The Life-Span Perspective Chapter 1: Development Psychology Sociocultural, And Individual Factors Working Together 1.1 The Life-Span Perspective Baltes’ Lifespan Perspective Domains In Human Development: •lifespan Development: The Biological, Cognitive, And Psychosocial Changes And Constancies That Occur Throughout The Entire Course Of Life 1. Physical Domain Includes: a. b. c. d. e. f. g. h. i. Height Weight Fine And Gross Motor Skills Brain Development Puberty Sexual Health Fertility And Menopause Changes In Our Senses Primary And Secondary Development 2. Cognitive Domain Includes: ● ● ● ● ● ● ● Language Development Thinking (E.G., Logical Thinking, Abstract Reasoning) Learning And Understanding Memory Abilities Moral Reasoning Practical Intelligence Wisdom 3. Psychosocial Domain Includes: ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● Psychological And Social Development Temperament And Attachment Emotions Personality Self-Esteem Relationships Identity Development Dating, Romance, Cohabitation, Marriage, And Having Children Finding Work Or A Career Caregiving, Retirement, Coping With Losses, And Death And Dying •lifespan Perspective: An Approach To Studying Lifespan Development Attributed To Paul Baltes, A German Psychologist And Leading Expert On Lifespan Development And Aging Baltes’ Lifespan Perspective: Key Principles ● ● ● ● ● ● Development Occurs Across One’s Entire Life Or Is Lifelong Development Is Multidimensional Development Is Multidirectional And Results In Gains And Losses Throughout Life Development Is Plastic, Meaning That Characteristics Are Malleable Or Changeable Development Is Influenced By Contextual And Socio-Cultural Influences Development Is Multidisciplinary Development Is Lifelong Development Occurs Across One’s Entire Life Or Is Lifelong ● Development Encompasses The Entire Lifespan, From Conception To Death Traditional View: ● Focused On Conception To Adolescence And The Gradual Decline In Old Age ● It Was Believed That The Five Or Six Decades After Adolescence Yielded Little To No Developmental Change At All Current View: Changes In Development Can Occur Later In Life, Without Having Been Established At Birth The Life-Span Perspective Development Is Multidimensional ●development. The Pattern Of Change That Begins At Conception And Continues Through The Life-Span. Most Development Involves Growth, Although It Also Includes Decline Brought On By Aging And Dying. ●life-Span Perspective.The Perspective That Development Is Lifelong, Multidimensional, Multidirectional, Plastic, Multidisciplinary, And Contextual; Involves Growth, Maintenance, And Regulation; And Is Constructed Through Biological, ● ● ● ● ● A Complex Interaction Of Biological, Cognitive, And Socioemotional Changes Influence Development Across The Lifespan Example Of Puberty In Adolescence: Physiological/Physical Cognitive Emotional And Social Development Is Multidirectional Development Is Multidirectional And Results In Gains And Losses Throughout Life ● ● We Have The Capacity For Both An Increase And Decrease In The Efficacy Of Certain Traits Over The Course Of The Lifespan Selective Optimization With Compensation: Prioritizing And Improving The Efficacy Of Particular Functions, Thereby Reducing The Adaptive Capacity Of Other Functions Example: ● Childhood: Difficulty With Regulating Emotions And Impulsive Actions ● Adolescence: Increased Ability To Regulate Emotions And Impulses, But They May Sacrifice Spontaneity, Creativity, Or Fast Responding 1.Normative Age-Graded Influences ● ● ● 2. Normative History-Graded Influences ● ● ● Development Is Plastic, Meaning That Characteristics Are Malleable Or Changeable ● ● ● ● The Nature Of Human Development Is More Pluralistic Than Originally Thought; There Is No Single Pathway In Development Consider The Example Of Cognitive Decline In Aging Dimensions Of Cognitive Decline Are Partially Reversible Because The Brain Retains The Lifelong Capacity For Plasticity And Reorganization Of Cortical Tissue Research Suggests That Cognitive Function, Such As Memory, Can Be Improved In Mature Adults With AgeRelated Cognitive Decline By Using Brain Plasticity-Based Training Methods Unusual Occurrences That Have A Major Impact On The Lives Of Individual People. The Unique Experiences Of An Individual, Whether Biological Or Environmental, That Shape The Development Process Examples Of Nonnormative Influences: ● Going Through A Divorce Development Is Multidisciplinary ● ● Development Is Contextual Development Is Influenced By Contextual And Socio-Cultural Influences Associated With A Specific Time Period That Defines The Broader Environmental And Cultural Context In Which An Individual Develops Development And Identity Are Influenced By Historical Events That People Experience. Example: War 3. Nonnormative Influences Development Is Plastic ● Biological And Environmental Factors That Have A Strong Correlation With Chronological Age, Such As Puberty Or Menopause Age-Based Social Practices Such As Beginning School Or Entering Retirement Influences That Are Similar For Individuals In A Particular Age Group. Any Single Discipline’s Account Of Development Across The Lifespan Would Not Be Able To Express All Aspects Of This Theoretical Framework. Many Disciplines Are Able To Contribute Important Concepts That Integrate Knowledge, Which May Ultimately Result In The Formation Of A New And Enriched Understanding Of Development Across The Lifespan. Some Contemporary Concerns Sociocultural Contexts And Diversity ● ● ● ● ● Development Varies From Person To Person, Depending On Factors Such As A Person’s Biology, Family, School, Church, Profession, Nationality, And Ethnicity Three Types Of Contextual Influences Operate Across The Lifespan: Normative Age-Graded Influences Normative History-Graded Influences Nonnormative Influences ● ● Culture.The Behavior Patterns, Beliefs, And All Other Products Of A Group That Are Passed On From Generation To Generation. Cross-Cultural Studies. Comparison Of One Culture With One Or More Other Cultures. These Provide Information About The Degree To Which Development Is ● ● ● Similar, Or Universal, Across Cultures, And The Degree To Which It Is Culture-Specific. Ethnicity. A Characteristic Based On Cultural Heritage, Nationality Characteristics, Race, Religion, And Language. Socioeconomic Status (Ses). Refers To The Grouping Of People With Similar Occupational, Educational, And Economic Characteristics. Gender. The Characteristics Of People As Males Or Females. 1.2 The Nature Of Development Biological, Cognitive, And Socioemotional Processes ● ● ● Biological Processes. Changes In An Individual’s Physical Nature. Cognitive Processes. Changes In An Individual’s Thought, Intelligence, And Language. Socioemotional Processes. Changes In An Individual’s Interpersonal Relationships, Emotions, And Personality. Life-Span Developmentalists Who Focus On Adult Development And Aging Increasingly Describe LifeSpan Development In Terms Of Four “Ages” ● First Age: Childhood And Adolescence ● Second Age: Prime Adulthood, Ages 20 Through 59 ● Third Age: Approximately 60 To 79 Years Of Age ● Fourth Age: Approximately 80 Years And Older Three Developmental Patterns Of Aging K. Warner Schaie (2016a, B) Recently Described Three Different Developmental Patterns That Provide A Portrait Of How Aging Can Encompass Individual Variations: ● ● ● The Significance Of Age 1.Age And Happiness 2.Conceptions Of Age ● The Connection Across Biological, Cognitive, And Socioemotional Processes More Obvious Than In Two Rapidly Emerging Fields: ● ● Periods Of Development A Developmental Period Refers To A Time Frame In A Person’s Life That Is Characterized By Certain Features. ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience, Which Explores Links Between Development, Cognitive Processes, And The Brain (Bell & Others, 2018; Nyberg, Pudas, & Lundquist, 2017). Developmental Social Neuroscience, Which Examines Connections Between Socioemotional Processes, Development, And The Brain (Silvers & Others, 2017; Sullivan & Wilson, 2018). Prenatal Period (Conception To Birth) Infancy (Birth To 18-24 Months) Early Childhood (3-5 Years) Middle And Late Childhood (6-10/11 Years) Adolescence (10-12 To 18-21 Years) Early Adulthood (20s And 30s) Middle Adulthood (40s And 50s) Late Adulthood (60s-70s To Death) Four Ages Normal Aging Pathological Aging Successful Aging ● Chronological Age Is The Number Of Years That Have Elapsed Since Birth. Biological Age Is A Person’s Age In Terms Of Biological Health. Psychological Age Is An Individual’s Adaptive Capacities Compared With Those Of Other Individuals Of The Same Chronological Age. Social Age Refers To Connectedness With Others And The Social Roles Individuals Adopt. Developmental Issues 1.Nature Versus Nurture Debate ● ● Nature: Biology And Genetics Nurture: Environment 2.Stability-Change Issue, Which Involves The Degree To Which Early Traits And Characteristics Persist Through Life Or Change. 3. Continuity-Discontinuity Issue Debate About The Extent To Which Development Involves Gradual, Cumulative Change (Continuity) Or Distinct Stages (Discontinuity). 1.3 Theories Of Development ● ● ● Scientific Method. An Approach That Can Be Used To Obtain Accurate Information. It Includes The Following Steps: (1) Conceptualize The Problem, (2) Collect Data, (3) Draw Conclusions, And (4) Revise Research Conclusions And Theory. Theory An Interrelated, Coherent Set Of Ideas That Helps To Explain Phenomena And Facilitate Predictions. Hypotheses Specific Assumptions And Predictions That Can Be Tested To Determine Their Accuracy. 4.Middle And Late Childhood- 6 Years Old To Puberty; Industry Vs. Inferiority 5.Adolescence-10-20 Years Old; Identity Vs Confusion 6.Early Adulthood- 20s-30s; Intimacy Vs. Isolation 7.Middle Adulthood- 40s-50s; Generativity Vs. Stagnation 8.Late Adulthood- 60s Onward- Integrity Vs. Despair B.Cognitive Theories 1.Piaget’s Cognitive Developmental Theory Theories Of Development A.Psychoanalytic Theories 1.Freud’s Psychosexual Stages Five Stages: ● ● ● ● ● The Oral Stage (0 – 1 Year) - Infant’s Pleasure Center On The Mouth. The Anal Stage (1 – 3 Years) - Child’s Pleasure Focuses On The Anus. The Phallic Stage (3 – 6 Years) - Child’s Pleasure Focuses On The Genitals. The Latency Period (6 – Puberty) - Child Represses Sexual Interest And Intellectual Skills. The Genital Stage (Puberty – Maturity). - A Time Of Sexual Reawakening. Source Of Sexual Pleasure Becomes Someone Outside The Family. 2.Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory ●cognitive-Stage Theory- Piaget’s Theory That Children’s Cognitive Development Advances In A Series Of Four Stages Involving Qualitatively Distinct Types Of Mental Operations. ●organization- Piaget’s Term For The Creation Of Categories Or Systems Of Knowledge. ●schemes- Piaget’s Term For Organized Patterns Of Thought And Behavior Used In Particular Situations. ●adaptation Is Piaget’s Term For How Children Handle New Information In Light Of What They Already Know. Adaptation Occurs Through Two Complementary Processes: (1) Assimilation, Taking In New Information And Incorporating It Into Existing Cognitive Structures, And (2) Accommodation, Adjusting One’s Cognitive Structures To Fit The New Information. 1.Infancy- 0- 1 Year Old; Trust Vs. Mistrust 2.Infancy- 1- 3 Years Old; Autonomy Vs. Shame And Doubt 3.Early Childhood- 3-5 Years Old; Initiative Vs Guilt Equilibration- Piaget’s Term For The Tendency To Seek A Stable Balance Among Cognitive Elements; Achieved Through A Balance Between Assimilation And Accommodation. 2.Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Cognitive Theory - Is A Sociocultural Cognitive Theory That Emphasizes How Culture And Social Interaction Guide Cognitive Development. ●zone Of Proximal Development (Zpd). Vygotsky’s Term For The Difference Between What A Child Can Do Alone And What The Child Can Do With Help. ●scaffolding. Temporary Support To Help A Child Master A Task. 3.Information-Processing Theory.Emphasizes That Individuals Manipulate Information, Monitor It, And Strategize About It. Central To This Theory Are The Processes Of Memory And Thinking. C. Behavioral And Social Cognitive Theories 1.Skinner’s Operant Conditioning - According To B. F. Skinner (1904–1990), Through Operant Conditioning The Consequences Of A Behavior Produce Changes In The Probability Of The Behavior’s Occurrence. A Behavior Followed By A Rewarding Stimulus Is More Likely To Recur, Whereas A Behavior Followed By A Punishing Stimulus Is Less Likely To Recur. While Ethological Theory Stresses Biological Factors, Ecological Theory Emphasizes Environmental Factors. 1.Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Theory Bronfenbrenner’s Environmental Systems Theory That Focuses On Five Environmental Systems: ● ● ● ● ● Microsystem Mesosystem Exosystem Macrosystem And Chronosystem A Comparison Of Theories And Issues In LifeSpan Development ●operant Conditioning- Learning Based On Association Of Behavior With Its Consequences. ●reinforcement. The Process By Which A Behavior Is Strengthened, Increasing The Likelihood That The Behavior Will Be Repeated. ●punishment. The Process By Which A Behavior Is Weakened, Decreasing The Likelihood Of Repetition. Research On Life-Span Development 2.Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory - Holds That Behavior, Environment, And Cognition Are The Key Factors In Development. Methods For Collecting Data ●self-Efficacy-Sense Of One’s Capability To Master Challenges And Achieve Goals. ●Social Learning Theory- Theory That Behaviors Are Learned By Observing And Imitating Models. Also Called Social Cognitive Theory. ●reciprocal Determinism- Bandura’s Term For Bidirectional Forces That Affect Development. ●Observational Learning-Learning Through Watching The Behavior Of Others. 1.Observation •Naturalistic Observation Means Observing Behavior In Real-World Settings, Making No Effort To Manipulate Or Control The Situation. 2.Survey And Interview 3.Standardized Test. A Standardized Test Has Uniform Procedures For Administration And Scoring. 4.Case Study. A Case Study Is An In-Depth Look At A Single Individual. 5.Physiological Measures D. Ethological Theory Research Designs ●Ethology Stresses That Behavior Is Strongly Influenced By Biology, Is Tied To Evolution, And Is Characterized By Critical Or Sensitive Periods. ●these Are Specific Time Frames During Which, According To Ethologists, The Presence Or Absence Of Certain Experiences Has A LongLasting Influence On Individuals ● ● ● ● E. Ecological Theory Descriptive Studies: Objective To Describe Phenomena Main Types: Observation, Case Studies, Surveys, And Content Analysis Correlational Research: Formally Test Whether A Relationship Exists Between Two Or More Variables Experimental Research: Randomly Assign People To Different Conditions, Use ● ● ● ● Hypothesis Testing To Make Inferences About How These Conditions Affect Behavior Explanatory Studies: Designed To Answer The Question “Why” Evaluation Research: Designed To Assess The Effectiveness Of Policies Or Programs Validity: Refers To Accuracy Of Measurement Reliability: Refers To Consistency Of Measurement Time Span Of Research ●cross-Sectional Approach A Research Strategy In Which Individuals Of Different Ages Are Compared At One Time. ●Longitudinal Approach A Research Strategy In Which The Same Individuals Are Studied Over A Period Of Time, Usually Several Years Or More. ●cohort Effects Characteristics Determined By A Person’s Time Of Birth, Era, Or Generation Rather Than The Person’s Actual Age. Conducting Ethical Research Apa’s Guidelines Address Four Important Issues: 1. Informed Consent. 2. Confidentiality 3. Debriefing 4.Deception Minimizing Bias 1.Gender Bias. For Most Of Its Existence, Our Society Has Had A Strong Gender Bias, A Preconceived Notion About The Abilities Of Women And Men That Prevented Individuals From Pursuing Their Own Interests And Achieving Their Potential 2. Cultural And Ethnic Bias. Today There Is A Growing Realization That Research On Lifespan Development Needs To Include More People From Diverse Ethnic Groups. ● Ethnic Gloss Using An Ethnic Label Such As African American Or Latino In A Superficial Way That Portrays An Ethnic Group As Being More Homogeneous Than It Really Is.
