BUILDING TECHNOLOGY 1: BUILDING
MATERIALS
1.1 HISTORY OF BUILDING MATERIALS
A. Stone Age
• primitive people live through the principle of huntergatherers.
• they moved from one place to another in search of
food.
• The earliest documented materials used for a “house”
were excavated in Europe (12,000 BCE) using wooden
poles that are assumed to be frames for animal skins
used as walls for a tent.
B. Bronze Age and Early Urban Cultures (3000 BCE)
• the time when Middle Eastern civilizations existed
along great river valleys.
• Bricks - people during this era were able to develop
building materials made from sun-drying mud, formed
using four-sided straws.
• Ceramic - developed during this time wherein more
intricate decors were added, thus giving Architecture
more vibrance.
C. Egyptian Civilization
• Building materials used were limestone, sandstone,
and granite to construct monumental structures (e.g.
Pyramids, mortuaries, and mastabas).
D. Greek and Hellenistic Cultures
• Similar use of stones to Egyptian Civilization.
• Local marble and limestones (stones available in
their place are not as massive as those in Egypt.)
• Corbelling and Construction of arches to form radial
segments.
E. Roman Civilization
• Contributed to the use of concrete (derived from a
basic mortar mixture made of sand, lime, and water)
• 2nd century paved the way for the discovery of
pozzolana and “pulvis puteoli” = the formation of
natural cement.
F. Renaissance Period
• Construction of Domes - significant contribution of
this period.
• Timber trusses – a major Roman building technique
used on king posts.
• Clear Glass – manifested in many Romanesque
buildings, also called as the “crown-glass method” (a
process of handmaking glass out of soda-lime
composition.)
G. The 1st Industrial Age
• The Industrial Revolution emerged.
• Mass reproduction of Iron led to the development of
machinery. then resulted in the “puddling process”
(production of wrought iron in 1769).
• Sun-dried bricks upgraded into pressed bricks, massproduced by a mechanical extrusion process.
H. The 2nd Industrial Age
• Steel and electricity – the period when these were
first used for advancement.
• Reformulated concrete by adding powdered brick
and pebbles to the original mixture (then evolved to
aggregates today).
• Steel was mass-produced to build railroads and soon
building frames which led to the construction of early
skyscrapers.
• A French gardener named Joseph Monier uses the
concrete mixture for his pots with cage iron wires as
reinforcement.
• Lighting, Heating, and Cooling systems emerged.
I. Modern Era
• Most aim to reduce the building construction’s cost, is
faster, and more economical.
1.2 BUILDING MATERIALS’ PROPERTIES AND
APPLICATION
Table 1.1: Building Materials Classifications
Material
Description
Use
Natural
a. Natural
Unprocessed or minimally
- Structural
Materials
processed materials like
- Filler
mud, stone, or wood.
- Effective heat
insulators.
b. Fabric
Can be either made from
- Tents of
animal skin or weaved and nomadic people
dried plants.
c. Mud &
Kind of soil with more
- Homes for
Clay
amount of water with good cooling and
thermal mass.
warming effect.
d. Rock
A very dense material with - Structural &
very wide kinds such as
Architectural
granite, marble, quartz and materials.
others.
e. Thatch
Dried grass
- Roofs and walls
of houses
f. Brush
Plant with very large
- Used in
leaves
wickiups, leantos.
g. Ice
Water solidified in freezing - Igloos
temperature.
- Ice hotels
(North)
h. Bricks
Block made of kiln-fired
- Walls
material like clay or shale.
- Flooring
- Roofing
I. Concrete Made of a combination of
Widely for
aggregates and cement.
construction.
j. Metal
Aluminum, steel, titanium,
Structural
and chrome.
Frameworks
External surface
covering,
k. Glass
made from a mixture of
Curtain walls,
sand and silicates.
space frames,
walls, countertops for doors
and windows.
l. Ceramics A form of clay-pottery firing - Ceramic Floor
in kilns like tiles and
walls
fixtures.
- Wall CounterTops
Ceilings
Synthetic
m. Plastics
n. Foam
o. Cement
Compostie
Formed by synthetic or
semi-synthetic organic
condensation or
polymerization products.
Foamed Polystyrene or
polyurethane materials.
Made of hydrated cement
paste that binds wood or
alike particles
- Commonly for
pipes fir building
utilities.
- As backing for
firestop and
other insulation
materials.
-As bind to
precast
concrete’s
components.
2.1 DIVISION OF CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS
16 Divisions of Construction Materials based on Construction
Specifications International’s Master Format
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DIV 00 - Requirements of Bidding and Construction
DIV 01 - General Requirements
DIV 02 - Siteworks
DIV 03 - Concrete
DIV 04 - Masonry
DIV 05 - Metals
DIV 06 - Woods and Plastics
DIV 07 - Moisture and Thermal Protection
DIV 08 - Doors and Windows
DIV 09 - Finishes
DIV 10 - Specialties
DIV 11 - Equipment
DIV 12 - Furnishings
DIV 13 - Special Construction
DIV 14 - Conveying Systems
DIV 15 - Mechanical and Plumbing
DIV 16 - Electrical
2.2 REFERENCE STANDARDS FOR CONSTRUCTION
MATERIALS
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ACI-American Concrete Institute
211.01-85- Standard Practice for Selecting Proportions
for Normal and Heavyweight Concrete
301-84(R88) - Concrete, Structural for Building
309R-87- Standard Practice for Consolidation of
Concrete
318-86- Building Code Requirements for Reinforced
Concrete
AASHTO -American Association of State Highway and
Transport Official
M173-84- Concrete Joint Sealer, Hot Pured Elastic
Type Performed Expansion Joint Filler for Concrete
AASHTO- American Association of State Highway and
Transportation Officials
ANSI-American National Standards Institute
ASTM- American Society for Testing and Materials
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DPWH- Department of Public Works and Highways
(Philippine Government)
USCS- Unified Soil Classificatory System
2.3 SITE CONSTRUCTION
Materials Needed for Site Preparation:
• Spirit Level
• Tape Measure
• Plastic Hose w/ Water
• Batter boards
• Nylon Strings
• Stakes
• Sheet Piles
Atterberg Limits - are tests performed on soils passing the No.
40 sieve as follows:
• Liquid Limit (LL)
o moisture content at which a soil changes
from the liquid state to the plastic state.
o measured when soil in a shallow dish flow to
close a 12.5 mm grove after 25 drops from
1cm.
• Plastic Limit (PL)
o the water content at which a silt or clay
material will just begin to crumble.
o when rolled into a tread approx.3.2 mm (1/8
inch) in diameter.
• Plastic Index (PI)
o the Liquid Limit minus the Plastic Limit (LL –
PL = PI).
o the range of water content over which
sediment behaves.
Fill Materials - soil, crushed stone, and sand used to raise an
existing grade, or as a man-made-deposit, generally used under
spread footings, pavers, or concrete slabs on grade.
Classified under the United Soil Classification System (USCS)
as:
• GW, GM, GP - Gravels with > 50% retained on No.200
sieve, and 50% of coarse fraction retained on No. 40
sieve.
• SW, SM - Sands with > 50% retained on the No.200
sieve and 50% or more of coarse fraction passes the
No.40 sieve.
a. Granular Fill or Filters
• soil materials conforming to the above General Fill
requirements and to ASTM C33, size 67
• with a sand equivalent of not < than 50%.
• Used to prevent the movement of fine particles out
of soils through seepage.
b. Borrow Fill
• soil materials suitable as fill or sub-grade with not
more than 35% fraction passing the No.200 sieve.
c. Base Course Materials
• are hard durable fragments of stone and a filler of
sand or other finely divided mineral matter.
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free from vegetable matter and lumps of clay.
complying with the following AASHTO METHODS
T-11 and T-26 Grading Requirements.
Soil Protection Systems
a. Riprap
• Also known as rock lining.
• is a constructed layer of stone, placed to prevent
erosion, scouring or sloughing of a structure or
embankment.
b. Gabion Systems
• are stone-filled wire baskets used to stabilize soil and
prevent erosion.
c. Pavements
• a material that provides a wearing surface for
pedestrian or vehicular traffic in the environment.
Pavement Types
a. Flexible Pavements
• consist of concrete, brick, or stone unit pavers laid
out on a sand-setting bed.
• distributes loads to the subgrade in a radiating manner
to restrain its horizontal movement.
• require wood, steel, stone or concrete edging.
b. Rigid Pavements
• made of reinforced concrete slabs or paving units
mortared over a concrete slab.
• distributes the loads internally, transferring them to
the subgrade over a broad area.
• requires reinforcements and extension of the base
materials along their edges.
c. Turf Pavements
• made of unit pavers with spacing in between,
accommodating grass or ground cover a topsoil mix.
2.4 CEMENT & CONCRETE
Cementing Materials
a. Lime
• one of the oldest manufactured building materials.
• used both as a mortar and plaster by early civilizations.
• Greeks used it extensively for mortars and plasters in
their structures and sculptures.
• Romans were the first to develop the first real
cement = by mixing lime putty and volcanic ash.
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Hydraulic Lime - type of lime which will set
under water.
Stalking / Hydration - process of mixing
quicklime with water, driving off much of the
excess water in the form of steam.
b. Cement
• was first developed by the Romans by mixing slaked
lime with pozzolana.
• 1756 - Smeaton, an Englishman, rediscovered
hydraulic cement.
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1824 - Aspdin, an English bricklayer and mason,
invented and patented Portland cement.
c. Portland Cement
• made from materials with proper proportions of lime,
silica, alumina and iron components.
d. Blended Cement
• the type of bagged cement sold commercially in
hardware.
• not pure Portland cement.
Special Cements
a. White Portland Cement
• same materials as normal Portland except in color.
• free of iron impurities which stain porous marbles,
some granites and limestone.
b. Masonry Cement
• designed to produce better mortar than that made
with normal Portland cement.
c. Air-entraining Portland Cement
• small amounts of this is added to the clinker and
ground, to produce air-entraining cement.
• effective use for resistance to severe frost.
d. Waterproofed Portland Cement
• normally produced by adding a small amount of
stearate to the cement clinker during the final
grinding.
• usually, calcium or aluminum.
e. Alumina Cement
• ore form of aluminum as the major raw material
• also known as quick setting cement.
f. Masonry Cement
• prepared mixtures of Portland cement with hydrated
lime, granulated slag, silica, etc.
g. Natural Cement
• made of natural raw materials found mixed in the
correct proportions.
• needs only grinding and burning in a kiln to produce a
cement.
• sets more rapidly than Portland cement.
• slower in developing strength.
h, Pozzolanic Cement
• made of lime mortar and pozzolanic material.
• Slag cement is a pozzolanic cement.
*Warehouse set - occurs from the tendency of cement at
bottom layers to harden due to the pressure above when
cement is stored in high piles for long periods.*
Types of Aggregates Used in Concrete
• Aggregate - sand, gravel crushed stone, cinder,
crushed furnace slag, burned clay, expanded
vermaculite, and perlite.
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Sand - found in riverbeds, free of salt, and must be
washed.
Fine Aggregate - smaller than ¼” diameter stones.
Coarse Aggregate - bigger than ¼” diameter stones.
Concrete
a. Concrete - the resulting product when a large aggregate of
more than 6mm (1/4”) in size is added to cement, water, and
fine aggregate.
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b. Reinforced Concrete - with steel embedded in it.
c. Plain / Mass Concrete - without reinforcement.
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2.5 CONCRETE MIXES AND ADDITIVES
Concrete Mixes
• Class AA = 1:1 ½ :3 - concrete under water, retaining
walls.
• Class A = 1:2:4 - footings, columns, beams, RC slabs.
• Class B = 1:2 ½:5 - slab on fill, non-bearing walls.
• Class C = 1:3:6 - concrete plant boxes, etc.
Control of Concrete Mixes
• Slump Test - when freshly mixed concrete is checked
ensuring that the slump is being attained consistently.
o Standard Slump Cone – 12” high (0.30), 8”
bottom diameter (0.20), 4” top diameter
(0.10), open on both ends.
• Compressive Strength Test - common quality-control
test of concrete.
o based on 7- and 28-day curing periods.
• Concrete Additives - materials often added to the
concrete / applied to the surface of freshly placed
concrete.
• Accelerators - admixture which is used to speed up
the initial set of concrete.
o can be added to increase the rate of earlystrength development for several reasons.
• Retarders - to delay or extend the setting time of the
cement paste in concrete.
• Air-entraining agents -concrete contains microscopic
bubbles of air formed with the aid of a chemical called
surface active agents.
• Concrete Hardeners - applied on concrete surfaces
to increase hardiness and toughness.
• Waterproofing Compounds - reduce the capillary
attraction of the voids in the concrete or mortar.
o permeability reducing
• Colored Pigments - used to give color to concrete
floors.
o 2 types: Dry-cast, broadcast, or dust-on
(surface coloring), Integral Colors (body
coloring/mortar tapping).
2 types of Concrete Hardeners
• Chemical Hardeners
o liquids containing silicofluorides/fluosilicates.
o a wetting agent which reduces the surface
tension of the liquid.
allows it to penetrate the pores of the concrete
more easily.
Fine Metallic Aggregate
o specially processed and graded iron particles
that are dry-mixed with Portland cement.
o spread evenly over the surface of freshly
floated concrete.
o worked in surface by floating.
Water Reducing Admixtures
o used to reduce the amount of water
needed to produce a concrete of given
consistency.
o to increase the slump for a given water
content.
Damproofers
o materials used to reduce or stop the
penetration of moisture through the concrete.
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Bonding Agents
a. Paste Slurry - applied to an old surface immediately before
pouring new concrete to increase the amount of paste.
2 types of Bonding Agents
• Metallic Aggregate
o larger iron particle; same materials as the
permeability reducer.
o Bonding takes place through the oxidation
and subsequent expansion of the iron.
• Synthetic Latex Emulsion
o consists of highly polymerized synthetic
liquid resin dispersed in water.
• Set-Inhibiting Agents
o prevent the cement paste from bonding to
the surface aggregate.
• Pozzolanic Admixtures
o sometimes used in structures where it is
desirable to avoid high temperature.
o maybe added to concrete mixes-rather
than substituting for part of the cement.
Water-Cement Ratio - the amount of water used per bag of
cement. Traditional materials used for form construction:
Lumber, Plywood, and Steel.
Metal Reinforcements
• Steel Bars or Rods - Reinforcement for concrete
construction.
o The bars may be plain or deformed. They are
called billet-steel bars or rail-steel bars.
• Wire Fabric - made of cold-drawn steel wire; widely
used for the reinforcement of concrete slabs and
floors.
o also used for stucco work.
• Welded Wire Fabric - consists of a series wires
welded together to form a grid pattern.
o Sizes = 4”x4” – 6/6, 6” x 6: - 8/8
o Available in rolls 5 or 6 ft. wide, 150, 200, and
300 ft long.
• Expanded Mesh - manufactured from solid steel
sheets.
o free from mechanical and welded joints.
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Laths - furnished either in flat or segmental sheets,
pressed into a series of solid ribs.
o are furnished painted or galvanized, and in
open-hearth mild steel or in special copperbearing or alloy steels.
Types of Processed Concrete
• Aerocrete - a lightweight, expanded structural
concrete produced by adding a small amount of
metallic aluminum powder to the mixture of Portland
cement and sand of cinders.
o used for structural floor and roof slabs,
partition blocks for soundproofing, and wall
insulation.
o it has excellent fire-resistive qualities.
• Gunite - is the mixture of sand and cement
deposited under high pneumatic pressure.
o used for encasing structural steel, when
reinforced, for floor and roof slabs and curtain
walls.
o Ideal for swimming pool construction.
• Porete - Portland cement concrete to which a chemical
foam is added to generate gases in the process of
deposition.
o manufactured in solid slabs for short spans
roofs and siding of industrial buildings.
• Haydite - processed concrete added with lightweight
aggregate.
Lightweight Aggregates 4 general classifications:
• Aggregates of volcanic origin
o Pumice - weighing from 25 to 60 lbs.per cu.
ft. Can be mitigated by wetting the aggregate
before it is mixed with cement.
o Perlite - composed of stable silicates; for
insulation and is use in precast slabs and
blocks and in floor fill, fireproofing and plaster.
• Micaceous Minerals
o Vermiculite - expands on application of heat
to as much as 30 times its original volume.
Used as an aggregate in concrete
fireproofing steel, for floor and roof fill,
and for acoustic and fireproof plaster.
• Expanded shales and clays.
o Lightweight materials - require heating the
material in a kiln to a temperature near its
fusion point.
o Examples of clay, shale aggregates are
“AIROX”,
“ROCKLITE”,
Diatomite,
“HAYDITE”.
• By-product Aggregates
o Expanded Slag - “foamed” slags are made
by treating molten blast furnace slag with
controlled quantities of water or steam.
o Foamed Slag - used for precast blocks,
cast-in-place walls of houses and for panel
filling of steel-framed buildings.
• Cinders
o composed of the ash components of the
coal along with the various quantities of
unburned or partially burned combustible
matter.
3.1 CONCRETE PRODUCTS
Concrete Products - made of lightweight and heavyweight
materials for use in exterior and interior wall construction.
a. Concrete Block
• Hollow load-bearing concrete block
o 8” x 8” x 16”
o 40 to 50 lb. (w/ heavy aggregate)
o 25 to 35 lb. (w/ lightweight aggregate)
• Solid load bearing block
o the core area is less than 25 percent of the
gross cross-sectional area.
• Hollow; non-load bearing concrete block
o the core area exceeds 25 percent of the
cross-sectional area.
• Concrete Building Tile
• Concrete Brick
o Common Sizes:
▪ 4”x8”x16”: non-load bearing partition
▪ 6”x8”x16”: load bearing walls
o Quality:
▪ Handmade – backyard industry.
▪ Machine made – commonly sold.
▪ Steam Cured - manufactured by big
and nationally known factories for
load bearing walls. (gov’t & multistoreys)
b. Cellular Concrete Blocks - lightweight block which is
outstanding in thermal and sound insulation. Ingredients:
silica-rich sand and limewater, and aluminum powder.
c. Brick – basic ingredient is clay; standard size = 2 ¼ x 3 ¾ x
8 inches
3 principal forms
• Surface Clay – near the surface of the earth.
• Shales - subjected to high pressure until they have
become relatively hard.
• Fire Clay - found at deeper levels.
2 classes of Clay
• Calcareous Clays – has 15 percent calcium
carbonate and burn to a yellowish color.
• Non- Calcareous Clays - silicate of alumina, with
feldspar and iron oxide; burn buff, red or salmon
(depends on iron oxide: 2-10%)
d. Structural Clay Tiles - made from the same material as brick,
but all clay tiles are formed by extrusion in the stiff-mud
process.
Types of Tiles
• Load-bearing wall tile - used for bearing walls of
light buildings; limit: 4 storey; Thicknesses: 4, 6, 8, 10
and 12 inches.
• Partition tile - non-load bearing.
• Backup tile - use in both bearing and non-bearing
walls; faced with brick or facing tile.
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Furring tile - used on the inside of exterior walls to
provide air spaces for insulation; Classified as nonload bearing.
Fireproofing tile – insulation cover for structural steel.
Floor tile - in both load-bearing and non-load
bearing grades in standard thickness; Thickness
range: 3 to 12 inches in standard length and widths
of 12 inches.
Structural Clay facing tile - unglazed tile; have either
a smooth or a rough textured finish; used as exposed
facing material on either exterior or interior walls
and partitions.
Structural Glazed Facing tile - produced from highgrade light burning clay; suitable for the application of
ceramic or salt glaze.
e. Terra Cotta – fired earth; a clay product which has been used
for architectural decorative purposes; modern terra cotta =
ceramic veneer (flat face and flat/ribbed back)
2 types of Ceramic Veneer
• Adhesion Type - held to wall by the bond of the mortar
to the ceramic veneer back to the backing wall.
• Anchor Type - are held by mortar and by wire tiles
between the terracotta and the wall behind.
3.2 BUILDING STONES
Building Stones - are usually of blocks or pieces of the basic
material which is rock.
3 general categories:
• Igneous - result of the cooling of molten matter.
• Sedimentary - either by depositing materials at the
bottom of a water body or depositing them on the
earth’s surface.
• Metamorphic - rocks changed from their original
structure because of factors such as pressure and
heat.
Classified according to form:
• Rubble - usually used for filling material. (escombro
and lastillas); could either be broken into suitable sizes
of cut to size.
• Dimension (Cut Stone) - pieces that have been cut
or finished according to a set or drawing; for facing
walls.
• Flagstone (Flat Slabs) – have thin pieces (1/2 in. and
up; may not have had their face dimensions cut to
a specific size; for walks and doors.
• Crushed rock – consist of pieces varying I size from
3/8 to 6 in; used to a largely in concreting.
Types according to origin
• Argilite - formed from clay, commonly dark blue with
faint shades of green; used for floor tile, stair treads,
coping stones, etc.
• Granite – igneous; composed of quartz, feldspar,
hornblende, and mica; very hard, strong durable and
capable of taking a high polish.
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Limestone – sedimentary; formed of shells
fragments, particularly non-crystalline in nature;
uniform in structure and composition.
Travertine – sedimentary; composed mainly of
calcium carbonate.
Marble – metamorphic; been changed from its original
structure; made of recrystallized limestone and
dolomite.
Serpentine – igneous; with the mineral serpentine;
olive green to greenish black.
Sandstone - composed of cemented silica grains;
Colors include gray, buff, light brown, and red.
Slate Rock - formed by metamorphosis of clays and
shales deposited in layers; it may be separated into
thin tough sheets, called slates, ¼” or thicker.
Gypsum - consisting of a hydrated calcium sulfate;
colorless when pure used as a retarder in Portland
cement.
Stone Construction
• Paneling
o consists of using slabs of stone cut to
dimension.
o thickness to cover backup walls.
• Ashlar
o requires the use of cut stone and includes
broken ashlar.
o irregular coursed ashlar, regular coursed
ashlar.
• Rubblework
o Small spaces are filled with spalls, small
stones and used as course rubble work.
o horizontal course lines are maintained; no
vertical course lines used.
• Trim
o use of stones cut for a specific purpose.
o Quoin – stones laid at the intersection of two
walls.
• As jambs
o form the sides of window and door openings.
• As sills
o form the bottom of window and door openings
• As belts
o special stone courses which are built into a
wall for a reason.
o could be: to provide architectural relief to a
large wall
o could be: to hide a change in the wall
thickness.
• As copings
o cut fit on the top of a masonry wall.
o prevents the passage of water into the wall.
o sheds water to either inside or outside
o gives a finished appearance to the wall.
• As cornices
o built into and project from a masonry wall near
the top.
o to provide the appearance of a cave.
• As lintels
o bridge the top of door and window openings.
• As stone steps
o made to fit over an inclined concrete slab.
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o to cap steps cast in concrete.
As an arch stone
o to form some arch over a door or window
opening.
As stone flooring
o walks and patios.
o made by covering a base of stone concrete
brick with flagstones, trimmed flagstone,
trimmed rectangular and square.
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3.3 MASONRY
Masonry - is a built-up construction or combination of clay,
concrete, or stone set in mortar; or plain concrete.
Terms commonly used in Masonry Work:
• Bed - horizontal surfaces on which the stones or bricks
of walls lie in the courses.
• Course - a continuous layer of bricks, stones, or other
masonry units.
• Wythe or Tier - continuous, vertical section of the wall,
one masonry unit thick.
• Bond - connection between bricks, stones, or other
masonry units.
• Stretcher - brick or block masonry laid lengthwise of a
wall.
• Header - brick or block masonry extending over the
thickness of the wall.
• Heading Course - the bricks or other masonry units
are all headers.
• Soldier - unit laid on its end with its face perpendicular
to the face of the wall.
• Quoins – the corner stones at the angles of buildings.
• Bond Stones - Stones running through the thickness
of the wall at right angles to its face, to bind together.
• Blocking or Blocking Course – course placed on top
of cornice crowning the walls.
Masonry Walls - consist of modular building blocks or units
bonded with mortar to form walls; can be constructed as solid
walls, cavity walls or veneered walls.
Masonry walls are classified according to the following:
• Unreinforced Masonry Walls
o also known as plain masonry walls.
o horizontal joint reinforcement and metal wall
ties to bond the wythes of a wall.
• Reinforced Masonry Walls
o walls that utilize steel reinforcing bars
embedded in grout-filled joints and cavities,
resisting stresses.
3.4 METALS
Types of Metals
a. Ferrous - iron is the principal element.
• Steel - a malleable alloy of iron and carbon produced
by melting and refining pig iron.
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Pig iron - used to make cast iron; high in compressive
strength but low in tensile strength; little use for
construction.
Wrought Iron - when pig iron is melted.
Alloy Steel - by containing other elements with the
molten steel; Nickel, chromium copper and
manganese are used.
Nickel Steel - stronger than carbon steel; used to
make structural members for building chromium steel.
Stainless Steel - made with chromium or a
combination of nickel and chromium; for exterior wall
panels, frames for doors, expansion joints, flashings,
copings, fascia and gravel stops.
Copper - has high resistance to corrosion; used for
making sheet steel and metal lath.
Manganese Steel - great resistance to abrasion.
Weathering Steel - forms its protection against
atmospheric corrosion; requires no painting
b. Nonferrous - no, or very little iron.
• Aluminum - silver-white; very malleable; has good
thermal and electrical conductivity; good reflector of
both heat and light.
• Aluminum Foil - used as a vapor barrier on walls and
ceilings; as reflective insulation.
• Copper - reddish metal; widely used for downspout,
electrical conductors, flashings, gutter, roofing, etc.
• Lead - easy to cut and work; enables fitting over
uneven surfaces, used for roofing, flashing and
spandrel wall panels.
• Tin - soft and malleable metal having a low melting
point; for making alloys, solder, and coating sheet
metal.
Steel - plain carbon steels; alloys of iron and carbon which do
not contain more than 2% carbon; can be wrought, rolled, cast,
and welded, but not extruded.
a. Wrought Carbon Steel
• Structural Steel
o medium carbon steel
o controlled carbon content, giving both
strength and ductility.
o available in angles, channels, I-beams, H
columns, T shapes, Z shapes, plates, round
pipe columns, sheet piling, open web joists,
and light steel framing shapes.
• Reinforcing Bars
o usually used for concrete reinforcement
and available in commercial sizes.
• Sheet and Strip
o made from low carbon; consists of 0.15%0.25% carbon.
o Strip is sheet material that is 12” or less wide.
o used in fabricated form as decking galvanized
sheet, expanded metal, panels and sandwich
panels, and as a base metal for porcelain
enamel.
• Corrugated Steel
o fabricated from low-carbon cold or hotrolled steel sheets.
o galvanized - silver in color; glittery.
available in 18, 20, 22. 24-, and 26-gauge
sheet and strip.
Steel Mesh and Wire Cloth
o used for concrete reinforcement, lath for
plaster, stucco, and cement, fence, insect
screens.
Steel Windows and Doors
o used for windows and doors for every
occupancy type such as for fire-rated
materials.
Hardware
o used for finish hardware and other
miscellaneous accessories such as nails,
screws, rivets.
o
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b. Alloy Steels – steel which have manganese, silicon,
aluminum, titanium, and molybdenum as content.
• High-strength low-alloy steels
o with improved mechanical properties and
resistance to atmospheric corrosion.
o used as reinforcing for pre-stressed concrete,
high strength bolts, special structural steels,
and cables for elevators, etc.
• Stainless steels
o generally used are highly alloyed steels with
10% chromium.
o characterized by their resistance to heat,
oxidation and corrosion.
o for exterior and interior wall finishes, doors,
windows, trims, railings, signs and letters,
appliances, etc.
4 Methods of Joining Metals:
a. Soldering - to make electrical connections; to seal joints with
another lower melting metal or alloy called the solder.
• Metal Bath Dip
o defined as a metal-joining process.
o the workpieces to be joined are immersed in
a pot of molten solder and because of the
relatively low melting temperature of the
solder (between 350- and 600-degrees F),
only adhesion between the solder and the
workpieces results.
o used extensively in the electronics assembly
industry.
• Soldering Iron
o the iron piece is preheated and applied to
the joint along with the solder and the flux.
o Flux - a substance used in soldering to clean
the surfaces of the metals.
o the heat from the iron forms the soldered joint.
• Torch
o parts to be soldered are heated by the torch
flame and then the solder and flux are
applied.
o method is limited to metals.
b. Sweat Method - used for joining copper tubing and fittings; 3
types of fluxes for soldering: corrosive, neutral and noncorrosive.
• Corrosive fluxes
o known as acid type and salt type fluxes.
Care should always be taken.
residue must be quickly removed because it
conducts electricity.
o used for most electrical work.
Neutral Fluxes
o mild in type
o are used for easily soldered metals such as
copper, brass, lead, and tin plate.
o Stearic acid is a typical neutral flux.
Non-Corrosive Fluxes
o leaves residues that are noncorrosive and
nonconductive.
o Rosin is the principal flux.
o weak with their fluxing action.
o uses are limited to the easily soldered base
metals.
o
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c. Brazing
• a type of soldering in which the operating
temperatures are higher (lower than welding).
• used where the shape and position of the joint or the
composition of the metal or metals are not adaptable
to welding.
d. Welding
• the process by which two metals are so joined that
there is an actual union of the interatomic bonds.
• brought about by close contact, heating, pressure,
adding molten metal, or combinations of these
methods.
• 2 types: pressure (pressure heat make the weld) and
fusion (gas flame and electric arc methods) welding.
• Electric arc method – the welding rod is brought near
the joint of the metals to be welded.
Aluminum Finishes - can and are often given a wide range of
finishes (decorative/protective).
4 types of aluminum surface finishes:
• Mechanical Finishes
• Chemical Finishes
• Electrolytic Oxide Finishes
• Organic Finishes
3.5 WOOD
Wood - a traditional building material; has great ability to absorb
shocks from sudden load; no rust and corrosion, lightweight,
and adaptable.
Classification of Trees
• Hardwoods
o deciduous trees
o have broad leaves which are normally shed
in the wintertime.
• Softwoods
o conifer trees
o have needles rather than leaves and that
bear their seeds in cones.
*Moisture content of wood - expressed as a percentage of the
oven-dry weight; 2 types of determining: oven-dry and electric
moisture meter method.
3 Categories of Lumber
• Yard Lumber
o for ordinary light construction and finishing
work.
o These are usually found in retail lumberyards.
• Shop Lumber
o use in shops or mills making sash, doors,
and cabinets.
o cut into relatively short pieces.
o usually left in 1- and 2-inches rough thickness
often containing knots or defects.
• Structural Lumber
o use in heavy construction for load-bearing
purposes.
o cut into timbers of large size than yard
lumber (3” or thicker, 4” or wider).
o made from the heartwood of the log.
Wood Finishes
• S1S - surfacing or planning of one side.
• S2S - two sides planed.
• S4S - four sides planed.
• Rough - as sawn and not planed.
Wood Grain
• Edge Grain - annual rings run approximately at a right
angle to the face.
• Flat Grain - annual rings run more or less parallel to
the surface.
• Angle Grain - annual rings are at about 45 degrees to
the face.
Seasoning of Lumber
• Air-drying
o lumber is strip-piled at a slope on a solid
foundation.
o allows air to circulate around every piece.
o sloping allows water to run off quickly.
• Kiln-drying
o more expensive lumber.
o required for more refined uses so as wood will
not move; furniture.
o Flooring and general interior use.
Pressure treated lumber - when lumber is subjected to
pressure and injected with chemicals/salts insure it from rots.
*Specification when buying lumber:
Indicate no. of pieces, thickness, width, length, total bd. Ft. kind
of lumber and finish.
Example: 6-2” x 8” x 14’-0” = 112 bd. Ft. tanguile S4S
a. Glue Laminated Timber
• a wooden member built up of several layers of wood.
• held together with glue whose grain directions are all
substantially parallel.
• used for beams, girders, posts, columns, arches,
arches, bowstring truss chords.
•
usually, softwoods are commonly used. (low cost).
Glue used in laminating:
• Casein glue - use in dry locations not exposed to rain
or water.
• Urea-formaldehyde-resin - cheap and well cure at
from 70 degrees F above; withstands soaking in cool
water.
• Phenol-formaldehyde-resin glues -high temperature
is required to cure them.
• Resorcinol-phenol-formaldehyde - are expensive
but have excellent qualities of durability and water
resistance.
Recycled Wast Products, Building Boards and Papers
Kinds of Building Boards
a. Plywood - made by bonding together thin layers of wood
in a way that the grain of each layer is at right angles to the grain
of each adjacent layer.
• Veneer – each layer of plywood.
• Rotary Cutting - method of cutting wood veneer in
which a log is fixed in a lathe and rotated against a
knife.
b. Hardboard - made from processed wood chips.
Three grades of board:
• Standard – flexible; quite easily bent.
• Tempered hardboard - made by impregnated
standard board with a tempering compound of oils and
resin and baking it.
• Low-density hardboard - not as strong and durable
as standard hardboard.
c. Insulating Fiberboard - made from three types of fiber –
wood, sugar cane, and asbestos, and binder.
d. Chipboard - made from wood and particles and a binder,
often faced with veneer.
e. Particle Board - hardboard made from relatively small
particles.
f. Gypsum Board - wall board having a gypsum core.
g. Straw Board - hardboard made of compressed wheat
straw, processed, and covered with a tough kraft paper.
h. Asbestos-cement Board - containing a high proportion of
asbestos fibers bonded with Portland cement. Fire and
weathering resistant, low resistance to heat.
i. Corkboard – mixture of oak tree and synthetic resin,
compressed and formed into sheet from 1 to 6 inches thick and
baked under pressure into rigid boards.
j. Paperboard - two different types: a paper pulp pressed into
boards 3/16, or ¼in. thick, 4 ft. wide, and 6, 7 or 8 ft. long. One
surface is primed for easier finishing; other is a layer of stiff
paper folded into corrugated and faced on both sides with a thick
paper backing, cemented to the core.
k. Mineral Fiberground - thick mats of mineral fibers; covered
with a backing of stiff paper on one or both sides; usually glass
or rock wool; usual board size is 24 x 48 inches.
l. Plastic Foamboards - Used for perimeter insulation for
concrete floor slabs, for wall and roof deck insulation, and for
roof decks; polystrene and polyurethane plastics are formed
by a patented process to about 40 times their original volume.
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Building Papers - used for sheathing, roofing and insulation as
a moisture and vapor barrier; as cushioning material; as a
fireproofing material.
Types of Wood Pulp
• Mechanical Pulp
o groundwood
o produced by grinding blocks of wood
against a revolving abrasive stone.
o grinding steamed wood chips in a grinding
mill.
• Chemical Pulp
o produced by digesting wood chips in
various chemicals.
• Semi-chemical Pulp
o wood chips are first subjected to a mild
chemical treatment.
o then mechanically disintegrated in rotating
disk refiners.
Types of Paper
• Sheathing Paper
o used to provide an airtight barrier over walls,
floors, etc.
• Roofing Paper
o Roofing felts - used in making a built-up
roof; (made in 36 in. wide rolls, in weights
from 3 to 20 lb./square.)
o Rolledroofing - a heavy, mineral surfaced
paper used as a final roof covering; (made
18 and 36 in. wide, in various weights from 45
to 120 lb/square.)
• Insulating Paper
o used to secure bulk and entrapped air with as
much strength as possible.
o made from both wood-fiber insulating
paper and asbestos fibers.
• Cushioning Paper
o similar to wood-fiber insulating paper, but
less attention is paid to strength.
o use is for cushioning under linoleum, carpets,
or slate roofing.
• Vapor Barrier Paper
o intended to prevent the passage of
moisture vapor through walls, ceilings and
floors.
• Laminating Paper
o special, high strength kraft paper made for
use in the production of plastic laminates.
• Concrete form paper
o made from strong kraft paper in the form of a
spiral tube and boxlike form.
o made from corrugated container paper.
Wallpaper
o paper from which decorative wallpaper is
made.
Envelope Paper
o used as an outer covering or envelope.
o One of these is gypsum board.
Fire proofing Paper
o made from asbestos fibers.
o maybe in the form of matted paper.
o may be in the form of a cloth woven from
thread.
3.6 FASTENING MATERIALS
Nails - are slender and straight pieces of metal fasteners
with one end pointed and the other end flared, enlarged or
flattened for hammering into wood or other materials; usually
made of mild steel but can also be of aluminum, copper, zinc,
brass or stainless steel.
Kinds of nails
• Cut Nails
o made from a strip of rolled iron or steel of
the same thickness as the finished nail
o Machinery cuts the nails in alternate
wedge-shaped slices and the heads are
then stamped on them.
o have greater holding power than wire nails.
• Wire Nails
o are stronger for driving than cut nails,
o are generally preferred by the carpenters.
o are made from the same section-diameter as
the shank of the nail by a machine.
•
Clinch Nails
o made from open-hearth or Bessemer steel
wire
o used only in place where it is desired to turn
over the ends of the nails to form a clinch
Various Types of Nails
• Common Wire Nail (CWN)
o made of a low-carbon steel wire with a
slender plain shank and medium diamond
point
o usually used for framing where finish is not
important.
o Use for general construction work.
o are usually available from 6d to 20d sizes (d
is the symbol of penny).
• Finishing Nail
o made from a finer wire than the common wire
nail.
o more slender with a brad-type head that
o usually used in finishing work. Its head
leaves a small hole that can be easily covered
with putty.
• Brad Nail
o has a head that projects slightly to one side
almost flushed with the sides with the same
thickness.
are very light finishing nails
used for light, finished construction and to
hold moldings.
o are measured by their lengths (which vary
from 5 millimeters [3/16”] to 7.5 millimeters
[3”]) and are usually sold by the box.
Box Nail
o thinner version of the common wire nail
with a long shank usually barbed or
smoothed.
Casing Nail
o a slender nail with a slightly flared head for
finishing work.
o have a finishing head.
o use for flooring, matched ceiling, and
interior trim.
Ring-Shank Nail
o consisting of a series of ring-like grooves
around the shank for increased holding
power.
Roofing Nail
o short nail with barbed or ringed shank and
diamond point with a large flat head.
o either galvanized or bright (metal finish using
a dip, usually a mixture of hydrochloric, nitric,
sulfuric acids and water.
Metal Lath Nail
o for securing metal lath (a base fabricated
either by slitting metal and strenching it to
form a diamond-shaped mesh)
Staple Nail
o Electrician’s Staple Nail
o a U-shaped piece of metal or heavy wire
with pointed ends driven into a surface to hold
a hasp or sheet of metal.
Concrete Nail/Masonry Nail
o used for nailing to concrete or masonry
made of hardened steel with a flat
countersunk head and diamond point with
knurled or fluted shank.
Coated Nails
o usually common or box nails which have been
given a coating for a particular purpose.
o keep them from rusting.
o examples of these are galvanized nails,
cement-coated nails, and the blued nails.
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Nail Construction Methods
• Toe-Nailing
o known as tusk or skew nailing
o one hammers the nail obliquely to the
surfaces being joined.
• Face-Nailing
o nails are driven or hammered perpendicular
to the face of the material.
• Blind-Nailing
o known as secret or concealed nailing
o nail heads are not seen on the face of the
work. The use of nails that are not exposed
to the weather when use in finished roofing.
Screws
Metal fasteners that have tapered, externally helicallythreaded shanks with slotted heads; use for driving into wood
and other materials by turning with the use of a screwdriver.
Types of Drive: Basic Drive Design
• Slotted
• Crosshead
• Socket
• Combination
Head Shapes
• Countersunk Heads – can be concealed below the
wood surface.
• Raised Heads – countersunk screws with a slight
domed head protruding from the wood surface.
• Round/Domed Heads - heads rest on the wood
surface.
Head Types
• Flat (FH) – a countersunk head with a flat top
• Oval (OH) or (OV) – a countersunk head with a
rounded top
• Pan (PN) – a slightly rounded head with short vertical
sides
• Round (RH) – a domed head, the most universally
used design in the past.
• Truss – an extra wide, low, large diameter head with a
rounded top; Also known as oven head, stove head,
and oval binding head.
• Hexagon [Trimmed] (HH) or (HX) – a standard type
of wrench-applied hexagonal head; clean, sharp
corners trimmed to closed tolerances; general
commercial applications.
• Hex Washer – a hexagonal head with a built-in washer
• Slotted Hex Washer – a hexagonal head with a builtin washer and a slot.
• Socket Cap – a small cylindrical head using a socket
drive.
• Button – a low profile rounded head using a socket
drive.
• Fillister – has a smaller diameter than the round head
but is higher with a deeper slot
• Binding Head (Straight Side) – generally used in
electrical and radio work; with undercut beneath the
head; binds and eliminates fraying of stranded wire.
• Hex Flange – similar to hex washer but the top of the
washer flange shall be conical or slightly rounded.
• Square Shoulder – a truss head on a square shank
which resists rotation when located or driven into place.
Thread Types
• Coarse Threads
o commonly available and have fewer
threads per inch.
o more tolerant to slight damage or corrosion. It
is usually specified as UNC or Unified Coarse.
• Fine Threads
o slightly stronger because the smaller fine
threads take up less of the available area.
o provide finer adjustments since they
advance less per rotation than coarse
threads. It is specified as UNF or Unified Fine.
*These thread types are available in the American inch-based
United Thread Standards designation or the ISO metric thread
designation.*
Kinds Of Screws
• Wood Screws
o usually used for millwork and finishing
rather than for structural framing.
o are used in fastening millwork where
resistance to withdrawal is a requirement.
o designed to be much better at resisting
withdrawal than nails.
o have a coarser pitch (few threads per inch)
and often have an unthreaded shank.
• Metal Screws
o usually threaded all the way to their head
and are self-tapping.
o only require a pre-drilled hole or come with
self-drilling or self-tapping tips.
• Drywall Screws
o use to secure drywall to wood (the coarse
thread version) or metal studs (the fine thread
version)
o The head-to-shaft junction is more curved
to prevent tearing of the drywall. They also
come with self-drilling tips.
• Lag Screw, Lag Bolt, Coach Screw
o a bolt with thin, coarse-pitched thread and a
square head.
• Screw Anchors
o an anchor having a metal shell with a screw
along its central axis (similar to an
expansion bolt).
o It is locally called a tux screw usually provided
with a plastic shell.
• Tekscrew
o a kind of screw that is used to fasten metal
roofing sheets to the roof purlins.
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Bolts - are threaded metal pins or rods with one end having the
head and with the external thread on the other end; is used for
holding together or securing different members or materials after
being inserted through holes.
The two (2) categories of bolts
• Carbon steel bolts - with minimum copper content not
mor than 0.40% similar to ordinary machine bolts.
• High-strength bolts - is made either of high-strength
carbon steel or tempered alloy steel
Types of Bolts
• Machine Bolts
o a bolt having a straight shank and a
conventional head such as a square, button,
countersunk or hexagonal.
o are used for heavy assemblies such as
anchoring to a post.
• Carriage Bolts
o a bolt having a circular head, an oval or flat
bearing surface with a square collar and
tightened with a nut only.
o collar prevents the bolt from turning
o also known as a coach bolt.
Stove Bolt
o small bolt with slotted heads, either round
or flat.
o used for light assemblies.
Eye Bolt
o a bolt with a looped head.
Plow Bolt
o a bolt similar to a carriage bolt but the head
is flat or concave, and the underside is a
cone designed to fit in a countersunk recess.
Set Bolt
o a bolt that is threaded all the way to the
head.
o Also known as tap bolt.
Tension Control Bolt
o is a heavy-duty bolt used in steel frame
constructions.
o head is usually domed and is not designed
to be driven.
o end of the shank has a spline on which it is
engaged by a special power wrench which
prevents the bolt from turning while the nut is
tightened.
o spline shears off once the appropriate
torque is reached.
Toggle Bolt
o a bolt having a nut with pivoted flanged
wings that close against a spring when
pushed through a hole and open after
emerging from the hole.
o used to fasten objects to a hollow wall that
is accessible only from one side.
o used to fasten materials to plaster, gypsum
boards and other thin wall materials.
Expansion Bolts
o an anchoring device
o have an expandable socket (called
expansion shields) that swells as the bolt is
tightened into it.
o usually used for attaching timber in
masonry or concrete walls.
Nuts - short metal block having a central hole which is threaded
to receive a bolt or other threaded part or material.
Types of Nuts
• Hex
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a six-sided nut also referred to as a finished
hex nut.
Nylon Insert Lock
o a nut with a nylon insert to prevent backing
off and also referred to as a Nylock.
Jam
o a hex nut with a reduced height.
Nylon Insert Jam Lock
o a nylock nut with a reduced height.
Wing
o a nut with “wings” for hand tightening.
Cap
o a nut with a domed top over the end of the
fastener.
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Acorn
o a nut with a high crown used for appearance.
Flange
o a nut with a built-in washer like a flange.
Tee
o a nut designed to be driven into wood to
create a threaded hole.
Squre
o a four-sided nut.
Prevailing Torque Lock
o a non-reversible lock nut used for hightemperature applications.
K-Lock or Kep
o a nut with an attached free-spinning
external tooth lock washer.
Coupling
o long nut used to connect pieces of
threaded rod or other male threaded
fasteners.
Slotted
o are used in conjunction with a cotter pin on
drilled shank fasteners to prevent loosening.
Castle
o similar to slotted nut but with the slots in a
rounded section above the main nut.
Washers - perforated disks of metal, rubber or plastic, used
under the head of a nut or bolt or at a joint (to distribute
pressure, prevent leakage, relieve friction or insulate
incompatible materials.)
Types of Washers
• Flat – used to distribute load.
• Fender – an oversize flat washer to further distribute
load specially on soft materials.
• Finishing – a washer used to obtain a “finished
look” and usually used with an oval head screw.
• Split Lock – the most common style of washer used
to prevent nuts and bolts from backing out.
• External Tooth Lock – another type of washer with
external “teeth” to prevent bolts and nuts from
backing out.
• Internal Tooth Lock - another type of washer with
internal “teeth” to prevent bolts and nuts from backing
out.
• Square – a square shaped washer.
• Dock – washer that has a large outside diameter and
thicker than the standard.
• Ogee – thick, large diameter, cast iron washer with a
curved or sculpted appearance used in dock and
wood construction.
Rivets - are short pins made of malleable metal such as steel,
copper or iron, having a head at one end; are metal pins that
are used for permanently joining two or more structural steel
members
Explosive Rivets - When a joint is accessible only from one side;
the explosive-filled shank is hammered to detonate and expand
the shank on the other end.
Types of Rivet Heads:
• Countersunk, raised
• Countersunk, flat
• Button, coned neck
• Button, straight neck
• Pan, coned neck
• Pan, straight neck
Hinges - finish hardware elements on which doors and
windows, cabinets, etc. turn, swing or slide, and open or close.
They are movable joints used to attach, support and turn a door.
Classification of Hinges:
• Full Mortise Hinges
o hinges that are countersunk into both the
door and jamb.
o are used for most doors
• Half Mortise Hinges
o hinges that have one joint countersunk into
the door and the other attach to the jamb.
• Full Surface Hinges
o hinges that are applied to both door and
jamb surfaces without mortise or being
countersunk.
• Half Surface Hinges
o applied to the surface of the door without
being mortise but are countersunk or
mortise into the jamb.
o used for lightweight doors such as screen
and storm doors.
Types of Hinges:
• Butt Hinge
o the most commonly used type.
o referred to as butts because they are
attached to the butt edge of the door.
o consist of two (2) leaves with an odd number
of knuckles on one leaf and even numbers of
knuckles on the other leaf.
o knuckles are attached with a pin.
o The pins are made in several styles: flat
button tip, ball tip, oval head, cone tip, steeple
tip, bullet tip, hospital.
Varieties of Butt Hinge:
• Loose Pin Hinge
o known as removable pin hinge
o allows its two parts to be separated.
• Loose Joint Pin
o having two knuckles, with one of which has
a vertical pin that fits into the corresponding
hole in the other.
o door may be removed by unscrewing the
hinge or lifting the door off the vertical pin.
• Fast Pin Hinge
o the pin is permanently fastened in place,
o use of this variety makes hanging of doors
difficult.
• Olive-Knuckle Hinge
o known as Paumelle Hinge in which the
knuckles form an oval shape.
type of loose pin hinge equipped with a ball
bearing.
o knuckles are visible when the door is
closed.
Invisible Hinge
o Also known as Soss Hinge (a famous brand
name)
o no parts are exposed when the door is
closed.
Spring Hinge
o Used for swing doors containing one or
more spring (the hinge returns to its closed
position automatically after the door is
opened.)
o may act on one or both directions.
o
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3 Types:
• Spring Tension Hinge
o Adjustable Tension
▪ Half Surface Adjustable Tension
▪ Full Surface Adjustable Tension
o Non-Adjustable Tension
▪ Full
Surface
Non-Adjustable
Tension
• Spring Butt Hinge
o Double Acting Spring
o Single Acting Spring
• Spring Pivot Hinge
o Top Pivot
o Bottom Pivot
▪ Horizontal Type
▪ Vertical Type
Types of Furniture Hinges
• Standard Butt – usually made of brass for general
use.
• Back Flap Hinge – hinge with wide plates for table
leaves and rabbeted full flaps.
• Strap Hinge – hinge use for narrow sections.
• Lift-off Butt – hinge used on cabinet doors for easy
removal without disturbing the settings.
• Loose Pin Hinge – also known as ball-tipped hinge.
• Stopped Hinge – usually used for box lids, opens at
90 degrees only.
• Piano Hinge – also known as continuous hinge,
having the same length as the moving parts to which it
is attached.
• Clock Case Hinge – hinge where one plate is wider
to allow a projecting door.
• Concealed Hinges
• Pivot Hinge
• Tee Hinge, T-Hinge
• Glass Door Hinge
Cabinet Cathes
• Friction Catch –engages a strike is held by friction.
• Magnetic Pressure Catch – held in place by
magnetic pressure.
• Ball Catch – also known as bullet catch; holds a door
in place by means of projecting spring-actuated
steel ball which is depressed when the door is closed.
Cabinet Knobs
• Screw-in Knob
• Bolt-on Knob
• Flush Knob
• Flush Ring
• Pull
Lid Stays
• Drawer Runners
o E-Single Extension – the withdrawal
distance is designed to be less than the
installation length.
o V-Full Extension – has a pull-out distance
equal or greater than the installation length.
o T-Telescopic Extension – full extending
runners.
Cabinet Locks
• Rim Locks
• Mortise Locks
• In-Laid Flap Locks
• Lever Locks
• Locker Locks
• Glass Door Locks
Shelf Support
• Pin Mounted
• Plug-In
• Screw-In
• Screw-Mounted
• Surface Mounted
• Glass Shelf Supports
4.1 TYPES OF WATERPROOFING MATERIALS
Types of Waterproofing:
• Torch Applied, Integral and Membrane
• Cementitious
• Sprayed Polyurethane Foam
• Elastomeric
Types of Damp-proofing:
• Damp-roof Membrane
• Asphalt & Bitumens
• Plastic sheets
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Insulation
Types of Sound Insulation Applications & Materials:
SPF (Sprayed Polyurethane Foam)
Plaster Type
Fiberglass Type
Classification of Waterproofing Coatings and Washes
• Alum and soap mixtures
o applied in alternate mixtures (known as the
Sylvester process)
o penetrates the pores of the concentrate
forming insoluble compounds due to chemical
action between the alum and soap solutions,
and these compounds prevents percolation.
The soap solution is applied first and
allowed to dry - usually for 24 hours. Then the
alum is applied and allowed to dry for the
same length of time.
o solutions should be well rubbed in, but care
should be taken to avoid frothing when
applying the soap wash.
Alum, lye and cement washes.
Cement grout
o with or without the addition of water –
repellants.
Paraffin and other mineral bases
o applied cold in solution or prepared in
melted.
Miscellaneous materials of unknown composition
o sold under various trade names.
Specially prepared bituminous products
o e.g., “FLINT-KOTE”, “JOHN-MANSVILLE”,
etc.
Asphalt emulsions
o Minute asphalt particles dispersed in water
and maintained in suspension (until applied)
by a mineral colloid emulsifying agent.
o called Asphalt Base Clay Emulsions
Cutback Asphalts
o are composed of a wide variety of products
from thin liquids to heavy paste.
o provide tough, durable films resistant to the
passage of water vapor.
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Types of Waterproofing according to application:
• Integral Waterproofing Compounds
o are manufactured and sold under various
trade names and are available in either
powder or liquid form, e.g.,
▪ “SAHARA”
▪ “POZOLITH”
▪ Truscon “ZILICON”
▪ “AQUELLA”
▪ “ANTI-HYDRO”
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Membrane Waterproofing
o waterproofing materials used in this method
range from the ordinary tar paper laid with
coal-tar pitch to asbestos or asphalted felt
laid in asphalt.
o all concrete surfaces to be waterproofed
should be as smooth as possible and should
be cleaned and dry.
o concrete should be allowed to set
thoroughly
o all uneven surfaces should be leveled up
with a coat of cement mortar.
o sharp projections on the concrete or masonry
should be removed or they will puncture the
waterproofing.
4.2 THERMAL INSULATIONS
Three ways of heat transfer:
• Conduction
o the inside of a concrete wall which has one
side exposed to outside winter temperatures
feels cold to the touch.
o heat is being conducted from the side of
higher temperature to that lower
temperature.
• Radiation
o from this point, it is transferred to the
outside air by radiation.
• Convection
o when air is heated, it expands and begins to
circulate.
o during the circulation it comes in contact
with cooler surface, some of its heat is given
up to them.
Kinds of Thermal Insulation:
a. Loose Fill:
• Fibrous type – made from mineral woolrock wool,
glass wool, or slag wool – or vegetable fiber – usually
wood fiber.
• Granular insulation – made from expanded minerals
such as vermaculite and perlite or from ground
vegetable matter such as granulated coork.
• Fibrous loose fill – used to insulate walls of
buildings built without insulation.
• Granules – are graded into four sizes; used as loosefill insulation for sidewalls and ceilings over
suspended ceilings, between wood sleepers over a
concrete floor slab.
o Sizes:
▪ Size 1 (3/8 in. to no. 16 sieve)
▪ Size 2 (no. 4 to no. 30 sieve)
▪ Size 3 (no. 8 to no. 100 sieve)
▪ Size 4 (no. 16 to 100 sieve).
b. Blanket Insulation – made from some fibrous materials
such as mineral wool, wood fiber, cotton fiber, or animal hair,
manufactured in the form of a mat
c. Batts – similar to blankets but they are restricted to 48
inches long more or less they are always covered with paper,
and made especially for installation between stud spacings.
d. Structural Insulation Board – made from organic fiberwood, cane, straw or cork. The wood and cane raw material is
first pulped, after which it is treated with water proofing
chemicals.
• Strawboard – made from carefully selected straw,
fused under heat and pressure into a panel 2 inches
thick and 4 ft. wide.
• Corkboard – made from granulated cork mixed with
resin and pressed into sheets of several thickness,
depending on the use to which they will be put.
e. Block or Rigid Slab Insulation – type of insulation is so
called because the units are relatively stiff and inelastic. In
most cases inorganic materials are used in their manufactures.
f. Reflective Insulation – made from such materials as
aluminum or copper foil or sheet metal, with bright surfaces
that reflect heat rather than absorbing it.
g. Foamed-In-Place Insulation – this is polyurethane
product made by combining a polyisocyanate and a polyester
resin.
h. Sprayed-on-Insulations – materials used are polyurethane
foam asbestos fiber mixed with inorganic binders,
vermiculite aggregate with a binder such as Portland cement or
gypsum and perlite aggregate using gypsum as binders.
i. Corrugated Insulation – usually made from paper foamed
into shapes that produce enclosed air pockets.