''
1
nt
1
A+t
C
2
4
A
N
C
C
A
1
A'
—
P
—
—
—
—
—
1
A*
A'
C
1
2
A*
A
—
—
—
—
N
A
1/2
A
—
—
1
N
1
N
A
2
A
1
A
3
2
2
2
A
C'
—
/
C
—
—
A
—
— —
—
1
— —
—
—
C
1
—
— —
—
N
— —
miniBB —
/
N
2
A*
/
7
1
A
—
—
A*
—
—
— —
—
—
—
—
—
C/C
C"
—
—
1/2N/C
2
1
4
6
1
2
A
—
—
1
P
7
1
—
—
N'/C
A
—
A'
miniBB
P
2
3
A'
—
A*
1
1
1
N
—
A'
2
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Nt
C'/A
1
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1
2
—
3
4
3/4* N/C
+1
A
P
C
—
A
N
C
4
8
A'
2
4
1
A'
7/9
14
4
C
A
2
1
n
—
N
C
A'
N
6
10/12 C/C
C
1
2
—
2
1
A
1
A
—
Nt
3
1
1
A
—
3
3
18m
A
1
—
N
6
10/12 C/C
—
A
1
C
—
8
1
A
V
I
keeptitmovement
& dance;Yoga
1
1
1
12
voteybat
N
iBm
lSyd
2
5
A
3/4' N/C
+2
A'
—
P
mini-handball
tug-ot-war
C''
5
N
C
trampolining
1
1
3)3*)
tabletennisc/c
1
A
1
9
lawntennis
no standard
x
A'
5
I
C
lacrossetemale
22—25 if)
N
R*
N
kendo
C**
N
12
14
karate
3
4
1
2
N
N
judo
iBm
2Oyd
C'/A
8
hockey
2
N
2
1
cricketnets
handbat
2
525m
18m
2Oyd
525m
18m
C
gymnastics)olympic)
22—25if)
4590ff2
22—25 if)
17,0—20.Ox
17.0x8.5
67
156 6.7
265.2—321 m2 144,5m2
3Om
N
5-a-sidetootball
486.7 m2
67—7.6
371.25 m2
25—30 tt)
1
)pistes)
6.7—76
429 m2
x 25—30 If)
2
fencing
x 6.7—7.6
(105x85x )96x85x
pitches
crickef6-a-side
29.5x16.5 26x16.5x 22.5x16.5
)120x105
x 30if)
6)2')A
basketball
communityha
small ha
29x26x
832 m2
archery )l of shoot)
badminton
space.
1168 m2
4
6
aikido
Fire: check fr reg and max component value; in UK halls 7000 m3 or
over need DoE waiver; 'volume' can include unenclosed structuralroof
mediumha
large ha
sports
For most sports possible provide spaces for mix of 3 standards; in
practice several differentactivities may beprogrammed at same time.
C"
A
Definitionofscales:max numberofcourtsrelatedtostandardsofplay:(forkey & footnotes—tp321(1))
6/7
1
C/C
A
C''
—
4
8
C/C
A
4
A
—
C'' 1'
—
C''
3—6
6—8
2
—
1
—
—
—
C/C
A
4
A'
1
A
A
— —
—
A'
—
—
Leisure
321
Sporthalls
USE OF UNDIVIDEDSPACE(cont)
largeha
mediumha
small ha
36.5x32x 32x26x
29x26x
32x23x
32x 17x
9.1
7.6—9.1
7.6—9.1
6.7—9.1
6.7—7.6
1168n,2
832m2
7Mm2
736m2
554m2
(120x105
x 30It)
(105x85x (96x85x
x 25—30 if)
(105x75
25—30 if)
25—30 if)
(105x56x (97x54x
8925ft2
8175ff2
7770ff2
12600ff2
weight lifting contests
wrestlin
x 6.7—7.6
486.7m2
22—25 if)
22—25if)
5238ff
5880ff2
6.7—7.6
6.7—7.6
429m2
communityha
17.0—20.Ox
15.6 x 6.7
371.25m2
265.2—321 m2
(85x54x
(92x54x
29.5x16.5 26x 16.5x 22.5x16.5
22—25 if)
4590ff
22—25if)
3955ff
17.0x8.5
6.7
144.5m2
(56—65x41
(56x28x
x 22if)
22 It)
2850—34551f 1555ff
—
N
—
N
—
N
—
N
—
C
—
C
—
C
—
C
—
C
—
—
4
N
C
2
6
N
C
6
C
2
6
N
C
2
3
N
3
8
C
R
2
6
C
R
2
6
C
2
4
C
2
R
12
C
R
A
Key:
N
C
A
P
C/C
ns
S
t
1
international/national standard
county/club standard
recreational standard
practice aronly
forfable tennis2gradesofmm spaceallowances forinter-county/inter-club standardsof play
no standards have yetbeenlaid down
arbehind shooting line belowsafety standardrecommended;acceptablespacecan beprovidedbyslightlengthening ofha; oresisting
spaces may be usedforpractice
belowmm space standard recommended bygoverning body concernedbut capableofproviding purposeful & enjoyable activity
recreational standard where ha is less than7600clear hforbadminton & trampolining orless than7000forbasketball & volleyball;
6700 hsuitable formini-basketball & mini-volleyball
county/club standard whereha less than 9000clearh
Continuation of —.p320(1) definition of scales
NB UK standards subject to revision. Current details availablefromSports Council Information
Centre
STORAGE
Inadequate sto space for sporthalls very common fault. Allow for full
rangeof eqp needed. As eqp must beaccessible sto must be shallow
(say 5000 max)and ideally placed along side of hall. Recommended
mm requirements for3catagoriesofhall —v(2). Check list—v(3)
fixed
ceiling
protectionfor lighting
Climbing ropes& trackway
climbingpoles&trackway
speakers
track systemfordivision nets
•
•
•
•
•
cricket
golf
archery
volleyball
5-a-side-soccer
basketball
ceiling mountedbackboards &goals
(manual
oreloperation)
(manual
oreloperation)
wallmountedbackboards & goals
gymnastics
asymmetricbars
pommelhorse
vaulting buck
vaulting horse
horizontal bars
rings
trampolinespotting rig
parallel bars
springboards,floors
boxing
ring
gamesapparatus
tennis
volleyball
badminton
5-a-sidesoccer
indoor hockey
handball
netball
3
Sportseqp checklist
•
•
•
•
•
••
•
.
.
movable
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
.•
.
..
..
•
•
.
sto ar m2 h access
large
112
75
50
medium
small
2
sportsha
ha
Mm
7000
2700
2250
waccess
4500
4500
3600
sf0 requirementsfor3cate9onesha
sportsha
walls
scoreboard
wall protection/padding
seating fixings/recesses
fire eqp
protectionto services/heating
wallspeakers
floors
courtmarkings
sockets&plates(fixed to floor orsub-floor)
fixed
.
.
movable
..
.
.
S
S
•
.
ancillaryha
ceiling
tracksystemforcurtains
lightingsystems
•
activities
judo & martial arts (mats,wallpadding)
.•
snooker
tabletennis
fencing
boxing
movement& dance(barre, mirrors)
.•
•.
.
floor
sockets/fixings
•
boxing
training
weight/fitnesstraining
weightlifting
wrestling
markings
movablefloors/platforms
.
.
•
.
.
..
•
S
.
322 Leisure
Sport: outdoor
-
PITCHES
4.57m 48.8m 4.57m
(15ft) (16011) (1511)
70yd)
110—155 m (120—i
True
-
V
'........
8
I
E
I--
I---
C',
8
Orientationdiagram:for
purposesofthischartseasonsfor
variousgainestakentobeasfollows
(southernhemisphereexcepted):
associationfootball&rugbyfootball
1 Sep—30 Apr; hardcourt tennis,
basketball,netballallyear round;
cricket,baseball,grasscourttennis
1 May—i 5Sep; pavilionsshould
avoid SW-NWaspect (225°—3150)
H
I
I
9
Football,Australian
r..
I
-J
Football,American
1
76.8—91.5
68m)74yd)
-
)
,
(84-100yd)
V
8
N
0
E
6
'0
t
N
I
rn-00
20m
II
I
E
I
I
I
I
L
000
1Dm
30m
40m
50m
70m
l
90m
Isalety 1wai6ng
line
se&end margins6m(20ft)
0
2Oyd(18.288)
3Oyd(27.432)
40ydl36.576l
10 Football,Gaelic
E
Ir'i
11
Handball
13 Hockey:forcounty&club
matchesrecommendedpitch90 x
55(98½ x 60 yd),overallspace95
55-65m
SOyd(45.72)
6Oyd(54.864)
70ydl64.008)
8Oyd(73.152)
90ydl82.296)
lOOyd(91.44)
wrunen
6
I
--
men
12
(60—70 yd)
Li
3 Archery,clout
Archery,target
Football,rugbyleague
54.9-73.15m(60-8Oyd)
54.9m(6Oyd)
8
11
x 60(104 x 66Y2yd)
---c
7m 69n1(76yd)
T
59.47m(66yd)
HI;
I E
lt
ItI;
IS
N
LL
60m(66yd)
4
Baseball(Littleleague2/3 size)
E
'0
Hill
Football,association:National
PlayingFieldsAssociation
recommendssizes:seniorpitches
82yd)
I
L
J
73(4590)m
l1Li
(195—225It1nUSA( 6,,i
14 Football,rugbyunion
15 Football,Canadian
40m(44yd(
0
0
p
T
S
0
S
11
N
"C
E
8
x
96—100 x 60—64(105—109 66½—
70yd);juniorpitches90 46—55
(98½ x 50—60 yd); international
100—110 64—75(109—120 70—
x
f
—
1
Camogie
x
E1
,.. side&endmargins6m(20ft)
6rn
6
7
E
5 Bicyclepolo
91—110 m(110—126yd)
H
lI;l
x
E
a,
L
16
Hurling
17
Korfball
323
Leisure
Sport: outdoor
PITCHES
110m(l2Oyd)
lOOm(lO9yd(
o
Lacrosse,men
1
Lacrosse,women:groundhas
2
nomeasuredormarked out
boundaries
IIi
27.5m
27.Sm
275m (300yd)
3043m1
I
1
Ic
In0
II
I
I
I
I
L
3
, II)
33m135yd)
4
'
-1-
H
/ / \\\
//
I
I
0
LL
E
Polo
ii1
(ii
\1I
IL'
Netball
alllines
E
50 wide
600 in
3
IrI
Ii
II
,
ix
frombad
lineto
supportpo
1000
q
2m
128—183 m (140—200yd)
(l2
7
-
E.-
Tug-of-war
radius
E
**
850
inbetween
extension
,
marginatsides& ends1000;where
spectatorsprsserttmix2000;dimensions
aretoinsideoflines
mm
6
Rounders
rope
off
7
restricted
800
150
m
17m(l9ydl
46m(bOyd(
••\
recommen
Li"
5
(
tree throw
line
1600
4.—
Shifty
42.1 m (46yd)
4
I
_T__i___I]i
Ii,
8
Curling
I
15 Basketball
91.44m(lOOyd)
160m1175yd(
//
/
/
20m(22yd1
Si
I L1
V
U
I
I-.
E
16 Mini-hockey
9.14
m(30ft) 73m(240ft)
111
11
\\\\\\
9
I
]1EIilhII
17 6-man football
Cricket
18 Softball
27.43—54.86
m(30—60 yd)
1 -*
usully about36.6 m(4yd)
risesiii
middle
203—457 mm
ng
Bowls,crown
s"
}::::::::::::::::::::
L
12.2tn(4Ottl
19 Decktennis
doub
I
El
.............v..... ___
13.4m(44tt)
11.9m(39ft(
1.Sm(5tt(
doubt
Ii
I
I
i
'\.pJnior3.2m(10ft6in)
sen,or:4m(13ft(
20 Paddletennis
IE
1
6
E
EE
324 Leisure
Sport: outdoor
ATHLETICS
867gm
min9m
126.52w
7lanesat
122 85m
landingar(sandpit)
S
65m
pm
7
Longjump: NBlandingarat bothendstoavoidadversewind
straig6ct40.04m
straight25.01m
1
c:: I
wnway45m
rnin4om
minim
7.3m
2 300mrunningtrack
200mrunningtrack
tIm (senior)
runway45m
9m (junior)
min4om
spInjump
manrunup43m(47 yd)
-,
EJ__________________________
I landingar(sandpit)
8
E
81.6w
&
Triplejump(senior junior)
radius70 m
/o,
/
mnn65m
I
...—
I
;
—
I
—
\
—
\
\\—--- —
176.91 m
9
—
.—
Discus& hammer:discusbase2500hammerbase2135
mingm
11 m (senior)
runway45m
40 m
9m(junior)
I:]
I
mm
Ik
ar
I landing (sandpit)
75w
10 Combinedtriple & long jump
84.3gmstraight
radiussatetyboundary80-95 m
400 mstandard7-laneclub running trad: for6-laneall-weathersurfaces
reduceoveralldimensionsby2440(approx overallsize 179 x 106m (193 x
116yd)); majorcompetition&regionaltracksrequireBall-weatherlaneswilh
10-lane sprintstraight:increaseoveralldimensionsby2440 (approx overall
size 181 xlii m(198x l2iyd)
t._
I /i
I
El
crilI
4
2F
-------
'
*-*
4m
Ii
>
\
,
\- -
Javelin
Sm
ii
—s---
S
radius20-25m
f
.
iunway45m
mIn4Om
L4_d
38.8 m
landingar(airbed)
ssm
5 Shot
6 High jump
runway365 m
---
4
12
Polevault
1i?
325
Leisure
Sport: indoor
PITCHES
:
SE
U) a)
Q
FO
1—3m
I
0
Fc(
36m(ll8ft)
L______m ______ -J
353 n—9 59in)
6
(I 6lrn)2Olt)
mm
5w
1m
'
9—lOm(30—331t)
1 m)3tt3in)
a
(4011 square)
7
I
bars
E
a,
msquareH•
3m n,
_____________
Eti
CU
CU
Cs
11J_
)9ft9in(
14 m
2omrunup)66ft)
4m(l3tt(
runoti
I
I
L
7
J
Gymnastics,female
in,
262m(86ft)
Basketball:mm h7000(23 ft)—nalso p323(15)
o4
lie
a,
I
reboundwallsallround
to2000(1220mm)
3
It
—
floorexercise
ID()
I
(89—20011)
E
1—2m
Micro-korfball
6
a
C
1
h 7600(25 if)
asyrnetricT
--
27—60
36m(118 5)
—
irn
II
11
12 m(411)
Badminton:
1—2 m
Lacrosse,female:pitchformalegame(not
shown)46—48 x 18—24m(151—158ftx 60—79if)
S
a,
0
-1-a
1—3m
lI
E
I—IS
i3
o
a,
E
r
'r
.6
HC
16—18m(52—Sgttl
IS
Ia
12 Judo
3
2-3m
I
$
4$
18m)6Olt(
—
B Volleyball
—
I
—
mmn3Ornmax36m(99-ll8lt)
13 Tug-of-war
5-a-sidefootball
i7m(559in)
a,
0.3ft)
S
'a
L
a
(
(2
Cs
a,
I.)
a,
z
____________—
6.5m)21 ft4mn) 20mrunap(6f1)
4
I 65m
)5lt5in)
runon
C-2
A-i
15—3m)5—i0ft(
36-44m(39-48yd)
a,
4m(l
Gymnastics,male: mm h 7600 (25 if)
i.5—3m)5—lOlt)
S
9
(2
E
Cs
Wrestling(N nationalCclub Rrecreation)
I
=1
L
5
Hockey:teamsizesadjustedaccording to size
ofpitchavailable
Li
in
30—40m(98—131
10 Handball,7-a-side
\\
It)
14 Americanbowlingalley
(mayhave anynumber
lanes:usual mm 8)
15 Shuffleboard
326 Leisure
Sport: indoor
PITCHES(cont)
E
0i
I
g
•::•:•:•:
raised
•:•:•:•:•::i
i
I
E
1
Tennis
.F
E
E
°r
'—
.- 0)
•:•:•:
:::•
rI•:•:•:•
,:•.•.•.,
.•:•:•:
I
7 Boxing:forcompetitioninaddition to ring&
spectatoraccnfollowing needed: medexam rm,
weighing rm, gloving-uprm, admin, lightingabove
ring, watersupplytoeachcomer
I
14m(46ft)
F
15—2n
(41111 in)
5 Fencingpistes
2
I
Netball
0-ibm
2.5(8ft)
6
(6'hftyt
I
(911)
ê
1
(3'/o—Sfi(
9m(301t)
8
Karate
9
Kendo
L1IJ
4
305m flhifl2m
(II ft6in)
3
6
Trampoline
Aikido
ATHLETICSTRACKS
Resources for indoorathletics fall into 2 main categories:
competition: provide forfull range ofcompetitivedisciplines; will provide
for spectators
training: (a) with some limited competitive use; (b) purpose built; (c)
adaptations ofexisting sports halls.
In USANational Collegiate Athletic Association(NCAA) rules forcollege
athletics, forotheramateur events Amateur Athletic Union (MU);some
track and field events still measured in yards, feet and inches; many
present tracks still in such measurements; new layouts generally in
metresorotherSI units.
European AthleticAssociation (EAA) specifies forindoor events:
Arena
Shall be covered and heated and shall consist of track circuit, sprint
straight, runways for4jumps, siteforshotputt.
Natureoftracks
Tracks andrunways surfaced with woodor suchothermaterialasallows
normal use of spiked shoes; number of spikes shall comply with InternationalAmateur Athletics Federation rule 142 (4).
60 m hurdlesshall include 5 hurdles, h 1 060; 13.72 mfromstart line to
first hurdle; 9140between hurdles; 9720fromlast hurdle to finishline.
Female: 50 m hurdles shall include 4 hurdles, h 844; 13.0 m from start
line to first hurdle;8500 between hurdles; 11.5 m from last hurdle to
finishline.
60m hurdles shall include5hurdles, h844; 13.0 m fromstart line tofirst
hurdle;8500between hurdles; 13.0 m fromlast hurdle to finish line.
Events
Runwaysfor long&triple jump & polevault:
wide.
Landingareaforjumps:in high jump and pole vaultlandingareasshall
be in accordance with IAAF rules 201 (e) and 3 (d). In long jump and
triple jump they shall measure 6000 long and 2500wide and shall
consistof 300 in depth ofwet sand on synthetic track base.
Putting theshot: sector shall be 450 but may be reduced bytechnical
delegate ifnecessary to meetlocal conditions.
Othertechnical installations: all other technical installationsshall be
strictlyinaccordance with IAAF rules.
Circulartrack
1 lap oftrack shall measure
160 m 200m in length. Eachbend shall
be 35 min length and banked atanangle 100 18°. Eachstraight
35m.Where no raisedborder, measurementshall betaken 200 outward
from inner edge of track. Track shall be 4000 6100 wide; shall
include 4 lanes.
'
Sprinttrack
'
Sprint straight shall have
beyondfinishing line 15m.
6 lanes: width of each 1220;
/
,
—
consdecsurroundingindoorcyclingtrack
4or6nesat1 or mm w. 1.22or prefered
extension
Hurdleraces
Male: 50mhurdlesshall include4hurdles, h 1060. There shall be13.72
m fromstart line tofirst hurdle; 9140 between hurdles; 8860fromlast
hurdletofinishline.
40 m long and 1 220
45or40m bends
10
Requirementsforindoortrack
Leisure 327
Sport: indoor
ATHLETICSTRAIMNG
CD
for athletes training indoors, with limited competitive use,
Provision
neednot includeexpensive 200 m banked tracks. Many events can be
simulated if briefthought out inadvance with consideration of needsof
athletes.
Needs
a
b
12
badminton
poie vaufl
ihrowingpactice
gymnasiucs
1
badminton(2courts)
345
athietics—longjump
—Sprint
be considered at planning stage
of sports
4'—236in(77 tt6in)—4-.--.--———-—--428
m(140116cr)
:
:•
:
:
2
of athletes should
centresso that this maior spectator and participantsportcan gain some
of benefits fromindoor provision other sports have received —*(1)
pole vault
hurdies
0
-4.-
13m(14¼ yd)
combatsports
basketbafl—training
gym & 2badminton
tennis
5-a-side football
I
I
volleyball
badniinlon
ootball
iectures
demonstraiions
14
basketball
5sid&oolball
:
.
:
•
:
I
I
——
——
\
I
3j•5•,,_
4
polevaull
-''--_./
rnaxrunup58m
(63¼yd)
longjump
triplelump
run up 55 m
maxrunup 43 m
I
ngjump
/'\rnau
II
34
badminton(2courts) pole vault
throwingpractice
long jump
Sprintstarts
25
hurdles
/
basketball
tennis
5-a-sidetootbail
volleyball
ba&ninton
i
i
-
run outi
doorfor
4
4
3I
cage
sdiscus. shot
hamme
E
—
-
throwing
practice
urn
N
=
I
I
"Tjçh s
poe maxrurup37in
vault'
2
L
diushot
/
I
L
throwing:
hiumpt8mH
2
I
•
maxrun
up 39m
\
—
—
1
netball
longjump
tnpieJump
maxrunup 55 in(60yd) maxrun up 43m(47yd)
I
——
/
—
lanes
Sf'
SportsstadiumtraininghaGateshead England: apermutations
possibleathleticstraining
1
ofpossible activities bpermutationsof
WEIGHT& FITNESSTRAINING
multi gym
multi gym abdominal
shoulder
unit
conditioners
squat
conditioner
doordtscJ
rack
transportarack
leg
press
i
ng ar
[1
I
multigym-1
I
bench press
L d
Er
trolley
bench
11N
*
rackj
fl
fIam
.L. [1 [chine
rowing
Units
purpose hyperextension
bench
multi
transports
ra,L'
,
Wristroller
step up bench
leg extension
_________ 15m(49ft3tn) flex
-.4--.-——
-r
,
8
C)
or
8
0
0)
blackboard
multi-purpose
betch squat racks -.
gym 12 Stationwith
[199 multi
7complete weight stack
cycle
II
I
dual
'ackboard
OtH
barbell
fl_purpose
bench
II
rack
Fiiin!
I
dlck
or
iiceboard
irergometers
..wallto platform
[1
oor
ymar
racks
[rcise
—-
—- - —
6000(lgft9in) —5
olympicplate
T
8
Lt)
cx
I
I
Cc
I,)
12! board
1
UUUIflb fl)
racks
2
FitnessrmatleisurecentreCramlington England
3 Conditioning&weighttrainingrmBunyanrecreation centreBedford
England
I
(1)
C
CD
328 Leisure
Sport: indoor
SPORT NEEDINGOWN PITCHES/SPACES
-
ia
--
303(loott)-
!+
i1
tiiTighne
425m(141t)
plan
-
303(1005)-
a
-:
S
1
firingline
4N
425rn
—•—
H
i0 E
section
'0
targetzonel05m(3ftS4r)4
18288m(SOtt)
20
I
arar
SeCtion
[
303m
b
targetzone1.0m
b_
JE[
'0
sectIon
tiringhne
L
425rn)141t) largetzonel05m(3ft6in)
plan
Projectile ha section & plan
asmall bmedium
Clarge
10 Rackets asection bplan
mlI
ILP
2archersshootto
eachtargetboss
stopnet
9.754m(32lt)
—-:iiiii
shooting waiting
line
line
targethoe
S
N
2ni (65610)
l
range
2 Archery:international&nationalshootsrequire
rangesof3025& 16m &20yd; forclub &
recreationalshoots 13.716(15 yd)willdo: mm
ceiling h3000
mm
37m(12ft3w1(
I
rolldowncarpetlstoneeded)
1 5m
125(4ft9iii>
-
33m(tOItlt)
ll
hall
125 1Sm
aE
Squash asection bplan: dimensions &
surfacefinishescritical;referto governingbodies
6
32 m(105It)desirable3749m(123It)
3 Bowling:singlerinkinprojectile
—'0
7
IrE
Rugbyfives
1—
t
Billiards& snooker,agreedstandardstable:
3500x 1750 playingat
b
11
1185m6086
asection bplan
33.6O4rnl10tt3in(
S
N
14m(4fl6un( 67
E
na
225
600(211)
mat
I
__________
pumng
____carpet
si_I] =
I
liD
C.,
I?
I
12 Golfpractice
Real tennis: dimensionsofcourtatHampton
Court England
8
II
33.5 m)llOIt)
_______
4
9.lSm(30ft)
Bowling:4rinksmittforrecreation, 6 for
IIIl:E.
ujj
I
20.117m(66tt)
toumamerits
13 Cricketpracticenets; h3.650(12ft)
303m(99531n) -
a
b
425m
4—-f
5
9
Cycling
11
hnngline
j
1.05m
targetzone 4_f
U+Itbifll
Shooting,target, small bore a section bplan
14 Ice skating
Leisure 329
Sport: swimming
INDOORPOOLS
Waterarea—*(1)
Location: central, good public transport connexions. Rough guide to
changing nn—p336—7: accessible from hall,separated bysex; notinside
pool area; 1 do unitll—1.5 m2 pool area; common changing rm as extra
provision: dispersed population (rural areas) 20—25 x 11—13 m within
25 minutes travel of 30000 people; partially concentrated (surburban
areas and free standing towns) 25 x 11 m pool + learner pool within
15—20 minutes travelof30000people; concentrated population 25 x
13 m pool + learner pool within 12 minutes walking time of 30000
people.Usage/head ofpopulation: medium and small towns 3.5times/
year;cities 1.3—2.5/year.
type of b coveredspace
changingrm
small
av
large
2floors
changingrm
1 floor
m3
m3
30—40
40—55
50—70
40—50
50—65
60—80
1
Ratio of enclosed spaceto1 m2water ar
2
Circulation&groupingofelements
space.
Pre-cleanse:barefootpassage pastwctoshowers; 1 sho/8dospaces:
sho space required 1.35—2.15m2; in some countries (eg Switzerland
USA) use of cleaning passages with sho activated by floor contact or
light beam.Throughshormto swimmingand teachingpools—*p335.
Toilets: mm
2wc; male 1/15—20female 1/7—10; urinals 1/15—20 male.
public access
3
Baths at Hanover-Linden Germany(design
HochbauanttHanover):indoorbseparatedfrom
outdoorbby 3submersibledoorswithfootbasins
and 6 sti infront
indoorswimmingb:
pool 12.5 x 25m
training pool6 x 12.5 m
openairswimmingb:
free-shapegeneralpurposepool 20 x 25 m
divingpoolwith 10m stage 20x 20m
changing:indoor49change-overcubicles, 600do
& 5groupchanging rm;outdoor36change-over
cubicles&1320cIa
exercise
sectiona-a
III
II
176
o 36
Leisure&poolcomplexRoxburyYMCA
USA Arch TheArchitectsCollaborative
4
9 12m
ft
330 Leisure
Sport: swimming
INDOORPOOLS(cont)
Heating & ventilation: water temp recreational pools 27°C, learner
pools 28°—30°, diving pool 28°; airtemp 1—2°abovewatertemp: changing
rm, pre-cleanse, clothes sto not less than pool water; air changes:
volume flow rate of0.15m3/m2/s ofpool water plus wet surround.
Waterpurification plantfor heating,filtering, disinfection. Watercirculation: main pool 3 hr (if veryshallow withheavy bathing load every 2
hr); learner pool 11/2 hr; diving pool 6 hr; pH near aspossible 7.7 or
7.6, never outsiderange 7.2—8.0.
Pool: width, length —*(3); water depth: non-swimmers 900—1 250,
swimmers 1 250—3500,learnerpool 500—900. Mm depth forswimming
900.
a
_L
bh
Internal finishes: floors easy-grip and slip-resistant finish, glazed
ceramic tiles, smallsize mosaic; pool surrounds slip-resistant flooring;
pool bottomand walls: tiles, wallsurround upto2000tiles orwaterproof
paint; upper wall areas and ceiling sound absorbent materials. Metal
parts rust and condensationproofencased,no heattransmissionbridges.
Plastics generally suitable. All fixings and fittings ideally made from
corrosion resistant metals, egstainlesssteel, bronze, certainaluminium
i.l r
ij
r1
L_J
r—-'
e
r
r—'
L..J
25m
8.5 m(4lanes)
10.5m(5lanes)
13m(6lanes)
f
rL_J1
r'°'
L_.J
17 m(8lanes)
r
r'
L.._l
.___J
I
r°r"T
i___ L__I
33.33m
d
Typicalpool profiles: a&bfor 'in ground' pools c& for'aboveground'
pools e 'in ground'steeltank 'aboveground'steeltank
f
international
pool
S
•0
freeformshapepool
separate deepwaterdivingpooi
S
S
•
5
5
a
0
0
0
a
•
0
5
0
S
0
•0
• •
informalviewing
viewingaroverlookingpooi
0
0
0
21 m(8lanes:lullOlympicstandards)
25m
10-12 m(7ni mx)
•0
vendingmachines
firstaidrm
S
•
• •
• S
sauna suite
a
a
a
•O
17m
0
•0
•
cafeteria
bar
21 m
SOm
spectatorseating
fixed rakedspectatorseating
occasional spectatorsat poolside
refreshments
17m
leisure
pool
pool
pool waterar
50 m main pool
25 m main pool
separate teaching/training pool
1 000 springboardmain pool
recreational divingchutes
wave machine
13m
national! local recrearegional pool tional/
S
0
I
600
5
0
I
I
stepsupto
600
posunound
lanero
I
600
2m
laneropepombOn
900
7m
900
I
900
2m
16¾m
20m
definite provision
possible provision
2
Poolfeatures
3
Mainpool sizes:mostcommonsizesshownin heavierlines
Leisure 331
Sport: swimming
Waterpolo
INDOORPOOLS(cont)
Playing area: for national/international events 1 800 deep; district!
countyevents 1 500 mm; club/Amateur Swimming Association events
in UK 1200mm. Dimensions—(2).
Swimmingpools for disabled —*8ib639
Poolsforleisure
Main features of pools specifically created for indoor leisure and recreational swimming: lively, warm, gay interior; good quality materials;
shallow waterwith beach edges; wavemachines; water chutes; artificial
sun bathing; plants, trees, seating, refreshment areas forswimmers.
Private indoor poo1s—p115—6
S
E
N
1
Commonwealth poolEdinburgh Scotland
MatthewJohnsonMarshall& Partners
asection bplan
Arch Robert
4
Typical'leisure' freeformpoolWhitleyBayEngland; plan Arch Gillinson
Barnett& Partners
2
Dimensions
forwaterpolo
F—
20.0
50.85
3
IndoorbWuppertalGermany:section Arch Hetzelt
H
5
Indoorpool BottrupGermany Arch Heinz Kisler
CD
U)
C
CD
332 Leisure
Sport: swimming
INDOORPOOLS (cont)
a
/
//
1.-I.
b
%
T'LI4
-1500-
7
I hydraulic
L
F1600
1
Springboard hydraulically adjustable 1000—3500 a plan
4800
Pooledgedetail
liftingplant
I—i 500-1
—I
bsection
pO$selehand-grip
drainage
charerel
500
2
600
Springboarddetail
3
Deck-levelpool: edgesection
8
Pooledgewith Wiesbadentypeoverflow: restingledge &gangway in
multi-purposepool
a
9
Longitudinalsectionof25mpoolwith9underwater lights
x
500 500mmmm surface ar
max slope 10
b
4
10 Diagramof startingplatform:
cable to timingeqp only built-inin
major poolcentres
Moveablefloorstypicalinstallation a in raisedposition b lowered
Underwaterlightingin
swimming,diving&multipurposepool
11
- IF-i
sechona—b
a--''_IHEE,
:..:
150
5
Recessedshapedsteps
6
Glazedceramicsteps
Leisure
333
Sport: swimming
OPEN AIR POOLS
Location: sunny, not down wind of industrial plants, nuisance from
smoke or noise.
Season:depends on climate. For NW Europe:
100—120visits/year, of which
40—60 busydays, of which
10—15 peak days
Perhead of population (depending on climate):
1 .5—3
visits/year.
1—2 m2 overall site area
0.1—0.2 m2 water area
Pervisitor 0.6—1 m2 water area
L9i
ogood viewing
o badviewing
1
Viewingconditionsforend &side positiondivingboards
Changing rm for5—8%of population
Non-swimmerspool: separate in largeinstallations;depth 800—1 250;
easy-grip steps for sitting at shallow end; floor surface of pool nottoo
slippery.
Paddling pool: access by gentlyfalling ramp; free shape; depth 100—
400; floor surface of pool nottoo slippery.
Waterchute:-_*p337(5)
Pool construction: dense vibrated concrete or RC; inside finishfrost
resistant tiles, paint (epoxy resin orother).
Expansion jointsdepending on construction
Steps (a) corrosion resistant metal in 600—1 000 wide recesses (b)
special shaped ceramic glazed unitsbuilt in—p332.
Distance apart ofsteps 10 m; distancefromdiving tower 8000
Starting platforms: —p332
Guide line: vertical below starling platforms.
2
D'Albaroopenairbat GenoaItaly
Diving line: on pool floor, 250—300wide.
Walk-through pool:3000 x 4000—4000x 6000: depth 300—400 with
overflow.
Walkway round pool:
2000;
access.
5600 near diving stages and pool
Water circulation: 6 hr turnover when bathing load infrequent; 3 hr
turnoverwhen load heavy. Water cleaning—*p337.
Ancillaries:
3
Layoutofalpine bGloggnitzAustria
entrance with cash desk, centrallysituated
laundry issue& sf0
swimming instructors' rm
first aid rm (or doctor's rm)
staff rm, separate formen & women
eqp, swimming & sports gear, deckchairs etc, possibly with issuing
counter
changing rm, separate for men & women (communal changing rm,
changing cubicles, separate rmforclubs& schools); family change
wc sitedconveniently tochanging rm & pool
pre-cleanse showers hand & foot wash basins
plant rm: watercirculation & purification:boilers
telephone, loudspeaker & clock systems with signaldevice
adequate parking space
admin off
Showers, lavatories—vp335; changing rm—ap336
Desirable:roofed rest rm, sales rm, manager'sflat, broadcastingsystem.
Garden swimming pools —*p114
4 Open airbinFrankfurtGermany
334 Leisure
Sport: swimming
DIVING POOL DIMENSIONS
a
+F
100
IJo
+
E
J
-I-
mel
7500
p
5000
p
A-A4
1
FédérationInternationalede Natation Amateur(FINA) international
standardsof diving:diagrams alongitudinal section bcrosssection
a
springboards fixedboards
A
board h fromwater
B boardI
C boardw
D d of water at plummet
E distanced D
im
3m
4.8
4.8
0.5
7.5m lOm
6.0
6.0
3.5
6.0
Sm
5.0
2.0
3.8
6.0
2.0
4.1
8.0
2.0
4.5
10.5
2.2
2.7
3.0
3.0
3.0
7.5
10.25
11.0
4.5
2.5
1.25
1.5
4.6
9.0
3.5
2.5
1.5
4.6
3.0
3.2
13.5
4.5
2.5
1.5
3.4
2.75
5.0
2.75
5.0
2.75
2.75
5.0
0.5
3.0
5.3
maintained forward
F distancedD
maintained to sides
G clearanceforward
H clearanceto sides
I distanceto adjacent board
J clearancebehind
L clearanceoverhead
M clearanceoverhead
w01srround necessary wdh 1000 springboard
+M •
N
H,
'F'
a
2 StandardsfordivingboardsapprovedbyAmateurSwimming Association
(UK) table a competitivedivingtable brecreational diving(firmboards)
maintained tosides
clearance overhead
maintained forward
3.8
2.5
5.0
2.75
6.0
Notes: 1 tableincorporateslatestdimensionsrecommendedbyASA;includes
column ofdimensionsfor7500platformh (considereduseful forhigh board
training) 2 ± 100 tolerancepermissibleonnominalboardh: alldimensions
should relate to centralpoint atfront end of diving board(s) 3platform
thickness should not be 200 at Itsfront 4designersshould consider
current standardsspecifiedbyFINAifpoolto be used fornational/international
standard events; recommendedthat divingpool beseparatefrom mainpool:
where not possible boardhotspringboardshould be confinedto 1000 and
wheninuse arconcerned should be ropedoffto avoid swimmerscausing
safety hazard
plummet
sectiotmof divingpoolstobe readin association with
tables & 5
2.5
2.5
1.5
b
A board hfromwater
B boardl
C board w
0 d of waterat plummet
E distanced 0
maintainedforward
F distanced D
maintainedto sides
G clearanceforward
H clearancetosides
I distance to adiacent
board
J clearancebehind
K clearancebehindboard
L
1 m 1 m 2m 2 m
0.75 1.75 0.75 1.75
075 0 75 0.75 0.75
2.6
26 3.0 3.0
3.0
4.0 3.0
4.0
3m
3m
0.75 175
0.75 0.75
325 3.25
3.5 4,5
5m
5.0
2.0
3.8
6.0
2.2
2.2
2.4
2.4
2.6
26
30
45
5.5
2.5
2.5
5.5
3.0
2.5
6.5
3.0
2.5
6.5
3.5
7.5
3.5
2.5
10.25
3.8
2.5
2.5
2.5
25
1.25 1.25 1.25 1.25 1.25
0.8
0.8
08 0.8 0.8
1.25
0.8
0.8
1.25
3.0
3.0
to wall
clearanceoverhead
3.0
3.0
3.0
3.0
3.0
Leisure 335
Sport: swimming
SLIPPERBATHS,SHOWERS
Slipper baths: in separate units; number approx 0.1 x pooi size (m2);
sizesaccording todemand and number ofvisitors —o(4);space required
changing rrn
CD
(0
C
CD
Centrepassage width 3000.
Side passage width 1600.
Clotheshooks inside on freewall or inside door.
Window cillabove bath
Washable walls
1
I—
23
U,
650
1000
--
f-i 000 -
HI
Sho passagesection&plan
I—2000—i
I—
2700
—1900-1
—i
2Ii
1-2000--i
4
800 abovefloor level.
Hard finishon solid floorwith drainage; all corners and skirtings coved;
all metal parts heavily galvanised; alltimberpainted 3undercoats and 1
finishing coat.
Steam baths: individual cubicles, box baths or shared baths (steam
baths), separate for men and women,orused at differenttimes. Separate
rest rm 22°C, massage rm 30°, sho rm 25°with warm bath 22°and cold
bath 100. Shapes ofbenches for lying on—o(6).
Turkish bath —o(7): warm airrm 45—50°C, hotairrm 55—60° and sweat
rm 65—70°, adjoining rest, sho and massage rm as above. Outer walls
doublewith heated aircavity; ceiling slopes towardsoutside todrain off
condensation. All fittings rustproof. Windows with treble glazing. El
fittingswater tight.
Saunas—*(5)(6)—p1 17338
Arrangementofsho&wcwithcirculationroutes
-
1
1 300 above floor level.
1-2000-1
-
(?)
i—2000-l
Cubiclesizes
1200—.-
-
1000
rr
Jo
'j......,400
T1H
4..
F- -+—
400
420
340
6 Bench typesforsteamb
5
StandardFinnish saunastove
with boiler (alsosuitableforwashing
clothes)
accordingto Finnish standards:
12000;steps& benchesofwooden
battensnailedfrombelowsothat
bodydoes nottouchhotnail heads
Functionaianaiysisof healthb
bathr layout—o(4)
ab& bench
bb&couch
cbasabove
d—easabove
lasabove
8
mrii2
+ vestibule (1000)
mm2
3800
5120
5220
7600
7600
5600
7800
7120
9600
9600
— vesitibule
Spaceneededforbath cubicles—.(4)
336 Leisure
Sport: swimming
POOLCHANGINGROOMS
i500'- 1000
1250
*-
1250
i-
1-.- 1250
Individual cubicles —v(lb): 1/visitor; size 1000 x 1000—1200;gross
—.
area ofchanging rm/cubicle 3—4 m2.
Cubicles to be used in turn: (a) with locker —a(la)(2)3—4 lockers!
cubicle; (b) with supervised central do —v(3)(4); size and area as for
:
individual cubicle; desirable ratio approx 53%. (Very economical: itfew
cub,c'es cubicles
visitorscubicles can beusedsingly.)
Bath cubicles—ap335(4)(8)
Common changing rooms: (a) with central handing-in do —v(4);
a
b
loot washbasins
Cubicleswithoutseparate shod &barefootpassages:
with locker bindividual
1
ainterchangeable
Heightofchanging rm
f/
(\
---4
I
—— ±
0
I
0
+
8
±
j_ -'
(_\
1_i
ventilation
8
C,
—
fj J_
Oi
f\ /\
fi /\
,' 4.
4----;---4
f---1
,\
LI:'....
-4-4-
8
±
8
TWWThHH
I
t *4004
F 1500 400
400
F
:
:::....:
_:
400
400
lemales
1— 1300 +1000-l--1300—
I..,.I.11111111
i_j
I
"""ii","
iiiii—
I
,i.
•4
lernales
—1300 11000 -l300-4
1_
1500
5 Commonchangingrm: awith clotheshooks bwith lockers
2 Interchangeablecubicleswith lockers
I
2800.
-r
shodpasage
/\
space required/place 0.5—0.8 m2; (b) with locker —e(5b); space requirementas (a) + locker area, 3—4lockers/seat; locker size: 300 x 500—
400 x 600desirable ratio approx 26%; (c) without locker, with clothes
hooks—v(5a); for groups supervision desirable; space requirement as
(a); desirable ratio approx 14%.
I
,uslll,iuil.ui
.1.
3 interchangeablecubicleswithcentralattended do
males
I—.-
'F
UUiUiffltlJ
clothesreceiving& issuing
1000
C,
interchangeable
cubicies
4000
.—+—-
clothesissue ______________________
4.
a,
4000
,500
t3°°0
I
]
—4
504'
common
changing
rm
1.
key
tool washbasin
availabletofemaies
availabletomales
4
do
cubicles&common changingrmwithcentralsupervised
Interchangeable
6
______________
outofuse
CiO5edslidingdoor
Changingarplannedsothat2centralspacescanbeusedat different times
by eithersex
Leisure 337
Sport: swimming
I-130O-i-1000-1300--+- 2200
POOLCHANGINGROOMS
-1
Forpublic bldg essential find most economic staffing solution. Division
of interchangeable sections by sex can be varied by use of sliding
partitions —ep336(6) or byswitching notice boards.
Av visitors 60—70%men 30—40%women
Cubiclewith supervised do;
interchangeablecubiclesformen &
women;indicatorboard 0canbe
switchedaccordingtodemand
1
F—750H-—750
]
T.S
-r
'
L
hooksfor
clothes
Coatstandsfor interchangeable
cubicledo
3
bench h 375; bench w 300
In open-air bathsper changing rm 40 users per section or area20 coat
hooks on run of board forcoat hooks 3000.
shoes,
j30O
Space requirements —(2)(3):
500 bench/adult
400 bench/child
—H
foldingbench
m
Clothes sto: individual lockers orattendant supervised basket—.(4)sto
—sp336(3)(4)
Ratio of total changing/clothes sto space per user approx 1 .75 m2.
29
Cubicleswith proprietarypanels
inbaths atNordeneyGermany
Cubicles and clothesstand of timberor corrosion resistant metal with
proprietary panels —(3).
Include changing needs ofdisabled users: 2000 x 2000 cubicle.
WATERCLEANING
Purification, flocculation and disinfection ofswimming pool water: hygienically essential turnover period forindoor public pools:
swimming pool 3hr
learner pool 1/2 hr
diving pool 6 hr
Purification of river, surface and pooi water chemically byflocculationof
organicsubstances to induce coagulationfollowed by filtration. Filterrm
sizes—÷(6).
Disinfection usually bychlorination.
In asymmetrical pools arrange outlets so that complete through flow
possible and no watercan stagnate in corners. For cleaning pooi floor,
specially in open-air pools, remove sediment with brushes and suction
sediment pump.
Basketcoathangerwithshoebagforinterchangeable cubicles
4
capacity/hr aroffilter rm clear h
offilterrrn
m2
m
20—40
20—30
3.5
60
40
50
60
65
3.5
3.5
3.5
3.5
3.5
4.5
m3
80—100
150—200
250
300
400
70
80
6
Spacerequiredforfilter
installation;foropenairadd 50%
polishedterrazzo
120
I- t—
600
h—
I—
2030
5 Water chute BadKissingenGermany
800
120
—t--i
—
338
Leisure
Sport
SAUNAPLANNING
sauna
fresh
exhaustair exhaustair ax
ussr
under
entrance/exit
•
t
airb
I
Domestic saunas—xpl 17
Bathing time: 3 x 8—12 minute sessions, total for 1 bath 120 minutes.
Rm forcooling (sho, hose, plunge) —x(2)(3)(9)(1 0)and airbath—x(3)(12).
Natural cold waterpleasanter: lake orsea inlet (or snow).
Air bath: breathing in fresh cool air as offset to hot air, cooling down
freshairrmH
she_a bI
warn,fool
hosean
1
warmfootb essentiai,plungeboptional
Privatesaunadiagram
2
Domesticsauna—xpl17
body. Provide protection against peeping; seating; water cooling by
hose withoutrose or/and plunge of approx 1 000 m3. Warm footbwith
seating required.
Changing area: cubicles (oropen) fortwice number ofvisitors at peak
times —(13); also ancillary rest and massage rm —x(12) for approx 30
visitors, 2 massage points; 1 rest rm for 1/3 bathers apartfromstaff.
Room temp: undressing 20—22°C; pre-cleanse
(coldwater) rm 18—20°; massage rm20—22°.
J
24—26°; cooling
—400
swlrmningpooi
-850
-
450
I— 900
3
Saunain swimmingha
9
10
Plungeb
2000
4 Planl—3P
±t.h
5
S
2—4P
Section—x(9)
I
Publicsaunasuite Ashtonunder-Lynepool England
Arch TechnicalUnitforSport
11
6
3—5P
OT 500- 500 p600
1 refreshments
1—600--I
changingml
pre-cleanse
hoserecess
piungeb
6 warn,footb
7 sauna
8 freshairb
9 restrm
10 massage
11 cash desk
2
3
4
5
I
7
l—.-—3750 —Ii-—-4280 —-41.2000
Saunafor1—3Pt section
12
11— 4250 —44-.-— 4000
Saunafor 30Pt plan
IP
changingrm
pre-cieanse& wc
sauna
coolingmm
restrm
freshair
massage
8 Saunawith indirectheating (Bemberg):section
13
1
nTlsizesegfor30P
0.8—1.0m'IP
0.3—0.5m'/P
0 5—06m'/P
1.0-1.5 m'/P
03—0.6m'/P
0.5 m'/P
6—Bm
Arrequiredper P& mi sizes
changingmi
pre-cleanse
sauna
coolingIn,
massage
restm,
xi'
24—30
9—15 rn'
15—18rn'
30-45rn'
12—iBm'
9—lBrmi'
lob, iav,corr
99—144m'
+21—35m'
air b
bench
20—50m'
120—17gm'
Leisure 339
Sport: tennis
COURT REQUIREMENTS
Playing space needed for court—(1): h of net at centre 915, at posts
h 4000; 2.5 wire 40 mesh. Artificial lighting
10 m h at long sides. Scale of courts to population: regular players av
2% oftotal; ratio courts/players 1:30 to 1:35 very good, 1:45orover
poor; new courts 1:30. Additional space amounting to 25% ofplaying
spaceneeded forcar park,children'splay area, paths,bldg etc.
Surface: exceptionally smooth, hard and pervious to rain: must attract
very little dust and be dazzle free; materials: grass, cinders, plastics.
1 060; netting enclosure
10970
1370
3
Drainageplansfortenniscourts
end margin
h= 11.0
enclosure
9000
enclosure dimensions international&national county & club recreational
relating to standards officialchampionships recommended
of play
minendmargin
mm
sidemargin
6400
6400
5490
3660
3660
3050
36580x 18290
enclosure
size for 1 cOurt
mm
h
36580x 18291 34750x 17070
wiorcourts
33530
31700
waddedloreach
additionalcourt
15240
14630
in 1 enclosure
7000
—6400
4
Playingspace neeoed forcourtsofdifferent standardsaccording to
requirementsof(UK) LawnTennisAssociation
11.89
1
Coveredcourt h
I
2000I
14.0
10.0
i'2000.i
10.97-
'f
fl!
-
—36.57-
16.27
I neth800
(TeTh
:.:.:.z.L.:.;:.:!:!r:..t.:.J.:.:.:.:
a
2 Dimensions& shapesforcoveredcourts—(4)sections alongitudinal
bcross
5 Children'scourt
340 Leisure
Sport
SKI JUMPINGSLOPES
pian
/
Sketch forconstructionofskijumpslopes
1
Following symbols should be used:
Djstance fromparapet of lower referee's cabin ofhorjzontal 'd' beneath
edge of platform: D x tg 16°—20°. Cabins should be located stepped
along diagonals formed by line fromplatform edgetoend of point 'D'.
Upper sideof floor of individualcabins lies 1 000—1 200 beneathparapet.
Diagonal oftowertoaccess oftrack should be7°—i0°sothatreferee can
properly observe entire flightand landing.
As manystarting pointsas possible should be locatedon run up distri-
P
datum point
table point
K
critical point (end of Slowingdown section & startof runoutslope)
B
endof landing runforvaulting
M slowing-down section (distancefromPlo K)
Mi distance from P to B
L
distance fromedgeof slope to P
Li distance fromedge of slope to K
H
verticaf projectionof L
N
horizontal projectionof L
H:N ratio ofverticalsto horizontals
a
slopeof platform
b
slopeof jump-off trackat datum point(P)upto criticalpoint(K)
C
run upslope
Ri radius of bend fromrunupto platform
R2 radius of bend fromlump-off to run Out
R3 radius of bend fromplatformto jump-offtrack
Iofplatform
U
partof runupinwhichspeed no longerincreases
E
partof runupinwhichspeed increases
F
OveralllOfrunup(F=U±E+I)
A
lofrunout
Vo speed at platformedge in rn/s
D
horizontaldistancefromplatformedge to lower part ofreferees
tower
0 distancefromjump offtrackaccessto referee'stowerfront edge
TP
buted evenly along length E15 whose distance should amount to about
1 000vertically. Bottom starting point: E — E/5.
widthofjump-offtrackat K: L1/7 + 4m.
Mm
Remarks
All slopesgivenin oldgrading (360°). If transfersparabolic, thenRi and
P2 smallest curves on thoseparabolas.
I
Withnatural runup, sections mainlyused should be marked every2000
to help locate starting point precisely.Gradients on platformand several
pointsin curve between run upand platformend should be recorded on
both sidesbyfixedbuilt-in profiles so that even non-experts can determine correctand precise profile when jump being worked.
Profile markings should be applied along jump-off profile both sides
down torun-out, allowingexact snow profileto bedeterminedparticularly
in deepsnow. Jumps with L more than 5Dm should not normallybe built
with Vo of less than 21 m/s. Jumps with Lover 90 m not approved by
Fédération internationale deski (FIS) (except foraerial skijumps).
Standardsforchiefparts of platform:
H:N 0.48—0.56
Datum point of platformcan bedetermined:
Li —M, wherestandardsforMare:
0.5—0.8Vo forplatforms up toP= 70m
P
M
M
Mi
Ri
R2
R3
I
U
A
0.7—1.1 Vo forplatformsuptoP = 90m
0—0.2Vo
0.12Vo2—0.i2Vo2+ 8m
0.14 Vo2—0.14Vo° + 2Dm
profile selectedforfront structurewhich best meetsangleof flight
0.22Vo
0.02Vo2
D
0.5—0.7x Li to loweredge oftower
4—5Vo on horizontalrunOut
0 0.25—0.50x Li
medium &largejumps
L
E
C
E
L
c
C
8—10
30° 35'
40
U
25 23
21
4.5 3.3
32 28 25
T
7—9
6—8
Vo =0.5 0.48 0.46 0.44 0.42 0.4
0.38
b
.1.
9—12
C
4O U
I
Vo
05
0.48
b
53.0
51 0
35—37
58.5
562
665
64.0
61.5
750
722
695
66.7
81 0
780
750
72.0
65.3
630
60.8
23
71.5
69.0
24
77.7
5.5 25
840
52
8.8
46
21
71
58
49
9.7
48
22
80
65
54
10.6
5.1
89
72
60
114
53
99
80
67
125
15
20.0 19.5 19.0 18.5 18,0 17.5 170 30—34
111
90
74
140
5.7 26
902
870
837
805
77.2
5.1 3.5 16
96.3
930
895
860
82.5
915
87.7
25.5 24.8 24.0 23.3 22.5 21.8 21 0 3O—35
124 100
81
150
5.9 27
39 32 28 5.8 3.7
17
31.0 300 29.0 28.0 27,0 26.0 250
33—30°
137 110
88
16.0
62
46 37 32 6.5 4.0
18
36.5 35.3 34.0 32.8 31.5 30.3 29.0
33—30°
52 43 37 7.2 42
19
42.0 40.5 39.0 37 5 36 0 34.5 33.0 34—37
59 49 42 8.0 4.4
20
47 5 45 8 44.0 42.3 40.5 38.8 37.0
2
056
0.52
44
€a
8—10
0.54
62
smalljumps
c
C
3O 35'
Dimensionssmall slopes
34—37W
28
.1.
36—30°
37—30°
38—40°
3
Dimensionslargerslopes
Example: accordingtoterrainfollowingdataapplyto LI &H:NegH/N =0.54;
C = 35°; L = 87m; intableyouwillfind L = 87&incolumn to left Vo=26; at
somelevelbeneathc=35°,E=gOm,U=14&T=5.7;F=E+ U+T=
90+ 14 + 5.7 = 109.7m: skijumpwith dimensionsdifferingfromabovecan
beapprovedbyFIS but in suchcasesdesignermustgive writtenreasons
Leisure 341
Sport
SKIJUMPING SLOPES
5
a
if"
I
I
juniorlumP
_
4
LI
!6
I
5
,
Olympicjump
___________________
0
b
m
6
12
18
24m
40
40
40
ott
vi
Olympicjump
1 Skijumpsat aGarmischPartenkirchen Germany
b HolmenkollenNorway: 1 start
2 run up 3take-offplatform 4 run
out 5grandstand 6umpires towers
ICE RINKS
Hosed ice rinksinsomecountries ontenniscourts, rollerskating rinks
and similar large areas (surrounding wall h approx 100—150); water
layer20; drainage forletting out water.
Artificial ice rinkswith refrigeration system 25 below screed. Pump
system with deep freeze salt solution or cold air chambers (usually
ammonia compression method) —e(3)—(5).Sometimes combination of
rollerskatingrink summer (Mar—Nov) and ice rink winter (Dec—Feb).
Refrigeration system25—50 below top of rink surface (not possible on
terrazzo).
Standard racetrack: 1300m, 333.3 m,standard400m: measured500
in fromedgeoftrack—e(2). In double track system each track 3000
5000. Ice hockey—ep342.
Bobsleigh runs with pronounced camber madeofice blocks atcurves.
Spectators preferably oninside curves, otherwise protective mounds of
snoworstraw bales.
Toboggan runssitutated on N-NW-NE slopes, preferably in hollow: I
1 500—2500m; incline 15—25%;w 2000.FIat finish orrise inopposite
w
direction, camber at curves, obstacles protected with straw bales or
snowmounds. Walk-up alongside noton run.
400mracetraclc
2xosntralaxis= 2x111.94= 223.88m
innercurve =25.5x3.1416= 80.11m
oulercurve =30.5x3.1416= 95.82m
25
111.94
—20.97
70
P/
CrOSSIng
//i!
,-5000 m_/'/'/
20.97—1O00m
41 3000m
startls0Om
7.957.76 innerlane
----.-
)
JcringPxtradsw
from70m
=0.18m
crossingstraight
2
Standardracetrack 400mI
100
insul--—
ahon
_.....f
sub-concrete
concrete
seamlesspipes
distrbution rods
in 75
concretemd
trios-salt
steel
prig
elf
felt
endline
m
2'
reinforcement
crease
protectiveordIe
radius2000
gravel
3
Artificialice rink: layoutof
refrigerationsystem(brine)
4
Detail ofsurfacepipes
5
Detail
ofembeddedpipes
6
Longcurlingground
342 Leisure
Sport
ICE RINKS (cont)
0
m-nee
targetground
l()
run-ott—
sideline ——
I
1000
0
.LI
—I
.Le5aO
Curling —(1): ground 42 m; w 4000 (30 x
3000also possible); intermediatetracks(strips)
1 m; pitch ends
600. Starting and aiming
areas surrounded with easily crossed wooden
barrier on3 sides.
Scottish curling—e(2): field 142m;target area
(tee) 03650. Tocentre pointoftee 38.35 m. If
ice poor, reduce to 29.26 m. Curling stone:
weight19.958 kg, circumference 914,h
ofcircumference.
Icehockey—o(3): ground
1/8
26 x 56 m, 30
x 61 m. Goal1830w, 1220h; may be played
around back. Pitch requires wooden barrier
1200h—u(3).
Figure skating: rectangular rink 26 x 53 m
30 x 60 m. Combination ofrollerskating rink
in summer (Mar—Nov) and ice rink in winter
(Dec—Feb).Cold pipe system 25—50 beneath
a
track surface —*p34l (5).
ROLLERSKATINGRINKS
2
1
Scottishcurling rink
Sportstracks
rollerskating hockey—.(4)15 x 30—
20 x 40 m
25 x 50 m
figureskating
2 Play tracks
lOx 10—
20 x 20m.
Impact board 250 h, 30 above track, 800 parapet along allsides, 2000chain-linkgrid at narrow
end (to catch ball), surrounding walking areas
1200; 50—100 deeper. Joints 5—6, slope
0.2%. Surface wateringuttersorditches, frost
protection layer
200 —*(4).
Construction
Asbestoscement panels 15; laid on squared
timberor on sand bed. Concrete tracks, 100—
150 according to type of bed, jointless ifposs-
ible, but imitation joints may be incised 2—3
wide.Space jointsevery 25—30 m, gap width
15.
1000—2000
Hard concrete screed, 8 on fresh concrete
base (20 mortar if possible to take up stress
between screed and concrete base).
I
.+_5400-÷--5000_1
I
I
2
Cementscreed withadditives 1—10.
centre
1215
1000
1
I
jj
200
a
ptnalt4
point I
Ib
Iu
I
I
I
30-40m
4
Rollerskatinghockey
Thnx\n
rollerskatetrack
30m
N9
cxi,
5
teamchangingrm
L=rr
ArtifIcialice& rollerskatingtrack
vc
E
o
Cs
Terrazzo, polished,
15, joint rails of brass,
metalalloyor plastics, only forindoor tracks.
Castasphalt trackson fixed base, as normal.
Leisure
343
Sport: golf
SITE
Courses generally cover between 40 and 60 ha. Most popular those
amongsand dunes or on heath land, neither hilly norflat. Well-drained
arable land generally suitable; in UK government grants may enable
more expensive works beconsidered if derelictortipped land reclaimed.
Golf holes need proper safety margin: should not pass closeroads or
throughnarrow tongues between houses.
LAYOUT—(1)
Normally 18 holes: often prudent start with
future extension.
9 holes while
providing
Site round club house 1stand 10th tee, 9th and 18th green (preferably
infull view), putting green, practiceground, car parks,members entrance
and serviceaccess. Ifprofessional's shop separate,place onway to first
Fairways
Width normally 30—40 m. Start 100
hole: 60 m (90 m on boundaries).
Rough
Carry rough:tee to fairway
Marginal rough: to either side of fairway,generally with mown band of
semi-rough' of approx 10 m before trees, shrubs etc.
Bunkers
Sand areas averaging perhaps 100 m2 but of all shapes and sizes. To
influence play determineoptimum line, provide options and penalise
mistakes.
tee.
Area dictates total length absolutely; contour, natural features
obstacles affectitmarginally.
and
Expect about 5300 m from40ha
6220 m from60 ha
Par is rating of av professional performance and yardstick by which
measure skill, errors and course difficulty: applied to each hole and
totalled for 18—.(2).
Tees
May be combined on av length course but may be separated into
championship, medal, club, ladies at progressively shorter distances.
Allow300 m2 (400 m2 at par 3 holes).
a
Greens —(4)
Size tosuit approach shotand need to spread wear by changing holes:
say400 m2 to 600m2.
3
agolfclub b golfbag
Cgolftrolley
1
Golf courselayout(GolfDevelopment Council)
strokes
par!
usuall
hole
m
3
4
5
110—1921—2
290—410
440—500
1
1
1
2
avm
2 Parvalues
2
2
par
75
72
71
67
67
3
9
6
4
5
13
0
4
11
12
4
10
4
3
1
m from men's tee. Playing width!
6310 5580 5120 5120 6760
4
Typicalgreen: 59m2
344 Leisure
Sport: equitation
INDOORSCHOOLS
Location
Preferably attownedges directily connected bybridlepathtowoodland,
pasture, heath-land orotherhacking-out —v(1).
In past ridingschoolsusually grew round existing bldg, eg adding to
stablesof old house, building asbestos-clad barn structure over riding
area to provideall-weather teaching.
Siting & access
1
Countrylivery stables& riding school
size ofopen trackwi
frontofschool:70.0>' 100.0
clearhot largeschool:11.2
clearhot smallschool 8.0
-.
If' >partrmabove
douhie>'andsclosed
inatapprox5600 above
0
both gangways&stan
arwith lanternround
top
hot bldgabovestandings
2400, gangways4600;
litbylanternabove
increasedhover
gangways
Essential requirements for anysite:
goodaccess for heavy vehicles aswell ascars
access toopencountry and/or bridlepaths
adequate el supply
adequate watersupply, possibly including fire hydrants
loose boxes should be protected fromprevailing winds
low-lying sites whichcatch water and are usually frostyin winter to be
avoided
stable smells sited awayfrom adjacenthouses
turning space for horsebox trailersand for loweringramps side and rear,
with space to load and unloaddifficulthorses;tuming space also required
formuck lorry —vp345(1)(2)
access for fire appliances; requires roads mm 3600 wide capable of
supporting pumping appliance laden weightapprox 101, with mm turning circle17 m dia
mm clearance height 3600, forhay lorries 4500: all gate openings mm
width3000clear
space to convert barn or erectpurpose-designed indoor school; nun
land requirementwith outdoor installations —vp3454ha.
Planning& layout
Planning of installations breaks down into 3 main groups: instruction,
horse management,admin—vp345.
Traditional plan usually arranges loose boxes looking inwards to courtyard with only covered way in front of each box. Later development:
totally enclosed loose boxes arranged either side of corridor enabling
themtobeserviced bytractorand trailor circulatingthrough block—v(3):
disadvantage extra cost, including extrafire precautions; horses can
become bored withoutoutside view. However, betterworking conditions forstable girls;ventilation can becontrolled toeliminatedraughts;
easier tomaintain even temp; quieterconditions canbeadvantageifsite
near road or railways.
Othergeneral principles:
preferable school not so near stables that voice of command from
instructors canbe heard and sodisturb horses atrest;
riskoffire in stables necessitates special planning consideration: straw
sto requires mm 1 hrfr from other parts of bldg, or fire break at least
4500recommended.
Consult relevantcodes and standards.
Spacerequired
Size of indoor school
dictated by ability of fast moving horse turn
10.0—11.0mø. Many differentstandardsofcovered school. UK National
24.4 m, large enough contain
Equestrian Centre has riding area 61
international size arena and hold dressage and showjumping events,
with seating for300along 1 side.At other end ofscale possible provide
suitable area underDutch barn, ofwhich sidesonly clad for 3000from
eaves, with wattle hurdles enclosing floor.Whatever standard of bldg
essential indoor ridingspace be 42 x 22 m to give40 x 20 m clear
floor space required forelementary dressage, allowingfortiltedkickingboardsurrounding walls.
x
—
_____________
hay
sto
20
19
18
17
seroce
16
yard
-
i_
14
13
12
11
wof school floorfor single circuit accordingly: 12.0 m
wof school floorforgroups: 15.25 preferably 20.117 m
I ofschoolfloor ratio 2:110w eg40.0:20.0
I can be increased: 20.0 x 60.0—80.0
yard
10
muck
container
feed
x
military school: 18.29 54.86m
h ofbldg: 4000—5000
-
Information based on requirementsof British Horse Society (BHS), British Show
Jumping Association(BS,JA) and Fédération d'EquitationInternationale(EEl)
2
II n ii
tack
Ueichange
ue=amity box
Ii
im —I
-r
entrance
Plan of Lea Bridgeriding schoolLondon Lee ValleyRegional Park
Authority Arch J M VBishopMGQuinton
3
Leisure 345
Sport: equitation
RIDINGCENTREPREMISES
10.0 7.O(7.0
I 2500
landrover
&trailer
I
I
t6.01.11.o i0.O
horse box
fl7.oI
Instructional: indoor school and areas—u(3)(4); outdoor manege—e(5);
grass paddocks (mm 8000 m2); outdoorshow jumping ring; outdoor
dressage area; cross country training area; clubrm/lecture rm/canteen;
sf0 forjumps, cavaletti etc(approx 5% activity area).
6.0
manure container
2
1 Clearancerequiredfor
Clearancerequiredfor
manoeuvringlargecontainertruck
manoeuvringhorsesintotrailer/box
62.0
60.35
42.0
40.234
I
riear_
I ..L
mm
JL-_ I
riding space
Vehicle and loading areas—+(1 )(2)
— ====1
I
I
temahona
Horse management:stables (loose boxes —a(6)and stalls); utility box:
grooming, clipping, shoeing, washing, treatment of cuts etc (size as
loose box but without fittings except tie rings); sick box (approx
3500 x 4500): should be away fromother boxes but within sight of
other horses; door should be in 2 leaves for horse to look out or be
enclosed if requires complete quiet; sling suspended frombeam with
block and chain may be needed: 1 250 kg max loading (for heavy
draught horse); larger establishments may need completely isolated
boxfor infectious diseases.
Feed sto —u(7), feed rm, tack rm—u(8)(9), tool sto; hayand straw sto:
Dutch-barn type structure; size depends on number of horses and
method of buying: year's supply of hay most economic way to buyas
price rises steeply during winter; straw price not affected so much
therefore sto less critical. Datato determine size required: for 1 horse
approx 9 kg hay/day, 1/2 bale straw/day; weight: 1 bale hay approx 23
kg, 1 bale straw approx 18 kg; bale size approx 900 450 x 450:
approx 10% extra volume should beallowed ontotal storequired forair
circulation and remaining stock when newload arrives.
x
Ridingschoolar: mm hneeded forjumping4000, 5000 preferable;
doorw 2300in twinsliders;ifspectatorseating needed will beadditional to
riding ar; judgesbox &collection/mounting aralso needed
3
33.2
f—18.3-4
01
J
E
1'
manege
ring
365
101a
&
rail
fence
surround
C
at
ra
5
48.857.81
•
I
a
tm
C
0
cinder
all-weather
welldrained
surface
E
5
Mucksto: traditionally openbunkers with brickorblock wallson4sides
with opening approx 900 wide on 1 side: concrete floor should drain
towards this opening with gully outside. Size depends on number of
horses and management.Allow approx 5.6m3/horse/week. After month
volume reducedapprox two-thirds. Skip-type containersrecommended:
various sizes depending onnumber ofhorsesand frequency ofremoval.
Veterinary sto: bandages may be kept in cupboards or pigeon-hole
racks. Leg bandage measures 127 wide and approx 75dia. Medicines
and poisons should be kept inseparate cupboardsand clearly labelled.
Smithy: possibly 10—15 m2 in large centres otherwise space to park
mobile blacksmith.
Administration; reception off; manager's off; staff rm; first aid rm;
lavatories; changing rm; garaging for horse boxes, tractors and trailers;
resident accn formanager; residentaccnfor grooms and/or stable girls;
plant rm (boilers, el switchgear etc); workshop.
Manegering
entrancefrom stables
—24.4—25.9-—'f
3500
4 Indoorshowjumpingarenawithcollectingnng,warm-up&practicejump
space:formounting/collecting ar allowfor20—30 horsesat 3.5—5 m2each
Jo
2hatterhooks
metal channel protective
ping to door
ca
______
/
11tiering
j{
fallonmanger
floor
painted brickwork
a
hayrack
straphinges
tie ring forhay net
'feedsto 1200
I
I
L_1
_______
.—i
skunitL
shelfoer hot & cold
halter
hooks
e
bucket
taps over
gulley
bridleracks
ceilinghung
bridlecleaning+
hooksfor
girths
r
+
ce4nghung
dr'jing rack
7
Feed sto:size
dependson numberof
horses &methodof
buying feed (sacksor
bulk); each bin capableof
holding 101 kgoats, 76kg
bran, 178kgcubes
8
enirancefromyard
holders
ullnose\
automatic
drinking trough or
x
j•x900
______
_________
entrancefromyard
b
brick
tiering for horse
iJ_
racks
kick-overlatch
mange
150O
3500
r_-4&oboiIe°
8
ii
Ivanisedmetal screen
3500
iop
with units
3500
saddlehorse
r—49000451)
ragchesfS.f1
ffsosk
----8500 cleanrm
draining
Planoftypicaltack &
clean rm; in larger
establishmentsseparate
cleaningrm desirable;
BHS recommends1 tack
rm/15 horses;valueof
tack requires rrnspecially
securefrom burglars
o
[___///
saltlickholder
r
9 Eqp storedintackrm includes:
saddleson racks anotlowerthan700
fromfloor nor higherthan 1800,600
centres;stirrups& leathers;bridleson
C
Typicallayoutforloosebox: mm intemaldimensionsponies 3000 x
3000, horsesbelow 16handshigh3000x 3500, horsesabove16hh3500
x 4000; recommendedh approx3000—4000; ifinternal corrneeded mm w
3000recommendedfor usebyservicing vehicles&as means of fireescape;
stallsmm 12700,mm w 1 800; mm passage betweenstalls1 800 asection
belevation Cplan
6
a
b
racks b 1 600abovefloor;head
collars,girthsonhooks 1 800 above
floor;blankets, rugs,sheetsusually
storedingalvanisedsteelchests(may
be kept in generalsto)
346 Leisure
Sport: marinas
DEFINITION
water
Liwater
d
bJFJJW
/
land
TYPES OF DEVELOPMENT
Landto water relationship —'(1): land locked —'(4), built-in —'(5),
®eO
Landtowater relationship: a land-locked
d offshore e island
1
a
N
semi-recessed, offshore, island (constructed in open water: special
case).
Tidal situation:
bbuilt-in csemi-recessed
//////////
L1!IJJ
b%'//////////
0
non-tidal: variations ofwaterlevel 1000; usually easy for people and
trolleysand simple connexions between onshore and offshore service
systems;
tidal: substantial changes of water level; difficult connexion between
pontoons and land for people and services; construction difficulties
almost inevitable.
Site selection factors:legalproblems; transport systems; potential for
future extension; construction options and methods; geological,
hydraulic, climatic; soil and sub-soil; orientation, physical features,
erosion, possibility offlooding; engineeringnetwork onshore; materials
stability; tides, currents, navigational requirements; pollution control;
labour sources; effect of marina on existing environment during
construction periodand after completion.
125 250375 500w
4J0
Marina's main role provide shelter from wind, waves and swell of
passing craft; access to moorings at all states of tide with space for
manoeuvre; tieing-uppoints for boats with services, eqwater, el, telephone, television, refuse collection, fire fighting, sanitation, public
address system; sanitary needs and amenities for yachtsmen, eq wc,
sho,changing and drying rm, entertaining,sporting activities,shopping;
car parking; eqpforlaunching, lifting, manoeuvring, repairing, maintaining boats; other bldg directly relatedto boating.
800120016005
2
Energy-absorbing slopesinside
HantsholmharbourDenmark
3
Pontoonlayouts: astretching
from land bstretchingfrom
breakwaters cstretchingfrom
floatingelements
OFFSHOREBOAT HARBOUR COMPONENTS
Area needed: craftsizesvary: I 4.8—21.3m (USA 4.3—24.4m), beam
1.8—6.0m (USA 2—6m); areas ofwatercalculatedon basis ofplanned
numberand sizeof craft moored, pontoon layout, types ofberth.
Depth ofwater: mm 600 (USA 610) plus max draft ofvessel at lowest
astronomical tide, 300 reserved for stilting, 300 for clearance, If too
shallow atlowest tidedredging necessary.
Channel: leading to entrance 20—30 m wide; main channel within
harbour area depends on number and sizes of craft passing through at
any 1 time, mm w 18 m.
Entrance:protectionrequired from ingress(waveenergy tobeabsorbed
before choppy conditionsarise inyacht basin)—'(2); suitableprotection:
spending beaches, rocks or concrete blocks moulded to appropriate
shapes, piles.
Pontoon layouts: well selected layout very important; main choice
limited to pontoonsstretching from a land, b breakwaters, c floating
elements —'(3).
9
50
10
150 200w
150 300 450 6006
4
Yacht basinChichesterEngland: land locked, 1000berths
Berth types—'(6): a stern toquay, iettyorpontoon bowsto piles (poor
for embarking); b same but bowsmoored to anchors or buoys (notfor
tidal marinas); c alongside finger piers or catwalks, 1 craft each side
(convenient for embarking); d alongside quays, ietties or pontoons,
single banked; esame upto 3 or4abreast (disadvantageofyachtsmen
on outer climbing overinnercraft); fstar finger.
central
square
kb
Hto
5
MarinaPort GrimaudFrancebuilt onreclaimed
marshland:900 flats each withberth
6 Types ofberth
k
a
Leisure
347
Sport: marinas
COMPONENTS(cont)
Locks: oftenhave more than 1 compartment; should maintainconstant
water level on 1 side,other side varying withtide; capacity decided by
peak use; waiting pontoons either side lock recommended.
Pontoon design: often used to carryservices and to support lighting
units, lockers, refuse collection points, fire fighting devices; service
bollards oftenprovided: boats/bollard 2—6;sewage collection points for
boats recommended either as holding tanks or as outlets connected
with vacuum sewage system leading to onshore network. Mm w main
access pontoons 2000with fingers 500 wide;if total pier I over 100,
2500wmoreappropriate; mm wfloating pontoon 2500.
Pontoon types: fixed: for non-tidal marinas; fixed deck (timber,
aluminium, plastics decking) resting on structural supports (piles most
common);serviceducts usuallyunderdeck;
floating:for tidal marinas or where structural difficulties occurand supportson bed not feasible (eg deep water, geological conditions); deck
fixed tofloating unitsand so kept at required level above water; floats of
steel, plastics, timber, concrete, polystyrene, filled with lightweight
material (eq polystyrene) or left hollow; pontoons held in position by
dolphins; in exceptional cases may be anchored to bed; connexion to
land byhingedbridge,ramps, lifts, hoists, collapsible steps.
Breakwaters: rubble mound: mainly forsites with relatively small tidal
variations; alternative concrete blocks moulded to shape: not appropriate for more extensive structures; with relatively shallow slope (1:2
to 1:3) rubble mound occupies largewater area otherwise available for
craftor otheressential uses;
vertical face: concrete walls (constructed in open sea conditions as
mass concrete
or buttress structures): efficient when built, difficult
to
constructand maintain;
caisson type: precast concrete cylinders (either hollow or filled with
sand) resting on sea bed; circular shaped cusps between units, positive
contribution towave energyabsorption;
floating: usually considered for sites with great depth of water and
relatively mild conditions; sometimes act as secondary protection or
primary barrier, reducing sea impact before waves reach main sea
defence.
Fuellingpoints:considered desirable but not required by authorities
(UK); floating tanks not usually accepted. NB fire risk prevention at
pointsofflexibleconnexions between tanks and floating pumps.
Pollution control: in non-tidalmarinaswater circulationcertainlyrequired
but hard to achieve. Sanitary accn for yachtsmen essential (travelling
distance
100 m); provide refuse disposal units close to craft as
possible; pollution culverts may alsobe needed.
Onshore elements:
car parking: ratio cars: boats 1:1—1:2; not too farfromcraftforyachtsmen and their eqp;
sanitary accn; recommended mm either 1 wc and 1 shoeach sexper20
berthsor 1 wc, 1 urinal, 1 hb, 1 shoper25men, 1 wc, 1 hb, 1 shoper25
women (max occupancy of harbour estimated 6O%; suggested ratio
men towomen 2:1);
yacht clubs: floor ar/P 1.0—5.0 m2: club rm, lay, drying rm, bars,
restaurants, meeting rm, indoorsports, off, information centre, sleeping
accn, caretaker's flat:
hard standing, boat sf0, repair shop and other elements related to boat
maintenance and handling; should have suitable device for boat lifting
and launching and easy connexion toroads; freeareas formanoeuvring;
fuel tanksoftensitedclose to boatyards;
ancillaries may include customs, coastguards, lock keepers, insurance
brokers, car hire, travel agent oft.
njjiiii_j.I
[DDfl
.I
-l—la
4
1
Boat sto with hoist
MarinaentrancedesignBrightonUK
5 Stoforsmall motor boats
Sto
bar
lecturerm
club
C
2 Main componentsof lock
ter
d
6 Floatingjetty with housing superstructure
Brightonmarina: section
3
Slidingcaisson& dockentrance
7
Clubhousedesign StokesBay sailingclub
Gosport UK: aWelevation bgroundfloor cfirst
floor dsecondfloor
Sportreferences:
—Bibliography entries003006 046 083 183 205 212 297 355 384 388
475514515516517537538549585586587588639
1
CD
(I)
C
CD
348 Leisure
Theatres
REGULATIONS
street
--
overt
otherwise
audience
v
i:I
1•passage
>
stage
-&
passage >40
40
court
'1'
a9o4
I
street
!ih1:
4O
Reg concerning theatre and cinema bldg and schemes not rigid inUKor
USA:concern public safety; must becomplied with to obtainnecessary
licence; should be discussed with licensing authority atearliest stage.
Principles applicable world wide;main task ofarchitectachieve balance
between commercial, artistic and spectator requirements, and design
scheme which complies with 'means of escape' and differential detail
safety reg.
For consents required in UK in addition to theatre or cinematograph
Street
Distanceto adjoiningbldg if
theatre
street
1
passage
Ito
licence—.Bib300 301 328 329 346 347 361 363 591 598 599
2
Distanceiftheatreparallel
tostreet
For USA—e local bldg codes
Organisation
Theatres may bedividedinto 3 parts—e(4):
reception: entrance, booking hall, foyer, cloaks etc
auditorium
stage: main stage, wings, back of stage, scenery sto, workshops,
dressing rm, rehearsal rm etc
Parts vary in content and size depending on type
drama, revieworcinema.
of theatre: opera,
Situation: Bldg for public entertainmentmust be sited allow
3
Distanceiftheatreliesbetween
blocks
4
LayoutofViennaStateOpera
concert
opera
.
revtew
.
cinema
audience
leavearea more rapidlythan requiredleavepremises.Check requirements
at earliest stage.
—v(1)(2)(3)for typical dimensions.
Audience arrival times —s(5) extend from 15—30 minutes, departures
5—20 minutes.
Pwaitingin booking ha
Pbookingwithin20mm
6%
before
performance
queuingforadvance booking
ticket control
time, ifarrivingbycar
seating
% ofPleavingseatsat interval
time requiredfor leavingseatto
foyer
time intoilet
time fromseattodrive,excludingdo
waitingfor taxisortransport
10%
20%
8%
2—15mm
1 mm
4—12 mm
2—15 mm
100%
—
1
1 mm
6—9 mmr
4 mm
—
50
75
4 mm
4 mm
6 mm
6 mm
1 mm
5mm
1—15mm
1—15
mm
2—5 mm
mm
—
—
—
—
S Tableafter Burns-Meyer& Cole(—oBibi52) giving% ofP&time inmm
needed reachorleaveseats,asmeasured inUSA
111111 JI
EU
cio/P
Car parks
—vp248—50. Capacities usually determined by planning
authority. Site vehicle entrance away from theatre entrance. Include
covered areaforsetting down passengers.
Exits mustall openoutwards and comply with requirementsfornumbers
and travel distance. General rule for numbers (UK) 1600 width for250
visitorsor partthereof with mm of2exits —.(6)(7).Ramps not toexceed
10% in UK; can be limited to 5% incontinental Europe.
Cloakrooms—v(7) Modern systems include self-service lockable coathangers orlimited length counters with mm number attendants.
Stairs—v(8) —°p408 Must complywith exitwidths requirements.Ifwidth
more than 1 800 should be designed as double stairs with central
handrail, 2 x 1100 ie 2200 wide. Risers not exceed 150, treads mm
280.
Foyers fortheatres can be 100—500 m2/P;for cinenias space required
for circulation and exitonly,unlikely be more than 100 m2/P.
Toiletsin accordance with licensing requirements; also —eBibO92.
USA reg for exits, stairs etc vary: example—a(1 0).
v'l000for2OP
befler2000&more
direct
imght&
+
oecitiiation
1100—l_00
IAI
6
Corrw: llOOforuptolOOP,
1600forup to 250 P
7
Exit&clo
maxtravel
refreshment
fire-proofwail
distance
within
assembiy
space Im)
rim
occupancy
group
classification
L/1
f-la
ffJ
f-2
ofwI
capacitylP/unit
doorsoropenings
aisle
primary
Secondary
&
from
from stairs
cross assembiy safe &
aisle space
Sr
escalators
26
30
53
38
38
76
80
90
400
50
80
400
100
125
500
60
80
320
ramps
corr,
safe ar,
exd
passageways
80
100
425
'unit 560
/corr
i-ia: enclosed theatreswithstagesthat
theatreswhichprohibit
mayhave scenicelements,i-lb.enciosed
use of scenic elements onorabove stage: f-2, outdoor
assembly spaces
8
Stairs:llOOforuptolOOP;
1600 forupto 250 P; centre
handrail requiredover 1800w
9
Providelob betweensmoking&
non-smokingar: doorsto openin
directionofexit
10 Determinationof exit&accessrequirements: extractfromNewYorkCity
bldgcode
Leisure
349
Theatres
CD
SIGHT LINES
C')
Typical seated spectator—(1)
Eye height: 1120± 100
Tread of seating tier (rowspacing) 1: 800—1150
Head clearance C:
C1 = 65: mm clearance/row, assuming spectator will see between
heads row infront (every-other-row vision)
C2 = 130 allows av spectator see over head av specator in front
(every-row vision)
Rise R —*(2): difference in height between adjacentseating platforms
Floor slope:
Arrival point of sight(APS) —(2)(3): intersection of highest sightlmneat
focal planepositioned 50above stage platform
Distance: horizontal distance from eye ofseated spectatorto APS
D1 = distance fromeye offirst row toAPS
= distance fromeye ofgiven rown toAPS
Elevation: vertical height ofeye ofseated spectatorabove focal plane
E1 = vertical height ofeye offirst row abovefocal plane
= vertical height ofeye ofgiven rownabove focal plane
= 0 establishes max stage height allowable, ie 1 060
CD
C
E
Constant rise floor slope —(2): sight lines from rows parallel; APS
determined by intersection of sightlinefromlast orhighest row at focal
plane:
T
T
R=-E1+(N—1)+C
E1
D1=—E1+(N—1)C
=t(R—C)—C(N—1)
N = number ofrowsin seat bank.
Iscidomal floor slope —(3): exponential shape of floor slope results
from generation of sightlines fromsingle focal point orAPS; iscidomal
floor slope makes more efficient use ofgiven total rise:
2
Constantrisefloor slopes
Type and scale of performance will dictate range of performing area
sizes —*(4). May be desirable enable performing space accommodate
variety of performing area sizes. Containment of audience within130°
angleperipheral spread of vision from performer at point of command
will help promote maxvisual and auralcommunicationbetween performer
and spectator.
Largest performing area should fall within boundary defined by 130°
angle of peripheral spread of vision from seats at ends of front rows
—(5). Limitofcentreof action defined by 60°angle of normal, accurate,
polych romaticvisionfrom seatsatends of front rows. Pointofcommand
should logically fall within centre ofaction.
Boundary limit of seating area ofauditorium might be defined by given
constant angle of peripheral spread of vision to sides of given stage
opening. Limits ofboth30°and 60°angles of peripheral spread of vision
tovarious openings illustrated —(6).
3
Iscidomalfloor slopes
A 8.5m
B 10.7m
C 12.8m
D 14.9m
E 17.Om
4
Rangeofperformingar
5
Relationstiipbetween
performingar&seating
6 Viewinganglefields fromstageopening
350 Leisure
Theatres
AUDITORIUM
movable (flying &/or hinged)
auditorium ceilingcan beused
tovary seating capacity insingle ha
Auditorium longitudinal sections shown —.(1 )—(6) have same numbers
of rows. Max D:H balcony overhang proportion recommended: 1:1 for
concerts, 2: 1 foropera, drama. Flying balcony may allow greater D : H
ratio by allowing reverberant energy reach rear seats frombehind. Last
rows should have clear sightline to central speaker cluster. Balcony
overhangs positioned clear of projection beam. Max sight line angle
frombalcony to stage: 300
Convexand irregular surfaces aid sound diffusion. Domes, vaults and
other large concave surfaces may cause acoustic problems. Higher
ceiling for longerreverberationtime asrequired forconcerts; typical hall
volume: 20.5 m3—35 m3/audienceseat. Lower ceiling forshorter reverberation time as required for drama, speech; typical hall volume: 7.5
m3—14 m3/audience seat. In halls used for concerts treat stage and
audience seating as 1 volume. In multiple-use halls this condition
achieved with hard orchestra shell which must be demountable for full
useofstage forscenery. Acoustic requirementsmay dictatethat reflective
surfaces at ceiling of orchestra enclosure extend out above audience
seating.
6
3flying baic
traprm
seatwagon sb
ar/musician
1—1.5 m2
7
Typicalorchestrapitliftdetail
max seats: 12—17(l4typ) USA
18—30 modifiedcontinental
14—22 UK
8
Multipleaisle seating
max seats permittedperrow: 49;unlimited
incremental increase in row I sometimespermitted
asfunction ofincremental increaseinrow spacing
9 'Continental'seating
Leisure
351
Theatres
SEATING
Sizesdepend on type of chair and determine chair spacing. Decide on
chair style at outset. Traditional chairs require mm spacing at 840 and
are 500 wide—*(1);mostcommon USAdimension 530. Modern chairs
vary considerably: can need1 400 spacing and width of 750. Standing
space —+(2) formerly normal not usual in modern theatres. Seating
usually laid out in straight or curved rows; in some theatres angled
seating tried —e(3). Seating radius centre point best established by
trying alternative positions. Short radius enables whole audience face
centre of stage but this must be drawn to ensure adequate circulation
spaceat front stalls sides.
I- 840—1000H
I Allseatsfixedtip-up chairs
(exceptinboxes);armchairseating
needs1400 x 750spaces
2
Standingroom, unusualin
modem theatres
BALCONIES
2000
r—
Theatres with 1 balcony (frequent in USA) —*(5) can give better sight
lines than multiple —*p350, reduce staff requirements, simplify exits,
increase spectatorconvenience. Sometimesmovableceiling.Very deep
stalls under balcony .—(5) tend to limit upward sight line. Multiple
auditoria have become common —e(7). Containment of sound in each
auditorium major problem.
—1
:
FLEXIBLESEATING—aIsop135
H—
3
Angledtip-up seatsgive elbow
room
2400
—
4
Boxesmay have 10chairs&
clear way toexit
Divisionofauditoria intosmaller rm bysliding folding partitions common
in conference centres; more difficult in theatres with stepped floors.
Consider closing off areas of seating to provide smaller capacity; to
provide full flexibility folding seating areas can slide away to expose
level floor —spl35(4). Loose seating used on flat floor gives very poor
sightlines:musthave temporary fixing. Stoaccnforloose seating must
be provided;1 000folding chairs need 20—36 m2stospace.
9
24
25
50
1
8
5
5
24m
15ft
m
75 ft
PUIHHHIIIH0011_
5
Section rough auditorium ofAmerican1-balcony theatrewith
ambulatory&view intorear stalls: equal seatvaluesostandard prices
possible
6 HamiltonPlaceOntarioCanada aorchestrafloor b1St balconyfloor
Arch Garwood-Jones
7
Concertha Helsingborg Finlandwith 2ha1 aboveother a longitudinal
section bplan of large ha Arch S Markelius
key
6 upperlob
7 upperpart studio
theatre
8 meetings
9 orchestrastage
10 dramastage
11 reCeiving
12 ott& entrance
13 dressingrm
14 rnecheqp
0 3 6 9
12m
10 20 30 40ft
352
Leisure
Theatres
mm
normal max
m
m
10
drama
8
review
10
10
12
musical
opera
1
11
12
18
STAGETOWER
Dimensions governed by stage machinery, increasingly complex to
speed scenery handling and changes. Small stage withoutside and
backstage —(2a). Shifting scenery by hand with trained staff 3 mm;
with 'jacknife'trolleys15sec—9(2b); ifsideand backstagewith traverse
rn
12
14
15
25
trolleys10sec—(3).
Revolvingstage
Stagew
Discwith 2—3 sets—(3)
2 discswith contact at stage centre
Reciprocating segments —*(2c)
Ring stage withcentreupstage—(2d)
Ring stage withcentrein house—*p353
I
r--t—l
2A
I
Stage tower
Widthofstage twicestage opening —÷(3).
Depthof stagefromfire curtain 3/4 stage width, height to rigging loft
i
i
L_i
underside
medium height of auditorium
+
height of stage opening
Fireman's rm 800wide,2200 high scenery at each side of stage,with
viewandexittostage; escape route also required.
Width of corridor at stage level 2200, otherwise 1 500. If stage
(without side and backstage) larger than 350 m2 width of corridors
increases by 150/50m2.
Exits fromstage areas should beplanned provide readyegress from all
parts. Include at least2 exits ofwhich 1 must lead to openairthrough
a
unventilated lobby. Mm widths should comply with reg. Exit requirements frombasement and dressing rm areas similar, ito be independent of stage area and 1 from dressing rm should also lead directto
openair.
Workshops(locksmith, carpenter,paint shop) connectedbyfirelobbies
to corridors.
c
d
Diagramsshowingvariousways ofsetting&handlingscenery
Scenery sto atstage level 1O% ofstage area.
Heightof scenery stoapprox6000—10000.
Rigging loft: space overstage used for hanging scenery and lighting
eqp. Between loft and roof construction allow 2100 head room.
Adequate ventilation equal to 10% stage areatobeprovided by haystack
lanternabove loft. Varies fromcode to code USA.
Fire curtain:stage must be separated fromauditorium by fire proof
curtain ofwire-woven asbestos clothstretched between top and bottom
steelpipes, asbestos plates fixed tofireproofsteelframe orsheetmetal
fixed to fire proof steelframe. Hand release to operate fire curtain and
drencher system over. Both automaticand hand releaseusuallyrequired
in USA.
Curtain must be in 1 piece; should move vertically and should close
completelyin 30 seconds.
3
Diagrammaticplan of stage towerwithtypicaldimensions
Diagrammaticsectionofstagetowerwithtypicaldimensions
Leisure 353
Theatres
MULTI-FORMTHEATRE
Ring stagewithcentre inhouse-.-(1)—(5)Aimsatintimateconnexion
of audience and actor; brings play amongst audience in contrast to
peep-show' stage. These methods call for modern stagecraft. Actor
playssurrounded by his audience —(2)(4)(5) without curtain and with
little scenery. Auditorium may be round, square or rectangular —(4).
Instead ofsceneryuse canbe made offilm projection.Revolving stages
—(2)(3). Revolving auditorium —*(2)(3).'Theatre in the round' (arena
type)where common stage omitted —(5).
Combined 'arena' &'peep-show' stageAsarena theatresidewalls of
auditorium have rolling orsliding outpanels which line upwith cyclorama
and thus enclose space. As 'peep-show' theatre proscenium arch put
between auditorium and stage.
1
Arenastage:groundfloorplan
Arch Kreisiinger& Rosenbaum
2 'Total theatre' withrevolving
centre: plan shows bothpositions:
after Gropius
Theatre references:
—4Bibliographyentries 015 034 113 114 152266298309340343350
351 352361 408409413475556572626
3 NewLondonTheatreDrury LaneLondon: revolving stage&frontstalls
with adjustableh seating; canbe eitherin theroundorproscenium
Arch Tvrtkovic& KennyChew&Percival
I
KleinesHausTheater Mannheim (Germany)with adjustable seating
a peep-show'stage withorchestra bdouble-sidedarena stage carena
stage allround ArchG Weber
5
Arena StageTheaterWashingtonDC USA upperlevelplan Arch Harry
Weese
6
Circle level Olivierauditorium National TheatreLondonEngland Arch
DenysLasdun
Plan at balc level TyroneGuthrieTheater(three-quarterarena)
MinneapolisUSA Arch RalphRapson
354 Leisure
Cinemas
—also theatres p348—53
Techniques& regulations
Very similar to theatres. Old requirements (UK) for open space round
cinemas stillapplicable—(1 )(2);architect mustdiscuss requirements at
earliest stage. Use of courtor mall access becomes more common in
comprehensive schemes, but unless courtfully fire protected may not
countas exit—(3).
Consultrelevant codes and standardsfor all details.
Doors & corridors
mended. Limitto sightangleof35° above horizontal produces distance
to screen on centre line of 1.43 x height fromfront roweye level totop
of picture—*p357(4).
Seat sizes finally determine layout dimensions —*p350—1. Vertical sight
lines determined in similar way as for theatres—p349 except that each
spectatorshould have clear viewto bottomofpicture. Side seating at front
limited byangles ofsightto screen —p355(6).
Widthsmust match exitrequirements. Doors toopenoutwards against
exit flow in corridor and to be free of fastenings except panic bolts.
Projections forhandrailsup to75allowedintoexitwidths butdoors must
provide clear exit dimension measured fromdoor face to frame when
standing open. Doors generally required to befr and selfclosing —'(5).
Accesstoauditorium
Srcases
Now often considered necessary in commercial cinemas. Various
theoriesusedto divide total seats needed. Ratios of 1:2or2:3 fordual
cinemas; ratiosof1:2:3 fortriple cinemas; progressionofseat totals for
larger multiples. Basicrequirement: givevisitor choice of programmes
andenableoperator judge business potential of each film soas showit
in auditorium ofcapacity to match public demand. If film playing to half
capacity audiences can be transferred to smaller auditorium or vice
Must also match exit requirements —p348, clear width being
measuredbetween walls orwalland balustrade—*(6). Not less than 3
risers permitted; not more than 16 risers in straight flights. Max of 2
successive flights without turn allowed provided number of risersreduced to 12. Landings attop, bottomand between flights should equal
width required. Stairrisers(UKcode) not to exceed 150, treads atleast
280; USAcodesvary.
Stairs —'p408
In stepped seating can be from beneaththrough vomitory orfromrear,
each to crossoveraisle. Side and rear aisles add toease ofaccess and
supervision ofaudience.
Multipleauditorium
versa.
Seating capacities vary between 100—600 chairs: generally regarded
(UK) asmm and max auditorium sizes—(7).
Seating
Layoutssimilar totheatres—*p349—50,except seatblocks donotnormally
exceed 14 chairs. Spectator convenience improved for continuous
performances; salesofconfectioneryimprove when accessfrom seating
increased. Modern chairs, some of which have nottip-up seats, need
greaterspacing, Distance fromscreen to front rowofseats determined
bymax allowable anglebetween sightline fromfirst rowtotop ofscreen
and perpendicular to screen at that point: max angle 30°—35° recom-
Sales, staff, projection and service arrangements can be as for single
cinema —*p355—7.
Ventilation andacoustic separation must be provided. Single projection
rm to link all auditoria preferred but automation and closed circuit tv to
monitor programmes make possible separate eqp in conversion of old
properties.
!
0
•i\\
street
t1o
:i.;:;;II;I.1i1r...
6OL120
1courttotaketotal
tierofspectators
street
1 Cinemas
with morethan 2000
seatsshould haveexits on more
than 1 publicroad,orbesituatedin
courts
i3i3
Cinemaswith less than2000
seats shouldhaveexits on public
road; maybe incourts—(3);for
passages—(4)
street
pa11t1
:
I:
1
court.
ii!
3
Cinemascanbesituatedoff
street butmayrequirealternative
exits
slope1:1O. radiatorsin
tire
proof
rise
eys
auditonum
5
's15O
tread
door'must
openoutward
Door&corrwtocornplywithreg
—p348:doorstoopenagainstexit
flow
6
direct
light&
—ventilation
1.1
1.
Wofstairstoequaiexitw
—p348:flightsnotlessthan 3 risers
not morethan16, l2if2flights
without turn
7
CinemaPutneyLondon: multipleauditona; partofcommercialbldg,
with high levelcommonprojectionrm
Leisure
355
Cinemas
Cloakrooms
Not standard requirement inUKcinemas: ifprovided should beplanned
notto obstruct exits or normal circulation—*(1)—sp348.
•
Projectionrooms
Used to be divided into separate compartments for rewinding and
projecting film with dimmer rm, battery rm, switch rm, spotlight rm,
workshop and staff and storm, each 6—10 m2forming suite—e(2)(3).
column
1.6
::...:.-.::::-:::•::.......g ......•.....
F::::::::•:•::-::::::::•:::::::
1
1.1
Modern automated systems take about same space and require rewind
bench to giveoperational flexibility.
Arrequiredfordocounter —vp348:notusualinmodern cinemas
amplifier &
tapedeck
1
Type of eqp to be used should be established at outset tofinalise detail
dimensions. Provided non-inflammable (safety)filmonlyused exits can
beinternal —n(4): if inflammabletimused 1 exit mustleadtoopenairand
haystack lantern must be provided, with opening area of 0.19 m2for
each 640 m of film used and stored in rm. Exit to public area must be
through ventilated protected lobby. Circulationspace for servicing and
access must be provided round eqp; front wall length of 5500 x rm
depth of 3500is av size. Plan staircase and door widths to allow for
access of eqp; risersshould not exceed 190 treads at least250.
Mirror projections and observationused where space limited, and before
automation became available —(3). With mirrors 1 projection rm can
serve multiple cinemas located vertically; but as general rule better
avoid mirror projection. Picture ratios vary with film systems: operator
mustdecide whatrequired —n(S).Advance techniques employ variable
height and width pictures; as size of arc lamp used determined by
picture area max effectobtained byusing differentratios ofequal areas.
portholesassmall
P\
canopy
arclampextract
switch gear rm
Diagramofprojectionrm; ifwindow installed ensuredaylightcannot
reachscreen aplan bsection
2
Using70 film makes possible bigger area screens. Normally accepted
max screen widths:for 70film 20 m, for35film 13 m.
Screen sizeshould be largeas possible up tothese maximaorwidth of
Projectionrmingallerystructure,
observationthroughmirrors:with
35 mm also projectthroughmirrors
3
seating whichever least; ratios ofwidth to max viewing distance should
befrom 1:2to 1:3—v(6). Advisable inverysmall cinemasaccept ratio of
1:2 to enable standard focallength lenses to be used and avoid very
small pictures. Wider pictureswould requirespecial lenses. Tocalculate
picture widthobtainablefromgiven lens:
4
Internalprojectionrmwith
mech ventilation
w=
film frame apperture w x throw
focal Iof lens
Inanamorphic (Cinemascope) projection same formula used multiplied
by2.
1:1.37 normal
1:1.66paramount
1:I.75mgm
1:1.B5columbi
1:2.2 todd ao (70mm)
1:2.34cinemascope
5
1:3.25
cinerama
Commonfilm ratios:useadjustable maskingto screentosuitpicturesizes
\/
with vertex
zoneii
perboia
\—asyniptote
pointonScreen
iso-defo,rTlatlon zonelimit lutes
zonei: y=0.3x'—H'
zoneii: =
H=screenh
y
6
Curved directional screens originallydeveloped to overcome dispersion
of reflected light from flat screen. Modern cinema with betterscreen
material able to use curve of screen to reduce amount of apparent
distortion to sidesightlines. Too much rise onchord cangive problems
with focus over whole picture area. Screen radius usually between
75—100% of projection throw; rise on chord should not exceed 10—
12% ofchordwidth.
i
ii'
flatscreen—seatingzonelimits
zone i: y= ±(0.5W—yO.33x'
—
H')
Vii)
where, \/0.75W'+3H'
zoneii:y= ±(0.5W—
where, 0.25W' +3H'
Filmprojectionplanning:
viewing pointonscreen:line of iso-deformation =boundaryof seatingarfor
which spectatorswillseesame apparent distortion: hyperbolashapedefined
in planbyasymptotesfrompointon screen; zoneIdistortion existsbutnot
noticedfromseatsfallingwithin hyperbola: mm horizontal distancefrom
vertexof hyperbolatoscreendeterminedbylimitationof verticalanglefrom
eye of firstrowtotopofscreento max of 30°—35°;zoneIIdistortions noticed but
toleratedfrom seatsfallingoutsidezone I;zone Ill (seating placed beyondlimit
ofzone II) distortionsof projected imagenottolerated&viewerwillrefuse
curvedscreen—seating zonelimits
iso-deformationzonelimit tinesmost
easily plottedbygraphicalmethod:
plotiso-deformationhyperttoiaIronpoint
on screen& rotateaxesaboutcentre
ofscreencurvature
seat placedhere:
viewing flatscreen: seatingarrepresented by arcommon to spacewithin 2
hyperbolas;arinzone Iforwide projectedimages lessthanzone Iforpointon
screen;seatingarforzone IIforwide imageonflat screen maycorrespond
approxtozone Ipoint onscreen
viewing curvedscreen: zoneI arforgrvenscreenwcanbeincreased by
curvingscreen;appropriatecurving willcause overlapof hyperbolasdrawn
from sidesofprojectedimagesoastodefinegreatercommonseating ar
CD
(/)
C
CD
356 Leisure
Cinemas
Generallayout
In addition topublic areas must include staff and service areas:
boilerhouse
el substation
m2
25—30
28—38
m2
plenum chamber
kiosk stockrm
manageroffsuite
3 sto rm
switch, battery,
workshop &staffrm
ice-cream sto 20
staffrm
45
projection rm 19—25
20
10—15
or
38
28
40
Lighting systems
Provideinaccordance with detail licensing requirements:
decorative lightingand anyrequired spotlights toauditorium dimmed to
showfilm, otherpublic areasmaintainedwhile spectators use bldg;
cleaner'slighting to auditorium and foyers: auditorium system used as
emergency lighting under managementcontrol; USA emergency lighting
operates automatically if main fails;
maintained lighting to auditorium and exit boxes throughout bldg:
designed provide illuminationofseatingareasand gangwaysduring film
programme (no light to fall on screen or walls); New York City code
requires aislesand crossings have mm 5.35 lx at all times;
2
Cinema in Oslo:groundfloorplan showing circulationinlateral
arrangementwith double-sideddo ArchBlackstad& Dunker
safety lighting to all public, key staff areas and exit boxes throughout
bldg: must be kept on as part of maintained system; should main el
supply fail safety system must be able provide sufficient light allow
public and staff leave bldg safely; N American and continental Europe
practice provide separateemergencylightingsystem which only illumines
on failure of main supply: notpermitted in UK.
other el systems includefire and burglaralarms, speakerwiring, internal
telephones, induction systems forboth deaf-aids and managementcall,
closed circuit tv, emergency public address and main switchgear for
controlofheating, ventilation, projection and stage eqp.
box
oft
Heating—*pl 6385—9
Ventilation&air conditioning—*pl5—16392—4
Heating and ventilation for public entertainment bldg developed as
licensing authorities required higher ventilation standards. In UK fresh
airventilation requirement basedon number of persons accommodated
and varies from 70—93 m3/hr/P in auditorium and extract system for
75% of input air. Where air-conditioning installed at least half this
quantity must be fresh air, with up to 50% filtered and recirculated.
3
CinemainMadrid:diagonallysituatedincorner bldg withmosteconomic
useofspace &goodshapeofauditorium; ground floor plan Arch Gutierrez
Soto
Foyer and toilet systems based on normally accepted standards
—xBlb347.Toilets affected bylicensing requirements.
staff
Incoming air must be heated; plenum system generally used with air
supply at screenend and extract divided in auditorium rear corners to
avoid vitiated airbeingilluminated by projection light ray. General parts
ofbldg can be heated by lowpressure hot water system.
cix
Filmdisplay
In schools, universities, hotels and other bldg 16 eqp used; when
approved this does not require separate projection rm, provided clear
space maintained round eqp. Regulationsfor space requirement vary
from 900 to 2000. Picturewidths up to6000possible with suitable light
source; anamorphic (Cinemascope) ratio varies from 35 to 1:2.66.
Commercial cinemas in USA and UK have used 16 eqp but in UK
picture and printquality notgoodenough.
—xalso lecture theatres p135
:J1fl
projection
exit
cio-l-
sidegangway
exit
't
stair to
gaiiery
.
stage podium
screenJfl
artists
[
cix-4--
-
auditorium
(orchestraLfil
exit
wc
-
I
.
I
sidegangway
LI
.
fresh-
j,
exit
I
4—
street
stairto
gatery
secondaryentry
& stair toprojection
1
Circulationdiagram: stageaccnnotnormallyneeded; exitstosuit seating
capacity
4 Cinema in Turku Finland: 590seats ArchBryggman
I
Leisure 357
Cinemas
Screensystems
Cinema screen in past titted into adapted theatre; today increased
picture size (Cinemascope, Cinerama,Todd AD, Circarama, IMAX,for
small cinemas closed circuit tv) determines interior design. Traditional
cinemas—.(1a)had small pictureswhereas3-projectororiginalCinerama
system .—°(lb) involved spectator with 30.5 m screen. This surpassed
by new single projector IMAX system with 70 film used horizontally to
enlarge frame size and provide 36.5 m picture, seating being placed
closescreen preventing whole picture being seen without both vertical
and horizontal movement of head; callsforspecial projector and auditorium; used in Canada and USA.
a
Circarama system using 11 projectors gives full involvement but no
seating practicaland handrails necessary prevent audience tailing over
—°(3): used very successfully at Disneyland.
Further development used in theme parks and now in Experience
theatres world wide: audio-visual technique ofautomated multiple projection of still pictures with auditorium effects and multi-track magnetic
sound systems. Closed circuit projection tv system feasible with electronic line enhancement; gives picturesof 2430x 1 830. With Eidophor'
screen sizes up to 9 m x 12 m possible. Development in progress in
USAand UK.
1
Sound systems
Have developed considerably; problems of handling magnetic sound
recordings on film being answered by Dolby encoding optical system.
Stereo across screen and to front and rear provided on 70 film with 5
rear screen speaker tracks and 6th track forauditorium speakers. Wide
screens and side sound sources can produce acoustic problems: generally for cinemas reflected sound paths should notexceed directpaths
by more than 15 m—.p18395—7.
atraditionalcinema bfororiginalCineramasystem
2
Civiccentre in centralrestricted position forces placingofhaforvarious
uses (cinema,concert,exhibition, museum, theatre)aboveone another:
spaciouscentrallob,foyer&stairsshared Arch Cassandra Athens
3
Circarama:screencircular
(370°);11 synchronised projectors
producecoherentpicture;
example;Expo Brussels
yroihonray cenireiune
betternot toeeceedtO
I
+
—keepeyepoinitor
saeen
frame
sighthnesfromrearsears
tobottomofyiciure
sight tine angiesvary
raker
t v
to screen= .43 hfromfront
.f_.___distaflce
eye ieneitotopofscreen
4
Basicrequirementsforauditorium levels; rakenotnecessarily limited to 10% & 5% in USA
358 Leisure
Drive-in cinemas
Curved layouts give maxof360 carspaces and
individual speakers foreach car. Usual layouts
on principle of amphitheatre forboth individual
and multiple schemes. —(1 )(3).
Sizesover 1000 carsunusual.Multipleschemes
more acceptable to operators. Some original
situations in N America rebuilt to include dual,
tripleorquadruple layouts.
Situation on highways usuallyaway from residential areas. Should be sited so that lights
frompassing traffic donot disturbspectators or
throwlighton screen.
Layout should provideview of picture at not
more than45°from screencentre; rampsshould
be designed so that spectators can see over
cars in front —*(2). Distance from screen to
front rowwith large screen often more than 50
m. Carholding areasavoid trafficjams on highway. 2 double ticket booths normal mm: 500
cars need mm
20minutes toenter. Exitsshould
be away from entrance. Cars may leave and
entersimultaneously between programmes.
Screen size varieswith overall capacity: 30.4
x 13 m normal max, 20% of distance to rear
Drive-incinemainfanshapewith singleramp, shownforright-handdrive traffic;projection bldg
obstructsviewfrom2rowsto rear
1
sightlines to bottomof screen—cars titledupto
maximise viewthrough windscreen&over cars infront
-
2
•
6100
2OO
1
o
Children's playground and outside seating
provided in NAmerica. Surface waterdrainage
catchment pooi oftensitedin front ofscreen.
Projection bldg in centreor at rear, includes
--
—
0
pole with loudspeakers
&elheaters
—-
-
cars normal mm. Should face between E and 5,
making possible earlier evening performances.
Heightabove ground depends on site profile,
determines angles ofcar ramps.
0
3400
increases with steeper carramps
Dimensionsfordoubleramplayout: singlerampscommoninUSA
workshop, sto, switchrm, soundand projection
system. Can includepublic toilets, restaurant
and office. Max projection throw 137 m nor
lessthan2 x screen width.
Sound reproduction best with speaker taken
into car from poles spaced at 5000 centres.
El fan heaters may also be on poles. Some N
American operators also have air-conditioning
by underground ducts with flexible car connexions.
Floodlighting provided for intermission;
hooded roadway lighting maintained through
performance.
3
Dual drive-incinema:1 projection rmfor bothscreens makes possiblestaggered startingtimes;all
other services(eg ticket off,bar,lay) used jointly
Cinema references:
—Bibliography entries 084 098 099 113 114
129328329339 347 426 598 599
359
Leisure
Museums
Irecepton
restoration
registry
sto
CD
Forshowing worksofartand obiects ofculturaland scientific interest rm
C',
must:
ensure protection against damage, theft, fire, damp, aridity, strong
curator
research
lecture rm
gallery
check-in
entrance
1
ROOMS
2
Sectionofgallery litfrom 1 Side
only, bottompartindirectly,
attenuatedlighting
Layoutdiagram
spotlight
sunlight and dust;
showworks in best light(in both senses ofterm): normally achieved by
dividing collection into
objectsforstudy(egengravings, drawings) kept in portfolios and stored
in cupboards (with drawers) about 800 deep and 1 600 high;
objectsfordisplay (eg paintings, frescoes, statuary,ceramics, furniture)
Exhibits must be so placed as to be seen without effort: calls for
selective and spacious arrangement, with variety and suitable rm shape
and sequence.
So faraspossible each group of pictures in 1 rm orsequence ofrm and
each picturea wall to itself: ie number of small rm. These also provide
morewall space in relation to ground area than large rm, necessary for
big pictures: rm size depends on picture size. Normal human angle of
vision (54° or 27°up fromeye level) achieved with well lit pictures 10m
away = hanging height of4900above eye level and about 700 below it
—(5). Only withlargepictures isthere needforeyetotravel from bottom
of frame up above angleof vision. Best hanging position for smaller
pictures: point of emphasis (level of horizon in picture) at eye level
m
3
4
Installlightingsothat anglesof
incidencecorrespondwith natural
light
Typicalcross-sectionfor
museumofnaturalhistory
ribbed glass
frosted glass
,
screen
N'
S
N
_____
"
__________
k>1
j
100
I-
5
-
largest
hanging
surface
best
5.6 hanging
surfaces
between
950&3.6
3—5 hanging surface
space/picture
6—10 m2 ground surface
space/sculpture
1 m2cabinet space
space/400 coins
Calculations formuseum lighting highly theoretical: quality of light what
matters. Experiments carried out in America therefore more important
(—÷Bib561). In recent times continuous increase in use of artificial
lighting, instead of constant variations of light experiences even with N
lighting —*p360.
GENERALLAYOUT
No continous circularitinerary butwingsleadingoutfromentrance. Side
rm forpacking, despatch, transparencysection, restorationworkshops,
lecture rm. Museums sometimes in bldg originally designed for other
purposes.
1)
6
Ideallylitrmwith uniform lighting
front both sides,asworkedoutby
S HurstSeager(-.Bib561)
Well-lit exhibitionhabasedon
Bostonexperiments
1001
(Th
i
>
I27/'
iLl
T1
900r
27°
2.0
1.0
1.5 500e
h
7 Field ofvision:h&distance
8
a
0.1
1000
0.5 0.6 0.75
10 Paintingstowithdetachablesteelmeshframesonwhichpictures can
behungasrequired&be readyforremovalatanytimeforstudy
Size & distance
outerwallof glass optional
J.
AAAA1iAWA1,AI
I
Exhibitionrmwith side lighting:
suitablehangingsurfacebetween
300 &600 with mih of6700&dlih
2130forpicturesor3040—3650for
sculpture,ascalculatedfrom
Bostonexperiments
11
9
Exhibitionrmwith folding screens(designK Schneider) allowsgreat
variety ofrmarrangements
ox+iöo-+io.o'
—,
12 Exhibitionrm withsuccessful
useofavailablespace:panels
betweencentralpillarscanbe
rearrangedbetweensupportsas
needed;ifouterside-wallof glass
installedwindowarrangementof
innerwallcanalso bevaried
CD
360 Leisure
Museums
LIGHTING
Daylight as lightsource givesmm overheads.
Overheadlighting: advantages,independentof orientation, not affected
by overhanging trees or neighbouring bldg, easily regulated (lamella
ceiling), little reflection, light more widely spread over exhibit area;
disadvantages, strong heat build-up, risk of damage from water and
condensation, only diffused light.
Window lighting: viewout (relaxing), rm easily aired and kept ateven
temp, better light on groups and individual exhibits, illumination of
showcases fromback.
4 Main floor Wallraf-Richartz-Museum CologneGermany
Arch R Schwartz&Bernard
key 1 rest rm 2 rm reaching to overheadlight inupperstorey 3side-litrm
4side-lit recess
1
Section& light sourcesMuseumofWesternArtTokyoJapan
Arch LeCorbusier
a
lightsource
b
2
Section
a-a
&light sourcesMuseoCiVKOTurin Italy ArchBassi& Boscheth
b-b
5
Joan Miro FoundationBarcelonaSpain hasrampextendinground all4
sides ofsculpturerm allowing worksto beviewed fromvarying heightsand
aspects;note useofskylights-.section afirstfloor plan sections Arch
Sert Section
key 1 sculpturerm 2 ha 3print mi 4balcover groundfloor 5 telwith
sculptures 6ha 70ff 8director'soff 9restm, lOprintarchives
b
3 Section&light sourcesMuseumofModem Art Rio deJaneiroBrazil
Arch Reidy
Leisure
361
Museums
2 VancouverMuseum
Canada Arch ArthurErickson
key
EXAMPLES
14
TTjm1'
[1]
n-i
[III
[111
r
—
L.
L
gairer'
1 entrance
2 lob
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
off/seminarrm
rampedgallery
greatha
small objectgallery
theatre
visiblestoar
lounge
10 outdoorcourt
[Ii LII [Ii
r-i r1 r,
:
:
r-
-
-r
r1
-
gallery
0
EEEJ
-
- -t
:
:
__________ _____
L.
b
W4EEI1.
gallery
L
apaceanum
F4iii
jJ
auditorium
vvvvv
ri L1 im
I—I
3
C
1 CenterforBritishArtYaleUSA asectionatB—*le bthirdfloor csecond
floor d firstfloor egroundfloor ArchKahn
rii
'v"" I
ir'wri Ia..rJI
I
vvvvv[
Air &Space MuseumWashington USA asecond floor b firstfloor C
groundfloor Arch Hok
Museumsreferences
—*Bibliographyentries 040318385476612
Page blank
in original
363
Components
INTRODUCTION
Components bringstogether various categories ofconstruction
data intended asan aid to the userofArchitects' Datainapplying
the principlesand examples given throughout the body of the
book. Underthe general heading Services' are guidelines on
the spaces needed to install, operate and maintain systems of
distribution, heating, ventilation, thermal and sound insulation,
lighting. Thereafterfollow practicalcriteriaforcertaincomponents:
doors, windows, corridors andramps, stairs, escalators, elevators.
practices are presented in detail in Ramsey& Sleeper/American
Institute of Architects Architectural Graphic Standards —Bib
549.
Conversions
As anaid to readers whodo not workin metric units ofmeasurementa listofconversion factors and a setof42conversion tables
introduce the pages on services systems.
Data here presented are based on the latest Britishand European
research and are not directly applicable by those working in
non-metric units of measurement. The material presented and Materials
the approach to its presentation are thought to be of general Values to be given to physical characteristics ofcommon building
interestto architects in America as in other continents; but USA materials have been brought together inatable which follows the
practices differ in somerespects from what is given here. Such conversion tables and precedes 'Services' .—p384(1).
364
Conversions
FACTORS
metric
'imperial'/US
length
1.0mm
25.4 rnrn (2.54cm)
0.039 in
1 in
304.8 mrn (30.48cm)
914.4mm
1000.0mm(1.0 m)
20.117rn
1 000.00rn (1 km)
1 609.31 m
area
lOOrnm2(1.Ocm2)
645.2 mm2 (6.452 cm2)
929.03cm2 (0.093 m2)
0.836rn2
1.0m2
0.405ha (4046.9m2)
1.0ha (10000m2)
1.0km2
2.59 km2(259 ha)
1
ft
lyd
1 yd 3.4 in (1 .093yd)
1 chain
0.621 mile
1 mile
0.155in2
1 in2
1 ft2
1 yd2
1.196yd2(10.764ft2)
1 acre
2.471 acre
0.386 mile2
1 mile2
volume
1004J mm3 (1.0cm3; 1.0 ml)
0.061 in3
16387mm3 (16.387cm3; 0.01641;
1 in3
16.387 ml)
61.025in3 (0.035 ft3)
1.01(1.0 drn3; 1000cm3)
0.028 rn3(28.32 I)
1 ft3
0.765 m3
1.0 m3
1 yd3
1.308 yd3(35.314 ft3)
capacity
1.Ornl
1.0 ml
28.41 ml
29.57 ml
0.473 litre
0.568litre
1.0 litre
1.Olitre
3.785 litre
4.546 litre
100.0 litre
100.0 litre
159.0 litre
164.0 litre
0.O34flozUS
0.035 fI ozimp
1 fI oz imp
1 fI oz US
1 pint (liquid) US
1 pint imp
1.76 pint imp
2.ll3pintUS
1 gal US
1 galimp
21.99 gal imp
26.42 gal US
1 barrel US
1 barrel imp
mass
lOg
28.35g
454.0 g (0.454 kg)
1000.0g(1 kg)
45.36kg
50.8 kg
907.2 kg (0.907 t)
1000.0kg (1.0 t)
1000.0kg(1 .0 t)
1016.0kg(1.016 t)
mass/unit length
0.496kg/rn
0.564kg/rn (0.564 t/km)
0.631 kg/rn(0.631 t/km)
1.0kg/rn
1.116kg/rn
1.488 kg/rn
17.86 kg/rn
length/unitmass
1.0rn/kg
2.016 rn/kg
0.035 oz (avoirdupois)
1 oz (avoirdupois)
1 lb
2.205 lb
1 cwtUS
cwt irnp
ton US
0.984 ton irnp
1.102ton US
1 ton imp
1
1
1 Ib/yd
1 ton US/rnile
1 ton irnp/mile
0.056 lb/in (0.896 oz/in)
1 oz/in
1 lb/ft
1 lb/in
0.496 yd/Ib
1 yd/Ib
metric
mass/unit area
1.0g/m2
33.91 g/m2
305.15g/rn2
0.011 kg/rn2
0.013 kg/rn2
0.224 kg/rn2
0.251 kg/rn2
1.0 kg/rn2
4.882 kg/rn2
703.07 kg/rn2
350.3 kg/km2 (3.503 kg/ha;
0.35g/m2)
392.3 kg/km2 (3.923 kg/ha;
0.392 g/m2)
'imperial'/US
0.003 oz/ft2
1 oz/yd2
1 oz/tt2
1 cwt US/acre
1 cwt imp/acre
1 ton US/acre
1 ton imp/acre
29.5oz/yd2
1 lb/ft2
1 lb/in2
1 ton US/mile2
1
ton imp/mile2
density(mass/volume)
0.593 kg/rn3
1.0kg/rn3
16.02kg/rn3
1186.7kg/rn3(1.187 t/rn3)
1 328.9 kg/rn3 (1.329 t/rn3)
27680.0kg/rn3 (27.68 t/m3;
27.68 g/cm3)
1 b/yd3
0.062 lb/ft3
lb/ft
ton US/yd3
1 ton irnp/yd3
1
1
1
lb/in3
specific surface (area/unit
mass)
0.823 rn2/t
1.0rn2/kg
29.493rn2/kg
1 yd2/ton
0.034 yd2/oz
1 yd2/oz
area/unitcapacity
0.184m2/l
1.0 rn2/l
1 yd2/gal
5.437 yd2/gal
concentration
0.014 kg/rn3
0.017 kg/rn3
1.0 kg/rn3 (1.0g/l)
1.0kg/rn3 (1.0g/l)
6.236 kg/rn3
7.489 kg/rn3
58.42 grain/gal US
70.16 grain/gal imp
1 oz/gal imp
1 oz/gal US
mass rate offlow
0.454kg/s
1.0kg/s
1 lb/s
2.204 lb/s
volume rateofflow
0.063 I/s
0.076 I/s
0.472 I/s
1.01/s (86.4 rn3/day)
1.01/s
1.0 1/mm
1.0 1/mm
3.785 I/s
4.5461/s
28.32 I/s
0.0038rn3/rnin
0.0045rn3/rnin
1.0 rn3/s
1.0 rn3/s
1.0rn3/h
0.0283m3/s
velocity
1 grain/gal imp
1 grain/gal US
1
gal US/minute
1 gal irnp/minute
ft3/rninute
13.2 gal imp/s
0.264 gal US/s
0.22 gal imp/mm
0.264 gal US/mm
1 gal US/s
1
1 galimp/s
1
ft3/s
1 gal US/mm
1 gal imp/mm
183.162 gal US/s
219.969galimp/s
35.31 ft3/h
1 ft3/s
0.005 rn/s
0.025 rn/s
0.305 rn/s
1 ft/minute
1 in/s
1 ft/s
1Dm/s
3.28ft/s
1 000.0 rn/hr (1 krn/hr)
1 609.0 rn/hr (0.447 rn/s)
0.621 rnile/hr
1 mile/hr
365
Conversions
metric
'imperial'/US
fuelconsumption
1.0I/km
1.01/km
2.352 I/km
2.824I/km
acceleration
0.305rn/s2
1.0 rn/s2
9.806 m/s2 = g (standard
0.354 gal imp/mile
0.425 gal US/mile
1 gal US/mile
1 gal imp/mile
itt/s2
3.28 ft/s2
g = 32.172 ft/s2
acceleration
due to gravity)
temperature
X°C
x(X—32)°C
temperature interval
0.5556K
1K=1°C
energy
(X+32)°F
X°F
1°F
1.8°F
1 Btu/hr
1 calorie/s
7.233 ft lbt/s)
1 horsepower
0.986 horsepower
0.317 Btu/(ft2hr)
1.0 Btu/(ft2 hr)
1 Btu in/(ft2hr°F)
i.OW/(rn2.K)
5.678 W/(m2.K)
0.176 Btu/(ft2hr°F)
1.0Btu/(ft2 hr°F)
thermal registivity
1.0m K/W
6.933 rn K/W
0.144 ft2 hr°F/(Btu in)
1.0 ft2 hr°F/(Btu in)
67.07 kJ/(m3 K)
0.239 Btu/(lb °F)
1.0Btu/(lb°F)
0.015 Btu/(ft3°F)
1.0 Btu/(ft3°F)
specificenergy
1.0 kJ/kg
2.326kJ/kg
1.0 kJ/m3 (1 kJ/l)
1.OJ/l
232.1 J/l
0.093 ft-candle (0.093 lumen/ft2)
1.0 ft-candle (1 lumen/ft2)
1 apostilb
0.000645 cd/ft2
1 cd/ft2
1.0cd/in2
force
iON
8.897kN
9.964 kN
1.ONrn
1.356 Nm
113.ONrn
253.1 Nm
1356.ONm
3037.ONm
pressure
1.0Pa (1.0 N/rn2)
1.OkPa
100.OPa
2.99kPa
3.39 kPa
6.9 kPa
i0O.OkPa
101.33 kPa
107.25 kPa
15.44 MPa
0.2251bt
2.205 Ibi
1.0kipf(1000lbf)
1.OtonfUS
1.0tontimp
0.067 lbf/ft
1.0 lbf/ft
1.0 tont/ft
i.Olbf/in
1.Olbfin
0.738lbfft
1.0 lbf ft
1.Okipfin
1.Otonfin
1.Okipfft
1.Otonfft
0.021 bt/ft2
0.1451bf/in2
1.Omillibar
1 ftwater
1 in mercury
1.0 lbt/in2
1.Obar
1.0 standardatmosphere
1.0 tonf/ft2
1.Otonf/in2
6.933 Btuin/(ft2hr°F)
thermal conductance
specific heat capacity
1.0 kJ/(kg.K)
4.187 kJ/(kg.K)
1.0 kJ/(rn3 K)
.0 cd/rn2
10.764 cd/rn2
1 550.0 cd/rn2
moment offorce(torque)
0.li3Nm(113.ONrnm)
0.738ttlbf/s
1.0kilocalorie/hr
1 ftlbf/s
0.144 W/(rn.K)
1.OW/(m.K)
luminance
0.3183cd/rn2
1 Btu
1 kilowatt-hr
1 therm (100000 Btu)
1.0W
thermal conductivity
1 lx (1 lumen/rn2)
10.764 lx
1.Ocalorie
7.233 ftlbf
ftlbt
0.293W
1 W/m2
3.155 W/m2
illumination
1.0 N/rn
14.59 N/rn
32.69 kN/m
175.1 kN/m (175.1 N/mm)
1
intensity ofheat flowrate
refrigeration
force/unitlength
1.356J
4.187J
1.163W
1.356W
4.187W
1 kgf rn/s (9.807W)
745.7W
1 metrichorsepower (75 kgf
rn/s)
12000 Btu/hr = ton of
1.0 kgf (9.807 N; 1.0 kilopond)
4.448 kN
0.239calorie
power (energy/time)
'imperial'/US
refrigeration
3.517 kW
1
1.OJ
9.807 J (1 kgfm)
1 055.06J
3.6 MJ
105.5MJ
metric
0.43 Btu/lb
1.0 Btu/lb
0.027 Btu/tt3
0.004 Btu/gal
1.OBtu/gal
Metric systemreferences:
—Bibliographyentries010012 127135228473479494495531 610
366
Conversions
TABLES
Listoftables
1 millimetres toinches
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
2 decimals ofinch to millimetres
3 inches & fractions ofinchto millimetres
4 feet &inchesto metres
5 metres tofeet
6 feettometres
7 metrestoyards
8 yardstometres
9 kilometres tomiles
kilograms to pounds
poundstokilograms
31 kilograms per cubic metre to pounds percubicfoot
32 pounds percubicfootto kilograms percubicmetre
33 metresper second to miles per hour
34 milesper hour to metres persecond
35 kilograms forcepersquare centimetre to pounds forceper square
10 milesto kilometres
11 square centimetres tosquare inches
12 square inches to square centimetres
13 square metrestosquare feet
14 square feettosquare metres
15 square metrestosquareyards
16 square yards tosquare metres
17 hectares to acres
18 acresto hectares
19 cubiccentimetres tocubicinches
20 cubicinches to cubiccentimetres
21 cubicmetrestocubicfeet
22 cubicfeettocubicmetres
23 litresto cubicfeet
th
cubicfeetto litres
litresto gallons imperial
gallonsimperial to litres
litresto gallons US
gallonsUSto litres
inch
36 poundsforceper square inch tokilograms forceper square
centimetre
37 kilonewtons persquare metre topounds force persquare inch
38 poundsforceper square inch to kilonewtonspersquare metre
39 wattsto British thermal unitsperhour
40 Britishthermal unitsperhour to watts
41 wattspersquare metrekelvin to Britishthermal unitspersquare foot
hourdegree F
42 British thermal units per square foot
hour degree
F to watts per
square metre kelvin
TABLES
millimetres to inches
mm
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
0.04
0.43
0.83
1.22
0.08
0.47
0.87
1.25
1.65
2.05
2.44
2.83
3.23
3.62
4.02
0.11
0.51
0.91
0.16
0.55
0.94
1.34
1.73
2.13
2.52
0.2
0.59
0.98
1.38
1.77
2.17
2.56
2.95
3.35
3.74
4.13
4.53
4.92
5.31
5.71
0.24
0.63
0.28
0.67
0.31
1.02
1.41
1.81
1.06
1.46
1.85
1.1
2.21
2.24
2.64
3.03
3.42
3.82
0.35
0.75
1.14
1.57
1.93
2.32
2.72
3.11
3.5
3.9
4.29
4.69
5.08
5.47
5.87
6.26
6.65
7.05
7.44
7.83
8.23
8.62
9.02
9.41
In
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
110
120
130
140
150
160
170
180
190
200
210
220
230
240
250
0.39
0.79
1.18
1.57
1.97
2.36
2.76
3.15
3.54
3.94
4.33
4.72
5.12
5.51
5.91
6.3
6.69
7.09
7.48
7.87
8.27
8.66
9.06
9.45
9.84
1.61
2.00
2.4
2.8
3.19
3.58
3.98
4.37
4.76
5.16
5.55
5.94
6.34
6.73
7.13
7.52
7.91
8.31
8.7
9.09
9.49
4.41
4.8
5.2
5.59
5.98
6.38
6.77
7.17
7.56
7.95
8.35
8.74
9.13
9.53
1.3
1.69
2.09
2.48
2.87
3.27
3.66
4.06
4.45
4.84
5.24
5.63
6.02
6.42
6.81
7.21
7.6
7.99
8.39
8.78
9.17
9.57
2.91
3.31
3.7
4.09
4.49
4.88
5.28
5.67
6.06
6.46
6.85
7.24
7.64
8.03
8.43
8.82
9.21
9.61
6.1
6.5
6.89
7.28
7.68
8.07
8.46
8.86
9.25
9.65
2.6
3.0
3.39
3.78
4.17
4.57
4.96
5.35
5.75
6.14
6.54
6.93
7.32
7.72
8.11
8.5
8.9
9.29
9.69
4.21
4.61
5.0
5.39
5.79
6.18
6.57
6.97
7.36
7.76
8.15
8.54
8.94
9.33
9.72
0.71
1.5
1.89
2.28
2.68
3.07
3.46
3.86
4.25
4.65
5.04
5.43
5.83
6.22
6.61
7.01
7.4
7.8
8.19
8.58
8.98
9.37
9.76
9.8
367
Conversions
in
0.000
mm
0.0
0.01
0.02
0.03
0.04
0.05
0.06
0.07
0.08
0.09
0.1
0.254
0.508
0.762
1.016
1.27
1.524
1.778
2.032
2.286
2.54
in
0.001
0.002
0.003
0.004
0.005
0.006
0.007
0.008
0.009
0.0254
0.2794
0.5334
0.7874
1.0414
1.2954
1.5494
1.8034
2.0574
2.3114
0.0508
0.3048
0.5588
0.8128
1.0668
1.3208
1.5748
1.8288
2.0828
2.3368
0.0762
0.3302
0.5842
0.8382
1.0922
1.3462
1.6002
1.8542
2.1082
2.3622
0.1016
0.3556
0.6096
0.8636
1.1176
1.3716
1.6256
1.8796
2.1336
2.3876
0.127
0.1524
0.4064
0.6604
0.9144
0.1778
0.4318
0.6858
0.9398
1.1938
1.4478
1.7018
1.9558
2.2098
2.4638
0.2032
0.4572
0.7112
0.9652
1.2192
1.4732
1.7272
1.9812
2.2352
2.4892
0.2286
0.4826
0.7366
0.9906
1.2446
1.4986
1.7526
2.0066
2.2606
2.5146
1/16
/16
1/8
1/4
/16
3/
/I8
9.5
34.9
11.1
0.381
0.635
0.889
1.143
1.397
1.1684
1.4224
1.6764
1.9304
2.1844
2.4384
1.651
1.905
2.159
2.413
1/2
/16
/8
14.3
15.9
11/16
3/4
17.5
42.9
19.1
/8
13/16
15/16
mm
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
25.4
50.8
76.2
101.6
127.0
152.4
177.8
203.2
228.6
254.0
1.6
27.0
52.4
77.8
103.2
128.6
154.0
179.4
3.2
28.6
54.0
79.4
104.8
130.2
155.6
181.0
204.8 206.4
230.2 231.8
255.6 257.2
4.8
30.2
55.6
81.0
106.4
131.8
157.2
182.6
208.0
233.4
258.8
6.4
31.8
57.2
82.6
108.0
133.4
158.8
184.2
209.6
235.0
260.4
7.9
12.7
36.5 38.1 39.7 41.3
58.7 60.3 61.9 63.5 65.1 66.7
84.1 85.7 87.3 88.9 90.5 92.1
109.5 111.1 112.7 114.3 115.9 117.5
134.9 136.5 138.1 139.7 141.3 142.9
160.3 161.9 163.5 165.1 166.7 168.3
185.7 187.3 188.9 190.5 192.1 193.7
211.1 212.7 214.3 215.9 217.5 219.1
236.5 238.1 239.7 241.3 242.9 244.5
261.9 263.5 265.1 266.7 268.3 269.9
33.3
20.6
22.2
23.8
44.5 46.0
68.3 69.9 71.4
93.7 95.3 96.8
119.1 120.7 122.2
144.5 146.1 147.6
169.9 171.5 173.0
195.3 196.9 198.4
220.7 222.3 223.8
246.1 247.7 249.2
271.5 273.1 274.6
47.6
73.0
98.4
123.8
149.2
174.6
200.0
225.4
250.8
276.2
49.2
74.6
100.0
125.4
150.8
176.2
201.6
227.0
252.4
277.8
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
0.2032
0.508
0.8128
1.1176
1.4224
1.7272
2.032
2.3368
2.6416
2.9464
0.2286
0.5334
0.8382
1.143
1.4478
1.7526
2.0574
2.3622
2.667
2.9718
0.254
0.5588
0.8636
1.1684
1.4732
0.2794
0.5842
0.889
1.1938
1.4986
1.8034
2.1082
2.413
2.7178
3.0226
m
ft
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
0.0254
0.3048 0.3302
0.6096 0.635
0.9144 0.9398
1.2192 1.2446
1.524
1.8288
2.1336
2.4384
2.7432
3.048
decimals ofinchto
millimetres
3
inches &fractions of
inch to millimetres
4
In
0
2
1.5494
1.8542
2.159
2.4638
2.7686
0.0508
0.3556
0.6604
0.9652
1.27
1.5748
1.8796
2.1844
2.4892
2.794
0.0762 0.1016 0.127
0.381
0.4064 0.4318
0.6858 0.7112 0.7366
0.9906 1.016 1.0414
1.2954 1.3208 1.3462
1.6002 1.6256 1.651
1.905 1.9304 1.9558
2.2098 2.2352 2.2606
2.5146 2.54
2.5654
2.8194 2.8448 2.8702
0.1524
0.4572
0.762
1.0668
1.3716
0.1778
0.4826
0.7874
1.0922
1.397
1.6764 1.7018
1.9812 2.0066
2.286
2.3114
2.5908 2.6162
2.8956 2.921
1.778
2.0828
2.3876
2.6924
2.9972
feet& inches to
metres
368
Conversions
5
metrestofeet
m
ft
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
110
120
130
140
150
160
170
180
190
200
210
220
230
240
250
7
metresto yards
m
32.8
65.62
98.43
131.23
164.04
196.85
229.66
262.46
295.28
328.08
360.89
393.7
426.51
459.32
492.13
524.93
557.74
590.55
623.36
656.17
688.98
721.79
754.59
787.4
820.21
0
0
9.84
42.65
75.45
108.27
141.08
13.12
45.93
78.74
111.55
144.36
173.89
206.69
239.5
272.31
305.12
337.93
370.74
403.54
436.35
469.16
177.17
209.97
242.78
275.59
308.4
341.21
374.02
406.82
439.63
472.44
505.25
538.06
570.87
603.68
636.48
669.29
1
2
3
3.28
14.22
25.15
36.09
47.03
57.96
68.9
79.83
90.77
502.0
534.78
567.59
600.39
633.2
666.01
698.82
731.63
764.44
797.24
22.97
55.77
88.58
121.39
154.2
734.91
767.72
800.53
508.53
541.34
574.15
606.96
639.76
672.57
705.38
738.19
771.0
803.81
19.69
52.49
85.3
118.11
150.91
183.73
216.54
249.34
282.15
314.96
347.77
380.58
413.39
446.19
479.0
511.81
544.62
577.43
610.24
643.05
675.85
708.66
741.47
774.28
807.09
515.09
547.9
580.71
613.52
646.33
679.13
711.94
744.75
777.56
810.37
255.91
288.71
321.52
354.33
387.14
419.95
452.76
485.56
518.37
551.18
583.99
616.8
649.6
682.42
715.22
748.03
780.84
813.65
4
5
6
7
8
9
8.75
19.69
30.62
41.56
52.49
63.43
74.37
85.3
96.24
107.17
9.84
20.78
31.71
42.65
53.59
64.52
75.46
86.4
97.33
108.27
119.2
130.14
141.08
152.01
162.95
173.89
184.82
195.76
206.69
217.63
228.57
239.5
250.44
261.37
272.31
702.1
80
90
10.94
21.87
32.8
43.74
54.68
65.62
76.55
87.49
98.43
1.09
12.03
22.97
33.9
44.84
55.77
66.71
77.65
88.58
99.52
2.19
13.12
24.06
35.0
45.93
56.87
67.8
78.74
89.68
100.61
101.71
100
110
120
130
140
109.36
120.3
131.23
142.17
153.1
110.46
121.39
132.33
143.26
154.2
111.55
122.49
133.42
144.36
155.29
112.64
123.58
134.51
145.45
156.39
26.25
37.18
48.12
59.06
69.99
80.93
91.86
102.8
113.74
124.67
135.61
146.54
157.48
150
160
170
180
190
200
210
220
230
240
164.04
174.98
185.91
196.85
207.79
218.72
229.66
240.56
251.53
262.47
273.4
165.14
176.07
187.0
197.94
208.88
219.82
230.75
241.69
252.63
263.56
166.23
177.17
199.04
209.97
220.91
231.85
242.78
253.72
264.65
167.32
178.26
189.2
200.13
211.07
222.0
232.94
243.88
254.81
265.75
168.42
179.35
190.29
201.23
212.16
223.1
234.03
244.97
255.91
266.84
0
mile
1
2
3
4
0.62
6.84
13.05
19.29
25.47
31.69
37.9
44.12
50.33
56.54
1.24
7.46
13.67
19.88
1.86
8.08
14.29
20.5
26.72
32.93
39.15
45.36
51.57
57.79
2.49
8.7
30
40
50
60
70
250
kilometres tomiles
6.56
39.37
72.17
104.99
137.8
170.6
203.41
236.22
269.03
301.84
334.65
367.45
400.26
433.07
465.88
498.69
531.5
564.3
597.11
629.92
662.73
695.54
728.35
761.16
793.96
16.40
49.21
82.02
114.82
147.63
180.45
213.25
246.06
278.87
311.68
344.49
377.3
410.1
442.91
475.72
187.01
219.82
252.63
285.43
318.24
351.05
383.86
416.67
449.48
482.28
26.25
59.06
91.86
124.67
157.48
190.29
223.1
29.53
62.34
95.14
127.95
160.76
193.57
226.38
259.19
292.0
324.8
357.61
390.42
423.23
456.04
488.85
521.65
554.46
587.27
620.08
652.89
685.7
718.5
751.31
784.12
816.93
yd
10
20
9
3.28
36.09
68.9
101.7
134.51
167.32
200.13
232.94
265.75
298.56
331.37
364.17
396.98
429.79
462.6
495.41
528.22
561.02
593.83
626.64
659.45
692.26
725.07
757.87
790.68
km
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
6.21
12.43
18.64
24.85
31.07
37.28
43.5
49.7
55.92
62.14
188.1
26.1
32.31
38.53
44.74
50.95
57.17
4.37
15.31
14.91
21.13
27.34
33.55
39.77
45.98
52.2
58.41
5.47
16.4
27.34
38.28
49.21
60.15
71.08
82.02
92.96
103.89
114.83
125.74
136.7
147.64
158.57
61.24
72.18
7.66
18.59
29.53
40.46
51.4
62.34
73.27
83.11
84.21
180.45
191.38
202.32
213.26
224.19
235.13
246.06
257.0
267.94
94.05
104.99
115.92
126.86
137.8
148.73
159.67
170.6
181.54
192.48
203.41
214.35
225.28
236.22
247.16
258.09
269.03
95.14
106.08
117.02
127.95
138.89
149.83
160.76
171.7
182.63
193.57
204.51
215.44
226.38
237.31
248.25
259.19
270.12
129.05
139.99
150.92
161.86
172.79
183.73
194.66
205.6
216.53
227.47
238.41
249.34
260.28
271.22
5
6
7
8
9
3.11
3.73
9.94
16.16
22.37
28.58
4.35
10.56
16.78
22.99
29.2
35.42
41.63
47.85
54.06
60.27
4.98
11.18
17.4
11.81
169.51
9.32
15.53
21.75
27.96
34.18
40.39
46.6
52.82
59.03
6.56
17.5
28.43
39.37
50.31
34.8
41.01
47.22
53.44
59.65
118.11
23.61
29.83
36.04
42.25
48.47
54.68
60.89
5.59
18.02
24.23
30.45
36.66
42.87
49.09
55.3
61.52
369
Con versions
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
0.31
0.6
3.35
3.66
0.91
3.96
1.22
4.27
6.71
7.01
7.31
10.06
10.36
13.1
13.41
1.52
4.57
7.62
10.67
13.72
2.74
5.79
8.84
11.89
14.94
32.31
32.61
35.37
38.1
38.41
41.15
44.2
47.24
50.29
53.34
56.39
59.44
62.48
65.53
68.58
71.63
74.68
41.45
44.5
47.55
50.6
53.64
56.69
59.74
62.79
65.84
68.89
71.93
74.98
35.67
38.7
41.76
17.68
20.73
23.77
26.82
29.87
32.92
36.0
17.98
21.03
24.08
27.13
30.18
33.22
36.3
39.32
42.37
45.46
48.46
61.87
64.92
67.97
71.02
74.07
16.46
19.58
22.56
25.6
28.65
31.7
34.75
37.8
40.84
43.89
46.94
49.99
53.04
56.08
59.13
62.18
65.23
68.28
71.32
74.37
2.13
5.18
8.23
11.28
14.36
17.37
20.42
23.47
26.52
29.57
2.44
5.49
8.53
11.58
14.63
16.15
19.2
22.25
25.3
28.35
31.39
34.44
37.49
40.54
43.59
46.63
49.68
52.73
55.78
58.83
1.83
4.88
7.92
10.97
14.02
17.07
20.12
23.16
26.21
29.26
3
4
5
m
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
110
120
130
140
150
160
170
180
190
200
210
220
230
240
250
yd
3.05
6.1
6.4
9.14
12.19
15.24
18.29
21.33
24.38
27.43
30.48
33.53
36.58
39.62
42.67
45.72
48.77
51.82
54.86
57.91
60.96
64.01
67.06
70.1
73.15
76.2
9.45
12.5
15.54
18.59
21.64
24.69
27.74
30.78
33.83
36.88
39.93
42.98
9.75
12.80
15.85
18.9
21.95
24.99
28.04
31.09
34.14
37.19
40.23
43.28
46.02
49.07
52.12
55.17
58.22
61.26
64.31
67.36
70.41
73.46
46.33
49.38
52.43
55.47
58.52
61.57
64.62
67.67
70.71
73.76
0
1
2
16.76
19.81
22.86
25.91
28.96
32.0
35.05
39.01
63.09
66.14
69.19
72.24
75.29
42.06
45.11
48.16
51.21
54.25
57.3
60.35
63.4
66.45
69.49
72.54
75.59
60.66
63.7
66.75
69.79
72.85
75.9
6
7
8
9
5.49
14.63
23.77
32.92
42.06
51.21
60.35
69.49
78.64
87.78
96.93
106.07
6.4
15.54
24.69
33.83
42.98
7.32
16.46
25.6
34.75
43.89
53.04
62.18
71.32
80.47
8.23
17.37
26.52
35.66
44.81
53.95
63.09
72.24
81.38
90.53
99.67
108.81
117.96
44.81
47.85
50.9
53.95
57.0
60.05
51.51
54.56
57.61
m
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
110
120
130
140
150
160
170
180
190
200
210
220
230
240
250
mile
0.91
9.14
18.29
27.43
36.58
45.72
54.86
64.0
73.15
82.3
91.44
100.58
109.73
118.87
128.02
10.06
19.2
28.35
37.49
46.63
55.78
64.92
74.07
83.21
92.35
101.5
110.64
119.79
128.93
1.83
10.97
20.12
29.26
38.4
47.55
56.69
65.84
74.98
84.12
93.27
102.41
111.56
120.7
129.85
138.99
148.13
157.28
166.42
175.57
2.74
11.89
21.03
30.18
39.32
48.46
57.61
66.75
75.9
85.04
94.18
103.33
112.47
121.61
137.16
146.3
155.45
164.59
173.74
182.88
192.02
201.17
210.31
219.46
228.6
138.07
147.22
156.36
165.51
174.65
183.79
192.94
202.08
211.23
220.37
193.85
203.0
212.14
221.29
130.76
139.9
149.05
158.19
167.34
176.48
185.62
194.77
203.91
213.06
222.0
0
1
2
3
184.71
3.65
12.8
21.95
31.09
40.23
49.38
58.52
67.67
76.81
85.95
4.57
22.86
32.0
41.15
50.29
59.44
68.58
77.72
86.87
95.1
96.01
104.24
113.39
122.53
131.67
105.16
114.3
123.44
132.59
141.73
150.88
160.02
169.16
13.71
115.21
140.82
149.96
159.11
168.25
177.39
186.54
195.68
204.83
213.97
223.11
187.45
196.6
205.74
214.88
224.03
124.36
133.5
142.65
151.79
160.93
170.08
179.22
188.37
197.51
206.65
215.8
224.94
4
5
6
178.31
52.12
61.27
70.41
79.55
88.7
97.84
106.99
116.13
125.27
134.42
143.56
152.71
161.85
170.99
180.14
189.28
198.43
207.57
89.61
98.76
107.9
117.04
126.19
135.33
136.25
145.39
154.53
163.68
172.82
181.97
225.86
200.25
209.4
218.54
227.69
7
8
9
12.87
28.97
45.06
61.16
77.25
93.34
109.44
125.53
141.62
157.72
14.48
30.58
46.67
62.76
78.86
94.95
111.05
127.14
143.23
159.33
191.11
km
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
1.61
16.09
32.19
48.28
64.37
80.47
96.56
112.65
128.75
144.84
160.93
17.7
33.8
49.89
65.98
82.08
98.17
114.26
130.36
146.45
3.22
19.31
35.41
51.5
67.59
83.69
99.78
115.87
131.97
148.06
4.83
20.92
37.01
53.11
69.2
85.3
101.39
117.48
133.58
149.67
6.44
22.53
38.62
54.72
70.81
86.9
103.0
119.09
135.19
151.28
8.05
24.14
40.23
56.33
72.42
88.51
104.61
120.7
136.79
152.89
9.66
25.75
41.84
57.94
74.03
90.12
106.22
11.27
27.36
43.45
59.55
75.64
122.31
91.73
107.83
123.92
138.4
154.5
140.01
156.11
8
yardsto metres
127.1
144.48
153.62
162.76
171.9
181.05
190.2
199.34
208.48
217.63
226.77
216.71
6
feet tometres
10
milesto kilometres
370
Conversions
Area
11
squarecentimetres
to square inches
cm2
3
4
5
6
7
0.31
1.86
3.41
4.96
31.16
32.71
34.26
35.81
37.36
20.46
22.01
23.56
25.11
26.66
28.21
29.76
31.31
32.86
34.41
35.96
37.51
0.47
2.02
3.57
5.12
6.67
8.22
9.77
11.32
12.87
14.42
15.97
17.52
19.07
20.62
22.17
23.72
25.27
26.82
28.37
29.92
31.47
33.02
34.57
36.12
37.67
0.62
2.17
3.72
5.27
6.82
8.37
9.92
11.47
13.02
14.57
16.12
17.67
19.22
20.77
22.32
23.87
25.42
26.97
28.52
30.07
31.62
33.17
34.72
36.27
37.82
0.78
2.33
3.88
5.43
6.98
8.53
10.08
11.63
13.18
14.73
16.28
17.83
19.38
20.93
22.48
24.03
25.58
27.13
28.68
30.23
31.78
33.33
34.88
36.43
37.98
0.93
2.48
4.03
5.58
7.13
8.68
10.23
11.78
13.33
14.88
16.43
17.98
19.53
21.08
22.63
24.18
25.73
27.28
28.83
30.38
31.93
33.48
35.03
36.58
38.13
2.64
4.19
5.74
7.29
8.84
10.39
11.94
13.49
15.04
16.59
18.14
19.69
21.24
22.79
24.34
25.89
27.44
28.99
30.54
32.09
33.64
35.19
36.75
38.29
7.44
9.0
10.54
12.09
13.64
15.19
16.74
18.29
19.84
21.39
22.94
24.49
26.04
27.59
29.14
30.69
32.24
33.79
35.34
36.89
38.44
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
0.16
1.6
3.1
1.71
30
40
4.65
4.81
6.2
6.36
50
7.75
9.3
10.85
12.4
13.95
15.5
17.06
18.6
20.15
21.7
23.25
24.8
26.35
27.9
29.45
7.91
90
100
110
120
130
140
150
160
170
180
190
200
210
220
230
240
250
13
2
1
0
10
20
60
70
80
squaremetresto
squarefeet
0
j2
m2
3.26
9.46
12.56
12.71
14.11
14.26
15.66
15.81
17.21
17.36
24.96
26.51
28.06
29.61
35.65
37.20
38.75
0
9.61
11.16
23.41
34.1
8.06
11.01
18.76
20.31
21.86
31.0
32.55
6.51
18.91
1.09
8
1.24
2.79
4.34
5.9
9
1.4
2.95
4.5
6.05
7.6
9.15
10.7
12.25
13.8
15.35
16.9
18.45
20.0
21.55
23.1
24.65
26.2
27.75
29.3
30.85
32.4
33.95
35.5
37.05
38.6
9
ft2
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
110
120
130
140
107.64
215.29
322.92
430.56
538.2
645.84
753.47
861.11
968.75
1 076.39
1 184.03
1 291.67
1 399.31
1 506.95
150
160
170
180
190
200
210
220
230
240
250
260
270
280
290
1 614.59
1 722.23
300
310
320
330
340
350
360
370
380
390
400
410
420
430
440
450
460
470
480
490
500
10.76
118.4
226.01
333.68
441.32
548.96
656.6
764.24
871.88
979.52
1 087.15
1194.79
1 302.43
1 410.07
1 517.71
1
1
1
1
21.53
129.17
236.81
344.45
452.08
559.72
667.36
775.0
882.64
990.28
1 097.92
1 205.56
1 313.2
1 420.84
1 528.48
1 636.11
1 743.75
1 851.39
1 959.03
32.29
139.93
247.57
355.21
462.85
43.06
150.66
258.33
365.97
473.61
53.82
161.46
269.1
376.74
484.38
64.58
172.22
279.86
387.5
495.14
75.35
182.97
290.63
398.?7
505.91
570.49
581.25
678.13
688.89
785.77
796.53
893.41
904.17
1 001.04 1 011.81
1108.68 1119.45
1 216.32 1 227.09
1 323.96 1 334.72
1 431.6
1 442.36
1 539.24 1 550.0
592.02
699.65
807.29
914.93
1 022.57
1130.21
1 237.85
1 345.49
1 453.13
1 560.77
602.78
710.42
818.06
925.7
1 033.34
1140.97
1 248.61
1 356.25
1 463.89
1 571.53
613.54
721.18
828.82
936.46
625.35
732.99
1 829.86
840.63
1 937.5
948.27
2045.14 2055.91 2066.67
2 152.78 2 163.55 2 174.31
1
1
1
1
2368.06 2378.82 2389.59
2 475.7 2 486.46 2 497.23
2583.34 2594.1
2604.87
2 690.98 2 701.74 2 712.51
2 798.62 2809.38 2820.14
2906.26 2917.02 2927.78
3013.89 3 024.66 3035.42
3121.53 3132.3 3143.06
3 229.17 3 239.94 3 250.7
3336.81 3347.58 3358.34
3444.45 3455.22 3465.98
3552.09 3562.85 3573.62
3 659.73 3 670.49 3 681.26
3 767.37 3 778.13 3 788.9
3875.01 3885.77 3896.54
3982.65 3993.41 4004.17
4090.29 4101.05 4111.81
4197.93 4208.69 4219.45
4305.56 4316.33 4327.09
4413.2 4 423.97 4434.73
4520.84 4531.61 4542.37
4628.48 4639.25 4650.01
4736.12 4746.88 4757.65
4 843.76 4 854.52 4 865.29
4951.4 4 962.16 4 972.93
5 059.04 5 069.8 5 080.57
5166.68 5177.44 5188.2
5274.32 5285.08 5295.84
5381.96
2400.35 2411.12
646.88
754.52
862.16
969.8
1
1
1
1
657.64
765.28
872.92
980.56
2077.43 2 088.2
2 185.07 2 195.84
2260.42 2271.19 2281.95 2292.71 2303.48
2507.99 2 518.76
2615.63 2626.39
2 723.27 2 734.03
2841.67
2938.55 2949.31
3 046.19 3056.95
3153.83 3164.59
3261.46 3272.23
3369.1
3379.87
3476.74 3487.51
3584.38 3 595.15
2830.91
3692.02 3 702.79
3799.66 3 810.42
3918.06
4025.7
4133.34
4240.98
4348.62
96.88
20451
312.15
419.79
527.43
624.31
635.07
731.95
742.71
839.59
850.35
947.22
957.99
1 054.86 1 065.63
1162.5 1173.27
1 270.14 1 280.91
1 377.78 1 388.54
1 485.42 1 496.18
1 593.06 1 603.82
1 700.7
1 711.46
1 808.34 1 819.1
1 915.98 1 926.74
1151.74
1 259.38
1 367.02
1 474.66
1 582.29
1 668.41 1 679.17 1 689.93
1 776.05 1 786.81 1 797.57
1 883.68 1 894.45 1 905.21
1 991.32 2002.09 2012.85 2023.62 2034.38
2098.96 2109.73 2120.49 2131.25 2142.02
2206.6 2217.37 2228.13 2238.89 2249.66
2314.24 2325.0 2335.77 2346.53 2357.3
2421.88 2432.64 2443.41 2454.17 2464.94
2 529.52 2 540.28 2 551.05 2 561.81 2 572.57
2637.16 2647.92 2658.69 2669.45 2680.21
2 744.8 2 755.56 2 766.32 2 777.09 2 787.85
2852.44 2863.2 2873.96 2884.73 2895.49
2960.08 2970.84 2981.6 2992.37 3003.13
3067.71 3078.48 3089.24 3 100.01 3 110.77
3175.35 3186.12 3196.88 3207.65 3 218.41
3282.99 3 293.76 3 304.52 3 315.28 3 326.05
3390.63 3401.4 3412.16 3422.92 3433.69
3498.27 3509.03 3519.8 3530.56 3541.33
3605.91 3616.67 3627.44 3638.2 3648.97
3 713.55 3 724.31 3 735.08 3 745.84 3 756.6
3821.19
3928.83
4036.47
4144.11
4251.74
4359.38
4 445.49 4 456.26 4467.02
3907.3
4014.94
4122.58
4230.22
4337.86
1 044.1
86.11
193.75
301.39
409.03
516.67
3842.72 3 853.48 3 864.24
3950.36 3961.12 3971.88
4057.99 4068.76 4079.52
4154.87 4165.63 4176.4 4187.16
4262.51 4273.27 4284.04 4294.8
4370.15 4380.91 4391.68 4402.44
3831.95
3939.59
4047.23
4477.79
4488.55
4499.31
4553.13 4563.9 4574.66 4585.43 4596.19 4606.95
4660.77 4671.54 4682.3 4693.06 4703.83 4714.59
4768.41 4779.18 4789.94 4800.7 4811.47 4822.23
4876.05 4 886.82 4 897.58 4 908.34 4 919.11 4 929.87
4983.69 4994.45 5005.22 5015.98 5026.75 5037.51
5091.33 5 102.09 5 112.86 5 123.62 5 134.39 5 145.15
5198.97 5209.73 5220.5 5231.26 5242.02 5252.79
5306.61 5317.37 5328.14 5338.9 5349.66 5360.43
4 510.08
4617.72
4725.36
4833.0
4 940.63
5048.27
5 155.91
5263.55
5371.19
371
Conversions
j2
0
1
2
4
3
5
7
6
8
9
cm2
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
110
120
130
140
150
160
170
180
190
200
210
220
230
240
250
64.52
129.03
193.55
258.06
322.58
387.1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
451.61
516.13
580.64
645.16
709.6
774.19
838.71
903.22
967.74
032.26
096.77
161.29
225.8
290.32
354.84
419.35
483.87
548.38
612.9
0
ft2
6.45
70.97
135.48
200.0
264.52
329.03
393.55
458.06
522.58
587.1
651.61
716.13
780.64
845.16
909.68
974.19
1 038.71
1103.22
1167.74
1 232.26
1
1
1
1
1
296.77
361.29
425.8
490.32
554.84
12.9
77.41
141.94
206.45
270.97
335.48
400.0
464.52
529.03
593.55
658.06
722.58
787.1
851.61
916.13
980.64
1 045.16
1109.68
1174.19
1 238.71
1 303.22
1 367.74
1 432.26
1 496.77
1 561.29
19.36
83.87
148.39
212.9
277.42
341.94
406.45
470.97
535.48
600.0
664.51
729.03
793.55
858.06
922.58
987.1
1 051.61
32.26
96.77
161.29
225.8
290.32
354.84
419.35
483.87
548.39
612.91
677.42
741.93
806.45
870.97
935.48
25.81
90.32
154.84
219.35
283.87
348.4
412.91
477.42
541.93
606.45
670.97
735.48
800.0
864.51
929.03
993.55
058.06
1116.13 1122.58
1180.64 1187.09
1 245.16 1 251.61
1 309.67 1 316.13
1 374.19 1 380.64
1 438.71 1 445.16
1 503.22 1 509.67
1 567.74 1 574.19
1
103.23
167.74
232.26
296.77
361.29
425.81
490.32
554.84
619.35
683.87
748.39
812.9
877.42
941.93
000.00
064.51
1129.03
1193.55
1 258.06
1 322.58
1 387.09
1 451.61
1 516.13
1 580.64
1 006.45
1 070.97
1
1
45.16
109.68
174.19
38.71
238.71
303.23
367.74
432.26
496.77
561.29
625.81
690.32
754.84
819.35
883.87
948.39
012.9
077.42
1135.48 1141.93
1 200.0
1 206.45
1 264.51
1 270.97
1 329.03 1 335.48
1 393.55 1 400.0
1 458.06 1 464.51
1 522.58 1 529.03
1 587.09 1 593.55
1
1
116.13
180.65
187.1
245.16
251.61
309.68
316.13
374.19
380.64
438.71
445.16
503.23
509.68
567.74
574.19
632.26
638.71
696.77
703.22
761.29
767.74
825.81
832.26
890.32
896.77
954.84
961.29
1 019.35 1 025.8
1 083.87 1 090.32
1 212.9
1 277.42
0
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
110
120
130
140
150
160
170
180
190
200
210
220
230
240
250
260
270
280
290
300
310
320
330
340
350
360
370
380
390
400
410
420
430
440
450
460
470
480
490
500
0.93
1.86
2.79
3.72
4.65
5.57
6.5
7.43
8.36
9.29
10.22
11.15
12.08
1
1
1
1
1
1
219.35
341.93 1 348.38
406.45 1 412.9
470.96 1 477.42
535.48 1 541.93
600.0 1 606.45
3
4
5
6
7
8
0.19
0.28
0.37
1.3
0.65
1.58
0.74
1.21
2.14
3.07
3.99
4.92
5.85
6.78
10.31
10.41
11.24
12.17
11.33
12.26
13.19
14.12
15.05
15.98
2.42
3.34
4.27
5.2
6.13
7.06
7.99
8.92
9.85
10.78
2.6
3.53
4.46
5.39
6.32
7.25
8.18
8.64
9.57
10.5
11.43
12.36
13.29
2.23
3.16
4.09
5.02
5.95
6.87
7.8
8.73
9.66
10.59
11.52
12.45
13.38
2.51
4.74
5.67
6.6
7.53
8.45
9.38
2.04
2.97
3.9
4.83
5.76
6.69
7.62
8.55
9.48
0.46
1.39
2.32
3.25
4.18
5.11
6.04
6.97
7.9
8.83
9.75
10.68
0.56
1.11
11.61
11.71
14.21
14.31
15.14
16.07
17.0
17.93
18.86
19.79
20.72
21.65
22.58
15.24
16.17
17.09
18.02
18.95
19.88
12.54
13.47
14.4
15.33
16.26
17.19
18.12
19.05
19.97
20.9
21.83
22.76
12.63
13.56
14.49
15.42
16.35
17.28
23.5
24.43
25.36
26.29
27.22
28.15
29.08
30.01
30.94
31.87
32.79
33.72
34.65
35.58
36.51
37.44
38.37
39.3
40.23
41.16
42.09
43.01
43.94
44.87
45.8
23.6
24.53
25.46
26.38
27.31
28.24
29.17
0.09
1.02
1.95
2.88
3.81
13.01
13.1
13.94
14.86
15.79
16.72
17.65
18.58
19.51
20.44
21.37
22.3
14.03
14.96
15.89
16.82
17.74
18.67
19.6
20.53
21.46
22.39
23.23
24.15
25.08
23.32
24.25
25.18
26.11
27.03
27.96
28.89
29.82
30.75
31.68
32.61
33.54
34.47
35.4
36.33
37.25
38.18
39.11
40.04
40.97
41.9
42.83
43.76
44.69
45.62
26.01
26.94
27.87
28.8
29.73
30.66
31.59
32.52
33.45
34.37
35.3
36.23
37.16
38.09
39.02
39.95
40.88
41.81
42.74
43.66
44.59
45.52
46.45
16.91
17.84
18.77
19.7
20.62
21.55
22.48
23.41
24.34
25.27
26.2
27.13
28.06
28.99
29.91
30.84
31.77
32.7
33.63
34.56
35.49
36.42
37.35
38.28
39.21
40.13
41.06
41.99
42.92
43.85
44.78
45.71
7.71
20.81
21.74
22.67
23.69
24.62
25.55
26.48
27.41
31.03
31.96
32.89
33.82
34.75
35.67
36.6
28.34
29.26
30.19
31.12
32.05
32.98
33.91
34.84
35.77
36.7
37.53
38.46
39.39
40.32
41.25
42.18
43.11
44.04
44.97
45.89
37.63
38.55
39.48
40.41
41.34
42.27
43.2
44.13
45.06
45.99
30.1
1.49
18.21
19.14
20.07
21.0
21.93
22.85
23.78
24.71
25.64
26.57
27.5
28.43
29.36
30.29
31.22
32.14
33.07
34.0
34.93
35.86
36.79
37.72
38.65
39.58
40.51
41.43
42.36
43.29
44.22
45.15
46.08
3.44
4.37
5.3
6.22
7.15
8.08
1.67
9.01
9.1
9.94
10.87
11.8
12.73
13.66
14.59
10.03
10.96
11,89
12.82
13.75
15.51
15.61
16.44
17.37
18.3
19.23
20.16
21.09
22.02
22.95
23.88
24.81
25.73
26.66
27.59
28.52
29.45
30.38
16.54
17.47
18.39
19.32
20.25
21.18
31.31
32.24
33.17
34.1
35.02
35.95
36.88
37.81
38.74
39.67
40.6
41.53
42.46
43.39
44.31
45.24
46.17
centimetres
1 283.87
9
m2
10
to square
1148.38 1154.84
2
1
58.06
122.58
51.61
12
squareinches
14.68
22.11
23.04
23.97
24.9
25.83
26.76
27.69
28.61
29.54
30.47
31.4
32.33
33.26
34.19
35.12
36.05
36.98
37.9
38.83
39.76
40.69
41.62
42.55
43.48
44.41
45.34
46.27
0.84
1.77
2.69
3.62
4.55
5.48
6.41
7.34
8.27
9.2
10.13
11.06
11.98
12.91
13.84
14.77
15.7
16.63
17.56
18.49
19.42
20.35
21.27
22.2
23.13
24.06
24.99
25.92
26.85
27.78
28.71
29.64
30.57
31.49
32.42
33.35
34.28
35.21
36.14
37.07
38.0
38.93
39.86
40.78
41.71
42.64
43.57
44.5
45.43
46.36
14
square feetto
square metres
372
Conversions
15
squaremetresto
squareyards
0
m2
17
4
5
3.58
15.55
27.51
39.47
51.43
4.78
16.74
28.7
40.66
52.62
63.39
75.35
64.58
76.54
88.5
100.46
112.42
124.38
136.34
148.31
160.26
172.22
184.18
196.14
5.98
17.94
29.9
41.86
53.82
65.78
77.74
89.7
101.66
113.62
125.58
137.54
149.5
161.46
3
6
7
8
9
8.37
20.33
32.29
44.25
9.57
21.53
33.49
45.45
56.21
57.41
68.17
80.13
92.09
104.05
69.37
81.33
93.29
105.25
116.01
117.21
10.76
22.72
34.68
46.64
58.6
70.56
82.52
94.48
106.44
118.4
127.97
139.93
151.89
163.85
129.17
141.13
153.09
165.05
175.81
177.01
130.36
142.32
154.28
166.24
178.2
187.77
199.73
211.69
223.65
188.97
200.93
212.89
224.85
236.81
190.16
202.12
214.08
226.04
238.0
594.41
248.77
260.73
272.69
284.65
296.61
308.57
320.53
332.49
344.45
356.41
368.37
380.33
392.29
404.25
416.21
428.16
440.12
452.08
464.04
476.0
487.96
499.92
511.88
523.84
535.8
547.76
559.72
571.68
583.64
595.6
249.96
261.92
273.88
285.84
297.8
309.76
321.72
333.68
345.64
357.6
369.56
381.52
393.48
405.44
417.4
429.36
441.32
453.28
465.24
477.2
489.16
501.12
513.08
525.04
537.0
548.96
560.92
572.88
584.84
596.8
yd2
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
110
120
130
140
hectares toacres
2
1
11.96
23.92
35.88
47.84
59.8
71.76
83.72
95.68
107.64
119.6
131.56
143.52
155.48
167.44
150
160
170
180
190
179.34
191.36
203.32
215.28
227.24
200
210
220
230
240
250
260
270
280
290
300
310
320
330
340
350
360
370
380
390
400
410
420
430
440
450
460
470
480
490
500
239.2
251.16
263.12
275.08
287.04
299.0
310.96
322.92
334.88
346.84
358.78
370.76
382.72
394.68
406.64
418.6
430.56
442.52
454.48
466.44
478.4
490.36
502.32
514.28
526.24
538.2
550.16
562.12
574.08
586.04
598.0
ha
0
1.2
13.16
25.12
37.08
49.04
61.0
72.96
84.92
96.88
108.84
120.8
132.76
144.72
156.68
168.64
180.59
192.55
204.51
216.47
228.43
240.39
252.35
264.31
276.27
288.23
300.19
312.15
324.11
336.07
348.03
359.99
371.95
383.91
395.87
407.83
419.79
431.75
443.71
455.67
467.63
479.59
491.55
503.51
515.47
527.43
539.39
551.35
563.31
575.27
587.23
1
2.39
14.35
26.31
38.27
50.23
62.19
74.15
86.11
98.07
110.03
121.99
133.95
145.91
157.87
169.83
181.79
193.75
205.71
217.67
229.63
241.59
253.55
265.51
277.47
289.43
301.39
313.35
325.31
337.27
349.23
87.31
99.27
111.23
123.19
135.15
147.11
159.07
171.03
182.99
194.95
206.91
218.87
230.83
242.79
254.75
266.71
278.67
290.63
302.59
314.55
326.51
338.47
350.43
208.1
220.06
232.02
243.98
255.94
267.9
279.86
291.82
303.78
315.74
327.7
339.66
351.62
.
173.41
185.38
197.34
209.3
221.26
233.22
245.18
257.14
269.1
7.18
19.14
31.1
43.06
55.02
66.98
78.94
90.9
102.86
114.82
126.78
138.74
150.7
162.66
174.62
186.57
198.53
210.49
222.45
234.41
235.61
246.37
258.33
270.29
282.25
294.21
306.17
318.13
330.09
342.05
354.02
365.97
377.94
389.89
401.85
413.81
247.57
259.53
271.49
283.45
425.77
437.73
449.69
461.65
473.61
485.57
497.53
509.49
521.45
426.97
438.93
450.89
462.84
474.81
486.77
498.73
510.69
522.65
534.61
546.57
558.53
570.49
582.45
361.19
373.15
385.11
397.07
409.03
420.99
432.95
444.91
456.87
468.83
480.79
492.75
504.71
516.67
528.63
540.59
552.55
564.5
576.47
588.43
362.39
374.35
386.31
398.27
410.23
422.18
434.14
446.11
458.06
470.02
481.98
493.94
505.9
517.86
529.82
363.58
375.54
387.5
399.46
411.42
423.38
435.34
447.3
459.26
471.22
483.18
495.14
507.1
519.06
531.02
281.06
293.02
304.98
316.94
328.9
340.86
352.82
364.78
376.74
388.7
400.66
412.62
424.58
436.54
448.5
460.46
472.42
484.38
496.34
508.3
520.26
532.22
541.78
553.74
565.71
577.66
589.62
542.98
554.94
566.9
578.86
590.82
544.18
556.14
568.1
580.06
592.02
545.37
557.33
569.29
581.25
593.21
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
12.36
14.83
17.3
19.77
22.24
50
60
70
80
90
123.55
370.66
617.76
864.87
1111.97
1 359.08
1 606.18
1 853.29
148.26
395.37
642.47
889.58
1136.68
1 383.79
1 630.9
1 878.0
2125.11
2 372.21
533.41
295.41
307.37
319.33
331.29
343.25
355.21
367.17
379.13
391.09
403.05
415.01
acre
2.47
0
acre
ha
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
1000
10
4.94
20
24.71
49.42
271.82
296.53
518.92
543.63
766.03
790.74
1 013.13
1 037.84
1 260.24 1 284.95
1 507.34
1 532.05
1 754.45
1 779.16
1976.84 2 001.55 2026.26
2223.95 2 248.66 2273.37
247.11
494.21
741.32
988.42
1 235.53
1 482.63
1 729.74
2471.05
7.41
30
74.13
321.24
568.34
815.45
1 062.55
1 309.66
1 556.76
1 803.87
9.88
40
98.84
345.95
593.05
840.16
1 087.26
1 334.37
1 581.47
1 828.58
2050.97 2075.69
2 298.08 2322.79
2100.4
2347.5
172.97
420.08
667.19
914.29
197.68
444.8
691.9
939.0
1161.4 1186.11
1 408.5
1 433.21
1 655.61 1 680.32
1 902.71 1 927.42
2149.82 2174.53
2 396.92 2421.63
222.4
469.5
716.61
963.71
1 210.82
1 457.92
1 705.03
1 952.13
2199.24
2446.34
373
Conversions
0
yd2
1
2
3
1.67
10.03
18.39
26.76
35.12
43.48
51.84
60.2
68.56
76.92
85.29
93.65
102.0
110.37
118.73
10.87
19.23
27.59
35.95
44.31
52.68
61.04
69.3
77.76
86.12
94.48
102.84
111.21
119.57
4
5
6
7
8
9
6.69
15.05
23.41
31.77
40.13
48.5
56.86
65.22
73.5
81.94
7.53
15.89
24.25
32.61
40.97
49.33
57.69
66.05
74.4
82.78
90.3
98.66
107.02
115.39
123.75
91.14
99.5
107.86
116.22
124.58
132.11
132.94
141.31
149.67
158.03
166.39
m2
0
0.84
10
9.2
100
110
120
130
140
8.36
16.72
25.08
33.45
41.81
50.17
58.53
66.89
75.25
83.61
91.97
100.34
108.7
117.06
17.56
25.92
34.28
42.64
51.0
59.37
67.7
76.09
84.45
92.81
101.17
109.53
117.89
150
160
170
180
190
125.42
133.78
142.14
150.5
158.86
126.26
134.62
142.98
151.34
159.7
127.09
135.45
200
220
230
240
250
260
270
280
290
300
310
320
330
340
350
360
370
380
390
400
410
420
430
440
167.23
175.59
183.95
192.31
200.67
209.03
217.39
225.75
234.12
242.48
250.84
259.2
267.56
275.92
284.28
292.65
301.0
309.37
317.73
326.09
334.45
342.81
351.17
359.54
367.9
450
460
470
480
490
500
376.26
384.62
392.98
401.34
409.7
418.0
168.06
176.42
184.78
193.15
201.51
209.87
218.3
226.59
234.95
243.31
251.67
260.04
268.4
276.76
285.12
293.48
301.84
310.2
318.57
326.93
335.29
343.65
352.01
360.37
368.73
377.09
385.46
393.82
402.18
410.54
168.9
177.26
185.62
193.98
202.34
210.7
219.07
227.43
235.79
244.15
252.51
260.87
269.23
277.59
285.96
294.32
302.68
311.04
319.4
327.76
336.12
344.48
352.85
361.21
369.57
377.93
386.29
394.65
403.01
411.38
1
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
210
acre
0
2.51
3.34
11.71
4.18
12.54
20.9
29.26
37.63
45.99
54.35
62.71
71.07
79.43
87.79
96.15
104.52
112.88
121.24
129.6
137.96
146.32
154.68
163.05
171.41
179.77
188.13
196.49
204.85
5.02
13.38
21.74
38.46
46.82
55.18
63.55
71.9
80.27
88.62
96.99
105.35
113.71
122.08
130.44
138.8
147.16
155.52
163.88
172.24
180.61
188.97
197.33
205.69
5.85
14.21
186.46
194.82
203.18
20.07
28.43
36.79
45.15
53.51
61.87
70.23
78.6
86.96
95.32
103.68
112.04
120.41
128.76
137.13
145.49
153.85
162.21
170.57
178.93
187.29
195.65
204.02
211.54
219.9
228.26
236.62
244.99
253.35
261.71
270.07
278.43
286.79
295.15
303.51
311.88
320.24
328.6
336.96
345.32
353.68
362.04
370.41
378.77
387.13
395.49
403.85
412.21
212.38
220.74
229.1
237.46
245.82
254.18
262.54
270.91
279.27
287.63
295.99
304.35
312.71
321.07
329.43
337.8
346.16
354.52
362.88
371.24
379.6
387.96
396.32
404.69
413.05
213.21
214.1
221.57
229.94
238.3
246.66
255.02
263.38
271.74
280.11
288.46
296.83
305.19
313.55
321.91
330.27
338.63
346.99
355.35
363.72
372.08
380.44
388.8
397.16
405.52
413.88
222.41
230.77
239.13
247.49
255.86
264.22
272.58
280.94
289.3
297.66
306.02
314.38
322.75
331.11
339.47
347.83
356.19
364.55
372.91
381.27
389.64
398.0
406.36
414.72
214.89
223.25
231.61
239.97
248.33
256.69
265.05
273.41
281.78
290.14
298.5
306.86
315.22
323.58
331.94
340.31
348.67
357.03
365.39
373.75
382.11
390.47
398.83
407.19
415.56
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
0.4
0.81
1.21
1.62
2.02
2.42
2.83
3.23
3.64
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
4.05
44.52
84.98
125.46
165.92
8.09
48.56
89.03
129.5
169.97
206.39
246.86
287.33
327.8
368.26
210.44
250.91
291.37
331.84
372.31
12.14
52.6
93.08
133.55
174.02
214.48
254.95
295.42
335.84
376.36
16.19
56.66
97.12
137.59
178.06
218.53
259.0
299.47
339.94
380.41
24.28
64.75
105.22
145.69
186.16
226.62
267.09
307.56
348.03
388.5
28.33
68.8
109.26
149.73
190.20
230.67
271.14
311.61
352.07
392.55
143.81
152.18
160.54
127.93
136.29
144.65
153.01
161.37
169.73
178.1
30.1
22.58
30.94
39.3
47.66
56.02
64.38
72.74
81.10
89.47
97.83
106.19
114.55
122.91
131.27
139.63
148.0
156.36
164.72
173.08
181.44
189.80
198.16
206.52
140.47
148.83
157.19
165.55
182.28
190.64
199.0
207.36
215.72
224.08
232.44
240.81
249.17
257.53
265.89
274.25
282.61
290.97
299.33
307.7
316.06
324.42
332.78
341.14
349.51
357.86
366.22
374.59
382.95
391.31
399.67
408.03
416.39
174.75
183.11
191.47
199.83
208.2
216.56
224.92
233.28
241.64
250.0
258.36
266.73
275.09
283.45
291.81
300.17
308.53
316.89
325.25
333.62
341.98
350.34
358.7
367.06
375.42
383.78
392.14
400.51
408.87
417.23
173.91
ha
acre
0
ha
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
1 000
40.47
80.94
121.41
161.87
202.34
242.81
283.28
323.75
364.22
404.69
20.23
60.71
101.17
141.64
182.11
222.58
263.05
303.51
343.98
384.45
32.37
72.84
113.31
153.78
194.25
234.71
275.19
315.66
356.12
396.59
36.42
76.89
117.36
157.83
198.3
238.77
279.23
319.7
360.17
400.64
16
squareyards to
squaremetres
18
acres to hectares
374
Conversions
Volume
5
6
7
8
9
in3
19
cubiccentimetres to
cubicinches
cm3
0.06
0.12
0.18
0.24
0.31
0.37
0.43
0.49
0.55
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
6.1
0.61
6.71
12.82
18.92
25.02
31.12
37.22
43.38
49.43
55.53
1.22
7.32
13.43
19.53
25.63
31.73
37.83
43.94
50.04
56.14
7.93
14.04
20.14
26.24
32.34
38.45
44.55
50.65
56.75
2.44
8.54
14.65
20.75
26.85
32.95
39.06
45.16
51.26
57.36
3.05
9.15
15.26
21.36
27.46
33.56
39.67
45.77
51.87
57.97
3.66
9.76
15.87
21.97
28.07
34.17
40.28
46.38
52.48
58.58
4.27
10.37
16.48
22.58
28.68
34.78
40.89
46.99
53.09
59.19
4.88
10.98
17.09
23.19
29.29
35.39
41.5
47.6
53.7
59.8
5.49
11.59
17.7
23.8
29.9
36.0
42.11
48.21
54.31
60.41
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
j3
0
21
cubicmetresto
cubicfeet
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
24.41
30.51
36.61
42.72
48.82
54.92
1000
61.02
m3
18.31
0
ft3
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
110
120
130
140
150
160
170
180
190
200
210
220
230
240
250
23
litresto cubicfeet
12.2
1.83
litre
35.31
353.15
388.46
706.29
741.61
1 059.44 1 094.75
1 412.59 1 447.9
1765.73 1801.05
2 118.88 2154.19
2472.03 2 507.34
105.94
141.26
176.57
459.09
494.41
592.72
812.24
847.55
882.87
1130.07 1165.38 1 200.7 1 236.01
1 483.22 1 518.53 1 553.85 1 589.16
1836.36 1871.68 1 906.99 1942.31
2189.51 2224.82 2260.14 2295.45
2542.66 2577.97 2613.29 2 648.6
2825.17 2860.49 2895.8 2931.12 2966.43 3001.75
211.89
565.04
918.18
1 271.33
1 624.47
1977.62
2330.77
2 683.91
3037.06
3178.32 3213.63 3248.95 3284.26 3319.58 3354.89 3390.21
3 531.47 3 566.78 3602.1 3 637.41 3672.73 3708.04 3743.35
3884.61 3919.93 3955.24 3990.56 4025.87 4061.19 4096.5
4237.76 4 273.07 4308.39 4343.7 4 379.02 4414.33 4449.65
4590.91 4626.22 4661.54 4696.85 4732.17 4767.48 4802.79
4 944.05 4 979.37 5 014.68 5050.0 5 085.31 5 120.63 5 155.94
5297.2 5332.51 5367.83 5403.14 5438.46 5473.77 5509.09
5650.35 5685.66 5720.98 5756.29 5791.61 5826.92 5862.23
6 003.49 6038.81 6074.12 6 109.44 6 144.75 6180.07 6215.38
6356.64 6391.95 6427.27 6462.58 6497.9 6533.21 6568.53
6709.79 6745.1
7062.93 7098.25
7416.08 7451.39
7 769.23 7 804.54
8 122.37 8 157.69
8475.52 8510.83
8828.67
0
70.63
423.78
776.92
247.2
600.35
953.5
1 306.64
1 659.79
2012.94
2366.08
2 719.23
3072.38
3425.52
3 778.67
4131.82
4 484.96
4838.11
5 191.26
5544.4
5897.55
6250.7
6603.84
6851.05 6886.36 6921.67 6956.99
7204.19 7239.51 7274.82 7310.14
7557.34 7592.65 7627.97 7 663.28
7910.49 7945.8 7981.11 8 016.43
8263.63 8298.95 8334.26 8369.58
8616.78 8652.09 8687.41 8722.72
282.52
317.83
635.67
670.98
988.81 1 024.13
1 341.96 1 377.27
1 695.1
1 730.42
2048.25 2083.57
2401.4 2436.71
2754.54 2789.86
3107.69
3143.01
3460.84 3496.15
3 813.98 3 849.3
4167.13 4202.45
4 520.28 4 555.59
4873.42 4908.74
5 226.57 5 261.89
5579.72 5615.03
5932.86 5968.18
6286.01
6639.16
6321.33
6674.47
6992.3 7027.62
7345.45 7380.77
7 698.6 7 733.91
8051.74 8087.06
8404.89 8440.21
8758.04 8793.35
6780.42
7133.56
7 486.71
7839.86
8 193.0
8546.15
6815.73
7168.88
7522.02
7 875.17
8228.32
8581.46
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
0.04
0.39
0.74
1.09
1.45
1.8
2.15
0.07
0.42
0.78
1.13
1.48
1.84
2.19
2.54
2.9
3.25
0.11
0.81
0.14
0.49
0.85
0.21
0.57
0.92
0.25
0.60
0.95
1.17
1.2
1.31
1.55
1.27
1.62
0.28
0.64
0.99
1.34
1.52
1.66
1.7
1.87
1.91
1.98
2.01
2.22
2.58
2.93
3.28
2.26
0.18
0.53
0.88
1.24
1.59
1.94
2.3
2.65
2.33
2.68
3.04
3.39
2.37
2.72
3.07
3.42
2.05
2.4
2.75
3.11
3.46
0.32
0.67
1.02
1.38
1.73
2.08
2.44
2.79
3.14
3.5
ft3
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
0.35
0.71
1.06
1.41
1.77
2.12
2.47
2.83
3.18
3.53
2.51
2.86
3.21
0.46
2.61
2.97
3.32
3.0
3.35
375
Conversions
in3
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
16.39
32.77
49.16
65.55
81.94
98.32
10
20
30
40
327.74
491.61
7
8
9
cm3
jfl3
0
50
60
114.71
131.1
147.48
70
80
90
20
cubicinches to
cubiccentimetres
cm3
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
1000
163.87
1638.71
1802.58
1966.45 2130.32
6554.83 6718.7
8193.53 8357.4
9832.24 9996.11
11470.9 11634.8
6882.57 7046.44
8521.27 8685.14
3441.28 3605.15 3769.02 3932.9
4916.12 5079.99 5243.86 5407.73 5571.6
3277.41
13 109.7 13273.5
14748.4 14912.2
16387.1
0
ft3
655.48
819.35
983.22 1147.09
2294.19 2458.06 2621.93 2785.8
10160.0
11798.7
13437.4
15076.1
10323.9
11962.6
13601.3
15240.0
3
0.06
0.34
0.62
0.91
1 474.84
2949.67
3113.54
7865.79
8029.66
9668.37
11307.1
12945.8
14584.5
16223.2
4096.77 4260.64 4424.51 4588.38 4752.25
5735.47 5899.34 6063.21 6227.08 6390.95
7374.18
7538.05
9012.89 9176.76
10651.6
12290.3
13929.0
15567.7
10815.5
12454.2
14092.9
15731.6
7701.92
9340.63
10979.3
12618.0
14256.7
15895.5
9504.5
11143.2
12781.9
14420.6
16059.3
4
5
6
7
8
0.08
0.37
0.65
0.93
0.11
0.4
0.68
0.96
0.14
0.42
0.17
0.45
0.74
1.02
0.2
0.48
0.77
1.05
0.23
0.51
0.79
1.08
1.22
1.5
1.78
2.07
2.35
2.63
2.92
1.25
1.53
1.27
1.56
1.84
2.12
1.3
1.59
1.87
2.15
2.44
1.33
1.36
1.61
1.9
1.64
1.93
2.21
2.49
2.78
3.06
3.34
3.62
3.91
4.19
4.47
4.76
5.04
5.32
5.69
5.98
6.26
6.54
6.82
1.19
1.47
1.76
2.04
2.32
2.61
2.89
3.17
3.46
3.74
4.02
4.3
4.59
4.87
5.15
5.44
5.72
6.0
6.29
6.57
6.85
1
2
1
2
7210.31
8849.01
10487.7
12126.4
13765.1
15403.8
1 310.97
9
m3
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
110
120
130
140
150
160
170
180
190
200
210
220
230
240
250
ft3
0.28
0.57
0.03
0.31
0.59
0.85
0.88
1.13
1.42
1.7
1.98
2.27
2.55
2.83
1.16
1.44
1.73
2.01
2.29
2.58
2.86
3.14
3.43
3.71
3.11
3.4
3.68
3.96
4.26
4.53
4.81
5.1
5.38
5.66
5.95
6.23
6.51
6.8
4.0
4.28
4.56
4.84
5.13
5.41
3.2
3.48
3.77
4.05
4.33
4.62
1.81
2.1
2.38
2.66
2.94
3.23
3.51
3.79
4.08
4.36
4.64
4.93
0.71
0.99
2.41
2.69
2.97
3.26
3.54
3.82
4.11
5.18
5.47
5.75
6.03
6.31
5.21
6.6
5.49
5.78
6.06
6.34
6.63
6.88
6.91
4.39
4.67
4.96
5.24
5.52
5.8
6.09
6.37
6.65
6.94
3
4
5
4.9
2.71
3.01
3.28
3.57
3.85
4.13
4.42
4.7
4.99
5.27
5.55
5.83
6.12
6.4
6.69
6.97
2.18
2.46
2.75
3.03
3.31
3.6
3.88
4.16
4.45
4.73
0.25
0.54
0.82
2.8
3.09
3.37
3.65
3.94
4.22
6.99
5.89
6.17
6.46
6.74
7.02
6
7
8
9
169.9
453.06
736.22
1 019.38
1 302.54
1 585.7
1 868.86
2 152.02
198.21
481.37
764.53
1 047.69
1 330.85
1 614.02
1 897.18
2 180.34
226.53
509.69
792.85
1 076.01
1 359.17
1 642.33
1 925.49
5.58
5.86
6.14
6.43
6.71
5.61
7.08
0
litre
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
cubicfeetto
cubicmetres
1.1
1.39
1.67
1.95
2.24
2.52
4.51
4.79
5.07
5.35
5.64
5.92
6.2
6.48
6.77
7.05
5.01
5.3
22
28.32
56.63
84.95
113.26
141.58
283.16
311.48
339.79
368.11
396.42
424.74
566.32
594.64
622.95
651.27
679.59
707.9
849.48
877.8
906.11
934.43
962.75
991.06
1132.64 1160.96 1189.27 1 217.59 1 245.91 1 274.22
1 415.8
1 444.12 1 472.43 1 500.75 1 529.07 1 557.38
1 698.96 1 727.28 1 755.6
1 783.91
1 812.23 1 840.54
1 982.12 2 010.44 2 038.76 2067.07 2 095.39 2 123.7
254.84
538.01
821.17
1104.33
1 387.49
1 670.65
1 953.81
2208.65 2 236.97
2491.81 2520.13
2265.28 2293.6 2321.92 2350.23 2378.55 2406.86 2435.18 2463.5
2548.44 2576.76 2605.08 2633.39 2661.71 2690.03 2718.34 2746.66 2774.97 2803.29
2831.61
24
cubicfeetto litres
376
Conversions
25
litresto gallons
0
litre
imperial
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
2.2
4.4
6.6
8.8
11.0
13.2
15.4
17.6
19.8
22.0
100
27
litresto gallons US
litre
0
20
30
40
2.64
5.28
7.93
10.57
50
13.21
60
70
80
90
0.22
2.42
4.62
6.82
9.02
11.22
13.42
15.62
17.82
20.02
0.44
2.64
4.84
7.04
9.24
11.44
13.64
15.84
18.04
20.24
0.66
2.86
5.06
7.26
9.46
11.66
13.86
16.06
18.26
20.46
11.88
14.08
16.28
18.48
20.68
1
2
3
4
0.26
2.91
5.55
8.19
15.85
18.49
21.14
23.78
26.42
100
0
kg
29
kilograms to pounds
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
0.88
3.08
5.28
7.48
9.68
1.1
1.32
3.52
5.72
7.92
10.12
1.54
3.74
5.94
8.14
10.34
12.54
14.74
16.94
19.14
1.98
4.18
6.38
8.58
10.78
12.98
15.18
17.38
19.58
21.78
3.3
5.5
7.7
9.9
12.1
14.3
16.5
18.7
20.9
5
12.32
14.52
16.72
18.92
21.12
21.34
1.76
3.96
6.16
8.36
10.56
12.76
14.96
17.16
19.36
21.56
6
7
8
9
1.85
4.49
7.13
9.78
12.42
15.06
17.7
2.11
2.38
5.02
7.66
10.3
12.95
15.59
18.23
20.87
gal US
10
Mass
2
1
gal imp
0.53
3.17
5.81
8.45
10.83
11.1
13.47
16.12
18.76
21.4
24.04
13.74
16.38
19.02
21.66
24.31
1
2
0.79
3.43
6.08
8.72
11.36
14.0
1.06
3.7
6.34
8.98
11.62
14.27
1.32
3.96
16.64
16.91
19.29
21.93
24.57
19.55
22.19
24.83
9.25
11.89
14.53
17.17
19.82
22.46
25.1
3
4
5
6.61
1.59
4.23
6.87
9.51
4.76
7.4
10.04
12.68
12.15
14.8
17.44
20.08
22.72
25.36
25.63
15.32
17.97
20.61
23.25
25.89
6
7
8
13.23
35.27
57.32
79.37
15.43
37.47
59.52
81.57
20.34
22.96
23.51
26.16
9
lb
2.21
24.25
0
10
20
30
4.41
26.46
48.5
70.55
92.59
22.05
44.09
66.14
46.3
40
88.18
90.39
50
60
70
80
90
110.23
132.28
112.44
134.48
156.53
178.57
200.62
222.67
244.71
266.76
288.81
310.85
114.64
136.69
332.9
354.94
335.1
357.15
379.2
401.24
423.29
68.34
154.32
176.37
198.42
220.46
242.51
264.56
286.6
308.65
330.69
352.74
374.79
396.83
100
110
120
130
140
150
160
170
180
190
200
210
220
230
240
250
260
270
280
290
300
310
320
330
340
350
360
370
380
390
400
377.0
399.04
418.88
421.08
440.93
462.97
443.13
465.18
487.22
509.2
531.31
553.36
575.41
597.45
619.5
641.55
663.59
685.64
485.02
507.06
529.1
551.16
573.2
595.25
617.29
639.34
661.39
683.43
705.48
727.53
707.68
729.73
751.78
773.82
795.87
817.92
839.96
862.0
749.57
771.62
793.66
815.71
837.76
859.8
884.05
410
881.85
903.9
420
430
925.94
947.99
928.15
950.19
972.24
994.29
016.33
038.38
060.42
082.47
440
450
460
470
906.1
970.03
1
992.08
014.13
480
1
490
1
036.17
058.22
080.27
500
1
102.31
1
1
1
1
1
158.73
180.78
202.83
224.87
246.92
268.96
291.01
313.06
445.33
467.38
489.43
511.47
533.5
555.57
577.61
599.66
621.7
643.75
665.8
687.84
709.89
731.93
753.98
776.03
798.07
820.12
842.17
864.21
886.26
908.31
930.35
952.4
974.44
996.49
1 018.54
1 040.58
1 062.63
1 084.67
6.61
28.66
50.71
72.75
94.8
116.85
138.89
160.94
182.98
205.03
227.08
249.12
271.17
293.22
315.26
8.82
30.86
52.91
74.96
97.0
119.05
141.1
163.14
185.19
207.24
229.28
251.33
273.37
295.42
317.47
337.31
359.35
381.4
403.45
425.49
447.54
469.59
491.63
339.51
361.56
383.6
405.65
427.68
449.74
471.79
493.84
513.6
515.88
535.72
537.9
557.77
579.82
601.86
623.91
645.95
668.0
690.05
712.09
734.14
756.19
778.23
800.28
559.97
582.02
604.07
822.32
844.37
866.41
888.46
910.51
932.56
954.6
976.65
998.69
1 020.74
1 042.79
1 064.83
1 086.88
11.02
33.07
55.12
77.16
99.2
121.25
143.3
165.35
187.39
209.44
231.49
253.53
275.58
297.62
319.67
341.72
363.76
385.81
407.86
429.9
451.95
473.99
496.04
518.0
540.13
562.18
584.23
101.41
103.61
123.46
145.51
167.55
189.6
211.64
125.66
233.69
255.74
277.78
299.83
321.88
343.92
365.97
388.01
410.06
432.11
454.15
476.2
498.25
520.29
542.3
564.38
586.43
606.27
628.32
608.48
630.52
652.57
758.39
650.36
672.41
694.46
716.5
738.55
760.6
780.44
802.48
782.64
804.69
824.53
846.58
826.73
848.78
870.8
892.87
914.92
936.97
959.01
981.06
1 003.1
1 025.15
1 047.2
1 069.24
1 091.29
626.11
648.16
670.21
692.25
714.3
736.34
868.62
890.67
912.71
934.76
956.81
978.85
1 000.9
1 022.94
1 044.99
1 067.04
1 089.08
674.62
696.66
718.71
740.75
762.8
784.85
806.89
828.94
850.98
873.03
895.08
917.12
939.17
961.22
983.26
1 005.31
1 027.35
1 049.4
1 071.45
1 093.49
147.71
169.76
191.8
213.85
235.9
257.94
279.99
302.03
17.64
39.68
61.73
83.78
105.82
127.87
149.91
171.96
194.01
216.05
238.1
260.15
282.19
304.24
19.84
41.89
63.93
85.98
108.03
130.07
152.12
174.17
196.21
218.26
240.3
262.35
284.4
306.44
324.08
326.28
328.49
346.13
368.17
390.22
348.33
370.38
392.42
350.54
372.58
394.68
412.26
434.31
456.36
478.4
500.45
414.47
436.52
458.56
480.61
416.67
522.4
524.7
546.7
568.79
590.84
612.89
634.93
544.54
566.59
588.63
610.68
632.73
654.77
676.82
698.87
720.91
742.96
765.0
787.05
809.1
831.14
853.19
875.2
897.28
919.33
941.37
963.42
985.47
1 007.51
1 029.56
1 051.6
1 073.65
1 095.7
502.65
656.98
679.02
701.07
723.12
745.16
767.21
789.26
811.31
833.35
855.39
877.44
899.49
921.53
943.58
965.63
987.67
438.72
460.77
482.81
504.86
526.9
548.9
571.0
593.04
615.09
637.14
659.18
681.23
703.28
725.32
747.37
769.41
791.46
813.51
835.55
857.6
879.64
901.69
923.74
945.78
967.83
989.88
1 011.92
1 033.97
1 056.01
1 078.06
1 009.72
1 031.76
1 053.81
1 075.86
1 097.9
1100.11
377
Conversions
gallmp
0
Iftre
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
galUS
45.46
90.92
136.38
181.84
227.3
272.76
318.22
363.68
409.14
454.6
0
litre
0
2
254.57
300.03
345.49
390.95
436.41
259.12
304.58
350.04
395.5
440.96
263.67
309.13
354.59
400.04
445.5
268.21
313.67
359.13
404.59
450.05
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
11.36
49.21
87.06
124.91
162.76
200.61
238.46
276.31
314.16
352.01
15.14
52.99
90.84
128.69
166.54
204.39
242.24
280.09
317.94
355.79
132.48
170.33
208.18
246.03
283.88
321.73
359.58
22.71
60.56
98.41
136.26
211.96
249.81
287.66
325.51
363.36
26.5
64.35
102.2
140.05
177.9
215.75
253.6
291.45
329.3
367.14
30.28
68.13
105.98
143.83
181.68
219.53
257.38
295.23
333.08
370.93
34.07
71.92
109.77
147.62
185.47
223.32
261.17
299.02
336.87
374.72
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
2.72
7.26
11.79
16.33
20.87
3.63
8.16
12.7
17.24
21.77
26.31
30.84
35.38
39.92
44.45
48.99
53.52
58.06
62.6
67.13
71.67
76.2
80.74
85.28
89.81
94.35
98.88
103.42
107.96
112.49
117.03
121.56
4.08
8.62
13.15
17.69
22.23
26.76
31.3
35.83
40.37
44.91
49.44
53.98
58.51
63.05
67.59
72.12
76.66
81.19
85.73
90.26
94.8
99.34
103.87
108.41
112.95
117.48
122.02
126.55
131.09
135.62
140.16
144.7
149.23
153.77
158.3
162.84
167.38
171.91
176.45
180.98
185.52
190.06
194.59
199.13
203.66
208.2
212.74
217.27
221.81
226.34
3
13.64
59.1
4
18.18
63.64
159.1
18.93
56.78
9463
174.11
168.21
26
gallonsimperial to
litres
28
gallons US to litres
30
poundsto kilograms
0
10
20
30
4.54
9.07
13.61
18.14
50
100
110
120
130
140
22.68
27.22
31.75
36.29
40.82
45.36
49.9
54.43
58.97
63.5
0.45
4.99
9.53
14.06
18.6
23.13
27.67
32.21
36.74
41.28
45.81
50.35
54.88
59.42
63.96
150
160
170
180
190
200
210
220
230
240
250
260
270
280
290
68.04
72.57
77.11
81.65
86.18
90.72
95.25
99.79
104.33
108.86
113.4
117.93
122.47
127.01
131.54
68.49
73.03
77.56
82.1
86.64
91.17
95.71
100.24
104.78
109.32
113.85
118.39
122.92
127.46
132.0
300
310
320
330
340
350
360
370
380
136.08
140.61
145.15
149.69
154.22
158.76
163.29
167.83
172.37
176.9
181.44
185.97
190.51
195.05
199.58
204.12
208.65
213.19
217.72
222.26
226.8
136.53
141.07
145.6
150.14
154.68
159.21
163.75
168.28
172.82
177.36
132.45
136.99
141.52
146.06
150.59
155.13
159.67
164.2
168.74
173.27
177.81
181.89
186.43
190.96
195.5
200.03
204.57
209.11
213.64
218.18
222.71
182.34
186.88
191.42
195.95
200.49
205.02
209.56
214.1
218.63
223.17
400
410
420
430
440
450
460
470
480
490
500
213.66
86.38
131.83
177.3
222.75
3.79
41.64
79.49
117.34
155.19
1
390
204.57
250.03
295.49
340.95
386.41
431.87
36.37
81.83
127.29
172.75
218.21
2
0
60
70
80
90
31.82
77.28
122.74
154.56
200.02
245.48
290.94
336.4
381.86
427.32
27.28
72.74
118.2
163.66
209.11
40.91
109.1
22.73
68.19
113.65
1
lb
40
9
104.56
150.02
195.48
240.94
286.4
331.86
377.32
422.77
100
60
70
80
90
8
9.09
54.55
100.01
145.47
190.93
236.39
281.85
327.31
372.77
418.23
193.04
230.89
268.74
306.59
344.44
50
7
4.55
50.0
95.47
140.93
186.38
231.84
277.3
322.76
368.22
413.68
189.25
227.1
264.95
302.81
340.65
378.51
20
30
40
37.85
75.7
113.55
151.40
6
2
7.57
45.42
83.27
121.12
158.97
196.82
234.67
272.52
310.37
348.22
10
5
1
0.91
5.44
9.98
14.52
19.05
1.36
5.9
10.43
14.97
19.5
6.35
10.89
15.42
19.96
2.27
6.8
11.34
15.88
20.41
23.59
28.12
32.66
37.19
41.73
46.27
50.8
55.34
59.87
64.41
24.04
28.58
33.11
37.65
42.18
46.72
51.26
55.79
60.33
64.86
24.49
29.03
33.57
38.1
42.64
47.17
51.71
56.25
60.78
65.32
24.95
29.48
34.02
38.56
43.09
47.63
52.16
56.7
61.24
65.77
25.4
29.94
34.47
39.01
43.54
68.95
73.48
78.02
82.55
87.09
91.63
96.16
100.7
105.23
109.77
69.4
73.94
78.47
83.01
87.54
92.08
96.62
101.15
105.69
110.22
114.76
119.3
123.83
128.37
132.9
137.44
141.97
69.85
74.39
78.93
83.46
88.0
92.53
70.31
70.76
75.3
79.83
84.37
88.9
114.31
118.84
123.38
127.91
146.51
151.05
155.58
160.12
164.65
169.1
173.73
178.26
182.8
187.33
191.87
196.41
200.94
205.48
210.01
214.55
219.09
223.62
1.81
9707
101.61
106.14
110.68
115.21
119.75
124.28
128.82
133.36
137.89
142.43
146.96
151.5
156.04
160.57
165.11
169.64
174.18
178.72
183.25
187.79
192.32
196.86
201.4
205.93
210.47
215.0
219.54
224.08
74.84
79.38
83.91
88.45
92.99
97.52
102.06
106.59
111.13
115.67
120.2
124.74
129.27
133.81
138.35
142.88
147.42
151.95
156.49
161.03
165.56
170.1
174.63
179.17
183.71
188.24
192.78
197.31
201.85
206.39
210.92
215.46
219.99
224.53
48.08
52.62
57.15
61.69
66.22
93.44
97.98
102.51
107.05
111.58
116.12
120.66
125.19
129.73
134.26
138.8
143.34
147.87
152.41
156.94
161.48
166.02
170.55
175.09
179.62
184.16
188.69
193.23
197.77
202.3
206.84
211.37
215.91
220.45
224.98
3.18
7.71
12.25
16.78
21.32
25.85
30.39
34.93
39.46
44.0
48.53
53.07
57.61
62.14
66.68
71.21
75.75
80.29
84.82
89.36
93.89
98.43
102.97
107.5
112.04
116.57
121.11
125.65
130.18
134.72
139.25
143.79
148.33
152.86
157.4
161.93
166.47
171.0
175.54
180.08
184.61
189.15
193.68
198.22
202.76
207.29
211.83
216.36
220.9
225.44
126.1
130.64
135.17
139.71
144.24
148.78
153.31
157.85
162.39
166.92
171.46
175.99
180.53
185.07
189.6
194.14
198.67
203.21
207.75
212.28
216.82
221.35
225.89
378
Conversions
Density
(mass/volume)
31
kilo9rams per
cubicmetre to
pounds per cubic
foot
Velocity
33
metresper second
tomilesperhour
kg/rn3
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
1 000
mIs
kilonewlons per
squaremetre to
pounds forceper
squareinch
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
0.62
6.87
1.87
8.12
14.36
20.61
26.84
33.09
39.33
45.57
51.82
58.06
2.5
3.12
9.36
56.81
1.25
7.49
13.73
19.98
26.22
32.46
38.71
44.95
51.19
57.43
33.71
39.95
46.2
52.44
58.68
21.85
28.09
34.33
40.58
46.82
53.06
59.31
3.75
9.99
16.23
22.47
28.72
34.96
41.2
47.45
53.69
59.93
1
2
3
4
5
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
kgfI
13.11
19.35
25.6
31.84
38.08
44.32
50.57
8.74
14.98
21.23
27.47
4.37
5.62
11.86
60.56
5.0
11.24
17.48
23.72
29.97
36.21
42.45
48.7
54.94
61.18
15.61
24.35
30.59
36.83
43.08
49.32
55.56
61.81
6
7
8
9
15.66
38.03
60.4
82.77
105.13
127.5
149.88
172.24
17.9
40.26
62.63
85.0
107.37
20.13
42.51
64.87
87.24
109.61
129.74
216.98
174.48
196.85
219.22
131.98
154.34
176.72
199.09
221.46
10.61
16.86
23.1
29.34
35.58
41.83
48.07
54.31
18.11
4.47
26.84
49.21
71.58
93.95
6.71
29.08
51.45
73.82
96.19
8.95
31.32
53.69
76.06
98.43
11.18
33.55
55.92
78.29
100.66
111.85
134.22
156.59
178.96
201.32
223.69
114.08
136.45
158.82
181.19
203.56
116.32
138.69
161.06
183.43
205.8
118.56
140.93
163.3
185.67
208.04
120.8
143.16
165.53
187.9
210.27
123.03
145.4
167.77
190.14
212.51
13.42
35.79
58.16
80.53
102.9
125.27
147.64
170.0
192.38
214.75
0.0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1.42
15.65
29.87
44.09
58.32
72.54
86.76
100.99
115.21
129.43
2.84
17.07
31.29
45.51
59.73
73.96
88.18
91.03
105.25
119.48
133.7
21.34
35.56
49.78
64.0
78.23
92.45
106.68
120.9
135.12
8.53
22.76
36.98
51.2
65.43
79.65
93.87
116.63
130.86
4.27
18.49
32.71
46.94
61.16
75.38
89.61
103.83
118.05
132.28
122.32
136.54
9.96
24.18
38.4
52.63
66.85
81.07
95.3
109.52
123.74
137.97
11.38
25.6
39.83
54.05
68.27
82.5
96.72
110.94
125.17
139.39
12.8
27.02
41.25
55.47
69.69
83.92
98.14
112.36
126.59
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
11.6
13.05
27.56
42.06
56.56
71.07
85.57
100.07
114.58
129.08
143.58
22.37
44.74
67.11
89.48
194.61
152.11
lbf/in2
0
14.22
28.45
42.67
56.9
71.12
85.34
99.56
113.79
128.01
142.23
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
37
10
2.24
24.61
46.96
69.35
91.71
0
10
cm2
35
kilograms forceper
squarecentimetre to
poundsforceper
squareinch
6.24
12.49
18.73
24.97
31.21
37.46
43.7
49.94
56.19
62.43
0
mile/hr
100
PreSSUre,stress
0
lb/ft3
kN/m2
(kPa)
0
lbf/in2
0
10
102.41
5.6
19.91
34.13
48.36
62.58
76.81
7.11
108.1
2.9
17.40
31.91
46.41
60.91
4.35
18.85
33.36
4V.86
62.36
5.8
20.30
34.81
49.31
63.81
7.25
21.75
36.26
50.76
65.26
8.7
23.21
37.71
43.51
58.01
1.45
15.95
30.46
44.96
59.46
72.52
87.02
101.52
116.03
130.53
73.97
88.47
102.97
117.48
131.98
75.42
89.92
104.42
118.93
133.43
76.87
91.37
105.87
120.38
134.88
78.32
92.82
107.32
121.83
136.33
79.77
94.27
108.77
123.28
137.78
81.22
95.72
110.22
124.73
139.23
100
200
300
400
14.50
29.01
500
600
700
800
900
1 000
145.03
52.21
66.71
10.15
24.66
39.16
53.66
68.17
82.67
97.17
111.68
126.18
140.68
26.11
40.61
55.11
69.62
84.12
98.62
113.13
127.63
142.13
140.81
379
Conversions
lb/ft3
0
2
1
3
4
100
mile/hr
6
7
8
9
32
kg/rn3
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
5
16.02
32.04
176.2
192.22
160.19
336.39
352.41
320.37
512.59
480.55
496.57
640.74
656.76
672.78
800.92
816.94
832.96
977.13
993.15
961.11
1121.29 1137.31 1153.33
1 313.51
1 281.48 1 297.5
1 441.66 1 457.68 1 473.7
48.06
208.24
368.43
528.61
688.79
1
1
1
1
848.98
009.16
169.35
329.53
489.72
64.07
224.26
384.44
544.63
704.81
865.0
1 025.18
1 185.37
1 345.55
1 505.74
112.13
128.15
80.09
96.11
272.31
288.33
240.28
256.3
400.46
416.48
432.5
448.52
560.65
576.67
592.68
608.7
736.85
752.87
768.89
720.83
913.05
929.07
881.02
897.03
1 057.22 1 073.24 1 089.26
1 041.2
1 201.38 1 217.4
1 233.42 1 249.44
1 361.57 1 377.59 1 393.61 1 409.62
1 521.75 1 537.77 1 553.79 1 569.81
144.17
304.35
464.54
624.72
784.91
945.09
1 265.46
1 425.64
1 585.83
1601.85
0
0
10
20
4.47
8.94
30
13.41
40
17.88
22.35
26.82
31.29
35.76
40.23
lbf/
j2
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
lbf/
in2
1
6
7
8
g
2.68
7.15
11.62
16.09
20.56
25.03
29.5
33.98
38.45
42.92
3.13
7.6
12.07
16.54
21.01
25.48
29.95
34.42
38.89
43.36
3.58
8.05
12.52
16.99
21.46
25.93
30.4
34.87
39.34
43.81
4.02
8.49
12.96
17.43
21.91
26.38
30.85
35.32
39.79
44.26
5
6
7
8
g
0.49
1.2
0.56
0.63
1.34
2.04
2.74
3.45
2
3
4
5
70
80
90
100
0.45
4.92
9.39
13.86
18.33
22.8
27.27
31.74
36.21
40.68
0.89
5.36
9.83
1.34
5.81
10.28
14.75
19.22
23.69
28.16
32.63
37.1
41.57
1.79
6.26
10.73
15.2
19.67
24.14
33.08
37.55
42.02
11.18
15.65
20.12
24.59
29.06
33.53
38.0
42.47
14.31
18.78
23.25
27.72
32.19
36.66
41.13
28.61
2.24
6.71
34
milesperhour
to metresper
second
44.7
36
0
kgt/cm2
0.7
1.41
2.11
2.81
3.52
4.22
4.92
5.62
6.33
1
2
3
4
0.07
0.77
1.48
2.18
2.88
3.59
4.29
4.99
5.69
6.4
0.14
0.84
1.55
2.25
2.95
3.66
4.36
5.06
5.77
6.47
0.21
0.35
1.05
1.76
2.46
3.16
3.87
4.57
5.27
5.98
6.68
0.42
1.62
2.32
3.02
3.73
4.43
5.13
5.84
6.54
0.28
0.98
1.69
2.39
3.09
3.8
4.5
5.2
5.91
6.61
5
34.48
103.42
172.38
241.32
310.28
379.22
448.18
517.12
586.08
655.02
0.91
1.12
1.83
1.9
1.27
1.97
6.12
6.82
2.67
3.37
4.08
4.78
5.48
6.19
6.89
6
7
8
9
41.37
110.32
179.27
248.22
317.17
386.12
455.07
524.02
592.97
661.92
48.26
117.22
186.16
255.12
324.06
393.02
461.96
530.92
599.86
668.82
55.16
124.11
193.06
262.01
330.96
399.91
468.86
537.81
606.76
675.71
62.06
131.0
199.96
268.9
337.86
2.53
3.23
3.94
4.64
5.34
6.05
6.75
2.6
3.3
4.01
4.71
5.41
poundsforceper
squareinch to
kilograms forceper
squarecentimetre
4.15
4.85
5.55
6.26
6.96
7.03
1
2
3
4
6.9
75.84
144.8
213.74
282.7
351.64
420.6
489.54
558.5
627.44
13.79
82.74
151.69
220.64
289.59
358.54
427.49
496.44
565.39
634.34
20.68
89.64
158.58
227.54
296.48
27.58
96.53
165.48
234.43
303.38
372.33
441.28
510.23
579.18
648.13
0
kN/m2(kPa)
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
IC
meLre
1105.27
rn/s
50
60
70
80
90
100
oot o
iogramspercu
68.95
137.9
206.85
275.8
344.75
413.7
482.65
551.6
620.55
689.5
365.44
434.38
503.34
572.28
641.24
406.8
475.76
544.7
613.66
682.6
38
pounds forceper
square inchto
kilonewtons per
square metre
380
Conversions
Refrigeration
W
thermal units
per hour
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
Thermal
conductance
41
wattsper square
metrekelvin to
Britishthermal units
persquarefoot hour
degree F
0
1
2
3
3.41
37.53
71.66
105.78
6.82
40.95
75.07
109.12
10.24
44.36
78.5
112.6
146.72
180.84
214.97
249.09
4
5
6
7
8
9
13.65
17.06
47.77
81.89
51.18
85.3
119.43
153.55
187.67
221.79
20.47
23.89
30.71
Btulhr
39
wattstoBritish
34.12
68.24
102.36
136.49
170.61
204.73
238.85
272.97
307.09
341.22
139.91
174.02
208.14
242.26
276.38
310.51
143.31
177.43
211.55
245.68
279.8
313.92
116.01
317.33
150.13
184.26
218.38
252.5
286.62
320.74
283.21
191.08
92.13
126.25
160.37
194.49
225.2
228.61
290.03
324.15
259.32
293.45
327.57
262.74
296.86
330.98
27.3
61.42
95.54
129.66
163.78
197.9
232.03
266.15
300.27
334.39
255.91
5459
88.72
122.76
156.96
58.01
6483
98.95
133.07
167.2
201.31
235.44
269.56
303.68
337.8
W/
(m2K)
i
0.0
Btu/(ft2hr°F)
0.0
.0
2.0
3.0
4.0
5.0
6.0
7.0
8.0
9.0
10.0
0.176
0.352
0.528
0.704
0.881
1.057
1.233
1.409
1.585
1.761
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
0.018
0.194
0.370
0.546
0.722
0.898
1.074
1.250
0.035
0.053
0.229
0.405
0.074
0.247
0.423
0.599
0.775
0.088
0.264
0.440
0.616
0.793
0.106
0.282
0.458
0.141
0.158
0.951
1.127
1.303
1.479
1.656
0.969
1.145
1.321
1.497
1.673
0.986
1.162
0.123
0.299
0.476
0.652
0.828
1.004
1.180
1.356
1.532
1.708
1.427
1.603
0.211
0.387
0.564
0.740
0.916
1.092
1.268
1.444
1.620
0.581
0.757
0.933
1.110
1.286
1.462
1.638
0.634
0.810
1.34
1.515
1.691
0.317
0.493
0.335
0.511
0.669
0.845
0.687
0.863
1.021
1.198
1.374
1.550
1.726
1.039
1.215
1.391
1.567
1.744
381
Conversions
Btu/hr
0
4
5
2
3
0.59
3.52
6.45
9.38
0.88
1.17
3.81
4.1
7.03
9.97
12.9
24.03
26.97
6.74
9.67
12.6
15.53
18.47
21.4
24.33
27.26
15.83
18.76
21.69
24.62
27.55
1.47
4.4
7.33
10.26
13.19
16.12
19.05
21.98
24.91
27.84
0.01
0.02
0.03
0.04
0.568
1.136
1.703
2.271
0.057
0.624
1.192
1.76
2.328
2.896
3.464
4.031
4.599
5.167
0.17
0.738
1.306
1.874
2.442
3.009
3.577
4.145
4.713
5.281
0.227
0.795
1.363
2.839
3.407
3.975
4.542
0.114
0.681
1.249
1.817
2.385
2.953
3.52
4.088
4.656
5.224
1
6
7
8
9
2.05
4.98
2.34
5.28
2.64
5.57
w
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
Btu/(ft2.
hF)
2.93
5.86
8.79
11.72
14.66
17.59
20.52
23.45
26.38
29.31
0.00
0.29
3.22
6.16
9.09
12.02
14.95
17.88
20.81
23.74
26.67
12.31
15.24
18.17
21.1
1.76
4.69
7.62
10.55
13.48
7.91
8.21
8.5
10.84
13.78
11.14
14.07
16.41
16.71
17.0
19.34
22.28
25.21
28.14
19.64
22.57
25.5
28.43
19.93
22.86
25.79
28.72
11.43
14.36
17.29
20.22
23.15
26.09
29.02
0.05
0.06
0.07
0.08
0.09
0.284
0.852
1.42
1.987
2.555
3.123
0.341
0.908
1.476
2.044
2.612
3.18
3.747
4.315
4.883
0.397
0.965
1.533
2.101
2.669
0.454
1.022
1.59
2.158
2.725
3.236
3.804
4.372
4.94
5.508
3.293
0.511
1.079
1.647
2.214
2.782
3.35
3.918
4.486
5.053
W/(m2K)
0.0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1.0
5.11
5.678
1.931
2.498
3.066
3.634
4.202
4.77
5.337
3.691
4.258
4.826
5.394
5.451
3.861
4.429
4.997
5.564
5.621
40
British thermal
unitsper hour
owa
42
Britishthermal units
persquare foothour
degreeFtowattsper
squaremetre
kelvin
382 Components
Materials
PHYSICALCHARACTERISTICSOF
COMMONBUILDINGMATERIALS
material
densi,
(kg/rn)
E-modulus
(kN/mrn2)
tensile
moisture
strength movement
(MN/rn2) (%)
In selecting building materials architect needs
take into account their significant physical
characteristics. This knowledge helps him
assess how manufactured products specified
and constructions designed perform in use.
Precise values influenced by such factors as
temp, moisture content, surface condition,
internal structure. These usually determined
by means of standard tests, which may take
into account conditions of use. Handbooks
issued by professional and other independent
organisations give precise values for many
common materials, with details on conditions
underwhich values were determined. Manufacturers'literature may also givevalues.
—.( 1) brings together valuesfrommany sources:
devised as aid for architects at early stages of
design. In most instancesrange ofvaluesgiven.
Designer must judgewhichappropriate to his
need. However, in some instances contractual
orregulatory reasons may imposestandardised
values, orvalues determined by standardtests.
Manufactured products may be combinations
chosen and placed to
give desiredperformance. Innumerable combinations available, some proprietary. Not
possible give their values here. Formany values
may becalculatedusing recognisedprocedures.
For others information must be sought from
manufacturers or obtained experimentally.
of different materials,
Characteristics
Table givesfollowing characteristics:
Density (kg/rn3): enables mass of material be
calculated; gives indication of many other
properties, eg generally light weight material
when dry gives good thermal insulation and
sound absorption but poor sound insulation
Modulus ofelasticity (kN/mm2) and Tensile
and impressive strength (MN/rn2)give indicationsof structural performance, modulus of
ages. Generally lightweight and fibrous and
some cement-based materials show dimen
sional changes when wetordry; suchneed be
accommodated in design; movement may be
reversible or onlyhappen on first use
Coefficient of thermal expansion(per 00 x
10-6): changes intempcause materialsexpand
or contract; such movement again may need
be accommodated: expressed bycoefficient
Thermal conductivity —up393(2) expressed
asWm/rn2°C,conventionallyW/rn°C. Forsome
materials values greatly influenced bymoisture
content
Sound apsorption coefficients—vp397(2)
non-combushble
naturalstone
granite
limestone
marble
sandstone
siate
2600
2000—2200
2500
2000—2200
2700
dense concrete
gravei aggregate
limestoneaggregate
otherrock aggregate
1800—2500
1800—2500
20—60
slight
8—to
10—80
001
35
slight
3—4
4—6
7—12
9—11
15—36
0.02—006'
0.02—003'
0.03—01'
12—14
7—8
10—13
0.03_0,06i
003—0 06'
0.1—0.2'
0.02—0.03'
8—12
8—12
6—8
035—07
8
0 15—0.3
00—005'
8—14
5—8
4—6
slight
20—36
sintered aggregate
vermicuhte
aerated (auto-ciaved)
1400—1600
1100—1400
400—500
400—900
8—10
8—10
bfldra
caicium siiicate
load-bearing clay
engineering
cementsci'seds
1500—1800
1 500—1800
1800—2200
14—18
4—26
1400—1500
20—35
siight
002—0.06
asbestoscement
1400—1600
14—26
01—025
lightweightconcrete
clinkeraggregate
t.5
2—2.5
007
15—36
no tines
2.5
3—80
10—35
1800—2500
1750
1 4—3.2
0022
1.3
1.9—2.0
06—20
08—2.0
08—20
05—07
015—0 18
05—I
0 5—1
0.7—1.3
iO—t3
0.5—0.6
8—12
025—0.4
gypsum:
asplasterorsiabs, biocks& paper-cooered
aggregate,
boards; maybe reinforcedwithlibrousmateriais, be namedorirlcorporaie light weight
iowstrengthwhenwet,noncombustible
denseplaster
foamed piaster
plasterboard
1100—1200
850—900
950
16
18—21
16
18—21
04—045
025
0 16
metals&glass:
densemater,ais assheetsorthinseciions;physicalcharacteristics dependon composition, shapeSgeometricai arrangement, SirOitg bat
maybe brittle;no signilicantoiled ofchange in moisiureconteni
castiron
miidsteei
aiuminiurri&atoys
copper&alioyo
lead
zinc
glass
7000
7800
2300—2800
8400—8900
11 350
7000
2500
80—120
210
70—75
95—130
70—280
400
70—550
120—400
14
140—220
70
30—170
negligible
negligible
negiigible
neghgible
negligible
negligible
negiigib)e
10
12
24—29
17—21
30
23—33
9—11
40
50
160—230°
130—200°
113
07—1
wood:
naturalmaterial with considerable variat,oorisinphysicalcharacieristics accordingtospecies& condition, particularly moista,econtent
balsa
softwood
hard wood
100—250
300—600
55—12.5
550—900
7—21
(veryheavywoods over 1 000)
considerable
considerable
005—0 06
4.Swithgrain 01—013
30—70across
grain
0 14—0.17
plastics:
syntheticorganicpolymers'thermosetting remainhard on hardening,iherrnoplastic sohened on reheating,physical characteristics depend
oncomposition,modifiedbyfillers& piasticisers; natural& syntheticrubberssimilar; combustible, givingoilsmoke& ioniccombustion
products;highcoetttcientofexpansion
acrylic
polycarbonate
polyethylene
(iowdensity)
polyethylene
(highdensity)
polyproplylene
polystyrene
nyion
rubber
asphalt
1440
25—3.3
1150
920
22—25
01—0.28
negligrbie
negligible
negligible
50—90
50—70
160—200
02
023
035
05—1
negligible
t 10—140
05
0.9—1.6
negligible
negligible
negligible
negligible
negligible
80—110
60—80
100—120
0.24
30—80
1.2
960
915
1050
1100
930
2300
1,7—3.1
0007
017
03
0 16
thermalinsulatingmaterials:
lightweight,tibrousorcellularin compoutiongiving
goodthermal insulation 650usdabsorbliorn butpoorsoundinsulation,
lowresistanceto
crushing;readilyabsorbmoisture, with increasein density&thermalcondachnity; montcombustible exceptmineral based,improvedby
cl'rernical additives
mineral baud
expanded perlite
expanded vermiculite
glass tibre
mineral wool
asbestos orsubstitute
insulating board
cellular glass
—
notes: nitiai irreversibie shrinkage 2 initial irreversible
expansion 3iowemissivity/high reflectivity ofbnghtsurtace ot
thesemetais againstheat radiation
(W/mC)
natural stone.clay bricks,terracoitablocks.caiciamsilicatebricks,concrete (block, slabOr cast).rieriseorhghtweight(aerated, ceilular,or
mortar, reinforcemeni;
lighterweight
rnateriais: betterthermaiinsuiation,soundabsorption, absorbmoisture&showdimensional change onwetting& loweriherrnalresistioity,
wood-wool sfab
chipboard
tibreboard
corkboard
characteristics
tivity
lightweightaggregate), physicalcharacteristics dependondensity,shape, georiretrical arrangement,
01
1 Common building materials: valuesfor physical
(per"Cx
106)
thermal
conduc-
masonry:
elasticity indicating stiffness
Moisture movementsexpressed aspercent-
thermal
movement
65
100
25—100
50—150
750—900
26—36
175
5—8
400—700
500—800
250—350
0.6—07
2—28
o 16—0.25
2 5—72
0.04—007
0.7—01
00.4—0 07
0.04—007
0 12—0 16
85
0.06
015—0.4
035
008—013
015—0.2
005—0.07
04
130—160
polystyrene bead
15—25
pvc
40—70
tuenwd
urea-formaldehyde
polyurethane
30
8—15
004—0.05
14—45
35—50
0035
0035—0 045
9
003—0.04
2—7
0.03—0.07
Components 383
Services: Distribution
Distribution system for services needs careful planningensure system
economical in both builders and specialistwork. System starts at point
ofentryofserviceto bldg orfromboiler and plant rm to all spaces being
served. Points of entry of services and plant rm location should be
determined at early stage.
DISTRIBUTIONMEDIUM
Heating distribution may be byhot water,steam, orwarm air.Water may
be at low pressure under boiling point or at high pressure above boiling
point depending on quantity of heat to be distributed. Air inefficient
means ofdistribution but required for ventilationorairconditioning.
Example: in 100 tube transfer capacitiesare:
low velocity air
072 kW
2.16 kW
high velocity air
525 kW
low pressure hot water
2385 kW
high pressure hot water
DISTRIBUTIONLAYOUTS
In multi-storey bldg distribution pattern may be:
(a) primarily horizontal with secondarydistribution upor down through
floors;
(b) primarily vertical with secondary distribution along floors.
(a) more common especially for low bldg or those with dissimilar flow
plans but system may occupy greater building volume by increasing
floorto tloor height of all floors.
(b) more suitable forhigh bldg with repetitive floor plans.
VENTILATION
Some ducts may require ventilation to limit temp rise or because of
service contained, eq natural gas. Where floor construction carried
through, vent each floor topand bottom. Ifductcontinuous,vent at ends
(—.Bib111).
WALKWAYS—+(1 )(2)
Retain clear working space 700 wide x 2000 high after all services
installed. Large takeoffs and expansion loops may require additional
width. Accessfromends —boiler rmorplant rm. Intermediateaccess to
changes ofdirection and lunctions by removablecovers mm 450 x 600.
Access openings should allow length of pipe (6000) be installed or
removed.
CRAWLWAYS—(3)
Clear working space 700 wide x 1 000 high after all services installed.
Accessbycovers mm 450 x 600 atintervals of 10—15 m.
heat loss
uptokW
35
64
153
255
423
956
1432
Whether primary distribution atground level orroot level willdepend on
location of boiler or plant rm At ground level may be in walkways or
crawlways underground slab provided these do not conflict with foundations.
root void or in extra deep
ceiling void.Horizontal distribution above root level difficult protect from
weather, complicates root drainage.
A
w
B
h
6 pipes 6 pipes
PRIMARYHORIZONTAL DISTRIBUTION
At roof level distribution may be in pitched
heating
f&rsize
on 1
side
on both
40
10€
50
65
80
100
125
150
1140
1180
1235
1330
1425
1505
1430
1 580
with hangers with rollers
sides
2010
2055
2130
2230
2370
2515
2665
1660
1770
1960
2150
2310
2000
2000
2000
2000
2000
2000
2000
Walkways:dimensions(f&r= flow &return)
1
PRIMARYVERTICALDISTRIBUTION
Primary vertical distribution is by vertical duct spaces through bldg.
Direction ofhorizontal connexion atfloor slab level should notbe limited
byadjacent stairwells, liftshafts, orflues. Trimming beamsmay also limit
horizontal connexions.
-f
INTERCONNEXION VERTICAL& HORIZONTAL
Interconnexion between verticaland horizontalduct critical:ducts should
not be in samevertical plane and vertical duct should be long sideonto
horizontal duct to givegreatest common interconnecting area.
-A-
ACCESSTO DUCTS
Access to ducts should be adequate for maintenance work and for
renewal of pipes etc, which have shorter life than that of bldg. Access
either through duct —walkways, crawlwaysand large vertical ducts —or
through access panels in sideortop of duct.
FIREPRECAUTIONS
2 Walkways& crawiways—.(1 )(3)
heat loss
heating
uptokW f&rsize
3 pipesoneachside
A
w
Either firestops atfloor level orfr construction and access panels.
SOUNDTRANSMISSION
35
64
153
255
Floor construction carried through at or near floor level. All pipe penetrations sealed airtight. Access panels of adequate sound reduction
and sealed airtight.
423
956
432
3
40
50
65
80
100
125
150
B
h
with hangers
with rollers
1430
1580
1070
1095
1 000
1660
1770
1960
2150
2310
1140
1000
1 000
1000
1000
1020
Crawlways:dimensions
1 205
1280
1360
1435
1 000
384 Components
Services: distribution
heatloss
upto kW
3
6
13
24
35
64
153
255
423
956
1432
heating
& size
I r
A
w
B
hwithout
crossover
hwith
15
20
25
32
40
50
65
80
100
125
150
1350
1360
1395
1430
1475
1520
1600
1680
1780
1920
230
235
240
250
255
265
285
295
320
345
375
320
2070
TRENCH DUCTS—*(1)(2)
crossover
345
375
410
445
520
560
615
710
805
885
r
•
Trencnducts:dimensions(I&r=flow&return)
1
heatcapacity
uptokW
A
w
B
l&rsize
15
20
25
32
40
50
65
80
100
125
150
605
615
650
685
730
775
855
935
1035
1175
1320
300
305
315
325
330
340
380
425
475
555
heating
3
6
13
24
35
64
153
255
423
956
1432
A
pipesize
1 pipe
HORIZONTALDUCTSAT CEILING
LEVEL—*(3)(4)
Pipe supports above pipes for pipework to be
installed or removed from below. Crossovers
Trenchduct
LA
625
Space requirementsforhorizontalductat
ceiling level (containingheatingflow & return,hot
waterflow&return,coldwater service&coldwater
main)
uptokW
2
A
h
3
heatless
Pipe supports should be below pipes or on
sides to allow lengths of pipe be installed or
removed. Allowspace under pipe supports and
slight fall for draining. Access through continuous covers or covers at junctions and
changes of direction and breakout screedcover
whenrequired. Pipeson rollersallow expansion
movement.
A
B
2pipes d
4
I
r
SCREED DUCTS—*(5)(6)
Chase formed by omitting floor screed. Useful
for local hot and cold water connexions to
sanitary fittings and local heating pipework.
Floor finish carried over plywood covernailed
to battens. Access by cutting floor finishand
prising up cover. Pipe size usually limited to
20—22,otherwise screed ofuneconomic thickness. Oversized hole required for connexion
for expansion of pipework.
Horizontalduct at ceiling level
C
diaof hole
requiredfor
connexion
1.5
3
6
20
25
32
13
24
5
150
150
150
150
150
54.5
59.0
64.5
71.5
80.0
46.5
51.0
56.5
64.0
73.5
VERTICALDUCTS—*(1 1 )(12)
Onerow pipestoallow installationand removal
6
Screedducts:dimensions
heat loss
uptokW
w
A
heating
f&rsize
605
615
650
685
730
775
153
15
20
25
32
40
50
65
255
423
80
100
956
125
150
935
1035
1175
1320
3
6
24
35
64
1432
d
withorwithout
B
crossover
without
13
r
100
100
100
100
100
10
15
855
from front without removing other pipework
exceptcrossovers. Access through removable
panels or doors full floorheight on long side.
Crossoversand clearance for valves increase
depth considerably. Diagonal takeoffs with 45°
bend reduce depth but increase width by
Screedduct
—
B
with
crossover
crossover
115
120
125
135
140
150
170
180
205
230
260
295
330
405
445
500
595
690
770
205
230
260
increasing spacing ofvertical pipes.
ESTIMATINGVENTILATION!
AIR-CONDITIONINGSIZES
For preliminary planning purposes ventilation!
air-conditioning ducts may be calculated from:
Lowvelocity:cross sectional arofductm2 =
floor ar servedm2
Space requirementsforverticalducts
9
Vertical ductwith
crossover
(containingbeatingflow & return,hotwaterflow &
return,coldwater service&cold watermain)
heat heating
loss f&r
upto size
kW
75
B
A
w
——
may be above or below depending on venting
of pipework. Continuous access from below
through ceiling or panel. Add extra depth of
ceiling support system, recessed light fittings
etc. Drop rodsallow expansion movement.
B
dWtthOLit
dwithcrossover
————
crossover
100 150 75
100 150
soil soil soil soil soil soil
pipe pipe pipe pipe pipe pipe
75
soil pipe
—
100
150
soil pipe
soil pipe
750
High velocity:cross sectional arofduct m2 =
floor arserved m2
2250
Ductsshould notexceed 1:4 shorttolong side
and bestsquare. High velocity ducts should be
circular. Allowspace for insulation,flanges and
supports:100 on allsides.
pvc
copper pvc
copper pvc
copper
waste waste
waste waste
waste waste
3
6
13
24
15
20
25
32
40
50
65
255 80
423 100
956 125
1432 150
35
64
153
815 840 895 173
825 855 905 173
860 885 940 173
895 920 975 173
940 965 1020 173
985 1015 1065 173
1060 10901140 173
1145 1170 1225 180
1245 1270 1325 205
1385 14152875 230
1530 1555 1610 260
205
205
205
205
205
205
205
205
205
230
260
255
255
255
255
255
255
255
255
255
295
295
295
295
295
295
295
295
295
255 295
260 295
350
350
350
350
350
350
350
350
350
350
350
320
320
320
320
320
320
320
320
320
320
320
375
375
375
375
375
375
375
375
375
375
375
370
370
370
370
370
370
370
370
370
370
370
425
425
425
425
425
425
425
425
425
425
425
10 Space requirementsforverticalduct including soiupipe(containingheatingflow & return,hotwater
flow &return,cold water service,cold water main&soil &wastepipes)
I)
socket
exiemai
dia
socketexternal
pipe
nsuiation
)
—
pipeinsulation
pipesupport
channei
A
r
5pesupport
channel
)
)
—B-.
11
Vertical ductwith
soil pipe
12 Verticalductwith
soilpipe &crossover
Components
385
Services: Methods of heating
Decision on type of heating emission in individual spaces depends on
requirements ofthermal comfort inrelationtothermal responseofbldg.
anglevstves,sideconnexions, top & bottom
size
mm
A
B
C
15
115
125
140
115
120
135
25
20
25
THERMALCOMFORT-+(4)
—vpl6
High standard ofthermal comfort requires:
surrounding surface temphigher than airtemp
airtempat head lower than atfloorlevel: low tempgradient
air movement justperceptible butvariable and with nodraughts
hum not very important except at tempabove 21°C: should not exceed
70% norbe less than30%
straight valves, bottomconnexions
15
20
25
130
150
160
130
140
155
_____________________
Ifradiator underSI elf, clearance of twice
cifromfaceofradiatorto waftrequired
aboveradiator: clearance of 1½ timesd
requiredunderradiator
1
Space forradiatorvaIves—(2)
THERMALRESPONSEOFBUILDING
Thermal response ofbldg depends on:
area and orientation of glazing: largeareas of glazing facing sun give
quickresponse
reflectivityof external surfaces where exposed to sun: high reflectivity
reduces heat gain fromsunand reduces response
mass of bldg structure and position of thermal insulation: mass inside
insulationgiveslong responsetime; lightweightbldg haveshortresponse
time
Quick response bldg will give economy in heating cost but be hotterin
summerandmoredifficult heat comfortably.
TYPES OF HEAT EMITTERS
*—c'A
2
Space forradiatorvalves—°(1)
Low temperature radiant panels: heated by embedded el cables or
heating water pipework. Surface preferably floor for low temp gradient
butwall orceiling surfaces can beused.
Floor surfacetemplimited to 29°C.
Emission: 50% radiation 50% convection.
Mediumtempradiant panels:flat steel orcast iron plates with waterwayscast in or welded tobackofplate. Surface tempgenerally 75°C.
Emission: 50% radiation 50% convection.
Radiators: generally made fromsheet steel; may be 1, 2 or 3 panel or
with finson backto increase outputfor given face area. Surface temp
75°C.
Radiant: convection emission depends on number of panels, fins etc;
single panel approx 25% radiation75%convection.
If radiators in corner or recess allow space for valves and for air flow
Natural convectors: may becontinuous casing orindividual casing of
pressed steelcontaining finned tube heater. Heatoutput depends on
size offinned tubeand height ofconvector.
Surface templower than radiator: about35°C. Saferwithyoung children
ordisabled people.
Emission: 10% radiation 90% convection.
Natural convector cases often made ofbuilders workfor better appearanceand robustness —(3). Opening atbottomAshould notbeless than
width of finned tube. Inside depth of casing B should only allow mm
clearance (6)forfinned tube.Grilleat top should have atleast70% open
area.
3 Buildersworknaturalconvector—(1)
type ofheat emitter
floorheating
mediumtempradiantpanels
order of thermal
comfortunder
steadyconditions
1
2
3
panel radiators
4
naturalconvectors
fanconvectorsorductedwarm air 5
approxorderof
response
5
4
3
2
1
Forthermal comfortsurface tempofsurroundings better if higher
thanairtemp;someradiant emission required, proportiondepending
onthermal insulation
4 Order ofthermalcomfort&speedofresponsefromheatingemitters
Fan convectors: similar tonaturalconvectors except that aircirculation
byfan. High outputforsmall sizeand independent ofheight of casing.
Heatoutputeasilycontrolled byfanspeed. May bepositioned overhead
iffanadequate toblow hotairdown.
Emission: 100%convection.
Ducted warmair:forheating similartofan convectors. Difference is in
method of heat distribution and in space occupied in rm. Used in
domestic installations but in large bldg only when mech ventilation
required.
Emission: 100% convection.
386 Components
Se,vices: Heating systems
C)
0
2
-a
0
CD
I-..
C')
In choosing heating system 3 decisions to make:
fuelto be used
means ofdistributing heat fromcentral source
method ofheatemission in individualspaces
meter
w
size kW
CAPACITYOF INSTALLATION
d
h
doorw doorh
373
1980
1170
1530
1220
1450
560
2060
1220
1680
1370
1520
Approxcapacity of installationcan be calculated—(1).
Example: 4-storeybldg 13 x 70 x (shallow plan bldg)
ventilation rate2 air changes
933
2290
1370
1830
1680
1680
1400
2590
1450
1830
1680
1830
=
intermediatefloors2x 13 x 70 x 72=
=
top floor 13 x 70 x 86
1867
2750
1450 2220
1680
1830
2800
2900
1710 2360
1830
1830
3733
3050
1730 2520
1830
1830
groundfloorl3x7Ox79
=
=
total heat loss
71890
131040
78260
281190
280kW
ventilationrequired:upto1 867 kWventilation arto be4% of floor ar
of meterrm dividedbetween high & low level;over 2800kW
ventilationartobe 6% of floor ar
Bldg with intermittent heating need overload capacity: thisdepends on
heat uptime. Normally 20% butmay be 100% excess capacity.
2
small bldg
shallowplan
Gas meter rmmm dimensions
deep plan bldg
bldg
number ofair changes
1
2
4
6
2
4
6
2
4
6
181
79 121 167
72 115 161
62 104 150
57 100 146
106 148 194
86 128 174
71 113 159
117
92 134 180
75 117
groundfloor
intermediatefloor
topfloor
102
singlestorey
146 192
92 135
159 205
163
Heatloss W/m2
GAS SUPPLIES
Distribution
Gas distributed through high pressure nationalgrid system toall regions.
The main: provision and maintenance of main gas supply in UK
responsiblity ofBritish GasCorporation.
Service pipe: where laid in public ground, British Gas Corporation
responsible for provision and maintenance of service pipe between
main and inlet side of meter. Where part of service pipe laid in private
land provision and maintenanceusually responsibilityof user.
Internal installation pipes from meter to appliances responsibility of
bldg owner. No service pipe may be installed inunventilatedvoidspace
orduct.
Protection ofpipes:gaspipes must beprotectedagainstcondensation,
damp, freezing and corrosion.
Flues andair supply for gas appliances(—÷Bibl 19).
Themeter
Primary metersshould be situated closeas possible point of entryof
servicepipe and allow easy accesswithout disturbing consumer.Meters
should not beexposed to:
possibilityofphysical damage
continuous damp orwet
excessive changes oftemp
possibilityofcontact with flame or elsparks.
Gas meters mustbe separatedfromel meters byfrpartition.
Domestic meters require space 330wide, 360deep, 660 high.
Gas metersin larger installationsrequireseparate rm—(2).
ELECTRICITYTARIFFS
2 basic types of tariff for el heating: restricted hours tariff, with el
available at night onlyatcheap rate; normaltariffs,with elavailableat any
time but at 2—3 times restricted hours rate.
With restricted hours tariff heat generated must be stored during night
for use next day. Heat may be stored in structure of bldg, particularly
concrete floors, in vessels containing waterunderpressure, or in wellinsulated high-density cores ofthermal stounits. Storing heat in form of
hot watermostflexible arrangement.
Direct el heating by radiant or convective emitters, often in form of
individual portable appliances.
Oilstorage
4 main types ofoil stotanks for industrialand commercial oil fuels:
mild steelwelded
mildsteelsectional
cast iron sectional
reinforced concrete
Most widely used: mild steelwelded; usually horizontal, cylindrical or
rectangular. If ground space limited vertical cylindrical tanks may be
used.
Capacities
net sf0 capacity (—Bib130) can be calculated in 2 ways (use
largest):
3 weeks supply at max rateofconsumption
2 weeks supply at max rateofconsumption plus usual quantityordered
for 1 delivery.
Ifmax weeklyoffiake less than 9001,stocapacitystillshould notbe less
than 2950 Itoaccept 22701 deliveries.
Desirable provide more than 1 tank in many circumstances, each of
capacity accept at leastfull delivery, each tank having separate filling
pipe, unless situated next each otherwhere common filling point can be
used, with isolating valves. Different grades must bestored in separate
tanks.
Mm
SITING
Should if possible be installed aboveground. Site should not be sublect
extremesoftempand not beintrusive. Clearance should be allowedfor
withdrawal offittingssuchassteam coilsand immersion heaters.
If underground
installation unavoidable, should be in specially constructed brickorconcrete chamber, with access to drain valve etc: dry
ground and finished structure madewatertight.
Sump must be provided in floor at 1 endand floor must slope towards
sump.
Buried tanks should not be indirectcontact with soil: almost impossible
avoid corrosive attack.
Components
387
Services: Heating systems
-A
OILSTORAGE(cont)
Supports
Horizontal tanks on brick or reinforced concrete cradles. Downward
slope of 1:50 fromdrawoff towards drain. Cradles should not be under
jointsorseams of tank plates; layer of bitumenised felt between cradle
and tank. Height of tank supports should provide at least 400 space
between drain valve and ground level to allow access for draining and
painting.
C)
0
9
-o
0
B
CD
.3
mm
150forsteelcradles
Verticaltanks
Up to 2750 dia may bedirectly erected on BC foundation. Base of tank
with bitumen-based seal between tank and concrete. Largerdiatanksto
be assembled on site should be erected on self-draining foundation
with base plated on bitumen and sand or bitumen-macadambase.
4 Cylindricaloilsto tank —.(3)
BOILER ROOMS
Catchpit
Where overfilling or leakagewould be fire hazard or contaminatedrains
catchpit required. Made of brick or concrete with oil-tight lining and
sealed to concrete base under tank supports. Capacity should be 10%
greaterthan capacity of tank or tanks. Catchpit should have facility to
remove waterbut no permanent drain.
Manholes —vpl 3
Every sf0tank should have manhole in accessible position,preferably at
top. Circular: notless than 460 dia;ovalorrectangular: not less than 460
long, 410 wide. Vertical tanks over 3650 high should have additional
manhole at base for maintenanceand cleaning.
Storagetemp
oilclass
BS classification
mm
temp
sto °C
lightfueloil
mediumfueloil
heavy fueloil
E
F
Boilers and associated eqp heavy and noisy. Generally best position on
ground slab. Boiler rmshould not benext spaces that are toremain cool
orquiet.
Accessfromroad toboilerhouse must be adequate forlargest piece of
eqpto be replaced. Boilers require airforcombustionand boiler houses
need good ventilation reduce internal temp. In large boiler houses
separate flue desirable for each boiler, rising directlyto highest part of
bldg.
For size of boilerrm, access and ventilation requirements —vp388(1)—
(4). Dimensions allow all layouts. Solid fuel boilers may need larqer
boiler house for fuel handling eqp. If pressurisation eqp or chillers
to be included boiler rm must belarger.
10
30
45
10
25
35
G
tempat
outhow fromsto
&forhandling°C
mm
Space round eqp required for making pipe and el connexions and
dismantling eqp for servicing. Goodmaintenanceofall plant essential
for proper performance, fuel economy and max life.
ciear h
ioadkW
1
Delivery
About 7 to 8 t capacity. Delivery vehicle dimensions similar to 7 t long
wheelbase tipping vehicle. Conveyor delivery vehicles can stack to
2500above load level: ordinary delivery 1400. Factors:
bulkdelivery foreconomy
stocapacity mm 11/2 x capacity ofdelivery vehicle
goodsf0 heightsaves space
plan for mm manual handling eggravity feed fordelivery point to sto
Where boilerfiredfromfront fuel should be stored in front orgravitateto
front fromsto at higher level. Magazine type boilers should befed from
fuel sto above hopper attop ofboiler.
CalorificValue& Density
fuel
calorificvalue MJ/kg
densitykg/rn3
anthracite
bituminous
coal
35
330
30
28
800
400
coke
Calorificvalue& density
capacityI
1140
2275
2730
3410
4550
5455
6820
9095
11365
13640
15915
3
w
w
h
Oilsto temp
SOLID FUEL
2
I
access door
lengthA
1655
1705
2010
2165
3150
3760
2900
3305
3940
3965
4880
diaB
990
1375
1375
1375
1375
1375
1830
1985
1985
2135
2135
capacity
length
A
dia B
18185
22730
5260
5870
2135
2290
27280
31825
36370
40915
45460
54555
68190
81230
90920
6175
5590
6505
7420
8030
9550
12195
12195
13720
2440
2745
2745
2745
2745
2745
2745
3050
3050
Oilsto: dimensionsof cylindricaltanks—.(4)
ventilation Iouvres
inlet
outlei
(low level) m2
(highievei) m2
upto200
7900
5300 3500
1500
2000
048
0422
200—600
9800
7900
4300
1700
2300
1.44
1.22
600—1800
16900
12200
5300
3400
3000
4.32
1800—6000
19100
18200
7300
3400
4200
144
11.646
6000—20000
26800
26000
9300
4400
5800
48 0
3668
5
Boilerrrndata
3.709
C,)
388 Components
Services: heatingsystems
BOILER ROOMS(cont)
emergency exit
pumps
1 to4 Boiler houselayouts;technicaldata-.p387(5)
CALORIFIERROOMS
Calorifier rmis heating substation where heatinwater(orsteam) athigh
pressure and tempchanged to heat atlow pressure and temp. Several
calorifier rm may befed from1 boilerhouse in large installation.
In districtheating schemes with distribution at high pressure and temp,
calorifier rmrequired at intake.
rating A
h
B
c
w
d
Calorifier rm should notbe next tospaces that are to remain cool.
D
space
at
front
E
space
at
back
F
H
0
weight flue
l/D
space space space lull
on left on
above kg
side right
side
Access required fromroad through bldg tocalorifier rm forlargestpiece
ofeqp to be replaced.
Calorifier rm must be ventilated to reduce internal temp.
610
610
35
915
35—
1020
610
100 1320
960
100— 1605
960
1
1180
300 1605 640 1525
300— 1605 2230 1525 1180
900 1765 2230 1885 1550
upto
Calorifierrm —(5) contain 2 hot watersto calorifiers, 2 water to water
non-stocalorifiers, pumps and controls.
915
500
500
560
535
600
840
845 1130
775 1525
75
150
160
160
200
200
200
200
10
10
155
250
510
510
510
510
75
150
160
160
510
510
510
510
500
680
810
840
900
990
990
990
115
220
270
680
980
1750
2520
3350
102
150
178
225
254
2x 254
460
2x356
ATMOSPHERICGAS BOILERS
Smaller gas boilers burn gas at low pressure, do not have forced
draught; quieterthan pressure let boilers butless efficient.
Boilersuptoabout35kWcapacity availablewitheither balancedflue or
6 Atmosphericgasboilerdata:dimensions fortop&bottomofrangeof each
rating; I/O = internaldia
front elevation
conventional flue.
sideelevation
Spacemustbeallowedatfrontforwithdrawalofburners and atsideand
backfor connexions —(6)(7)p389(l )—(4).
loadWI
w
I
clearh access door ventilation louvres
w
h
inlet
outlet
110wlevel) m2
(highlevel) m2
0422
up to200
6900
4800 3500
1100 1950
0.422
200—600
10100
6500 4300
1500
1 950
1.22
7000
1600
1950 3.709
600—1800 12000
5Calonfiermidata
5300
1.22
F4HB+4 G4
3.709
7
Atmosphericgasboiler
—---E
Components
389
Services: heatingsystems
A
kw
h
35—100
1195
1470
100—300 1550
1780
300—900 2060
900—
3000
3000—
10000
c
E
F
0
H
weight flue
l/D
space space space space space kit
with
at
st
onlett on
above kg
burner front back side
right
side
B
w
rating
D
d
640 1450
610
940
940
1310
1310
1465
1830
2005
3060
3160
3520
1100
1000
2080
2080
2770
2980
5095 4115
3890
4350
5645
7040
8435
1415
2290
3250
2760
4130
2490
2490
3560
3785
500
1310
1310
1400
1500
1500
1640
3835
4370
6225
160
400
700
700
1425
1425
1505
1655
1655
1655
460
560
1210
1210
1210
1210
1230
1375
1375
1380
540
765
765
800
1000
1000
1500
1500
2000
2000
890
1690
2915
2915
4850
6095
6095
30990
30990
49490
200
200
254
432
432
432
432
660
710
1016
1
Pressurejetgasboilersdata:dthension fortop&bottomofeachheating
range —'(3)
rating
kw
A
h
upto35
950
35—100
950
1195
1470
100—300 1550
1780
300—900 2060
2490
900—
2820
3000
3655
3000—
3950
10000
5250
B
C
d
D
B
space space
with
at
at
burner front back
w
550 845
550 925
640 1005
1310
1265
1465
1830
3170
3170
3180
3180
4115
2005
2930
2930
3150
3945
3965
6535
7045
8435
800
800
800
1215
1215
1220
1220
1450
2290
3050
2880
3695
400
400
500
1310
1310
1320
1320
1415
1415
3535
4370
6225
F
0
H
weight flue
lID
space space space kill
onleft on
above kg
side right
side
150
150
150
155
700
700
700
700
1505
1655
1655
1655
205
205
205
355
1000
1000
1425
1505
1505
1550
1550
1550
200
200
200
200
1000
1000
1000
1000
1500
2000
2000
2000
185
230
260
1380
2915
4675
4675
6100
9755
30990
30990
63100
152
152
203
204
254
255
350
400
PRESSUREJET GASOR OIL BOILERS
On pressure jet boilers burner forced-draught fan assembly projects
considerably from front. Assembly often hinged for access to boiler
shell for maintenance.
In largersizes considerable space required at backfor easybend flue
connexion —'(1)(2)(3).
STORAGECYLINDERS
Domestichotwatercylinders
Domestic hot water cylinders must be installed with enough space
make and unmake connexions to fit or remove cylinder —÷(4)—(6)
p390(1). In rectangular cupboard connexions on diagonal save space
-'(7).
Largeindirect cylinders
Indirectcylindersneed only low primary circulation pressure and will
operatewithgravity flowifcorrectly placed in relationto boiler.
Large indirect cylinders have bolted head to allow internal annular
heater to be withdrawn and replaced. For withdrawal space required
—'p390(3). Indirect cylinders may be vertical or horizontal —÷p390(2)—
(5). Horizontal useful if headroom limited but vertical more efficient in
preventing mixing ofinco
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