See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/353792422
Developments and Scope of Space Food
Article in Current Nutrition & Food Science · August 2021
DOI: 10.2174/1573401317666210809113956
CITATIONS
READS
3
2,807
10 authors, including:
Bhavika Dhingra
Mamta Hansda
Banaras Hindu University
Banaras Hindu University
1 PUBLICATION 3 CITATIONS
1 PUBLICATION 3 CITATIONS
SEE PROFILE
SEE PROFILE
Veena Paul
Rubeka Idrishi
Karunya University
Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati
36 PUBLICATIONS 183 CITATIONS
20 PUBLICATIONS 41 CITATIONS
SEE PROFILE
All content following this page was uploaded by Rubeka Idrishi on 22 November 2022.
The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.
SEE PROFILE
Send Orders for Reprints to reprints@benthamscience.net
248
Current Nutrition & Food Science, 2022, 18, 248-258
MINI-REVIEW ARTICLE
Developments and Scope of Space Food
Yashmita Grover1, Jagriti Bhasin2, Bhavika Dhingra2, Sonali Nandi3, Mamta Hansda2,
Ruchi Sharma4, Veena Paul2, Rubeka Idrishi5, Abhishek Dutt Tripathi2 and Aparna Agarwal1,*
1
Department of Food Technology, Lady Irwin College, University of Delhi, New Delhi, India; 2Department of Dairy
Science and Food Technology, Institute of Agricultural Sciences, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, India;
3
Department of Biotechnology, D.Y. Patil Deemed to be University, Mumbai, India; 4Centre for Rural Development and
Technology, Indian Institute of Technology, New Delhi - 110016, India; 5Centre for Rural Technology, Indian Institute
of Technology, Guwahati, India
ARTICLE HISTORY
Received: January 30, 2020
Revised: May 18, 2021
Accepted: June 10, 2021
DOI:
10.2174/1573401317666210809113956
ut
er h
so or
na Pr
l U oo
se fs
O
nl
y”
Abstract: Humans have conducted numerous space missions in past decades and its success depends upon many factors, including astronaut health as the major factor. Health and nutrition are
two vital components of life derived from food which helps in keeping one’s body alive, nourished
as well as energetic, including the astronauts during their long-duration manned missions. With the
advancement in research and technology, it became possible to include a wide variety of dishes in
the space menu, with most of them being similar to those eaten on the earth. This review highlights
the evolution of space food starting from mission Mercury to the current International Space Station. Furthermore, it also enlightens and focuses on types of space food, its packaging considerations, and vitamin A-rich energy balls as potential space food. Many deleterious effects of outer
space explorations have been observed on the human body, such as loss of body mass, visionrelated changes, loss in bone density, and even anemia. To overcome these issues, various considerations must be followed while designing space food. The nutritional requirement plays an important
role in a space mission. Various foods have the potential to overcome the limitations caused by a
space mission. Thus, while developing space food, various parameters should be taken into consideration, such as deficiencies and illness. The food should be compact, bite-sized, easily digestible,
and shelf-stable. Further research is required to better gain insight into the technological advancements while considering the nutritional status and requirements of astronauts in a space mission.
1. INTRODUCTION
P
A
Keywords: Astronauts, microgravity, missions, nutrition, packaging, space food.
“F
or
Every cell in the human body is dependent on food for its
continuous supply of nutrients, which are essential for maintaining and sustaining life on earth as well as in space. It is
an eminent fact that nutrition has played a significant role in
all human explorations, with space exploration being no exception [1]. Humans have been engrossed with outer space
for decades and have completed several human spaceflight
missions with remarkable achievements. Many other missions are yet to be completed in the future; however, various
factors have to be considered for the achievement of these
missions, such as the nutrition of the astronauts in space [2].
Nutrition is the process of consuming and utilizing food essential for growth and development. Therefore, space nutrition is the process of obtaining food in outer space that is
crucial for the growth and development of the human body
[3].
Dietary nutrition is of utmost importance for the astronauts, not only because proper health can be maintained
through the consumption of essential nutrients but also due to
the fact that the food they consume affects their social psychology during the flight [4]. Nutrition also plays a crucial role in
counteracting the detrimental consequences of space flight on
the human body, such as oxidative stress, radiation, nutrient
deficiencies along bone and muscle loss [5]. Various kinds of
nutrient deficiencies have also been encountered by astronauts
during their space ventures. A healthy and nutritious diet is thus
an important factor for a successful space voyage. Nutrition
from food is the fuel for our body, which keeps us going even in
adverse environmental conditions. Nutrition in outer space varies slightly from that on earth, mainly because of the different
and harsh environment. Astronauts face several nutrient deficiencies, thus including nutrients essential for their diet. Therefore, space foods must be developed considering these important parameters.
2. SPACE FOOD AND ITS REQUIREMENTS
*Address correspondence to this author at the Department of Food & Nutrition and Food Technology, Lady Irwin College, University of Delhi, Sikandra Road, New Delhi-110001, India; E-mails: aparna.gupta@lic.du.ac.in
1573-4013/22 $65.00+.00
Space food is a food specially designed for consumption by
astronauts in the microgravity environment [4]. Thus, during the
© 2022 Bentham Science Publishers
Developments and Scope of Space Food.
Current Nutrition & Food Science, 2022, Vol. 18, No. 3
their health and also to fulfill their psychological needs during the long and difficult spaceflights and missions [10].
However, these objectives are difficult to fulfill during longduration flights due to the technical limitations of food
preservation systems [11]. The two limiting factors, microgravity and time paucity, make the in-flight processing of
food impractical, which ultimately leads to the consumption
of pre-packaged food during missions.
With the development of food science and technology,
the variety and quality of foods being sent to space have improved [4]. Foods prepared using various processing and
preservation techniques, including freeze-drying, vacuum
packaging, irradiation sterilization, high-pressure processing,
and 3D printing, are now being used for feeding the astronauts in space. The main difference between the consumption of food on earth and that in space lies in the packaging
and its design. The space food is carefully crafted, processed,
and packaged, keeping in mind the weightless environment.
The food is vacuum packed in flexible packaging, and crumb
foods like bread are avoided because these crumbs may float
around and harm the astronauts or get lodged into the delicate machinery. The liquid foods are sent in the freeze-fried
form, which is later rehydrated with water by the astronauts.
The food packaging is designed in such a way that it is flexible, compact (thereby requiring less space), easy to use and
dispose of, and keeps the food safe from the deleterious environment.
ut
er h
so or
na Pr
l U oo
se fs
O
nl
y”
long missions, i.e., more than 30 days, specific nutrients must be
identified to maintain the health and well-being of the astronauts
and also to safeguard them from the negative effects of microgravity [6]. Consumption of food in space is a very different and
unique experience in itself. Various factors, including Biological, Engineering, and Operational factors, play key roles in designing the foods that are made available on a spacecraft [7].
Some of the parameters involved in the development of efficient
space food are shown in Fig. (1) [8].
249
Fig. (1). Requirements of space food [8]. (A higher resolution / colour
version of this figure is available in the electronic copy of the article).
“F
or
P
A
Apart from providing the essential nutrients and calories,
the food must be prepared in such a way that it aids in the
maintenance of various body systems, including the endocrine, immune and musculoskeletal systems [3]. Thus, a
good space food must be nutritious, small-sized, lightweight,
easy to carry and consume, shelf-stable, and should be able
to withstand the detrimental effects of vibrations, radiations,
and low pressure. However, during the period of a space
mission, the nutritional intake of astronauts may often not be
sufficient, causing health-damaging effects to their bodies
[4]. The food system designed for astronauts in space comprises a wide variety of meals. The initial idea of The Man in
Space Committee of the Space Science Board in 1963 was to
provide astronauts with a formula diet that would supply all
the needed vitamins and nutrients. For the design and development of space foods, global interest and efforts have been
increased over the past few years. Space foods are generally
classified according to the mission completion hours and the
preference of astronauts. However, generally, there are ten
types of space foods which are described in Table 1 [9].
During the space voyage, various factors have to be taken
into consideration for the development of food for astronauts. The food being carried must be shelf-stable and nonperishable. It should remain fresh and nutritious throughout
the journey to maintain the health of the astronauts. Secondly, the food should be designed in such a manner that it is
easy to prepare and consume without any further processing.
Furthermore, compact, bite-sized, and crumb-free foods are
especially preferred for space journeys. Space foods thus
need continuous research and development, such as to meet
the physiological requirements of the astronauts to maintain
3. EARLIER MISSIONS AND FIRST SPACE FOOD
The ability and efficiency in delivering nutrition in the
form of food depend on the food system [6]. There has been
a steady evolution in the food systems designed for space
after careful study and research of constraints like weight
and volume, ease of consumption, preparation time, and
waste materials. Apple sauce became the first food to be
consumed in space which was packed in a tube made of aluminum and was eaten by US astronaut John Glenn during the
Mercury Mission [12]. Various missions have been attempted, including the project Mercury, Gemini, Apollo, and Skylab.
3.1. Mercury
Project Mercury (1961-1963), the foremost attempt of the
United States to put humans in space, offered an opportunity
to observe and study the physicochemical effects of spaceflight missions on the human body [13, 14]. It involved a
series of one-manned space missions to the suborbital space
and low Earth orbit [14]. No food was carried during the
suborbital flights. In 1962, during the third Mercury mission,
John Glenn became the first person to eat in space by consuming apple sauce packed in an aluminum tube. The welldesigned package prevented the cabin from being contaminated with food. Along with the tube foods, cube-shaped
foods, approximately 0.5inch³ in size, were also included.
These foods, rich in calories, were generally a mixture of
high melting fats, sugars, and nuts [13]. Gelatin was used for
coating these cubes to prevent crumbling, and they were rehydrated in the mouth by saliva released upon chewing [15].
Current Nutrition & Food Science, 2022, Vol. 18, No. 3
Table 1.
Grover et al.
Types of space food. [9].
Types of Space Food
Description
1.
Natural foods
Eaten directly without any processing, available in flexible packaging material; examples are cookies, nuts, and granola bars.
2.
Rehydrated foods
Food products are packaged in flexible packaging material after removing water from the product,
removal of water prevent the microbial activity in the food products, the products are consumed
after rehydrating them by adding hot water; examples are toast, spiced cereals.
3.
Fresh foods
These include fresh fruits and vegetables without any processing and preservation, sanitized with
200ppm (parts per million) of chlorine to ensure food safety.
4.
Frozen foods
These are quick-frozen foods; Examples are chicken pot pie and quinches.
5.
Thermostabilised foods
These are hot processed foods that are usually packaged in aluminium boils or biometallic cans,
eaten directly; Examples are canned fruits, vegetables, grilled chicken, and ham.
6.
Irradiated foods
These foods are prepared using ionizing radiations and are more organoleptically acceptable; Examples are meat and beef steaks.
7.
Intermediate moisture foods
These foods are produced and packaged by limiting the amount of water in the packaging, i.e., 1520%, to prevent microbial activity; examples are dried pears and apricots.
8.
Freeze-dried foods
9.
Tortillas
10.
Condiments
y”
S. No.
Eaten directly without any pre-processing or refrigeration, pre-addition of cold or hot water is not
required; an exception is fruits and vegetables as they are perishable and degrade fast.
ut
er h
so or
na Pr
l U oo
se fs
O
nl
250
Wheat-based bread requires refrigeration for storage; mold growth can occur if not stored under
proper refrigerated conditions, packaging material should not contain oxygen to prevent microbial
growth in tortillas.
Available in liquid forms in pouches such as mustard sauce, mayonnaise, and tomato sauce.
3.2. Gemini
or
P
A
However, some of the cubes were returned uneaten, for it
was observed that the engineered cube food lacked the familiar mouthfeel and texture. The focus during this mission was
on high-caloric, nutritious, and palatable foods. Owing to its
short duration, there were no provisions made for on-flight
storage of food.
“F
The Gemini project constituted 10 missions from 1965 to
1966; the crew consisted of 2 astronauts on board for about
14 days. The Gemini program had a specialized food system
designed for it, consisting of formulations as well as packaging [16]. “Tube food” and “cube food” formed an essential
part of the food system. The menu consisted of bite-sized
cubes of meat, fruit, and dessert, designed in a way to provide 21.3 J/g, while the whole system offered about 12100J
IN 0.73 kg of the packed food [17]. The food prepared for
the mission has undergone rigorous quality assurance procedures, and this marked the beginning of the Hazard Analysis
and Critical Control Points (HACCP) System, which is now
used by food industries worldwide [18]. Packaging material
with excellent oxygen and moisture barrier properties was
designed to hold out against the harsh environment of space.
Although the engineered foods were prepared using familiar
ingredients, were appropriately energy-dense, and had
gained popularity in ground-based tests, their consumption
during the space mission was found to be insufficient. This
decrease in acceptability of the designed foods was considered to be the major cause of loss in weight of the crew during this mission [18].
3.3. Apollo
Apollo was the third human spaceflight program held during
1968-1972 by the United States, and it provided the opportunity
to the American astronauts for walking on the Moon. The initial
Apollo food system was based on the food lessons from Mercury and Gemini. However, during its later missions, it led to the
improvement in the food variety and its quality which was most
likely preferred by the astronauts. The mass of the Apollo 7
food system was about 0.82 kg of food per person per day, and
it increased to 1.1 kg per person per day during the Apollo 14
mission. Meanwhile, during the Apollo 8 mission, thermostabilized foods, also referred to as "wet packs" were added, and the
use of spoons started to begun [17]. Irradiated food was first
consumed by the Apollo astronauts in space. In addition to this,
food bars were specially developed for the Apollo mission and
designed in such a manner that they could be eaten without the
use of astronaut’s hands. And for this purpose, these bars were
incorporated into the sleeve of astronauts such that they could
directly consume the bars. For the packaging of these bars, edible films were especially used.
Despite these advancements, most of the Apollo astronauts
did not consume adequate nutrients, making evident the fact
that man and his eating habits are not easily changed [19].
Current Nutrition & Food Science, 2022, Vol. 18, No. 3
3.4. Skylab
granola bars, nuts, and cookies, supported the ISS and Shuttle programs. Presently, condiments such as mustard, mayonnaise, tomato ketchup, and taco sauce, which are packed
in individual vacuum-sealed packages, form an important
part of the ISS food system. Hence, with the Space Shuttle
and the International Space Station missions, much progress
has been made in the space food systems since the earlier
missions, and more progress will be made with the longerduration missions planned for the future.
4. ASTRONAUT NUTRITION REQUIREMENTS
Outer space can prove to be very harsh on the vital organs and systems of the human body. Various detrimental
effects have been observed on the cardiovascular, neurological, and gastrointestinal systems along with loss of appetite,
vision, and bone density. Food, apart from maintaining the
nutritional requirements of astronauts, also helps counteract
the deleterious effects of a space mission on the astronaut
body and provides psychological benefits throughout the
mission [20]. The types of changes that occur in the human
body during space missions are described in Table 2 [21].
From the various missions conducted over the past 50 years,
we have gained experience and indeed proved that man can
adjust to the space environment and sustain prolonged periods in space, even up to 1 year [22]. During long-duration
manned missions in space, the role played by the food system is of paramount importance and should not be underestimated [13]. Nutrition in space plays various crucial roles,
including the provision of essential nutrients and the maintenance of body systems, including immune, endocrine, and
musculoskeletal systems [1]. Based on the observation of
health diaries of astronauts of previous missions like Mercury, Gemini, and Apollo, various changes have been made in
the design of space foods for future missions [6].
ut
er h
so or
na Pr
l U oo
se fs
O
nl
The most comprehensive metabolic study project, the
Skylab Program (1973-74), was a natural flow-on to the
Gemini and Apollo Programs, which the United States undertook in space. Experimental protocols were developed to
study the cardiovascular, musculoskeletal, vestibular, hematologic, metabolic, and endocrine systems in the body during
the Skylab Program. The Skylab space vehicle had a larger
inner space as compared to the vehicles used for other missions to enable the crewmen to ease of consumption of food
around the table. The Skylab Food System was designed
such that it provided a palatable and balanced diet along with
taking care of the requirements for calories, electrolytes, and
the overall metabolic balance [20]. Seventy foods were
available for the crew to choose from, and the food types
included freeze-dried, thermostabilized, and frozen foods.
The food tray was constructed such that it had seven recessed openings to hold the cans and other containers, and
three of them had heaters to warm up the food. The drinks in
the form of freeze-dried powders were packaged individually
in bellow-like containers fitted with a drinking valve. The
astronauts could then rehydrate the powders and drink from
the container by collapsing the bellow.
251
y”
Developments and Scope of Space Food.
The Skylab 4 mission was stretched for additional 28
days, and thus, to satisfy the increased food demand, highenergy food bars were developed, which were capable of
providing sufficient calories for the extended time.
Table 2.
4.1. Calcium
Bone is living tissue, with calcium as its major structural
component. Continuous remodeling, including the removal
of existing bone tissues (known as resorption) and the devel-
“F
or
P
A
Mission Space Shuttle (1981-2011), a 30-year space program, came to an end in July 2011 with STS-135. The food
system used in the mission was similar to what is now being
used in the International Space Station (2000-present). The
food designed for these missions is processed to become
shelf-stable since freezers or refrigerators are not available
for long-term storage [18]. Water was released as a byproduct of fuel consumption in the Shuttle mission, which
made it possible to rehydrate dried food. Thus, dried food,
including freeze-dried breakfast cereals, dried milk, and beverages, made 50% of the Shuttle menu [12]. Other food
items, such as irradiated and thermostabilized foods like
Changes in the human body during space missions [21].
S. No.
Part of the Human Body
Effects
1.
Muscular system
Muscle wasting, reduction in strength and functioning of lower limbs.
2.
Cardiovascular system
Variation in heart shape, effect on cardiac functions, irregular heartbeat.
3.
Immune system
Variation in the tuning of adaptive immunity, alterations in cytokine and peripheral leukocytes
form.
4.
Central nervous system
Variations in sensorimotor, cerebellar, and vestibular brain areas.
5.
Autonomic nervous system
Orthostatic stress (venous pooling).
6.
Skeletal system
Osteoporosis (bone loss).
7.
Eye
Flattening of the eyeball, optic disk edema, and nerve fiber layer necrosis.
8.
Blood
Anemia, increased red blood cells, and platelet.
Current Nutrition & Food Science, 2022, Vol. 18, No. 3
opment of new bone tissues, takes place inside the body. To
conduct space missions safely, the effects of microgravity on
the human skeletal system must be assessed. Enhanced bone
resorption and mostly unaffected bone formation is the primary cause of calcium loss from the bones, which in turn
alters the endocrinal calcium metabolism regulation [23].
According to a study conducted by Enrico 2016 [1], microgravity results in skeletal unloading during space flights,
which leads to increased urinary excretion of calcium and an
elevated risk of kidney stone formation. The rate of bone
mineral loss in the body has been estimated at 0.5-1% per
month during a space flight. Hackney et al. 2015 [24] also
reported that this loss in bone density could lead to osteoporosis and even paralysis in severe cases. Thus, bone and calcium metabolism remains a major concern for space travelers.
4.2. Vitamin D
well with other spices and condiments present in food, thereby not altering the overall taste and palatability of the dish.
4.4. Vitamin A
Vitamin A is a term used to denote a group of fat-soluble
compounds, which are similar to retinol in terms of structure
and biological activity. This vitamin plays a major role in
various body functions, with the most important being the
maintenance of vision. Changes in astronaut’s vision is an
issue that has been recently recognized. In the first report of
the NASA Study of Cataract in Astronauts, a questionnaire
was used to estimate the nutritional intake of astronauts. The
data thus obtained provided evidence that ß-carotene and
lycopene intake had a protective effect for some types of
cataracts in astronauts [28]. Agte et al. (2010) [29] reported
that there is enough evidence suggesting a relation between
antioxidants and cataracts. According to Mader et al. 2011
[30], fluid shifts increased intracranial pressure, retinal
changes, along with various other changes, are responsible
for this. Zwart et al. (2012) [31] also revealed that resistance
exercise along with a diet containing an adequate amount of
vitamin B12, folate, antioxidants, and vitamin A could help
combat such issues. The inclusion of functional foods and
foods fortified with vitamin A and B12 can help in improving vision-related issues in space. Ingredients like pumpkin,
kale, beef, carrot, spinach, and lettuce can be used in designing menus for astronauts to keep such problems at bay.
ut
er h
so or
na Pr
l U oo
se fs
O
nl
Physical, medicinal, and nutritional means have been
used to counteract this issue of bone density loss. In a study
regarding space flight, Smith and Heer 2012 [25] suggested
that resistance exercise along with good vitamin D and nutritional status were capable of reducing bone mineral loss in
International Space Station astronauts.
Grover et al.
y”
252
“F
or
P
A
Vitamin D is essential for calcium metabolism and
maintenance of bone health in the body. Especially, for the
space astronauts, vitamin D concentration in the diet is of
greater significance due to the bone density losses faced by
them. Essentially, sunlight is the source of vitamin D, but
since the spacecraft is shielded to protect the crew from harmful
radiation, the astronauts cannot obtain this vitamin from the sun.
Hence, their diet must include a good amount of vitamin D.
According to Smith SM et al. 2009 [26], the International Space
Station astronauts are recommended to take 800 International
Units of vitamin D every day during long-term space missions.
The maintenance of vitamin D status of the body and prevention
of bone loss are two separate issues, as maintaining vitamin D
status alone will not help in preventing bone loss. A still good
amount of vitamin D diet along with regular exercise can
help crew members fight against bone loss issues to an extent [20, 25].
4.3. Sodium
One of the vital ions of body fluids is a sodium [26]. Together with the chloride ion, sodium is essential for maintaining the normal distribution of water, ionic balance, and osmotic pressure in the body [27]. In the US, for women and men
between the ages of 19-50 years, the recommended dietary intake of sodium is 1.5g/day. However, reports have shown that
astronauts tend to consume more sodium in space than on earth.
According to Smith et al. 2009 [23], currently, the dietary requirement of sodium in space flight is recommended from 1.52.3g/day for both men and women. High intake of sodium can
cause problems in night vision and increased release of calcium
through urine, thereby causing a risk of renal stone formation.
Space food formulated with black salt or rock salt can help resolve these issues because these salts contain a lesser amount
of sodium as compared to sea salt. Also, they tend to mix
4.5. Iron
Iron is one of the essential elements of the human body
and is also a part of hemoglobin along with various enzymes.
It is involved in the electron transport system (which is essential for energy generation), oxygen transport, immune
function, and lipid metabolism.
Hematological changes begin to appear in the body during
the initial days of space flight. Under this, a study conducted by
Fischer et al. 1967 [32] revealed that these changes lead to a
phenomenon called ‘space flight anemia’, first observed in
German missions held in the 1960s. A loss in Red Blood Cell
mass of 10%-15% can occur during the first 10-14 days of the
space flight. According to Udden et al. 1996 [33], Smith et al.
2005 [34] and Alfrey et al. 1997 [35], this decrease in the mass
of red blood cells within the first few weeks of spaceflight leads
to events of increased serum ferritin, decreased transferrin receptors and increased serum iron, all of which indicate increased
iron storage. This excess body iron has the potential to behave
as an oxidant and thus lead to body damage. According to
Smith et al. 2009 [26], the recommended dietary intake of iron
for both women and men during space missions is 8-10 mg/day.
Smith 2002 [36] also reported in the study that after longduration space flight missions, there is an increase in the iron
accumulation inside the body.
4.6. Energy
Energy is an essential part of life that is required to perform all the body functions and is obtained by the oxidation
of complex food constituents like fats, proteins, carbohy-
Current Nutrition & Food Science, 2022, Vol. 18, No. 3
Maintaining positive energy intake in space is important
because a negative energy intake on earth can be balanced by
the body's fat, but it is not the same in space. Chronic energy
deficits can result in increased body weight loss and decreased physical performance, and increased fatigue, along
with increased susceptibility of the body to infections and
diseases [41].
4.7. Probiotics
ated, or dehydrated. These processing methods often alter the
nutritional and hedonic aspects of food. Another reason for
inadequate nutrition could be attributed to slower gastrointestinal transit time. Sometimes, changes in eating time during a mission also affect the intake of food by the body,
thereby disturbing the nutritional regime.
5. DESIGN FACTORS FOR SPACE FOOD
While creating a food system for any space mission,
many factors and limitations occur. Thus, the food system
should be designed such that it meets the medical requirements of the mission along with meeting the other mission
parameters. Various constraints can occur during a space
mission, including mission duration (in terms of length and
re-supply interval), the menu cycle, the quantity of food required, the shelf life of the food, and the variety of the food
products that can be affected by the mission duration. For
short termed missions such as Shuttle, the astronauts can
adapt easily to the environment and carry out their work.
However, for long-term missions, safeguarding the health
and psychology of the astronauts takes a whole new meaning. Apart from these issues, other concerns occur which are
related to the volume and mass constraints (depends on the
vehicle size), internal atmospheric conditions, and microgravity environment. Thus, volume, mass, and power requirements largely influence the cost of providing for the
crew’s health and well-being. Constraints like volume and
mass directly affect the moisture content, packaging material, and shelf life of the food products. The internal cabin
conditions, such as pressure, oxygen concentration, and radiations, have a direct impact on the selection of food and
packaging material for the mission. Hence, these considerations must be addressed while designing food systems for
space [45]. Therefore, the food should be crafted such that it
has a long shelf life owing to the absence of freezers and
refrigerators in the space vehicle (due to space constraints).
The food thus should remain fresh, nutritious, and palatable
till the completion of the mission. Also, each meal must offer
unique food options, and all foods must be pre-processed and
pre-packaged. The food should be aseptically packed to keep
out the microorganisms and prevent any chances of microbial contamination. Furthermore, all meals must be prepared to
keep in mind the special nutritional requirements of astronauts, as discussed above. They must have appropriate caloric content, along with other essential elements. Meals must
be dense and compact, such that they occupy minimum
space, do not crumble on biting, and are healthy and palatable at the same time.
ut
er h
so or
na Pr
l U oo
se fs
O
nl
drates, and alcohol. It has been observed that voluntary dietary intake is always less during space flight than on the
ground. This reduced dietary intake poses a risk for loss of
body mass, precisely, loss of bone and lean tissue. According
to Schneider et al., 1995 [37] and Heer et al. 2001 [38], losses in body mass of 4–5% are typical in long-duration flights
and most likely result from negative dietary and energy balances. A decline of a few kilograms below the pre-flight
baseline at the end of a 6-month mission is common. However, in some cases, losses in body mass might increase to
10-15%. During both short and long-duration flights, exposure to microgravity induces a loss in muscle volume, mass,
and performance, chiefly in the legs [39, 40]. The dietary
intake was controlled for the Skylab missions by providing
the astronauts with a pre-defined meal. For the later Shuttle
and Mir missions, dietary intake was accurately logged using
pre-packaged foods and a bar-coding system. Although, in
2008, the Advanced Resistive Exercise Device was launched
to the International Space Station. And this device accommodated additional exercise protocols, and more importantly, it had almost twice the loading capability as compared to
the Interim Resistive Exercise Device, which was previously
used [22].
253
y”
Developments and Scope of Space Food.
“F
or
P
A
Studies have been conducted which revealed the complaint by the astronauts about the gastrointestinal issues
faced by them during spaceflight. A probable reason for these issues has been attributed to the shift of body fluids from
the lower body to the upper body due to microgravity. According to Lane HW et al. 1999 [42], the transit time increases due to chronic inactivity, thereby altering the intestinal microflora. The gastrointestinal and gut-bacterial health
of astronauts can be improved by the addition of probiotics
and prebiotics to their diet. Arun 2004 [43] reported that
"loss of polarity of propulsion" of digested material occurs in
weightlessness as the bowel floats, but this effect is partially
compensated by a movement that is driven by diaphragmatic
excursions. This change in bowel activity was reported to be
diminished after a few hours to a day of the flight, as assessed by electrogastrography and by a recording of bowel
sounds. This reduction in bowel activity seems to be related
to space motion sickness, and by and large, it clears after a
few days. A study of GI function involving a lactulosehydrogen breath test showed a trend towards increased transit time, but these findings, from only two individuals, were
considered inconclusive [44].
Many reports suggest that the health issues faced by astronauts are often due to poor intake of diet and nutrients. A
major reason for this lies in the processing of space foods.
Space foods are either thermo-stabilized, freeze-dried, irradi-
With the Artemis program, NASA is planning to lay the
foundation for the long-term presence of humans on the
moon. Such long-duration space missions pose greater challenges to food technologists and scientists, for the food
should be engineered such that it remains shelf-stable for at
least 1 year. Mission to Mars, with an estimated duration of
2.5 years, is also being planned for the future. A viable option to reduce the dependence on packaged food is to grow
crops in space. Several experiments have made it possible to
grow crops like Chinese cabbage, lettuce, peas, and Swiss
Current Nutrition & Food Science, 2022, Vol. 18, No. 3
Chard in the International Space Station. In fact, in 2017,
Chinese cabbage became the 5th crop to be harvested in the
International Space Station [46]. Here, in-spaceflight processing and packaging of food become a possibility to store
and preserve the excess produce for later use.
Thus, a serious and concentrated effort is required to design and develop a space food system, which not only offers
a sufficient variety of food to the astronauts but also meets
the above-mentioned constraints.
6. SPACE FOOD PACKAGING
Protection and preservation are among the most important functions of packaging. The package protects the
food from physical, chemical, and microbial attacks by acting as a barrier between the product and the environment,
thereby extending the product's shelf life. The selection of
packaging material is dependent heavily on the food preparation method, procedure and disposable system.
is to achieve a package that can be used in the zero-gravity
system and promise a shelf life of up to 5 years. Some of the
common packaging materials used are illustrated in Fig. (2)
[4]. Edible films, usually made of starches, proteins, polysaccharides, and gums, find application in preserving fresh
vegetables and fruits, baked products, and meats [48]. Edible
films protect the texture and flavor of food during storage by
restricting the entry and migration of gases, water vapor, and
volatile compounds, thereby maintaining the food quality
and extending its shelf life [49]. However, upon comparison
to recently developed packaging technology, edible films fall
behind, for they have poor resistance to high temperature,
tensile strength, and water resistance. The barrier properties
offered by these edible films are far from meeting the requirements of long-duration manned missions. Since these
films are degradable and do not generate waste, they can be
used for the short-term storage of dry foods [50].
or
P
A
ut
er h
so or
na Pr
l U oo
se fs
O
nl
In the past space shuttle mission and also the current ISS
mission, waste treatment involved the mission crew member
storing the waste material until the vehicle returns and, in
that case, either the material is brought back to the earth or
burnt during the atmosphere re-entry (atmosphere burning of
fuel). In the Space Shuttle, food waste accounted for 32% of
the total domestic waste [45]. According to Caraccio et al.
2013 [47], over 40 % of the waste is contributed by food
packaging. The stored waste can present sanitization issues
and occupy space that otherwise could be used for the mission activity. In Mercury and Gemini missions, tubes and
cubes were used which contained puree foods and small
foods in a compressed manner, respectively. During the
Apollo mission, non-flexible and harder packages were used
for rehydratable foods, but since such packages cannot be
crumbled up and occupy too much space, therefore, nowadays flexible pouches are in use [18]. Ultimately, the main
goal is to reduce packaging waste and develop innovative
packaging to improve the stability of nutrients and thus
achieve an increased shelf life.
Grover et al.
y”
254
“F
Various parameters should be considered for space food
packaging systems, such as the packaging should be lightweight and occupy less space as weight is a very sensitive
constraint when it comes to space missions. Furthermore, the
packaging material should be chosen such that it protects the
food from any kind of hazard without imparting any extra
weight. Also, the packaging should produce less waste and
should not generate unnecessary volume. The material used
should be non-toxic, durable, convenient for transport and,
must not migrate into the food. Packaging material must be
capable of resisting impact and crushing forces; otherwise, it
may modify product shape. The package should be designed
in such a way that it prevents the food from losing its water,
blocks the exchange of oxygen to prevent food deterioration,
and blocks the entry of light to prevent the loss of photosensitive nutrients from the food.
Different types of packaging material are used as per the
composition and physical characteristics of the food product.
One of the ultimate goals of a space food packaging system
Fig. (2). Packaging materials for space food [4]. (A higher resolution / colour version of this figure is available in the electronic copy
of the article).
Metal cans, made from tinplate and aluminum alloy, offer excellent barrier properties and keep the food safe for up
to 3 years. Aluminum cans used to package food during the
Skylab mission offered a shelf life of 2 years [51]. Heat stabilized, and frozen foods are packaged in metal cans made of
aluminum, and spilling of food due to temperature changes
are prevented by keeping some headspace beneath the lid.
The cans are nitrogen flushed before sealing to remove oxygen from the headspace. This technology is currently being
used by Russia to supply food to International Space Station
[50]. Although the cans offer good barrier properties, they
are heavy and pose a problem for garbage disposal.
Retort pouches are soft and flexible packaging made
from a lamination of metal foil and flexible plastic. This
packaging offers a long shelf life (up to 3-5 years) and can
replace rigid metal cans. According to Cooper and Douglas
Current Nutrition & Food Science, 2022, Vol. 18, No. 3
2015 [52], NASA conducted a set of experiments to study
the development of rancidity in butter cookies, and it was
observed that the addition of a metalized film overlaps remarkably reduced the rancidity development, as compared to
non-metalized counterpart. Retort pouches are often used for
the packaging of thermostabilized and irradiated foods, like
soups and dairy products.
over the world have been working on reducing the quantity
of food and supplies needed by astronauts during long ventures, as well as cutting down the waste created by them. In a
study conducted by Catauro and Perchonok [54], it was
found that with further menu development, a significant reduction in the mass of the space food system is possible. The
study aimed to maintain the overall number of calories provided to the crew but to increase the caloric density of menu
items by maximizing the percentage of energy from fat.
Consequently, scientists developed calorie-dense food bars,
which can be substituted by astronauts for breakfast. Each
bar contains roughly 700-800 calories, thereby making sure
that the astronauts maintain good body weight as they enjoy
the snack. For this reason, granola bars have been a typical
menu choice since the Shuttle mission. So far, a variety of
flavors have been created by scientists, including ginger vanilla, orange cranberry, and banana nut. Scientists at the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) are
currently studying how food bars will influence crew morale,
because food variety, choice, and taste are essential aspects
of making sure that they are consuming enough during longterm space missions. Such food bars can be a practicable
meal replacement alternative for the first manned Orion mission, which may launch in 2021.
“F
or
P
A
ut
er h
so or
na Pr
l U oo
se fs
O
nl
During mission Gemini, packaging material having high
oxygen and moisture barrier properties was developed [12].
These high barrier properties helped in preventing flavor loss
from the food. Ethylene-vinyl alcohol copolymer and titanium oxide are generally used to enhance the barrier properties
of these films, thereby making them suitable for use in high
temperature and humidity conditions. High barrier films
have been used for the packaging of acidic, dehydrated, or
medium moisture foods [50]. Furthermore, for the development of efficient packaging material, it is necessary to utilize
the appropriate packaging technology, as shown in Fig. (3).
3D food printing is an effective method but is timeconsuming and is composed of powder cartridges utilized for
packaging fruits, vegetables, and side dishes. The freezedrying method is also known as a type of vacuum packaging
used at low temperatures for the packaging of juices and
dairy products. Thermal stabilization is a packaging method
in the form of aluminium tubes and is used for soups and
side dishes. Furthermore, Radiation treatment and microwave-assisted thermal stabilization consist of polymeric film
packaging material and are widely used for packaging meat
products, side dishes, and fruit dishes [53].
Fig. (3). Packaging technology for space food [53]. (A higher resolution / colour version of this figure is available in the electronic copy of the
article).
7. DESIGNING ENERGY BALLS AS A POTENTIAL
SPACE FOOD
Space constraint is a major issue faced during space missions because the heavier the spacecraft, the more energy
and fuel it requires to propel. Due to the availability of limited space in mission vehicles, scientists and researchers all
255
y”
Developments and Scope of Space Food.
Keeping the above-discussed factors for astronaut’s nutrition in mind, potential energy and nutrient-dense space
food could be "vitamin A rich energy balls". These spherical
food bars will include nutrients essential for maintaining
astronaut health in outer space. The major contribution of
vitamin A in this snack will be given by pumpkin. According
to Dar et al. 2017 [55], pumpkin acts as an excellent source
of carotenoids, which play an important role in human nutrition in the form of pro-vitamin A. The fiber contributing
components will be amaranth flour, flat rice, and chia seeds.
Apart from being a rich source of fiber, amaranth is also an
excellent source of vitamin B6 and minerals, including magnesium, copper, iron, and potassium [56]. Chia seeds are
known to be loaded with antioxidants, thereby protecting the
body from free radical damage. It has been reported that the
existence of polyphenols in chia seeds protects them from
oxidative deterioration [57]. Honey and date puree are to be
added as natural sweeteners. According to Bogdanov et al.
2009 [58], the low water activity and low pH of honey are
responsible for antibacterial and antifungal properties which
aid in enhancing the product shelf life. Dates, on the other
hand, contain a significant amount of iron and calcium. This
natural sweetener contains no cholesterol and fat [59]. According to recent studies, dates and their aqueous extracts
have exhibited free-radical scavenging activity, inhibition of
free-radical mediated macromolecular damages, antimutagenic and immune-modulatory activities [60]. Chocolate will be added to these snack balls to impart a decadent
and rich flavor. For space missions, modified atmosphere
techniques are used for the packaging of bite-sized foods.
Before the final seal at 21 to 29 inches of Hg vacuum, each
package is flushed with nitrogen three times. The amount of
vacuum used varies depending upon the food product as a
hard vacuum will destroy the texture of some food products.
National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) has
Current Nutrition & Food Science, 2022, Vol. 18, No. 3
used unique food packaging methods and materials necessary for ensuring extended shelf life and safety of space
foods for consumption in microgravity [61]. Thus, a
combination of aseptic packaging along with nitrogen
flushing will be ideal for the suggested snack for space
missions.
CONCLUSION
CONFLICT OF INTEREST
The author declares no conflict of interest, financial or
otherwise.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Dr. Aparna Agarwal and Dr. Abhishek Dutt Tripathi conceived the study. Dr. Aparna guided and assisted in the manuscript preparation. Yashmita Grover, Ruchi Sharma, Jagriti
Bhasin, Bhavika Dhingra, Sonali Nandi, Mamta Hansda,
Veena Paul, Rubeka Idrishi wrote the manuscript. All the
authors approved the manuscript by final supervision.
REFERENCES
[1]
[2]
[3]
Enrico C. Space nutrition: The key role of nutrition in human space
flight. 2016, arXiv:1610.00703.
Dahlan HA. Possible Malaysian contributions to future space food
during a long-duration space mission. ASM Sc J 2019; 12(2): 16271.
Oluwafemi FA, De La Torre A, Afolayan EM, et al. Space food
and nutrition in a long term manned mission. Adv Astronaut Sci
Technol 2018; 1: 1-21.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s42423-018-0016-2
Jiang J, Zhang M, Bhandari B, Cao P. Current processing and
packing technology for space foods: A review. Crit Rev Food Sci
Nutr 2020; 60(21): 3573-88.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10408398.2019.1700348
PMID:
31830802
Bergouignan A, Stein TP, Habold C, Coxam V, Gorman DO´,
Blanc S. Towards human exploration of space: The THESUS review series on nutrition and metabolism research priorities. NPJ
Microgravity 2016; 2: 16029.
Lane HW, Smith SM, Rice BL, Bourland CT. Nutrition in space:
lessons from the past applied to the future. Am J Clin Nutr 1994;
60(5): 801S-5S.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/ajcn/60.5.801S PMID: 7942590
Gupta C, Gupta S. Food for space. Int J Biol Technol 2010; 1: 1213.
Douglas GL, Zwart SR, Smith SM. Space food for thought: challenges and considerations for food and nutrition on exploration
missions. J Nutr 2020; 150(9): 2242-4.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/jn/nxaa188 PMID: 32652037
Phadtare N, Phad O. Space Food And Beverage. FASJ 2021; 2(01):
42-8.
Katayama N, Ueno H, Aoki C, et al. Let us enjoy delicious space
foods - It enhances health and solves the food problem on Earth. In:
4th International Conference on Recent Advances in Space Technologies, 11-13 June, 2009; pp. 58-60.
Vodovotz Y, Smith SM, Lane HW. Food and nutrition in space:
application to human health. Nutrition 2000; 16(7-8): 534-7.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0899-9007(00)00311-7
PMID:
10906547
Bourland CT. The development of food systems for space. Trends
Food Sci Technol 1993; 4(9): 271-6.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0924-2244(93)90069-M
Perchonok M, Bourland C. NASA food systems: Past, present, and
future. Nutrition 2002; 18(10): 913-20.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0899-9007(02)00910-3
PMID:
12361787
Carpentier WR, Charles JB, Shelhamer M, et al. Biomedical findings from NASA’s Project Mercury: a case series. njp Microgravity
2018; 4.
https://doi.org/10.1038/s41526-018-0040-5
Casaburri AA, Gardner CA. Space Food and Nutrition: An Educator’s Guide with Activities in Science and Mathematics. In: 1999.
[4]
[5]
[6]
[7]
[8]
“F
or
P
A
ut
er h
so or
na Pr
l U oo
se fs
O
nl
Humans have organized various missions to explore outer
space. Although, with every mission ventured by the astronauts,
nutritional aspects are also gaining more significance. Furthermore, the environment of space is very much different than the
earth, which creates greater challenges during a space mission.
The microgravity environment in space dramatically affects the
human body. However, with an adequate food system in place,
these concerns and adverse effects can be eliminated or prevented. Food in space missions not only delivers nutritional and
health benefits to the astronauts but also provides a level of
health security, well-being, and satisfaction. And for innovation
of space foods, different space missions were carried out, such
as the Mercury mission, Gemini mission, Skylab mission, and
Apollo mission. Space foods are the variety of food products
that are usually developed and processed by keeping in view the
requirements and the health status of astronauts during a space
mission. While developing food for astronauts, many constraints occur related to improper energy intake, vitamin and
mineral deficiencies, environmental issues as well as space concerns. The meals should be designed such that they are nutritious, compact, bite-sized, crumb-free, easy to consume, energydense, and shelf-stable. Additionally, nutrients present in the
food are also impacted during space travel, and it creates a further challenge in maintaining the nutritional health status of
astronauts. Advances in packaging as well as other space foods
technology have made it possible to include a greater variety of
food items in the space menu, enabling the astronauts to fulfill
their nutritional requirements. Attempts to grow fresh vegetables in outer space have been successful, thereby making it possible to replace some of the packaged food with food prepared
using freshly grown ingredients [62]. Also, a wide range of research and investigations are being carried out for the nourishment of the astronauts during their future space missions. Functional foods and nutraceuticals are also being considered as
components of food systems for future missions once a thorough study of their health effects has been done. The development of novel food systems is crucial for the accomplishment of
future missions. It is indeed difficult to predict what the future
of the space food system holds. However, it will be healthy,
safe, and nutritious. Further research is needed on the in-depth
nutritional status and diseases associated along with body requirements for the astronauts during a space mission.
Grover et al.
y”
256
[9]
[10]
[11]
[12]
[13]
CONSENT FOR PUBLICATION
Not applicable.
[14]
FUNDING
None.
[15]
[17]
[18]
[19]
[20]
[21]
[22]
[23]
[24]
[33]
[34]
[35]
[36]
[37]
[38]
[39]
[40]
[41]
[42]
[43]
A
[25]
Available from: https://www.nasa.gov/pdf/143163main_Space.
Food.and.Nutrition.pdf
Nanz RA, Michel EL, LaChance PA. Evolution of space feeding
concepts during the Mercury and Gemini space programs. Food
Technol 1967; 21(12): 1596-602.
Cooper M, Douglas G, Perchonok M. Developing the NASA food
system for long-duration missions. J Food Sci 2011; 76(2): R40-8.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1750-3841.2010.01982.x
PMID:
21535783
Perchonok MH, Cooper MR, Catauro PM. Mission to Mars: Food
production and processing for the final frontier. Annu Rev Food
Sci Technol 2012; 3: 311-30.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev-food-022811-101222
PMID:
22136130
Smith MC, Heidelbaugh ND, Rambaut PC, et al. Apollo food technology. Biomedical results of Apollo. Washington: Scientific and
Technical Information Office: National Aeronautics and Space
Administration 1975; 1: pp. 437-84.
Leach CS, Rambaut PC. Biochemical responses of the Skylab
crewmen: An overview.Biomedical results from Skylab NASA
Special Pub SP377. Washington, DC: National Aeronautics and
Space Administration 1977; pp. 204-16.
Khoshvaghti A. Vitamin D in Space. In: InFads and Facts about
Vitamin D. IntechOpen 2019.
Baker ES, Barratt MR, Sams CF, Wear ML. Human response to
space flight.Principles of clinical medicine for space flight. New
York, NY: Springer 2019; pp. 367-411.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4939-9889-0_12
Sibonga JD. Spaceflight-induced bone loss: Is there an osteoporosis
risk? Curr Osteoporos Rep 2013; 11(2): 92-8.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11914-013-0136-5 PMID: 23564190
Hackney KJ, Scott JM, Hanson AM, English KL, Downs ME,
Ploutz-Snyder LL. The astronaut-athlete: Optimizing human performance in space. J Strength Cond Res 2015; 29(12): 3531-45.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1519/JSC.0000000000001191
PMID:
26595138
Smith SM, Heer MA, Shackelford LC, Sibonga JD, Ploutz-Snyder
L, Zwart SR. Benefits for bone from resistance exercise and nutrition in long-duration spaceflight: Evidence from biochemistry and
densitometry. J Bone Miner Res 2012; 27(9): 1896-906.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/jbmr.1647 PMID: 22549960
Smith SM, Zwart SR, Kloeris V, Heer M. Nutritional biochemistry
of space flight (Space science, exploration and policies series). Nova Science Publishers Incorporated 2009. Available from:
https://www.nasa.gov/sites/default/files/atoms/files/nutritional_bioc
hemistry_of_space_flight_-fpdis.pdf
Oh MS, Uribarri J. Electrolytes, water, and acid-base balance.Modern nutrition in health and disease. 9th ed. Baltimore,
MD: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins 1999; pp. 105-40.
Tietz NW, Pruden EL, Siggaard-Andersen O. Electrolytes.Tietz
textbook of clinical chemistry. 2nd ed. Philadelphia, PA: WB
Saunders Company 1994; pp. 1887-973.
Agte V, Tarwadi K. The importance of nutrition in the prevention
of ocular disease with special reference to cataract. Ophthalmic Res
2010; 44(3): 166-72.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1159/000316477 PMID: 20829640
Mader TH, Gibson CR, Pass AF, et al. Optic disc edema, globe
flattening, choroidal folds, and hyperopic shifts observed in astronauts after long-duration space flight. Ophthalmology 2011;
118(10): 2058-69.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ophtha.2011.06.021 PMID: 21849212
Zwart SR, Gibson CR, Mader TH, et al. Vision changes after
spaceflight are related to alterations in folate- and vitamin B-12dependent one-carbon metabolism. J Nutr 2012; 142(3): 427-31.
http://dx.doi.org/10.3945/jn.111.154245 PMID: 22298570
Fischer CL, Johnson PC, Berry CA. Red blood cell mass and plasma volume changes in manned space flight. JAMA 1967; 200(7):
579-83.
[28]
[29]
[30]
[31]
[32]
“F
[27]
or
P
[26]
[44]
[45]
[46]
[47]
[48]
[49]
[50]
[51]
[52]
257
http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/jama.1967.03120200057007
PMID:
6071522
Alfrey CP, Udden MM, Leach-Huntoon C, Driscoll T, Pickett MH.
Control of red blood cell mass in spaceflight. J Appl Physiol (1985)
1996; 81(1): 98-104.
Smith SM, Zwart SR, Block G, Rice BL, Davis-Street JE. The
nutritional status of astronauts is altered after long-term space flight
aboard the International Space Station. J Nutr 2005; 135(3): 43743.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/jn/135.3.437 PMID: 15735075
Alfrey CP, Rice L, Udden MM, Driscoll TB. Neocytolysis: Physiological down-regulator of red-cell mass. Lancet 1997; 349(9062):
1389-90.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(96)09208-2 PMID: 9149714
Smith SM. Red blood cell and iron metabolism during space flight.
Nutrition 2002; 18(10): 864-6.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0899-9007(02)00912-7
PMID:
12361780
Schneider V, Oganov V, LeBlanc A, et al. Bone and body mass
changes during space flight. Acta Astronaut 1995; 36(8-12): 463-6.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0094-5765(95)00131-X PMID: 11540977
Heer M, De Santo NG, Cirillo M, Drummer C. Body mass changes,
energy, and protein metabolism in space. Am J Kidney Dis 2001;
38(3): 691-5.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1053/ajkd.2001.27767 PMID: 11532708
Fitts RH, Riley DR, Widrick JJ. Physiology of a microgravity
environment invited review: Microgravity and skeletal muscle. J
Appl Physiol (1985) 2000; 89(2): 823-39.
Genc KO, Gopalakrishnan R, Kuklis MM, et al. Foot forces during
exercise on the International Space Station. J Biomech 2010;
43(15): 3020-7.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jbiomech.2010.06.028 PMID: 20728086
Stein TP. Nutrition in the space station era. Nutr Res Rev 2001;
14(1): 87-118.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1079/095442201108729150 PMID: 19087418
Lane HW, Schoeller DA. Overview: History of nutrition and spaceflight.Nutrition in spaceflight and weightlessness models. CRC
Press LLC 1999; pp. 1-18.
Arun CP. The importance of being asymmetric: The physiology of
digesta propulsion on Earth and in space. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2004;
1027: 74-84.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1196/annals.1324.008 PMID: 15644347
Smith SM, Rice BL, Dlouhy H, Zwart SR. Assessment of nutritional intake during space flight and space flight analogs. Procedia
Food Sci 2013; 2: 27-34.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.profoo.2013.04.006
Evert MF, Glaus-Late KD, Hill SD, Bourland CT. Technical Paper
#921415, Society of Automotive Engineers 1992.
Heiney A. 2017.Cabbage Patch: Fifth Crop Harvested Abroad
Space Station.
Caraccio AJ, Hintze PE, Eds. Trash-to-gas: converting space trash
into useful products. Proceedings of the 43rd International Conference on Environmental Systems. 2003. Available from:
https://ntrs.nasa.gov/citations/20130011661
http://dx.doi.org/10.2514/6.2013-3440
Zhang YB, Jiang J. Research progress of edible films. China Food
Additives 2011; 1: 191-8.
Hu XL, Zhou GY. Application of novel preservation technology in
the preservation of food. Food Research And Development 2010;
31: 242-6.
Sun JC, Qu WL, Dong HS. Requirement analysis of development
in space food packaging. Space Med Med Eng (Beijing) 2016; 29:
451-6.
Klicka MV, Smith MC Jr. Food for US manned space flight. In:
Army natick research and development center MA. 1982.
Cooper MR, Douglas GL. Integration of product, package, process,
and environment: A food system optimization In edited by NASA.
2015.
ut
er h
so or
na Pr
l U oo
se fs
O
nl
[16]
Current Nutrition & Food Science, 2022, Vol. 18, No. 3
y”
Developments and Scope of Space Food.
258
Current Nutrition & Food Science, 2022, Vol. 18, No. 3
[53]
[54]
[55]
[56]
[58]
[59]
[60]
[61]
[62]
Bogdanov S, Jurendic T, Sieber R, Gallmann P. Honey for nutrition
and health: A review. J Am Coll Nutr 2008; 27(6): 677-89.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/07315724.2008.10719745
PMID:
19155427
Amanat A, Waly M, Mohamed Essa M, Devarajan S. Nutritional
and medicinal value of date fruit Dates: Production. Processing,
Food and Medicinal Values 2012; pp. 361-76.
Allaith AAA. Antioxidant activity of Bahraini date palm (Phoenix
dactylifera L.) fruit of various cultivars. Int J Food Sci Technol
2008; 43(6): 1033-40.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2621.2007.01558.x
Center LB. Evidence Report: Risk of performance of performance
decrement and crew illness due to an inadequate food system.
Suri M, Dutt R, Mahajan P. Role of nutrition in human adaptation
to microgravity in space: emerging trends. IJSRST 2020; 7(4): 1416.
http://dx.doi.org/10.32628/IJSRST207438
“F
or
P
A
ut
er h
so or
na Pr
l U oo
se fs
O
nl
y”
[57]
Bychkov A, Reshetnikova P, Bychkova E, Podgorbunskikh E,
Koptev V. The current state and future trends of space nutrition
from a perspective of Astronauts’ physiology. Int J Gastron Food
Sci 2021; 100324.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijgfs.2021.100324
Catauro PM, Perchonok MH. Assessment of the long-term stability
of retort pouch foods to support extended duration spaceflight. J
Food Sci 2012; 77(1): S29-39.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1750-3841.2011.02445.x
PMID:
22260129
Dar AH, Sofi HA, Rafiq S. Pumpkin the functional and therapeutic
ingredient: A review. Int J Food Sci Nutr 2017; 2(6): 165-70.
Maurya NK, Arya P. Amaranthus grain nutritional benefits: A
review. J Pharmacogn Phytochem 2018; 7(2): 2258-62.
Ullah R, Nadeem M, Khalique A, et al. Nutritional and therapeutic
perspectives of Chia (Salvia hispanica L.): a review. J Food Sci
Technol 2016; 53(4): 1750-8.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s13197-015-1967-0 PMID: 27413203
Grover et al.
View publication stats