CHAPTER 1: Psychological Testing and Assessment Testing and Assessment ➔ 20th Century in France - roots of contemporary psychological testing and assessment. ◆ 1905 - Alfred Binet's [and his colleague's] test led to the development of psychological testing and assessment, initially for school placement in Paris. Psychological Testing and Assessment Defined ➢ Psychological assessment involves gathering and integrating psychology-related data for evaluation using various tools like tests, interviews, case studies, behavioral observation, and specialized measurement procedures. ➢ Psychological testing refers to measuring psychology-related variables through devices or procedures aimed at obtaining a sample of behavior. More Distinction: Testing Assessment Objective Typically, to obtain some gauge, usually numerical in nature, with regard to an ability or attribute. (e.g., ranks, levels; categorical, nominal) Typically, to answer a referral question, solve a problem, or arrive at a decision through the use of evaluation tools. Process Individual or group in nature. After test administration, the tester usually just counts the right answers or specific responses, often overlooking how they were achieved. Individualized. In contrast to testing, assessment more typically focuses on how an individual processes rather than simply the results of that process. (inclusive?) Role of Evaluator The tester is not key to the process; practically speaking, one tester may be substituted for another tester without appreciably affecting the evaluation. The assessor is key to the process of selecting tests and/or other tools of evaluation as well as in concluding the entire evaluation. Skill of Evaluator Requires technician-like skills in terms of administering and scoring a test as well as in interpreting a test result. Requires an educated selection of tools of evaluation, skill in evaluation, and thoughtful organization and integration of data. Outcome Yields a test score or series of test Entails a logical problem-solving scores. approach that brings to bear many data sources designed to shed light on a referral question. Varieties of Assessment ➔ "Assessment" can be tweaked in various ways to describe different types of assessments. Sometimes, the added word gives a clear idea of what that assessment focuses on. A. Therapeutic Psychological Assessment: Evaluation that includes a therapeutic aspect in its process. ➔ encompasses various tests and methods used to understand emotions, behaviors, and mental health to support individuals in therapy and personal development. ➔ Referral being an appropriate intervention for specific cases ➔ Important to know the ROOT CAUSE of the disorder as there are different factors to consider before having to diagnose a disorder for them to make a good prognosis. B. Educational Assessment: Focused on using tests and tools to evaluate skills relevant to success or failure in an educational (pre-school) context. a. Intelligence tests b. Achievement tests c. Reading comprehension tests C. Retrospective Assessment: Use of evaluative tools to conclude psychological aspects of a person as they existed at some point in the past. ➔ Assessing through the past of someone who died. (psychological autopsy of Jose Rizal, or other people) D. Remote Assessment: Utilizing psychological evaluation tools to gather data and draw conclusions about a subject who is not physically present or people conducting the evaluation. ➔ A lot more challenging as there are many limitations such as internet connection and not being able to have physical contact with the one's client. E. Ecological Momentary Assessment (EMA): "In the moment" evaluation of specific problems and related cognitive and behavioral variables as they occur in the environment. ➔ Attending to the needs of a person at the very moment. Moments like natural disasters, catastrophes, and such. The Process of Assessment ❖ Referral: The process begins with a referral from a teacher, psychologist, counselor, legal professional, clinician, or HR specialist. They present specific questions or concerns about the individual to be assessed. ❖ Initial Contact: The assessor may meet with the assessee or others before the formal assessment to clarify aspects of the reason for referral. ❖ Selection of Tools: Depending on the nature of the assessment and the individual's needs, appropriate assessment tools are chosen. These could range from cognitive tests, behavioral assessments, personality inventories, or specialized evaluations tailored to the context of the assessment. ❖ Formal Assessment begins. ❖ Report Writing: A comprehensive report is generated summarizing the assessment findings. This report includes observations, test scores, interpretations, and recommendations, aiming to provide a clear understanding of the individual's strengths, weaknesses, and areas for improvement. (designed to answer the referral question) ❖ Feedback Sessions: The assessor communicates the assessment results to the relevant stakeholders, such as parents, teachers, legal authorities, or employers. Recommendations for support, intervention, or further actions are provided based on the assessment outcomes. Assessment Approaches 01. Collaborative Psychological Assessment: An approach where the assessor and assessee work together as partners throughout the assessment process, fostering collaboration from initial contact to final feedback. 02. Therapeutic Psychological Assessment: A collaborative assessment approach that integrates elements of therapy within the assessment process. It encourages self-discovery and the development of new understandings during assessment. 03. Dynamic Assessment: An interactive approach to psychological assessment characterized by its changing or varying nature. It typically involves an evaluation-intervention-evaluation model and focuses on assessing how the individual responds to interventions, feedback, or instructions during assessment tasks. Tools of Psychological Assessment: TESTS: A measuring device or procedure used to assess a specific variable or trait. Differences Between Tests: 01. Content: Varies based on the focus of the test; even tests measuring the same trait may differ in item content due to different developer perspectives. 02. Format: Refers to the form, plan, structure, arrangement, layout of test items, and administration style (e.g., computerized, pencil-and-paper). 03. Administration Procedures: This varies from one-to-one interaction to independent completion by test-takers and may require an active and knowledgeable test administrator. 04. Scoring and Interpretation Procedures: Involves assigning evaluative codes or statements to performance; different types of scores exist (e.g., cut scores) used for classifications and decisions. Key Terms: a. Score: a code or summary statement, usually but not necessarily numerical in nature, that reflects an evaluation of performance on attest, task, interview, or some other sample of behavior. b. Scoring: Process of assigning evaluative codes or statements to performance. c. Cut Score (cutoff score): A reference point, usually numerical, derived by judgment, used to divide data into classifications for decision-making. 05. Psychometric Soundness: Consistency and accuracy of a psychological test in measuring the intended trait. ➔ Psychometrics: The science of psychological measurement, assessing a test's consistency and accuracy. ◆ Psychometric - measurement that is psychological in nature. ➔ Psychometrist/ Psychometrician: a professional who uses, analyzes, and interprets psychological test data. ➔ Psychometric Utility: The usefulness of a test or assessment method for a particular purpose. INTERVIEW: A method of gathering information through direct communication involving reciprocal exchange. ➔ Goes beyond conversation. In face-to-face interviews, both verbal and nonverbal behavior are observed. ➔ It can occur in various formats, including phone, sign language, or electronically. They serve diverse purposes across psychology, aiding in diagnostics, treatment, selection, or decision-making. ★ Nonverbal (behavior) cues like body language, eye contact, and attire provide additional insights. Variability in Interviews ❖ Differ in purpose, length, and nature. ❖ Used in various specialty areas by psychologists for decision-making. KEY TERMS: Panel Interviews (board interview) ➢ Involves multiple interviewers. ➢ Aim to minimize individual biases but it can be costly. Therapeutic Interviews ➢ In clinical settings, interviews aim for targeted changes in thinking and behavior. ● Motivational Interviewing ○ Defined as a therapeutic dialogue focusing that combines person-centered listening skills such as openness and empathy, with the use of cognition-altering techniques designed to positively affect motivation and effect therapeutic change. ○ Utilized across various problems and successfully applied through different mediums like telephone, Internet chat, and text messaging. PORTFOLIO: comprehensive collections of work samples that individuals compile to showcase their skills, accomplishments, and abilities. They're prevalent across various fields and serve as evaluation tools for assessing someone's capabilities. ➔ A curated collection of work samples, which can include a range of materials such as documents, artworks, designs, audio recordings, videos, etc., used to demonstrate skills and achievements. CASE HISTORY DATA: refers to records, transcripts, and other accounts in written, pictorial, or other form that preserve archival information, official and informal accounts, and other data and items relevant to an assessee. ➔ May include files or excerpts from files maintained at institutions and agencies such as schools, hospitals, employers, religious institutions, and criminal justice agencies. ➔ includes written, pictorial, or other recorded accounts that document relevant information about an individual. This can range from official records to informal accounts that offer insights into the person's life, experiences, and activities. ★ The assembly of case history data, as well as related data, into an illustrative account is referred to by terms such as case study or case history. We may formally define a case study (case history) as a report or illustrative account concerning a person or an event that was compiled on the basis of case history data. ★ Groupthink: work on social psychological phenomenon containing rich case history material on collective decision-making that did not always result in the best decisions. The result of the varied forces that drive decision-makers to reach a consensus. BEHAVIORAL OBSERVATION: monitoring the actions of others or oneself by visual or electronic means while recording quantitative and/or qualitative information regarding those actions. ➔ Naturalistic observation is a research method where researchers observe and record behavior in its natural setting without any manipulation or intervention rather than in a controlled, laboratory environment. ROLE-PLAY TESTS: a tool of assessment wherein assessees are directed to act as if they were in a particular situation. Assesses may then be evaluated with regard to their expressed thoughts, behaviors, abilities, and other variables. ★ Role play may be defined as acting an improvised or partially improvised part in a simulated situation useful in evaluating various skills. ★ May be used in various clinical contexts. COMPUTER AS TOOLS: can serve as test administrators (online or off) and as highly efficient test scores. Within seconds they can derive not only test scores but patterns of test scores. Who are the Parties? Parties in the assessment enterprise include developers and publishers of tests, users of tests, and people who are evaluated by means of tests. A. Test Developer/ publishers: create tests or other methods of assessment. B. Test User: refers to an individual or group of individuals who are employed or selected to participate in testing, evaluating, or providing feedback. C. Test taker: anyone who is the subject of an assessment or an evaluation. Psychological Autopsy: reconstruction of a deceased individual’s psychological profile based on archival records, artifacts, and interviews previously conducted with the deceased assessee or people who knew them. LEVEL A No Specific Qualifications LEVEL S Degree in the Healthcare Professionals Training in the Use of Tests LEVEL B (Bachelor’s Degree) Psychometrician 4-year degree in Counseling and Psychology Completion of Coursework in Psychological Testing License/ Certification on Use of Tests LEVEL C Masters, PHDs Level B Qualifications Advanced Professional Degree What Types of Settings: a. Educational Settings - school ability tests, achievement test (evaluates accomplishment or the degree of learning that has taken place), [diagnosis: a description or conclusion reached based on evidence and opinion] diagnostic tests (used to help narrow down and identify areas of deficit to be targeted for intervention). Informal Evaluation: typically nonsystematic assessment that leads to the formation of an opinion or attitude. b. Clinical Settings: intelligence tests, personality tests, neuropsychological tests, psychotherapy, research, court-related, prisoner’s rehabilitation. c. Counseling Settings: adjustment and productivity d. Geriatric Settings: quality of life evaluations related to perceived stress, loneliness, sources of satisfaction, personal values, quality of living conditions, etc. (for elders) e. Business and military settings f. Government and Organizations Credentialing: avoiding malpractice g. Academic Research Settings How Are Assessments Conducted? ➔ Protocols - form or sheet or booklet on which a test taker’s responses are entered; a description of a set of test- or assessment-related procedures, ➔ Rapport - a working relationship between the examiner and the examinee. Assessment of people with disabilities ❖ People with disabilities are assessed for the same reasons people with no disabilities are assessed: to obtain employment, to earn a professional credential, to be screened for psychopathology, and so forth. ❖ Alternate assessment - evaluative or diagnostic procedure or process that varies from the usual, customary, or standardized way a measurement is derived, either by virtue of some special accommodation made to the assessee or by means of alternative methods designed to measure the same variable(s). ❖ Accommodation: adaptation of a test, procedure, or situation, or the substitution of one test for another, to make it more suitable for an assessee with exceptional needs. CHAPTER 2: Historical, Cultural, and Legal/ Ethical Considerations. ★ It is believed that tests and testing programs first came into being in China in 2200 B.C.E ★ Testing was instituted as a means of selecting who of many applicants would obtain government jobs ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ Chinese Imperial Examinations ➢ Music ➢ Archery ➢ Horsemanship ➢ Writing and Arithmetic Agriculture Geography Civil law Military Strategy During Song Dynasty (960 - 1279 C.E.) tests emphasized knowledge of classical literature. ➔ Testtakers who demonstrated their command of the classics were perceived as having acquired the wisdom of the past and were therefore entitled to a government position. ➔ Those who passed were entitled not only to a government job but also: ◆ Wearing special garb (accorded special courtesies by anyone they happened to meet.) ◆ Exemption from taxes ◆ Exemption from government-sponsored interrogation by torture (if the individual was suspected of committing a crime) MIDDLE AGES ❖ “Who is in league with the Devil?” Humour Temperament Elements Qualities Characteristics Blood Sanguine Air Hot, Moist Courageous, Hopeful, Amorous Yellow Bile Choleric Fire Hot, Dry Short-tempered, Ambitious Black Bile Melancholic Earth Cold, Dry Introspective, Sentimental Phlegm Phlegmatic Water Cold, Moist Calm, Unemotional On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection by Charles Darwin -1859 ❖ He argued, the chance variation in species would be selected or rejected by nature according to adaptivity and survival value. ❖ History records that it was Darwin who spurred scientific interest in individual differences. Francis Galton: half-cousin of Darwin who kindled interest in research on heredity. ➔ Became an extremely influential contributor to the field of measurement. ➔ He aspired to classify people “according to their natural gifts” and to ascertain their “deviation from an average”. ➔ Credited with devising or contributing to the development of many contemporary tools of psychological assessment, including questionnaires, rating scales, and self-report inventories. ➔ His initial work on hereditary was done with sweet PEAS, in part as there tended to be fewer variations among the peas in a single pod. ➔ This work pioneered the use of a statistical concept central to psychological experimentation and testing: the coefficient of correlation. ● Although Karl Pearson developed the product-moment correlation technique, its roots can be traced directly to the work of Galton. ➔ From heredity in peas, Galton’s interest turned to heredity in humans and various ways of measuring aspects of people and their abilities. Assessment was also an important activity at the first experimental psychology laboratory founded at the University of Leipzig in Germany by Wilhelm Max Wundt, Father of Psychology, a medical doctor whose title at the university was professor of philosophy. ➢ Wundt and his students tried to formulate a general description of human abilities with respect to variables such as reaction time, perception, and attention span. ➢ In contrast to Galton, Wundt focused on how people were similar, not different. ➢ Wundt viewed individual differences as a frustrating source of error in experimentation, and he attempted to control all extraneous variables in an effort to reduce error to a minimum. James McKeen Cattell - one of Wundt’s students, completed a doctoral dissertation that dealt with individual differences—specifically, individual differences in reaction time. ➔ Credited with the coining of “mental test” -1890 (founding member of APA: 4TH PRES.) ➔ Founded the Psychological Corporation, which named 20 of the country’s leading psychologists as its directors. The goal of the corporation was the “advancement of psychology and the promotion of the useful applications of psychology. Charles Spearman - is credited with originating the concept of test reliability as well as building the mathematical framework for the statistical technique of factor analysis. Victor Henri - Frenchman who would collaborate with Alfred Binet on papers suggesting how mental tests could be used to measure higher mental processes. Emil Kraepelin - an early experimenter with the word association technique as a formal test. Edward B. Titchener - established the psychology school of thought known as Structuralism. He coined the word “empathy” in German, Einfühlung. G. Stanley Hall - first president of APA in 1892. Lightner Witmer - received his Ph.D. from Leipzig and went on to succeed Cattell as director of the psychology laboratory at the University of Pennsylvania. 20TH CENTURY The measurement of Intelligence. ➔ 1895 — Alfred Binet and his colleague Victor Henri published several articles in which they argued for the measurement of abilities such as memory and social comprehension. ➔ 1905 — Binet and Theodore Simon published a 30-item “measuring scale of intelligence” designed to help identify Paris schoolchildren with intellectual disability. ➔ 1939 — David Wechsler, introduced a test designed to measure adult intelligence. ◆ For Wechsler, intelligence was “the aggregate or global capacity of the individual to act purposefully, to think rationally, and to deal effectively with his environment” ◆ Wechsler-Bellevue Intelligence Scale/ Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS). The measurement of Personality ➔ 1914 — Robert S. Woodworth developed a measure of adjustment and emotional stability that could be administered quickly and efficiently to groups of recruits ◆ Disguise the true purpose of one such test, the questionnaire was labeled as a “Personal Data Sheet.” ◆ After the war, Woodworth developed a personality test for civilian use that was based on the Personal Data Sheet—Woodworth Psychoneurotic Inventory. ○ First widely used self-report measure of personality. ○ Generally, self-report refers to a process whereby assessees themselves supply assessment-related information by responding to questions. ❖ Various methods were developed to provide a measure of personality that did not rely on self-report which is projective in nature. ➢ Projective Test - one in which an individual is assumed to “project” onto some ambiguous stimulus his/her own unique needs, fears, hopes, and motivation. ■ The ambiguous stimulus might be an inkblot, a drawing, a photograph, or something else. ■ Rorschach, best known of all projective tests is a series of inkblots developed by Hermann Rorschach. Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) is a way to understand what people think and feel by looking at the stories they make up about pictures. It helps psychologists learn about someone's thoughts, emotions, and personality by asking them to create stories based on different images. - Henry Murray and Christiana D. Morgan Children's Apperception Test (CAT) is similar to the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) but designed specifically for kids. It uses pictures to help children express their thoughts and feelings, allowing psychologists to understand their emotions, concerns, and how they see the world. It's a way for children to share their thoughts by making up stories about the pictures they see. Culture and Assessment ● Culture: “the socially transmitted behavior patterns, beliefs, and products of work of a particular population, community, or group of people”. Evolving Interest in Culture-Related Issues ➢ Henry H. Goddard - chief researcher assigned to the project of Binet’s. He later raised questions about how meaningful such tests are when used with people from various cultural and language backgrounds. ○ Goddard’s research, although leaving much to be desired methodologically, fueled the fires of an ongoing nature–nurture debate about what intelligence tests measure. This has led test developers to establish: A. Culture-specific tests - tests designed for use with people from one culture but not from another. B. Culture-fair tests - tests designed to be free of cultural bias, no culture has an advantage over another. Some Issues Regarding Culture and Assessment Legal and Ethical Considerations ❖ Laws - the body of rules thought to be for the good of society as a whole. ❖ Ethics - the body of principles of right, proper, or good conduct. ❖ Code of Professional Ethics - recognized and accepted by members of a profession, it defines the standard of care expected of members of that profession. ❖ Standard of Care - level at which the average, reasonable, and prudent professional would provide diagnostic or therapeutic services under the same or similar conditions. The Concerns of the Profession ● Test-user qualifications ● Testing people with disabilities ○ Transforming the test into a form that can be taken by the test taker ○ Transforming the responses of the test taker so that they are scorable ○ Meaningfully interpreting the test data. ● Computerized test administration, scoring, and interpretation ● Guidelines with respect to certain populations The Rights of Test Taker A. The right of informed consent - having the right to know why they are being evaluated, how the test data will be used, and what information will be released to whom. ➔ The disclosure of information needed for consent must be in a language the test taker can understand. ➔ Competencies: a. Being able to evidence a choice as to whether one wants to participate b. Demonstrating a factual understanding of the issues c. Being able to reason about the facts of a study, treatment, or whatever it is to which consent is sought, and d. Appreciating the nature of the situation B. The right to be informed of test findings - having the right to be informed, in language they can understand, of the nature of the findings with respect to a test they have taken. ➔ Also, an entitlement to know the recommendations are made as a consequence of the test data. C. The right to privacy and confidentiality - recognizing the freedom of the individual to pick and choose for himself the time, circumstances, and particularly the extent to which he wishes to share or withhold from others his attitudes, beliefs, behavior, and opinions. ➔ “Take the Fifth” (amendment of the constitution) - refuse to answer a question put to them on the grounds that the answer might be self-incriminating. ➔ Confidentiality concerns matters of communication outside the courtroom, privilege protects clients from disclosure in judicial proceedings. ➔ Privilege in the psychologist–client relationship belongs to the client, not the psychologist. D. The right to the least stigmatizing label - The Standards advise that the least stigmatizing labels should always be assigned when reporting test results. ➔ rooted in the principles of fairness, dignity, and respect for individuals, especially those who may be subject to labels or classifications in various contexts, such as healthcare, education, or social services. ➔ emphasizes the importance of using language and diagnostic terms that minimize negative stereotypes and promote understanding. ➔ It recognizes that the labels assigned to individuals can influence public perception, self-esteem, and access to opportunities. Chapter 3: Statistics Refresher STATISTICS ➔ range of techniques and procedures for analyzing, interpreting, displaying, and making decisions based on data. Psychological Statistics ❖ Based on Psychological Data; Psychological constructs or variables. ❖ Application of statistical methods and techniques to analyze and interpret data through statistical tools to summarize, analyze, and draw conclusions from data collected in psychological research. Types of Data a. Data – set of qualitative and quantitative values, made up of variables. b. Variable – can be measured, different values between individuals or in the same individual at different time points. Types of Variables ➔ Independent Variable – can control, not affected by the state of any other variable in the experiment, may have different levels. ➔ Dependent Variable – can be measured. ➔ Qualitative Variable – qualities, do not imply numerical ordering. ➔ Quantitative Variable – measured in terms of numbers. Level or Scales of Measurement ❖ Measurement: the act of assigning numbers or symbols to characteristics of things according to rules (guidelines for representing the magnitude of the object being measured). ❖ Scale: a set of numbers or symbols whose properties model the empirical properties of the objects to which the numbers are assigned. ➢ Discrete Variable – possible scores are discrete points on the scale; typically countable and often represent whole numbers. ■ E.g., cars, books, people. ➢ Continuous Variable – possible scores are continuous and is theoretically possible to divide any of the values of the scale. (can take on an infinite number of values within a specified range and not limited to whole numbers) ■ E.g., height, weight, temperature, distance, time. ❖ Error: the collective influence of all of the factors on a test score or measurement beyond those specifically measured by the test or measurement. A. Nominal: simplest form of measurement. ➔ Involve classification or categorization based on one or more distinguishing characteristics with no inherent order or ranking. (e.g., eye color, marital status) B. Ordinal: permit classification ➔ Rank ordering and have no absolute zero point (the value of zero does not indicate the complete absence or lack of the attribute being measured) ➔ Each category represents a distinct level or position in a hierarchy. (e.g., education, customer satisfaction, ratings) C. Interval: degree of difference between observations, equal distances. ➔ The data have meaningful intervals between values, and the scale has a clear, consistent unit of measurement. ➔ Not only provide an order to the data but also have uniform intervals between the values. (eg., Celsius/Fahrenheit, IQ scores, Likert scale) D. Ratio: fixed intervals between scores, has TRUE ZERO POINT (represents the complete absence of the measured attribute) ➔ ordered categories, uniform intervals, and a meaningful zero point but also allows for meaningful ratios between different values. (e.g., height measured in cm/inches, weight measured in kg and pounds, income, age in years, income) Types of Statistical Analyses ● Descriptive Statistics: summarizing, graphing, and describing quantitative information. ● Inferential Statistics: drawing of conclusions and generalizations, testing hypotheses, and deriving estimates. Describing Data ❖ Distribution: a set of test scores arrayed for recording or study. ❖ Raw Score: a simple tally, the number of items responded to correctly on an achievement test. ❖ Frequency Distribution: (simple “”) All scores are listed alongside the number of times each score occurred. Might be in a tabular or graphic form. ➢ Graph: a diagram or chart composed of lines, points, bars, or other symbols that describe and illustrate data. ■ Histograms: a graph with vertical lines drawn at the true limits of each test score, forming a series of contiguous rectangles. ■ Bar Graph: Numbers indicative of frequency also appear on the Y-axis, and reference to some categorization appears on the X-axis. ■ Frequency Polygon: expressed by a continuous line connecting the points where test scores or class intervals meet frequencies. Shape of Distribution: A. Symmetrical Distribution: a distribution where the left and right sides are mirror images of each other. (proportioned = balanced) a. Normal (bell-shaped) curve/ Normal Distribution ➔ Gaussian distribution; specific type of symmetrical distribution with the additional properties of having a bell-shaped curve and being fully defined by its mean and standard deviation. B. Asymmetrical Distribution/ Skewed Distribution: data is not evenly distributed around the mean ➔ The tail on one side is longer or heavier than the tail on the other side. ➔ Have positive and negative. a. Positively-skewed Distribution: the right (or positive) tail is longer or fatter than the left (or negative) tail. (The test was too difficult) b. Negatively skewed Distribution: the left (or negative) tail is longer or fatter than the right (or positive) tail. (The test was too easy) Skewness: the nature and extent to which symmetry is absent; it is an indication of how the measurements in a distribution are distributed. Kurtosis: refer to the steepness of a distribution in its center; degree of flatness/peakness of a distribution. ★ Assessing kurtosis in conjunction with other measures such as skewness, mean, and standard deviation helps provide a more comprehensive understanding of the underlying data distribution Types of Kurtosis: (1) Platykurtic: relatively flat (2) Leptokurtic: relatively peaked (3) Mesokurtic: somewhere in the middle Measures of Central Tendency: a statistic that indicates the average or midmost score between the extreme scores in a distribution. a. Mean (Arithmetic Mean): represents the average value of a set of numbers. b. Median: midpoint in a distribution. 1. Order the Data 2. Identify the Middle Value: If the dataset has an odd number of values, the median is the middle value. If the dataset has an even number of values, add the two midpoints and divide it by 2. c. Mode: represents the most frequently occurring value in a dataset. ➢ Only measure that can be used with either qualitative or quantitative. Measures of Variability: statistics that describe the amount of variability in a distribution. ❖ Variability: an indication of how scores are scattered or dispersed or “spread out” in a distribution ❖ Range: it is equal to the difference between the highest and the lowest scores. = outliers ➢ Interquartile Range: A distribution of test scores can be divided into four parts such that 25% of the test scores occur in each quarter. ■ a measure of variability equal to the difference between 𝑄3 and 𝑄1 —semi-interquartile range, equal to interquartile range divided by 2. ★ Standard Deviation: a measure of variability equal to the square root of the average squared deviations about the mean; it is equal to the square root of the variance. ★ Variance: equal to the arithmetic mean of the squares of the differences between the scores in a distribution and their mean. Population Variance δ 2 Sample 𝑠 2 SD δ 𝑠 Mean µ χ Normal Curve: a bell-shaped, smooth, defined curve that is highest at its center. ❖ Standard Normal Distribution: ➢ Main proponent: CARL FRIEDRICH GAUSS ➢ Properties: ■ Symmetrical around the mean. ■ Mean, Median, and Mode are equal to central tendency ■ Area under the normal curve is 1.0/100% ■ Denser in the center, less dense in the tail ■ Defined by 2 parameters: mean, standard deviation ■ 68% of the area is within 1 SD above and below the mean. ■ Approximately 95% of the area is within 2 standard deviations. ❖ It has two tails. The Area Under the Normal Curve ➔ ◆ ➔ Mean SD Z scores 0 1 T scores 50 10 A scores 500 100 IQ scores 100 15 ★ Divided into areas defined in units of standard deviation. Standard Scores: a raw score that has been converted from one scale to another scale, where the latter scale has some arbitrarily set mean and standard deviation. ➔ a way of expressing individual scores in terms of their relationship to the mean and standard deviation of a distribution. ➔ Raw scores may be converted to standard scores because standard scores are more easily interpretable than raw scores. With a standard score, the position of a test taker’s performance relative to other test takers is readily apparent.When it is converted from raw scores, it may involve either linear or nonlinear transformations ◆ Linear transformation: is one that retains a direct numerical relationship to the original raw score. ◆ Nonlinear transformation: it may be required when the data under consideration are not normally distributed yet comparisons with normal distributions need to be made. Z-scores: results from the conversion of a raw score into a number indicating how many standard deviation units the raw score is below or above the means of the distribution. ➔ Raw score -minus- mean, divided by the standard deviation. ➔ The signs can be positive which is above the mean and negative as below the mean. T-scores: (E.L. Thorndike) ➔ a scale with a mean set at 50 and a standard deviation set at 10. ➔ fifty plus or minus ten scale ➔ scale that ranges from 5 standard deviations below the mean to 5 standard deviations above the mean. Other Standard Scores: Stanine: a term that was a contraction of the words standard and nine. Correlation and Inference ➔ Correlation: an expression of the degree and direction of correspondence between two things; a statistical technique used to measure and describe the relationship between two variables. ❖ Coefficient of correlation: a number that provides us with an index of the strength of the relationship between two things. ❖ Positive correlation: two variables simultaneously increase/simultaneously decrease. ❖ Negative correlation: one variable increases while the other variable decreases. ❖ No correlation: If a correlation is zero, no relationship exists between the two variables. The Pearson r: can be the statistical tool of choice when the relationship between the variables is linear and when the two variables being correlated are continuous Spearman Rho: a statistical measure that assesses the strength and direction of the monotonic relationship between two variables. Chapter 4: Of Tests and Testing Assumptions about Psychological Testing and Assessment Assumption 01: Psychological Traits and States Exist ➔ Trait: distinguishable, relatively enduring way in which one individual varies from another. ➔ States: distinguish one person from another but are relatively less enduring. ➔ Construct: informed, a scientific concept developed to describe or explain behavior. ➔ Overt behavior (an observable action or the product of an observable action. Assumption 02: Psychological Traits and States can be quantified and measured ❖ Once it’s acknowledged it does exist, specific traits and states to be measured and quantified need to be carefully defined. ❖ A test developer considers the types of item content that would provide insight. ❖ Device-appropriate ways to score the test and interpret the results. ➢ Cumulative scoring Assumption 03: Test-related behavior Predicts Non-Test-Related Behavior ❖ In some tests, like personality assessments, the actual tasks you do, such as filling in grids or pressing keys, aren't important in themselves. Instead, those tasks are used to gather information about other aspects of your behavior. ➔ Postdict: aids in the understanding of behavior that has already taken place in the past. (opposite of predict) Assumption 04: Tests and Other Measurement Techniques Have Strengths and Weaknesses ❖ Competent test users understand and appreciate the limitations of the test they use as well as how those limitations might be compensated for by data from other sources emphasized repeatedly in the codes of ethics of the association of assessment professionals. Assumption 05: Various Sources of Error Are Part of the Assessment Process ➔ Error: In the context of assessment, it doesn't necessarily mean a mistake, oversight, or something that goes against expectations. Instead, it can refer to any kind of deviation or inaccuracy in the assessment process. ◆ A variable that affects the accuracy or precision of the assessment, regardless of whether it was intentional or unintentional. ◆ Error variance - the component of a test score attributable to sources other than the trait or ability measured. (e.g., assessors, influence of environment) ◆ It is a component of the measurement process. ➔ Classical Test Theory (CTT—True Score Theory): each test-taker has a true score on a test that would be obtained but for the action of measurement error. Assumption 06: Testing and Assessment can be conducted in a Fair and Unbiased Manner ❖ Today, test publishers aim to create fair instruments following guidelines in the test manual. Despite professionals' best efforts, fairness issues can still come up. One reason is when a test is used with people who have different backgrounds and experiences than those the test was originally designed for. ❖ It is important to keep in mind that tests are tools. And just like other, more familiar tools, they can be used properly or improperly. Assumption 07: Testing and Assessment Benefit Society ❖ In a world without tests, there could be deception, nepotism, chaos, discrimination, and cluelessness. WHAT’S A “GOOD TEST”? ➔ Reliability: consistency of the measuring tool; yields the same numerical measurement every time it measures the same thing under the same conditions. ● Necessary but not sufficient. ➔ Validity: measure what it purports to measure ➔ Other considerations: easy to administer, score, interpret, useful and adequate norms for comparison. NORMS: A behavior that is usual, average, normal, standard, expected, or typical. ➔ Norm-referenced testing and assessment - evaluating an individual test taker's score and comparing it to the scores of a group of test-takers. ◆ In a psychometric context, it is the test performance data of a particular group of test takers that are designed for use as a reference when evaluating or interpreting test scores. ● Normative sample: a group of people whose performance on a particular test is analyzed for reference in evaluating the performance of individual test takers. ● Norming: the process of deriving norms; may be modified to describe a particular type of norm derivation. ○ Race norming - controversial practice of norming based on race or ethnic background. ● User norms/ Program norms: consists of descriptive statistics based on a group of test-takers in a given period rather than norms obtained by formal sampling methods” SAMPLING TO DEVELOP NORMS ➔ Test Standardization/ Standardization: the process of administering a test to a representative sample of test-takers to establish norms. ➔ Sampling: the process of selecting the portion of the universe deemed to be representative of the whole population. ◆ Sample - a portion of the universe of people deemed to be representative of the whole population. PROBABILITY SAMPLING: a method of sampling in which every member of the population has a known and non-zero chance of being selected for the sample. a. Simple Random Sampling: Each member of the population has an equal chance of being selected for the sample. ● e.g., Using a random number generator to select names from a list. b. Stratified Random Sampling: The population is divided into subgroups (strata), and individuals are randomly sampled from each stratum. ● e.g., Dividing a population of students into different grade levels and then randomly selecting students from each grade. c. Systematic Sampling: Selecting every kth member from a list after selecting a random starting point. ● e.g., Choosing every 5th person from a list after selecting a random starting point. d. Cluster Sampling: The population is divided into clusters, and entire clusters are randomly selected. Then, individuals within the selected clusters are sampled. ● e.g., Selecting several schools randomly and then surveying all students within those selected schools. e. Multistage Sampling: Combining two or more sampling methods in sequence. It involves multiple stages of sampling. ● e.g., Randomly selecting cities, then neighborhoods within those cities, and finally households within those neighborhoods. NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING: a method of sampling where not every member of the population has a known chance of being included in the sample. a. Convenience Sampling: Individuals who are most readily available or easily accessible are included in the sample. ● Example: Surveying people in a shopping mall or on the street. b. Purposive Sampling: The researcher intentionally selects individuals based on specific characteristics or criteria that are relevant to the study. ● Example: Selecting participants who have a particular skill or experience relevant to the research question. c. Snowball Sampling: Existing participants recruit new participants. It is often used when the population is difficult to identify or access directly. ● Example: Asking individuals who meet specific criteria to refer others who also meet the criteria. d. Quota Sampling: The researcher identifies and selects individuals based on specific characteristics to ensure that the final sample has a similar proportion of these characteristics as the population. ● Example: Ensuring that a survey includes a certain percentage of participants from different age groups or income brackets. Types of Norms: a. Percentile Norms: the raw data from a test’s standardization sample converted to percentile form. ○ Percentile - an expression of the percentage of people whose score on a test or measure falls below a particular raw score. ○ Percentage correct - the distribution of raw scores—more specifically, to the number of items that were answered correctly multiplied by 100 and divided by the total number of items. b. Age Norms - (age-equivalent scores) indicate the average performance of different samples of test-takers who were of various ages at the time the test was administered. c. Grade Norms - designed to indicate the average test performance of test-takers in a given school grade; developed by administering the test to representative samples of children over a range of consecutive grade levels. d. National Norms - derived from a normative sample that was nationally representative of the population at the time the norming study was conducted. e. National Anchor Norms f. Subgroup Norms - a normative sample that is segmented by any of the criteria initially used in selecting subjects for the sample. g. Local Norms - typically developed by test users; it provide normative information with respect to the local population’s performance on some tests. Fixed reference group scoring system: type of said in providing a context for interpretation; the distribution of scores obtained on the test from one group of test takers used as the basis for the calculation of test scores for future administrations of the test. ➔ Criterion-referenced testing and assessment: another way to drive meaning from a test score is to evaluate it based on whether or not some criterion has been met. ◆ A method of evaluation and a way of deriving meaning from test scores by evaluating an individual’s score with reference to a set standard. ◆ Criterion - standard on which a judgment or decision may be based.
