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BUILDING UTILITIES EXIT EXAM REVIEWER (MARCH 2016)
BUILDING UTILITIES 1 – PLUMBING SYSTEMS OF
BUILDING
PLUMBING

Art and technique of installing pipes, fixtures and other apparatus.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Water supply and distribution system
Sanitary Drainage System
Storm Drainage System
Plumbing Fixture
Fire Protection System
Fuel and Gas Piping System
PRINCIPLES
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All premises to be provided with clean water
Fixtures be supplied with water in sufficient volume and pressure
Plumbing must use minimum amount of water
Designed to prevent damage from overheating or explosions
Buildings connected to public sewers must connect its fixtures
Family unit must at least have one: water closet, sink, lavatory and
shower
Fixtures must be made of non – absorbent material, free from
concealed fouling surfaces and in ventilated enclosure
Fixture connected to drainage system equipped with water-sealed
trap
Drainage pipe provide adequate circulation of air free from
siphonage
Vent terminals shall extend to outer air
Plumbing system must be tested for defects
Substance which will harm the sewage and disposal system shall
not be allowed
Proper protection against contamination of food or water through
backflow, etc.
No water closet without light and ventilation
If no sewer line, provide septic tank
Plumbing systems must be maintained by master plumbers
Sewage must not be discharged into the ground unless treated
PLUMBING SYSTEM COMPONENTS
WATER CYCLE
1. Evaporation
2. Condensation
3. Precipitation
PLUMBING CYCLE
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
SOURCE – lakes, rivers, reservoirs
SUPPLY – main water, storage tanks
DISTRIBUTION – pressure, piping networks
USE – plumbing fixtures
COLLECTION – gravity, piping networks
DISPOSAL – sanitary, storm sewers
TREATMENT – sewage plants, natural purification
SOURCES OF WATER
1. RAINWATER
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From roof of bldg. and water sheds
Advantage:
o Soft and pure
o Suitable for hot water
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BUILDING UTILITIES EXIT EXAM REVIEWER (MARCH 2016)
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Disadvantage
o Only in wet season
o Roofs may not be clean
2. GROUNDWATER
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Springs and wells
Advantage:
o Abundant supply
o Less treatment
Disadvantage:
o Have organic matter
WATER PURIFICATION
1. AERATION
3. NATURAL SURFACE WATER
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 Cause: Iron, manganese
 Effects: Discoloration
 Correction: Chlorination
5. POLLUTION
 Cause: contamination
 Effects: Disease
 Correction: Chlorination
- Water is sprayed into air to release any trapped gases and
absorb additional oxygen for better taste.
Rivers and lakes
Advantage:
o Easy to acquire
o Large quantity
o For irrigation
2. COAGULATION
- Small sediments particles which do not settle well combine
together to form larger particles
3. FILTRATION
WATER TREATMENT
1. ACIDITY
 Cause: carbon dioxide
 Effects: corrosion, rusting, clogging
 Correction: raising alkaline
2. HARDNESS
 Cause: Magnesium, Calcium
 Effects: Clogging
 Correction: boiling, water softener
3. TURBIDITY
 Cause: Silt, mud
 Effect: Discoloration, bad taste
 Correction: filtration
4. COLOR
- Water is passed through layers
of sand and gravel in concrete
basins in order to remove finer
suspended particles.
4. SEDIMENTATION
- Gravity settling and deposition
- Passed through basins
5. CHLORINATION
- Water is injected with hypo chlorine gas
WELLS
*GENERAL TYPES*
1. SHALLOW WELL
2. DEEP WELL
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BUILDING UTILITIES EXIT EXAM REVIEWER (MARCH 2016)
*TYPES ACCORDING RO CONSTRUCTION*
*CLASSIFICATION OF PUMPS*
1. RECIPROCATING PUMPS
1. DUG WELL
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- Operate with controlled speed
- Air chamber is introduced
Most common
15m deep
“shallow well”
2. JET PUMPS
- Draw water from well
- Type of a Centrifugal Pump
- Types:
1. Deep: high volume
2. Shallow: for residential
3. Convertible: deep/shallow
4. Miniature: small volume
2. BORED WELLS
 Similar to Dug well
 Construction using auger drive
 15m – 40m deep
3. ROTARY PUMP
- Piston pump
- More effective in viscous fluids
3. JETTED WELL
 Use extreme water pressure
 Use of suction pump
4. SUBMERSIBLE PUMP
- Excess water must be pump away
5. TURBINE PUMP
4.
DRIVEN WELL
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Dug with sharp pointed hollow iron
10m – 15m deep
5. DRILLED WELL
 1,000m deep
PUMPS
*GENERAL TYPES*
1. PISTON PUMP
2. CENTRIFUGAL PUMP
- Type of centrifugal pump
- For large app.
WATER STORAGE FOR DOMESTIC USE
1. OVERHEAD TANKS
- doesn’t have pressure concerns
- relies on gravity
- use overhead feed system
- Components:
- Supply Pipe
- Inlet
- Overflow Pipe
- Drip Pan
- Gate Valves
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BUILDING UTILITIES EXIT EXAM REVIEWER (MARCH 2016)
2. CISTERN
- usually built of reinforced concrete
3. PNEUMATIC WATER TANK
- uses air pressure
4. HOT WATER
- Types:
1. Range Boiler:
- small hot water tank
- made of galvanized steel sheet, copper
2. Storage Boiler
- large hot water tanks
- made of heavy duty material sheets applied with
rust proof paint
VALVES
5. FOOT VALVES
- lower end of pump
- to prevent loss of priming the pump
*TYPES OF VALVES*
1. GATE VALVE
- full way valve
- used mainly to completely close / open
water line
- best for main supply
- types:
1. Wedge Shape Valve
2. Double Disc Valve
- controls flow of water with
- prevent backflow
- types:
1. Swing Check Valve
2. Lift Check Valve
3. Vertical Check Valve
4. Horizontal Check Valve
- use 90 degrees turn in line
Start / shutdown water system
Regulate pressure
Check backflow
Control direction of water
2. GLOBE VALVES
3. CHECK VALVES
4. ANGLE VALVES
*FUNCTIONS*
1.
2.
3.
4.
movable spindle
- can control pressure
- types:
1. Plug
2. Compositional
3. Conventional
6. SAFETY VALVES
- used in line with excessive
pressure
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BUILDING UTILITIES EXIT EXAM REVIEWER (MARCH 2016)
FAUCETS
*TYPES*
1. COMPRESSION COCK
DEFFECTS IN WATER DISTIBUTION SYSTEM
1. WATER HAMMER
- knocking in pipes
2. BACK SIPHONAGE
- compression of a soft packing upon a metal sheet
- flowing back of used water
- from a plumbing fixture
3. EXPANSION / CONTRACTION
- pipes expands / contracts due to change in temp.
4. FRICTION HEAD LOSS
- friction occurs when water flows
2. KEY COCK
- round tapering plug ground to fit a metal sheet
CLASSIFICATION OF PUBLIC WATER DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM
1. DIRECT PRESSURE DISTRIBUTION
- obtained through a large intake installed on the lake
basin and extended to deep water
- components:
1. water basin
2. receiving well
3. filtration plant
3. BALL FAUCET
- ball connected to handle
2. INDIRECT PRESSURE DISTRIBUTION
- taken from drilled well / underground
- involves individual special mechanical equipment
4. HOSE BIBB
- made for threaded attachment of hose
PARTS OF COLD WATER DISTRIBUTION
1. SERVICE PIPE
- pipe from the main / other source of water supply to the
water distribution system of the building
2. WATER METER
- device used to measure in liter / gallon the amount of
water
3. HORIZONTAL SUPPLY MAIN
- principal water distribution system
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BUILDING UTILITIES EXIT EXAM REVIEWER (MARCH 2016)
4. RISER
- water supply extending vertically to one full story/ more
to convey water into pipe branches / plumbing fixtures
- Disadvantages: subject to contamination, high
maintenance cost, occupies valuable cost,
requires stronger foundation
5. FIXTURE BRANCH
- water supply pipe between fixture supply pipe and water
distribution pipe
6. CONTROLS AND VALVES
- for control, isolation, repair or water distribution system
7. STORAGE TANKS
TYPES PF COLD WATER DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM
1. UPFEED SYSTEM
a. DIRECT UPFEED
- provided by city water companies
- using normal pressure from public water main
- Advantage: eliminates extra cost of pumps and tanks
- Disadvantage: pressure is inadequate to supply tall
buildings
b. AIRP RESSURE SYSTEM
- when pressure is not enough compressed air is used to
raise and push water
- Advantage: with compact pumping, sanitary, economical,
less construction and maintenance and serves about 10
stories interval
- Disadvantage: no electricity = no water
2. DOWNFEED / GRAVITY SYSTEM
- water is pumped into a large tank on top and is
distributed by gravity.
- Advantages: water is not affected by peak load hour and
time needed to repair broken parts does not affect water
supply
TYPES OF HOT WATER DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM
1. UPFEED AND GRAVITY RETURN SYSTEM
- with continuing network of pipes to provide constant
circulation of water
-hot water rises on its own
- does not need pump
- large pipe is on top of the riser
2. DOWNFEED AND GRAVITY RETURN SYSTEM
- hot water rises on the highest point of the plumbing
system and travel through gravity
- water distribution is dependent on the expansion of hot
water and gravity
- larger pipe is at the bottom of the riser
3. PUMP CIRCUIT SYSTEM
- more efficient circulation of hot water to the upper
floors
TYPES OF WATER HEATING SYSTEM
1. HOT WATER SPACE HEATING
2. HOT WATER SUPPLY
PROTECTION OF HOT WATER
1. SYSTEM RELIEF VALVE
2. TEMPERATURE AND PRESSURE RELIEF
PLUMBING FIXTURES
- receptacle used to provide, receive, discharge water or liquid into waste
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BUILDING UTILITIES EXIT EXAM REVIEWER (MARCH 2016)
* CLASSIFICATION*
1. SOIL
2. SCULLERY
3. BATH
SCULLERY FIXTURES
1. KITCHEN SINK
- made of stainless steel
- types:
1. single
2. double
3. triple
4. shallow
5. deep
SOIL FIXTURES
1. WATER CLOSET
- types acc. To flush tank
1. closed coupled flush tank
2. low flush tank
3. high flush tank
- types acc. To mounted
1. floor mounted
2. wall hung
- types acc. To flush action
1. washdown: trapway infront of the bowl, coss less, less
efficient, noisy
2. reverse trap:flushes through siphon action
3. siphon jet: larger trapway
4. siphon vortex: whirlpool action, large amount of
standing water
5. direct flush
- other types:
1. squat
2. washout
2. URINALS
- types:
1. wall hung
2. pedestal
3. through
4. stall
2. LAUNDRY SINK
- made of cement or porcelain
3. SLOP SINK
- use for mops
4. BAR SINK
5. LAVATORIES
BATHING FIXTURES
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
BATHTUBS
WHIRLPOOL BATH
JACUZZIS
BIDETS
FLOOR DRAIN
SHOWER RECEPTOR
SHOWER BATH COMPARTMEN
PIPES AND FITTINGS
1. CAST IRON SOIL PIPE
- most popular and generally specified material for
drainage installation
- extensively used in 60s and 70s
- affected by corrosion
- types:
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BUILDING UTILITIES EXIT EXAM REVIEWER (MARCH 2016)
1. SV type: for bldg.
2. XV type: for underground
- varities:
1. standard pipe
2. single hub pipe
3. double hub pipe
4. hubless pipe
8. GALVANIZED WROUGHT IRON PIPE
- better that steel pipe
- more resistant to acid
9. COPPER PIPE
- durable and extremely corrosive resistant
- classification:
1. K type
2. L type
3. M Type
2. ACID RESISTANCE CAST IRON PIPE
- made of alloy of cast iron and silicon
- installed in bldg. where acid waste discharge
- breaks easily and brittle
3. ASBESTOS PIPE
10. BRASS PIPE
11. PLATIC / SYNTHETIC PIPE
- developed in Germany (1935)
- produced from synthetic resin
- superior type of pipe
- types:
1. Rigid Type
2. Flexible Type
- made of asbestos fibers and Portland cement
- used as soil waste, vent pipe and downspout
- suited for concrete embedment
4. BITUMINOUS FIBER SEWER PIPES
- cheapest, lightest, slightly flexible
- can take soil movement
- for sewer and septic tank
- damaged by hot water
5. VITRIFIED CLAY PIPE
- oldest materials used for sewer lines
- highly resistant to most acid
- brittle and cracks easily
6. LEAD PIPE
- oldest pipe used for plumbing system
- highly resistant to acid
- poisonous
7. GALVANIZED STEEL PIPE
- made of mild steel
- expected to last 15 – 25 years
- deposits of salts and lime
1.
2.
3.
4.
CONSIDERATIONS IN CHOOSING MATERIALS
QUALITY AND DURABILITY
RESISTANCE TO EXTERNAL AND INTERNAL CONTACT WITH
FOREIGN MATTERS
RESISTANCE TO ACID WASTE AND OTHER CHEMICAL
ELEMENTS
COST OF MATERIAL AND LABOR
TYPES OF FITTINGS
1. COUPLING / SOCKET
- threads are inside
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7. 45° ELBOW
2. EXTENSION PIECE / NIPPLE
8. 90° ELBOW
- threads are outside
3. REDUCER
9. UNION
4. REDUCING ELBOW
10. TEE
11. REDUCING TEE
5. MALE ADAPTOR
- one side is nipple and other is coupling
12. CAP
6. FEMALE ADAPTOR
13. CROSS
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BUILDING UTILITIES EXIT EXAM REVIEWER (MARCH 2016)
- horizontal pipe
HOUSE DRAIN
-
Lowest horizontal piping
Receives discharges and to the house sewer
14. PLUG
HOUSE SEWER
-
CHANGES IN DIRECTIONS OF SANITARY DRAINAGE LINES
15. DOUBLE HUB
1. Horizontal – Horizontal change in direction
2. Vertical – Horizontal change in direction
3. Horizontal – Vertical change in direction
UNIT OF MEASURE
SANITARY DRAINAGE SYSTEM
1. Amount of waste it carries
2. 0.47 liters / secs or 28.3 liters / minute
*GENERAL RULES*
1. All must go and lead to septic tank
2. Must take the shortest route as possible
3. Control components should be located strategically
*SUBSYSTEM OF THE SANITARY SYSTEM*
1. Waste collection system
2. Ventilation system
*ESSENTIAL PARTS*
Extends from the house drain
SANITARY DRAINAGE SYSTEM
-
Minimum slope / pitch of horizontal drainage pipe = 2%
TRAPS
*KINDS OF TRAPS*
1. COMMON TRAP
1. Waste pipe
- for lavatories, kitchen, sink, laundry tubs and urinals
- conveys only waste water
2. DEEP SEAL TRAP
- free from fecal
- about twice the size of common trap
2. Vent pipe
3. STAND TRAP
- for circulation of air
- for slop sinks
3. Trap
- serves as water seal support
- fitting device to prevent backflows of foul air
4.
RUNNING
TRAP
4. Stack
- used in house drain
- vertical main of the system
5. DRUM TRAP
5. Branch
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BUILDING UTILITIES EXIT EXAM REVIEWER (MARCH 2016)
- for fixtures that discharges large amount of water
- principal artery of the vent system
- aka collecting vent line to main and soil vent
6. S TRAP
- predecessor of P-trap
- connect to vent line
*TYPES OF PROHIBITED TRAPS*
1. Traps with moveable parts
2. No fixture shall be double trapped
3. The s trap
*REQUIREMENTS*
1. Each plumbing fixture, shall be separately trapped with an
approved type of water seal trap
2. One trap = one trap arm
3. One trap = three single compartments
4. Trap arm = size of trap
5. Trap seal = not greater the 51mm and not less than 102m
CLEANOUTS
*REQUIREMENTS*
- additional cleanout shall be provided on horizontal line with an
aggregate offset angle not less than 135°
- between the building drain and building sewer
VENTILATION
-
Portion of drainage pipe installation intended to maintain balance
atmospheric pressure inside
3. INDIVIDUAL VENT
- back vent
4. UNIT / COMMON / DUAL VENT
- one vent pipe serves 2 pipes
5. RELIEF VENT
- vertical vent line
- additional circulation of air between the soil and vent
stacks
6. YOKE / BY – PASS VENT
- pipe connecting upward from a soil / waste stack below
the floor and below h-connection to an adjacent vent
stack at a point above the floor
7. CIRCUIT VENT
- starts in front of the highest fixture connection on a
horizontal branch and connects to a vent stack
8. LOOPED VENT
- vertical vent connection on a horizontal soil waste pipe
9. WET VENT
- waste water flows through
10. LOCAL VENT
11. DRY VENT
12. STACK VENT
13. VENT STANDS
- provide circulation of air
*TYPES OF VENTS*
1. MAIN SOIL AND WASTE VENTS
- backbone of the entire sanitary system
- portion where waste travels
- continuous to the roofs
2. MAIN VENT
1.
2.
3.
4.
SANITARY SYSTEM PROBLEMS
TRAP SEAL LOSS
BACK PRESSURE
CAPILLARY ACTION
EVAPORATION
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5. WIND EFFECTS
6. RETARDATION OF FLOW
7. DETERIORATION OF MATERIALS
HOUSE DRAIN APPLIANCE
1. GREASE TRAP
- separation of grease from water
- types:
1. earth cooled
2. mechanical
-
Watertight covered receptacle
Receive discharge of sewage from building sewer
Separate solids from liquid
Digest organic matter
Store digested solids from liquids
Discharge for final disposal
*SLUDGE*
- solid organic matter, denser than water
- settle at the bottom of the septic tank
*SCUM*
- lighter organic matter that rise from water
2. HOUSE TRAP
- in house drain inside foundation wall of the building
*EFFLUENT*
- liquid content of sewage
*BACTERIA IN SEPTIC TANK TO ENCOURAGE DECOMPOSITION*
1. AEROBIC BACTERIA
3. DRAIN TILES
- to prevent water from seeping through the basement
walls and foundation
4. GARAGE TRAP
- aka catch basin
- filled with water and located at the lowest point of the
garage so it can collect all waste
5. BACKFLOW VALVES
- prevents backflow
- similar to check valve
- relies oxygen to survive
2. ANAEROBIC BACTERIA
- can survive without oxygen
*MINIMUM DIMENSION*
L = 1500 MM
W = 900 MM
H = 1200 MM
6. SEWAGE EJECTORS
- waste up from the sump pit to the sewers
SEPTIC TANK
*DESIGN CRITERIA*
- Plans should show all dimensions
- Compartments
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BUILDING UTILITIES EXIT EXAM REVIEWER (MARCH 2016)
- minimum of 2 compartments
- maintain a slope of 1:10 at the bottom of digestion chamber to
collect the sludge
- Manholes:
- at least 2 manholes
- 508mm minimum dimension
- Size Pipe Inlet and Outlet
- diameter must not be less than sewer pipe
- Location of Inlet and Outlet
- extend 101.6mm above and at least 304.8mm below water
surface
- Air Surface
- side walls shall extend 228.6mm above liquid depth
- cover of septic tank shall be at least 50.8mm above the back vent
openings
- Partition between compartments
- inverted fitting equivalent in size to the tank inlet
- Structure
- shall be capable of supporting an earth load of not less than 14.4
kPa
- Capacity
- determined by the number of apartment units in dwelling
occupancies
- Location
- not be located underneath the house
- at least 15m from the water distribution system
3 DEGREES OF WATER
1. GREY WATER
- waste water without human wastes
2. BLACK WATER
- waste water with human waste
CLASSIFICATION OF SEWERS
1. COMBINATION OF PUBLIC SEWERS
- oldest variety
- caries both storm and sanitary wastes
2. STORM SEWERS
3. SANITARY SEWERS
- sanitary wastes only
- terminates in modern sewage disposal plant for
treatment
2 TYPES OF SANITARY SEWER
1. TRIBUTARY SEWER
- usually round shapes
- vitrified clay / cement pipes
2. INTERCEPTING SEWER
- aka collecting sewers
PRIVATE SEWAGE DISPOSAL SYSTEM
-
-
Area: depends on the req. septic tank
Distance from the water table
- No excavation for the leach bed
- 1.5m of the water table
With sewage pit: filter material in the tranches
1. SEEPAGE PITS
- loosely lined excavation in the ground
- receives discharges of septic tank
- capacity: depends on the quantity of liquids
- size: circular in shape with excavated diameter of not
greater than 2.2m and to be lined with clay or concrete
brick
3. STORM WATER
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- strength: brick lining shall have compression strength of
17225kPa
2. Clarifies the effluent
3. Hardens the sludge and converts to fertilizers
2. MULTIPLE SEEPAGE PITS
2. THE TRICKLING FILTER PROCESS
- served through a distribution box / shall be connected in
series by means of watertight connection
- outlet shall have a vented leg fitting extending 304.8m
below the inlet fitting
- aka Percolating or Sprinkling Filter System
- reqs. Less mechanical elements and less stages
- 95% pure water
- requires large ground area
3. CESSPOOLS
- non watertight lined excavation in the ground which
receives the discharge of sanitary drainage
- designed to retain the organic matter but permitting the
liquid to seep through the pit bottom and sides
4. PRIVIES
- oldest form of disposal of organic waste
- consist of vault constructed of concrete for the collection
of raw sewage and a wooden shelter
- requirement: when liquid wastes containing excessive
amounts of grease, garbage, flammable waste, sand or
other ing. which may affect the operation of a private
sewage disposal system, inceptor shall be installed.
- disposal: waste from inceptor may be discharged to a
septic tank or other primary system
STORM DRAINAGE SYSTEM
-
Rainwater piping must not be used as soil, waste and vent pipes
Sizes of downspout and gutter sizes are based upon the maximum
depth of rainfall per hour falling upon a given roof area in m2
Shapes: square, rectangle, round
Downspouts for high rise shall be stronger pipes materials to resist the
high hydrostatic pressure
Roof drain: equipped with dome type strainer
3 MAJOR SYSTEMS OF COLLECTING STORM WATERS
1. THE INDEPENDENT SYSTEM
- aka the separate system
- brings collected water directly to water reservoirs
2. THE COMBINED SYSTEM
- combines storm water with sanitary wastes
SEWAGE TREATMENT
-
3. NATURAL SYSTEM
Aeration system within the tank
Submersible mixer to mix the waste
Sludge waste pump that aids in clarifying
- without using any roof gutters
- when rainwater is collected in cistern
2 MOST COMMON TYPE MUNICIPAL TREATMENT
1. ACTIVATED SLUDGE PROCESS
- Phase:
1. Gets rid of heavy materials with 3 different filter
STORM DRAIN LOCATIONS
1. OUTSIDE
2. INSIDE
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BUILDING UTILITIES EXIT EXAM REVIEWER (MARCH 2016)
3. OVERHEAD
5. CATCH BASIN
- downspout should terminate in catch basin
- delivers water in street via gravity
ROOFING ELEMENTS TO COLLECT RAINWATER
1. GUTTER
- usually located along the entire perimeter of the roof
6. STORM LINE
- connects to each catch basin
2. DOWNSPOUT
- located every 8 – 10m
- every corner of the roof
STORM SEWERS
-
Carries only rainwater
Collected from the storm drain
Terminates at natural drainage area
Requires manhole to serve as cleanouts and to make accessible
3. THE STRAINER / ROOF DRAIN
FUEL GAS PIPING SYSTEM
- designed to receive water and
prevent clogging
*LPG*
4. THE SHOE
- at the bottom of the roof
- to direct rain towards the nearest catch basin
- Liquefied Petroleum Gas
- aka “bottled gas”
- for home, commercial and industrial
- Cylinder: where gas is stored
- Pigtail: where high pressure vapor flows through when cylinder valve is
opened
- Regulator: reduces the high pressure of gas to the proper operating gas
pressure of the appliance.
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- projects through a finished ceiling when piping is
exposed
FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEM
*SUPPLYING WATER FOR FIRE*
1. Elevated water tank
2. Underground water reservoirs
BUILDING UTILITIES 2 – MECHANICAL, ELECTRICAL AND
ELECTRONIC SYSTEMS OF BUILDING; REVIEWER
*TYPES OF FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEM*
1. DRY STANDPIPE SYSTEM
- no longer utilize
- no water stored
- located in stairway landings
2. WET STANDPIPE SYSTEM
- always have water stored
- constructed of wrought iron / galvanized steel
3. WET STANDPIPE WITH SIAMESE CONNECTION
- directly connected to main water line
- Siamese connection is at the outside of the building
4. AUTOMATIC / SPRINKLER SYSTEM
- general type:
1. Automatic wet
2. Automatic dry
- spacing:
ELECTRICITY
- A form of energy generated by friction, induction or chemical change
having magnetic chemical and radiant effect.
- a fundamental phenomenon of nature consisting of negative and
positive kinds composed respectively of electrons and protons which is
utilized as a source if energy in the form of electric currents
BASIC PROPERTIES OF ELECTRICITY
1. Electron- negative charge of electricity
2. Proton- positive charge of electricity
3. Neutron- not electrically charged and weighs slightly more than the
proton
BASIC THEORY OF ELECTRICTY
1. All matters are made up of molecules
2. Molecules are made up of atoms
3. Atoms contains neutrons, electrons, and protons
4. Neutron is neutral, hence neither positive nor negatively charged
5. The electron of an atom of any substance could be transformed to
another atom
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Like charge REPEL and unlike charges ATTRACT
Two types of electrical currents:
1. Direct (DC)
2. Alternating (AC)
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Components of a Simple Circuit
TYPES OF SPRINKLER HEADS
1. UPRIGHT
- used above piping when piping exposed
2. PENDANT
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1. Power source
2. Control (switch)
3. Load
4. Conductors (wire)
What happens to the current in a short circuit? The current increases.
VOLTAGE- another name for electromotive force (EMF)
“E”- the single-letter abbreviation for electromotive force (voltage)
VOLTMETER- instrument that measures the EMF of an electrical
circuit.
A voltmeter must always be placed in parallel with the circuit being
tested.
6.24x10^18- electrons in one coulomb
One Ampere= one coulomb/sec
AMMETER- an electrical meter that measures current
A clamp-on type ammeter must be clamped around one wire(s) to
obtain a proper reading.
Types of Ammeter
1. Clamp-on type
2. Inline Ammeter
POWER- the time rate of doing work
Electrical power is measured in WATTS (W or P)
W= E x I
Three Common conductors used in electrical circuits
1. Silver
2. Copper
3. Aluminum
Electrical resistance is measured in OHMS
OHMS LAW; E= I x R
TERMS
ION- an atom or molecule that is electrically charged (unbalanced)
VOLT/VOLTAGE- the electrical pressure that causes electron to move
through a conductor. (Electromotive force) or EMF
AMPERE- standard unit used in measuring the strength of an electrical
current
WATT- the rate of power that is consumed
RESISTANCE- opposition or friction to flow of current. Also called
impedance for AC current. It is an electrical term for friction.
ELECTRICAL CURRENT
-the flow electricity in a conductor
Required components:
a. Source of voltage
b. Closed loop of wiring
c. An electrical load
d. A means of opening and closing the circuit
CLASSIFICATION OF ELECTRIC CURRENT
1. Direct Current- electricity flows in one direction (DC)
2. Alternating current- electricity constantly reverses its direction of flow.
It is generated by machines called AC generators. It is universally accepted
because of its unlimited number of applications.
ADVANTAGES OF ALTERNATING CURRENT
1. Easily produced
2. Cheap to maintain
3. Can be transformed to a higher voltage
4. Can be distributed to far distances
5. More efficient
TYPES OF CIRCUIT
1. Series Circuit- single path of current flow; elements are arranged in a
series of one after the other with no branches. The current is the same
throughout and the voltage differ.
2. Parallel Circuit- “multiple connections” where loads are placed across
the same voltage constituting a separate circuit. The voltage is the same
and the current differ.
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HYDRAULIC SYSTEM
1. Higher voltage, larger current
2. Higher resistance, lower current
Ohms Law
Formula:
FOR DC
FOR AC
I= V / R
I= V / Z
I=current
R=resistance
V=voltage
Z=impedance
BASIC ELECTRICITY
ATOMS-the smallest known particle of an element
-everything around us is made up of atoms, including ourselves
ELEMENT-a liquid, solid, or gas that contains only one type of atom. Ex:
Oxygen, Hydrogen, Argon
COMPOUNDS-a liquid, solid, or gas that contains two or more types of
atoms. Ex: H20, CO2, CO
MOLECULES-the smallest particle of a compound in which all the chemical
characteristics of the compound are present. Ex: 1 molecule of water= 1H
and 2O
PROTON-Positively charged particles located at the center, or nucleus, of
each atom
ELECTRONS-Small very light particles with a negative electrical charge
-These electrons move in orbit around the nucleus of an atom
NEUTRONS- Do not have an electrical charge
-These particles add weight to the atom
- Located at the nucleus of an atom
ELECTRON MOVEMENT-The outer ring of an atom is called the valance
ring
-The number of electrons on the valance ring determine the electrical
characteristics
-Current flow may be defined as the mass movement of valence electrons
from atom to atom through a conductor
CONDUCTORS-An element with 1, 2, or 3 valance electrons
-These electrons can be moved easily from one atom to another
SEMICONDUCTORS-An element with 4 valance electrons
-Used to manufacture diodes and transistors
-Silicone is one of the most common semiconductors
INSULATORS-Have 5 or more electrons on the valance ring
-Due to the electrical attraction of the electrons and protons it is very
difficult to get the electrons to move
VOLTS-the pressure used to force the electrons from one atom to another
-A typical battery has 12.6 volts of pressure
-A typical alternator produces 14V
AMPERAGE-The amount of electric current flowing in a circuit
RESISTANCE-Measured in Ohms
-The resistance or opposition, to current flow in an electrical circuit
DEFINITION OF TERMS
ELECTRICAL DEFINITIONS
A
ACCESSIBLE – Capable of being removed or exposed without damaging the
building structure or finish, or not permanently closed-in by the structure
or finish of the building.
AIR CIRCUIT BREAKER – One in which the current interruption occurs in
air.
AIR TERMINAL – A combination of elevation rod and brace, or footing
placed on upper portions of structures, together with tip or point if used.
AIR SWITCH – One with contacts that separate in air.
AMPACITY – The current in Amperes a conductor can carry continuously
under the conditions of use without exceeding its temperature rating.
APPLIANCE – Utilization equipment, generally other than industrial,
normally built in standardized sizes or types, which is installed or
connected as a unit to perform one or more functions such as air
conditioning.
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ARMOR – A wrapping galvanized interlocking steel strip forming an
integral party of the assembly of certain insulated cables, wires, or cords,
which are capable of withstanding certain mechanical tests. ARMORED
CABLE – A fabricated assembly of insulated conductors and a flexible
metallic covering.
ARRESTER (SURGE)- A protective device for limiting surge voltage on
equipment by discharging or bypassing surge current it prevents
continued flow of follow current to ground and is capable of repeating the
functions as specified.
ASSEMBLY- A combination of all or of a portion of component parts
included in an electric apparatus, mounted on a supporting frame or
panel, a properly interwired.
B
BRANCH CIRCUIT- The circuit conductor between the final over current
device protecting the circuit and the outlet(s).
BUS-A conductor, a group of conductors, in switchgear assemblies, which
serves as common connections for two or more circuits.
C
CABLE-Either a stranded conductor with or without insulation and other
covering (single conductor cable), or a combination of conductors
insulated from one another (multiple conductor cable).
CIRCUIT BREAKER-A device designed to open and close a circuit by nonautomatic means and to open the circuit automatically on a
predetermined over current without damage to itself when properly
applied within its rating.
CONDUCTOR
BARE- A conductor having no covering or electrical insulation
whatsoever. (See Conductor, covered.”)
COVERED- A conductor encased within materials of composition
or thickness that is not recognized by this Code as electrical insulation.
INSULATED- A conductor encased within material of composition
and thickness that is recognized by this Code as electrical insulation.
CONDUIT FITTING- An accessory, which serves to complete a conduit
system, such as hushing and access fittings.
CONNECTOR (Splicing Sleeve) - A metal sleeve, usually copper that is
slipped over and secured to the butted ends of the conductors in making
up a joint.
CONTINUOUS LOAD- A load where the maximum current is expected to
continue for three hours or more.
CONTROLLER- A device or group of devices that serve to govern, in some
predetermined manner, the electric power delivered to the apparatus to
which it is connected.
CUTOUT BOX- An enclosure designed for surface mounting and having
swinging doors or covers secured directly to and telescoping with the walls
of the box proper.
D
DEVICE- A unit of an electrical system, which is intended to carry but not
utilize electric energy.
DISTRIBUTION CENTER- A point at which energy s divided among feeders
or branch circuits or combination of both, and where over current devices
are usually located.
F
FITTING- An accessory such as a locknut, brushing, or other part of a
wiring system that is intended primarily to perform a mechanical rather
than an electrical function.
FIXTURE- An integral, separate of self-contained unit, which may contain
one or more bulbs or fluorescent tubes.
FUSE- An over current protective device with a circuit-opening fusible
member, which is heated and severed by the passage of over current
through it.
G
GROUNDED- Connected 10 earth or to some conducting body that serves
in place of the earth.
GROUNDING CONDUCTOR- A conductor used to connect equipment or
the grounded circuit of a wiring system to a grounding electrode or
electrodes.
I
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INSULATED- Separated from other conducting surfaces by a dielectric
permanently offering a high resistance 10 the passage of current and to
disruptive discharge.
INSULATING- A term applied to non-conducting substance capable of
bringing about the condition defined in insulated.
J
JUMPER- A short length of conductor used to make a connection between
terminals or around a break in a circuit, or around an instrument. It is
usually a temporary connection.
L
LINE CONDUCTOR- A wire or cable carrying electric current, supported by
poles, towers or other structures., hut not including vertical or lateral
connecting wires. LINE TAP: A radial branch connection to a main line.
O
OUTLET- A point on the wiring system at which current is taken to supply
utilization equipment.
W
WIRE- A short piece of wire use to bind an overhead conductor to an
insulator or other support.
WIREWAY- Approved steel or metal roughing (usually with removable
cover), and fitting therefore, so formed and constructed that insulated
conductors may he readily drawn in and withdrawn, or laid in and
removed, without injury either to conductor or covering.
V
VOLTAGE (OF A CIRCUIT) - The largest root-mean-square (effective)
difference of potential between any two conductors of the circuit
concerned.
VOLT TRANSFORMATION
TRANSFORMER- a static device consisting of a magnetic core
wherein a primary and secondary windings are made. Transformers are
reversible, it may be step-up or step-down.
P
POWER AND ENERGY
PEAK LOAD- The maximum load consumed or produced by a unit or group
Power- the rate at which the energy is used; the technical term for work.
of units in a stated period of time. It may be the maximum instantaneous
Energy - Synonymous to fuel and can be expressed in gallons, liters,
load or the maximum average load over a designated interval of time.
kilowatt hours or consumed electricity and cost of operation.
R
Watt - measuring unit of electric power.
RACEWAY- An enclosed channel designed expressly for holding wires,
cables, or bus bars, with additional function as permitted in this Code.
STORED AND MOVING ENERGY
REACTOR- A device used for the purpose of minimizing irregularities in the
Two types:
flow of welding currents
1. Stored Energy- potential energy
RECEPTACLE OULET- An outlet where one or more receptacles are
2. Moving Energy- kinetic energy
installed.
S
MEASUREMENT OF ENERGY
SERVICE RACEWAY- The raceway that encloses the service entrance
BTU (British Thermal Unit)- is the amount of heat energy it takes to raise
conductors.
the temperature of one pound of water by one degree Fahrenheit, at sea
T
level.
TRANSFORMER VAULT- An enclosure either above or below ground, with
fire resistant walls, ceiling and floor, exclusively built for unattended
-Energy can also be measured in joules
transformers and their auxiliaries.
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- a thousand joules is equal to one BTU
- The term "joule" is named after an English scientist James
Prescott Joule who lived from 1818 to 1889. He discovered that heat is a
type of energy.
FORMS OF ENERGY
1. Mechanical energy, which includes:
 Potential Energy- stored energy
 Kinetic Energy- from the movement of matter.
2. Radiant or Solar Energy- which comes from the light and warmth of the
sun.
3. Thermal Energy- associated with the heat of an object.
4. Chemical Energy- stored in the chemical bonds of molecules.
5. Electrical Energy- associated with the movement of electrons
6. Electromagnetic Energy- associated with light waves (including radio
waves, microwaves, x-rays, infrared waves).
7. Mass (or nuclear) Energy- found in the nuclear structure of atoms.
ELECTRICAL CONDUCTORS AND INSULATORS
Electrical Conductors- materials used to carry or allow the flow of electric
current
Materials that are good conductors:
1. Silver
6. Zinc
2. Copper
7. Platinum
3. Aluminum 8. Iron
4. Nickel
9. Lead
5. Brass
10. Tin
-Conductors are resistive substances. There are no such things as perfect
conductors.
- A good conductor must have extremely low resistance.
FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE CONDUCTOR RESISTANCE:
- Composition of a conductor the mineral composition
- Length of the conductor the longer the wire, the bigger is the resistance
- Cross sectional area of the conductor - the bigger the cross sectional area
of wire, the lower is the resistance.
- Temperature - Metal offers high resistance to high temperature.
Insulators- materials that resist the flow of current
- A good insulator must have extremely high resistance and a moderate
resistance for a load resistor.
Materials that are good insulators:
1. Rubber
5. Class
9.Thermoplastic
2. Porcelain
6. Mica
10. Paper
3. Varnish
7. Latex
11. Oil
4. Slate
8. Asbestos
12. Wax
13. Dry air
ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE (EMF)
- or EMF, is used to indicate electrical pressure or voltage that causes
current to flow.
- The volt is unit of electrical pressure, similar to pressure used to make
gases and liquids flow through pipes.
- One volt is the force required to push one amp through one ohm of
resistance.
- Abbreviation for volt (EMF) is E.
VOLTMETER
- measure the electromotive force of a power source
- there are DC voltmeters that measure DC voltage and AC voltmeters that
measure AC voltage
- One kilovolt (kV) is 1,000 volts
- One millivolt (mv) is 1/1000 (.001) of a volt
- One microvolt (mV is 1/1,000,000 (.000001) of a volt
- Digital type (uses electronic circuitry instead of electromagnetic effects).
ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS
-the route along the electricity flows
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Electricity Circuit Requirements/ Construction
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Power Source (Battery Alternator, Generator, etc.)- supply the flow
of electrons
Protection Device ( Fuse, Fusible Link, or Circuit Breaker)- prevents
damage to the circuit
Load Device (Lamp, Motor, Winding, Resistor, etc.)- converts the
electricity into work
Control (Switch, Relay or Transistor)- turn the circuit on or off
Conductors (A Return Path, Wiring to Ground)- provide an electrical
path
LOADS- Any devise that consumes electricity
- Regarded as resistance
- Use up voltage and control the amount of current flowing in a circuit
AUTOMOTIVE ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT- One end of the wire from each load
returning to the battery is connected to the vehicle body or frame
- The body or frame is then referred to as the body ground of the circuit
OHM’S LAW- The current in a circuit is directly proportional to the applied
voltage and inversely proportional to the amount of resistance
TYPES OF ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT
1. Series Circuit- The conductors, control and protection devices, loads,
and power source are connected with only one path to ground for current
flow
- An open in the circuit will disable the entire circuit
- The voltage divides (shared) between the loads
- The current flow is the same throughout the circuit
- The resistance of each load can be different
2. Parallel Circuit- It has more than one path for current flow
- The same voltage is applied across each branch
- Current flow through each branch can be different
- The resistance of each branch can be different
3. Series- Parallel Circuit- The power source and control or protection
devices are usually in series; the loads are usually in parallel
- The same current flows in the series portion, different currents in the
parallel portion
- The same voltage is applied to parallel devices, different voltages to
series devices
FUSES- The metal filament in the fuse melts and breaks the connection
BREAKERS- It act to limit the current in a single circuit in most household
applications
- The heating effect on a bimetallic strip causes it to bend and trip a springloaded switch
- A small electromagnet consisting of wire loops around a piece of iron will
pull the bimetallic strip down instantly in case of a large current surge
VOLTAGE DROP (IR) - The sum of the voltage drop in an electrical circuit
always equals the applied voltage
- The voltage drop across any part of a circuit is equal to I x R.
Series Circuit Rules
• The total current in a series circuit is equal to the current in any other
part of the circuit
• The total voltage in a series circuit is equal to the sum of the voltages
across all parts of the circuit
• The total resistance of a series circuit is equal to the sum of the
resistances of all the parts of the circuit
Parallel Circuit Rules
• The total current in a parallel circuit is equal to the sum of the currents
in all the branches of the circuit
• The total voltage across any branch in parallel is equal to the voltage
across any other branch and is also equal to the total voltage
• The total resistance in a parallel circuit is found by applying Ohm’s law to
the total values of the circuit
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ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT DEFECTS
1. Open Circuit- An unwanted break in an electric circuit
2. Grounded Circuit- An unwanted copper-to-metal connection
3. Shorted Circuit- An unwanted copper-to-copper connection
MAGNETISM
Electromagnetism– When current flows through a conductor an invisible
field of force surrounds the wire
–This magnetic field is concentric to the conductor, and an increase in
current flow results in a stronger magnetic field
–The magnetic strength of an electromagnet is determined mainly by the
number of turns and current flow through the windings
Multi- Meter Operation
Types:
1. Analog
2. Digital
-Review settings on Multi-Meters
-Determine what each setting is used for
- Break into groups and complete multi-meter work sheet
ELECTRICAL PRINCIPLES AND WIRING MATERIALS
Heat and Light
Electricity- form of energy that can produce light, heat, magnetism, and
chemical changes
Volts- a measure of electric pressure
Watts- measure of the amount of energy or work that can be done
ELECTRIC MOTORS
Magnetism- is the basis upon which electric motors operate
Commutator- reverses the current in the motor
Armature- rotating magnet
Generator- produces a direct current
Alternator- alternates the electric current
CIRCUITS
Circuit- a source of electricity plus two or more wires connected to a load
Open circuit- circle is broken so that current cannot flow through it
Short circuit- electricity flow through the circuit and back to its source
rapidly
Grounding- connection between a piece of equipment and the ground
SERVICE ENTRANCE
Entrance head- used to attach exterior wires to interior wires of a building
Transformer- converts high voltage from the power lines to 240 volts
Service drop- an assembly of electrical wires, connector, and fastener
used to transmit electricity from the transformer to the entrance head
Service entrance panel- box with fuses or circuit breakers where
electricity enter the building
BRANCH CIRCUITS
Branch circuits- branch out from the entrance panel to a variety of places
and for a variety of different purposes
Resistance- tendency of material to resist electrical flow
- is defined by the National Electric Code (NEC) as “the circuit conductors
Conductor- allow electricity flow easily
between the final over current protective device and the outlets.”
Insulator- great resistance to the flow of electricity
Comprises of the ff:
-The source of voltage
AMPERES, VOLTS, & WATTS
- The wiring
- The load
Amperes- a measure of the rate of flow of electricity
Types of Branch Circuits:
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BUILDING UTILITIES EXIT EXAM REVIEWER (MARCH 2016)
1. General purpose branch circuit – Supplies outlets for
appliances, including convenience receptacles.
2. Appliance branch circuit – Supplies outlets for feeding
appliances.
3. Individual branch circuit – Supplies outlets for a single specific
item.
Fuse- a plug or cartridge containing a strip of metal Circuit breaker- a
switch that trips and breaks the circuit
TYPES OF CABLES
1. Nonmetallic sheathed cable- consists of copper or aluminum wires
covered with paper and vinyl
2. Armored cable- a flexible metal sheath with individual wires inside
3. Conduit- tubing that contains individual insulated wires
4. Electrical metallic tube- bendable type of metal
5. Solid Copper Wires
6. Rubber Insulated Cables
7. Polymer Insulation
WIRE IDETIFICATION
• Type T- used for dry locations
• Type TW- use in dry or wet locations
• Type THHN- dry locations, high temperature
• Type THW and THWN- wet locations, high temperature
• Type XHHW- high moisture and heat resistance
• Type UF- direct burial in soil but not concrete
• Positive (hot) wires- black, red, blue wires that carry current to
appliances
• Neutral wires- white wires that carry current from the appliance back to
the source
• Green wires and bare wires- are used to ground all metal boxes and
appliances
WIRE SIZES
-The American Wire Gauge (AWG) also known as the Brown & Sharpe wire
gauge, is a standardized wire gauge system used since 1857
predominantly in the United States for the diameters of round, solid,
nonferrous, electrically conducting wire. The cross sectional area of each
gauge is an important factor for determining its current carrying capacity.
WIRE
- Different than cable. Cable refers to two or more wires or conductors
grouped together in a jacket.
- Copper or tinned copper is the most common conductor in home wiring
because it has minimum resistance at reasonable cost.
- Wire is grouped by gauge number, running from 0000 to No. 40. The
smaller the number, the thicker the wire. For home use, the most
common gauges are between 10 and 20.
- Larger wire carries more current. Forcing too much current through a
wire will cause it to overheat and trip a breaker.
- Wire is also characterized by letters that correspond to the insulation
type and electrical capacity.
- Grounding wire provides a path of least resistance from the frame or
case of an appliance to the ground to guard against electric shocks. Both
two- and three conductor cables can carry grounding wires.
Materials for wiring interior electrical systems in buildings vary
depending on:
- Intended use and amount of power demand on the circuit
-Type of occupancy and size of the building
-National and local regulations
-Environment in which the wiring must operate.
Modern Wiring Materials
-an electrical power cable found commonly in houses. The cable consists
of 3 wires (2 wires + 1 grounding) and is double insulated
- Mineral insulated cables at a panel board
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TYPES OF WIRES AND CABLES
1. Standard wire and cable-consist of group of wires twisted to for a
metallic string. CORD is the term given to instead stranded wire.
2. Solid wire and cable
American Wire Gauge (AWG) - the old system of measuring the sizes of
wires and cables
System International/ Metric system (SI system) – wires and cables are
expressed in square millimeters.
-In AWG, the smaller the number, the larger the size of the wire
-In SI, the cross sectional area of the wire expressed in sq. mm. is the
actual size of the wire or cable
PURPOSE OF ELECTRICAL CONDUITS
- To provide means of running wires from one point to another
- To physically protect the wires
- To provide grounded enclosures
- To protect the surroundings against the effect of fault in the wiring
- To protect the wiring system from damage by the building and its
occupants
- To protect the building and the occupants from damage by the electric
systems
OTHER TYPERS OF RACEWAYS
- Conduit coupling, elbows, condulets and other fittings
- Conduit supports such as clamps, hangers, etc.
- Cable trays, cable bus, etc.
- Non-metal raceways
- Metal raceways
Raceways- channels or pipes used to hold wires, cables or busbars
Connectors- are metal sleeves usually made of cooper that is slipped over
and secure to the butted ends of conductors in making a joint. Also known
as SPLICING SLEEVE.
Materials used in raceways:
1. Metals
2. Plastics
OUTLET
CONDUITS AND RACEWAYS
- A point in the wiring system at which current is taken to supply utilization
equipment; any point that supplies an electric load
Types of Raceways:
1. Conduits- most common type; usually in the form of a pipe or tube •
Connectors and other accessories
Types of conduits according to material used:
1. Metallic (steel pipes, aluminum, etc.)
2. Non-metallic (plastics, pvc)
Types of conduits according to its making:
1. Rigid metal 3.Rigid non-metal
2. Flexible
4. Flexible non-metal (corrugated
type)
Kinds of Outlet:
1. Convenience outlet or attachment cap
2. Lighting outlet- intended for a direct connection to a lamp holder,
lighting fixture or a pendant cord terminating in a lamp holder.
3. Receptacle outlet- an outlet where one or more receptacles are
installed
4. Special outlet
5. Convenience outlet (co) or attachment cap – a device which by
insertion in a receptacle establishes connection between the conductor of
the flexible cord and the conductors connected permanently to the
receptacle.
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Other Wiring Accessories:
Junction box- box with a blank cover where conductors meet join
Pull box- box with a blank cover inserted to one or more raceways to
facilitate pulling of the conductors Receptacle- contact device installed at
the outlet for the connection of a single attachment plug.
TYPES OF CABLES:
1. Armored Cable (AC) or BX- fabricated assembly of insulated conductors
enclosed in flexible metal sheet. These are used for exposed and
concealed work
2. Metal Clad Cable (MC)- factory assembled cable of one or more
conductors each individually insulated and enclosed in a metallic sheath of
interlocking tape of a smooth or corrugate tube. This is used for service
feeders, branch circuits and for indoor and outdoor works.
3. Mineral Insulated Cable (MI)- factory assembled cable one or more
conductor insulated with a highly compressed refractory mineral
insulation enclosed in a liquid and gas tight continuous copper sheath.
4. Non-Metallic Sheath Cable (NM)- factory assembled of one or more
conductors having a moisture resistant, flame retardant, and non-metallic
material outer sheath. This is used specifically on one and two family
dwelling units not exceeding three (3) storeys
5. Shielded Non-Metallic Sheathed Cable (SNM)-factory assembled cable
of one or more conductors in an extruded core of moisture resistant and
flame retardant material covered within an overlapping spiral metal tape.
Thus is used in hazardous locations and in cable trays or in raceways.
6. Underground Feeder and Branch Circuit Cable (UF)- a moisture
resistant type of cable used for underground connections including direct
burial in the ground as feeder or ground circuit.
7. Service Entrance Cable (SE or USE)- an single or multi conductor
assembly provided with an overall covering primarily used fro service wire.
8. Power and Control Tray Cable (TC)- factory assembles cable of one or
more conductors in with or without associated bare or covered grounding
under a metallic sheath. This is used for installation in cable trays,
raceways or where it is supported by a messenger wire
9. Flat Cable Assemblies (FC)- an assembly of parallel conductors formed
integrally with an insulating material web designed specifically for field
installation in metal surface or raceways.
10. Flat Conductor Cables (FCC)- consist of three or more flat copper
conductor placed edge to edge separated and enclosed within an
insulating assembly. This is used for general purpose as appliance, branch
circuits, individual branch circuits specially in hard smooth continuous
floor surfaces.
11. Medium Voltage Cable (MV)- a single or multi-conductor solid
dielectric insulated cable rated at 2,000 or higher. This is used fro power
system up to 35,000V
12. Busway or Busbars- an assembly of module conductors used to carry
large amount of current (power). Instead of using several parallel or single
large conductor, a bar assembly is adapted
POWER SUPPLY
- Refers to a source of electrical power.
-A device or system that supplies electrical or other types of energy to an
output load or group of loads is called a power supply unit or PSU.
TYPES OF POWER SUPPLY
1. Linear Power Supply
2. Switched-Mode Power Supply
3. Uninterruptible Power Supply
PANEL BOARD
- The National Electrical Code® (NEC®) defines a panel board as a single
panel or group of panel units designed for assembly in the form of a single
panel; including buses, automatic over current devices, and equipped with
or without switches for the control of light, heat, or power circuits;
designed to be placed in a cabinet or cutout box placed in or against a wall
or partition and accessible only from the front
Types of Panel Board:
1. Main Breaker Type
2. Main Lug Only Type
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OVERCURRENT PROTECTIVE DEVICES
- are used to protect conductors from excessive current flow. These
protective devices are designed to keep the flow of current in a circuit at a
safe level to prevent the circuit conductors from overheating.
1. FUSE
- is an overall current protective device with a circuit opening fusible
element which open (break) when there is an over current in the circuit.
Types of Fuse:
1. Cartridge Type
2. Plug Fuse Type
3. Knife Blade Type
2. CIRCUIT BREAKER
- The National Electrical Code® defines a circuit breaker as a device
designed to open and close a circuit by non-automatic means, and to open
the circuit automatically on a predetermined over current without damage
to itself when properly applied within its rating.
Parts of a Receptacle Outlet:
-Break-Out Fins
- Silver Terminal Screws
-Grounding Terminal Screws
- Brass Terminal Screws
- Test and Reset Buttons
SWITCH
- An electrical switch is any device used to interrupt the flow of electrons
in a circuit. Switches are essentially binary devices: they are either
completely on ("closed") or completely off ("open").
A simple electrical switch- A simple semiconductor switch is a transistor.
- A few of the most common wiring device switches, generally installed in
a small wall box and used for control of lighting circuits.
Parts of a switch:
-Single-pole switch
- Holes for cover plate
- Plaster Ears
-Three-way switch
- Common Terminal Screw
WIRING DEVICES
- The general term wiring devices includes all devices that are normally
installed in wall outlet boxes, including receptacles, switches, dimmers,
fan controls, and so on.
 Receptacles
 Switches
 Specialties
RECEPTACLE OUTLET
- A receptacle outlet which is mounted on the wall of a room to supply
electricity for lamps, appliances, etc.
- A common wall outlet properly called a convenience receptacle outlet, a
receptacle outlet, or a convenience outlet.
Multimeter
•voltage
•current
•resistance
Voltage tester
•voltage level
•rugged construction
Clip-on ammeter- measures current without direct connection
Digital circuit probe- measures digital logic levels
Oscilloscope- used to measure and examine voltage waveforms
SOURCES OF ELECTRICITY
-Heat
- Light
- Pressure
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- Mechanical Magnetic action
- One opens, current is smaller than normal
CURRENT- the rate flow of electrons
- one Coulomb/ sec
- =one ampere (A)
CIRCUIT PROTECTION
-Fuses
-Circuit breakers
-Overload
-Thermal shunt
CONNECTORS
-Crimp
-Solder (tin lead, 63/37)
- Screw terminal Type
- Heat Shrink
TROUBLESHOOTING
CONDUCTOR FORMS
- Solid Wire
- Stranded Wire
- Multiconductor Cable
- Lamp cord
RESISTORS
- Series
- Parallel
- Units
- Symbol
SERIES CIRCUIT
- Same current
- Largest resistance has the largest voltage drop.
- Add resistance
– Lower current
- One open the circuit fails.
PARALLEL CIRCUIT
- Same Voltage
-Smallest resistance, most current.
- Add a branch:
– Increase Current
– Decrease Resistance
– RT smallest than the smallest.
• Series Circuit
-Open:
• No current
• Source at the open
• Rest are zeros
-Short
• Current Increase
• V is zero at the short
• Parallel
– Short: Fuse blows
– Open: Less current
Ground Fault Interrupter
- Ground fault interrupters are designed to protect from electrical shock
by interrupting a household circuit when there is a difference in the
currents in the "hot" and neutral wires
Static Electricity
- Electrical charge at rest.
- Static: having no motion; at rest
> Electrical charges are caused by an imbalance of electrons on the surface
atoms of materials.
> Primarily due to triboelectric charging between materials where
electrons from surface atoms are transferred between materials creating
an electrostatic potential.
> Electrostatic field surrounds electrostatically charged objects.
ESD : A hare raising experience
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Electrostatic Discharge (ESD)
- A transfer of electrostatic charge between bodies at different
electrostatic potentials caused by direct contact or induced by an
electrostatic field.
3. The lack of standardization in the industry has also limited the
acceptance of fiber optics.
4. Many industries are more comfortable with the use of electrical systems
and are reluctant to switch to fiber optics.
BASIC STRUCTURE OF AN OPTICALFIBER The basic structure of an
Lightning: a mega ESD event
Lightning strikes somewhere on Earth about 100 times each second!
optical fiber consists of three parts: the core, the cladding, and
the coating or buffer
COMMUNICATION AND LIGHTING
SPEAKER CONNECTION
-Speaker installation is an important element whenever you install a
Communication system. No matter how good the amplifier is, if the
speaker installation is not done properly, the sound produced will be
inadequate.
FIBER-OPTIC SYSTEMS
-Design has centered on long-haul communications and the
subscriber-loop plants.
-The subscriber loop plant is the part of a system that connects a
subscriber to the nearest switching center. Cable television is an example
Advantages of Fiber Optics:
1. Fiber-optic systems have many attractive features that are superior to
electrical systems. These include improved system performance, immunity
to electrical noise, signal security, and improved safety and electrical
isolation.
2. Other advantages include reduced size and weight, environmental
protection, and overall system economy.
-The CORE is a cylindrical rod of dielectric material. Dielectric material
conducts no electricity. Light propagates mainly along the core of the
fiber. The core is generally made of glass
-The core is surrounded by a layer of material called the cladding. Even
though light will propagate along the fiber core without the layer of
cladding material, the cladding does perform some necessary functions.
The CLADDING layer is made of a dielectric material. Cladding is generally
made of glass or plastic and performs the following functions: Reduces
loss of light from the core into the surrounding air Reduces scattering loss
at the surface of the core Protects the fiber from absorbing surface
contaminants Adds mechanical strength For extra protection.
-The COATING or BUFFER is a layer of material used to protect an optical
fiber from physical damage. The material used for a buffer is a type of
plastic. The buffer is elastic in nature and prevents abrasions. Also, the
buffer prevents the optical fiber from scattering losses caused by micro
bends. Micro bends occur when an optical fiber is placed on a rough and
distorted surface.
AIRCONDITIONING
Disadvantages:
1. Because of the relative newness of the technology,
Fiber-optic components are expensive.
2. Fiber-optic transmitters and receivers are still relatively
expensive compared to electrical interfaces.
-is the cooling and dehumidification of indoor air for thermal comfort.
- The term can refer to any form of cooling, heating, ventilation, or
disinfection that modifies the condition of air.
- An air conditioner designed to stabilize the air temperature and humidity
within an area.
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- is an appliance, system, or mechanism designed to extract heat from an
area via a refrigeration cycle. In construction, a complete system of
heating, ventilation, and air conditioning is referred to as "HVAC." Its
purpose, in a building or an automobile, is to provide comfort during
either hot or cold weather.
- The process of treating air to control simultaneously its temperature,
humidity, cleanliness, and distribution to meet the comfort requirements
of the occupants of the conditioned space.
CONCEPT OF AIRCONDITIONING
- The concept of air conditioning is known to have been applied in Ancient
Rome, where aqueduct water was circulated through the walls of certain
houses to cool them
-Similar techniques in Persia involved the use of cisterns and wind towers
to cool buildings during the hot season
-The first large-scale electrical air conditioning was invented and used in
1902 by Willis Haviland Carrier.
APPLICATIONS
Comfort Applications
-Aim to provide a building indoor environment that remains relatively
constant in a range preferred by humans despite changes in external
weather conditions or in internal heat loads.
-Air conditioning makes deep plan buildings feasible.
Process Applications
- Aims to provide a suitable environment for a process being carried out,
regardless of internal heat and humidity loads and external weather
conditions.
-Although often in the comfort range, it is the needs of the process that
determine conditions, not human preference
Commercial buildings, which are built for commerce, including offices,
malls, shopping centers, restaurants, etc.
Institutional buildings, which includes hospitals, governmental, academic,
and so on.
Industrial spaces where thermal comfort of workers is desired.
TERMS
A
Absolute humidity- amount of moisture in the air.
AIR CHANGES (IN VENTILATION) – the number of times the air is changed
per hour in a room
AIR FOIL VANES – flat blades in a register that can be turned to position
that direct the airstreams.
AFUE- Annual Fuel Utilization Efficiency, a rating that reflects the
efficiency of gas furnace in covering fuel to energy.
Air Change- the amount of air required to completely replace the air in a
room or a building.
Air Conditioner- Assembly of equipment for the simultaneous control of
air temperature, relative humidity, purity and motion.
Air Cooled- uses a fan to discharge heat from a condenser coil to the
outdoor.
Adiabatic Saturation– the introduction of water into saturated air to
increase its humidity ratio, but without transfer of heat to or from an
outside source and without gain or loss of the heat content (Enthalpy) of
the mixture.
Air Diffuser- Air distribution outlet or grille designed to direct airflow into
desired patterns.
Airflow- The distribution or movement of air.
Air Handler- Fan-blower, filter and housing parts of a system.
Air Source- air is being used as the heat source or heat sink for a heat
pump.
Arc- Luminous Bridge formed by in a gap between two conductors or
terminals when they are separated. A spark.
Automatic expansion valve (AXV)- Refrigerant metering device operated
by a low-side pressure of the system.
Comfort Applications for various building types:
Low-Rise Residential buildings, including single family houses, duplexes,
and small apartment buildings.
High-Rise Residential buildings, such as tall dormitories and apartment
blocks.
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B
Condenser- A device that transfers unwanted heat out of the refrigeration
Balance Point- The lowest outdoor temperature at which the refrigeration
system to a medium to absorb the heat and transfer it to a disposal unit.
cycle of a heat pump will supply the heating requirements with the aid of a
Condenser Coil- a series or network of tubes filled with refrigerant,
supplementary heat source.
normally located outside the home, that removes heat from hot, gaseous
Bias- steady voltage inserted in a series with an element of an electronic
refrigerant so that the refrigerant becomes liquid again.
device.
Condensing Unit- Part of a refrigerating mechanism which pumps
Blow-through unit- a unit in which direct expansion, or hydraulic coils, is
vaporized refrigerant from the evaporator, compresses it, liquefies in the
located downstream of supply fan. Compare with pullthrough unit.
condenser and returns it to a refrigerant control.
Blower (fan) - an air handling device for moving air in a distribution
COP- Coefficient of Performance of a heat pump means the ratio of the
system..
rate of useful heat output delivered by the complete heat pump unit to
BTUH- The number of BTU in an hour.
the corresponding rate of energy input, in consistent units and under
Boiler– a unit that produces hot water or steam for heating
operating conditions.
Breathing wall – a method such as the incremental system that has
Cooling Capacity- A measure of the ability of a unit to remove the heat
exterior wall opening for heat and moisture rejection and fresh air supply.
from an enclosed space. COMPRESSION – produces high pressure Freon •
BTU (British Thermal Unit)- the standard of measurement used for
CONDENSING - liquefies high pressure Freon
measuring the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of one
D
pound of water by one degree (Fahrenheit)
Damper- Found in ductwork, this movable plate opens and closes to
BURN PLENUM – the duct designed to bring “return air” to the blowers of
control airflow. Dampers are used effectively in zoning to regulate airflow
the air handling unit.
to certain rooms.
C
Defrost Cycle- The process of removing ice or frost buildup from the
Centralized– a system with one heating or cooling source and a ducted
outdoor coil during the heating season.
network
Dehumidification- The reduction of water vapor in air by cooling the air
Capacity- the output or producing capability of a piece of cooling or
blow the dew point.
heating equipment.
DP – DEW POINT (the temperature at which dew becomes water)
Central Air conditioner System- system in which air is treated at central
Down flow furnace- A furnace that pulls in return air from the top and
location and carried to and from the rooms by one or more fans and a
expels warm air at the bottom.
system of duct. Charge- amount of refrigerant placed in the refrigerating
DB – DRY BULB TEMPERATURE (the temperature of the air water vapor
unit.
mixture as in the normal way with a Fahrenheit thermom
Chilled water – the refrigerated water used to call with air in air
DEGREE DAY – the number of Fahrenheit degrees that the average
conditioning system
outdoor temperature over a 24-hour period is less than 65 F.
Comfort Zone- the range of temperature, humid and air velocities at
Duct- A pipe or closed conduit made of sheet of metal, fiberglass board, or
which the greatest percentage of people feel comfortable.
other suitable material used or conducting air to form an air handling unit.
Compressor-the heart of an air conditioning or heat pump system. It is a
Ductwork- Pipes or channels that carry air throughout your home.
part of the outdoor until that pumps refrigerant. It maintains adequate
E
pressure to cause refrigerant to flow in sufficient quantities in order to
EVAPORATION – absorbs heat as Freon becomes a gas
meet the cooling requirements.
Enthalpy – the quantity of heat in BTU per minute in a fluid or gas
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-Heat content or total heat, including both sensible and latent heat. The
Humidity Ratio – the weight of the actual water vapor in a mixture per
amount of heat contained in a refrigerant at any given temperature with
pound or dry air
reference to 40-F.
Humidifier- a device that adds moisture to warm air being circulated or
Evaporator- Absorbs heat from the surroundings air or liquid and move it
directed into a space. • Humidistat- a device designed to regulate
outside the refrigerate area by means of a refrigerant.
humidity input by reacting to changes into the moisture content of the air.
Evaporator Coil- a series or network of tubes filled with refrigerant located
Humidity- the amount of moisture in the air. Air conditioners remove
inside the home that takes heat and moisture out of indoor air as liquid
moisture for added comfort. HSPF- Heating Seasonal Performance Factor.
refrigerant evaporate.
Refers to the efficiency of the heating mode of heat pumps over an entire
F
heating season. The higher the number, the more efficient the unit.
FINNED TUBE – used for heat transfer between water and air
HVAC-Heating, ventilation, air conditioning.
FLOW RATE – cubic feet per minute (CFM)of air-circulated in an air system
I
of the number of pounds of water per hour circulated through a hot water
IBR - INSTITUTE OF BOILER AND RADIATOR MANUFACTURER
system
INFILTRATION – cold air that leaks in
FIDE GAS - Carbon monoxide, Carbon dioxide and the like
-airflow inward into a space through walls, leaks around doors and
Filter- a device for removing dust particles from air or unwanted elements
windows or through the building materials used in the structures.
from liquid.
ICM – Integrally Controlled Motor.
FREON – refrigerant gas
Indoor Unit- this is actually located inside the house and contains the
Furnace- the part of an environment system which converts gas, oil,
indoor coil, fan, motor, and filtering device, sometimes called the air
electricity or other fuel into heat for distribution within the structure.
handler.
G
Indoor Coil- refrigerant containing portion of a fan coil unit similar to a car
Ground source- the ground or soil below the frost line is being used as the
radiator, typically made of several rows of copper tubing with aluminum
heat source or heat sink for a heat pump.
fins.
Ground water source- water from underground well is being used as the
K
heat source or heat sink for a heat pump
K factor- fee of a grille
H
King valve- valve located at the outlet of the receiver tank. The liquid
HUMIDIFIER - a device to vaporize water, and to use it to increase the
receiver valve.
relative humidity of air
L
Heat Pump- compression cycle system used to supply heat to a controlled
Latent Heat (hidden heat)- change of state from a liquid to a solid or liquid
temperature space.
to a vapor involves latent that cannot be measured with a thermometer.
Heat exchanger- a device for the transfer of heat energy from the source
Lithium Bromide System- uses water for the refrigerant and lithium
to the conveying medium.
bromide for the absorber; strong solution.
Horizontal Furnace- a furnace that lies on its sides, pulling in return air
Locked rotor amps (LRA)- current a compressor motor will draw if the
from one side and expelling warm air from the other.
compressor is stuck and cannot be turned over.
Heat gain- the amount of heat gained, measured in BTU’s, from a space to
M
be conditioned, and the local summer outdoor design temperature and a
MEAN RADIAN TEMPERATURE – average temperature, interior surfaces
specified indoor design condition.
P
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PRIMARY AIR – heated or cooled air directly from the conditioner.
Psychrometer– an instrument used to determine the moisture content of
the air. It consists of two thermometers, one of a standard type with a dry
bulb and the other furnished with a moistened bag or wick to keep its bulb
continuously wet, because the evaporation of moisture from the wick
extracts a corresponding amount of heat. The bulb is cooled and the wet
bulb thermometer will indicate a lower temperature than the dry-bulb
thermometer.
R
RH – Relative Humidity (a ratio which indicates the degree of saturation of
air with water vapor, expressed as the ratio of the partial pressure of the
actual water vapor in a mixture of, to the pressure of a saturated mixture
at the same temperature.
T
Temperature Drop- as applied to air systems, the difference in
temperature of the return air and the heated air delivered.
Temperature Rise- the difference in temperature of the return air and
cooled air delivered.
ACRONYMS
ACCU- Air Cooled Condensing Unit
AHU- Air Handling Unit
ATC- Automatic Temperature Control
CAC- Central Air Conditioner
FCU- Fan Coil Unit
HVAC- Heating Ventilating and Air Conditioning
PAC- Packaged Air Conditioner
RAC- Room Air Conditioner
TR- Tons of Refrigeration
- A complete air conditioning system consists of a refrigeration unit; ducts,
fans, and vents to distribute the air; a filter air washing system; a heating
unit for winter; and a thermostat to regulate temperature.
- The operating principle of an air conditioner is similar to that of the
refrigerant which cools food. A gas or vapor absorbs heat under low
pressure; then it I condensed and pressurized to release the stored heat.
In the cooling cycle of an air conditioner, a refrigerant vapor reduces the
temperature of the cooling coil. The heat from surrounding air is absorbed
into the refrigerant, thus cooling the air. The refrigerant is then
compressed and then sent to a condenser coil to a high pressure. The
pressure at which the refrigerant is maintained. It controls the
temperature at which it will evaporate or condense when heat is added or
taken away.
- Comfort air conditioning or climate control means the maintenance of
the atmospheric factors affecting comfort especially it is the maintenance
of the following variables all within well objectionable noise.
•The desired temperature
•An acceptable community
•Minimal atmospheric particulate including
pollens and
bacteria
•An acceptable odor level
• A uniform air pattern and air motion
The complete functions of an air conditioning system are:
1. Cooling and dehumidifying of air
2. Heating and humidifying of air
3. Cleaning of air (Filtration)
4. Circulation of Air
AIR CONDITIONING STANDARDS
• Heating and humidifying of air – A relative humidity of 30 to 35 percent
is found most satisfying in winter. With this proportion a temperature of
from 70 to 75 F (21.1-23.9 C) is comfortable.
• Cooling and dehumidifying – For summer cooling, temperature of 76-80
F (24.4-26.6 C) and 50 percent relative humidity are a frequent design
average.
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• Air Motion – A gentle motion of air produces a refreshing and
stimulating effect. The velocity should average 15 to 25 ft. per minute
measured 36 inches above floor.
• Air Supply – Many codes require about 30 cu. Ft. per person. Since the
indoor air is re-circulated and reused in air conditioning, a smaller amount
of outdoor air is required, 5 to 10 cu. Ft. per person is sufficient.
4. Proportion of Outside Wall
5. Occupancy
6. Exposure of Walls to the Soon to be Aircon
AIRCONDITIONING SYSTEMS
CLASSES OF AIRCONDITIONING
1. Tempering coils
2. Water heaters
3. Pre-heaters
4. Re-heaters
Unit Air Conditioners
a. Self-Contained Units- units w/c house the compressor, condenser, and
evaporator in the same cabinet. The most common is the “through the
wall” type
b. PACKAGED UNITS- units for cooling-heating, have the compressor and
the evaporator included in the “indoor” package, while the air cooled
condenser is provided and located out of doors
CLASSIFICATION ( 4 Major Categories)
1. Air Water
2. Cool Air
3. Refrigerant
4. Water
Central Systems
a. The Air Handling Unit- equipped with pre-heater, filters, spray
humidifiers, cooling coils and re-heaters
TYPES OF AIR CONDITIONING SYSTEM
1. Unit type
2. Central Type
3. Chilled Water Type
4. Air Handling Type
Method of Cooling
1. Mechanical refrigeration plant
2. Absorption Machine
Source of Heating
1. Boiler/ Furnace
PROPERTIES OF DRY AIR
Dry Atmospheric Air is a mixture of several gases with the following
practical constant
Air Distribution System
- -consisting of fans and ducts to bring the conditioned air to the rooms
and back to the conditioner for re-cooling or re-heating
Important Variables to Keep in Mind When Estimating Load (BTU)
Air Conditioning Equipment
Requirements for a Room Cooling Installation are:
Indoor: (Parts)
1. Heat Gain thru Ceiling
-Blower
-Indoor Air
2. Room size/ Floor Area (Sq. ft.)
-Cooled Air
-Cooling coils
3. Wall Construction
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-Temperature sensing bulb
-Expansion Valve
Outdoor:
- Compressor - Fan Axle
- Fan
- Condenser coils
-Hot air
- Out door air
- A portable air conditioner is one on wheels that can be easily transported
inside a home or office.
- Portable true air conditioners come in two forms, split and hose.
Evaporative coolers, sometimes called conditioners, are also portable.
Split System
- A split system has an indoor unit on wheels connected to an outdoor unit
EVAPORATORS AND COOLERS
via flexible pipes, similar to a permanently fixed installed unit.
- Several methods are:
Hose Systems
1. Direct cooling of water
- Which can be Air-to-Air and Monoblock, are vented to the outside via air
2. Direct cooling of air
ducts.
3. Indirect cooling
-The "monoblock" version collects the water in a bucket or tray and stops
when full.
HUMIDITY CONTROL
-The Air-to-Air version re-evaporates the water and discharges it through
- A specific type of air conditioner that is used only for dehumidifying is
the ducted hose, and can run continuously.
called a dehumidifier
Single- Duct Unit
- A dehumidifier is different from a regular air conditioner in that both the
- Draws air out of the room to cool its condenser, and then vents it
evaporator and condenser coils are placed in the same air path.
outside.
- A regular air conditioner transfers energy out of the room by means of
- This air is replaced by hot air from outside or other rooms, thus reducing
the condenser coil, which is outside the room (outdoors).
efficiency.
- Dehumidifiers are commonly used in cold, damp climates to prevent
- Disadvantages are that unless ambient humidity is low (dry climate)
mold growth indoors, especially in basements.
cooling is limited and the cooled air is very humid and can feel clammy.
- They are also sometimes used in hot, humid climates for comfort
- They have the advantage of needing no hoses to vent heat outside the
because they reduce the humidity which causes discomfort (just as a
cooled area, making them truly portable; and they are very cheap to install
regular air conditioner, but without cooling the room).
and use less energy than refrigerative air conditioners.
Evaporative Air Coolers
HEALTH IMPLICATIONS
- Sometimes called swamp air conditioners, do not have a compressor or
- A poorly maintained air-conditioning system can occasionally promote
condenser.
the growth and spread of microorganisms, such as Legionella
- Liquid water is evaporated on the cooling fins, releasing the vapor into
pneumophila.
the cooled area.
- Air conditioning can have a positive effect on sufferers of allergies and
REFRIGERANTS
asthma.
Freon is a trade name for a family of haloalkane refrigerants manufactured
- In serious heat waves, air conditioning can save the lives of the elderly.
by DuPont and other companies. These refrigerants were commonly used
due to their superior stability and safety properties. Unfortunately,
PORTABLE AIR CONDITIONERS
evidence has accumulated that these chlorine-bearing refrigerants reach
the upper atmosphere when they escape
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Types of Air Conditioner Equipment
1. Window and through-wall units- Many traditional air conditioners in
homes or other buildings are single rectangular units used to cool all or a
portion of an apartment, house, or other building. Hotels frequently use
PTAC systems, which combine heating and air conditioning into the same
unit.
2. Evaporative Coolers- In very dry climates, evaporative coolers (or
"swamp coolers") are popular for improving comfort during hot weather.
This type of cooler is the dominant cooler used in Iran, which has the
largest number of these units of any country in the world, causing some to
referring to these units as "Persian coolers."
3. Ductless Split System- The components of this system are separated.
The condenser is located outside and is connected to single or multiple
evaporator units inside. These evaporator units are connected to the
condenser unit by small flexible hoses and do not use a central air duct
to ductwork that distributes the conditioned air through the building, and
returns it to the AHU. Sometimes AHUs discharge (supply) and admit
(return) air directly to and from the space served, without ductwork.
An air handling unit air flow is from the right to left in this case. Some AHU
components shown are:
1. Supply Duct
2. Fan compartment
3. Vibration isolator (‘flex joint’)
4. Heating and/or cooling coil
5. Filter compartment
6. Mixed (recirculated outside) air duct
Air Handler Components:
1. Blower/ Fan- air handlers typically employ a large squirrel cage blower
driven by an AC induction electric motor to move the air. The blower may
operate at a single speed, offer a variety of pre-set speeds, or be driven by
a variable frequently drive so as to allow a wide range of air flow rates
2. Heating and/or cooling elements- Depending on the location and the
application, air handlers may need to provide heating, or cooling, or both
to change the supply air temperature. Smaller air handlers may contain a
fuel burning heater or a refrigeration evaporator, placed directly in the air
stream
3. Filters- Air filtration is almost always present in order to provide clean
dust-free air to the building occupants.
4. Humidifier- Humidification is often necessary in colder climates where
continuous heating will make the air drier, resulting in uncomfortable air
quality and increased static electricity. Various types of humidification may
be used
5. Mixing Chamber- In order to maintain indoor air quality, air handlers
commonly have provisions to allow the introduction of outside air into,
and the exhausting of air from the building.
- In temperate climates, mixing the right amount of cooler outside air with
warmer return air can be used to approach the desired supply air
CENTRAL AIR CONDITIONING
- commonly referred to as central air (U.S.) or air-con (UK), is an air
conditioning system which uses ducts to distribute cooled and/or
dehumidified air to more than one room, or uses pipes to distribute chilled
water to heat exchangers in more than one room, and which is not
plugged into a standard electrical outlet.
- With a typical split system, the condenser and compressor are located in
an outdoor unit; the evaporator is mounted in the air handler unit. With a
package system, all components are located in a single outdoor unit that
may be located on the ground or roof.
COOLING TOWERS
AIR HANDLER
- or air handling unit (often abbreviated
to AHU),
is a device used to condition and
circulate
air as part of a heating, ventilating, and
airconditioning (HVAC) system. Usually, an
air
handler is a large metal box containing a
blower,
heating and/or cooling elements, filter
racks or
chambers, sound attenuators, and dampers. Air handlers usually connect
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temperature. A mixing chamber is therefore used which has dampers
controlling the ratio between the return, outside, and exhaust air.
DIRECT DIFFUSED LIGHTING
BUILDING UTILITIES 3- LIGHTING AND ACOUSTICS
LIGHT VS LIGHTING
Light – An artificial source of illumination
Lighting - The various processes, systems, forms, and or equipment used
to provide light and illumination
TYPES OF LIGHTING
Accent lighting - any directional, which emphasizes a particular object or
draws attention to a particular area.
Cove lighting - lighting from sources which are out of sight, which
distributed light over the ceiling and upper walls.
Direct-indirect lighting – lighting in which the luminaries are in general
diffuse category but emit little or no light at angles near a horizontal plane
drawn through them.
Directional lighting - lighting, predominantly from a preferred direction,
which provides illumination on the work plane or an object.
ACCENT LIGHTING
Direct lighting – lighting in which luminaries distribute 90% to 100% of the
emitted light in the direction of the surface to be illuminated, usually a
downward direction.
GENERAL LIGHTING
Lamp – a man light source which produces radiation in or near the
visible region of the spectrum; often called a bulb or tube to
distinguish it from the complete lighting unit consisting of thru
source and associated parts such as reflectors.
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INCANDESCENT DAYLIGHT LAMP – an incandescent lamp having a blue
green glass bulb which makes the emitted light whiter by absorbing part of
the yellow and the red light, approximately 35% less efficient than the
standard indecent lamp.
 Filament- material usually used is tungsten, it may be straight
wire, a coil or a coiled coil
 Gas- Usually a mixture of nitrogen and argon is used in most lamps
of 40 watts or larger to retard evaporation
 Stem Press- The lead in wires in the glass have an air tight seal and
are made of a combination of a nickel iron alloy core and a copper
 Exhaust tube- air is exhausted through this tube during
manufacture and inert gases into the bulb.
 Bulb- soft glass is generally used, hard glass is used for some
lamps to withstand higher temperature
 Support wires- supports the filament
 Mica disc- used in higher wattage general service lamps and other
types
Metal halide lamp – an electric lamp in which the light is produced by the
radiation from a mixture of a metallic vapor (e.g.mercury) and the
products of the dissociation of halides (e.g.halides of thallium, indium,
sodium, etc.)
Rapid-start lamps – this are similar in construction to the preheat lamps;
the basic difference is in the circuitry.
Reflector lamp-an incident lamp in which part of the bulb serves as a
reflector.
FLUORESCENT LAMP – a low-pressure electric discharge lamp.
Diachronic reflector lamps - these lamps transmit color selectively
through a molecular layer of chemical coating, allowing only the desired
wavelength of color to pass through.
Equal-energy white - when all colors fade into white at the center of the
diagram.
High intensity discharge lamps – these lamps have inherently high efficacy
and, with appropriate color correction, can be utilized in any application,
indoor or outdoor, that does not have critical color criteria.
High-pressure mercury lamp – a mercury vapor lamp that operates at a
partial pressure of mercury about 1 atmosphere or more.
Low voltage lamps – these lamps, in PAR shape and for 6V operation, are
available in extremely narrow beam spread (5-10degree) for special
precision control flood lighting.
Mercury vapor lamp - an electric discharge lamp consisting of an electric
arc in mercury vapor in a sealed tube, which in turn maybe enclosed in an
outer glass envelope; the light appears to be blue-white in color.
FOOT CANDLE
Is the quantity of light (or illumination level) on one square foot of surface
area one foot away from the light source.
LIGHT MEASURE
LUMEN
It can be defined as the rate at which light falls on one square foot of a
surface area one foot from a source of one candlepower, or one candela.
CANDELA
1/60 the intensity of a square centimeter of a blackbody radiator operated
at 2047 K, which is the freezing point of platinum.
LUX
the quantity of light on one square meter of surface area one meter away
from the light source (1 lux equals 0.09 fc)
COLOR TEMPERATURE AND ILLUMINATION
•Is the temperature of an ideal black-body radiator that radiates light of
comparable hue to that of a light source
•Unit of absolute temperature is K “kelvin”
•There are over 5,000 k cool colors (blueish white) and (2,700-3,000 K) are
warm colors (yellowish white through red)
•Illuminance is often called the “brightness”
•It is the light intensity that differs the color from tint to shade
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CHARACTERISTICS OF COLOR
HAWTHORNE EFFECT
•This as from an experiment to improve factory lighting which increased
the productivity of the workers
•the first experiment involved changing the light bulbs into producing
lower light (they deducted 1.4 foot candles)
•Then they increased the light intensity of the bulbs and proved to be
more effective



Hue- the color itself
Saturation/Tone- amount of color that distances it from the gray
Brightness- amount of BW in the color
o Shade- mixed with black
o Tint- mixed with white
COLOR WHEEL- circular organization of colors according to hue
Neutrals
 White- pure, clean, airy, pristine
 Darks- rich, polished, moody, elegant
 Mid-neutrals- restrained, subtle, well-rounded, dependable
ILLUMINATION LEVELS
•To measure illumination levels, take readings (in lm/ft^2 or fc) with the
light cell parallel to and on the plane of interest.
•Gradients provide a method of analyzing the relationship between light
sources and room shapes and reflectance
BRIGHTNESS
To measure brightness of a diffuse reflecting surface, hold the meter’s
light cell close to the surface of interest and then draw it back 2 o 4 in until
the reading remains constant.
REFLECTANCE
Generally refer to the fraction of incident electromagnetic power that is
reflected at an interface
TRANSMITTANCE
To measure transmittance (in %) of a transparent or translucent material,
hold the meter’s light cell flush on the sample. Using a constant light
source on the opposite side, measure the foot candles from the source
with and without the sample in place.
COLOR THEORY
White
 Aids mental clarity
 Encourages us to clear clutter
 Evokes purification of thoughts or actions
 Enables fresh beginnings
Mid-neutrals
 Feeling of wholesomeness
 Stability
 Connection with earth
 Offers a sense of orderliness
Darks
 Feeling of inconspicuous
 Resftful emptiness
 Mysterious evoking a sense of potential and possibility
Red
 Increases enthusiasm
 Stimulates energy
 Encourages energy
 Encourages action and confidence
 A sense of protection from fear and anxiety
Blue
 Calming and sedate
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BUILDING UTILITIES EXIT EXAM REVIEWER (MARCH 2016)


Yellow




Cooling
Aids intuition
Mentally stimulating
Stimulates the nervous system
Activates memory
CONSONANCE AND DISSONANCE
•When two tones are played together, there is a frequency range over
 Encourages communication
Green
 Soothing
 Relaxing mentally as well as physically
 Helps alleviate depression
 Offers a sense of renewal, self-control and harmony
Orange
 Stimulates activity
 Stimulates appetite
 Encourages socialization
Purple
 Uplifting
 Calming to mind
 Offers sense of spirituality
 Encourages creativity
ACOUSTICS
PITCH- The perceived uditory sensation of sounds expressed interms of
high or low frequency stimulus of the sound
 The phenomenon of critical bands is of great significance for many
aspects of human hearing.
 Musical pitch is defined in terms of notes however, there are
psycho acoustical experiments to measure human perception of
relative pitch as well.

Relative pitch discrimination can be measured by asking subjects
to respond when one tone sounds twice as high as another.
Absolute pitch discrimination is rather rare occurring in only 0.01
percent of the population
which they sound rough or dissonant
LOUDNESS
COMPARATIVE LOUDNESS
Loudness is the human perception of the magnitude of a sound. Early
efforts to quantify loudness were undertaken in the field of music.
Noisiness is affected by a number of factors that do not influence loudness
(Kryter,1970). Two that do affect loudness are the spectrum and the level.
The loudness of direct sound waves to a listener is determined by:
(1) the loudness of the original source, and
(2) the listener distance from the source. The loudness of the direct
Sound decreases with the square of the distance from the sources o
That the loudness decreases very rapidly close to the source, but as
The distance from the source increases, a change in distance has little
effect.
When a soundwave strikes a surface such as a floor, wall, or
ceiling, the direction of travel is changed by reflection. Reflection of
sound waves follow the same physical law as light reflection. The
angle of incidence equals the angle of reflection.
REVERBERATION
Reflected waves will continue ricocheting between room
Surfaces losing only a fraction of power by absorption at each reflection.
The prolongation of sound is called reverberation. The sound will
Gradually diminish.
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Reverberation time is the time measured in seconds that a
Sound average loudness can be heard before it becomes completely
In audible under quiet conditions.
ECHO
A distinct repetition of a direct sound is an echo. In a highly
Reverberant room, an echo gets lost in the general reverberation. An
Echo is easily distinguished if the interval is greater than ½ second
In a room with low reverberation time.
Sounds reflected from flat surfaces will be less intense than the
Original direct sound. Sound reflected from concave surfaces has a
Focusing action that produces very annoying echoes.
COEFFICIENTS OF GENERALBUILDING MATERIALS AND
FURNISHINGS
RAY DIAGRAM ANALYSIS
This is used to:
1.Study the effect of room shaping on sound distribution and;
2.Identify possible echo-producing surfaces
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