The Four Major Schools of Linguistics Muhammad Davindra Ramadhan P. D (23021130160) Kurnia Persada Meicel (23021130142) Suryana Fatah (23021130159) Zulfikar Bustomi Shidiq Kuntoro (23021130144) Functionalism Historical Roots Practical Language Use Functionalism in linguistics emerged in the 1970s and was influenced by the works of Jespersen, Bolinger, Dik, Halliday, and Chafe. It made significant contributions to various linguistic subfields, including syntax, discourse, language acquisition, cognitive linguistics, typology, and documentary linguistics. Functionalism emphasizes the practical use of language in everyday life. It posits that language is fundamentally a tool, and its structures are best understood by examining the functions they perform. The approach highlights the importance of social context, usage, and the communicative function of different linguistic elements. Multidimensional Approach Contrast with Formal Theories Functional theories of language cover a range of functions, including phonological, semantic, syntactic, and pragmatic functions. This multidimensional approach aims to explain how linguistic functions are performed in communication through the use of various linguistic forms. It distinguishes between different levels such as phonemes, semantic roles, syntactic functions, and pragmatic elements. Michael A. K. Halliday Functionalism stands in contrast to formal theories of grammar. While formal theories define language elements and their relationships through formal rules, functionalism insists on understanding linguistic structures in terms of their semantic and communicative functions. This means that functional theories pay attention to how language is actually used in real-life communication. Michael A. K. Halliday is a key figure in Functionalism in linguistics. He contributed significantly to systemic functional linguistics, emphasizing how language serves various social functions and highlighting the interplay between language structure and function. Halliday's work has had a lasting impact on understanding language as a social semiotic system, influencing scholars in exploring the functional aspects of language in communication and social contexts. Other key figures Simon C. Dik Muhammad Davindra Ramadhan P. D Wallace Chafe Dwight Bolinger Otto Jespersen Structuralism Origins and Founder: Structuralism, as applied to linguistics, finds its origins in the work of Swiss linguist Ferdinand de Saussure. Saussure's influential work, particularly his "Course in General Linguistics" published posthumously in 1916, laid the groundwork for structural linguistics. Central Concepts: The core idea in structural linguistics is that language operates as a static system comprised of interconnected units. Saussure introduced several fundamental concepts, including the langue-parole distinction, syntagmatic and paradigmatic analysis, and the relationship between the signifier (the sound pattern) and the signified (the concept it represents) Methodology and Shift in Focus: Structural linguistics involves a methodical approach wherein a corpus of utterances is examined, and elements are classified at various linguistic levels, such as phonemes, morphemes, and sentence types. This approach marks a departure from historical linguistic analysis, emphasizing a synchronic (non-historical) perspective Significance and Criticisms: Saussure's structuralist framework significantly influenced subsequent linguistic theories and semiotic analysis. However, critics argue that Saussure's ideas may not be universally applicable, particularly when examining the intricacies of language at the textual level. Some find structuralism limiting in its focus on static structures and its omission of dynamic, contextual aspects. Generativism NOAM CHOMSKY ORIGINS AND FOUNDER Generativism, associated with Noam Chomsky, emerged in the late 1950s with the publication of Chomsky's book "Syntactic Structures" in 1957. Chomsky proposed a theory of generative grammar, marking the birth of generative linguistics as a subfield. TRANSFORMATIONAL GRAMMAR AND SYNTAX Transformational grammar, a key aspect of generativism, seeks to explain how sentences are derived through rule-based transformations. Chomsky introduced the Chomsky hierarchy, categorizing formal grammars by their expressive power, with focus on syntax and sentence structure. UNIVERSAL GRAMMAR AND INNATENESS A central tenet of generativism is the concept of Universal Grammar, suggesting an innate, species-specific linguistic capacity in humans. Chomsky argued that the ability to acquire language is not solely learned from the environment but is guided by inherent linguistic structures. MINIMALIST PROGRAM AND STRUCTURE-DEPENDENT RULES The Minimalist Program, a later development in generativism, explores the idea that many properties of generative grammar arise from a universal grammar innate to the human brain. Generative grammar is characterized by structure-dependent rules, where formal rules refer to the structural units of language, providing a model for cognitive language-building processes. COGNITIVISM COGNITIVE PROCESSES AND LANGUAGE FORMATION NON-MODULARIST AND FUNCTIONAL APPROACH Unlike generativism, cognitivism is nonmodularist and functionalist. It rejects the idea of a separate linguistic faculty in the mind and emphasizes that grammar is understood in terms of conceptualization. It sees language as closely connected to cognitive principles, such as human categorization, pragmatics, and functional principles. Cognitivism posits that language is an emergent property of basic, general-purpose cognitive processes. It suggests that grammar is not inherently understood by all humans but is learned through language use. FORM-FUNCTION CORRESPONDENCES AND EMBODIED EXPERIENCE Cognitive linguistics asserts that linguistic structures serve the function of expressing meanings, and the mappings between meaning and form are crucial for linguistic analysis. It is associated with concepts like cognitive grammar, frame semantics, and conceptual metaphor, which are based on the idea that formfunction correspondences arise from embodied experience. RELATION BETWEEN LANGUAGE AND THOUGHT Cognitivism explores the relationship between language and thought, including questions about relativism and conceptual universals. It suggests that knowledge of language arises through language use, and it denies the existence of an autonomous linguistic faculty. Cognitivism is particularly interested in understanding how the mind creates meaning through language.
