The Four Major Schools of
Linguistics
Muhammad Davindra Ramadhan P. D (23021130160)
Kurnia Persada Meicel (23021130142)
Suryana Fatah (23021130159)
Zulfikar Bustomi Shidiq Kuntoro (23021130144)
Functionalism
Historical Roots
Practical Language Use
Functionalism in linguistics emerged in the
1970s and was influenced by the works of
Jespersen, Bolinger, Dik, Halliday, and Chafe. It
made significant contributions to various
linguistic subfields, including syntax, discourse,
language acquisition, cognitive linguistics,
typology, and documentary linguistics.
Functionalism emphasizes the practical use of
language in everyday life. It posits that
language is fundamentally a tool, and its
structures are best understood by examining
the functions they perform. The approach
highlights the importance of social context,
usage, and the communicative function of
different linguistic elements.
Multidimensional Approach
Contrast with Formal Theories
Functional theories of language cover a range of
functions, including phonological, semantic,
syntactic, and pragmatic functions. This
multidimensional approach aims to explain how
linguistic functions are performed in
communication through the use of various
linguistic forms. It distinguishes between
different levels such as phonemes, semantic
roles, syntactic functions, and pragmatic
elements.
Michael A. K. Halliday
Functionalism stands in contrast to formal
theories of grammar. While formal theories
define language elements and their
relationships through formal rules,
functionalism insists on understanding
linguistic structures in terms of their
semantic and communicative functions. This
means that functional theories pay attention
to how language is actually used in real-life
communication.
Michael A. K. Halliday is a key figure in Functionalism in
linguistics. He contributed significantly to systemic
functional linguistics, emphasizing how language serves
various social functions and highlighting the interplay
between language structure and function. Halliday's
work has had a lasting impact on understanding
language as a social semiotic system, influencing
scholars in exploring the functional aspects of language
in communication and social contexts.
Other key figures
Simon C. Dik
Muhammad Davindra Ramadhan P. D
Wallace Chafe
Dwight Bolinger
Otto Jespersen
Structuralism
Origins and Founder:
Structuralism, as applied to linguistics, finds its origins
in the work of Swiss linguist Ferdinand de Saussure.
Saussure's influential work, particularly his
"Course in General Linguistics" published
posthumously in 1916, laid the groundwork for
structural linguistics.
Central Concepts:
The core idea in structural linguistics is that language
operates as a static system comprised of interconnected
units.
Saussure introduced several fundamental concepts, including
the langue-parole distinction, syntagmatic and paradigmatic
analysis, and the relationship between the signifier (the
sound pattern) and the signified (the concept it represents)
Methodology and Shift in Focus:
Structural linguistics involves a methodical approach wherein
a corpus of utterances is examined, and elements are
classified at various linguistic levels, such as phonemes,
morphemes, and sentence types. This approach marks a
departure from historical linguistic analysis, emphasizing a
synchronic (non-historical) perspective
Significance and Criticisms:
Saussure's structuralist framework significantly influenced
subsequent linguistic theories and semiotic analysis.
However, critics argue that Saussure's ideas may not be
universally applicable, particularly when examining the
intricacies of language at the textual level. Some find
structuralism limiting in its focus on static structures and its
omission of dynamic, contextual aspects.
Generativism
NOAM CHOMSKY
ORIGINS AND
FOUNDER
Generativism, associated with Noam
Chomsky, emerged in the late 1950s
with the publication of Chomsky's book
"Syntactic Structures" in 1957.
Chomsky proposed a theory of
generative grammar, marking the birth
of generative linguistics as a subfield.
TRANSFORMATIONAL
GRAMMAR AND SYNTAX
Transformational grammar, a key
aspect of generativism, seeks to
explain how sentences are derived
through rule-based
transformations.
Chomsky introduced the
Chomsky hierarchy, categorizing
formal grammars by their
expressive power, with focus on
syntax and sentence structure.
UNIVERSAL GRAMMAR AND
INNATENESS
A central tenet of generativism is the
concept of Universal Grammar,
suggesting an innate, species-specific
linguistic capacity in humans.
Chomsky argued that the ability to
acquire language is not solely learned
from the environment but is guided
by inherent linguistic structures.
MINIMALIST PROGRAM AND
STRUCTURE-DEPENDENT RULES
The Minimalist Program, a later
development in generativism, explores
the idea that many properties of
generative grammar arise from a
universal grammar innate to the human
brain.
Generative grammar is characterized by
structure-dependent rules, where
formal rules refer to the structural units
of language, providing a model for
cognitive language-building processes.
COGNITIVISM
COGNITIVE PROCESSES AND
LANGUAGE FORMATION
NON-MODULARIST AND
FUNCTIONAL APPROACH
Unlike generativism, cognitivism is nonmodularist and functionalist. It rejects the idea
of a separate linguistic faculty in the mind and
emphasizes that grammar is understood in
terms of conceptualization. It sees language as
closely connected to cognitive principles, such
as human categorization, pragmatics, and
functional principles.
Cognitivism posits that language is an
emergent property of basic, general-purpose
cognitive processes. It suggests that grammar
is not inherently understood by all humans but
is learned through language use.
FORM-FUNCTION
CORRESPONDENCES AND
EMBODIED EXPERIENCE
Cognitive linguistics asserts that linguistic structures
serve the function of expressing meanings, and the
mappings between meaning and form are crucial for
linguistic analysis. It is associated with concepts like
cognitive grammar, frame semantics, and conceptual
metaphor, which are based on the idea that formfunction correspondences arise from embodied
experience.
RELATION BETWEEN
LANGUAGE AND THOUGHT
Cognitivism explores the relationship between language
and thought, including questions about relativism and
conceptual universals. It suggests that knowledge of
language arises through language use, and it denies the
existence of an autonomous linguistic faculty.
Cognitivism is particularly interested in understanding
how the mind creates meaning through language.