History of Engineering Dr Lum Kit Meng School of Civil & Environmental Engineering Ref: Engineering & Society, Chapter 1 & 2 History of Engineering 1 A chronologies of past events to help us to understand why things happened. Presents the past in a way that makes more sense of the present. Gives meaning to the continuity to a multiplicity of apparently unrelated events to make the connection between engineering & different aspects of human society. History of Engineering 2 When did engineering really begin? What is the connection between technology, science, & engineering? How the physical world works? For the use and convenience of man Solving problems and meeting needs How does engineering affect society & the world we live in? How do engineering activities affect you as an engineer in the future? Cai Lun (蔡伦; CE 48–121): invented the composition for paper along with the papermaking process History of Engineering 3 Technology, science & engineering emerged as distinct areas of human endeavor at different periods of human history. The relationships between the activities associated with them have changed and will continue to evolve over time. History of Engineering 4 Technology is a form of human cultural activity for practical ends & purposes. It involves forming & transforming the material world through ideas & thoughts; it is typically done with the aid of tools & procedures. Technology is about solving problems & meeting needs in the real world. It includes products, processes & systems that takes into account the environment required for their development & use. History of Engineering 5 The origin of technology dates from the Stone Age. Earliest human ancestors were huntergatherers, taking advantage of animal life and seasonal variation of plant produce. Adopted systematic “technological actions” to survive. History of Engineering 6 Made tools from wood and stone for survival purposes. Stones were fractured to produce sharp edges for cutting. Others include grinding stones, the wedge, carrying yoke, the ax & the spear. Developed the controlled use of fire, fashioning of clothing & utensils for domestic use. History of Engineering 7 Fertile river valleys provided favorable conditions for crop growth. Domesticated animals as beasts of burdens. Establishment of agrarian society; e.g., in Mesopotamia, the Nile Valley, others in India & China. History of Engineering 8 Primitive sledge for crop transportation. Use of level in balance beam for weighing (5000 B.C. in Egypt). Use of wheel – potter’s wheel, chariots, (3500 B.C. in Mesopotamia). Smelting & working of metals. Large-scale control of water resources in river-based societies. History of Engineering 9 Mesopotamians built using brick. Egyptians built using stones; e.g., the Great Pyramid of Gizeh – 230m square, 147m high, using massive stone blocks (2 to 30 tons each) assembled with such accuracy that remains impressive today. The Greek culture that followed was built on Egyptian foundations. Source: National Geographic History of Engineering 10 Cultural history centred on Greece & Rome: Troy (Achilles) The Greeks laid the first philosophical & scientific basis for knowledge (600 B.C.). Philosophers such as Thales, Socrates & Plato attempted to explain the world on the basis of rationality rather than myth. Greek technological achievements were not spectacular because scholars disdained practical craft skills. Euclid, Pythagoras & Plato struggled to find philosophical basis for natural phenomena & humanity’s place in the universe. Archimedes (287-212 B.C.) used mechanical models to arrive at mathematical results, but discarded them in his proofs. History of Engineering 11 Romans inherited Greek philosophy & mathematics but did not encourage abstract science. Engineering practice became more recognizable. Had engineers competent in contracts, specifications & costing, that built road systems as key military technology. Roads facilitated rapid troop movement throughout the empire. Romans also excelled in hydraulics bringing water to towns in large stone aquaducts & reticulating it in lead pipes. History of Engineering 12 Like Greece, Rome became technologically stagnant. Productivity was limited by widespread use of slaves that precluded efforts to develop labor-saving technology. Engineering advances in the military & transport fields driven by imperial endeavors to invade & fortify cities. The Roman Empire crumbled around 400 500 A.D. History of Engineering 13 Relative chaos after the Roman Empire collapsed. Expanding population led to cultivation of forested lowlands that required “new” agricultural technology to till the heavy soils of Northern Europe. By 900 A.D., feudalism emerged – kings & powerful nobles gave land grants (not ownership) to members of their retinues who then rendered military services. Peasants became serfs to work the lands – led to primitive accumulation of capital that gave rise to middle class of peasants. Political sovereignty was fragmented; led to growth of free cities. History of Engineering 14 City/town growth led to commodity production. Formation of medieval craft guilds which planned production & supervised, trained & even employed workmen. Economy based on serfs and craft workers rather than slaves encouraged the use of labor-saving technology. Moving away from agriculture production History of Engineering 15 Outbreak of bubonic plague, “the black death” in Europe in A.D. 1348. Over 40% loss of population over two generations – labor shortage. Power based on land holding was challenged by town-based merchants. Led to a move away from feudalism. Power was increasingly centralized in monarchies – monarchs were suspicious of feudal barons. History of Engineering 16 Emergence of medieval technologies in military & printing helped to strengthen the monarchies. Monarchs introduced standing armies, permanent bureaucracy, taxation, law and the beginnings of unified markets. Rich monarchs, backed by powerful merchants, set the conditions for the rise of merchant capitalism. Ships set sail to open the way for the discovery of the New World of America. Emergence of Merchant Capitalism History of Engineering 17 Rediscovery of ancient Greek & Roman culture & the discovery of America brought new ideas & knowledge to Europe. Poets, artists & sculptors embraced new humanistic perspectives that were far from medieval religious symbolism. Centers were established for learning in theology, law & medicine. Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519) – the best example of a Renaissance man. Not just production but Arts as well History of Engineering 18 At the end of the 16th century, observation & experiment presented challenges to centuriesold dogma to present a new view of nature. Galileo Galilee 1564 - 1642 Galileo (1564-1642) developed the telescope – from observation of Jupiter’s satellites, concluded that the Earth revolved round the Sun. History of Engineering 19 Francis Bacon (15611626) was an enthusiast for industrial science – used inductive approach to draw conclusions from experimental data. Rene Descartes (15961650) emphasized deductive approach through mathematics. Advocated that science & religion should be separated – promoted the advance of science. History of Engineering 20 In the 17th century, the rise of capitalism led to renewed interest in the practical orientation of knowledge in artisans’ trade practices. Intellectual assumptions & attitudes toward knowledge from the Middle Ages yielded to a new view of the world – knowledge was much less controlled by the Church. The Earth-centered cosmos of Aristotle gave way to the acceptance of the solar system. The universe was seen to obey Newton’s law – knowledge became a means of controlling nature. Knowledge for ALL History of Engineering 21 With ships fitted with navigational aids & firearms, Europe set out to explore & conquer foreign lands to seize new resources. In the 16th century, Spain & Portugal led the overseas conquests for gold, silver, etc. In the early 17th century, the Netherlands dominated world trades & founded profitable empires in the East & West Indies. Britain used its large coal deposits to drive its industries; surpassed the Netherlands to build a vast colonial empire. Exploration History of Engineering 22 Monopolies in mining, manufacturing & foreign trade were granted by monarchs to their court favorites & merchant guilds. In 1624, British parliament reduced the royal power. Land holding under the feudal system was officially abolished – large estates of the defeated Royalists were sold. Rich merchants implemented efficient large-scale scientific farming practices that led to increase in productivity to satisfy the expanding markets – the Agricultural Revolution. History of Engineering 23 By early 18th century, urban merchants with banking & exchange practices gained control of commodity production. Capitalist formed new social class & challenged religious authority & hereditary privileges. They emphasized individual freedom to invest & trade as he saw fit. Plunder from the colonies helped to finance the European industrial take-off. Continuous exploitation of colonial resources sustained European industrial growth & left a legacy of under-developed colonies. Rising Capitalism History of Engineering 24 In England, the guilds were weakened by antimonopoly legislation. In 1709, Abraham Darby discovered how to use coal to smelt iron – important raw materials to make machines & structures. In 1776, Adam Smith described the division of labor in pin making that greatly increased workers’ productivity. Once production processes were standardized, each process could then be replaced by a machine. Development of these machines completed the transformation to modern industrial production. Technological enhancement History of Engineering 25 Mechanization of tasks led to profusion of machines – for spinning, sewing, iron smelting, etc. Journeymen reduced to machines minders – people sold their raw labor power to owners of factories & mills. The industrial revolution provided employment for those displaced from the land. Social & economic impact of the industrial revolution – population growth. Population growth was both an underlying cause & a fuel for the industrial revolution – provided labor for new industries & markets for their products. Machine taking over History of Engineering 26 Steam power was harnessed for use in machines by early 17th century. In 1698, Thomas Savery invented & patented a primitive steam engine. It was James Watt who improved on the efficiency of the engine & introduced adaptation in 1782 to produce rotary motion. James Watt’s (1736-1819) improved steam engine drove new machinery that took British industry to world leadership. Steam engine formed the basis for the rise of the mechanical engineering profession. Steam Engine History of Engineering 27 History of Engineering 28 In 1804, Richard Trevithick built the first steampowered locomotive. In 1825, wrought iron rails were introduced and the success of George Stephenson’s “Rocket” locomotive in 1829 set the stage for the railway age. Railway enabled the ability to move people & goods quickly, reliably & economically – opened up broader markets for goods & services. The building of railroads was a major factor in the colonization of much of the rest of the world. Moving far and wide History of Engineering 29 History of Engineering 30 John Rennie (1716 - 1821) ICE, 1820 John Smeaton (1724 - 1792) Thomas Telford (1757 - 1834) 1st President of First British Civil Engineer History of Engineering 31 Marc Isambard Brunel (1769 - 1849) Isambard Kingdom Brunel (1806 - 1859) George Stephenson (1781 - 1848) 1st President of IMechE,1847 History of Engineering 32 The Crystal Palace Exhibition in London in 1851 was a celebration of British engineers and engineering, as it marked the high point of British industrial ascendancy. History of Engineering 33 Moral worth of a person is determined by its outcome Settlers in US were extremely utilitarian – dissenters from established churches. Saw knowledge as a commodity to satisfy human needs – a frontier spirit of inventiveness. American entrepreneurs designed industrial equipment that reduced their dependence on labor. American engineers took the lead in machine shop techniques to develop effective grinding & milling machines. American system of manufacture was characterized by highly standardized products of interchangeable parts. History of Engineering 34 The early American Republic leaders recognized the need to encourage domestic manufacture, especially basic military equipment. Expansion of American railroads opened up national markets for machine tools. Tensions arose between slave-owning South and the rapidly industrialized North led to the devastating American Civil War (1861-1865) – both sides fought with “modern” weapons. After the civil war, the railroads united the nations to move ahead with greater momentum – the 1st trans continental rail link saw trainloads of baffalo skins going east for manufacture into consumer products. History of Engineering 35 Robert Fulton (1765-1815) – best known for his pioneering work on steamboats. Robert Fulton Eli Whitney (1765-1825) – patented a simple cotton gin to separate fibre from seeds. Milling machine with automatic feed in 1820. History of Engineering 36 Britain’s loss of industrial leadership from 1850s onwards reflected complacency in society at large. The peaceful & protracted transfer of power from aristocracy to rising capitalist state fostered a selflimiting development in Britain. Industrialization in Britain was indigenous – more accommodated to existing social structure. Pressures to adopt values & interests of industrialization were resisted by the ruling elite – hence, Britain did not change radically & have barely done so even now. History of Engineering 37 Universities emphasized on pursuit of scientific knowledge for its own sake – neglected & undervalued commercial application. British preoccupation with individually fitted final product discouraged standardization – precipitated Britain’s relative decline. Dominance of the steam engine delayed other form of power development in Britain. History of Engineering 38 France & Germany developed the internal combustion machine w/o real competition. In the US, consumers were prepared to buy standard items, creating the opportunity for mass production. Technological convergence in the US whereby a range of key metal-working industries emerged with common technological needs. The same machine tools were used across a range of industries – over several decades within the same manufacturing enterprises, there was a progression of products from guns to machine tools, to sewing machines, bicycles, motorcycles, & finally to automobiles. History of Engineering 39 Innovative development of machine tools & their use to produce standardized interchangeable parts, paved the way for Henry Ford to use moving assemblyline techniques to produce automobiles. History of Engineering 40 From 1860 to 1900, manufacturing replaced agriculture as the leading source of economic growth in US. In the 2nd half of the 19th century, the manufacturing industry was itself transformed – manufacturers shifted to producing products for consumers to producers. Heavy industry – steel, iron, petroleum & machinery grew rapidly, boosted by a number of technical innovations. Price of raw materials fell – stimulated new demands & further technological changes. History of Engineering 41 Bismarck became Chancellor of Germany in 1871 and led a concerted drive towards industrialization. Created stateowned national railway to open up internal market. History of Engineering 42 Push to expand foreign trade in the export of industrial products. German government strongly promoted education relevant to industrialization. German manufacturers set up closely integrated industrial research laboratories. By 1900, Germany had surpassed Britain as an industrial power, especially in the field of university-level technical expertise. History of Engineering 43 Sir Henry Bessemer (1813 - 1898) Gustave Eiffel (1832 - 1923) Thomas Alva Edison (1847 - 1931) History of Engineering 44 During the Industrial Revolution, engineer training in Britain involved paying a substantial fee for a 5year pupilage in an engineer’s office. Britain did not establish engineering schools (@ London & Glasgow Universities) until 1840. Failure to recognized the need for systematic science-based education for technologists allowed other countries to overtake Britain. Formal & informal associations of practicing engineers, manufacturers, & scientists allowed exchange of ideas & experience in the general development of the engineering profession. UK History of Engineering 45 One early leader of the engineering profession was John Smeaton, the 1st Englishman to differentiate himself as a “Civil” engineer (rather than military). In 1771, Smeaton & some colleagues formed the Smeatonian society of Civil Engineers. The Institution of Civil Engineers (ICE) was formed in 1818 to distinguished itself from other societies. In 1920, Thomas Thelford, a leading engineer of that time, became the President of ICE. In 1928, he obtained the Royal Charter for ICE to give it the status as the leader of the profession. UK History of Engineering 46 Other major powers adopted a much more structured approach to training engineers. In 1676, France set up a specialized army Corps of Engineers. In 1747, France established the 1st engineering school, the Ecole Nationale des Ponts st Chaussees. In 1794, the Ecole Polytechnique was established. The engineering profession in France continues to enjoy high social status. France History of Engineering 47 US Military Academy at West Point, established in 1802, was the first American military engineering school. The first non military engineering school in America, the Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, was established in 1823 in New York. The success of Rensselaer in attracting students forced other established US universities to introduce technical courses. Germany established Berlin University in 1809 – prototype for the modern research university with academic rigor & laboratory experiments. Germany also established polytechnics – the 1st at Karlsruhe in 1825. US History of Engineering 48 In Japan, the Meiji Restoration of 1868 dismantled the Japanese feudal system. The Meiji government set up the physical & educational infrastructure for industrialization. The Imperial College of Engineering was established in Tokyo in 1873 – emphasized practical & academic skills. By the end of the Meiji era in 1912, there were 4 Imperial Universities, all with engineering facilities. Military training centers, such as the Japanese Naval Academy (1870), were also important for engineering education. Japan History of Engineering 49 The history of the engineering profession reflected the transformation wrought by technological changes. In the 17th & 18th century, civil engineering was increasingly differentiated from military engineering. Mechanical engineering came with the steam engine & railroads in the late 18th and early 19th century. As engineering practice developed, many specializations were added to these basic disciplines. Engineering specialization History of Engineering 50 The previous role of science had been to explain & systemize what the engineer had done. Technical innovations led to major advances in science. By mid 19th century, craft skills & technical knowhow required much closer interaction between science & engineering. By end 19th century, major new industries emerged based on science & systematic research. Individual inventors & engineers gave way to scientists & industrial researchers & in time to large scale R&D development departments associated with industrial enterprises. History of Engineering 51 1851 – Crystal Palace Exhibition 1869 – Union Pacific Railroad across US, Suez Canal opened 1876 – Invention of telephone, 1st internal combustion engine 1878 – Beginning of electric lighting 1900 – Invention of radio 1903 – Wilbur Wright’s propeller biplane flight 1913 – Ford moving assembly line 1914 – Panama Canal opened 1926 – Invention of TV History of Engineering 52 1930 1942 1947 1957 1958 1969 1977 1981 1982 1996 1997 – Invention of gas turbine – 1st electronic computer – Invention of transistor – Sputnik launched – 1st integrated circuit – 1st man on the moon – 1st personal computer – Microsoft MS-DOS computer operating system – Compact disc – “Dolly” the cloned sheep was born on 5 July onwards - … History of Engineering 53 History of ICE & IMech E: ◦ www.ice.org.uk Achievements in the 20th century by US Academy of Engineering: ◦ www.greatachievements.org UK engineers and inventions – timeline: ◦ www.engineering-timelines.com Inventors and inventions ◦ https://www.thoughtco.com/inventions-4133303 Legends of Silicon Valley ◦ www.thetech.org/revolutionaries And many other relevant websites History of Engineering 54
