Psychology
TEXTBOOK
FOR
2022-23
CLASS XI
11114 – PSYCHOLOGY
ISBN 81-7450-506-7
Textbook for Class XI
First Edition
February 2006 Phalguna 1927
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
q
Reprinted
February 2007 Phalguna 1928
October 2007 Kartika 1929
January 2009 Pausa 1930
November 2009 Margashira 1931
January 2011 Pausa 1932
October 2012 Kartika 1934
December 2014 Pausa 1936
December 2015 Agrahayana 1937
March 2017 Phalguna 1938
December 2017 Agrahayana 1939
December 2018 Agrahayana 1940
August 2019 Shravana 1941
January 2021 Pausa 1942
November 2021 Kartika 1943
q
q
No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or
transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying,
recording or otherwise without the prior permission of the publisher.
This book is sold subject to the condition that it shall not, by way of trade, be lent,
resold, hired out or otherwise disposed of without the publisher’s consent, in any
form of binding or cover other than that in which it is published.
The correct price of this publication is the price printed on this page, Any revised
price indicated by a rubber stamp or by a sticker or by any other means is incorrect
and should be unacceptable.
OFFICES OF THE PUBLICATION
DEPARTMENT, NCERT
PD 20T RSP
© National Council of Educational
Research and Training, 2006
NCERT Campus
Sri Aurobindo Marg
New Delhi 110 016
Phone : 011-26562708
108, 100 Feet Road
Hosdakere Halli Extension
Banashankari III Stage
Bengaluru 560 085
Phone : 080-26725740
Navjivan Trust Building
P.O.Navjivan
Ahmedabad 380 014
Phone : 079-27541446
CWC Campus
Opp. Dhankal Bus Stop
Panihati
Kolkata 700 114
Phone : 033-25530454
CWC Complex
Maligaon
Guwahati 781 021
` 130.00
Phone : 0361-2674869
Publication Team
Printed on 80 GSM paper with NCERT
watermark
Published at the Publication Division by
the Secretary, National Council of
Educational Research and Training,
Sri Aurobindo Marg, New Delhi 110 016
and printed at Amber Press Pvt. Ltd.,
143A-143-B, Pahiya Azampur, Kakori,
Lucknow (U.P.)
2022-23
Head, Publication
Division
: Anup Kumar Rajput
Chief Editor
: Shveta Uppal
Chief Production
Officer
: Arun Chitkara
Chief Business
Manager
: Vipin Dewan
Editor
: Bijnan Sutar
Production Assistant : Om Prakash
Cover, Layout and Illustrations
Nidhi Wadhwa
FOREWORD
The National Curriculum Framework (NCF), 2005, recommends that children’s life
at school must be linked to their life outside the school. This principle marks a
departure from the legacy of bookish learning which continues to shape our system
and causes a gap between the school, home and community. The syllabi and
textbooks developed on the basis of NCF signify an attempt to implement this
basic idea. They also attempt to discourage rote learning and the maintenance of
sharp boundaries between different subject areas. We hope these measures will
take us significantly further in the direction of a child-centred system of education
outlined in the National Policy on Education (1986).
The success of this effort depends on the steps that school principals and
teachers will take to encourage children to reflect on their own learning and to
pursue imaginative activities and questions. We must recognise that given space,
time and freedom, children generate new knowledge by engaging with the
information passed on to them by adults. Treating the prescribed textbook as the
sole basis of examination is one of the key reasons why other resources and sites
of learning are ignored. Inculcating creativity and initiative is possible if we perceive
and treat children as participants in learning, not as receivers of a fixed body of
knowledge.
These aims imply considerable change in school routines and mode of
functioning. Flexibility in the daily time-table is as necessary as rigour in
implementing the annual calendar so that the required number of teaching days
are actually devoted to teaching. The methods used for teaching and evaluation
will also determine how effective this textbook proves for making children’s life at
school a happy experience, rather than a source of stress or boredom. Syllabus
designers have tried to address the problem of curricular burden by restructuring
and reorienting knowledge at different stages with greater consideration for child
psychology and the time available for teaching. The textbook attempts to enhance
this endeavour by giving higher priority and space to opportunities for
contemplation and wondering, discussion in small groups, and activities requiring
hands-on experience.
The National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT) appreciates
the hard work done by the Textbook Development Committee responsible for this
textbook. We wish to thank the Chairperson of the advisory group of Social Sciences,
Professor Hari Vasudevan (Department of History, Calcutta University, Kolkata)
and the Chief Advisor for this textbook, Professor R.C. Tripathi (Director, G.B. Pant
Social Science Institute, Allahabad) for guiding the work of this committee. Several
teachers contributed to the development of this textbook; we are grateful to their
principals for making this possible. We are indebted to the institutions and
organisations which have generously permitted us to draw upon their resources,
material and personnel. We are especially grateful to the members of the
National Monitoring Committee, appointed by the Department of Secondary
2022-23
and Higher Education, Ministry of Human Resource Development under the
Chairpersonship of Professor Mrinal Miri and Professor G.P. Deshpande, for their
valuable time and contribution. As an organisation committed to the systemic reform
and continuous improvement in the quality of its products, NCERT welcomes
comments and suggestions which will enable us to undertake further revision and
refinement.
Director
National Council of Educational
Research and Training
New Delhi
20 December 2005
iv
2022-23
PREFACE
Psychology is one of the youngest sciences but one of the fastest growing. There
are many who believe that the 21st century is going to be the century of biological
sciences along with psychological sciences. Development in the fields of
neurosciences, as well as physical sciences have opened new doors to solve the
mysteries of mind and human behaviour. There is no human endeavour which is
going to remain unaffected by this new knowledge which is getting created. One
only hopes that it will enable people to live their lives more meaningfully and to
organise human systems better. In fact, as a consequence, a large number of new
job opportunities have surfaced. Psychology already has made inroads into many
new domains.
The writing of this textbook has been truly a collective effort. It has benefitted
from the inputs received from various subject experts in various forms, from college
and school teachers, and also students. In writing this textbook, we have tried to
address some of the concerns raised by the evaluators of the previous edition of
this textbook, while also making use of some portions of it. The textbook follows
the National Curriculum Framework (NCF) – 2005. In keeping with the general
guidelines, we have tried to reduce the load and attempted to make it more
comprehensible for the students. In doing so, we have tried to relate psychological
concepts with everyday human behaviour and also with various life experiences.
How far one has succeeded in this, is left for the teachers and students to judge.
One major challenge which teachers of psychology face is to make their students
analyse human behaviour in a scientific manner and to use explanations which
are not commonsensical. More than any other scientific discipline, psychology runs
the risk of trivialisation. It is our hope that students who go through this course will
develop a proper scientific attitude for analysing others and their own behaviour
and use it for personal growth.
We take great pleasure in placing this textbook in the hands of students and
teachers and also express our gratitude to all who have provided their unstinted
support in its writing and production.
2022-23
Change the World by Changing Me
The Sufi Bayazid says this about himself:
“I was a revolutionary when I was young
and all my prayer to God was: ‘Lord, give
me the energy to change the world.’ ”
“As I approached middle age and realised
that half my life was gone without my
changing a single soul, I changed my
prayer to: ‘Lord, give me the grace to
change all those who come in contact
with me. Just my family and friends,
and I shall be content.’ ”
“Now that I am an old man and my days
are numbered, my one prayer is: ‘Lord,
give me the grace to change myself.’
If I had prayed for this right from
the start I should not have wasted
my life.”
SOURCE : “THE SONG OF THE BIRD” ANTHONY DE MELLO, S.J.
(ANAND: GUJARAT SAHITYA PRAKASH), 1987
2022-23
TEXTBOOK DEVELOPMENT COMMITTEE
CHIEF ADVISOR
R.C. Tripathi, Professor & Director, G.B. Pant Social Science Institute, Jhusi,
Allahabad
MEMBERS
A.K. Mohanty, Professor, Zakir Hussain Centre for Educational Studies, SSS II, JNU,
New Delhi
A.K. Srivastava, Reader, DERPP, NCERT, New Delhi
B.D. Tiwari, Professor, Department of Psychology, Mahatma Gandhi Kashi
Vidyapeeth, Varanasi
B.N. Puhan, Retired Professor, Utkal University, Bhubaneswar
C. Suvasini, Lecturer, Gargi College, New Delhi
Namita Pande, Professor, Department of Psychology, University of Allahabad,
Allahabad
Nandita Babu, Reader, Department of Psychology, University of Delhi, Delhi
Neelam Srivastava, PGT, Vasant Valley School, Vasant Kunj, New Delhi
Manas K. Mandal, Director, Defence Institute of Psychological Research (DIPR),
Timarpur, Delhi
R.C. Mishra, Professor, Department of Psychology, Benaras Hindu University,
Varanasi
Shakuntla S. Jaiman, Principal, CSKM School, Satbari, Chattarpur, New Delhi
Sunita Arora, Senior Counsellor, Govt. Girls Senior Secondary School No.1, Roop
Nagar, Delhi
Sushma Gulati, Professor, DEPFE, NCERT, New Delhi
Usha Anand, PGT, St. Thomas Girls Senior Secondary School, Mandir Marg, New
Delhi
MEMBER-COORDINATORS
Anjum Sibia, Reader, DEPFE, NCERT, New Delhi
Prabhat K. Mishra, Lecturer, DEPFE, NCERT, New Delhi
2022-23
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
National Council of Educational Research and Training, New Delhi thanks
Professor Sushma Gulati, Head, Department of Educational Psychology and
Foundations of Education for her support during the various stages of textbook
development. Acknowledgements are due to Professor L.B. Tripathi (Retired, DDU
Gorakhpur University), Professor Sagar Sharma (Retired, H.P. University, Shimla),
Dr. Kailash Tuli (Zakir Hussain College, New Delhi) and Dr. Sarla Jawa (Lady Shri
Ram College, New Delhi) for the feedback and suggestions given for the improvement
of the textbook.
Special thanks are due to Shveta Uppal, Chief Editor, NCERT and Vandana
Singh, Consultant Editor for going through the manuscript and suggesting relevant
changes.
The Council also gratefully acknowledges the contributions of Pavnesh Verma,
DTP Operator, G.R. Upadhyaya, Copy Editor, Rakesh Kumar, Proof Reader and
Pankaj Kakkar, Incharge Computer Station, in shaping this textbook. Last but not
the least, the efforts of the Publication Department, NCER T are also duly
acknowledged.
The efforts of the Publication Department, NCERT in bringing out this publication
are also appreciated.
2022-23
NOTE
FOR THE
TEACHERS
As a teacher, one is always concerned about students’ learning and enhancing
their understanding over and above what is in the textbook. The existing classroom
practices largely focus on imparting knowledge and information. It is, however,
important for us to reflect on what it means to teach, how we teach, and the carry
over value of our teaching.
Research shows that pedagogical practices are influenced by the nature and
contents of the subject or discipline. The subject of psychology, which deals with
human mind, behaviour and human relationship, can most appropriately lend
itself to teaching with humanistic perspective. Such a perspective aims at enriching
students’ knowledge as well as inspiring and awakening their curiosity, positive
feelings, desire to learn, openness, exploration of self and others, etc. Such an
approach is also conducive to their personal development and inculcation of positive
attitude and love for the subject.
This textbook has been so designed as to provide ample scope to build on the
previous knowledge and experiences of the students. Meaningful contexts have
been provided to relate the subject matter with day-to-day life. We suggest you use
interactive approach to engage the students, and to sustain their interest and
enthusiasm in order to make the teaching-learning process joyful. Strategies like
stories, discussions, examples, questioning, analogies, problem solving situations,
role play, etc. are in-built part of the text. It will be good if students bring in their
own stories and examples. Special effort has been made to reduce the density of
information to provide time and space to help students to relate knowledge gained
in the classroom to their individual experiences as well as to their physical, social,
political and economic environments. The transaction of the subject matter,
therefore, should facilitate reflection among students to explore the applicability of
knowledge to their own contexts. We suggest that you may encourage your students
to maintain a record of interesting events/episodes in which they may have been
involved personally or which they may have observed. They may try to make sense
of these episodes using their learning from this book. This may be called a LEARNING
DIARY.
As for Class XI students psychology will be a new subject, it would be important
to dwell on the potential of the subject, its value in daily life and various career
possibilities. Students, it is expected, will be made aware of the empirical nature of
the discipline and the importance of adopting scientific approach in studying human
behaviour.
This textbook consists of nine chapters on topics considered essential for an
introductory course in psychology. Each chapter begins with learning objectives.
An outline of the major contents to be covered give an overall view of the chapter.
The introduction at the beginning of each chapter provides an informative and
challenging start to build on the students’ previous knowledge. The main content
in each chapter is interspersed with examples, illustrations, tables, activities and
boxes to facilitate better understanding of the concepts. These are integral part of
the book and should be used. The summary at the end of each chapter helps to
2022-23
reinforce and consolidate what has been read or taught. Before you begin a particular
chapter you should encourage the students to read the summary of the chapter.
The chapter-end review questions cater to the areas of understanding, application
and skill, intended to promote higher order thinking. The project ideas given at the
end of each chapter are aimed at engaging students in fieldwork and gaining hands
on experience. This also brings them to understand abstract concepts more
meaningfully by relating these to their everyday life happenings. We hope that
these will be appropriately used by you to create new learning opportunities.
Although the contents of the textbook have been organised under different
headings, like learning, thinking, memory, motivation and emotion, etc., efforts
have been made to provide linkages across and within the chapters to maintain
continuity and holistic perspective. The activities given in the textbook have been
carefully chosen to maximise students’ participation in the class. Most activities
suggested are easy to carry out and require no special material. These can be
conducted in the classroom situation or given as part of home assignments. While
some of the activities are group-oriented, some of these are individual in nature.
Group activities are important for team building, to experience the joy of sharing
and to develop respect for each others’ viewpoint. While conducting activity sessions,
particular care should be taken in building a classroom climate that is conducive
to mutual respect, confidence and cooperation. Since every class is different and
every teacher is different, these activities can be adapted according to the varied
requirements and the contexts.
It is critical that in teaching this course, we must strive to maintain balance
between scientific and experiential approaches.
x
2022-23
NOTE
FOR THE
STUDENTS
This textbook has been prepared to introduce you to the fundamentals of Psychology.
Besides providing basic disciplinary knowledge, it focuses on enhancing your
curiosity and understanding of people’s behaviour and that of your own. The
interactive nature of the textbook will help you understand psychology as a discipline
as well as the practical applications of psychology in day-to-day life. For this it is
required that you participate in the classroom activities fully and also reflect on
them.
To begin with, you must get familiar with the subject contents which will give
you an idea of the topics to be covered and the sequence of chapters. Each chapter
has objectives and the content outline. The objectives inform you what all you
should be able to know after you have gone through the chapter. The chapters
begin with an introduction which will give you a brief overview of what lies ahead.
The contents also include boxes and activities. These boxes contain information
relating to the latest theories and experiments that have been conducted and its
applications to everyday situations. They are integral to the book and you are
required to read them to widen your horizon and to develop a quest for knowledge.
Examples given in the textbook relate to real life events and experiences. To
consolidate all that has been taught and understood, you will find a summary after
each chapter. This is then followed by review questions. These questions are likely
to generate critical thinking and develop in you the power to question and reason.
We encourage you to attempt these questions. Your responses to these questions
will indicate both the degree of your mastery of the concepts taught and the depth
of your knowledge.
It is important that you learn the key terms given at the end of each chapter
and their definitions. The glossary at the end of the textbook will prove to be an
excellent aid to clarify and brush-up the fundamentals of the subject.
Now let us focus on the activities and project ideas mentioned in each chapter.
These are intended to promote experiential learning. Your experience while taking
up these activities will help you to know more about yourself and others. These will
also help you to relate taught concepts in the class to real life situations. Try to
involve in as many activities as you can as this will facilitate your understanding of
psychological concepts better. The project ideas also emphasise learning by doing.
You may have to move out of your classroom to interview people or to gather
information. It may not be possible for you to carry out all the projects but choose
the ones you find interesting.
You are going to embark on a journey towards exploring different realms of the
subject. As you go along, you will find some sites in the text which will help you to
explore your ‘self ’ and the world of which you are a part. The doorway to psychology
is open, make the best of it. If you are an internet user, try to explore the sites with
the help of your teacher which provide information on the topics covered in this
textbook.
2022-23
CONSTITUTION OF INDIA
Part III (Articles 12 – 35)
(Subject to certain conditions, some exceptions
and reasonable restrictions)
guarantees these
Fundamental Rights
Right to Equality
• before law and equal protection of laws;
• irrespective of religion, race, caste, sex or place of birth;
• of opportunity in public employment;
• by abolition of untouchability and titles.
Right to Freedom
• of expression, assembly, association, movement, residence and profession;
• of certain protections in respect of conviction for offences;
• of protection of life and personal liberty;
• of free and compulsory education for children between the age of six and fourteen years;
• of protection against arrest and detention in certain cases.
Right against Exploitation
• for prohibition of traffic in human beings and forced labour;
• for prohibition of employment of children in hazardous jobs.
Right to Freedom of Religion
• freedom of conscience and free profession, practice and propagation of religion;
• freedom to manage religious affairs;
• freedom as to payment of taxes for promotion of any particular religion;
• freedom as to attendance at religious instruction or religious worship in educational
institutions wholly maintained by the State.
Cultural and Educational Rights
• for protection of interests of minorities to conserve their language, script and culture;
• for minorities to establish and administer educational institutions of their choice.
Right to Constitutional Remedies
• by issuance of directions or orders or writs by the Supreme Court and High
Courts for enforcement of these Fundamental Rights.
2022-23
CONTENTS
Page
Note for the Teachers
ix
Note for the Students
xi
Chapter 1
What is Psychology?
1
Chapter 2
Methods of Enquiry in Psychology
22
Chapter 3
The Bases of Human Behaviour
43
Chapter 4
Human Development
64
Chapter 5
Sensory, Attentional and Perceptual Processes
84
Chapter 6
Learning
107
Chapter 7
Human Memory
131
Chapter 8
Thinking
149
Chapter 9
Motivation and Emotion
169
Glossary
188
Suggested Readings
198
2022-23
CONSTITUTION OF INDIA
Part IV A (Article 51 A)
Fundamental Duties
Fundamental Duties – It shall be the duty of every citizen of India —
(a) to abide by the Constitution and respect its ideals and institutions, the National
Flag and the National Anthem;
(b) to cherish and follow the noble ideals which inspired our national struggle for
freedom;
(c) to uphold and protect the sovereignty, unity and integrity of India;
(d) to defend the country and render national service when called upon to do so;
(e) to promote harmony and the spirit of common brotherhood amongst all the people
of India transcending religious, linguistic and regional or sectional diversities; to
renounce practices derogatory to the dignity of women;
(f) to value and preserve the rich heritage of our composite culture;
(g) to protect and improve the natural environment including forests, lakes, rivers,
wildlife and to have compassion for living creatures;
(h) to develop the scientific temper, humanism and the spirit of inquiry and reform;
(i) to safeguard public property and to abjure violence;
(j) to strive towards excellence in all spheres of individual and collective activity so
that the nation constantly rises to higher levels of endeavour and achievement;
(k) who is a parent or guardian, to provide opportunities for education to his child or,
as the case may be, ward between the age of six and fourteen years.
2022-23
Chapter
1
What is Psychology?
After reading this chapter, you would be able to
•
•
•
•
understand the nature and role of psychology in understanding mind
and behaviour,
state the growth of the discipline,
know the different fields of psychology, its relationship with other
disciplines, and professions, and
appreciate the value of psychology in daily life to help you understand
yourself and others better.
Contents
The growth of the human mind
is still high adventure,
in many ways the highest
adventure on earth.
Introduction
What is Psychology?
Psychology as a Discipline
Psychology as a Natural Science
Psychology as a Social Science
Understanding Mind and Behaviour
Popular Notions about the Discipline of Psychology
Evolution of Psychology
Some Interesting Landmarks in the Evolution of
Modern Psychology (Box 1.1)
Development of Psychology in India
Branches of Psychology
Themes of Research and Applications
Psychology and Other Disciplines
Psychologists at Work
Psychology in Everyday Life
Key Terms
Summary
Review Questions
Project Ideas
– Norman Cousins
2022-23
Introduction
You were, perhaps, asked by your teacher in the first class why you opted for
psychology over other subjects. What do you hope to learn? If you were asked this
question, what was your response? Generally, the range of responses which surface
in class to this question are truly bewildering. Most students give inane responses,
like they want to know what others are thinking. But then one also comes across
such responses as knowing oneself, knowing others or more specific responses like
knowing why people dream, why people go out of their way to help others or beat
each other up. All ancient traditions have engaged themselves with questions about
human nature. The Indian philosophical traditions, in particular, deal with questions
relating to why people behave in the manner in which they do. Why are people
generally unhappy? What changes should they bring about in themselves if they
desire happiness in their lives? Like all knowledge, psychological knowledge too
is intended to contribute to human well-being. If the world is full of misery, it is
largely due to humans themselves. Perhaps, you have asked why a 9/11 or war
in Iraq happened. Why innocent people in Delhi, Mumbai, Srinagar or in the NorthEast have to face bombs and bullets? Psychologists ask what is in the experiences
of young men which turn them into terrorists seeking revenge. But there is another
side to human nature. You may have heard the name of Major HPS Ahluwalia,
paralysed waist down because of an injury he suffered in a war with Pakistan,
who climbed the Mt. Everest. What moved him to climb such heights? These are not
only questions about human nature which psychology addresses as a human
science. You will be surprised to learn that modern psychology also deals with
somewhat nebulous micro-level phenomenon like consciousness, focusing attention
in the face of noise, or supporters trying to burn down a shopping complex after
their team had scored victory in a football game over its traditional rival. Psychology
cannot claim that answers have been found to these complex questions. But it
surely has improved upon our understanding and how we make sense of these
phenomena. The most striking aspect of the discipline, unlike other sciences, lies in
the study of psychological processes which are largely internal and available to
humans for observation within themselves.
WHAT
IS
PSYCHOLOGY?
Any knowledge discipline is hard to define.
Firstly, because it evolves continuously.
Secondly, because the range of phenomena it
studies cannot be captured by any one
definition. This is even more true of psychology.
Long time back, students like yourself were told
that the term psychology is derived from two
Greek words psyche meaning soul and logos
meaning science or study of a subject. Thus,
2
Psychology
2022-23
psychology was a study of the soul or mind.
But since then it has moved away considerably
from this focus and established itself as a
scientific discipline which deals with processes
underlying human experience and behaviour.
The range of phenomena it studies, some of
which we mentioned above, are spread over
several levels, viz. individual, dyadic (two
person) group, and organisational. They also
have biological as well as social bases.
Naturally, therefore, the methods required to
study them also vary greatly depending on the
phenomenon one wants to study. A discipline
is defined both in terms of what it studies and
how it studies. In fact, more in terms of how or
method/s it uses. Keeping this in view,
psychology is defined formally as a science
which studies mental processes, experiences
and behaviour in different contexts. In doing
so, it uses methods of biological and social
sciences to obtain data systematically. It makes
sense of these data so that they can be
organised as knowledge. Let us try to
understand the three terms used in the
definition, namely, mental processes,
experience, and behaviour.
When we say experiences are internal to
the experiencing person, then we refer to states
of consciousness or awareness or mental
processes. We use our mental processes when
we think or try to solve a problem, to know or
remember something. One level at which these
mental processes are reflected is the brain
activity. As we think or solve a mathematical
problem, our brain activities can be observed
using different techniques of brain imaging.
However, we cannot say that brain activities
and mental processes are the same, although
they are interdependent. Mental activities and
neural activities are mutually overlapping
processes but, they are not identical. Unlike
the brain, the mind does not have a physical
structure or has a location. Mind emerges and
evolves as our interactions and experiences
in this world get dynamically organised in the
form of a system which is responsible for the
occurrence of various mental processes.
Brain activities provide important clues as to
how our mind functions. But the
consciousness of our own experiences and
mental processes are much more than the
neural or brain activities. Even when we are
asleep some mental activities go on. We
dream, and receive some information such
as a knock on the door while we are asleep.
Some psychologists have shown that we also
learn and remember in our sleep. Mental
processes, such as remembering, learning,
knowing, perceiving, feeling are of interest to
psychologists. They study these processes to
try to understand how the mind works and to
help us improve the uses and applications of
these mental capacities.
Psychologists also study experiences of
people. Experiences are subjective in nature.
We cannot directly observe or know someone
else’s experience. Only the experiencing person
can be aware or be conscious of her or his
experiences. Thus, experiences are embedded
in our awareness or consciousness.
Psychologists have focused on experiences of
pain being experienced by terminally ill
patients or of psychological pain felt in
bereavement, besides experiences which lead
to positive feelings, such as in romantic
encounters. There are some esoteric
experiences also which attract the attention of
psychologists, such as when a Yogi meditates
to enter a different level of consciousness and
creates a new kind of experience or when a
drug addict takes a particular kind of drug to
get a high, even though such drugs are
extremely harmful. Experiences are influenced
by internal and the external conditions of the
experiencer. If you are travelling in a crowded
bus during a hot summer day, you may not
experience the usual discomfort if you are
going for a picnic with some close friends. Thus,
the nature of experience can only be understood
by analysing a complex set of internal and
external conditions.
Behaviours are responses or reactions we
make or activities we engage in. When
something is hurled at you, your eyes blink in
a simple reflex action. You are taking an
examination and can feel your heart pounding.
You decide to go for a particular movie with a
friend. Behaviours may be simple or complex,
short or enduring. Some behaviours are overt.
They can be outwardly seen or sensed by an
observer. Some are internal or covert. When
you are in a difficult situation while playing a
game of chess you almost feel your hand
muscles twitching, trying to experiment with
a move. All behaviours, covert or overt, are
associated with or triggered by some stimulus
in the environment or changes that happen
internally. You may see a tiger and run or think
that there is a tiger and decide to flee. Some
Chapter 1 • What is Psychology?
2022-23
3
psychologists study behaviour as an
association between stimulus (S) and response
(R). Both stimulus and response can be
internal or external.
Psychology as a Discipline
As we have discussed above, psychology
studies behaviour, experience and mental
processes. It seeks to understand and explain
how the mind works and how different mental
processes result in different behaviours. When
we observe others as lay or common persons,
our own points of view or our ways of
understanding the world influence our
interpretations of their behaviours and
experiences. Psychologists try to minimise
such biases in their explanations of behaviour
and experience in various ways. Some do so
by seeking to make their analysis scientific
and objective. Others seek to explain
behaviour from the point of view of the
experiencing persons because they think that
subjectivity is a necessary aspect of human
experience. In the Indian tradition, selfreflection and analysis of our conscious
experiences, is held to be a major source of
psychological understanding. Many western
psychologists have also begun to emphasise
the role of self-reflection and self-knowledge
in understanding human behaviour and
experience. Regardless of the differences in the
way psychologists go about the study of
behaviour, mental processes and experiences,
they seek to understand and explain them in
a systematic and verifiable manner.
Psychology, though it is a very old
knowledge discipline, is a young science, if one
were to take the year of the founding of the
first laboratory of psychology in 1879 in
Leipzig. However, what kind of science is
psychology, still remains a matter of debate,
particularly because of the new interfaces of
it that have emerged in recent times.
Psychology is generally categorised as a social
science. But it should not come to you as a
surprise that, not only in other countries, but
in India also, it is also a subject of study offered
in the faculty of science, both at the
undergraduate and post-graduate levels.
4
Psychology
2022-23
Many students go on to earn a B.Sc. or M.Sc.
degree in universities. In fact, two of the most
sought after emerging disciplines which
continuously borrow from psychology are
Neuroscience and Computer Science. Some of
us would be aware of the fast developing brain
imaging techniques like fMRI, EEG, etc. which
make it possible to study brain processes in real
time, i.e. when they are actually taking place.
Similarly, in IT areas, both human-computer
interaction and artificial intelligence cannot
possibly grow without psychological knowledge
in cognitive processes. Thus, psychology as a
discipline today has two parallel streams. One
which makes use of the method in physical and
biological sciences and the other which makes
use of the method of social and cultural
sciences in studying various psychological and
social phenomena. These streams sometimes
converge only to drift apart and go their
separate ways. In the first case, psychology
considers itself as a discipline, which focuses
largely on biological principles to explain
human behaviour. It assumes that all
behavioural phenomena have causes which can
be discovered if we can collect data
systematically under controlled conditions.
Here the aim of the researcher is to know the
cause and effect relationship so that a prediction
of the behavioural phenomenon can be made
and behaviour can be controlled if need be. On
the other hand, psychology as a social science
focuses on how behavioural phenomena can be
explained in terms of the interaction that takes
place between the person and the sociocultural context of which s/he is a part. Each
behavioural phenomenon is assumed to have
multiple causes. Let us now discuss these two
streams separately.
Psychology as a Natural Science
It has been mentioned earlier that psychology
has its roots in philosophy. However, modern
psychology has developed because of the
application of the scientific method to study
psychological phenomenon. Science places a
great deal of emphasis on objectivity which
can be obtained if there is consensus on the
definition of a concept and how it can be
measured. Psychology was influenced by
Descartes and later on by the developments in
physics has grown by following what is called
a hypothetico-deductive model. The model
suggests that scientific advancement can take
place if you have a theory to explain a
phenomenon. For example, physicists have
what is called a Big-bang theory to explain
how the universe came to be formed. Theory
is nothing else but a set of statements about
how a certain complex phenomenon can be
explained with the help of propositions which
are interrelated. Based on a theory, scientists
deduce or propose a hypothesis, that offers a
tentative explanation of how a certain
phenomenon takes place. The hypothesis then
is tested and proved true or false based on
empirical data that one has gathered. The
theory is revised if data gathered point in a
different direction than the one suggested by
the hypothesis. Using the above approach
psychologists have developed theories of
learning, memory, attention, perception,
motivation and emotion, etc. and have made
significant progress. Till date, most of the
research in psychology follows this approach.
Apart from this, psychologists have also been
considerably influenced by the evolutionary
approach which is dominant in biological
sciences. This approach has also been used
to explain diverse kinds of psychological
phenomenon such as attachment and
aggression to mention just a few.
Psychology as a Social Science
We mentioned above that psychology is
recognised more as a social science because
it studies the behaviour of human beings in
their socio-cultural contexts. Humans are not
only influenced by their socio-cultural
contexts, they also create them. Psychology
as a social science discipline focuses on
humans as social beings. Consider the
following story of Ranjita and Shabnam.
Ranjita and Shabnam were in the same
class. Although, they were in the same class,
they were just acquainted with each other and
their lives were quite different. Ranjita came
from a farmer’s family. Her grandparents,
parents and elder brother worked on their farm.
They lived together in their house in the village.
Ranjita was a good athlete and was the best
long distance runner in the school. She loved
meeting people and making friends.
Unlike her, Shabnam lived with her mother
in the same village. Her father worked in an
office in a town nearby and came home during
holidays. Shabnam was a good artist and loved
staying home and taking care of her younger
brother. She was shy and avoided meeting
people.
Last year there was very heavy rain and
the river nearby overflowed into the village.
Many houses in the low lying areas were
flooded. The villagers got together and
organised help and gave shelter to people in
distress. Shabnam’s house was also flooded
and she came to live in Ranjita’s house with
her mother and brother. Ranjita was happy
helping the family and making them feel
comfortable in her house. When the flood water
receded, Ranjita’s mother and grandmother
helped Shabnam’s mother to set-up their house.
The two families became very close. Ranjita
and Shabnam also became very good friends.
In this case of Ranjita and Shabnam, both
are very different persons. They grew up in
different families under complex social and
cultural conditions. You can see some
regularity in the relationship of their nature,
experience and mental processes with their
social and physical environment. But at the
same time, there are variations in their
behaviours and experiences which would be
dif ficult to predict using the known
psychological principles. One can understand
why and how individuals in communities
become quite helpful and self-sacrificing in
crisis as was the case with the people in the
village of Ranjita and Shabnam. But, even in
that case, not every villager was equally helpful
and also under similar circumstances not
every community is so forthcoming; in fact,
sometimes, the opposite is true – people
become
antisocial
under
similar
circumstances indulging in looting and
Chapter 1 • What is Psychology?
2022-23
5
exploitation when some crisis occurs. This
shows that psychology deals with human
behaviour and experience in the context of
their society and culture. Thus, psychology is
a social science with focus on the individuals
and communities in relation to their sociocultural and physical environment.
UNDERSTANDING MIND
AND
BEHAVIOUR
You will recall that psychology was once
defined as a science of the mind. For many
decades, the mind remained a taboo in
psychology because it could not be defined in
concrete behavioural terms or its location
could not be indicated. If the term “mind” has
returned to psychology, we should thank
neuroscientists like Sperry and physicists like
Penrose, who have given it the respect which
it deserved and now has. There are scientists
in various disciplines including psychology,
who think that a unified theory of the mind is
a possibility, although it still is far away.
What is mind? Is it the same as brain? It
is true that mind cannot exist without brain,
but mind is a separate entity. This can be
appreciated on account of several interesting
cases that have been documented. Some
patients whose occipital lobes, which are
responsible for vision, were surgically removed
have been found to be responding correctly to
location and configuration of visual cues.
Similarly, an amateur athlete lost his arm in
a motorcycle accident but continued to feel
an “arm” and also continued to feel its
movements. When of fered cof fee, his
“phantom arm” reached out to the coffee cup
and when someone pulled it away, he
protested. There are other similar cases
documented by neuroscientists. A young man
who suffered brain injury in an accident, after
he returned home from the hospital, claimed
that his parents had been replaced by their
“duplicates”. They were imposters. In each of
these cases, the person had suffered from
damage of some part of the brain but his
“mind” had remained intact. It was earlier
believed by scientists that there is no
6
Psychology
2022-23
relationship between the mind and the body
and that they were parallel to each other.
Recent studies in affective neuroscience have
clearly shown that there is a relationship
between mind and behaviour. It has been
shown that using positive visualisation
techniques and feeling positive emotions, one
can bring about significant changes in bodily
processes. Ornish has shown this in a number
of studies with his patients. In these studies a
person with blocked arteries was made to
visualise that blood was flowing through her/
his blocked arteries. After practicing this over
a period of time, significant relief was obtained
by these patients as the degree of blockage
became significantly less. Use of mental
imagery, i.e. images generated by a person in
her/his mind, have been used to cure various
kinds of phobias (irrational fears of objects and
situations). A new discipline called
Psychoneuroimmunology has emerged which
emphasises the role played by the mind in
strengthening the immune system.
Activity 1.1
Imagine and visualise yourself in the following
situations. Mention three psychological processes
involved in each situation.
1. You are writing an essay for a competition.
2. You are chatting with a friend on an
interesting topic.
3. You are playing football.
4. You are watching a soap opera on TV.
5. Your best friend has hurt you.
6. You are appearing in an examination.
7. You are expecting an important visitor.
8. You are preparing a speech to deliver in your
school.
9. You are playing chess.
10. You are trying to figure out the answer of a
difficult mathematics problem.
Discuss your answers with the teacher and
classmates.
POPULAR NOTIONS
OF PSYCHOLOGY
ABOUT THE
DISCIPLINE
We mentioned above that everyday, almost
everyone of us acts like a psychologist. We
try to understand why someone behaved in
the manner in which s/he did and come up
with ready explanations. Not only this, most
of us have developed our own theory of
human behaviour. If we want some worker
to perform better than s/he has in the past,
we know that we will need to push her/him.
Maybe even use a stick because people are
basically lazy. Such popular theories of
human behaviour based on common sense
may or may not be true if investigated
scientifically. In fact, you will find that
common sensical explanations of human
behaviour are based on hindsight and explain
very little. For example, if a friend you love
goes away to a distant place, what will
happen to your attraction for her/him? There
are two sayings which you may recall to
answer this question. One of them is “Out of
sight, out of mind”. The second one is
“Distance makes the heart grow fonder”. Both
of them make opposite statements, so which
one is true. The explanation you choose will
depend on what happens in your life after
your friend leaves. Suppose you are able to
find a new friend, the saying “Out of sight,
out of mind” will be used by you or others to
explain your behaviour. If you are unable to
find a new friend, you will keep remembering
your friend fondly. In this case, the saying
“Distance makes the heart grow fonder” will
explain your behaviour. Notice that in both
cases the explanation follows the occurrence
of behaviour. Common sense is based on
hindsight. Psychology as a science looks for
patterns of behaviour which can be predicted
and not explained after the behaviour occurs.
Scientific knowledge generated by
psychology often runs against common sense.
One such example is a study performed by
Dweck (1975). She was concerned with
children who gave up too easily when faced
with a difficult problem or failure. She
wondered how they could be helped. Common
sense tells us to give them easy problems in
order to increase their success rate so that
their confidence goes up. Only later should
we give them difficult problems which they
will be able to solve because of their new-found
confidence. Dweck’s study tested this. She took
two groups of students who were trained for
25 days in solving math problems. The first
group was given easy problems which they were
always able to solve. The second group had a
mix of easy and difficult problems. Obviously,
in case of difficult problems, they failed.
Whenever this happened Dweck told them that
their failure was because they had not tried
hard enough and persuaded them not to give
up and keep trying. After the training period
was over, a new set of math problems were
given to the two groups. What Dweck found
goes against common belief. Those who had
always succeeded because they were given
easy problems, gave up much faster when they
faced failure than those who had experience
of both success and failure and were taught
to attribute failure to their lack of effort.
There are many other common sense
notions which you may not find to be true.
Not too long ago it was believed in some
cultures that men are more intelligent than
women or women cause more accidents than
men. Empirical studies have shown that both
of these are untrue. Common sense also tells
us that one is not able to give one’s best if you
are asked to perform before a large audience.
Psychological studies have shown that if you
have practiced well, you may actually perform
better because the presence of others helps
your performance.
It is hoped that as you go through this
textbook you will discover that many of your
beliefs and understanding of human behaviour
will change. You will also gather that
psychologists are different from astrologers,
tantriks and palm readers because they
systematically examine propositions based on
data to develop principles about human
behaviour and other psychological phenomena.
Activity 1.2
Ask a cross-section of students about what they
think psychology is? Draw a comparison between
what they say and what the textbook tells you.
What conclusion can you draw?
Chapter 1 • What is Psychology?
2022-23
7
EVOLUTION
OF
PSYCHOLOGY
Psychology as a modern discipline, which is
influenced to a large extent by Western
developments, has a short history. It grew out
of ancient philosophy concerned with
questions of psychological significance. We
mentioned earlier that the formal beginning
of modern psychology is traced back to 1879
when the first experimental laboratory was
established in Leipzig, Germany by Wilhelm
Wundt. Wundt was interested in the study of
conscious experience and wanted to analyse
the constituents or the building blocks of the
mind. Psychologists during Wundt’s time
analysed the structure of the mind through
introspection and therefore were called
structuralists. Introspection was a procedure
in which individuals or subjects in
psychological experiments were asked to
describe in detail, their own mental processes
or experiences. However, introspection as a
method did not satisfy many other
psychologists. It was considered less scientific
because the introspective reports could not
be verified by outside observers. This led to
the development of new perspectives in
psychology.
An American psychologist, William James,
who had set up a psychological laboratory in
Cambridge, Massachusetts soon after the
setting up of the Leipzig laboratory, developed
what was called a functionalist approach to
the study of the human mind. William James
believed that instead of focusing on the
structure of the mind, psychology should
instead study what the mind does and how
behaviour functions in making people deal
with their environment. For example,
functionalists focused on how behaviour
enabled people to satisfy their needs.
According to William James, consciousness
as an ongoing stream of mental process
interacting with the environment formed the
core of psychology. A very influential
educational thinker of the time, John Dewey,
used functionalism to argue that human
beings seek to function effectively by adapting
to their environment.
8
Psychology
2022-23
In the early 20th century, a new perspective
called Gestalt psychology emerged in
Germany as a reaction to the structuralism of
Wundt. It focused on the organisation of
perceptual experiences. Instead of looking at
the components of the mind, the Gestalt
psychologists argued that when we look at the
world our perceptual experience is more than
the sum of the components of the perception.
In other words, what we experience is more
than the inputs received from our environment.
When, for example, light from a series of
flashing bulbs falls on our retina, we actually
experience movement of light. When we see a
movie, we actually have a series of rapidly
moving images of still pictures falling on our
retina. Thus, our perceptual experience is more
than the elements. Experience is holistic; it is
a Gestalt. We will learn more about the Gestalt
psychology when we discuss about the nature
of perception in Chapter 5.
Yet another reaction to structuralism came
in the form of behaviourism. Around 1910,
John Watson rejected the ideas of mind and
consciousness as subject matters of
psychology. He was greatly influenced by the
work of physiologists like Ivan Pavlov on
classical conditioning. For Watson, mind is not
observable and introspection is subjective
because it cannot be verified by another
observer. According to him, scientific
psychology must focus on what is observable
and verifiable. He defined psychology as a study
of behaviour or responses (to stimuli) which
can be measured and studied objectively.
Behaviourism of Watson was further developed
by many influential psychologists who are
known as behaviourists. Most prominent
among them was Skinner who applied
behaviourism to a wide range of situations and
popularised the approach. We will discuss
Skinner’s work later in this textbook.
Although behaviourists dominated the field
of psychology for several decades after Watson,
a number of other approaches and views about
psychology and its subject matter were
developing around the same time. One person
who shook the world with his radical view of
human nature was Sigmund Freud. Freud
viewed human behaviour as a dynamic
manifestation of unconscious desires and
conflicts. He founded psychoanalysis as a
system to understand and cure psychological
disorders. While Freudian psychoanalysis
viewed human beings as motivated by
unconscious desire for gratification of pleasure
seeking (and often, sexual) desires, the
humanistic perspective in psychology took
a more positive view of human nature.
Humanists, such as Carl Rogers and Abraham
Maslow, emphasised the free will of human
beings and their natural striving to grow and
Box 1.1
1879
1890
1895
1900
1904
1905
1912
1916
1922
1924
1924
1928
1949
1951
1953
unfold their inner potential. They argued that
behaviourism with its emphasis on behaviour
as determined by environmental conditions
undermines human freedom and dignity and
takes a mechanistic view of human nature.
These different approaches filled the
history of modern psychology and provided
multiple perspectives to its development. Each
of these perspectives has its own focus and
draws our attention to the complexity of
psychological processes. There are strengths
as well as weaknesses in each approach. Some
of these approaches have led to further
Some Interesting Landmarks in the E
volution of Modern PPsychology
Evolution
sychology
Wilhelm Wundt establishes the first
psychology laboratory in Leipzig,
Germany.
William James publishes Principles of
Psychology.
Functionalism is formulated as a system
of psychology.
Sigmund Freud develops Psychoanalysis.
Ivan Pavlov wins the Nobel Prize for his
work on digestive system that led to
understanding of principles of
development of responses.
Intelligence test developed by Binet and
Simon.
Gestalt psychology is born in Germany.
First Psychology Department at Calcutta
University is established.
Psychology is included in Indian Science
Congress Association.
Indian Psychological Association is
founded.
John B. Watson publishes ‘Behaviourism’,
a book that led to the foundation of
behaviourism.
N.N. Sengupta and Radhakamal Mukerjee
publish the first textbook on Social
Psychology (London : Allen & Unwin).
Psychological Research Wing of the
Defence Science Organisation of India is
established.
Humanistic psychologist Carl Rogers
publishes Client-Centred Therapy.
B.F. Skinner publishes ‘Science and
Human Behaviour’, strengthening
1954
1954
1955
1962
1973
1978
1981
1981
1989
1997
2002
2005
behaviourism as a major approach to
psychology.
Humanistic psychologist Abraham Maslow
publishes ‘Motivation and Personality’.
Bureau of Psychology is established at
Allahabad.
National Institute of Mental Health and
Neurosciences (NIMHANS) is established at
Bangalore.
Hospital for Mental Diseases in Ranchi is
established.
Konrad Lorenz and Niko Tinbergen win the
Nobel Prize for their work on built-in speciesspecific animal behaviour patter ns that
emerge without any prior experience/
learning.
Herbert Simon wins the Nobel Prize for work
on decision-making.
David Hubel and Torsten Wiesel win the Nobel
Prize for their research on vision cells in the
brain.
Roger Sperry wins the Nobel Prize for splitbrain research.
National Academy of Psychology (NAOP) India
was founded.
National Brain Research Centre (NBRC) is
established at Gurgaon, Haryana.
Daniel Kahneman wins the Nobel Prize for
research on human judgment and decisionmaking under uncertainty.
Thomas Schelling wins the Nobel Prize for his
work in applying Game Theory to
understanding of conflict and cooperation in
economic behaviour.
Chapter 1 • What is Psychology?
2022-23
9
developments in the discipline. Aspects of
Gestalt approach and structuralism were
combined and led to the development of the
cognitive perspective which focuses on how
we know about the world. Cognition is the
process of knowing. It involves thinking,
understanding, perceiving, memorising,
problem solving and a host of other mental
processes by which our knowledge of the world
develops, making us able to deal with the
environment in specific ways. Some cognitive
psychologists view the human mind as an
information processing system like the
computer. Mind, according to this view is like
a computer and it receives, processes,
transforms, stores and retrieves information.
Modern cognitive psychology views human
beings as actively constructing their minds
through their exploration into the physical and
the social world. This view is sometimes called
constructivism. Piaget’s view of child
development which will be discussed later is
considered a constructivist theory of
development of the mind. Another Russian
psychologist Vygotsky went even further to
suggest that the human mind develops
through social and cultural processes in which
the mind is viewed as culturally constructed
through joint interaction between adults and
children. In other words, while for Piaget
children actively construct their own minds,
Vygotsky took a view that mind is a joint
cultural construction and emerges as a result
of interaction between children and adults.
DEVELOPMENT
OF
PSYCHOLOGY
IN
INDIA
The Indian philosophical tradition is rich in
its focus on mental processes and reflections
on human consciousness, self, mind-body
relations, and a variety of mental functions
such as cognition, perception, illusion,
attention and reasoning, etc. Unfortunately,
philosophical roots in the Indian tradition have
not influenced the development of modern
psychology in India. The development of the
discipline in India continues to be dominated
by western psychology, although some
attempts have been made to find points of
10
Psychology
2022-23
departure both within the country and abroad.
These attempts have tried to establish the
truth value of various assertions in Indian
philosophical traditions through scientific
studies.
The modern era of Indian psychology
began in the Department of Philosophy at
Calcutta University where the first syllabus
of experimental psychology was introduced
and the first psychology laboratory was
established in 1915. Calcutta University
started the first Department of Psychology in
the year 1916 and another Department of
Applied Psychology in 1938. The beginning of
modern experimental psychology at Calcutta
University was greatly influenced by the Indian
psychologist Dr. N.N. Sengupta who was
trained in USA in the experimental tradition
of Wundt. Professor G. Bose was trained in
Freudian psychoanalysis, another area which
influenced the early development of
psychology in India. Professor Bose
established Indian Psychoanalytical
Association in 1922. Departments of
Psychology in the Universities of Mysore and
Patna were other early centres of teaching and
research in psychology. From these modest
beginnings, modern psychology has grown as
a strong discipline in India with a large number
of centres of teaching, research and
applications. There are two centers of
excellence in psychology supported by the
UGC at Utkal University, Bhubaneswar and
at the University of Allahabad. About 70
universities offer courses in psychology.
Durganand Sinha in his book Psychology
in a Third World Country: The Indian
Experience published in 1986 traces the
history of modern psychology as a social
science in India in four phases. According to
him, the first phase till independence was a
phase with emphasis on experimental,
psychoanalytic and psychological testing
research, which primarily reflected the
development of the discipline in western
countries. The second phase till the 1960s was
a phase of expansion of psychology in India
into different branches of psychology. During
this phase Indian psychologists showed a
desire to have an Indian identity by seeking to
link western psychology to the Indian context.
They did this by using western ideas to
understand the Indian situation. However,
psychology in India sought to become relevant
for Indian society in the post 1960s phase of
problem-oriented research. Psychologists
became more focused on addressing the
problems of the Indian society. Further, the
limitations of excessive dependence on
western psychology for our social context were
also realised. Leading psychologists
emphasised the significance of research, which
is of relevance to our situation. The search for
a new identity of psychology in India led to
the phase of indigenisation, which started
during the late 1970s. Besides rejecting the
western framework, Indian psychologists
stressed the need for developing an
understanding based on a framework, which
was culturally and socially relevant. This trend
was also reflected in some attempts to develop
psychological approaches based on traditional
Indian psychology, which came from our
ancient texts and scriptures. Thus, this phase
is characterised by development in indigenous
psychology, which originated from the Indian
cultural context and was relevant for society
and Indian psychology based on the Indian
traditional knowledge system. While these
developments continue, psychology in India
is making significant contributions to the field
of psychology in the world. It has become more
contextual emphasising the need for
developing psychological principles, which are
rooted in our own social and cultural context.
Alongside, we also find that new research
studies involving interfaces with neurobiological and health sciences are being carried
out.
Psychology in India is now being applied
in diverse professional areas. Not only have
psychologists been working with children
having special problems, they are employed
in hospitals as clinical psychologists, in
corporate organisations in the HRD and
advertising departments, in sports
directorates, in the development sector and
in IT industry.
BRANCHES
OF
PSYCHOLOGY
Various fields of specialisation in psychology
have emerged over the years. Some of these
are discussed in this section.
Cognitive Psychology investigates mental
processes involved in acquisition, storage,
manipulation, and transfor mation of
information received from the environment
along with its use and communication. The
major cognitive processes are attention,
perception, memory, reasoning, problem
solving, decision-making and language. You
will be studying these topics later in this
textbook. In order to study these cognitive
processes, psychologists conduct experiments
in laboratory settings. Some of them also follow
an ecological approach, i.e. an approach which
focuses on the environmental factors, to study
cognitive processes in a natural setting.
Cognitive psychologists often collaborate with
neuroscientists and computer scientists.
Biological Psychology focuses on the
relationship between behaviour and the
physical system, including the brain and the
rest of the nervous system, the immune
system, and genetics. Biological psychologists
often collaborate with neuroscientists,
zoologists,
and
anthropologists.
Neuropsychology has emerged as a field of
research where psychologists and
neuroscientists are working together.
Researchers are studying the role of
neurotransmitters or chemical substances
which are responsible for neural
communication in different areas of the brain
and therefore in associated mental functions.
They do their research on people with normal
functioning brain as well as on people with
damaged brain by following advanced
technologies like EEG, PET and fMRI, etc.
about which you will study later.
Developmental Psychology studies the
physical, social and psychological changes
that occur at different ages and stages over a
life-span, from conception to old age. The
primary concer n of developmental
Chapter 1 • What is Psychology?
2022-23
11
psychologists is how we become what we are.
For many years the major emphasis was on
child and adolescent development. However
today an increasing number of developmental
psychologists show strong interest in adult
development and ageing. They focus on the
biological, socio-cultural and environmental
factors that influence psychological
characteristics such as intelligence, cognition,
emotion, temperament, morality, and social
relationship. Developmental psychologists
collaborate
with
anthropologists,
educationists, neurologists, social workers,
counsellors and almost every branch of
knowledge where there is a concern for growth
and development of a human being.
Social Psychology explores how people are
affected by their social environments, how
people think about and influence others.
Social psychologists are interested in such
topics as attitudes, conformity and obedience
to authority, interpersonal attraction, helpful
behaviour, prejudice, aggression, social
motivation, inter-group relations and so on.
Cross-cultural and Cultural Psychology
examines the role of culture in understanding
behaviour, thought, and emotion. It assumes
that human behaviour is not only a reflection
of human-biological potential but also a
product of culture. Therefore behaviour should
be studied in its socio-cultural context. As you
will be studying in different chapters of this
book, culture influences human behaviour in
many ways and in varying degrees.
Environmental Psychology studies the
interaction of physical factors such as
temperature, humidity, pollution, and natural
disasters on human behaviour. The influence
of physical arrangement of the workplace on
health, the emotional state, and interpersonal
relations are also investigated. Current topics
of research in this field are the extent to which,
disposal of waste, population explosion,
conservation of energy, efficient use of
community resources are associated with and
are functions of human behaviour.
12
Psychology
2022-23
Health Psychology focuses on the role of
psychological factors (for example, stress,
anxiety) in the development, prevention and
treatment of illness. Areas of interest for a
health psychologist are stress and coping, the
relationship between psychological factors and
health, patient-doctor relationship and ways
of promoting health enhancing factors.
Clinical and Counselling Psychology deals
with causes, treatment and prevention of
different types of psychological disorders such
as anxiety, depression, eating disorders and
chronic substance abuse. A related area is
counselling, which aims to improve everyday
functioning by helping people solve problems
in daily living and cope more effectively with
challenging situations. The work of clinical
psychologists does not differ from that of
counselling psychologists although a
counselling psychologist sometimes deals with
people who have less serious problems. In
many instances, counselling psychologists
work with students, advising them about
personal problems and career planning. Like
clinical psychologists, psychiatrists also study
the causes, treatment, and prevention of
psychological disorders. How are clinical
psychologists and psychiatrists different? A
clinical psychologist has a degree in
psychology, which includes intensive training
in treating people with psychological disorders.
In contrast, a psychiatrist has a medical degree
with years of specialised training in the
treatment of psychological disorders. One
important distinction is that psychiatrists can
prescribe medications and give electroshock
treatments whereas clinical psychologist
cannot.
Industrial/Organisational Psychology deals
with workplace behaviour, focusing on both the
workers and the organisations that employ
them. Industrial/organisational psychologists
are concerned with training employees,
improving work conditions, and developing
criteria for selecting employees. For example,
an organisational psychologist might
recommend that a company may adopt a new
management structure that would increase
communication between managers and staff.
The background of industrial and
organisational psychologists often includes
training in cognitive and social psychology.
Educational Psychology studies how people
of all ages learn. Educational psychologists
primarily help develop instructional methods
and materials used to train people in both
educational and work settings. They are also
concerned with research on issues of relevance
for education, counselling and learning
problems. A related field, school psychology,
focuses on designing programmes that
promote intellectual, social, and emotional
development of children, including those with
special needs. They try to apply knowledge of
psychology in a school setting.
Sports Psychology applies psychological
principles to improve sports performance by
enhancing their motivation. Sports psychology
is a relatively new field but is gaining
acceptance worldwide.
Other Emerging Branches of Psychology :
The interdisciplinary focus on research and
application of psychology has led to the
emergence of varied areas like aviation
psychology, space psychology, military
Activity 1.3
Think about the areas of psychology that you have
read in the text. Go through the list given below
and rank them from 1 (most interesting) to 11 (least
interesting).
Cognitive psychology
Biological psychology
Developmental psychology
Social psychology
Cross-cultural and cultural psychology
Environmental psychology
Health psychology
Clinical and counselling psychology
Industrial/Organisational psychology
Educational psychology
Sports psychology
After going through this textbook and completing
the course you may like to return to this activity
and mark the changes in your ranking.
psychology, forensic psychology, rural
psychology, engineering psychology,
managerial psychology, community
psychology, psychology of women, and
political psychology, to name a few. Try the
Activity 1.3 to reflect upon your interest areas
in psychology.
THEMES
OF
RESEARCH
AND
APPLICATIONS
In the previous section, you got some idea of
the various branches of psychology. If you
were to ask a simple question about “what
psychologists do?”, the usual answer will be
that they do several things while working in a
variety of settings. However, if you try to
analyse their work, you will notice that they
basically engage in two kinds of activities. One
is research in psychology; the other is
application of psychology.
What are some of the themes which
provide direction to research and application
of psychology? There are several such themes.
We will focus on some of them.
Theme 1 : Psychology like other sciences
attempts to develop principles of behaviour and
mental processes.
In research, the main concern is with the
understanding and explanation of behaviour
and mental events and processes.
Psychologists, who choose to engage in
research, function more like other scientists.
Like them, they draw conclusions which are
supported by data. They design and conduct
experiments or studies under controlled
conditions on a wide range of psychological
phenomena. The purpose is to develop general
principles about behaviour and mental
processes. The conclusions drawn on the basis
of such studies apply to everybody and are,
therefore, universal. Experimental,
comparative, physiological, developmental,
social, differential and abnormal psychology
are generally regarded as domains
representing “basic psychology”.
The themes of research in these fields differ
from each other. For example, experimental
Chapter 1 • What is Psychology?
2022-23
13
psychologists study the processes of
perception, learning, memory, thinking, and
motivation, etc., using experiment as their
method of enquiry, whereas physiological
psychologists attempt to examine
physiological bases of these behaviours.
Developmental psychologists study qualitative
and quantitative changes in behaviour from
the beginning of human life to its end, whereas
social psychologists focus on the study of
experience and behaviour of individuals as
they take place in social contexts.
Theme 2 : Human behaviour is a function of
the attributes of persons and environment.
Kurt Lewin first proposed the famous
equation B = f(P,E) – which suggests that
behaviour is the product of a person and her/
his environment. What this equation simply
tells us is that the variations we find in human
behaviour are largely due to the fact that
persons differ with respect to their various
attributes because of their genetic
endowments and diverse experiences and so
do the environments they are placed in. Here
the environment is conceptualised as it is
perceived or made sense of by the person.
Psychologists have for a long time considered
that no two individuals are the same, if one
considers their psychological attributes. They
vary with respect to their intelligence,
interests, values, aptitudes and various other
personality characteristics. In fact,
psychological tests came to be constructed to
measure such differences. A discipline
called, differential psychology, which focused
on individual differences emerged and
flourished in the late nineteenth and early
twentieth century. Most of it still remains in
the form of personality psychology.
Psychologists believe that although, core
psychological processes are universal, they are
susceptible to individual dispositions. Besides
individual differences, psychologists also
believe that there are variations in behaviour
which occur due to environmental factors.
This is a view which psychologists have taken
from anthropologists, evolutionary theorists
14
Psychology
2022-23
and biologists. Psychologists look for
explanations of various psychological
phenomena based on individual-environment
interactions. Although it is difficult,
psychologists do seek out the relative
importance of heredity and environment in
explaining human behaviour.
Theme 3 : Human behaviour is caused.
Most psychologists believe that all human
behaviour can be explained in terms of causes
which are internal (to the organism) or external
having location in the outside environment.
Causal explanations are central to all sciences
because without understanding them no
prediction will be possible. Although,
psychologists look for causal explanations of
behaviour, they also realise that simple linear
explanations, such as X Causing Y do not hold
true. There is no one cause of behaviour.
Human behaviour has multiple causes.
Psychologists, therefore, look for causal
models where a set of interdependent variables
are used to explain a behaviour. When it is
said that behaviour has multiple causes, it
means that it is difficult to pinpoint one cause
of a behaviour because it may itself be caused
by another variable, which in turn may be
caused by some other.
Theme 4 : Understanding of human behaviour
is culturally constructed.
This is a theme which has recently
surfaced. There are psychologists who believe
that most psychological theories and models
are Euro-American in nature and therefore,
do not help us in understanding behaviours
in other cultural settings. Psychologists from
Asia, Africa and Latin America have been
critical of Euro-American approaches which
are propagated as universal. A similar critique
is made by feminists who argue that
psychology offers a male perspective and
ignores the perspective of women. They argue
in favour of a dialectical approach which will
accommodate both male and female
perspectives in understanding human
behaviour.
Theme 5 : Human behaviour can be controlled
and modified through the application of
psychological principles.
Why do scientists like to know how certain
events can be controlled, be they physical or
psychological? Their concern arises from their
desire to develop techniques or methods that
will improve the quality of human life.
Psychologists also seek the same while
applying knowledge generated by them.
This often requires removal of certain
dif ficulties or adverse conditions that
individuals experience in different phases of
their life. Consequently, psychologists make
certain interventions into the lives of needy
people. This applied role of psychologists has,
on the one hand, brought the subject closer
to the life of people in general than other social
science subjects and in knowing the limits of
the applicability of its principles. On the other
hand, this role has also been very helpful in
popularising psychology as a subject in itself.
Thus, several independent branches of
psychology have emerged that try to use
psychological theories, principles and facts to
diagnose and resolve problems related to
industrial and organisational settings, clinical
services, education, environment, health,
community development and so on. Industrial
psychology, organisational psychology, clinical
psychology, educational psychology,
engineering psychology and sports psychology
represent some of the areas in which
psychologists are engaged in delivering
services to individuals, groups or institutions.
and principles derived from research can be
meaningfully applied. On the other hand,
research is an integral part of even those fields
of psychology that are mainly characterised
by or subsumed under the category of
application. Due to ever increasing demands
of psychology in different settings, many fields
that were regarded as primarily “researchoriented” in previous decades, have also
gradually turned into “application-oriented”.
Newly emerging disciplines like applied
experimental psychology, applied social
psychology, and applied developmental
psychology indicate that in fact all psychology
has the potential of application and is basically
applied in nature.
Thus, there is seemingly no fundamental
difference between research and application
of psychology. These activities are highly
interrelated and mutually reinforcing. Their
mutual interactions and pervasive influences
on each other have become so specific that
several offshoots have emerged in recent years
with very specific emphasis on their subject
matters. Thus, ecological psychology,
environmental psychology, cross-cultural
psychology, biological psychology, space
psychology, and cognitive psychology, to
mention a few, have come up as new and
frontier areas of research and application that
previously formed part of other fields of
psychology. These newer developments
require highly specialised research skills and
training on the part of researchers than ever
before.
PSYCHOLOGY
Basic vs Applied Psychology
It may be noted at this point that various areas
put under the rubrics of “basic” and “applied”
psychology are identified only on the basis of
their emphasis on the study of certain subject
matters and broader concerns. There is no
sharp cleavage between research and
application of psychology. For example, basic
psychology provides us with theories and
principles that form the basis of application
of psychology and applied psychology provides
us with different contexts in which the theories
AND
OTHER DISCIPLINES
Any discipline, which deals with people, would
definitely recognise the relevance of the
knowledge of psychology. Similarly
psychologists also acknowledge the relevance
of other disciplines in understanding human
behaviour. This trend has led to the emergence
of interdisciplinary approach in the field of
psychology. Researchers and scholars in
science, social science and humanities have
felt the significance of psychology as a
discipline. Figure 1.1 clearly shows the
Chapter 1 • What is Psychology?
2022-23
15
relationship of psychology with other
disciplines. In studying brain and behaviour,
psychology shares its knowledge with
neurology, physiology, biology, medicine and
computer science. In studying human
behaviour (its meaning, growth and
development) in a socio-cultural context,
psychology shares its knowledge with
anthropology, sociology, social work, political
science and economics. In studying mental
activities involved in creation of literary texts,
music and drama, psychology shares its
knowledge with literature, art and music.
Some of the major disciplines linked to the
field of psychology are discussed below:
Philosophy : Until the end of the 19th century,
certain concerns that are now part of
contemporary psychology like, what is the
nature of the mind or how do humans come
to know their motivations and emotions were
the concerns of philosophers. In the later part
of the 19th century, Wundt and other
psychologists adopted an experimental
approach to these questions and
contemporary psychology emerged. Despite
the emergence of psychology as a science, it
greatly draws from philosophy, particularly
with respect to methods of knowing, and
various domains of human nature.
Medicine : Doctors have realised that the
maxim, healthy body requires a healthy mind,
is actually true. A large number of hospitals
now employ psychologists. The role of
psychologists in preventing people from
engaging in health hazardous behaviours and
in adhering to the prescribed doctors’ regimen
are some of the important areas where the
two disciplines have come together. While
treating patients suffering from cancer, AIDS,
and the physically challenged, or handling
patients in the Intensive Care Unit, and
patients during post operative care doctors
have also felt the need for psychological
counselling. A successful doctor looks at the
psychological as well as physical well-being
of the patients.
16
Psychology
2022-23
Economics, Political Science and
Sociology : As sister social science disciplines,
these three have drawn considerably from
psychology and have enriched it as well.
Psychology has contributed a great deal to the
study of micro-level economic behaviour,
particularly in understanding consumer
behaviour, savings behaviour and in decisionmaking. American economists have used data
on consumer sentiments to predict economic
growth. Three scholars who have worked on
such problems have received the Nobel Prize
in Economics, namely H. Simon, D. Kahneman
and T. Schelling. Like economics, political
science too draws considerably from
psychology, particularly, in understanding
issues related to exercise of power and
authority, nature of political conflicts and their
resolutions, and voting behaviour. Sociology
and psychology come together to explain and
understand the behaviour of individuals
within different socio-cultural contexts. Issues
related to socialisation, group and collective
behaviour, and intergroup conflicts gain from
both these disciplines.
Computer Science : From the very beginning,
the effort of computer science has been in
mimicking the human mind. One can see it in
terms of how a ‘computer’ is structured, its
memory organised, sequential and
simultaneous (read parallel) processing of
information. Computer scientists and
engineers are seeking to make computers not
only more and more intelligent but also
machines which can sense and feel.
Developments in both these disciplines have
brought about significant advancement in the
field of cognitive sciences.
Law and Criminology : A skilled lawyer and
a criminologist requires knowledge of
psychology in answering such questions as:
How well a witness remembers an accident, a
street fight, or a murder? How well can s/he
report such facts when taking the witness
stand in the court? What factors influence the
decision which is taken by the jury? What are
the dependable signs of guilt and falsehood?
Political Science
Economics
Education
Philosophy
Music and Fine Arts
Psychology
Computer Science
Law/Criminology
Medicine/Psychiatry
Mass Communication
Architecture and Engineering
Sociology
Fig.1.1 : Psychology and Other Disciplines
What factors are held important in holding a
culprit responsible for her/his action? What
degree of punishment is considered just for a
criminal act? Psychologists seek to answer
these questions. Currently, a number of
psychologists are involved in research on such
Chapter 1 • What is Psychology?
2022-23
17
issues, the answers to which would help the
legal system of the country in the future.
Mass Communication : The print and the
electronic media have entered in our lives in a
very big way. They have a major influence on
our thinking, attitudes and our emotions. If
they have brought us closer together, they have
also reduced cultural diversities. The impact
of media on the formation of attitudes of
children and their behaviour is a domain
where both these disciplines come together.
Psychology also helps in developing strategies
for better and effective communication. A
journalist in reporting news must know the
reader’s interests in the story. Since most
stories deal with human events, knowledge of
their motives and emotions is very important.
A story will have more impact if it is based on
a background of psychological knowledge and
insight.
Music and Fine Arts : Music and psychology
have converged in many areas. Scientists have
made use of music in raising work
performance. Music and emotions is another
area in which a number of studies have been
carried out. Musicians in India have recently
started experimenting with what they call
‘Music Therapy’. In this they use different
‘Ragas’ for curing certain physical ailments.
The efficacy of music therapy still remains to
be proven.
Architecture and Engineering : At first glance
the relationship between psychology and
architecture and engineering would appear
improbable. But such is actually not the case.
Ask any architect, s/he must satisfy her/his
clients by providing mental and physical space
through her design and satisfy aesthetically.
Engineers must also take into account human
habits in their plans for safety, for example,
on streets and highways. Psychological
knowledge helps in a big way in designing of
all mechanical devices and displays.
To sum up, psychology is located at the
intersection of many fields of knowledge
pertaining to human functioning.
18
Psychology
2022-23
PSYCHOLOGISTS
AT
WORK
Psychologists today work in a variety of
settings where they can apply psychological
principles for teaching and training people to
cope effectively with the problems of their lives.
Often referred to as “human service areas” they
include clinical, counselling, community,
school and organisational psychology.
Clinical psychologists specialise in
helping clients with behavioural problems by
providing therapy for various mental
disorders and in cases of anxiety or fear, or
with stresses at home or at work. They work
either as private practitioners or at hospitals,
mental institutions, or with social agencies.
They may be involved in conducting
interviews and administering psychological
tests to diagnose the client’s problems, and
use psychological methods for their treatment
and rehabilitation. Job opportunities in
clinical psychology attract quite a few to this
field of psychology.
Counselling psychologists work with
persons who suffer from motivational and
emotional problems. The problems of their
clients are less serious than those of the
clinical psychologists. A counselling
psychologist may be involved in vocational
rehabilitation programmes, or helping persons
in making professional choices or in adjusting
to new and difficult situations of life.
Counselling psychologists work for public
agencies such as mental health centres,
hospitals, schools, colleges and universities.
Community psychologists generally
focus on problems related to community
mental health. They work for mental health
agencies, private organisations and state
governments. They help the community and
its institutions in addressing physical and
mental health problems. In rural areas they
may work to establish a mental health centre.
In urban areas they may design a drug
rehabilitation programme. Many community
psychologists also work with special
populations such as the elderly or the
physically or mentally challenged. Besides the
redir ection and evaluation of various
programmes and plans, community based
rehabilitation (CBR) is of major interest to
community psychologists.
School psychologists work in
educational systems, and their roles vary
according to the levels of their training. For
example, some school psychologists only
administer tests, whereas others also
interpret test results to help students with
their pr oblems. They also help in the
formulation of school policies. They facilitate
communication between parents, teachers
and administrators, and also provide teachers
and parents with information about the
academic progress of a student.
Organisational psychologists render
valuable help in dealing with problems that
the executives and employees of an
organisation tend to face in their respective
roles. They provide organisations with
consultancy services and organise skill
training programmes in order to enhance their
ef ficiency and ef fectiveness. Some
organisational psychologists specialise in
Human Resource Development (HRD), while
others in Organisational Development and
Change Management programmes.
PSYCHOLOGY
IN
EVERYDAY LIFE
The discussion above may have clarified that
psychology is not only a subject that satisfies
some of the curiosities of our mind about
human nature, but it is also a subject that
can offer solutions to a variety of problems.
These may range from purely personal (for
example, a daughter having to face an alcoholic
father or a mother dealing with a problem child)
to those that may be rooted within the family
set up (for example, lack of communication and
interaction among family members) or in a
larger group or community setting (for example,
terrorist groups or socially isolated
communities) or may have national or
international dimensions. Problems related to
education, health, environment, social justice,
women development, intergroup relations, etc.
are pervasive. While the solution of these
problems may involve political, economic and
social reforms, interventions at the individual
levels are also needed in order to change. Many
of these problems are largely of psychological
nature and they result from our unhealthy
thinking, negative attitude towards people and
self and undesirable patterns of behaviour. A
psychological analysis of these problems helps
both in having a deeper understanding of these
problems and also in finding their effective
solutions.
The potential of psychology in solving the
problems of life is being realised more and
more. Media has played a vital role in this
respect. You may have seen on television
counsellors and therapists suggesting
solutions to a variety of problems related to
children, adolescents, adults and the elderly
people. You may also find them analysing vital
social problems relating to social change and
development,
population,
poverty,
interpersonal or intergroup violence, and
environmental
degradation.
Many
psychologists now play an active role in
designing and executing intervention
programmes in order to provide people with a
better quality of life. Hence, it is no surprise
that we find psychologists working in diverse
settings such as schools, hospitals, industries,
prisons, business organisations, military
establishments, and in private practice as
consultants helping people solve problems in
their respective settings.
Besides helping you in rendering social
service to others, the knowledge of psychology
is also personally relevant to you in your dayto-day life. The principles and methods of
psychology that you will learn in this course
should be made use of in analysing and
understanding yourself in relation to others.
It is not that we do not think about ourselves.
But very often, some of us think very highly
of ourselves and any feedback that contradicts
our opinion about ourselves is rejected
because we engage in what is called a
defensive behaviour. In some other cases,
persons come to acquire a habit of running
down themselves. Both conditions do not
permit us to grow. We need to have a positive
and balanced understanding of ourselves. You
Chapter 1 • What is Psychology?
2022-23
19
may use psychological principles in a positive
manner to develop good habits of study for
improving your learning and memory, and for
solving your personal and interpersonal
problems by using appropriate decisionmaking strategies. You will also find it of use
to reduce or alleviate the stress of
examination. Thus, the knowledge of
psychology is quite useful in our everyday life,
and is rewarding from personal as well as
social points of view.
Key Terms
Behaviour, Behaviourism, Cognition, Cognitive
approach, Consciousness, Constructivism,
Developmental psychology, Functionalism,
Gestalt, Gestalt psychology, Humanistic
approach,
Introspection,
Mind,
Neuropsychology, Physiological psychology,
Psychoanalysis, Sociology, Stimulus,
Structuralism
Summary
•
Psychology is a modern discipline aimed at understanding the complexities of mental
processes, experiences and behaviour of individuals in different contexts. It is treated as a
natural as well as a social science.
The major schools of psychological thought are structuralism, functionalism, behaviourism,
Gestalt school, psychoanalysis, humanistic psychology and cognitive psychology.
Contemporary psychology is multivocal as it is characterised by many approaches or
diverse views, which explain behaviour at different levels. These approaches are not
mutually exclusive. Each provides valuable insights into the complexities of human
functioning. The cognitive approach uses thought processes as central to psychological
functions. The humanistic approach views human functioning as characterised by a desire
to grow, be productive and fulfill human potential.
Today psychologists work in many specialised fields which have their own theories and
methods. They make efforts to develop theories and solve problems in specific domains.
Some of the major fields of psychology are: cognitive psychology, biological psychology,
health psychology, developmental psychology, social psychology, educational and school
psychology, clinical and counselling psychology, environmental psychology, industrial/
organisational psychology, sports psychology.
More recently a need is felt to have multi/interdisciplinary initiatives to arrive at a better
understanding of reality. This has led to a collaboration across disciplines. Interests of
psychology overlap with social sciences (e.g., economics, political science, sociology),
biosciences (e.g., neurology, physiology, medicine), mass communication, and music and
fine arts. Such efforts have led to fruitful research and application.
Psychology is a discipline not merely contributing to the development of theoretical
knowledge about human behaviour, but contributing to the solution of problems at different
levels. Psychologists are employed to help in diverse activities in a variety of settings
including schools, hospitals, industries, training institutes, military and government
establishments. Many of them are doing private practice and are consultants.
•
•
•
•
•
Review Questions
20
1.
What is behaviour? Give examples of overt and covert behaviour.
2.
How can you distinguish scientific psychology from the popular notions about the
discipline of psychology?
3.
Give a brief account of the evolution of psychology.
Psychology
2022-23
4.
What are the problems for which collaboration of psychologists with other disciplines
can be fruitful? Take any two problems to explain.
5.
Differentiate between (a) a psychologist and a psychiatrist (b) a counsellor and a clinical
psychologist.
6.
Describe some of the areas of everyday life where understanding of psychology can be
put to practice.
7.
How can knowledge of the field of environmental psychology be used to promote
environment friendly behaviour?
8.
In terms of helping solve an important social problem such as crime, which branch of
psychology do you think is most suitable. Identify the field and discuss the concerns of
the psychologists working in this field.
Project Ideas
1.
2.
This chapter tells you about several professionals in the field of psychology. Contact a
psychologist who fits into one of the categories and interview the person. Have a list of
questions prepared beforehand. Possible questions could be: (i) What kind of education is
necessary for your particular job? (ii) Which college/university would you recommend for
the study of this discipline? (iii) Are there many jobs available today in your area of work?
(iv) What would a typical day at work be like for you – or is there no such thing as
“typical”? (v) What motivated you to enter this line of work?
Write a report of your interview and include your specific reactions.
Go to the library or some bookstore or surf the internet and obtain names of some books
(fiction/non-fiction or films), which have reference to applications of psychology.
Prepare a report giving a brief synopsis.
Chapter 1 • What is Psychology?
2022-23
21
Chapter
2
Methods of Enquiry
inPsychology
After reading this chapter, you would be able to
•
•
•
•
•
explain the goals and nature of psychological enquiry,
understand different types of data used by psychologists,
describe some important methods of psychological enquiry,
understand the methods of analysing data, and
learn about the limitations of psychological enquiry and ethical
considerations.
Contents
Introduction
Goals of Psychological Enquiry
Steps in Conducting Scientific Research
Alternative Paradigms of Research
Nature of Psychological Data
Some Important Methods in Psychology
Observational Method
Example of an Experiment (Box 2.1)
Experimental Method
Correlational Research
Survey Research
Example of Survey Method (Box 2.2)
Psychological Testing
Case Study
Analysis of Data
Quantitative Method
Qualitative Method
Limitations of Psychological Enquiry
Ethical Issues
An idea that is developed and put into
action is more important than an idea
that exists only as an idea.
Key Terms
Summary
Review Questions
Project Ideas
– Gautam Buddha
22
Psychology
2022-23
Introduction
You have read in the first chapter that psychology is the study of experiences,
behaviours, and mental processes. You may now be curious to know how
psychologists study these phenomena. In other words, what methods are used to
study behaviour and mental processes? Like all scientists, psychologists seek to
describe, predict, explain and control what they study. For this, psychologists rely
on formal, systematic observations to address their questions. It is the methodology
that makes psychology a scientific endeavour. Psychologists use a variety of research
methods because questions about human behaviour are numerous and all of them
cannot be studied by a single method. Methods such as observation, experimental,
correlational research, survey, psychological testing and case study are more
frequently used to study the problems of psychology. This chapter will familiarise
you with the goals of psychological enquiry, the nature of information or data that
we collect in psychological studies, the diverse range of methodological devices
available for the study of psychology, and some important issues related to
psychological studies.
GOALS
OF
PSYCHOLOGICAL ENQUIRY
Like any scientific research, psychological
enquiry has the following goals: description,
prediction, explanation, and control of
behaviour, and application of knowledge so
generated, in an objective manner. Let us try
to understand the meaning of these terms.
Description : In a psychological study, we
attempt to describe a behaviour or a
phenomenon as accurately as possible. This
helps in distinguishing a particular behaviour
from other behaviours. For example, the
researcher may be interested in observing
study habits among students. Study habits
may consist of diverse range of behaviours,
such as attending all your classes regularly,
submitting assignments on time, planning
your study schedule, studying according to
the set schedule, revising your work on a daily
basis etc. Within a particular category there
may be further minute descriptions. The
researcher needs to describe her/his meaning
of study habits. The description requires
recording of a particular behaviour which
helps in its proper understanding.
Prediction : The second goal of scientific
enquiry is prediction of behaviour. If you are
able to understand and describe the behaviour
accurately, you come to know the relationship
of a particular behaviour with other types of
behaviours, events, or phenomena. You can
then forecast that under certain conditions
this particular behaviour may occur within a
certain margin of error. For example, on the
basis of study, a researcher is able to establish
a positive relationship between the amount of
study time and achievement in different
subjects. Later, if you come to know that a
particular child devotes more time for study,
you can predict that the child is likely to get
good marks in the examination. Prediction
becomes more accurate with the increase in
the number of persons observed.
Explanation : The third goal of psychological
enquiry is to know the causal factors or
determinants of behaviour. Psychologists are
primarily interested in knowing the factors
that make behaviour occur. Also, what are the
conditions under which a particular behaviour
does not occur. For example, what makes
some children more attentive in the class? Why
Chapter 2 • Methods of Enquiry in Psychology
2022-23
23
some children devote less time for study as
compared to others? Thus, this goal is
concerned with identifying the determinants
or antecedent conditions (i.e. conditions that
led to the particular behaviour) of the
behaviour being studied so that cause-effect
relationship between two variables (objects) or
events could be established.
Control : If you are able to explain why a
particular behaviour occurs, you can control
that behaviour by making changes in its
antecedent conditions. Control refers to three
things: making a particular behaviour happen,
reducing it, or enhancing it. For example, you
can allow the number of hours devoted to
study to be the same, or you can reduce them
or there may be an increase in the study hours.
The change brought about in behaviour by
psychological treatment in terms of therapy
in persons, is a good example of control.
Application : The final goal of the scientific
enquiry is to bring out positive changes in the
lives of people. Psychological research is
conducted to solve problems in various
settings. Because of these efforts the quality
of life of people is a major concern of
psychologists. For example, applications of
yoga and meditation help to reduce stress and
increase efficiency. Scientific enquiry is also
conducted to develop new theories or
constructs, which leads to further research.
Steps in Conducting Scientific Research
Science is not so defined by what it
investigates as by how it investigates. The
scientific method attempts to study a
particular event or phenomenon in an
objective, systematic, and testable manner.
The objectivity refers to the fact that if two
or more persons independently study a
particular event, both of them, to a great
extent, should arrive at the same conclusion.
For instance, if you and your friend measure
the length of a table using the same measuring
device, it is likely that both of you would arrive
at the same conclusion about its length.
The second characteristic of scientific
research is that it follows systematic
procedure or steps of investigation. It includes
the following steps: conceptualisation of a
problem, collection of data, drawing
conclusions, and revising research conclusions
and theory (see Fig.2.1). Let us discuss these
steps in some detail.
(1) Conceptualising a Problem : The process
of scientific research begins when a researcher
1
2
Conceptualising a Problem
Collecting Data
Selecting a topic for study
Participants, methods,
tools and procedure
4
3
Revising Research
Conclusions
Drawing Conclusions
Using statistical methods
Restating existing hypothesis/
formulating revised or a
new theory
Fig.2.1 : Steps in Conducting Scientific Enquiry
24
Psychology
2022-23
selects a theme or topic for study. Then s/he
narrows down the focus and develops specific
research questions or problems for the study.
This is done on the basis of review of past
research, observations, and personal
experiences. For example, earlier you read that
a researcher was interested in observing the
study habits of students. For this purpose,
s/he may identify different facets of study
habits first, and then decide whether s/he is
interested in study habits shown in the class
or at home.
In psychology we study a diverse range of
problems related to behaviour and
experiences. These problems may be related
to (a) understanding our own behaviour (for
example, how do I feel and behave when I am
in a state of joy or grief? How do we reflect on
our own experiences and behaviour? Why do
we forget?); (b) understanding other
individual’s behaviour (for example, Is Abhinav
more intelligent than Ankur? Why is someone
always not able to complete her or his work on
time? Can the habit of smoking be controlled?
Why do some people suffering from chronic
illness not take medicines?); (c) group
influences on individual behaviour (for
example, why does Rahim spend more time
meeting with people than doing his work?,
Why does a cyclist perform better when cycling
before a group of persons than when cycling
alone?); (d) group behaviour (for example, why
does risk-taking behaviour increase when
people are in a group?), and (e) organisational
level (for example, why are some organisations
more successful than others? How can an
employer increase the motivation of
employees?). The list is long and you will learn
about these various facets in subsequent
chapters. If you are inquisitive, you can write
down a number of problems which you may
like to probe.
After identification of the problem, the
researcher proceeds by developing a tentative
answer of the problem, which is called
hypothesis. For example, based on the earlier
evidence or your observation, you might
develop a hypothesis ‘greater is the amount
of time spent by children in viewing violence
on television, higher is the degree of aggression
displayed by them’. In your research, you shall
now try to prove whether the statement is true
or false.
(2) Collecting Data : The second step in
scientific research is to collect data. Data
collection requires developing a research
design or a blueprint of the entire study. It
requires taking decisions about the following
four aspects: (a) participants in the study,
(b) methods of data collection, (c) tools to be
used in research, and (d) procedure for data
collection. Depending upon the nature of the
study, the researcher has to decide who would
be the participants (or informants) in the
study. The participants could be children,
adolescents, college students, teachers,
managers, clinical patients, industrial
workers, or any group of individuals in whom/
where the phenomenon under investigation
is prevalent. The second decision is related to
the use of methods of data collection, such as
observation method, experimental method,
correlational method, case study, etc. The
researcher needs to decide about appropriate
tools (for example, interview schedule,
observation schedule, questionnaire, etc.) for
data collection. The researcher also decides
about how the tools need to be administered
to collect data (i.e. individual or group). This
is followed by actual collection of data.
(3) Drawing Conclusions : The next step is to
analyse data so collected through the use of
statistical procedures to understand what the
data mean. This can be achieved through
graphical representations (such as preparation
of pie-chart, bar -diagram, cumulative
frequencies, etc.) and by the use of different
statistical methods. The purpose of analysis
is to verify a hypothesis and draw conclusions
accordingly.
(4) Revising Research Conclusions : The
researcher may have begun the study with a
hypothesis that there exists a relationship
between viewing violence on television and
aggression among children. S/he has to see
whether the conclusions support this
Chapter 2 • Methods of Enquiry in Psychology
2022-23
25
hypothesis. If they do, the existing hypothesis/
theory is confirmed. If not, s/he will revise or
state an alternative hypothesis/theory and
again test it based on new data and draw
conclusions which may be verified by future
researchers. Thus, research is a continuous
process.
Alternative Paradigms of Research
Psychologists suggest that human behaviour
can and should be studied following the
methods adopted by sciences like physics,
chemistry, and biology. The key assumption
of this view is that human behaviour is
predictable, caused by internal and external
forces, and can be observed, measured, and
controlled. In order to achieve these goals, the
discipline of psychology, for larger part of the
twentieth century, restricted itself to the study
of overt behaviour, i.e. the behaviour that
could be observed and measured. It did not
focus on personal feelings, experiences,
meanings, etc.
In recent years, a different method known
as interpretive has emerged. It emphasises
understanding over explanation and
prediction. It takes the stand that, in view of
complex and variable nature of human
behaviour and experience, its method of
investigation should be different from the
method of investigation of the physical world.
This viewpoint emphasises the importance of
how human beings give meaning to events and
actions and interpret them as they occur in a
particular context. Let us take the experiences
that may occur in some unique contexts, such
as persons experiencing suffering due to
external factors (for example, people affected
by tsunami, earthquake, cyclone) or internal
factors (for instance, prolonged illness, etc.).
In such types of situations, objective
measurement is neither possible nor desirable.
Everyone interprets reality in her/his own way
based on past experiences and contexts.
Therefore, we need to understand the
subjective interpretation of the reality. The goal
here is to explore the different aspects of
human experiences and behaviour without
26
attempting to disturb its natural flow. For
example, an explorer does not know what s/
he is looking for, how to look for it, and what
to expect. Rather, s/he tries to map an
uncharted wilderness, with little or no prior
knowledge of the area, and her/his main task
is to record detailed descriptions of what is
found in a particular context.
Both scientific and interpretive traditions
are concerned with studying behaviour and
experiences of others. What about our own
personal experiences and behaviour? As a
student of psychology, you may ask yourself
the question: why am I feeling sad? Many times
you take a pledge that you will control your
diet or devote more time to studies. But when
it actually comes to eating or studying you
forget this. You might be wondering why one
does not have control over one’s behaviour.
Should psychology not help you in analysing
your own experiences, thought processes, and
behaviour? It certainly should. The
psychological enquiry does aim at
understanding the self by reflecting on one’s
own experiences and insights.
NATURE
OF
PSYCHOLOGICAL DATA
You may want to consider how psychological
data are different as compared to other
sciences. Psychologists collect a variety of
information from different sources employing
diverse methods. The information, also called
data (singular = datum), relate to the
individuals’ covert or overt behaviour, their
subjective experiences, and mental processes.
Data form an important input in psychological
enquiry. They in fact approximate the reality
to some extent and provide an opportunity to
verify or falsify our ideas, hunches, notions,
etc. It should be understood that data are not
independent entities. They are located in a
context, and are tied to the method and theory
that govern the process of data collection. In
other words, data are not independent of the
physical or social context, the persons
involved, and the time when the behaviour
occurs. We behave differently when alone than
in a group, or at home and in office. You may
Psychology
2022-23
hesitate to talk in front of your parents and
teachers but not when you are with friends.
You may have also noticed that not all people
behave in exactly the same manner in the same
situation. The method of data collection (survey,
interview, experiment, etc.) used and the
characteristics of respondents (such as,
individual or group, young or old, male or
female, rural or urban, etc.) also influence the
nature and quality of data. It is possible that
when you interview a student, s/he may report
behaving in a particular manner in a given
situation. But when you go for actual
observation you may find just the opposite of
what s/he had reported. Another important
feature of data is that it does not in itself speak
about reality. Inferences have to be made from
data. A researcher attaches meaning to the data
by placing it in its proper context.
In psychology, different types of data or
information are collected. Some of these types
are :
i) Demographic Information : This information
generally includes personal information like
name, age, gender, birth order, number of
siblings, education, occupation, marital
status, number of children, locality of
residence, caste, religion, parental
education, occupation, and family income,
etc.
ii) Physical Infor mation : This category
includes information about ecological
conditions (hilly/desert/forest), mode of
economy, housing conditions, size of rooms,
facilities available at home, in the
neighbourhood, in the school, mode of
transportation, etc.
iii) Physiological Data : In some studies
physical, physiological and psychological
data are collected about height, weight,
heart rate, level of fatigue, Galvanic Skin
Resistance (GSR), electrical activity of the
brain measured by Electro-encephalograph
(EEG), blood oxygen levels, reaction time,
duration of sleep, blood pressure, pattern
of dream, amount of salivation, running and
jumping rates (in case of animal studies),
etc., are collected.
iv) Psychological Information : Psychological
information collected, may relate to such
areas as intelligence, personality, interest,
values, creativity, emotions, motivation,
psychological disorders, illusions,
delusions, hallucinations, perceptual
judgment,
thought
processes,
consciousness, subjective experiences, etc.
The above information could be from the
point of view of measurement somewhat crude.
Like, in the form of categories (such as high/
low, yes/no), ranks which provide ordinal data,
viz. first, second, third, fourth, etc., or scores
(10, 12, 15, 18, 20, etc.) on scales. We also
obtain verbal reports, observation records,
personal diaries, field notes, archival data, etc.
Such types of infor mation is analysed
separately using qualitative methods. You will
get some idea about this later in this chapter.
SOME IMPORTANT METHODS
IN
PSYCHOLOGY
In the previous section you read about wide
variety of data that we collect in psychological
studies. All these varieties of data cannot be
collected through a single method of enquiry.
Psychologists use a variety of methods like
Observation, Experimental, Correlational,
Survey, Psychological Testing, and Case Study
to collect data. The aim of this section is to
guide you to select the methods which may be
appropriate for different research purposes. For
example:
•
You can observe the behaviour of spectators
watching a football match.
• You can conduct an experiment to see if
children taking an examination do better
in the classroom in which they had studied
the subject or in the examination hall
(cause-effect relationship).
• You can correlate intelligence with, say, selfesteem (for prediction purposes).
• You can survey students’ attitude towards
privatisation of education.
• You can use psychological tests to find out
individual differences.
• You can conduct a case study on the
development of language in a child.
The main characteristics of these methods
are described in the following sections.
Chapter 2 • Methods of Enquiry in Psychology
2022-23
27
Observational Method
Observation is a very powerful tool of
psychological enquiry. It is an effective method
of describing behaviour. In our daily life, we
remain busy with observing numerous things
throughout the day. Many times, we do not
take notice of what we are seeing or what we
have seen. We see but we do not observe. We
remain aware of only a few things that we see
daily. Have you experienced such a thing? You
may also have experienced that if you carefully
observe a person or event for some time, you
come to know many interesting things about
the person or the event. A scientific
observation dif fers from day-to-day
observation in many respects. These are :
(a) Selection : Psychologists do not observe all
the behaviour that they encounter. Rather,
they select a particular behaviour for
observation. For example, you may be
interested to know how children studying in
Class XI spend their time in school. Two things
are possible at this stage. As a researcher, you
might think that you have a fairly good idea
about what happens in school. You might
prepare a list of activities and go to the school
with a view to finding out their occurrences.
Alternatively, you might think that you do not
know what happens in the school and, by your
observation you would like to discover it.
(b) Recording : While observing, a researcher
records the selected behaviour using different
means, such as marking tallies for the already
identified behaviour whenever they occur,
taking notes describing each activity in greater
detail using short hand or symbols,
photographs, video recording, etc.
(c) Analysis of Data : After the observations
have been made, psychologists analyse
whatever they have recorded with a view to
derive some meaning out of it.
It is important to know that making good
observations is a skill. A good observer knows
what s/he is looking for, whom s/he wants to
observe, when and where the observation
28
needs to be made, in what for m the
observation will be recorded, and what
methods will be used to analyse the observed
behaviour.
Types of Observation
Observation can be of the following types :
(a) Naturalistic vs Controlled Observation :
When observations are done in a natural or
real-life settings (in the above example, it was
a school in which observation was made), it is
called naturalistic observation. In this case
the observer makes no effort to control or
manipulate the situation for making an
observation. This type of observation is
conducted in hospitals, homes, schools, day
care centers, etc. However, many a times you
might need to control certain factors that
determine behaviour as they are not the focus
of your study. For this reason, many of the
studies in psychology are conducted in the
laboratory. For example, if you read Box 2.1,
you will come to know that smoke could only
be introduced in a controlled laboratory
situation. This type of observation, called
Controlled Laboratory Observation, actually,
is obtained in laboratory experiments.
(b) Non-Participant vs Participant Observation :
Observation can be done in two ways. One,
you may decide to observe the person or event
from a distance. Two, the observer may
become part of the group being observed. In
the first case, the person being observed may
not be aware that s/he is being observed. For
example, you want to observe the pattern of
interaction between teachers and students in
a particular class. There are many ways of
achieving this goal. You can install a video
camera to record the classroom activities,
which you can see later and analyse.
Alternatively, you may decide to sit in a corner
of the class without interfering or participating
in their everyday activities. This type of
observation is called non-participant
observation. The danger in this type of setup is that the very fact that someone
Psychology
2022-23
Box 2.1
Example of an Experiment
Two American psychologists, Bibb Latane and
John Darley, conducted a study in 1970. In order
to participate in this study, the students of
Columbia University arrived individually at a
laboratory. They were given the impression that
they would be interviewed on a certain topic.
Each student was sent to a waiting room to
complete a preliminary questionnaire. Some of
them found two other people already seated in
the room, while others sat down alone. Soon after
the students had started working on the
questionnaire, smoke began filling the room
through a wall vent. The smoke could hardly be
(an outsider) is sitting and observing may bring
a change in the behaviour of students and the
teacher.
In participant observation, the observer
becomes a part of the school or the group of
people being observed. In participant
observation, the observer takes some time to
establish a rapport with the group so that they
start accepting her/him as one of the group
members. However, the degree of involvement
of the observer with the group being observed
would vary depending upon the focus of the
study.
The advantage of the observation method
is that it enables the researcher to study
people and their behaviour in a naturalistic
situation, as it occurs. However, the
observation method is labour intensive, time
consuming, and is susceptible to the
observer’s bias. Our observation is influenced
by our values and beliefs about the person or
the event. You are familiar with the popular
saying: "We see things as we are and not as
things are". Because of our biases we may
interpret things in a different way than what
the participants may actually mean.
Therefore, the observer should record the
behaviour as it happens and should not
interpret the behaviour at the time of
observation itself.
ignored; within four minutes the room contained
enough smoke to interfere with vision and breathing.
Latane and Darley were primarily interested in
knowing how frequently students simply got up and
left the room to report the emergency. Most (75 per
cent) of the students who were waiting alone reported
the smoke, but those reporting in groups were far
less. Groups consisting of three naïve students
reported it only 38 per cent of the time. When the
students waited with two other confederates, who
were instructed before hand by the researchers to
do nothing, only 10 per cent students reported
smoke.
Activity 2.1
A few students can observe one period when the
psychology teacher is teaching in the class. Note
down, in detail, what the teacher does, what the
students do, and the entire pattern of interaction
between the teacher and the students. Discuss
the observations made with other students and
teacher. Note the similarities and differences in
observation.
Experimental Method
Experiments are generally conducted to
establish cause-effect relationship between
two sets of events or variables in a controlled
setting. It is a carefully regulated procedure
in which changes are made in one factor and
its effect is studied on another factor, while
keeping other related factors constant. In the
experiment, cause is the event being changed
or manipulated. Effect is the behaviour that
changes because of the manipulation.
The Concept of Variable
You read earlier that in the experimental
method, a researcher attempts to establish
causal relationship between two variables.
What is a variable? Any stimulus or event
Chapter 2 • Methods of Enquiry in Psychology
2022-23
29
which varies, that is, it takes on different
values (or changes) and can be measured is a
variable. An object by itself is not a variable.
But its attributes are. For example, the pen
that you use for writing is NOT a variable. But
there are varieties of pens available in different
shapes, sizes, and colour. All of these are
variables. The room in which you are sitting
is NOT a variable but its size is as there are
rooms of different sizes. The height of the
individuals (5' to 6') is another variable.
Similarly, people of different races have
different colours. Young people have started
dyeing their hair in different colours. Thus,
colour of hair becomes a variable. Intelligence
is a variable (there are people with varying
levels of intelligence — high, moderate, low).
The presence or absence of persons in the
room is a variable as shown in the experiment
in Box 2.1. Thus, the variation can be in the
quality or quantity of objects/events.
Variables are of many types. We will
however focus on independent and dependent
variables. Independent variable is that
variable which is manipulated or altered or
its strength varied by the researcher in the
experiment. It is the effect of this change in
the variable which the researcher wants to
observe or note in the study. In the experiment
conducted by Latane and Darley (Box 2.1), the
researchers wanted to examine the effect of
the presence of other persons on reporting of
the smoke. The independent variable was
presence or absence of other persons in the
room. The variables on which the effect of
independent variable is observed is called
dependent variable. Dependent variable
represents the phenomenon the researcher
desires to explain. It is expected that change
in the dependent variable will ensue from
changes in the independent variable. The
frequency of reporting of smoke in the above
case was the dependent variable. Thus, the
independent variable is the cause, and
dependent variable the ef fect in any
experimental situation.
One must remember that independent and
dependent variables are interdependent.
Neither of them can be defined without the
30
other. Also, independent variable chosen by
the researcher is not the only variable that
influences the dependent variable. Any
behavioural event contains many variables. It
also takes place within a context. Independent
and dependent variables are chosen because
of the researcher’s theoretical interest.
However, there are many other relevant or
extraneous variables that influence the
dependent variable, but the researcher may
not be interested in examining their effects.
These extraneous variables need to be
controlled in an experiment so that a
researcher is able to pin-point the cause and
effect relationship between independent and
dependent variables.
Experimental and Control Groups
Experiments generally involve one or more
experimental groups and one or more control
groups. An experimental group is a group in
which members of the group are exposed to
independent variable manipulation. The
control group is a comparison group that is
treated in every way like the experimental
group except that the manipulated variable is
absent in it. For example, in the study by
Latane and Darley, there wer e two
experimental groups and one control group.
As you may have noted, the participants in
the study were sent to three types of rooms.
In one room no one was present (control
group). In the other two rooms, two persons
were already seated (experimental groups). Of
the two experimental groups, one group was
instructed not to do anything when smoke
filled in the room. The other group was not
given any instructions. After the experimental
manipulation had occured the performance
of the control group measured in terms of
reporting of smoke was compared with that
of the experimental group. It was found that
the control group participants reported in
maximum numbers about the emergency,
followed by the first experimental group
members where the participants were not
given any instructions, and the second
experimental group (consisting of
Psychology
2022-23
confederates) reported the emergency
situation, the least.
It should be noted that in an experiment,
except for the experimental manipulation,
other conditions are kept constant for both
experimental and control groups. One
attempts to control all those relevant variables
which can influence the dependent variable.
For example, the speed with which smoke
started entering the rooms, the total amount
of smoke in the rooms, physical and other
conditions of the rooms were similar in case
of all the three groups. The distribution of
participants to experimental and control
groups was done randomly, a method that
ensures that each person has an equal chance
of being included in any of the groups. If in
one group the experimenter had included only
males and in the other group females, the
results obtained in the study, could be due to
the differences in gender rather than due to
experimental manipulation. All relevant
variables in experimental studies that might
influence the dependent variable need to be
controlled. These are of three major types:
organismic variables (such as anxiety,
intelligence, personality, etc.), situational or
environmental variables operating at the time
of conducting the experiment (such as noise,
temperature, humidity), and sequential
variables. The sequence related variables
assume significance when the participants in
experiments are required to be tested in
several conditions. Exposure to many
conditions may result in experimental fatigue,
or practice effects, which may influence the
results of the study and make the
interpretation of the findings difficult.
In order to control relevant variables,
experimenters use several control techniques.
Some illustrations are given below.
• Since the goal of an experiment is to
minimise extraneous variables, the best
way to handle this problem is to eliminate
them from the experimental setting. For
example, the experiment may be
conducted in a sound-proof and airconditioned room to eliminate the effect of
noise and temperature.
•
•
•
•
Elimination is not always possible. In such
cases, effort should be made to hold them
constant so that their effect remains the
same throughout the experiment.
For controlling organismic (e.g., fear,
motivation) and background variables
(such as rural/urban, caste, socioeconomic status) matching is also used.
In this procedure the relevant variables in
the two groups are equated or are held
constant by taking matched pairs across
conditions of the experiment.
Counter-balancing technique is used to
minimise the sequence effect. Suppose
there are two tasks to be given in an
experiment. Rather than giving the two
tasks in the same sequence the
experimenter may interchange the order
of the tasks. Thus, half of the group may
receive the tasks in the order of A and B
while the other half in order of B and A or
the same individual may be given the task
in A, B, B, A order.
Random assignment of participants to
different groups eliminates any potential
systematic differences between groups.
The strength of a well-designed experiment
is that it can provide, relatively speaking, a
convincing evidence of a cause-ef fect
relationship between two or more variables.
However, experiments are often conducted in
a highly controlled laboratory situation. In this
sense, they only simulate situations that exist
in the outside world. They are frequently
criticised for this reason. The experiments may
produce results that do not generalise well,
or apply to real situations. In other words, they
have low external validity. Another limitation
of the laboratory experiment is that it is not
always feasible to study a particular problem
experimentally. For example, an experiment
to study the effect of nutritional deficiency on
intelligence level of children cannot be
conducted as it would be ethically wrong to
starve anyone. The third problem is that it is
difficult to know and control all the relevant
variables.
Chapter 2 • Methods of Enquiry in Psychology
2022-23
31
Field Experiments and Quasi Experiments
If a researcher wants to have high
generalisability or to conduct studies which
are not possible in laboratory settings, s/he
may go to the field or the natural setting where
the particular phenomenon actually exists. In
other words, s/he may conduct a field
experiment. For example, a researcher may
want to know which method would lead to
better learning among students—lecture or
demonstration method. For this, a researcher
may prefer to conduct an experiment in the
school. The researcher may select two groups
of participants; teach one group by
demonstration method and another group by
the normal teaching method for sometime. S/
he may compare their performance at the end
of the learning session. In such types of
experiments, the control over relevant
variables is less than what we find in
laboratory experiments. Also, it is more timeconsuming and expensive.
Many variables cannot be manipulated in
the laboratory settings. For example, if you
want to study the effect of an earthquake on
children who lost their parents, you cannot
create this condition artificially in the
laboratory. In such situations, the researcher
adopts the method of quasi (the Latin word
meaning “as if ”) experimentation. In such
types of experiments, the independent variable
is selected rather than varied or manipulated
by the experimenter. For example, in the
experimental group we can have children who
lost their parents in the earthquake and in
Activity 2.2
Identify the independent and dependent variables
from the given hypotheses.
1. Teachers’ classroom behaviour affects
students’ performance.
2. Healthy parent-child relationship facilitates
emotional adjustment of children.
3. Increase in the level of peer pressure increases
the level of anxiety.
4. Enriching the environment of young children
with special books and puzzles enhances their
performance.
32
the control group children who experienced
the earthquake but did not lose their parents.
Thus, a quasi experiment attempts to
manipulate an independent variable in a
natural setting using naturally occurring
groups to form experimental and control
groups.
Correlational Research
In psychological research, we often wish to
determine the relationship between two
variables for prediction purposes. For
example, you may be interested in knowing
whether “the amount of study time” is related
to the “student’s academic achievement”. This
question is different from the one which
experimental method seeks to answer in the
sense that here you do not manipulate the
amount of study time and examine its impact
on achievement. Rather, you simply find out
the relationship between the two variables to
determine whether they are associated, or
covary or not. The strength and direction of
the relationship between the two variables is
represented by a number, known as
correlation coefficient. Its value can range from
+1.0 through 0.0 to –1.0.
As you can see, the coef ficient of
correlation is of three types: positive, negative,
and zero. A positive correlation indicates that
as the value of one variable (X) increases, the
value of the other variable (Y) will also increase.
Similarly when variable X decreases, a
decrease in Y too takes place. Suppose, it is
found that more time the students spend on
studying, the higher was their achievement
score. Also the less they studied, the lower
was their achievement score. This type of
association will be indicated by a positive
number, and the stronger the association
between studying and achievement, the closer
the number would be to +1.0. You may find a
correlation of +.85, indicating a strong positive
association between study time and
achievement. On the other hand, a negative
correlation tells us that as the value of one
variable (X) increases, the value of the other
(Y) decreases. For example, you may
Psychology
2022-23
hypothesise that as the hours of study time
increase, the number of hours spent in other
activities will decrease. Here, you are expecting
a negative correlation, ranging between 0 and
–1.0. It is also possible that sometimes no
correlation may exist between the two
variables. This is called zero correlation.
Generally, it is difficult to find zero correlation
but the correlations found may be close to
zero, e.g., -.02 or +.03. This indicates that no
significant relationship exists between two
variables or the two variables are unrelated.
panchayati raj institutions for running
programmes related to health, education,
sanitation, etc. However, they have now
evolved into a sophisticated technique which
helps in inferring various kinds of causal
relationships. Box 2.2 provides an example of
a study using the survey method.
The survey research uses different
techniques for collecting information. Included
among these techniques are: personal
interviews, questionnaires, telephonic surveys,
and controlled observations. These techniques
are discussed here in some detail.
Survey Research
You may have read in the newspapers or seen
on the television that during elections surveys
are conducted to find out if people would vote
for a particular political party, or favour a
particular candidate. Survey research came
into existence to study opinions, attitudes and
social facts. Their main concern initially was
to find out the existing reality or baseline. So
they were used to find out facts such as the
literacy rate at a particular time, religious
affiliations, income level of a particular group
of people, etc.They were also used to find out
the attitude of people towards family planning,
the attitude towards giving powers to the
Box 2.2
Personal Interviews
The interview method is one of the most
frequently used methods for obtaining
information from people. It is used in diverse
kinds of situations. It is used by a doctor to
obtain information from the patient, an
employer when meeting a pr ospective
employee, a sales person interviewing a
housewife to know why she uses a certain
brand of soap. On television, we often see
media persons interviewing people on issues
of national and international importance.
What happens in an interview? We see that
two or more persons sit face-to-face with each
Example of Survey Method
In December 2004, a survey was conducted by
“Outlook Saptahik” magazine (10 January 2005)
to know what makes the people of India happy.
The survey was conducted in eight big cities,
namely Mumbai, Delhi, Kolkata, Bangalore,
Hyderabad, Ahmedabad, Jaipur, and Ranchi.
817 persons in the age group of 25-55 years
participated in the study. The questionnaire
used in the survey contained different types of
questions. The first question (Are you happy?)
required respondents to give their views on a
5-point scale (5=extremely happy, 4=more or less
happy, 3=neither happy nor unhappy, 2=more
or less unhappy, 1=extremely unhappy). About
47 per cent people reported that they were
extremely happy, 28 per cent were more or less
happy, 11 per cent said they were neither happy
nor unhappy, and 7 per cent each fell in the last
two categories, more or less unhappy, and extremely
unhappy. The second question (Can you buy
happiness with money?) had three alternatives (Yes,
No, Don’t know). About 80 per cent people expressed
that money can’t buy happiness. Another question
tried to know “what gives them maximum
happiness?” More than 50 per cent respondents
reported that peace of mind (52 per cent) and health
(50 per cent) gave them maximum happiness. This
was followed by responses such as success in work
(43 per cent), and family (40 per cent). Another
question asked was to know ‘what do they do when
they feel unhappy or sad?” It was reported that 36
per cent people opted for listening to music, 23 per
cent found respite in the company of friends, and
15 per cent went for a movie.
Chapter 2 • Methods of Enquiry in Psychology
2022-23
33
other, in which one person (generally called
interviewer) asks the questions and the other
person (called interviewee or respondent)
answers the questions related to a problem.
An interview is a purposeful activity conducted
to derive factual information, opinions and
attitudes, and reasons for particular
behaviour, etc. from the respondents. It is
generally conducted face-to-face but sometimes
it can also take place over the phone.
There can be two broad types of interviews:
structured or standardised, and
unstructured or non-standardised. This
distinction is based upon the type of
preparation we make before conducting the
interview. As we have to ask questions during
the interview, it is required that we prepare a
list of questions before-hand. The list is called
an interview schedule. A structured interview
is one where the questions in the schedule
are written clearly in a particular sequence.
The interviewer has little or no liberty to make
changes in the wordings of the questions or
the order in which they are to be asked. The
responses to these questions are also, in some
cases, specified in advance. These are called
close-ended questions. In contrast, in an
unstructured interview the interviewer has the
flexibility to take decisions about the questions
to be asked, the wording of the questions, and
the sequence in which questions are to be
asked. Since responses are not specified in
such type of interviews, the respondent can
answer the questions in the way s/he chooses
to. Such questions are called open-ended
questions. For example, if the researcher
wants to know about the happiness level of a
person, s/he may ask: How happy are you?
The respondent may reply to this question the
way s/he chooses to answer.
An interview may have the following
combinations of participants in an interview
situation:
(a) Individual to Individual : It is a situation
where one interviewer interviews another
person.
(b) Individual to Group : In this situation, one
interviewer interviews a group of persons.
One variant of it is called a Focus Group
Discussion (FGD).
34
(c) Group to Individuals : It is a situation where
one group of interviewers interview one
person. You may experience this type of
situation when you appear for a job
interview.
(d) Group to Group : It is a situation where
one group of interviewers interview another
group of interviewees.
Interviewing is a skill which requires proper
training. A good interviewer knows how to make
the respondent at ease and get the optimal
answer. S/he remains sensitive to the way a
person responds and, if needed, probes for
more information. If the respondent gives vague
answers, the interviewer may try to get specific
and concrete answers.
The interview method helps in obtaining
in-depth information. It is flexible and
adaptable to individual situations, and can
often be used when no other method is
possible or adequate. It can be used even with
children, and non-literate persons. An
interviewer can know whether the respondent
understands the questions, and can repeat or
paraphrase questions. However, interviews
require time. Often getting information from
one person may take an hour or more which
may not be cost-effective.
Questionnaire Survey
The questionnaire is the most common,
simple, versatile, and low-cost self-report
method of collecting information. It consists
of a predetermined set of questions. The
respondent has to read the questions and
mark the answers on paper rather than
respond verbally to the interviewer. They are
in some ways like highly structured interviews.
Questionnaires can be distributed to a group
of persons at a time who write down their
answers to the questions and return to the
researcher or can be sent through mail.
Generally, two types of questions are used in
the questionnaire: open-ended and closedended. With open-ended questions, the
respondent is free to write whatever answer
s/he considers appropriate. In the closedended type, the questions and their probable
Psychology
2022-23
answers are given and the respondent is
required to select the correct answer.
Examples of closed-ended questions require
responses like: Yes/No, True/False, Multiple
choice, or using a rating scale. In case of rating
scale, a statement is given and the respondent
is asked to give her/his views on a 3-point
(Agree, Undecided, Disagree), or 5-point
(Strongly Agree, Agree, Undecided, Disagree,
Strongly Disagree) or 7-point, 9-point, 11point or 13-point scale. In some cases, the
participants are asked to rank a number of
things in a preferential order. The
questionnaire is used for collecting
background and demographic information,
information about past behaviour, attitudes
and opinions, knowledge about a particular
topic, and expectations and aspirations of the
persons. Sometimes a survey is conducted by
sending the questionnaire by mail. The main
problem of a mailed questionnaire is poor
response from the respondents.
Activity 2.3
An investigator wants to study people’s attitude
towards welfare programmes by circulating a
questionnaire via the Internet. Is this study likely
to reflect the views of the general population
accurately? Why or why not?
Telephone Survey
Surveys are also conducted through
telephone, and now-a-days you must have
seen programmes asking you to send your
views through mobile phones’ SMS. The
telephone survey helps in reducing time.
However, since the respondents do not know
the interviewer, the technique is fraught with
uncooperativeness, reluctance, and superficial
answers by the respondents. There is also a
possibility that those responding may differ
from those not responding, e.g., on age,
gender, income levels, education levels, etc.,
besides their psychological characteristics.
This will lead to very biased kinds of results.
The method of observation have been
discussed earlier. This method is also used
for conducting surveys. Each method has its
own advantages and limitations. The
researcher needs to exercise caution in
selecting a particular method.
The survey method has several
advantages. First, information can be gathered
quickly and efficiently from thousands of
persons. Second, since surveys can be
conducted quickly, public opinions on new
issues can be obtained almost as soon as the
issues arise. There are some limitations of a
survey too. First, people may give inaccurate
information because of memory lapses or they
may not want to let the researcher know what
they really believe about a particular issue.
Second, people sometimes offer responses they
think the researcher wants to hear.
Psychological Testing
Assessment of individual differences has
remained one of the important concerns of
psychology fr om the very beginning.
Psychologists have constructed different types
of tests for assessment of various human
characteristics, such as intelligence, aptitude,
personality, interest, attitudes, values,
educational achievement, etc. These tests are
used for various purposes, such as personnel
selection, placement, training, guidance,
diagnosis, etc., in multiple contexts including
educational institutions, guidance clinics,
industries, defence establishments, and so
forth. Have you ever taken a psychological
test? If you have, you might have seen that a
test contains a number of questions, called
items, with their probable responses, which
ar e related to a particular human
characteristic or attribute. It is important here
that the characteristic for which a test has
been developed, should be defined clearly and
unambiguously, and all items (questions)
should be related to that characteristic only.
You might also notice that often a test is meant
for a particular age group. It may or may not
have a fixed time limit for answering the
questions.
Technically speaking, a psychological test
is a standardised and objective instrument
Chapter 2 • Methods of Enquiry in Psychology
2022-23
35
which is used to assess an individual’s
standing in relation to others on some mental
or behavioural characteristics. Two things are
worth noting in this definition: objectivity and
standardisation. Objectivity refers to the fact
that if two or more researchers administer a
psychological test on the same group of people,
both of them would come up with more or
less the same values for each person in the
group. In order for a psychological test to
become an objective measure, it is essential
that items should be worded in such a manner
that they communicate the same meaning to
different readers. Also, the instructions to the
test takers about how to answer the test items
should be specified in advance. The procedure
of administering the test such as
environmental conditions, time limit, mode of
administration (individual or group) should be
spelt, and the procedure for scoring of the
participants’ responses need to be described.
The construction of a test is a systematic
process and involves certain steps. It involves
detailed analysis of items, and estimating
reliability, validity, and norms of the whole
test.
Reliability of the test refers to the
consistency of scores obtained by an individual
on the same test on two different occasions.
For example, you administer the test to a
group of students today and re-administer it
on the same set of students after some time,
let us say 20 days. If the test is reliable, there
should not be any variation in the scores
obtained by the students on the two occasions.
For this, we can compute test-retest
reliability, which indicates the temporal
stability (or stability of the test scores over
time). It is computed by finding out co-efficient
of correlation between the two sets of scores
on the same set of persons. Another kind of
test reliability is called split-half reliability. It
gives an indication about the degree of internal
consistency of the test. This is based on the
assumption that items of a test if they are from
the same domain should correlate with each
other. If they are from different domains, e.g.,
apples and oranges, then they would not. For
finding out internal consistency, the test is
36
divided into two equal halves employing oddeven method (items 1,3,5,— in one group and
items 2,4,6,— in another group) and
correlation is computed between the scores
of odd and even items.
For a test to be usable, it should also be
valid. Validity refers to the question : “Does
the test measure what it claims to measure”?
For example, if you have constructed a test of
mathematics achievement, whether the test
is measuring mathematical achievement or
for example, language proficiency.
Finally, a test becomes a standardised test
when norms are developed for the test. As
mentioned earlier, norm is the normal or
average performance of the group. The test is
administered on a large number of students.
Their average performance standards are set
based on their age, sex, place of residence,
etc. This helps us in comparing the
performance of an individual student with
others of the same group. It also helps in
interpreting individuals’ score obtained on a
test.
Types of Tests
Psychological tests are classified on the basis
of their language, mode of administration, and
difficulty level. Depending upon the language,
we have verbal, non-verbal, and performance
tests. Literacy is required for taking verbal
tests as the items have to be written in some
language. In non-verbal tests, items are made
of symbols or pictures. Performance tests
require movement of objects from their
respective places in a particular order.
Depending upon the mode of
administration, psychological tests are divided
into individual or group tests. An individual
test is administered by the researcher to one
person at a time, while group tests can be
administered to large number of persons at
the same time. In individual tests, the
researcher administers the test face to face
and remains seated before the test taker and
notes down the responses. In the group test,
the instructions about answering the items,
etc., are written on the test, which the test
Psychology
2022-23
taker reads and answers the questions
accordingly. The test administrator explains
the instructions to the entire group. Individual
tests are time consuming, but are important
ways of getting responses from children, and
from those who do not know the language.
Group tests are easy to administer and are
also less time consuming. However, the
responses are fraught with certain limitations.
The respondent may not be motivated enough
to answer the questions and may give fake
responses.
Psychological tests are also classified into
speed and power tests. In a speed test, there
is a time limit within which the test taker is
required to answer all the items. Such a test
evaluates the individual on the basis of time
taken to answer the items accurately. In a
speed test, all the items are of the same degree
of difficulty. On the other hand, power test
assesses the underlying ability (or power) of
the individuals by allowing them sufficient
time, i.e. these tests do not have any time limit.
In a power test, the items are generally
arranged in an increasing order of difficulty.
If a person, for example, is unable to solve the
6th item, s/he will have difficulty in answering
the subsequent items. It is, however, difficult
to construct a pure speed or power test.
Majority of the tests are a combination of both
speed and power.
While tests are often used in research and
for making decisions about people, tests must
be selected and used with great care. The test
user or the decision maker should not rely on
any single test. Test data should be combined
Activity 2.4
Take a test with its manual and read it carefully,
and identify the following :
•
Number and type of items
•
Information about reliability, validity, and
norms
•
Type of test: verbal or otherwise, individual
or group
•
Type of test: Speed, power, or mixed
•
Any other characteristics
Discuss these with other students and the
teacher.
with information about a person’s background,
interests, and past performance.
Case Study
In this method, the emphasis is given on indepth study of a particular case. Researchers
focus on cases which can provide critical
infor mation or new lear ning on less
understood phenomena. The case can be an
individual with distinguishing characteristics
(for example, a patient showing psychological
disorders) or a small group of individuals
having some commonality among them (for
example, creative writers like Rabindra Nath
Tagore, and Mahadevi Verma), institutions (for
example, poorly or successfully functioning
school or a corporate office), and specific
events (for example, children exposed to
devastation by tsunami, war or vehicular
pollution, etc.). The cases that we select for
study are unique and, therefore, are rich in
information. A case study employs multiple
methods for collecting information, such as
interview, observation, and psychological tests
from a variety of respondents who in some
way or the other might be associated with the
case and can provide useful information. With
the help of case studies, psychologists have
done research to understand feelings,
fantasies, hopes, fears, traumatic experiences,
parental upbringing and so on, that helps to
understand a person’s mind and behaviour.
Case studies provide a narrative or detailed
descriptions of the events that take place in a
person’s life.
A case study is a valuable research tool in
the field of clinical psychology and human
development. Freud’s insights that led to the
development of psychoanalytic theory emerged
from his observations and showed that
meticulous records must be maintained on
individual cases. Similarly, Piaget developed
his theory of cognitive development on the
basis of observations of his three children.
Case studies have been conducted to
understand the pattern of socialisation of
children. For example, Minturn and Hitchcock
conducted a case study of socialisation of
Chapter 2 • Methods of Enquiry in Psychology
2022-23
37
children among Rajputs of Khalapur.
S. Anandalakshmy studied aspects of
childhood in a weavers’ community in Varanasi.
Case studies provide detailed in-depth
depictions of people’s lives. However, while
generalising on the basis of individual cases
one needs to be very cautious. The problem of
validity in a single case study is quite
challenging. It is recommended that the
information should be collected using multiple
strategies from different sources of information
by a number of investigators. Careful planning
of data collection is also very necessary.
Throughout the process of data collection the
researcher is required to maintain a chain of
evidence for linking various data sources
having bearing on the research questions.
As you have read, each method has its own
limitations and advantages. Therefore, it is
desirable that the researcher should not
depend upon only one method. A combination
of two or more methods should be used to get
the real picture. If the methods converge, i.e.
they give the same results, one can certainly
be more confident.
Activity 2.5
Identify the most appropriate method of enquiry
for the following research problems.
•
Does noise influence the problem solving
ability of the people?
•
Should there be a dress code for college
students?
•
Studying the attitude of students, teachers,
and parents towards homework.
•
Studying the behaviour of a student in a
playgroup and in a classroom.
•
Tracing the major life events of your favourite
leader.
•
Assessing the anxiety level of Class XI
students of your school.
ANALYSIS
OF
DATA
In the earlier section, we discussed different
methods for collecting information. After data
are collected, the next job of the researcher is
to draw conclusions. This requires analysis of
38
data. We generally use two methodological
approaches for the analysis of data. These are:
quantitative and qualitative methods. In this
section, we will briefly discuss these
approaches.
Quantitative Method
As you may have gathered by now,
psychological tests, questionnaires, structured
interviews, etc. contain a series of close-ended
questions. That is, the questions and their
probable responses are given in these
measures. Generally, these responses are
given in scaled forms. That is, they indicate
the strength and magnitude of the response.
For example, they may vary from 1 (low) to 5,
7 or 11 (high). The participants’ task is to select
the most appropriate response. Sometimes
there are right and wrong responses. A
researcher assigns a number to each answer
(normally “1” for right answers, and “0” for
wrong answers). At the end, the researcher
calculates the total of all these numbers and
arrives at an aggregate score, which tells about
the participants’ level on that particular
attribute (for example, intelligence, academic
intelligence, etc.). In doing so, the researcher
converts the psychological attributes into a
quantity (usually numbers).
For the purpose of drawing conclusions,
a researcher may compare individual’s score
with that of the group, or compare the scores
of two groups. This requires use of certain
statistical methods about which you will study
later. You have already read in mathematics
in Class X about the methods of central
tendency (mean, median, and mode), methods
of variability (range, quartile deviation,
standard deviation), co-efficients of
correlation, and so forth. These and some
other advanced statistical methods enable a
researcher to make inferences and to give
meaning to the data.
Qualitative Method
Human experiences are very complex. This
complexity is lost when one elicits information
Psychology
2022-23
from a respondent on the basis of a question.
If you want to know how a mother feels about
the loss of her child, you will need to hear her
story to understand how her experience is
organised and what meaning she has given to
her suffering. Any attempt at its quantification
will not enable you to get at the principles of
organising such experiences. Psychologists
have developed various qualitative methods
to analyse such data. One of them is Narrative
Analysis. Also data are not always available
in the form of scores. When the researcher
uses the method of participant observation or
unstructured interview, the data are generally
in a descriptive form—in participants’ own
words, field notes taken by the researchers,
photographs, interview responses noted by the
researcher or taped/video-recorded, informal
talks, etc. These type of data cannot be
converted into scores or subjected to statistical
analysis. Rather, the researcher uses the
technique of content analysis to find out
thematic categories and build those categories
taking examples from the data. It is more
descriptive in nature.
It must be understood that quantitative
and qualitative methods are not contradictory;
rather, they are complementary to each other.
In order to understand a phenomenon in its
totality, a suitable combination of both
methods is warranted.
LIMITATIONS
OF
PSYCHOLOGICAL ENQUIRY
The advantages and limitations of each
method have been discussed earlier. In this
section, you will read some general problems
faced by psychological measurement.
1. Lack of T rue Zero Point : In physical
sciences measurements do start from zero.
For example, if you want to measure the
length of the table, you can measure it
starting from zero and can say it is 3' long.
Psychological measurements do not have
a true zero point. For example, no person
in this world has zero intelligence. All of
us have some degree of intelligence. What
psychologists do is that they arbitrarily
decide a point as zero point and proceed
further. As a result, whatever scores we
get in psychological studies, are not
absolute in nature; rather, they have
relative value.
In some of the studies ranks are used
as scores. For example, on the basis of
marks obtained in some test, the teacher
arranges the students in an order — 1, 2,
3, 4, … , and so on. The problem in such
type of assessment is that the difference
between first and second rank holders may
not be the same as is the difference
between the second and third rank
holders. Out of 50, the first rank holder
might score 48, the second 47, and the
third 40. As you can see, the difference
between the first and the second rank
holders is not the same as is the case
between second and third rank holders.
This also illustrates the relative nature of
the psychological measurement.
2. Relative Nature of Psychological Tools :
Psychological tests are developed keeping
in view the salient features of a particular
context. For example, a test developed for
urban students may contain items that
demand familiarity with the stimuli
available in the urban setting—
multistoried buildings, airplanes, metro
railway, etc. Such a test is not suitable for
use with children living in tribal areas who
would be more at ease with items that
describe their flora and fauna. Similarly,
a test developed in the Western countries
may or may not be applicable in the Indian
context. Such tests need to be properly
modified and adapted keeping in view the
characteristics of the context in which they
are to be used.
3. Subjective Interpretation of Qualitative
Data : Data from qualitative studies are
largely subjective since they involve
interpretation on the part of the researcher
as well as the person providing data. The
interpretations may vary from one
individual to the other. It is, therefore,
often suggested that in case of qualitative
Chapter 2 • Methods of Enquiry in Psychology
2022-23
39
studies, the field work should be done by
more than one investigator, who at the end
of the day should discuss their
observations and arrive at an agreement
before finally giving it a meaning. In fact,
one is better off, if the respondents too
are involved in such meaning-making
process.
shared with others. In some studies, the
technique of deception is used in which
the participants are given instructions to
think or imagine in certain ways and are
given false information or feedback about
their performance (for example, you are
very intelligent, you are incompetent). It
is, therefore, important that the
participants are explained the nature of
the
study
before
its
actual
commencement.
ETHICAL ISSUES
As you know, psychological research is
concerned with human behaviour, the
researcher is expected to follow certain ethics
(or moral principles) while conducting the
studies. These principles are: respect for
persons’ privacy and choice to participate
in the study, beneficence or protecting the
participants in the study from any harm,
and justice or sharing the benefits of
research with all participants. Some of the
important aspects of these ethical principles
are described as follows.
1. Voluntary Participation : This principle
states that the persons on whom you want
to conduct the study should have the
choice to decide whether to participate or
not to participate in the study. The
participants should have the freedom to
decide about their participation without
any coercion or excessive inducement, and
the freedom to withdraw from the research
without penalty, once it has begun.
2. Informed Consent : It is essential that the
participants in a study should understand
what will happen to them during the
study. The principle of informed consent
states that potential participants must
receive this information before data from
them are collected, so that they make an
informed decision about participation in
the study. In some of the psychological
experiments, electric shock is given to the
participants during the experiment. Still
in some cases obnoxious (e.g., harmful or
unpleasant) stimuli are presented. They
may at times be required to give some
private information, which is generally not
40
3. Debriefing : Once the study is over, the
participants are provided with necessary
information
to
complete
their
understanding of research. This is
particularly important if deception has
been used in the study. Debriefing ensures
that participants leave the study in the
same physical and mental state as when
they entered. It should offer reassurance
to the participants. The researcher should
make efforts to remove any anxiety or other
adverse effects that participants may have
felt as a result of being deceived in the
course of the study.
4. Sharing the Results of the Study : In
psychological research, after collecting
information from the participants, we come
back to our places of work, analyse the
data and draw conclusions. It is obligatory
for the researcher to go back to the
participants and share the results of the
study with them. When you go for data
collection, the participants develop certain
expectations from you. One of the
expectations is that you will tell them
about their behaviour that you have
investigated in the study. As a researcher,
it is our moral duty to go back to the
participants. This exercise has two
advantages. One, you fulfil the
expectations of the participants. Second,
the participants may tell you their opinion
about the results, which sometimes may
help you develop new insights.
5. Confidentiality of Data Source : The
participants in a study have the right to
privacy. The researcher must safeguard
Psychology
2022-23
their privacy by keeping the information
provided by them in strict confidence. The
information should only be used for
research purposes and, in no
circumstances, it should be passed on to
other interested parties. The most effective
way of protecting the confidentiality of
participants is not to record their identities.
This is, however, not possible in certain
kinds of research. In such cases, code
numbers are given on the data sheet, and
the names with the codes are kept
separately. The identification list should be
destroyed as soon as the research is over.
Key Terms
Case study, Confidentiality, Control group,
Correlational research, Data, Debriefing,
Dependent variable, Experimental group,
Experimental method, Group test, Hypothesis,
Independent variable, Individual test,
Interview, Negative correlation, Norms,
Objectivity, Observation, Performance tests,
Positive correlation, Power test, Psychological
test, Qualitative method, Quantitative method,
Questionnaire, Reliability, Speed test,
Structured interview, Survey, Unstructured
interview, Validity, Variable
Summary
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
A psychological research is conducted for the purpose of description, prediction, explanation,
control of behaviour, and application of knowledge generated in an objective manner. It
involves the following four steps: conceptualising a problem, collection of data, analysing
data, drawing and revising research conclusions. The psychological research is also
conducted to discover and understand the subjective meanings of events as they occur in a
particular context, and also reflect upon one’s own behaviour and experiences.
In psychological studies, different types of data including demographic, environmental,
physical, physiological, and psychological information are collected. However, the data in
psychological studies remain located in a context and are tied to the theory and method
used for its collection.
Different methods are used for collecting information. The observation method is used for
describing the behaviour. It is characterised by selection of a particular behaviour, its recording
and analysis. Observation can be done in a naturalistic or controlled laboratory conditions.
It can take the form of a participant or non-participant observation.
The experimental method helps in establishing cause-effect relationship. The effect of the
presence of independent variable on the dependent variable is studied using experimental
and control groups.
The purpose of correlational research is investigating association between variables as well
as making predictions. The relationship between two variables can be positive, zero or
negative, and strength of association varies from +1.0 through 0.0 to –1.0.
The focus of survey research is to inform about the existing reality. Surveys can be conducted
by using structured and unstructured interviews, mailed questionnaires, and telephone.
The psychological tests are standardised and objective instruments which help in knowing
one’s standing in comparison to others. Tests can be verbal, non-verbal, and performance
types, which can be administered individually or to the entire group at a time.
The method of case study gives detailed in-depth information about a particular case.
The data collected through the use of these methods are analysed through quantitative and
qualitative methods. The quantitative methods allow the use of statistical procedure for
drawing conclusions. Narrative method and method of content analysis are some methods
that are used in case of qualitative research.
Lack of absolute zero point, relative nature of psychological tools, and subjective interpretation
of qualitative data are some of the limitations of psychological enquiry. Ethical principles of
voluntary participation of the subjects, their informed consent, and sharing of results with
the participants must be followed by a researcher.
Chapter 2 • Methods of Enquiry in Psychology
2022-23
41
Review Questions
1. What are the goals of scientific enquiry?
2. Describe the various steps involved in conducting a scientific enquiry.
3. Explain the nature of psychological data.
4. How do experimental and control groups differ? Explain with the help of an example.
5. A researcher is studying the relationship between speed of cycling and the presence of
people. Formulate a relevant hypothesis and identify the independent and dependent
variables.
6. Discuss the strengths and weaknesses of experimental method as a method of enquiry.
7. Dr. Krishnan is going to observe and record children’s play behaviour at a nursery school
without attempting to influence or control the behaviour. Which method of research is
involved? Explain the process and discuss its merits and demerits.
8. Give two examples of the situations where survey method can be used. What are the
limitations of this method?
9. Differentiate between an interview and a questionnaire.
10. Explain the characteristics of a standardised test.
11. Describe the limitations of psychological enquiry.
12. What are the ethical guidelines that a psychologist needs to follow while conducting a
psychological enquiry?
Project Ideas
1.
2.
42
Conduct a survey of the after-school activities of Class V and Class IX students taking a
sample of 10 students in each. Find information about the time devoted by them in
various activities, such as studying, playing, television viewing, hobbies, etc. Do you find
any difference? What conclusions do you draw and what suggestions would you offer?
Conduct a study in your group to see the effect of recitation on learning of poetry. Take 10
six-year olds and divide them into two groups. Give group 1 a new poem to learn and
instruct them to read it loudly for 15 minutes. Take group 2 and give them the same new
poem to learn but instruct them not to read it loudly. After 15 minutes ask the two groups
to recall. Care needs to be taken to see that both the groups are dealt with separately.
After the recall has taken place, note down the observation.
Identify what method of research you used, the hypothesis, the variables and the
kind of experimental design that were there. Compare notes with the other groups and
share the result with your teacher in the class.
Psychology
2022-23
Chapter
3
The Bases of Human
Behaviour
After reading this chapter, you would be able to
•
•
•
•
•
•
understand the evolutionary nature of human behaviour,
relate the functions of nervous system and endocrine system to behaviour,
explain the role of genetic factors in determining behaviour,
understand the role of culture in shaping human behaviour,
describe the processes of enculturation, socialisation, and acculturation,
and
relate biological and socio-cultural factors in understanding human
behaviour.
Contents
There are one hundred and
ninety-three species of monkeys
and apes. One-hundred and
ninety-two of them are covered with
hair. The exception is the naked
ape self-named, homo-sapiens.
Introduction
Evolutionary Perspective
Biological and Cultural Roots
Biological Basis of Behaviour
Neurons
Structure and Functions of Nervous System and
Endocrine System and their Relationship with
Behaviour and Experience
The Nervous System
The Endocrine System
Heredity: Genes and Behaviour
Cultural Basis : Socio-Cultural Shaping of Behaviour
Concept of Culture
Biological and Cultural Transmission (Box 3.1)
Enculturation
Socialisation
Acculturation
Key Terms
Summary
Review Questions
Project Ideas
– Desmond Morris
2022-23
Introduction
Human beings, the homo sapiens, are the most developed organisms among all
creatures on this earth. Their ability to walk upright, larger brain size relative to
body weight, and the proportion of specialised brain tissues make them distinct
from other species. These features have evolved through millions of years and have
enabled them to engage in several complex behaviours. Scientists have attempted
to study the relationship of complex human behaviour with the processes of the
nervous system, particularly the brain. They have tried to discover the neural
basis of thoughts, feelings, and actions. By understanding the biological aspects of
human beings, you will be able to appreciate how the brain, environment and
behaviour interact to generate unique forms of behaviour. In this chapter, we
begin with a general description of the nervous system in an evolutionary
perspective. You will also study the structure and functions of the nervous system.
You will learn about the endocrine system, and its influence on human behaviour.
Later in this chapter, you will also study the notion of culture and show its
relevance to the understanding of behaviour. This will be followed by an analysis
of the processes of enculturation, socialisation, and acculturation.
EVOLUTIONARY PERSPECTIVE
You must have observed that people differ
with respect to their physical and
psychological characteristics. The uniqueness
of individuals results from the interaction of
their genetic endowments and environmental
demands.
In this world, there are millions of different
species of organisms differing in a variety of
ways. Biologists believe that these species were
not always like this; they have evolved to their
present form from their pre-existing forms. It
is estimated that the characteristics of modern
human beings developed some 2,00,000 years
ago as a result of their continuous interaction
with the environment.
Evolution refers to gradual and orderly
biological changes that result in a species from
their pre-existing forms in response to the
changing adaptational demands of their
environment. Physiological as well as
behavioural changes that occur due to the
evolutionary process are so slow that they
become visible after hundreds of generations.
44
Psychology
2022-23
Evolution occurs through the process of
natural selection. You know that members of
each species vary greatly in their physical
structure and behaviour. The traits or
characteristics that are associated with high
rate of survival and reproduction of those
species are the most likely ones to be passed
on to the next generations. When repeated
generation after generation, natural selection
leads to the evolution of new species that are
more effectively adapted to their particular
environment. This is very similar to the
selective breeding of horses or other animals
these days. Breeders select the fittest and the
fastest male and female horses from their
stock, and promote them for selective breeding
so that they can get the fittest horses. Fitness
is the ability of an organism to survive and
contribute its genes to the next generation.
Three important features of modern
human beings differentiate them from their
ancestors: (i) a bigger and developed brain with
increased capacity for cognitive behaviours
like perception, memory, reasoning, problem
solving, and use of language for
communication, (ii) ability to walk upright on
two legs, and (iii) a free hand with a workable
opposing thumb. These features have been
with us for several thousand years.
Our behaviours are highly complex and
more developed than those of other species
because we have got a large and highly
developed brain. Human brain development is
evidenced by two facts. Firstly, the weight of
the brain is about 2.35 per cent of the total
body weight, and it is the highest among all
species (in elephant it is 0.2 per cent). Secondly,
the human cerebrum is more evolved than
other parts of the brain.
These evolutions have resulted due to the
influence of environmental demands. Some
behaviours play an obvious role in evolution.
For example, the ability to find food, avoid
predators, and defend one’s young are the
objectives related to the survival of the
organisms as well as their species. The
biological and behavioural qualities, which are
helpful in meeting these objectives, increase
an organism’s ability to pass it on to the future
generation through its genes. The
environmental demands lead to biological and
behavioural changes over a long period of time.
BIOLOGICAL
AND
CULTURAL ROOTS
An important determinant of our behaviour
is the biological structures that we have
inherited from our ancestors in the form of
developed body and brain. The importance of
such a biological bases becomes obvious when
we observe cases in which brain cells have
been destroyed by any disease, use of drug or
an accident. Such cases develop various kinds
of physical and behavioural disabilities. Many
children develop mental retardation and other
abnormal symptoms due to transmission of a
faulty gene from the parents.
As human beings, we not only share a
biological system, but also certain cultural
systems. These systems are quite varied across
human populations. All of us negotiate our
lives with the culture in which we are born
and brought up. Culture provides us with
different experiences and opportunities of
learning by putting us in a variety of situations
or placing different demands on our lives.
Such experiences, opportunities and demands
also influence our behaviour considerably.
These influences become more potent and
visible as we move from infancy to later years
of life. Thus, besides biological bases, there
are cultural bases of behaviour also. You will
learn about the role of culture in behaviour at
a later point in this chapter.
BIOLOGICAL BASIS
OF
BEHAVIOUR
Neurons
Neuron is the basic unit of our nervous
system. Neurons are specialised cells, which
possess the unique property of converting
various for ms of stimuli into electrical
impulses. They are also specialised for
reception, conduction and transmission of
information in the form of electrochemical
signals. They receive information from sense
organs or from other adjacent neurons, carry
them to the central nervous system (brain and
spinal cord), and bring motor information from
the central nervous system to the motor organs
(muscles and glands).
Nearly 12 billion neurons are found in the
human nervous system. They are of many
types and vary considerably in shape, size,
chemical composition, and function. Despite
these differences, they share three
fundamental components, i.e. soma,
dendrites, and axon.
The soma or cell body is the main body of
the nerve cell. It contains the nucleus of the
cell as well as other structures common to living
cells of all types (Figure 3.1). The genetic
material of the neuron is stored inside the
nucleus and it becomes actively engaged during
cell reproduction and protein synthesis. The
soma also contains most of the cytoplasm (cellfluid) of the neuron. Dendrites are the branchlike specialised structures emanating from the
soma. They are the receiving ends of a neuron.
Their function is to receive the incoming neural
impulses from adjacent neurons or directly
from the sense organs. On dendrites are found
specialised receptors, which become active
Chapter 3 • The Bases of Human Behaviour
2022-23
45
when a signal arrives in electrochemical or
biochemical form. The received signals are
passed on to soma and then to axon so that
the information is relayed to another neuron
or to muscles. The axon conducts the
information along its length, which can be
several feet in the spinal cord and less than a
millimeter in the brain. At the terminal point
the axon branches into small structures, called
terminal buttons. These buttons have the
capability for transmitting information to
another neuron, gland and muscle. Neurons
generally conduct information in one direction,
that is, from the dendrites through soma and
axon to the terminal buttons.
The conduction of information from one
place to another in the nervous system is done
through nerves, which are bundles of axons.
Nerves are mainly of two types: sensory and
motor. Sensory nerves, also called afferent
nerves, carry information from sense organs
to central nervous system. On the other hand,
motor nerves, also called efferent nerves, carry
information from central nervous system to
muscles or glands. A motor nerve conducts
neural commands which direct, control, and
regulates our movements and other responses.
There are some mixed nerves also, but sensory
and motor fibers in these nerves are separate.
Nerve Impulse
Information travels within the nervous system
in the form of a nerve impulse. When stimulus
energy comes into contact with receptors,
electrical changes in the nerve potential start.
Nerve potential is a sudden change in the
electrical potential of the surface of a neuron.
When the stimulus energy is relatively weak,
the electrical changes are so small that the
nerve impulse is not generated, and we do not
feel that stimulus. If the stimulus energy is
relatively strong, electrical impulses are
generated and conducted towards the central
nervous system. The strength of the nerve
impulse, however, does not depend on the
strength of the stimulus that started the
impulse. The nerve fibers work according to
the “all or none principle”, which means that
they either respond completely or do not
respond at all. The strength of the nerve
impulse remains constant along the nerve
fiber.
Synapse
Information is transmitted from one place to
another within the nervous system in the form
of a neural impulse. A single neuron can carry
a neural impulse up to a distance covered by
the length of its axon. When the impulse is to
be conducted to a distant part of the body, a
number of neurons participate in the process.
In this process, one neuron faithfully relays
the information to a neighboring neuron. The
axon tip of a preceding neuron make
functional connections or synapse with
dendrites of the other neuron. A neuron is
Terminal
buttons
Dendrites (receiving end)
Nucleus
Cytoplasm
Soma
Myelin sheath
Nodes of ranvier
Axon
(transmitting)
Fig.3.1 : The Structure of Neuron
46
Psychology
2022-23
never physically connected with another
neuron; rather there is a small gap between
the two. This gap is known as synaptic cleft.
The neural impulse from one neuron is
transmitted by a complex synaptic
transmission process to another neuron. The
conduction of neural impulse in the axon is
electrochemical, while the nature of synaptic
transmission is chemical (Figure 3.2). The
chemical substances are known as
neurotransmitters.
functions. Based on location, the nervous
system can be divided into two parts: Central
Nervous System (CNS) and Peripheral Nervous
System (PNS). The part of the nervous system
found inside the hard bony cases (cranium
and backbone) is classified as CNS. Brain and
spinal cord are the organs of this system. The
parts of the nervous system other than central
nervous system are placed in the PNS. PNS
can be further classified into Somatic and
Autonomic nervous system. Somatic nervous
system is concerned with voluntary actions,
while the autonomic nervous system performs
functions on which we have no voluntary
control. The organisation of the nervous system
is schematically presented in Figure 3.3.
Terminal
button
Synaptic
vesicles
Nervous System
Dendrite
Peripheral Nervous
System (PNS)
Central Nervous
System (CNS)
(Neural Tissue outside
Brain and Spinal Cord)
Neurotransmitter
Spinal Cord
Brain
Synaptic cleft
(Hindbrain, Midbrain,
and Forebrain)
Fig.3.2 : Transmission of Nerve Impulse through
Synapse
STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF NERVOUS
SYSTEM AND ENDOCRINE SYSTEM AND THEIR
RELATIONSHIP WITH BEHAVIOUR AND
EXPERIENCE
Since our biological structures play an
important role in organisation and execution
of behaviour, we shall look at these structures
in some detail. In particular, you will read
about the nervous system and the endocrine
system, which work together in giving a shape
to human behaviour and experience.
(Ascending Pathways,
Interneurons, and
Descending Pathway)
Somatic Nervous
System (SNS)
Autonomic Nervous
System (ANS)
(Sensory and Motor
Nerves, Voluntary)
(Internal System,
Involuntary)
Sympathetic
Division
Parasympathetic
Division
(Trouble Shooter)
(Housekeeping)
Endocrine System
Fig.3.3 : Schematic Representation of the Nervous
System
The Nervous System
The Peripheral Nervous System
Human nervous system is the most complex
and most developed of all living creatures.
Though the nervous system functions as a
whole, for the ease of study, we can divide it
into many parts depending on its location or
The PNS is composed of all the neurons and
nerve fibers that connect the CNS to the rest
of the body. The PNS is divided into Somatic
Nervous System and Autonomic Nervous
System. The autonomic nervous system is
Chapter 3 • The Bases of Human Behaviour
2022-23
47
further divided into Sympathetic and
Parasympathetic systems. The PNS provides
information to the CNS from sensory receptors
(eyes, ears, skin, etc.) and relays back motor
commands from the brain to the muscles and
glands.
The Somatic Nervous System
This system consists of two types of nerves,
called cranial nerves and spinal nerves. There
are twelve sets of cranial nerves which either
emanate from or reach different locations of
the brain. There are three types of cranial
nerves - sensory, motor, and mixed. Sensory
nerves collect sensory information from
receptors of the head region (vision, audition,
smell, taste, touch, etc.) and carry them to
the brain. The motor nerves carry motor
impulses originating from the brain to muscles
of the head region. For example, movements
of the eyeballs are controlled by motor cranial
nerves. Mixed nerves have both sensory and
motor fibers, which conduct sensory and
motor information to and from the brain.
There are thirty one sets of spinal nerves
coming out of or reaching to the spinal cord.
Each set has sensory and motor nerves. Spinal
nerves have two functions. The sensory fibers
of the spinal nerves collect sensory information
from all over the body (except the head region)
and send them to the spinal cord from where
they are then carried out to the brain. In
addition, motor impulses coming down from
the brain are sent to the muscles by the motor
fibers of the spinal nerves.
The Autonomic Nervous System
This system governs activities which are
normally not under direct control of
individuals. It controls such internal functions
as breathing, blood circulation, salivation,
stomach contraction, and emotional reactions
(Figure 3.4). These activities of the autonomic
system are under the control of different
structures of the brain.
The Autonomic Nervous System has two
divisions: Sympathetic division and
Parasympathetic division. Although the effect
Sympathetic
Parasympathetic
Constricts pupil
Stimulates tear glands
Dilates pupil
Inhibits tear gland
Increases salivation
Inhibits salivation
Increases sweating
Accelerates heart
Slows heart
Dilates bronchi
Constricts bronchi
Decreases digestive
functions of stomach
Increases digestive
functions of stomach
Increases digestive
functions of intestine
Secretes adrenaline
Chain of
sympathetic
ganglia
Spinal
cord
Decreases digestive
functions of intestine
Inhibits bladder
Contracts bladder
Fig.3.4 : The Functions of the Autonomic Nervous System
48
Psychology
2022-23
of one division is opposite to the effect of the
other, both work together to maintain a state
of equilibrium. The sympathetic division deals
with emergencies when the action must be
quick and powerful, such as in situations of
fight or flight. During this period, the digestion
stops, blood flows from internal organs to the
muscles, and breathing rate, oxygen supply,
heart rate, and blood sugar level increases.
The Parasympathetic division is mainly
concerned with conservation of energy. It
monitors the routine functions of the internal
system of the body. When the emergency is
over, the parasympathetic division takes over;
it decelerates the sympathetic activation and
calms down the individual to a normal
condition. As a result all body functions like
heart beat, breathing, and blood flow return
to their normal levels.
Brain scanning reveals that while some mental
functions are distributed among different
areas of the brain, many activities are localised
also. For example, the occipital lobe of the
brain is a specialised area for vision.
The Central Nervous System
For the convenience of study, the brain can
be divided into three parts: Hindbrain,
Midbrain and Forebrain (Figure 3.5).
The central nervous system (CNS) is the centre
of all neural activity. It integrates all incoming
sensory information, performs all kinds of
cognitive activities, and issues motor
commands to muscles and glands. The CNS
comprises of the (a) brain and (b) spinal cord.
You will now read about the functions of the
major parts of the brain and for what
behaviours is each part responsible.
Activity 3.1
Ask some students to make small slips of paper
and write names of the parts of the nervous
system on them. Put the slips together in a bowl
and ask the students from the class to pick one
slip each. Give them a few minutes and ask them
to learn the location and function of the part
mentioned in the slip. Each student is to then come
forward and introduce him/herself as that part
and explain the location and functions of that
part.
Structure of the Brain
Cerebrum
(cerebral cortex)
Hypothalamus
Pineal gland
Brainstem
Midbrain
Pons
The Brain and Behaviour
It is believed that the human brain has evolved
over millions of years from the brains of lower
animals, and this evolutionary process still
continues. We can examine the levels of
structures in the brain, from its earliest to the
most recent form in the process of evolution.
The limbic system, brain stem and cerebellum
are the oldest structures, while Cerebral
Cortex is the latest development in the course
of evolution. An adult brain weighs about
1.36 kg and contains around 100 billion
neurons. However, the most amazing thing
about the brain is not its number of neurons
but its ability to guide human behaviour and
thought. The brain is organised into structures
and regions that perform specific functions.
Thalamus
Medulla
oblongata
Cerebellum
Pituitary gland
Spinal cord
Fig.3.5 : Structure of the Brain
Hindbrain
This part of the brain consists of the following
structures:
Medulla Oblongata : It is the lowest part of the
brain that exists in continuation of the spinal
cord. It contains neural centres, which
Chapter 3 • The Bases of Human Behaviour
2022-23
49
regulate basic life supporting activities like
breathing, heart rate, and blood pressure. This
is why medulla is known as the vital centre of
the brain. It has some centres of autonomic
activities also.
Pons : It is connected with medulla on one
side and with the midbrain on the other. A
nucleus (neural centre) of pons receives
auditory signals relayed by our ears. It is
believed that pons is involved in sleep
mechanism, particularly the sleep
characterised by dreaming. It contains nuclei
affecting respiratory movement and facial
expressions also.
Cerebellum : This highly developed part of the
hindbrain can be easily recognised by its
wrinkled surface. It maintains and controls
posture and equilibrium of the body. Its main
function is coordination of muscular
movements. Though the motor commands
originate in the forebrain, the cerebellum
receives and coordinates them to relay to the
muscles. It also stores the memory of movement
patterns so that we do not have to concentrate
on how to walk, dance, or ride a bicycle.
Midbrain
The midbrain is relatively small in size and it
connects the hindbrain with the forebrain. A
few neural centres related to some special
reflexes and visual and auditory sensations
are found here. An important part of midbrain,
known as Reticular Activating System (RAS),
is responsible for our arousal. It makes us
alert and active by regulating sensory inputs.
It also helps us in selecting information from
the environment.
Forebrain
It is considered to be the most important part
of the brain because it performs all cognitive,
emotional, and motor activities. We will
discuss four major parts of the forebrain:
hypothalamus, thalamus, limbic system, and
cerebrum.
Hypothalamus : The hypothalamus is one of
the smallest structures in the brain, but plays
50
Psychology
2022-23
a vital role in our behaviour. It regulates
physiological processes involved in emotional
and motivational behaviour, such as eating,
drinking, sleeping, temperature regulation,
and sexual arousal. It also regulates and
controls the internal environment of the body
(e.g., heart rate, blood pressure, temperature)
and regulates the secretion of hormones from
various endocrine glands.
Thalamus : It consists of an egg-shaped cluster
of neurons situated on the ventral (upper) side
of the hypothalamus. It is like a relay station
that receives all incoming sensory signals from
sense organs and sends them to appropriate
parts of the cortex for processing. It also
receives all outgoing motor signals coming
from the cortex and sends them to appropriate
parts of the body.
The Limbic System : This system is composed
of a group of structures that form part of the
old mammalian brain. It helps in maintaining
internal homeostasis by regulating body
temperature, blood pressure, and blood sugar
level. It has close links with the hypothalamus.
Besides hypothalamus, the limbic system
comprises the Hippocampus and Amygdala.
The hippocampus plays an important role in
long-term memory. The amygdala plays an
important role in emotional behaviour.
The Cerebrum : Also known as Cerebral
Cortex, this part regulates all higher levels of
cognitive functions, such as attention,
perception, learning, memory, language
behaviour, reasoning, and problem solving.
The cerebrum makes two-third of the total
mass of the human brain. Its thickness varies
from 1.5 mm to 4 mm, which covers the entire
surface of the brain and contains neurons,
neural nets, and bundles of axons. All these
make it possible for us to perform organised
actions and create images, symbols,
associations, and memories.
The cerebrum is divided into two
symmetrical halves, called the Cerebral
Hemispheres. Although the two hemispheres
appear identical, functionally one hemisphere
usually dominates the other. For example, the
left hemisphere usually controls language
behaviour. The right hemisphere is usually
specialised to deal with images, spatial
relationships, and pattern recognition. These
two hemispheres are connected by a white
bundle of myelinated fibers, called Corpus
Callosum that carries messages back and forth
between the hemispheres.
Cerebral cortex has also been divided into
four lobes - Frontal lobe, Parietal lobe,
Temporal lobe, and Occipital lobe. The Frontal
lobe is mainly concerned with cognitive
functions, such as attention, thinking,
memory, learning, and reasoning, but it also
exerts inhibitory effects on autonomic and
emotional responses. The Parietal lobe is
mainly concerned with cutaneous sensations
and their coordination with visual and auditory
sensations. The Temporal lobe is primarily
concerned with the processing of auditory
information. Memory for symbolic sounds and
words resides here. Understanding of speech
and written language depends on this lobe. The
Occipital lobe is mainly concerned with visual
information. It is believed that interpretation
of visual impulses, memory for visual stimuli
and colour visual orientation is performed by
this lobe.
Physiologists and psychologists have tried
to identify specific functions associated with
specific brain structures. They have found that
no activity of the brain is performed only by a
single part of the cortex. Normally, other parts
are involved, but it is also correct that there is
some localisation of functions, i.e. for a
particular function, a particular part of the
cortex plays a more important role than the
other parts. For example, if you are driving a
car, you see the road and other vehicles by
the function of your occipital lobe, hear the
horns by the function of your temporal lobe,
do many motor activities controlled by parietal
lobe, and make decisions by the help of frontal
lobe. The whole brain acts as a well
coordinated unit in which different parts
contribute their functions separately.
Spinal Cord
The spinal cord is a long rope-like collection
of nerve fibers, which run along the full length
inside the spine. Its one end is connected with
the medulla of the brain and another is free
at the tail end. Its structure all along its length
is similar. The butterfly shaped mass of grey
matter present in the centre of the spinal cord
contains association neurons and other cells.
Surrounding the grey matter is the white
matter of the spinal cord, which is composed
of the ascending and descending neural tracts.
These tracts (collections of nerve fibers)
connect the brain with the rest of the body.
The spinal cord plays the role of a huge cable,
which exchanges innumerable messages with
the CNS. There are two main functions of the
spinal cord. Firstly, it carries sensory impulses
coming from the lower parts of the body to
the brain; and motor impulses originating from
the brain to all over the body. Secondly, it
performs some simple reflexes that do not
involve the brain. Simple reflexes involve a
sensory nerve, a motor nerve, and the
association neurons of the grey matter of the
spinal cord.
Reflex Action
A reflex is an involuntary action that occurs
very quickly after its specific kind of
stimulation. The reflex action takes place
automatically without conscious decision of
the brain. Reflex actions are inherited in our
nervous system through evolutionary
processes, for example, the eye-blinking reflex.
Whenever any object suddenly comes near our
eyes, our eyelids blink. Reflexes serve to
protect the organism from potential threats
and preserve life. Though several reflex actions
are performed by our nervous system, the
familiar reflexes are the knee jerk, pupil
constriction, pulling away from very hot or cold
objects, breathing and stretching. Most reflex
actions are carried out by the spinal cord and
do not involve the brain.
The Endocrine System
The endocrine glands play a crucial role in
our development and behaviour. They secrete
specific chemical substances, called
hor mones, which control some of our
Chapter 3 • The Bases of Human Behaviour
2022-23
51
behaviours. These glands are called ductless
glands or endocrine glands, because they do
not have any duct (unlike other glands) to send
their secretions to specific places. Hormones
are circulated by the bloodstream. The
endocrine glands form the endocrine system
of the body. This system works in conjunction
with different parts of the nervous system. The
whole system is thus known as
neuroendocrine system. Figure 3.6 shows the
major endocrine glands of the body.
Some hormones are secreted at a steady
rate throughout life, while others are secreted
at an appropriate time in life. For example,
the growth hormone is released steadily
through childhood, with some spurt during
adolescence, but gonadotropic hormones are
secreted at the age of puberty, which
stimulates the secretion of appropriate sex
hormones among boys and girls. As a result,
primary and secondary sexual changes take
place.
Thyroid Gland
This gland is located in the neck. It produces
thyroxin that influences the body’s metabolic
rate. Optimum amount of thyroxin is secreted
and regulated by an anterior pituitary
hormone, the Thyroid Stimulating Hormone.
(TSH). The steady secretion of this hormone
maintains the production of energy,
consumption of oxygen and elimination of
wastes in body cells. On the other hand,
underproduction of thyroxin leads to physical
and psychological lethargy. If thyroid gland is
removed in young animals, their growth is
stunted and they fail to develop sexually.
Pituitary
Thyroid
Pancreas
Adrenal
glands
Adrenal Gland
Ovary
(in female)
Testes
(in male)
Fig.3.6 : Major Endocrine Glands
Pituitary Gland
This gland is situated within the cranium just
below the hypothalamus. The pituitary gland
is divided into anterior pituitary and posterior
pituitary. The anterior pituitary is directly
connected with hypothalamus, which
regulates its hormonal secretions. The
pituitary gland secretes the growth hormone
and many other hormones, which direct and
regulate the secretions of many other
endocrine glands found in our body. This is
why the pituitary gland is known as the
“master gland”.
52
Psychology
2022-23
This gland is located above each kidney. It has
two parts, adrenal cortex and adrenal
medulla, each secreting different hormones.
The secretion of adrenal cortex is controlled
and regulated by Adrenocorticotrophic
Hormone (ACTH) secreted by anterior pituitary
gland. When the secretion of adrenal cortex
goes down, anterior pituitary gets the message
and increases the secretion of ACTH, which
stimulates the adrenal cortex to secrete more
hormones.
The adrenal cortex secretes a group of
hormones, called corticoids, which are
utilised by the body for a number of
physiological purposes, e.g., regulation of
minerals in the body, particularly sodium,
potassium, and chlorides. Any disturbance in
its function seriously affects the functions of
the nervous system.
Adrenal medulla secretes two hormones,
namely epinephrine and norepinephrine
(also known as adrenaline and noradrenaline,
respectively). Sympathetic activation, such as
increased heart rate, oxygen consumption,
metabolic rate, muscle tone, etc., take place
through the secretion of these two hormones.
Epinephrine and norepinephrine stimulate the
hypothalamus, which prolongs emotions in an
individual even when the stressor has been
removed.
Pancreas
The pancreas, lying near the stomach, has a
primary role in digestion of food, but it also
secretes a hormone known as insulin. Insulin
helps the liver to break down glucose for use
by the body or for storage as glycogen by the
liver. When insulin is not secreted in proper
amount, people develop a disease, called
diabetic mellitus or simply diabetes.
Gonads
Gonads refer to testes in males and ovaries in
females. The hormones secreted by these
glands control and regulate sexual behaviours
and reproductive functions of males and
females. Secretion of hormones of these glands
is initiated, maintained and regulated by a
hormone, called gonadotrophic hormone
(GTH) secreted by the anterior pituitary. The
secretion of GTH starts at the age of puberty
(10 to 14 years in human beings) and
stimulates gonads to secrete hormones, which
in turn stimulates development of primary and
secondary sexual characteristics.
The ovaries in females produce estrogens
and progesterone. Estrogens guide the sexual
development of the female body. Primary
sexual characteristics related with
reproduction, such as development of ovum
or egg cell, appear on every 28 days or so in
the ovary of a sexually mature female.
Secondary sexual characteristics, such as
breast development, rounded body contours,
widened pelvis, etc., also depend on this
hormone. Progesterone has no role in sexual
development. Its function is related with
preparation of uterus for the possible reception
of fertilised ovum.
The hormonal system for reproductive
behaviour is much simpler in the male
because there is no cyclic pattern. Testes in
males produce sperm continuously and
secrete male sex hormones called androgens.
The major androgen is testosterone.
Testosterone prompts secondary sexual
changes such as physical changes, growth of
facial and body hairs, deepening of voice, and
increase in sexually oriented behaviour.
Increased aggression and other behaviours are
also linked with testosterone production.
The normal functioning of all hormones is
crucial to our behavioural well-being. Without
a balanced secretion of hormones, the body
would be unable to maintain the state of
internal equilibrium. Without the increased
secretion of hormones during the times of
stress, we would not be able to react effectively
to potential dangers in our environment.
Finally, without the secretion of hormones at
specific times in our lives, we would not be
able to grow, mature and reproduce.
HEREDITY : GENES
AND
BEHAVIOUR
We inherit characteristics from our parents in
the form of genes. A child at birth possesses a
unique combination of genes received from
both parents. This inheritance provides a
distinct biological blueprint and timetable for
an individual’s development. The study of the
inheritance of physical and psychological
characteristics from ancestors is referred to
as genetics. The child begins life as a single
zygote cell (mother’s ovum fertilised by father’s
sperm). Zygote is a tiny cell with a nucleus in
its center containing chromosomes. These
chromosomes with all genes are inherited from
each parent in equal numbers.
Chromosomes
Chromosomes are the hereditary elements of
the body. They are threadlike-paired
structures in the nucleus of each cell. The
number of chromosomes per nucleus is
Chapter 3 • The Bases of Human Behaviour
2022-23
53
distinctive, and is constant for each living
organism. The gametic cells (sperm and ovum)
have 23 chromosomes but not in pairs. A new
generation results from the fusion of a sperm
cell and an egg cell.
At the time of conception, the organism
inherits 46 chromosomes from parents, 23
from the mother and 23 from the father. Each
of these chromosomes contains thousands of
genes. However, the sperm cell (fathers’) differs
from the egg cell (mother’s) in one important
respect. The 23rd chromosome of the sperm
cell can be either the capital X or Y type of the
English alphabet. If the X type sperm fertilises
the egg cell, the fertilised egg will have an XX
23rd chromosome pair, and the child will be a
female. On the other hand, if a Y type sperm
fertilises the egg, the 23rd chromosome pair
will be XY, and the child will be a male.
Chromosomes are composed mainly of a
substance called Deoxyribonucleic Acid
(DNA). Our genes are composed chiefly of DNA
molecules. The two genes that control the
development of each trait are situated at the
same locus, one on each chromosome of a
particular pair. The exception is the sex
chromosomes, i.e. the pair of chromosomes
that determines an individual’s sex.
Activity 3.2
Divide the class in two groups and have a debate
on the topic “Psychologists should leave the study
of neurons, synapses and the nervous system to
biologists”. One group should speak in favour and
the other group against the motion.
Genes
Every chromosome stores thousands of genetic
commands in the form of genes. These genes
dictate much of the course of an organism’s
development. They contain instructions for the
production of specific proteins, which regulate
the body’s physiological processes and the
expression of phenotypic traits. The observable
traits of an organism are called phenotype (e.g.,
body built, physical strength, intelligence, and
54
Psychology
2022-23
other behavioural traits). The traits, which can
be passed on to the offspring through genetic
material are called its genotype. All biological
and psychological characteristics that a modern
man possesses are the result of genotype
inheritance with phenotypical variations.
A given gene can exist in several different
forms. Change of a gene from one form to
another is called mutation. The type of
mutation that occurs spontaneously in nature
provides variation in genotypes and permits
the evolution of new species. Mutation permits
recombination of new genes with the genes
already present. This new combination of
genes structure is then put to test in the
environment, which can select out those
genotypes that turn out to be best fitted for
the environment.
CULTURAL BASIS : SOCIO-CULTURAL
SHAPING OF BEHAVIOUR
After reading the biological basis of behaviour
you may have developed an idea that many of
our behaviours are influenced by hormones
and many others occur as reflexive responses.
However, hormones and reflexes do not
explain all of our behaviour. The hormones
play an important role in regulating human
physiology, but they do not completely control
human behaviour. Similarly stereotype (fixed
pattern), which is the most distinguishing
feature of a reflex, does not appear with most
human responses.
We can draw examples from several
domains of our life to argue that our behaviour
is more complex than the behaviour of
animals. A major reason for this complexity
is that unlike animals, human beings have a
culture to regulate their behaviour. Let us
consider the basic need of hunger. We know
that it has a biological basis, which is common
among animals and human beings, but the
way this need is gratified by human beings is
extremely complex. For example, some people
eat vegetarian food, while others eat nonvegetarian food. How have they become
vegetarians and non-vegetarians? Some
vegetarians take eggs; others do not. Why is
that so? Try to think how people have come to
behave so differently in terms of food intake. If
you explore further you will also find variations
in the manner in which food is eaten (e.g.,
directly with hand, or with the help of spoons,
forks and knives).
Sexual behaviour can be taken as another
example. We know that this behaviour involves
hormones and reflexive reactions in animals
and human beings alike. While among animals
sexual behaviour is fairly simple and reflexive
(all animals indulge in sexual behaviour
almost in the same manner), it is so complex
among human beings that it can hardly be
described as reflexive. Partner preferences are
a key feature of human sexual behaviour. The
bases of these preferences widely differ within
and across societies. Human sexual behaviour
Box 3.1
is also governed by many rules, standards,
values, and laws. However, these rules and
standards also remain in a continuous process
of change.
These examples illustrate that biological
factors alone cannot help us very much in
understanding human behaviour. The nature
of human beings is very different from those
provided to us by biological scientists. Human
nature has evolved through an interplay of
biological and cultural forces. These forces
have made us similar in many ways and
different in others.
Concept of Culture
You have read that human behaviour can
be understood only by viewing it in the
Biological and Cultural T
Transmission
ransmission
In relatively modern years, a discipline called
sociobiology has emerged that deals with the
interaction of biology and society. It explains
human social behaviour in an evolutionary
framework on the basis of “inclusive fitness”,
which means that each organism is supposed to
behave in a manner so as to maximise its
reproductive success. Researchers, who have
studied several social behaviours (e.g., courtship,
mating, child rearing), underscore the continuity
of development of biologically related creatures.
They recognise that human behaviour cannot be
attributed solely to biological predispositions. It
is greatly affected by learning. Heidi Keller, a
distinguished psychologist, recently argued that
genetic endowment should not be misunderstood
as expressing fixed, deterministic relationships
between genes and behaviour. She has proposed
the notion of “genetic preparedness”, which
suggests that acquisition of particular behaviours
via learning occurs in fairly efficient ways to
facilitate our adaptations with the environment.
It is now believed that human evolution
involves both genetic and cultural transmissions.
These transmission processes are different in
certain respects, but they have parallel features.
Genetic transmission is a process that occurs in
all organisms in a similar manner, but cultural
transmission is a unique human process. It
involves intergenerational learning (via teaching and
imitation), which makes it distinct from biological
transmission. In cultural transmission, individuals are
influenced by people other than their biological
parents, while in biological transmission only the
parents can be the source of influence. Thus, only
human beings have “cultural parents” (e.g., members
of extended families, teachers, and other influential
people). Cultural evolution is also not restricted to
intergenerational influences. Ideas are transmitted
within generations so much so that it is even possible
for older people to model their behaviour after younger
ones.
The two processes are also similar in important
ways. Both proceed in interaction with the demands
of environment. Both involve changes that either stay
or get lost depending on how adaptive they are (i.e.,
how nicely they fit the environment in which they first
occurred). Thus, at the human level, we find evidence
for a “dual inheritance” theory. Biological inheritance
takes place through genes, while cultural inheritance
takes place through memes. The former takes place
in a “top-down” manner (i.e. from parents to children),
while the latter may also take place in a “bottom-up”
manner (i.e. from children to parents). Dual inheritance
theory also shows that although biological and cultural
forces may involve different processes, they work as
parallel forces, and interact with each other in offering
explanation of an individual’s behaviour.
Chapter 3 • The Bases of Human Behaviour
2022-23
55
socio-cultural context in which it occurs.
Human behaviour is fundamentally social. It
involves relationships with other people,
reactions to their behaviour, and engagement
with innumerable products made available to
us by our predecessors. Although many other
species are also social like us, human beings
are cultural as well.
You may ask: what does it mean to be
cultural? In order to answer this question, we
will need to understand the meaning of
culture. In the simplest terms, culture refers
to “the man-made part of the environment”.
It comprises diverse products of the behaviour
of many people, including ourselves. These
products can be material objects (e.g., tools,
sculptures), ideas (e.g., categories, norms) or
social institutions (e.g., family, school). We find
them almost everywhere. They influence
behaviour, although we may not always be
aware of it.
Let us look at some examples. The room
you might be in now is a cultural product. It
is the result of someone’s architectural ideas
and building skills. Your room may be
rectangular, but there are many places where
rooms are not rectangular (e.g., those of
Eskimos). While reading this chapter you
might be sitting on a chair that some people
designed and built some time ago. Since sitting
in a chair requires a particular posture, this
invention is shaping your behaviour. There are
societies without chairs. Just try to think how
people in those societies would be sitting in
order to do some reading.
Students sit on chairs in the “classrooms”,
but chairs are not found in all schools. In
schools in most villages there are no chairs
for students. They sit on the ground, or on a
piece of sack spread over it. That in some
societies children gather in rooms facing a
teacher is another kind of cultural product,
called “schooling”. This institution may have
material aspects, such as buildings, and
ideational aspects, such as the notion that
schooling should take place at a specific place
and time, or the idea that individuals attending
“schools” must be evaluated and given
certificates on successful completion of
56
Psychology
2022-23
schooling. This institution also provides with
behavioural expectation for all those who
participate in it . Both teachers and students
have a series of roles to play and
responsibilities to share. Individuals, families
and communities have different views about
schooling. Some believe that school education
is a valuable thing. They have unshaken faith
that school education can make people
powerful and change their destiny. Others
consider it neither valuable nor do they have
faith in its strength as such. Some societies
emphasise on equal education for boys and
girls; others do not. Some groups widely
participate in the process of schooling, others
(e.g., some tribal groups) participate little or
not at all. People with special needs often
remain deprived of school education for a
number of reasons. People’s views about
communities, gender, caste groups and those
with special needs and their educability also
differ widely across societies.
As you look around you will find that
much of our life as human beings involves
interacting with various cultural products,
and behaving in accord with them. This means
that culture shapes our behaviour in a
significant manner. However, it may also be
noted at this point that just as culture shapes
us, we also shape our culture. Several
anthropologists have pointed out the mutual
influences of culture and psyche on each
other. They suggest that the relationship
between individuals and their social
surroundings is interactive, and in the course
of these interactions, they constitute each
other. This perspective emphasises that
human beings are not passive recipients of
cultural forces. Instead, they themselves create
the context in which their behaviour is shaped.
Activity 3.3
Talk to students belonging to different States
regarding their food, festivals, dress, customs,
etc.
Prepare a list of the differences and
similarities and discuss with your teacher.
What is Culture?
In spite of the fact that culture is always with
us, much confusion exists in defining culture.
It is more like the notion of “energy” in physics
or “group” in sociology. Some believe that
culture really exists out there, and it matters
to individuals, while others believe that culture
does not really exist, instead it is an idea
created and shared by a group of people.
The innumerable definitions of culture
commonly point to some of its essential
features. One is that culture includes
behavioural products of others who preceded
us. It indicates both substantial and abstract
particulars that have prior existence in one
form or another. Thus, culture is already there
as we begin life. It contains values that will be
expressed and a language in which to express
them. It contains a way of life that will be
followed by most of us who grow up in that
context. Such a conceptualisation of culture
tends to place it outside the individual, but
there are also treatments of culture that places
it in the minds of individuals. In the latter case,
culture is identified with a historically
transmitted pattern of meanings embodied in
symbols. Culture provides meaning by
creating significant categories like social
practices (e.g., marriage) and roles (e.g.,
bridegroom) as well as values, beliefs and
premises. As Richard Shweder put it, to learn
that “a mother’s sister’s husband is an uncle”,
one must somehow receive the ‘frame’ of
understanding from others.
Whether culture is taken as an existing
reality, or as an abstraction, or both, it exerts
many real influences on human behaviour. It
allows us to categorise and explain many
important differences in human behaviour
that were previously attributed to biological
differences. Social and cultural contexts within
which human development takes place vary
widely over time and place. For example, some
twenty years ago children in India would not
have known several products that are now part
of a child’s world. Similarly an Adivasi living
in a remote forest or hilly area would not have
a “pizza” or “sandwich” as breakfast.
In the previous paragraphs, we have made
frequent use of the terms culture and
society. Often they are considered to carry
similar meaning. Let us note at this point that
they are not the same thing. A society is a
group of people who occupy a particular
territory and speak a common language not
generally understood by neighbouring people.
A society may or may not be a single nation,
but every society has its own culture, and it is
culture that shapes human behaviour from
society to society. Culture is the label for all
the different features that vary from society
to society. It is these different features of
society whose influences psychologists want
to examine in their studies of human
behaviour. Thus, a group of people, who
manage their livelihood through hunting and
gathering in forests, would present a life
characterised by certain features that will not
be found in a society that lives mainly on
agricultural produce or wage earnings.
Cultural Transmission
We have seen earlier that as human beings
we are both biological and socio-cultural
creatures. As biological creatures, we have
certain vital needs. Their fulfilment enhances
our chances of surviving. In fulfilling these
needs we use most of our acquired skills. We
also have a highly developed capacity to benefit
from experiences of our own and those of
others. No other creature has learning capacity
to the same extent as we have. No other
creature has created an organised system of
learning, called education, and none in this
universe wants to learn as much as we do. As
a result, we display many forms of behaviour
that are uniquely human, and creations of
what we call culture. The processes of
enculturation and socialisation make us
cultural beings.
ENCULTURATION
Enculturation refers to all learning that takes
place without direct, deliberate teaching. We
learn certain ideas, concepts, and values
Chapter 3 • The Bases of Human Behaviour
2022-23
57
simply because of their availability in our
cultural context. For example, what is
“vegetable” and what is “weed” or what is
“cereal” and what is “non-cereal” is defined
by what is already there, previously labelled
as “vegetable” or “cereal” and agreed upon by
people at large. Such concepts are transmitted,
both directly and indirectly, and are learned
very well because they are an integral part of
the life of a cultural group, and are never
questioned. All such examples of learning are
called “enculturation”.
Thus, enculturation refers to all learning
that occurs in human life because of its
availability in our socio-cultural context. The
key element of enculturation is learning by
observation. Whenever we learn any content
of our society by observation, enculturation
is in evidence. These contents are culturally
shaped by our preceding generations. In this
sense, enculturation always refers to learning
something that is already available. A major
part of our behaviour is the product of
enculturation. In Indian families, many
complex activities, like cooking, are learned
by observation. There is no prescribed
curriculum and no textbook for such activities,
and there is also no deliberate instruction for
cooking.
Although the effects of enculturation are
obvious, people are generally not aware of
these effects. They are also generally not aware
of what is not available in the society to be
learned. This leads to an apparent paradox
that people who are most thoroughly
enculturated are often the least aware of their
culture’s role in modeling them.
SOCIALISATION
Socialisation is a process by which individuals
acquire knowledge, skills and dispositions,
which enable them to participate as effective
members of groups and society. It is a process
that continues over the entire life-span, and
through which one learns and develops ways
of effective functioning at any stage of
development. Socialisation forms the basis of
social and cultural transmission from one
58
Psychology
2022-23
generation to the next. Its failure in any society
may endanger the very existence of that
society.
The concept of socialisation suggests that
all human beings are capable of a far greater
repertoire of behaviours than they ever exhibit.
We begin life in a particular social context,
and there we learn to make certain responses
and not others. The most clear example is our
linguistic behaviour. Although we can speak
any language that exists in this world, we learn
to speak only that language which people
around us speak. Within this social context
we also learn many other things (e.g., when
to express emotions and when to suppress
them).
The probability of our behaving in a
particular way is greatly affected by people who
relate to us. Any one who possesses power
relative to us can socialise us. Such people are
called “socialisation agents”. These agents
include parents, teachers and other elders, who
are more knowledgeable in the ways of their
society. Under certain conditions, however, even
our age peers can affect socialisation.
The process of socialisation is not always
a smooth transition between the individual
and the socialisation agent. It sometimes
involves conflicts. In such situations not only
are some responses punished, but some are
also blocked by the behaviour of others in
effective ways. At the same time, several
responses need to be rewarded so that they
acquire greater strength. Thus, reward and
punishment serve as basic means for
achieving the goals of socialisation. In this
sense, all socialisation seems to involve efforts
by others to control behaviour.
Socialisation although primarily consists
of deliberate teaching for producing
“acceptable” behaviour, the process is not
unidirectional. Individuals are not only
influenced by their social environment, but
they also influence it. In societies that
comprise many social groups, individuals may
choose those to which they wish to belong.
With increased migration, individuals are not
only socialised once, but are often re-socialised
differently in their life-span. This process is
known as acculturation which we will discuss
later in this chapter.
Due to the processes of enculturation and
socialisation we find behavioural similarities
within societies and behavioural differences
across societies. Both processes involve
learning from other people. In the case of
socialisation, the learning involves deliberate
teaching. In the case of enculturation, teaching
is not necessary for learning to take place.
Enculturation means engagement of people
in their culture. Since most of the learning
takes place with our engagement in our
culture, socialisation can be easily subsumed
under the process of enculturation.
A good deal of our learning involves both
enculturation and socialisation. Language
learning is a good example. While a lot of
language learning takes place spontaneously,
there is also certain amount of direct teaching
of the language, such as in grammar courses
in elementary schools. On the other hand,
learning of language other than the mother
tongue, such as learning of Hindi by a
European child, or of French by a child in
India, is completely a deliberate process.
Socialisation Agents
A number of people who relate to us possess
power to socialise us. Such people are called
“socialisation agents”. Parents and family
members are the most significant socialisation
agents. Legal responsibility of child care, too,
lies with parents. Their task is to nurture
children in such a manner that their natural
potentials are maximised and negative
behaviour tendencies are minimised or
controlled. Since each child is also part of a
larger community or society, several other
influences (e.g., teachers, peer groups) also
operate on her/his life. We will briefly discuss
some of these influences.
Parents
Parents have most direct and significant
impact on children’s development. Children
respond in different ways to parents in
different situations. Parents encourage certain
behaviours by rewarding them verbally (e.g.,
praising) or in other tangible ways (e.g., buying
chocolates or objects of child’s desire). They
also discourage certain behaviours through
non-approving behaviours. They also arrange
to put children in a variety of situations that
provide them with a variety of positive
experiences, learning opportunities, and
challenges. While interacting with children
parents adopt different strategies, which are
generally known as parenting styles. A
distinction is made between authoritative,
authoritarian and democratic or permissive
parenting styles. Studies indicate that parents
vary enormously in the treatment of children
in terms of their degree of acceptance and
degree of control. The conditions of life in which
parents live (poverty, illness, job stress, nature
of family) also influence the styles they adopt
in socialising children. Grandparental
proximity and network of social relationships
play considerable role in child socialisation
directly or through parental influences.
School
School is another important socialising agent.
Since children spend a long time in schools,
which provide them with a fairly organised set
up for interaction with teachers and peers,
school is today being viewed as a more
important agent of child socialisation than
parents and family. Children learn not only
cognitive skills (e.g., reading, writing, doing
mathematics) but also many social skills (e.g.,
ways of behaving with elders and age mates,
accepting roles, fulfilling responsibilities). They
also learn and internalise the norms and rules
of society. Several other positive qualities, such
as self-initiative, self-control, responsibility,
and creativity are encouraged in schools.
These qualities make children more selfreliant. If the transaction has been successful,
the skills and knowledge children acquire in
schools either through curriculum or
interaction with teachers and peers also get
transferred to other domains of their life. Many
researchers believe that a good school can
altogether transform a child’s personality. That
is why we find that even poor parents want to
send their children to good schools.
Chapter 3 • The Bases of Human Behaviour
2022-23
59
Peer Groups
ACCULTURATION
One of the chief characteristics of the middle
childhood stage is the extension of social
network beyond home. Friendship acquires
great significance in this respect. It provides
children not only with a good opportunity to
be in company of others, but also for organising
various activities (e.g., play) collectively with the
members of their own age. Qualities like
sharing, trust, mutual understanding, role
acceptance and fulfilment develop in interaction
with peers. Children also learn to assert their
own point of view and accept and adapt to those
of others. Development of self-identity is greatly
facilitated by the peer group. Since
communication of children with peer group is
direct, process of socialisation is generally
smooth.
Media Influences
In recent years media has also acquired the
property of a socialisation agent. Through
television, newspapers, books and cinema the
external world has made/is making its way
into our home and our lives. While children
learn about many things from these sources,
adolescents and young adults often derive
their models from them, particularly from
television and cinema. The exposure to
violence on television is a major issue of
discussion, since studies indicate that
observing violence on television enhances
aggressive behaviour among children. There
is a need to use this agent of socialisation in a
better way in order to prevent children from
developing undesirable behaviours.
Activity 3.4
Observe 4-5 families belonging to different
cultural and socio-economic background for
about half an hour in the morning and evening
interacting with their children for five days.
Do you find any difference in parental
interaction with their sons and daughters?
Note their distinct pattern of behaviour and
discuss this with your teacher.
60
Psychology
2022-23
Acculturation refers to cultural and
psychological changes resulting from contact
with other cultures. Contact may be direct
(e.g., when one moves and settles in a new
culture) or indirect (e.g., through media or
other means). It may be voluntary (e.g., when
one goes abroad for higher studies, training,
job, or trade) or involuntary (e.g., through
colonial experience, invasion, political refuge).
In both cases, people often need to learn (and
also they do learn) something new to negotiate
life with people of other cultural groups. For
example, during the British rule in India many
individuals and groups adopted several
aspects of British lifestyle. They preferred to
go to the English schools, take up salaried
jobs, dress in English clothes, speak English
language, and change their religion.
Acculturation can take place any time in
one’s life. Whenever it occurs, it requires
re-learning of norms, values, dispositions, and
patterns of behaviour. Changes in these
aspects require re-socialisation. Sometimes
people find it easy to learn these new things,
and if their learning has been successful, shifts
in their behaviour easily take place in the
direction of the group that brings in
acculturation. In this situation transition to a
new life is relatively smooth and free from
problems. On the other hand, in many
situations people experience difficulties in
dealing with new demands of change. They
find change difficult, and are thrown into a
state of conflict. This situation is relatively
painful as it leads to experience of stress and
other behavioural difficulties by acculturating
individuals and groups.
Psychologists have widely studied how
people psychologically change during
acculturation. For any acculturation to take
place contact with another cultural group is
essential. This often generates some sort of
conflict. Since people cannot live in a state of
conflict for a long time, they often resort to
certain strategies to resolve their conflicts. For
a long time it was felt that social or cultural
change oriented towards modernity was
unidirectional, which meant that all people
confronting the problem of change would move
from a traditional state to a state of modernity.
However, studies carried out with immigrants
to western countries and native or tribal people
in different parts of the world have revealed
that people have various options to deal with
the problem of acculturative changes. Thus,
the course of acculturative change is
multidirectional.
Activity 3.5
Make an attempt to find out people who have
lived for an extended period of time in different
cultures. Interview and ask them to give some
examples of cultural differences and similarities
in attitudes, norms, and values.
Changes due to acculturation may be
examined at subjective and objective levels.
At the subjective level, changes are often
reflected in people’s attitudes towards change.
They are referred to as acculturation attitudes.
At the objective level, changes are reflected in
people’s day-to-day behaviours and activities.
These are referred to as acculturation
strategies. In order to understand
acculturation, it is necessary to examine it at
both levels. At the objective level of
acculturation, one can look at a variety of
changes that might be evident in people’s life.
Language, dressing style, means of livelihood,
housing and household goods, ornaments,
furniture, means of entertainment, use of
technology, travel experience, and exposure
to movies, etc. can provide clear indications
of change that individuals and groups might
have accepted in their life. Based on these
indicators, we can easily identify the degree
to which acculturative change has entered into
an individual’s or a group’s life. The only
problem is that these indicators do not always
indicate conscious acceptance of change by
individuals or groups; they are held by people
because they are easily available and
economically affordable. Thus, in some cases,
these indicators appear somewhat deceptive.
In order to place some confidence in
conscious acceptance of change, we need to
analyse them at the subjective level. John Berry
is well-known for his studies on psychological
acculturation. He argues that there are two
important issues that all acculturating
individuals and groups face in culture-contact
situations. One relates to the degree to which
there is a desire to maintain one’s culture and
identity. Another relates to the degree to which
there is a desire to engage in daily interactions
with members of other cultural group(s).
Based on people’s positive or negative
answer to these issues, the following four
acculturative strategies have been derived:
Integration : It refers to an attitude in
which there is an interest in both, maintaining
one’s original culture and identity, while
staying in daily interaction with other cultural
groups. In this case, there is some degree of
cultural integrity maintained while interacting
with other cultural groups.
Assimilation : It refers to an attitude,
which people do not wish to maintain their
cultural identity, and they move to become
an integral part of the other culture. In this
case, there is loss of one’s culture and identity.
Separation : It refers to an attitude in
which people seem to place a value on holding
on to their original culture, and wish to avoid
interaction with other cultural groups. In this
case, people often tend to glorify their cultural
identity.
Marginalisation : It refers to an attitude
in which there is little possibility or interest
in one’s cultural maintenance, and little
interest in having relations with other cultural
groups. In this case, people generally remain
undecided about what they should do, and
continue to stay with a great deal of stress.
You have read in this chapter that human
behaviour is not fully under the control of
biological factors alone. Socio-cultural factors
interact with biological dispositions of
individuals to give a particular shape to their
behaviour in a given society. Since societies
and cultures across the globe are not
homogeneous, human behaviour is also not
expressed in the same way everywhere. This
Chapter 3 • The Bases of Human Behaviour
2022-23
61
allows us to say that besides biological roots,
there are cultural roots of human behaviour.
While genes write the script of biological
transmissions, memes write the script of
cultural transmissions. The genes and memes
work together to allow behaviour to unfold
partly in some similar and partly in different
ways within and across societies.
Understanding of cultural basis of behaviour
will make you realise that behavioural
differences between individuals or groups are
not due to the structural and functional
properties of their biological system alone.
Cultural features of individuals and groups
contribute in significant ways in generating
behavioural differences.
Key Terms
Acculturation, All-Or-None Property/Principle,
Arousal, Axons, Brain stem, Central nervous
system, Cerebellum, Cerebral cortex,
Chromosomes,
Cortex,
Culture,
Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA), Enculturation,
Endocrine glands, Environment, Evolution,
Genes, Hemispheres, Heredity, Homo
sapiens, Homeostasis, Hypothalamus,
Medulla, Memes, Nerve impulse, Neurons,
Nucleus, Reticular Activating System (RAS),
Skeletal muscles, Socialisation, Soma (Cell
body), Somatic nervous system, Species,
Synaptic vesicles
Summary
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
62
The human nervous system consists of billions of interconnected, highly specialised cells
called neurons. Neurons or nerve cells control and coordinate all human behaviour.
The central nervous system (CNS) consists of the brain and spinal cord. Peripheral nervous
system branches out from the CNS to all parts of the body. It has two divisions: the somatic
nervous system (related to the control of skeletal muscles) and the autonomic nervous system
(related to control of internal organs). The autonomic system is sub-divided into the sympathetic
and parasympathetic systems.
Neurons have dendrites, which receive impulses; and the axon, which transmits impulses
from cell body to other neurons or to muscle tissue.
Every axon is separated by a gap called synapse. A chemical called neurotransmitter is
released from the axon terminal that carries the message to the other neuron.
The central core of the human brain includes hindbrain (consisting of the medulla, the pons,
the reticular formation, and the cerebellum), the midbrain, and the thalamus and hypothalamus.
Above the central core lies the forebrain or cerebral hemispheres.
The limbic system is involved in the regulation of behaviours such as fighting, fleeing etc. It is
comprised of hippocampus, amygdala and hypothalamus.
The endocrine system consists of the glands; pituitary gland, thyroid gland, adrenal gland,
pancreas and gonads. The hormones secreted by them play a crucial role in behaviour and
development.
In addition to biological factors, culture is considered an important determinant of human
behaviour. If refers to the man-made part of the environment, which has two aspects —
material and subjective. It refers to a shared way of life of a group of people through which
they derive meanings of their behaviours and base their practices. These meanings and
practices are transmitted through generations.
Though, biological factors play a general enabling role, the development of specific skills and
competencies is dependent upon the cultural factors and processes.
We learn about culture through the processes of enculturation and socialisation.
Enculturation refers to all learning that take place without direct, deliberate teaching.
Socialisation is a process by which individuals acquire knowledge, skills and dispositions,
Psychology
2022-23
which enable them to participate as effective members of groups and society. The most
significant socialisation agents are parents, school, peer groups, mass media, etc.
Acculturation refers to cultural and psychological changes resulting from contact with other
cultures. The acculturative strategies adopted by individuals during the course of
acculturation are integration, assimilation, separation, and marginalisation.
•
Review Questions
1. How does the evolutionary perspective explain the biological basis of behaviour?
2. Describe how neurons transmit information?
3. Name the four lobes of the cerebral cortex. What functions do they perform?
4. Name the various endocrine glands and the hormones secreted by them. How does the
endocrine system affect our behaviour?
5. How does the autonomic nervous system help us in dealing with an emergency situation?
6. Explain the meaning of culture and describe its important features.
7. Do you agree with the statement that ‘biology plays an enabling role, while specific aspects
of behaviour are related to cultural factors’? Give reasons in support of your answer.
8. Describe the main agents of socialisation.
9. How can we distinguish between enculturation and socialisation? Explain.
10. What is meant by acculturation? Is acculturation a smooth process? Discuss.
11. Discuss the acculturative strategies adopted by individuals during the course of
acculturation.
Project Ideas
1.
2.
Collect information on a person with brain damage. You can take help from a doctor,
consult books or search the internet. Compare it with the normal functioning brain and
prepare a report.
Write down your daily routine. This should include the activity undertaken, as well as the
time when it is done. For example, if you watch television between 7 p.m. and 8 p.m.
daily, you should write down the time as well as the activity. Put in as many details as you
can. You could include names of the specific programmes you watch on Television. Make
a separate schedule for weekdays and weekends. The class can examine the daily schedules,
and see which activities are more common amongst the students. Can some cultural
values/beliefs be inferred to underlie common, shared experiences? (for example, that all
students spend many hours in school on a daily basis reflects that they come from cultures
which value school education).
Chapter 3 • The Bases of Human Behaviour
2022-23
63
4
Chapter
HumanDevelopment
After reading this chapter, you would be able to
•
•
•
•
describe the meaning and process of development,
explain the influence of heredity, environment and context on human
development,
identify the stages of development and describe the major characteristics
of infancy, childhood, adolescence, adulthood and old age, and
reflect on your own course of development and related experiences.
Contents
Introduction
Meaning of Development
Life-Span Perspective on Development
Growth, Development, Maturation, and
Evolution (Box 4.1)
Factors Influencing Development
Context of Development
Overview of Developmental Stages
Prenatal Stage
Infancy
Childhood
Gender and Sex Roles (Box 4.2)
Challenges of Adolescence
Adulthood and Old Age
I wish I could travel by the road that
crosses the baby’s mind, and out
beyond all bounds; where messengers
run errands for no cause between the
kingdoms of kings of no history; where
Reason makes kites of her laws and
flies them, and Truth sets Fact free
from its fetters.
Key Terms
Summary
Review Questions
Project Ideas
– Rabindranath Tagore
64
Psychology
2022-23
Introduction
If you look around, you will notice that from birth onwards changes of various
kinds are taking place in an individual’s life, which continue even during old age.
Over a span of time, a human grows and develops, learns to communicate, walk,
count, and read and write. S/he also learns to distinguish between right and wrong.
S/he makes friends, goes through puberty, gets married, rears children, and grows
old. Even though we differ from each other, we share many commonalities. Most of
us learn to walk by the first year and talk by the second year. This chapter will
familiarise you with the changes observed in people during the course of their lifespan in different domains. You will learn about key developmental processes and
changes taking place in major periods during the life-span: prenatal, infancy,
childhood, adolescence, adulthood, and old age. This would be a journey of personal
understanding and self-discovery which should help in your future development.
The study of human development would also help you to deal with others better.
MEANING
OF
DEVELOPMENT
When we think of development, invariably we
think of physical changes, as these are
commonly observed at home with younger
siblings, with parents and grandparents, in
school with peers or others around us. From
conception until the moment of death, we not
only change physically, but we also change in
the way we think, use language, and develop
social relationships. Remember that, changes
are not confined to any one area of a person’s
life; they occur in the person in an integrated
manner. Development is the pattern of
progressive, orderly, and predictable changes
that begin at conception and continue
throughout life. Development mostly involves
changes — both growth and decline, as
observed during old age.
Development is influenced by an interplay
of biological, cognitive, and socio-emotional
processes. Development due to genes
inherited from parents, such as in height and
weight, brain, heart, and lungs development,
etc. all point towards the role of biological
processes. The role of cognitive processes
in development relate to mental activities
associated with the processes of knowing,
and experiencing, such as thought,
perception, attention, problem solving, etc.
Socio-emotional processes that influence
development r efer to changes in an
individual’s interactions with other people,
changes in emotions, and in personality. A
child’s hug to her/his mother, a young girl’s
affectionate gesture to her/his sibling, or an
adolescent’s sorrow at losing a match are all
reflections of socio-emotional processes deeply
involved in human development.
Although you would be reading about the
different processes in different chapters of this
textbook, it is important to remember that the
biological, cognitive, and socio-emotional
processes are interwoven. These processes
influence changes in the development of the
individual as a whole throughout the human
life-span.
Life-Span Perspective on Development
The study of development according to the
Life-Span Perspective (LSP) includes the
following assumptions :
1. Development is lifelong, i.e. it takes place
across all age groups starting from
Chapter 4 • Human Development
2022-23
65
conception to old age. It includes both gains
and losses, which interact in dynamic
(change in one aspect goes with changes in
others) ways throughout the life-span.
2. The various processes of human
development, i.e. biological, cognitive, and
socio-emotional are interwoven in the
development of a person throughout the
life-span.
3. Development is multi-directional. Some
dimensions or components of a given
dimension of development may increase,
while others show decrement. For example,
the experiences of adults may make them
wiser and guide their decisions. However,
with an increase in age, one’s performance
is likely to decrease on tasks requiring
speed, such as running.
4. Development is highly plastic, i.e. within
person, modifiability is found in
psychological development, though
plasticity varies among individuals. This
means skills and abilities can be improved
or developed throughout the life-span.
Box 4.1
volution
Growth, Development, Maturation, and E
Evolution
owth refers to an increase in the size of body
Growth
Gr
parts or of the organism as a whole. It can be
measured or quantified, for example, growth in
height, weight, etc. Development is a process
by which an individual grows and changes
throughout the life cycle. The term development
applies to the changes that have a direction and
hold definite relationship with what precedes it,
and in turn, will determine what will come after.
A temporary change caused by a brief illness,
for example, is not considered a part of
development. All changes which occur as a result
of development are not of the same kind. Thus,
changes in size (physical growth), changes in
proportion (child to adult), changes in features
(disappearance of baby teeth), and acquiring new
features are varied in their pace and scope level.
Development includes growth as one of its
aspects. Maturation refers to the changes that
follow an orderly sequence and are largely
dictated by the genetic blueprint which produces
66
5. Development is influenced by historical
conditions. For example, the experiences
of 20-year olds who lived through the
freedom struggle in India would be very
different from the experiences of 20 year
olds of today. The career orientation of
school students today is very different from
those students who were in schools 50
years ago.
6. Development is the concer n of a
number of disciplines. Different
disciplines like psychology, anthropology,
sociology, and neuro-sciences study
human development, each trying to
provide answers to development
throughout the life-span.
7. An individual responds and acts on
contexts, which include what was
inherited, the physical environment, social,
historical, and cultural contexts. For
example, the life events in everyone’s life
are not the same, such as, death of a
parent, accident, earthquake, etc., affect
the course of one’s life as also the positive
commonalities in our growth and development.
For example, most children can sit without support
by 7 months of age, stand with support by 8 months
and walk by one year. Once the underlying physical
structure is sufficiently developed, proficiency in these
behaviours requires adequate environment and little
practice. However, special efforts to accelerate these
behaviours do not help if the infant is maturationally
not ready. These processes seem to “unfold from
within”: following an inner, genetically determined
timetable that is characteristic of the species.
Evolution refers to species-specific changes. Natural
selection is an evolutionary process that favours
individuals or a species that are best adapted to
survive and reproduce. The evolutionary changes are
passed from one generation to the next within a
species. Evolution proceeds at a very slow pace.
Emergence of human beings from great apes took
about 14 million years. It has been estimated that
the ‘Homo sapiens’ came into existence only about
50,000 years ago.
Psychology
2022-23
influences such as winning an award or
getting a good job. People keep on changing
with changing contexts.
FACTORS INFLUENCING DEVELOPMENT
Have you observed in your class that some of
you have dark skin, others have light coloured
skins, colour of your hair and eyes are
different, some of you are tall, others short,
some are quiet or sad while others are talkative
or cheerful. People also differ with respect to
intelligence, learning abilities, memory, and
other psychological characteristics besides
physical characteristics. Despite these
variations, no one can be mistaken for any
other species: we all are homo sapiens. What
causes us to be different from each other but
at the same time more like each other? The
answer lies in the interaction of heredity and
environment.
You have already learned in Chapter 3 that
the principles of heredity explain the
mechanism for transmission of characteristics
by every species from one generation to the
next. We inherit genetic codes from our
parents, which are in every cell of our body.
Our genetic codes are alike in one important
way; they contain the human genetic code. It
is because of the human genetic code that a
fertilised human egg grows into a human baby
and cannot grow into an elephant, a bird or a
mouse.
Genetic transmission is very complex.
Most characteristics that we observe in
humans are combinations of larger number
of genes. You can imagine the combinations
produced by 80,000 or more genes –
accounting for a variety of characteristics and
behaviours. It is also not possible to possess
all the characteristics made available to us by
our genetic structure. The actual genetic
material or a person’s genetic heritage is
known as genotype. However, not all of this
genetic material is apparent or distinctly
identifiable in our observable characteristics.
Phenotype is the way an individual’s genotype
is expressed in observable and measurable
characteristics. Phenotypes include physical
traits, such as height, weight, eye and skin
colour, and many of the psychological
characteristics such as intelligence, creativity,
and personality. These observable
characteristics of an individual are the result
of the interaction between the person’s
inherited traits and the environment. You
know it is the genetic code which predisposes
a child to develop in a particular way. Genes
provide a distinct blueprint and timetable for
the development of an individual. But genes
do not exist in isolation and development
occurs within the context of an individual’s
environment. This is what makes each one of
us a unique person.
What are the environmental influences?
How does the environment af fect
development? Imagine a child, with genotype
that predisposes her/him to be introverted,
in an environment that promotes social
interaction and extroversion. The influence of
such an environment may make the child a
little extroverted. Let us take another example.
An individual with “short” height genes, even
if s/he is in a very good nutritional
environment, will never be able to be taller
than average. This shows that genes set the
limit and within that limit the environment
influences development.
You know by now that parents provide the
genes for the child’s development. Do you
know that they also play an important role in
determining the type of environment their
children will encounter? Sandra Scarr (1992)
believes that the environment parents provide
for their children depends to some extent on
their own genetic predisposition. For example,
if parents are intelligent and are good readers
they would provide their children with books
to read, with the likely outcome that their
children would become good readers who
enjoy reading. A child’s own genotype (what
s/he has inherited) such as being cooperative,
and attentive is likely to result in teachers and
parents giving more pleasant response as
compared to children who are not cooperative
or not attentive. Besides these, children
themselves choose certain environments
Chapter 4 • Human Development
2022-23
67
based on their genotype. For example, because
of their genotype, children may perform well
in music or sports and they will seek and
spend more time in environments, which will
enable them to perform their musical skills;
similarly an athlete would seek sports-related
environment. These interactions with
environment keep changing from infancy
through adolescence. Environmental
influences are as complex as the genes we
inherit.
If your class monitor is selected on the
basis of being academically bright and a
popular student, do you think it is because of
her/his genes or the influence of the
environment? If a child from a rural area who
is very intelligent, is not able to get a job
because of her/his inability to express herself/
himself fluently or handle computers, do
you think - it is because of genes or
environment?
Mesosystem
Microsystem
Friends
Family
es
itud
Att
The
Individual
Mass
Media
Neighbour
School
Religious
settings
Peers
Neighbourhood
Work
Place
Time
Chronosystem
Fig.4.1 : Bronfenbrenner’s Contextual View of
Development
DEVELOPMENT
Development does not take place in a vacuum.
It is always embedded in a particular sociocultural context. As you shall read in this
chapter, transition during one’s lifetime such
as entering school, becoming an adolescent,
finding jobs, marrying, having children,
retirement, etc. all are joint functions of the
biological changes and changes in one’s
environment. The environment can change or
alter during any time of the individual’s lifespan.
Urie Bronfenbrenner’s contextual view of
development emphasises the role of
environmental factors in the development of
an individual. This has been depicted in
Figure 4.1.
The microsystem is the immediate
environment/setting in which the individual
lives. It is in these settings where the child
directly interacts with social agents – the
family, peers, teachers, and neighbourhood.
The mesosystem consists of relations between
these contexts. For instance, how a child’s
parents relate to the teachers, or how the
parents view the adolescent’s friends, are
68
fs
ns
OF
Beli
e
Exosystem
Trad
itio
CONTEXT
Macrosystem
ies
olog
Ide
experiences likely to influence an individual’s
relationships with others. The exosystem
includes events in social settings where the
child does not participate directly, but they
influence the childs’ experiences in the
immediate context. For example, the transfer
of father or mother may cause tension among
the parents which might af fect their
interactions with the child or the general
amenities available to the child like quality of
schooling, libraries, medical care, means of
entertainment, etc. Macrosystem includes the
culture in which the individual lives. You have
read in Chapter 3 about the importance of
culture in the development of an individual.
Chronosystem involves events in the
individual’s life course, and socio-historical
circumstances of the time such as, divorce of
parents or parents’ economic setback, and
their effect on the child.
In a nutshell, Bronfenbrenner’s view is that
a child’s development is significantly affected
by the complex world that envelops her/him
– whether it be the minutiae of the
conversations s/he has with her/his
Psychology
2022-23
playmates, or the social and economic lifecircumstances into which s/he is born.
Research has shown that children in
impoverished
environments
have
unstimulating environment devoid of books,
magazines, toys, etc., lack experiences such
as visits to library, museum, zoo, etc., have
parents who are ineffective as role models, and
live in overcrowded and noisy surroundings.
As a result of these conditions children are at
a disadvantage and have difficulties in
learning.
Durganand Sinha (1977) has presented an
ecological model for understanding the
development of children in Indian context.
Ecology of the child could be viewed in terms
of two concentric layers. The “upper and the
more visible layers” consist of home, school,
peer groups, and so on. The most important
ecological factors influencing development of
the child in the visible upper layer constitute
the: (i) home, its conditions in terms of
overcrowding, space available to each member,
toys, technological devices used, etc.,
(ii) nature and quality of schooling, facilities
to which the child is exposed, and (iii) nature
of interactions and activities undertaken with
peer groups from childhood onwards.
These factors do not operate
independently but constantly interact with
one another. Since these are also embedded
in a larger and a more pervasive setting, the
“surrounding layers” of the child’s ecology
constantly influence the “upper layer”
factors. However, their influences are not
always clearly visible. The elements of the
surrounding layer of ecology constitute the:
(i) general geographical environment. It
includes space and facilities for play and
other activities available outside the home
including general congestion of the locality
and density of population, (ii) institutional
setting provided by caste, class, and other
factors, and (iii) general amenities available
to the child like drinking water, electricity,
means of entertainment and so on.
The visible and the surrounding layer
factors interact with one another and may
have
dif ferent
consequences
for
development in dif ferent people. The
ecological environment can change or alter
during any time of the individual’s life-span.
Therefore, to understand differences in the
functioning of an individual, it is important
to see the individual in the context of her/
his experiences.
Activity 4.1
What would your life be if you lived in a rural
area or a small town, devoid of all amenities,
which you are used to in a city (or vice-versa)?
Discuss in small groups keeping in mind factors
like poverty, illiteracy, pollution, population, etc.
OVERVIEW
OF
DEVELOPMENTAL STAGES
Development is commonly described in terms
of periods or stages. You must have observed
that your younger brother or sister, or parents,
and even yourself, all behave in different ways.
If you observe people living in your
neighbourhood, you would find that they too
do not behave in a similar manner. This
variation is partly because everyone is in a
different stage of life. Human life proceeds
through different stages. For example, you are
at present in the stage of adolescence and after
a few years you will enter the stage of
adulthood. Developmental stages are assumed
to be temporary and are often characterised
by a dominant featur e or a leading
characteristic, which gives each period its
uniqueness. During a particular stage,
individual progresses towards an assumed
goal - a state or ability that s/he must achieve
in the same order as other persons before
progressing to the next stage in the sequence.
Of course, individuals do vary with respect to
the time or rate of development from one stage
to another. It may be noted that certain
patterns of behaviour and certain skills are
learned more easily and successfully during
certain stages. These accomplishments of a
person become the social expectations of that
stage of development. They are known as
Chapter 4 • Human Development
2022-23
69
developmental tasks. You will now read
about the different stages of development and
their main features.
Prenatal Stage
The period from conception to birth is known
as the prenatal period. Typically, it lasts for
about 40 weeks. You know by now that the
genetic blueprint guides our development
during the prenatal period and after birth.
Both genetic and environmental factors affect
our development during different periods of
prenatal stage.
Prenatal development is also affected by
maternal characteristics, which include
mother’s age, nutrition, and emotional state.
Disease or infection carried by the mother can
adversely affect prenatal development. For
example, rubella (German measles), genital
herpes, and Human Immunodeficiency Virus
(HIV) are believed to cause genetic problems
in the newborn. Another source of threat to
prenatal development is teratogens environmental agents that cause deviations
in normal development that can lead to serious
abnormalities or death. Common teratogens
include drugs, infections, radiations, and
pollution. Intake of drugs (marijuana, heroin,
cocaine, etc.), alcohol, tobacco, etc. by women
during pregnancy may have harmful effects
on the foetus and increase the frequency of
congenital abnormalities. Radiations (such as
X-rays), and certain chemicals near industrial
areas can cause permanent change in the
genes. Environmental pollutants and toxic
wastes like carbon monoxide, mercury and
lead are also sources of danger to the unborn
child.
INFANCY
The brain develops at an amazing rate before
and after birth. You have already read in
Chapter 3 about the parts of the brain and
the important role played by cerebrum in
human functions, such as language,
perception, and intelligence. Just before birth
the newborns have most but not all brain cells.
70
The neural connections among these cells
develop at a rapid rate.
The newborn is not as helpless as you
might think. The activities needed to sustain
life functions are present in the newborn — it
breathes, sucks, swallows, and discharges the
bodily wastes. The newborns in their first week
of life are able to indicate what direction a
sound is coming from, can distinguish their
mother’s voice from the voices of other women,
and can imitate simple gestures like tongue
protrusion and mouth opening.
Motor Development : The newborn’s
movements are governed by reflexes — which
are automatic, built-in responses to stimuli.
They are genetically-carried survival
mechanisms, and are the building blocks for
subsequent motor development. Before the
newborns have had the opportunity to learn,
reflexes act as adaptive mechanisms. Some
reflexes present in the newborn — coughing,
blinking, and yawning persist throughout their
lives. Others disappear as the brain functions
mature and voluntary control over behaviour
starts developing (see Table 4.1).
As the brain is developing, physical
development also progresses. As the infant
grows, the muscles and nervous system
mature which lead to the development of finer
skills. Basic physical (motor) skills include
grasping and reaching for objects, sitting,
crawling, walking and running. The sequence
of physical (motor) development is universal,
with minor exceptions.
Sensory Abilities : You know by now that
newborns are not as incompetent as they look.
They can recognise their mother’s voice just a
few hours after birth and have other sensory
capabilities. How well can infants see?
Newborns prefer to look at some stimuli rather
than others such as faces, although these
preferences change over the first few months
of life. The newborn’s vision is estimated to
be lower than the adult vision. By 6 months it
improves and by about the first year, vision is
almost the same as that of an adult (20/20).
Can a newborn see colour? The current
consensus is that they might be able to
distinguish between red and white colours but
Psychology
2022-23
Table 4.1
Some Major Reflexes in the Newb
Newboorn
Reflex
Description
Developmental Course
Rooting
Turning the head and opening the
mouth when touched on the cheek
Disappears between 3 and 6 months
Moro
If there is a loud noise, the baby
will throw her/his arms outward
while arching her/his back, and
then bring the arms together as
if grasping something
Disappears in 6 to 7 months
(although reaction to loud noises is
permanent)
Grasp
When a finger or some other object is
pressed against the baby’s palm, the
baby’s fingers close around it
Disappears in 3 to 4 months;
replaced by voluntary grasping
Babinski
When the bottom of the baby’s foot
is stroked, the toes fan out and
then curl
Disappears in 8 to 12 months
in general they are colour deficient and full
colour vision develops by 3 months of age.
What is the nature of hearing in newborns?
Infants can hear immediately after birth. As
the infant develops, proficiency at localising
sound improves. Newborns respond to touch
and they can even feel pain. Both smell and
taste capacities are also present in the
newborn.
Cognitive Development : Does a 3 year
old child understand things the same way as
would an 8 year old? Jean Piaget stressed that
children
actively
construct
their
understanding of the world. Information does
not simply enter their minds from the
environment. As children grow, additional
information is acquired and they adapt their
thinking to include new ideas, as this improves
their understanding of the world. Piaget
believed that a child’s mind passes through a
series of stages of thought from infancy to
adolescence (see Table 4.2).
Each stage is characterised by a distinct
way of thinking and is age related. It is
important to remember that it is the different
way of thinking which makes one stage more
advanced than the other and not the amount
of information. This also shows why you at
your age think differently from an 8 year old.
The child during infancy, i.e. the first two years
of life, experiences the world through senses
and interactions with objects — through
looking, hearing, touching, mouthing, and
grasping. The newborn lives in the present.
What is out of sight is out of mind. For
example, if you hide the toy in front of the
child with which the child has been playing,
the young infant would react as if nothing has
happened, i.e. s/he will not search for the toy.
The child assumes the toy does not exist.
According to Piaget, children at this stage do
not go beyond their immediate sensory
experience, i.e. lack object permanence —
the awareness that the objects continue to
exist when not perceived. Gradually by 8
months of age the child starts pursuing the
object partially covered in her/his presence.
The basis of verbal communication seems
to be present in infants. Vocalisation begins
with the infant’s babbling, sometime between
3 to 6 months of age. You will read about early
language development in Chapter 8.
Socio-emotional Development : Babies
from birth are social creatures. An infant starts
preferring familiar faces and responds to
parent’s presence by cooing and gurgling. They
become more mobile by 6 to 8 months of age
and start showing a preference for their
mother’s company. When frightened by a new
face or when separated from their mother, they
Chapter 4 • Human Development
2022-23
71
Table 4.2
Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development
Stage
Approximate Age
Characteristics
Sensorimotor
0-2 years
Infant explores the world by coordinating
sensory experiences with physical actions.
Preoperational
2-7 years
Symbolic thought develops; object
permanence is established; the child cannot
coordinate different physical attributes of an
object.
Concrete operational
7-11 years
The child can reason logically about concrete
events and classify objects into different sets.
Is able to perform reversible mental operations
on representations of objects.
Formal operational
11-15 years
The adolescent can apply logic more
abstractly; hypothetical thinking develops.
cry or show distress. On being reunited with
the parent or caregiver they reciprocate with
smiles or hugs. The close emotional bond of
affection that develop between infants and
their parents (caregivers) is called
attachment. In a classic study by Harlow and
Harlow (1962), baby monkeys were separated
from their mothers approximately 8 hours
after birth. The baby monkeys were placed in
experimental chambers and reared for 6
months by surrogate (substitute) “mothers”,
one made of wire and the other of cloth. Half
the baby monkeys were fed by the wire mother,
half by the cloth mother. Regardless of whether
they were fed by the wire or the cloth mother
the baby monkeys showed a preference for the
cloth mother and spent a lot more time with
her. This study clearly demonstrates that
providing nourishment or feeding was not
crucial for attachment and contact-comfort is
important. You too may have seen young
children having a strong attachment to a
favourite toy or blanket. There is nothing
unusual in this, as the children know that
the blanket or toy is not their mother. Yet it
provides them comfort. As children grow and
become more sure of themselves, they
abandon these objects.
Human babies also form an attachment
with their parents or caregivers who
72
consistently and appropriately reciprocate to
their signals of love and affection. According to
Erik Erikson (1968), the first year of life is the
key time for the development of attachment. It
represents the stage of developing trust or
mistrust. A sense of trust is built on a feeling of
physical comfort which builds an expectation
of the world as a secure and good place. An
infant’s sense of trust is developed by
responsive and sensitive parenting. If the
parents are sensitive, affectionate, and
accepting, it provides the infant a strong base
to explore the environment. Such infants are
likely to develop a secure attachment. On the
other hand, if parents are insensitive and show
dissatisfaction and find fault with the child, it
can lead to creating feelings of self-doubt in
the child. Securely attached infants respond
positively when picked up, move freely, and
play whereas insecurely attached infants feel
anxious when separated and cry due to fear
and get upset. A close interactive relationship
with warm and affectionate adults is a child’s
first step towards healthy development.
CHILDHOOD
The child’s growth slows down during early
childhood as compared to infancy. The child
develops physically, gains height and weight,
Psychology
2022-23
learns to walk, runs, jumps, and plays with a
ball. Socially, the child’s world expands from
the parents to the family and adults near home
and at school. The child also begins to acquire
the concepts of good and bad, i.e. develops a
sense of morality. During childhood, children
have increased physical capacities, can
perform tasks independently, can set goals,
and meet adult expectations. The increasing
maturation of the brain along with
opportunities to experience the world,
contribute to development of children’s
cognitive abilities.
Physical Development : Early development follows two principles : (i) development
proceeds cephalocaudally, i.e. from the
cephalic or head region to the caudal or tail
region. Children gain control over the upper
part of the body before the lower part. This is
why you would notice that the infant’s head
is proportionately larger than her/his body
during early infancy or if you see an infant
crawling, s/he will use the arms first and then
shift to using the legs, (ii) growth proceeds from
the centre of body and moves towards the
extremities or more distal regions — the
proximodistal trend, i.e. children gain control
over their torso before their extremities.
Initially infants reach for objects by turning
their entire body, gradually they extend their
arms to reach for things. These changes are
the result of a maturing nervous system and
not because of any limitation since even
visually impaired children show the same
sequence.
As children grow older, they look slimmer
as the trunk part of their bodies lengthens
Table 4.3
and body fat decreases. The brain and the
head grow more rapidly than any other part
of the body. The growth and development of
the brain are important as they help in the
maturation of children’s abilities, such as eyehand coordination, holding a pencil, and
attempts made at writing. During middle and
late childhood years, children increase
significantly in size and strength; increase in
weight is mainly due to increase in the size of
the skeletal and muscular systems, as well as
size of some body organs.
Motor Development : Gross motor skills
during the early childhood years involve the
use of arms and legs, and moving around with
confidence and more purposefully in the
environment. Fine motor skills — finger
dexterity and eye-hand coordination —
improve substantially during early childhood.
During these years the child’s preference for
left or right hand also develops. The major
accomplishments in gross and fine motor skills
during early childhood years are given in
Table 4.3.
Cognitive Development : The child’s
ability to acquire the concept of object
permanence enables her/him to use mental
symbols to represent objects. However, the
child at this stage lacks the ability that allows
her/him to do mentally what was done
physically before. Cognitive development in
early childhood focuses on Piaget’s stage of
preoperational thought (see Table 4.2). The
child gains the ability to mentally represent
an object that is not physically present. You
may have observed children draw designs/
figures to represent people, trees, dog, house,
Major Accomplishments in Gross and FFine
ine Motor Skills
Age in Years
Gross Motor Skills
Fine Motor Skills
3 years
Hopping, jumping, running
Build blocks, pick objects with
forefinger and thumb
4 years
Climb up and downstairs with
one foot on each step
Fit jigsaw puzzle precisely
5 years
Run hard, enjoy races
Hand, arm, and body all coordinate
with eye movement
Chapter 4 • Human Development
2022-23
73
etc. This ability of the child to engage in
symbolic thought helps to expand her/his
mental world. The progress in symbolic
thought continues. A salient feature of
preoperational thought is egocentrism (selffocus), i.e. children see the world only in terms
of their own selves and are not able to
appreciate others’ point of view. Children
because of egocentrism, engage in animism thinking that all things are living, like oneself.
They attribute life-like qualities to inanimate
objects. For example, if a child while running
slips on the road, s/he might show animism
by saying “road hurt me”. As children grow
and are approximately between 4 and 7 years
of age they want answers to all their questions
like: Why is the sky blue? How do trees grow?
and so on. Such questions help the child to
know why things are as they are. Piaget called
this the stage of intuitive thought. Another
feature of thought during preoperational stage
is characterised by children having a tendency
for centration, i.e. focusing on a single
characteristic or feature for understanding an
event. For example, a child may insist on
drinking a “big glass” of juice, preferring a tall
narrow glass to a short broad one, even though
both might be holding the same amount of
juice.
As the child grows and is approximately
between 7 and 11 years of age (the period of
middle and late childhood) intuitive thought
is replaced by logical thought. This is the stage
of concrete operational thought, which is
made up of operations — mental actions that
allow the child to do mentally what was done
physically before. Concrete operations are also
mental actions that are reversible. In a wellknown test, the child is presented with two
identical balls of clay. One ball is rolled by the
experimenter into a long thin strip and the
other ball remains in its original shape. On
being asked which has more clay, the child
of 7 or 8 years, would answer that, both have
the same amount of clay. This is because the
child imagines the ball rolled into thin strip
and then into a ball, that means s/he is able
to imagine reversible mental action on
concrete/real objects. What do you think a
74
preoperational child would have done? S/he
is likely to focus on only one aspect-length or
height. Concrete operations allow the child to
focus on different characteristics and not focus
on one aspect of the object. This helps the
child to appreciate that there are different ways
of looking at things, which also results in the
decline of her/his egocentrism. Thinking
becomes more flexible, and children can think
about alternatives when solving problems, or
mentally retrace their steps if required. Even
though the preoperational child develops the
ability to see relationships between different
properties of an object, s/he cannot do
abstract thinking, i.e. s/he still cannot
manipulate ideas in the absence of objects.
For example, steps required to complete
algebraic equations, or imagining line of
longitude or latitude of the earth.
The growing cognitive abilities of children
facilitate the acquisition of language. You will
read in Chapter 8, how children develop
vocabulary and grammar.
Activity 4.2
Take two transparent glasses of the same size
and pour same amount of water in both. Ask a
child of Class II and Class V of your school:
whether the glasses contain the same amount of
water? Take another tall thin glass and in front
of the child empty water from one of the earlier
glasses to the third glass. Now ask her/him which
glass has more water? Did you find any difference
in their responses?
Socio-emotional Development : The
important dimensions of children’s socioemotional development are the self, gender
and moral development. During the early
years of childhood, some important
developments in the self take place. The child
due to socialisation has developed a sense of
who s/he is and whom s/he wants to be
identified with. The developing sense of
independence makes children do things in
their own way. According to Erikson, the way
parents respond to their self-initiated activities
Psychology
2022-23
leads to developing a sense of initiative or sense
of guilt. For example, giving freedom and
opportunities for play like cycling, running,
skating, etc. and answering children’s
questions will create a sense of support for
the initiative taken. In contrast, if they are
made to feel that their questions are useless,
and games played by them are stupid, the
children are likely to develop feelings of guilt
over self-initiated activities, which may persist
through the children’s later life also. Self-
Box 4.2
understanding in early childhood is limited to
defining oneself thr ough physical
characteristics: I am tall, she has black hair, I
am a girl, etc. During middle and late
childhood, the child is likely to define oneself
through internal characteristics such as, “I
am smart and I am popular” or “I feel proud
when teachers assign me responsibility in
school”. In addition to defining oneself through
psychological characteristics, children’s selfdescriptions also include social aspects of self,
Gender and Sex Roles
Is chess a man’s game or woman’s game or both?
Is baking a woman’s activity or a man’s activity?
What about driving, debating, and experimenting
in a physics laboratory? Or consider some of the
products sold on T.V. for young men and young
women? What do they tell about how girls and
boys should be?
Psychologists have meticulously researched
on whether sex differences exist. Research shows
that males have been consistently found to be
more aggressive than females. Men perform
better than women on tests of sit-ups, short-run
speeds and long jumps. Women show better, fine
eye-hand coordination than men do, and their
joints and limbs are more flexible than men’s.
What do you think is the origin of these
differences? Are these essential, or in other
words, are women born with certain ‘feminine’
traits, and men with certain ‘masculine’ traits?
Or are these differences the creation of the world
we live in?
The most powerful roles into which people are
socialised are gender roles. They specify the range
of behaviours which are considered appropriate
for males or females. While sex refers to the
biological dimension of being male or female,
gender refers to the social dimension of being male
or female. There are several aspects of gender.
Among these, important ones are gender identity
of male or female, which most children begin to
acquire by the time they are about 3 years old
and can accurately label themselves as boys and
girls. As they grow, preferences can be evidenced
in their toys and play.
A gender role is a set of expectations that
prescribes how females and males should think,
act and feel. Parents are important influences on
gender socialisation especially in the early years
of development. Through rewards and punishments,
they induce in children gender appropriate and
inappropriate behaviours. Parents often use rewards
and punishments to teach their daughters to be
feminine and boys to be masculine. Peer influence is
also considered to be a major contributor to gender
socialisation.
Parents restrict school-aged girls more than they
restrict school-aged boys, and assign boys and girls
different types of chores. In everyday interactions,
parents give their daughters a kind of ‘dependence
training’, and their sons a kind of ‘independence
training’. Media, including cartoons and commercials
are known to perpetuate gender stereotypes.
Research on gender stereotypes in commercials
shows that across cultures authority figures in
commercials were males, and women were more likely
to be shown in dependent and domestic roles, or
women were more likely to sell body products, and
men more likely to sell sports products.
Once children learn the role of male or female,
they organise their world on the basis of gender also.
Children’s attention and behaviour are guided by an
internal motivation to conform to gender based sociocultural standards and stereotypes. Children also
actively socialise themselves according to the gender
mores of their culture. Once they have internalised
gender standards, they begin to expect gender
appropriate behaviour from themselves. Young boys
may refuse to wear feminine clothes in a fancy dress
competition. When playing house (ghar-ghar), girls
may refuse to play the father’s role. Once they have
identified with their own gender, children may model
after a powerful cultural figure of the same gender.
The “gender typing” occurs when individuals are
ready to encode and organise information along the
lines of what is considered appropriate or typical for
males and females in a society.
Chapter 4 • Human Development
2022-23
75
such as references to social groups like being
a member of school’s music club, environment
club, or any religious group. Children’s selfunderstanding also includes social
comparison. Children are likely to think about
what they can do or cannot do in comparison
with others. For example, “I got more marks
than Atul” or “I can run faster than others in
the class”. This developmental shift leads to
establishing one’s differences from others as
an individual.
Once the children enter school their social
world expands beyond their families. They also
spend greater amount of time with their age
mates or peers. Thus the increased time that
children spend with their peers shapes their
development.
Activity 4.3
Act like a boy if you are a girl or act like a girl if
you are a boy for atleast one hour in front of your
friends and parents. Reflect on your experience
and note others’ reaction to your behaviour. You
can also ask them about their reactions. How
difficult was it to perform like the other gender?
Moral Development : Another important
aspect of the child’s development is learning
to differentiate between the rightness or
wrongness of human acts. The way children
come to distinguish right from wrong, to feel
guilty, to put themselves in other people’s
position, and to help others when they are in
trouble, are all components of moral
development. Just as children pass through
the various stages of cognitive development,
according to Lawrence Kohlberg, they pass
through the various stages of moral
development, which are age related. Kohlberg
interviewed children in which they were
presented with stories in which the characters
face moral dilemmas. Children were asked
what the characters in the dilemma should
do, and why. According to him, children
approach thinking about right and wrong
differently at different ages. The young child,
i.e. before 9 years of age, thinks in terms of
external authority. According to her/him,
76
actions are wrong because s/he is punished,
and right because s/he is rewarded. As the
child grows, i.e. by early adolescence, s/he
develops moral reasoning through set of rules
of others, such as parents or laws of the
society. These rules are accepted by the
children as their own. These are “internalised”
in order to be virtuous and to win approval
from others (not to avoid punishment).
Children view rules as absolute guidelines,
which should be followed. Moral thinking at
this stage is relatively inflexible. As they grow,
they gradually develop a personal moral code.
You have seen that by the end of childhood
a more gradual growth rate enables the child
to develop skills of coordination and balance.
Language develops and the child can reason
logically. Socially the child has become more
involved in social systems, such as family and
peer group. The next section traces changes
in human development during adolescence
and adulthood.
Activity 4.4
A patient is critically ill, hospitalised for many
years and shows no improvement. Should the life
support system of the patient be withdrawn?
What is your view on euthanasia or “mercy killing”
as it is sometimes called? Discuss with your teacher.
CHALLENGES
OF
ADOLESCENCE
The term adolescence derives from the Latin
word adolescere, meaning “to grow into
maturity”. It is the transitional period in a
person’s life between childhood and
adulthood. Adolescence is commonly defined
as the stage of life that begins at the onset of
puberty, when sexual maturity, or the ability
to reproduce is attained. It has been regarded
as a period of rapid change, both biologically
and psychologically. Though the physical
changes that take place during this stage are
universal, the social and psychological
dimensions of the adolescent’s experiences
depend on the cultural context. For example,
in cultures where the adolescent years are
Psychology
2022-23
viewed as problematic or confusing, the
adolescent will have very different experiences
from someone who is in a culture, where
adolescent years are viewed as beginning of
adult behaviour and, therefore, undertaking
responsible tasks. Although most societies
have at least a brief period of adolescence, it
is not universal across cultures.
Physical Development : Puberty or sexual
maturity marks the end of childhood and
signifies the beginning of adolescence, which
is characterised by dramatic physical changes
in both, gr owth rate, and sexual
characteristics. However, puberty is not a
sudden event, but is part of a gradual process.
The hormones released during puberty result
in the development of primary and secondary
sexual characteristics. The primary sex
characteristics include those directly related
to reproduction and the secondary sex
characteristics include features or signs of
achieving sexual maturity. Pubertal changes
in boys are marked by acceleration in growth,
facial hair, and changes in voice. In girls, rapid
growth in height usually begins about two
years before menarche, the onset of
menstruation. The growth spurt generally
begins at the age of 12 or 13 for boys and at
the age of 10 or 11 for girls. It is normal to
have variations in the pubertal sequence. For
example, among two boys (or two girls) of same
chronological age, one may complete pubertal
sequence before the other has begun it. Both
genetics and environment play a part in this.
For example, identical twins reach menarche
closer in time than do fraternal twins; on an
average, girls from affluent families go through
menarche earlier than girls from poor families;
and historical trends show that the age of
menarche is declining in industrialised nations
reflecting better nutrition and advances in
medical care.
Physical development during adolescence
is also accompanied by a number of
psychological changes. Around puberty
adolescents show an increase in interest in
members of the opposite sex and in sexual
matters and a new awareness of sexual
feelings develops. This increased attention to
sexuality is caused by factors such as
individual’s awareness of the biological
changes taking place and the emphasis placed
on sexuality by peers, parents, and society.
Even then, many adolescents lack adequate
knowledge or have misconceptions about sex
and sexuality. Sex is a topic parents find
dif ficult to discuss with children, so
adolescents tend to become secretive about
sexual concerns which make exchange of
information and communication difficult. The
concern over adolescent sexuality has become
intense in recent times because of the risk of
AIDS, and other sexually transmitted diseases.
The development of a sexual identity
defines the sexual orientation and guides
sexual behaviour. As such it becomes an
important developmental task for adolescents.
How did you think of yourself at the beginning
of puberty? Adolescents are preoccupied with
what they are like and develop individual
images of what they look like. Another
important developmental task during
adolescence is accepting one’s physical self/
maturity. Adolescents need to develop a
realistic image of their physical appearance,
which is acceptable to them. It is important
to keep in mind that puberty also involves
cognitive and social changes along with
physical changes.
Cognitive Developmental Changes :
Adolescents’ thought becomes more abstract,
logical, and idealistic; they become more
capable of examining their own thoughts,
others’ thoughts, and what others are thinking
about them. Adolescents’ developing ability to
reason gives them a new level of cognitive and
social awareness. Piaget believed that formal
operational thought appears between the age
of 11 and 15. During this stage adolescent
thinking expands beyond actual concrete
experiences and they begin to think more in
abstract terms and reason about them. In
addition to being abstract, adolescent thought
is also idealistic. Adolescents begin to think
about ideal characteristics for themselves and
others and compare themselves and others
with these ideal standards. For example, they
may think what an ideal parent is like and
Chapter 4 • Human Development
2022-23
77
compare their parents with these ideal
standards. This may at times make
adolescents wonder which of the new-found
ideal standards they should adopt. In contrast
to trial and error approach used by children
in earlier stages of development, adolescent
thinking becomes more systematic in solving
problems — they think of possible courses of
action, why something is happening the way
it is, and systematically seek solutions. Piaget
called this type of logical thinking —
hypothetical deductive reasoning.
Logical thought also influences the
development of moral reasoning. Social rules
are not considered as absolute standards and
moral thinking shows some flexibility. The
adolescent recognises alternative moral
courses, explores options, and then decides
on a personal moral code. For example, should
I smoke as everyone I know does? Is it ethical
to copy answers in the examinations? This also
lends the possibility of adolescents not
following society’s norms if they conflict with
personal code of ethics. For example,
individuals at this age might participate in a
protest march for a cause rather than adhere/
conform to college norm.
Adolescents also develop a special kind of
egocentrism. According to David Elkind,
imaginary audience and personal fable are
two components of adolescents’ egocentrism.
Imaginary audience is adolescent’s belief that
others are as preoccupied with them as they
are about themselves. They imagine that
people are always noticing them and are
observing each and every behaviour of theirs.
Imagine a boy who thinks that all will notice
the ink spot on his shirt, or a girl with a pimple
feels, all people would think how bad her skin
is. It is this imaginary audience, which makes
them extremely self-conscious. The personal
fable is part of the adolescents’ egocentrism
that involves their sense of uniqueness.
Adolescents’ sense of uniqueness makes them
think that no one understands them or their
feelings. For example, an adolescent girl thinks
that none can sense the hurt that she feels
because of being betrayed by a friend. It is
quite common to hear the adolescent say to
78
the parents; ‘you don’t understand me’. To
retain their sense of personal uniqueness they
may weave stories filled with fantasy around
them to create a world that is away from
reality. Personal fables are often part of
adolescent diaries.
Forming an Identity : You must have
sought answers to questions such as : Who
am I? Which subjects should I study? Do I
believe in God? The answers to all these
questions involve the quest to define one’s
sense of self or the search for identity.
Identity is who you are and what your values,
commitments and beliefs are. The primary task
of adolescence is to establish an identity
separate from the parents. During adolescence
a detachment process enables the individual
to develop a personalised set of beliefs that
are uniquely her or his own. In the process of
achieving an identity the adolescent could
experience conflict with parents and within
herself or himself. Those adolescents who can
cope with the conflicting identities develop a
new sense of self. Adolescents who are not
able to cope with this identity crisis are
confused. This “identity confusion”, according
to Erikson, can lead to individuals isolating
themselves from peers and family; or they may
lose their identity in the crowd. Adolescents
on one hand, may desire independence but
may also be afraid of it and show a great deal
of dependence on their parents. Rapid
fluctuations between self-confidence and
insecurity are typical of this stage. Adolescents
may at one time complain of being “treated
like a baby” whereas on other occasions they
may seek comfort by depending on their
parents. Seeking an identity involves searching
for continuity and sameness in oneself, greater
responsibility and trying to get a clear sense
of who one is, i.e. an identity.
The for mation of identity during
adolescence is influenced by several factors.
The cultural background, family and societal
values, ethnic background, and socioeconomic status all prevail upon the
adolescents’ search for a place in society.
Family relationships become less important
as the adolescent spends more time outside
Psychology
2022-23
the home and develops a strong need for peer
support and acceptance. Increased
interactions with peers provide them with
opportunities for refining their social skills and
trying out different social behaviours. Peers
and parents are dual forces having major
influences on adolescents. At times conflicting
situations with parents lead to increased
identification with peers. But generally parents
and peers serve complementary functions and
fulfil different needs of the adolescents.
Vocational commitment is another factor
influencing adolescent identity formation. The
question “What are you going to be when you
grow up?”, requires the ability to think about
the future and to be able to set realistic and
achievable goals. In some cultures freedom is
given to the young people to choose an
occupation, whereas in certain other cultures
the option of making this choice is not given
to the children. Here parents’ decision is likely
to be accepted by the children. What has been
your experience while making a choice in the
selection of subjects? Career counselling in
schools offers information regarding appraisal
of the students for various courses and jobs
and provides guidance in making a decision
about career choices.
Some Major Concerns : As adults when
we reflect on our adolescent years and recall
the conflicts, uncertainties, occasional
loneliness, group pressures, we feel it was
definitely a vulnerable period. During
adolescence peer influence, new gained
freedom, unresolved problems may create
difficulties for many of you. Conforming to peer
pressure can be both positive and negative.
Adolescents are often confronted with
decisions regarding smoking, drugs, alcohol,
and breaking parental rules, etc. These
decisions are taken without much regard to
the effect they can have. Adolescents may face
periods of uncertainty, loneliness, self-doubt,
anxiety, and concern about themselves and
their future, they are also likely to experience
excitement, joy, and feelings of competence
as they over come the developmental
challenges. You will now read about some of
the major challenges faced by adolescents like
delinquency, substance abuse, and eating
disorders.
Delinquency : Delinquency refers to a
variety of behaviours, ranging from socially
unacceptable behaviour, legal offences, to
criminal acts. Examples include truancy,
running away from home, stealing or burglary
or acts of vandalism. Adolescents with
delinquency and behavioural problems tend to
have a negative self-identity, decreased trust,
and low level of achievement. Delinquency is
often associated with low parental support,
inappropriate discipline, and family discord.
Often adolescents from communities
characterised by poverty, unemployment, and
having feelings of alienation from the middle
class perform antisocial acts to gain attention
and to be popular with their peers. However,
most delinquent children do not remain
delinquent forever. Change in their peer group,
becoming mor e aware of their social
responsibilities and developing feelings of selfworth, imitating positive behaviour of the role
models, breaking negative attitudes, and
overcoming poor self-concept help in reduction
of delinquent behaviour.
Substance Abuse : Adolescent years are
especially vulnerable to smoking, alcohol and
drug abuse. Some adolescents take recourse
to smoking and drugs as a way of coping with
stress. This can interfere with the development
of coping skills and responsible decisionmaking. The reasons for smoking and drug
use could be peer pressure and the
adolescents’ need to be accepted by the group,
or desire to act more like adults, or feel a need
to escape the pressure of school work or social
activities. The addictive powers of nicotine
make it difficult to stop smoking. It has been
found that adolescents who are more
vulnerable to drugs, alcohol, and nicotine use,
are impulsive, aggressive, anxious, depressive,
and unpredictable, have low self-esteem, and
low expectation for achievement. Peer pressure
and the need to be with their peer group make
the adolescent either go along with their
demands to experiment with drugs, alcohol,
and smoking or be ridiculed. Drug use if
continued long enough can lead to
Chapter 4 • Human Development
2022-23
79
physiological dependency, i.e. addiction to
drugs, alcohol or nicotine may seriously
jeopardise the rest of the adolescents’ lives.
Positive relationships with parents, peers,
siblings, and adults play an important role in
preventing drug abuse. In India, a successful
anti-drug programme is the Society for Theatre
in Education Programme in New Delhi. It uses
street performances to entertain people
between 13 to 25 years of age while teaching
them how to say no to drugs. The United
Nations International Drug Control Programme
(UNDCP) has chosen the programme as an
example to be adopted by other nongovernmental organisations in the region.
Eating Disorders : Adolescents’ obsession
with self, living in fantasy world and peer
comparisons lead to certain conditions where
they become obsessed with their own bodies.
Anorexia nervosa is an eating disorder that
involves relentless pursuit of thinness through
starvation. It is quite common to see
adolescents eliminate certain foods from their
diets or to eat slimming foods only. The media
also projects thinness, as the most desirable
image and copying such fashionable image of
thinness leads to anorexia nervosa. Bulimia
is another form of an eating disorder in which
the individual follows a binge-and-purge eating
pattern. The bulimic goes on an eating binge,
then purges by self-induced vomiting or using
a laxative at times alternating it with fasting.
Anorexia nervosa and bulimia are primarily
female disorders more common in urban
families.
ADULTHOOD
AND
OLD AGE
Adulthood
An adult is generally defined as someone who
is responsible, mature, self-supporting, and
well integrated into society. There is a variation
in developing these attributes, which suggests
that there is a shift in timing when an
individual becomes an adult or assumes adult
roles. Some people take up jobs along with
their college studies or may get married and
not pursue their studies. Others may continue
80
to live with their parents even after getting
married and being financially independent.
The assumption of adult roles is directed by
an individual’s social context. The best time
for some of the most important life events (i.e.
marriage, job, having children) might be quite
different in different cultures but within a
culture there is similarity in the course of adult
development.
In early adulthood, two major tasks are,
exploring the possibilities for adult living and
developing a stable life structure. The twenties
represent the novice phase of adult
development. Gradually, a transition from
dependence to independence should occur.
This could be marked by an image of the kind
of life the young person wants, especially in
terms of marriage and a career.
Career and Work : Earning a living,
choosing an occupation, and developing a
career are important themes for people in their
twenties and thirties. Entering work life is a
challenging event in anyone’s life. There are
apprehensions
regarding
dif ferent
adjustments, proving one’s competence,
performance, dealing with competition, and
coping with expectations both of the employers
and oneself. It is also the beginning of new
roles and responsibilities. Developing and
evaluating a career becomes an important task
of adulthood.
Marriage, Parenthood, and Family : The
adjustments that young adults have to make
when entering a marriage relate to knowing
the other person if not known earlier, coping
with each other’s likes, dislikes, tastes, and
choices. If both the partners are working,
adjustments are required regarding sharing
and performing roles and responsibilities at
home.
In addition to getting married, becoming a
parent can be a difficult and stressful transition
in young adults, even though it is usually
accompanied by the feeling of love for the baby.
How adults experience parenting is affected by
different situations such as the number of
children in the family, the availability of social
support, and the happiness or unhappiness
of the married couple.
Psychology
2022-23
Death of a spouse or divorce creates a family
structure in which a single parent either the
mother or the father has to take up the
responsibility of the children. In recent times,
women are increasingly seeking employment
outside the home thus creating another type
of family in which both parents work. The
stressors when both parents are working are
quite the same as of a single working parent,
namely, taking care of children, their schoolwork, illness, and coping with workload at
home and in the office, etc. Despite the
stresses associated with parenting, it provides
a unique opportunity for gr owth and
satisfaction and is perceived as a way of
establishing concern and guiding the next
generation.
Physical changes during middle ages are
caused by maturational changes in the body.
Though individuals may vary in the rate at
which these changes occur, almost all middleaged people notice gradual deterioration in
some aspects of their physical functioning
such as decline in vision, sensitivity to glare,
hearing loss and changes in physical
appearance (e.g., wrinkles, grey hair or
thinning of hair, weight gain). Do cognitive
abilities change during adulthood? It is
believed that some cognitive abilities decline
with age while others do not. Decline in
memory is more in tasks involving long-term
memory than short-ter m memory. For
example, a middle-aged person can remember
the telephone number immediately after s/he
has heard it but may not remember it so
efficiently after a few days. Memory tends to
show greater decline, while wisdom may
improve with age. Remember that individual
differences exist in intelligence at every age
and as not all children are exceptional, neither
do all adults show wisdom.
Old Age
Just when “old age” begins, is not easy to
determine. Traditionally, the age of retirement
was linked to old age. Now that people are
living longer, age of retiring from work is
changing, and the cut-of f point for the
definition of “old age” is moving upward. Some
of the challenges, which the aged have to cope
with include retirement, widowhood, illness,
or death in the family. The image of old age is
changing in certain ways. Now there are people
who have crossed seventy years of age or so
and are quite active, energetic, and creative.
They are competent and are therefore, valued
by society in many walks of life. In particular,
we have aged people in politics, literature,
business, art and science. The myth of old age
as an incapacitating and therefore, frightening
phase of life is changing.
Of course, the experience of old age also
depends on the socio-economic conditions,
availability of health care, attitude of people,
expectations of society and the available
support system. Work is most important
during early adult years, then family becomes
most important and beyond that health
becomes the most important issue in the
person’s life. Clearly, successful ageing for
much of our adult life focuses on how effective
we are at work, how loving our relationships
are in our family, how good our friendships
are, how healthy we are, and how cognitively
fit we are.
Retirement from active vocational life is
quite significant. Some people perceive
retirement as a negative change. They
consider it as a separation from an important
source of satisfaction and self-esteem. Others
view it as a shift in life with more time to
pursue their own interests. It is seen that
older adults who show openness to new
experiences, more striving and achievementoriented behaviour prefer to keep busy and
are better adjusted.
Older adults also need to adjust to changes
in the family structure and new roles (grand
parenting) that have to be learnt. Children
usually are busy in their careers and families
and may set up independent homes. Older
adults may depend on their children for
financial support and to overcome their
loneliness (after children have moved out).
This might trigger-off feelings of hopelessness
and depression in some people.
In old age feeling of loss of energy, and
dwindling of health and financial assets, lead
Chapter 4 • Human Development
2022-23
81
to insecurity and dependency. The elderly tend
to look towards others to lean on and to care
for them. Indian culture favours dependency
of elderly on their children, for old age needs
caring. In fact, parents in most oriental
cultures rear their children with the fond hope
that they will care for them during old age. It
is important to give the elderly a sense of
security and belonging, a feeling that people
care for them (especially in the time of crisis),
and to remember that we all have to grow old
one day.
Activity 4.5
Interview people from three different stages of life,
for example, 20-35, 35-60 and over 60 years of
age. Talk to them about:
a. Major transitions that have taken place in
their lives.
b. How they feel these transitions have affected
them?
Compare the events considered important in
different groups.
spouse is usually seen as the most difficult
loss. Those left behind after the death of their
partner suffer deep grief, cope with loneliness,
depression, financial loss and are also at risk
of many health related problems. Widows by
far out number widowers, because studies
show that women live longer than men and
tend to marry men older than themselves.
During such times, support from children,
grandchildren, and friends can help the
individual cope with the loss of spouse.
People in different cultures view death
differently. In the Gond culture in our country,
it is believed that death is caused by magic
and demon. In the Tanala cultur e of
Madagascar, natural forces are thought to
cause death. Human development as you have
read in this chapter thus, helps you to
understand the influence of various factors
in an individual’s lifetime.
Although death is more likely to occur in
late adulthood, death can come at any point
in development. The deaths, especially of
children and younger adults, are often
perceived to be more tragic than those of
others. In children and younger adults, death
is more likely to occur because of accidents
but in older adults it is more likely to occur
because of chronic disease. The death of a
Key Terms
Adolescence, Animism, Attachment,
Centration, Cephalocaudal trend, Concrete
operational stage, Deductive thought,
Development, Egocentrism, Evolution, Gender,
Identity, Infancy, Maturation, Menarche,
Motor development, Object permanence,
Operations, Phenotype, Prenatal period,
Preoperational stage, Primary sex
characteristics, Proximodistal trend, Puberty,
Reflexes, Secondary sex characteristics, Self,
Sensorimotor stage, Teratogens
Summary
•
•
•
•
82
Prenatal development may be affected by maternal malnutrition, maternal drug use and
some maternal illnesses.
Motor development follows cephalocaudal and proximodistal trends. Early motor development
depends on both maturation and learning.
Cultural variations in child rearing can affect the patterns of attachment between the child
and the caregiver.
According to Piaget’s theory of cognitive development, the main characteristics of sensorimotor
stage is the child’s gradual recognition of the permanence of objects. The preoperational
stage is marked by certain deficiencies in thinking such as centration, irreversibility, and
egocentrism.
Psychology
2022-23
•
•
•
•
•
During the concrete operations stage, children develop the ability to perform operations on
mental representations, making them capable of conservation. The stage of formal operations
is more abstract, systematic, and develops logical thought.
According to Kohlberg, moral reasoning progresses through three levels that are related to
age and determined by cognitive development.
The growth spurt at puberty is a prominent event involving the development of reproductive
maturity and secondary sex characteristics. According to Erikson, the key challenge of
adolescence is to make some progress towards a sense of identity.
During adulthood personality is marked by both stability and change. Many landmarks in
adult development involve transitions in family relationships, including adjustment to
marriage, parenthood, and children leaving home.
Age-related physical transitions during adulthood include changes in appearance, memory,
and in the cognitive domain.
Review Questions
1.
What is development? How is it different from growth and maturation?
2.
Describe the main features of life-span perspective on development.
3.
What are developmental tasks? Explain by giving examples.
4.
‘Environment of the child has a major role in the development of the child’. Support your
answer with examples.
5.
How do socio-cultural factors influence development?
6.
Discuss the cognitive changes taking place in a developing child.
7.
Attachment bonds formed in childhood years have long-term effects. Explain taking
examples from daily life.
8.
What is adolescence? Explain the concept of egocentrism.
9.
What are the factors influencing the formation of identity during adolescence? Support
your answer with examples.
10. What are the challenges faced by individuals on entry to adulthood?
Project Ideas
1.
2.
Think of your experiences during the last 2-3 years and answer the following : Did you
have confrontations with your parents? What were the main problems? How did you
solve your problems, and whose help did you seek? Compare your list with your
classmates. Are there any similarities? Can you now think of better ways of solving the
problems faced by you?
Develop a script from a preoperational (4-7 years old) child’s point of view for playing
with friends. Develop the same script for an adolescent. How do these scenarios differ?
How are roles played by your friends different?
Chapter 4 • Human Development
2022-23
83
Chapter
5
Sensory, Attentional and
PerceptualProcesses
After reading this chapter, you would be able to
•
•
•
•
•
understand the nature of sensory processes,
explain the processes and types of attention,
analyse the problems of form and space perception,
examine the role of socio-cultural factors in perception, and
reflect on sensory, attentional and perceptual processes in everyday life.
Contents
Introduction
Knowing the World
Nature and Varieties of Stimulus
Sense Modalities
Visual Sensation
Other Human Senses (Box 5.1)
Auditory Sensation
Attentional Processes
Selective Attention
Divided Attention (Box 5.2)
Sustained Attention
Span of Attention (Box 5.3)
Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (Box 5.4)
Perceptual Processes
Processing Approaches in Perception
The Perceiver
Principles of Perceptual Organisation
Perception of Space, Depth, and Distance
Monocular Cues and Binocular Cues
Perceptual Constancies
Illusions
Socio-Cultural Influences on Perception
The quality of life is determined
by its activities.
Key Terms
Summary
Review Questions
Project Ideas
– Aristotle
84
Psychology
2022-23
Introduction
In the previous chapters you have already learnt how we respond to various stimuli
present in the external and internal environment with the help of our receptors.
While some of these receptors are clearly observable (for example, eyes or ears),
others lie inside our body, and are not observable without the help of electrical or
mechanical devices. This chapter will introduce you to various receptors that collect
a variety of information from the external and internal worlds. The focus will be
particularly on the structure and function of eye and ear, including some interesting
processes associated with vision and audition. You will also know some important
things about attention, which helps us to notice and register the information that
our sense organs carry to us. Different types of attention will be described along
with the factors that influence them. At the end, we will discuss the process of
perception that allows us to understand the world in a meaningful way. You will
also have an opportunity to know how we are sometimes deceived by certain types
of stimuli such as figures and pictures.
KNOWING
THE
WORLD
The world in which we live is full of variety of
objects, people, and events. Look at the room
you are sitting in. You will find so many things
around. Just to mention a few, you may see
your table, your chair, your books, your bag,
your watch, pictures on the wall and many
other things. Their sizes, shapes, and colours
are also different. If you move to other rooms
of your house, you will notice several other
new things (e.g., pots and pans, almirah, TV).
If you go beyond your house, you will find still
many more things that you generally know
about (trees, animals, buildings). Such
experiences are very common in our day-today life. We hardly have to make any efforts
to know them.
If someone asks you, “How can you say
that these various things exist in your room,
or house, or in the outside environment?”, you
will most probably answer that you see or
experience them all around you. In doing so,
you are trying to tell the person that the
knowledge about various objects becomes
possible with the help of our sense organs (e.g.,
eyes, ears). These organs collect information
not only from the external world, but also from
our own body. The information collected by
our sense organs forms the basis of all our
knowledge. The sense organs register several
kinds of information about various objects.
However, in order to be registered, the objects
and their qualities (e.g., size, shape, colour)
must be able to draw our attention. The
registered information must also be sent to
the brain that constructs some meaning out
of them. Thus, our knowledge of the world
around us depends on three basic processes,
called sensation, attention, and perception.
These processes are highly interrelated; hence,
they are often considered as different elements
of the same process, called cognition.
NATURE
AND
VARIETIES
OF
STIMULUS
The external environment that surrounds us
contains a wide variety of stimuli. Some of
them can be seen (e.g., a house), while some
can be heard only (e.g., music). There are
several others that we can smell (e.g., fragrance
of a flower) or taste (e.g., sweets). There are
still others that we can experience by touching
(e.g., softness of a cloth). All these stimuli
Chapter 5 • Sensory, Attentional and Perceptual Processes
2022-23
85
provide us with various kinds of information.
We have very specialised sense organs to deal
with these different stimuli. As human beings
we are bestowed with a set of seven sense
organs. These sense organs are also known
as sensory receptors or information gathering
systems, because they receive or gather
information from a variety of sources. Five of
these sense organs collect information from
the external world. These are eyes, ears, nose,
tongue, and skin. While our eyes are primarily
responsible for vision, ears for hearing, nose
for smell, and tongue for taste, skin is
responsible for the experiences of touch,
warmth, cold, and pain. Specialised receptors
of warmth, cold, and pain are found inside
our skin. Besides these five external sense
organs, we have also got two deep senses. They
are called kinesthetic and vestibular systems.
They provide us with important information
about our body position and movement of
body parts related to each other. With these
seven sense organs, we register ten different
variety of stimuli. For example, you may notice
whether a light is bright or dim, whether it is
yellow, red or green, and so on. With sound
you may notice whether it is loud or faint,
whether it is melodious or distracting, and so
on. These different qualities of stimuli are also
registered by our sense organs.
SENSE MODALITIES
Our sense organs provide us with first-hand
information about our external or internal
world. The initial experience of a stimulus or
an object registered by a particular sense
organ is called sensation. It is a process
through which we detect and encode a variety
of physical stimuli. Sensation also refers to
immediate basic experiences of stimulus
attributes, such as “hard”, “warm”, “loud”, and
“blue”, which result fr om appropriate
stimulation of a sensory organ. Different sense
organs deal with different forms of stimuli and
serve different purposes. Each sense organ is
highly specialised for dealing with a particular
kind of information. Hence, each one of them
is known as a sense modality.
86
Functional Limitations of Sense Organs
Before we move on to a discussion of sense
organs, it is important to note that our sense
organs function with certain limitations. For
example, our eyes cannot see things which
are very dim or very bright. Similarly our ears
cannot hear very faint or very loud sounds.
The same is true for other sense organs also.
As human beings, we function within a limited
range of stimulation. For being noticed by a
sensory receptor, a stimulus has to be of an
optimal intensity or magnitude. The
relationship between stimuli and the
sensations they evoke has been studied in a
discipline, called psychophysics.
In order to be noticed a stimulus has to
carry a minimum value or weight. The
minimum value of a stimulus required to
activate a given sensory system is called
absolute threshold or absolute limen (AL).
For example, if you add a granule of sugar to
a glass of water, you may not experience any
sweetness in that water. Addition of a second
granule to water may also not make it taste
sweet. But if you go on adding sugar granules
one after another, there will come a point when
you will say that the water is now sweet. The
minimum number of sugar granules required
to say that the water is sweet will be the AL of
sweetness.
It may be noted at this point that the AL is
not a fixed point; instead it varies considerably
across individuals and situations depending
on the people’s organic conditions and their
motivational states. Hence, we have to assess
it on the basis of a number of trials. The
number of sugar granules that may produce
the experience of “sweetness” in water on
50 per cent of occasions will be called the AL
of sweetness. If you add more number of sugar
granules, the chances are greater that the
water will be reported more often as sweet than
plain.
As it is not possible for us to notice all
stimuli, it is also not possible to differentiate
between all stimuli. In order to notice two
stimuli as different from each other, there has
to be some minimum difference between the
Psychology
2022-23
value of those stimuli. The smallest difference
in the value of two stimuli that is necessary to
notice them as different is called difference
threshold or difference limen (DL). To
understand it, we may continue with our
“sugar water” experiment. As we have seen,
the plain water is experienced as sweet after
the addition of certain number of sugar
granules. Let us remember this sweetness. The
next question is: how many sugar granules
will be needed in the water in order to
experience its sweetness as different from the
previous sweetness. Go on adding sugar
granules one after another tasting the water
each time. After addition of a few granules,
you will notice at a point that the water is now
sweeter than the previous one. The number
of sugar granules added to the water to
generate an experience of sweetness that is
different from the previous sweetness on 50
per cent of the occasions will be called the DL
of sweetness. Thus, difference threshold is the
minimum amount of change in a physical
stimulus that is capable of producing a
sensation difference on 50 per cent of the
trials.
You may realise by now that understanding
of sensations is not possible without
understanding the AL and DL of different types
of stimuli (for example, visual, auditory), but
that is not enough. Sensory processes do not
depend only on the stimulus characteristics.
Sense organs and the neural pathways
connecting them to various brain centers also
play a vital role in this process. A sense organ
receives the stimulus and encodes it as an
electrical impulse. For being noticed this
electrical impulse must reach the higher brain
centers. Any structural or functional defect or
damage in the receptor organ, its neural
pathway, or the concerned brain area may lead
to a partial or complete loss of sensation.
Visual Sensation
Among all sense modalities, vision is the most
highly developed in human beings. Various
estimates indicate that we use it in
approximately 80 per cent of our transactions
with the external world. Audition and other
senses also contribute significantly to
information gathering from the external world.
We shall discuss vision and audition in some
detail. The main features of other senses can
be found in Box 5.1.
Visual sensation starts when light enters
the eyes and stimulates our visual receptors.
Our eyes are sensitive to a spectrum of light,
the wavelength of which ranges from 380 nm
to 780 nm (nm refers to nanometer, which is
one billionth of a meter). No sensation is
registered beyond this range of light.
The Human Eye
A diagram of the human eye is shown in
Figure 5.1. As you can see, our eye is made
up of three layers. In the outer layer, there is
a transparent cornea and a tough sclera that
surrounds the rest of the eye. It protects the
eye and maintains its shape. The middle layer
is called choroid, which is richly supplied with
blood vessels. The inner layer is known as
retina. It contains the photoreceptors (rods
and cones) and an elaborate network of
interconnecting neurons.
The eye is generally compared with a
camera. For example, the eye and camera have
a lens. The lens divides the eye into two
unequal chambers, namely aqueous chamber
and vitreous chamber. The aqueous chamber
is located between the cornea and the lens. It
is smaller in size and is filled with a waterlike substance, called aqueous humor. The
vitreous chamber is located between the lens
and the retina. It is filled with a jelly like
protein, called vitreous humor. These fluids
help in holding the lens at its appropriate place
and in proper shape. They also allow enough
flexibility for the occurrence of accommodation
— a process through which the lens changes
its shape in order to focus the objects at
varying distances. This process is regulated
by ciliary muscles, which are attached to the
lens. These muscles flatten the lens to focus
the distant objects and thicken it to focus the
near objects. Like a camera, the eye also has
a mechanism to control the amount of light
Chapter 5 • Sensory, Attentional and Perceptual Processes
2022-23
87
Box 5.1
Other Human Senses
Besides vision and audition, there are other
senses that enrich our perceptions. For example,
an orange looks attractive not only because of it
is colour but also because it has got a special
flavour and taste. These other senses are briefly
described here.
1. Smell : The stimulus for smell sensation
consists of molecules of various substances
contained in the air. They enter the nasal
passage where they dissolve in moist nasal
tissues. This brings them in contact with
receptor cells contained in olfactory
epithelium. Human beings possess about 50
million of these receptors, whereas dogs
possess more than 200 million of these
receptors. Nevertheless, our ability to detect
smell is impressive. It is indicated that human
beings can recognise and distinguish among
approximately 10,000 different odours. The
sense of smell also shows sensory
adaptation like other senses.
2. Taste : The sensory receptors for taste are
located inside small bumps on the tongue,
known as papillae. In each papilla there is a
cluster of taste buds. Human beings possess
almost 10,000 taste buds. While people claim
to distinguish a large number of flavours in
food, there are only four basic tastes, namely
sweet, sour, bitter and salty. How is it then
that we perceive many more? The answer is
that we are aware not only of the taste of
the food, but also of its smell, its texture, its
temperature, its pressure on our tongue, and
many other sensations. When these factors are
removed, we are left with only four basic tastes.
Besides, the combination of different flavours in
varied proportions results in a different kind of
flavour which may be quite unique.
3. Touch and other skin senses : Skin is a sensory
organ that produces sensations of touch
(pressure), warmth, cold, and pain. In our skin
there are specialised receptors for each one of
these sensations. The receptors of touch are not
evenly distributed in our skin. That is why some
areas of our body (e.g., face, fingertips) are more
sensitive than others (e.g., legs). Pain sensation
has no specific stimulus. Hence, determining its
mechanism has been fairly difficult.
4. The Kinesthetic system : Its receptors are found
primarily in joints, ligaments, and muscles. This
system gives us information about the location
of our body parts in relation to each other, and
allows us to perform simple (e.g., touching one’s
nose) and complex movements (e.g., dancing). Our
visual system provides a great deal of help in
this respect.
5. The Vestibular system : This system gives us
information about our body position, movement,
and acceleration — the factors that are critical
for maintaining our sense of balance. The sensory
organs of this sense are located in the inner ear.
While vestibular sacs inform us of our body
positions, the semicircular canals inform us about
our movements and acceleration.
entering into it. The iris serves this purpose.
It is a disc-like coloured membrane lying
between the cornea and the lens. It controls
the amount of light entering the eye by
regulating pupil dilation. In dim light the pupil
dilates; in bright light it contracts.
Retina is the inner most layer of an eye. It
is made up of five types of photosensitive cells
among which rods and cones are most
important. Rods are the receptors for scotopic
vision (night vision). They operate at low
intensities of light, and lead to achromatic
(colourless) vision. Cones are the receptors for
photopic (day light) vision. They operate at high
levels of illumination, and lead to chromatic
(colour) vision. Each eye contains about 100
million rods and about 7 million cones. The
cones are highly concentrated in the central
region of the retina surrounding the fovea,
which is a small circular region of the size of a
pea. It is also known as the yellow spot. It is
the region of maximum visual acuity. Besides
photoreceptors, retina also contains a bundle
of axons of a cell (called ganglion cell) that
forms the optic nerve, which leads to the
brain.
88
Working of the Eye
Passing through conjunctiva, cornea, and
pupil, the light enters the lens, which focuses
Psychology
2022-23
Vitreous humor
Fovea
Cornea
Proximal
stimulus
Iris
Aqueous
humor
Optic nerve
Pupil
Distal
stimulus
Lens
Ciliary muscle
Blind spot
Retina
Fig.5.1 : Structure of the Human Eye
it on to the retina. Retina is divided into two
parts: the nasal half and the temporal half.
The inner half portion of the eye (towards the
nose), taking the center of fovea as mid-point,
is called the nasal half. The outer half portion
of the eye (towards the temple) from the center
of fovea is called the temporal half. Light from
the right visual field stimulates the left half of
each eye (i.e. the nasal half of the right eye
and the temporal half of the left eye), and light
from the left visual field stimulates the right
half of each eye (i.e. the nasal half of the left
eye and the temporal half of the right eye). An
inverted image of the object is formed on the
retina. The neural impulse is transmitted to
the visual cortex through the optic nerve where
the image is re-inverted and processed. You
can see in Fig.5.1 that the optic nerve leaves
the retina from the area that has no
photoreceptors. In this area visual sensitivity
is completely absent. Therefore, it is called the
blind spot.
Adaptation
The human eye can function at a very large
range of light intensities. Sometimes we have
to undergo a rapid change in illumination
levels. For example, when we go to a matinee
show movie, we find it difficult to see things
in the hall on entering into it. However, after
spending about 15 to 20 minutes there, we
are able to see everything. After the show when
we go out into the open, we find the light
outside the hall too bright to see things, or
sometimes even to keep our eyes open.
However, within a minute or so we feel
comfortable, and are able to see things
properly. This adjustment is faster than the
one made on entering the hall. The process of
getting adjusted to different intensities of light
is called ‘visual adaptation’.
Light adaptation refers to the process of
adjusting to bright light after exposure to dim
light. This process takes nearly a minute or
two. On the other hand, dark adaptation
Chapter 5 • Sensory, Attentional and Perceptual Processes
2022-23
89
refers to the process of adjusting to a dimly
illuminated environment after exposure to
bright light. This may take half an hour or
even longer depending on the previous level
of exposure of the eye to light. There are certain
ways in which these processes can be
facilitated. An interesting activity is given
below to demonstrate this process to you.
Activity 5.1
Move from a lighted area to a dark room and note
how much time you take to see things clearly in
that room.
Next time put on red goggles while you stay
in the lighted place. Then move into the dark room
and note how much time you take to see things
clearly in that room.
You will notice that the use of red goggles has
greatly reduced the time required for dark
adaptation.
Do you know why has this happened?
Discuss with your friends and the teacher.
Photochemical Basis of Light and Dark
Adaptation : You may wonder why the light
and dark adaptations take place. According
to the classical view, light and dark
adaptations occur due to certain
photochemical processes. The rods have a
photo-sensitive chemical substance, called
rhodopsin or visual purple. By the action of
light the molecules of this chemical substance
get bleached or broken down. Under such
conditions the light adaptation takes place in
the eyes. On the other hand, the dark
adaptation is achieved by the removal of light,
and thereby allowing for restorative processes
to regenerate the pigment in the rods with the
help of vitamin A. The regeneration of
rhodopsin in rods is a time consuming
process. That is why dark adaptation is a
slower process than light adaptation. It has
been found that people who suffer from
vitamin A deficiency do not achieve dark
adaptation at all, and find it really difficult to
move in the dark. This condition is generally
known as night blindness. A parallel chemical
believed to be found in cones is known as
iodopsin.
90
Colour Vision
In our interaction with the environment we
not only experience a variety of objects, but
also their colours. It may be noted that colour
is a psychological property of our sensory
experience. It is created when our brain
interprets the information received from the
external world. It may be remembered that
light is described physically in terms of
wavelength, not in terms of colour. As we have
read earlier, the visible spectrum is a range
of energy (380-780 nm) that our
photoreceptors can detect. The energy lower
or higher than the visible spectrum is harmful
to the eyes. The sun light is a perfect mixture
of seven colours just like a rainbow. The
colours observed are violet, indigo, blue,
green, yellow, orange, and red, abbreviated
as ‘VIBGYOR’.
The Dimensions of Colour
A person with normal colour vision can
distinguish more than seven million different
shades of colour. Our experiences of colour
can be described in terms of three basic
dimensions, called hue, saturation, and
brightness. Hue is a property of chromatic
colours. In simple words, it refers to the name
of the colour, e.g., red, blue, and green. Hue
varies with wavelength, and each colour is
identified with a specific wavelength. For
example, blue has a wavelength of about 465
nm, and green of about 500 nm. Achromatic
colours like black, white or grey are not
characterised by hues. Saturation is a
psychological attribute that refers to the
relative amount of hue of a surface or object.
The light of single wavelength (monochromatic)
appears to be highly saturated. As we mix
different wavelengths, the saturation
decreases. The colour grey is completely
unsaturated. Brightness is the perceived
intensity of light. It varies across both
chromatic and achromatic colours. White and
black represent the top and bottom of the
brightness dimension. White has the highest
degree of brightness, whereas black has the
lowest degree.
Psychology
2022-23
Colour Mixtures
The Human Ear
There is an interesting relationship among
colours. They form complementary pairs.
When mixed in correct proportions the
complementary colours yield an achromatic
grey or white. Examples of complementary
colours are red-green and yellow-blue. Red,
green and blue are called primary colours,
because on mixing, the light of these three
colours can produce almost any colour. The
most common example is the television screen.
It contains spots of blue, red and green
colours. The combinations of these three
produce different colours and shades that we
see on the TV screen.
Ear is the primary receptor of auditory stimuli.
While its well-known function is hearing, it
also helps us in maintaining our body balance.
The structure of an ear is divided into three
segments, called the external ear, the middle
ear, and the inner ear (Fig.5.2).
After Images
This is quite an interesting phenomenon
related to visual sensations. The effect of a
visual stimulus persists for some time even
after the removal of that stimulus from the
visual field. This effect is called after image.
After images are positive and negative.
Positive after images resemble the original
stimulus in terms of hue, saturation, and
brightness. They usually occur after a brief
intense stimulation of dark adapted eyes. On
the other hand, negative after images appear
in complementary colours. These images
appear when a person stares at the patch of a
particular colour for at least 30 seconds, and
then transfers the gaze to a neutral
background (e.g., a white or grey surface). If
the person looks at the blue colour, the
negative after image will appear in yellow.
Similarly, a red stimulus will yield a negative
after image of green colour.
Auditory Sensation
Audition or hearing is also an important sense
modality that carries great value for us. It
provides us with reliable spatial information.
Besides orienting us to certain objects or
individuals, it plays a vital role in spoken
communication also. Auditory sensation
begins when sound enters our ear and
stimulates the chief organs of hearing.
External Ear : It contains two main structures,
namely pinna and auditory meatus. Pinna is
a cartilaginous funnel-shaped structure that
collects sound waves from the surroundings.
Auditory meatus is a canal protected by hair
and wax that carries sound waves from pinna
to the tympanum or ear drum.
Middle Ear : The middle ear starts with
tympanum, a thin membrane highly sensitive
to sound vibrations. This is followed by the
tympanic cavity. It is connected to the
pharynx with the help of Eustachian tube,
which maintains the air pressure in tympanic
cavity. From the cavity the vibrations pass to
three ossicles known as malleus (hammer),
incus (anvil), and stapes (stirrup). They
increase the intensity of sound vibrations
about 10 times, and send them to the inner
ear.
Inner Ear : The inner ear has a complicated
structure known as membranous labyrinth,
which is encapsulated in a bony shell called
bony labyrinth. A lymph-like fluid is found in
the space between bony labyrinth and
membranous labyrinth. This is called
perilymph.
The bony labyrinth has three semicircular canals at right angle to each other, a
cavity, called vestibule, and a coiled structure,
called cochlea. The semicircular canals have
fine hair cells, which are highly sensitive to
postural changes as well as changes in the
body orientation. Inside the bony cochlea,
there is a membranous cochlea, which is also
known as scala media. It is filled with
endolymph, and has a spirally coiled
membrane, called basilar membrane. It has
got fine hair cells arranged in a series to form
the organ of corti. This is the main organ for
hearing.
Chapter 5 • Sensory, Attentional and Perceptual Processes
2022-23
91
Hammer
Saccule
Semicircular
canals
Utricle
Anvil
Facial nerve
Auditory nerve
External
canal
Cochlea
Pinna
Eustachian tube
Tympanic
membrane
Stirrup
Round
window
Fig.5.2 : Structure of the Human Ear
Working of the Ear
Pinna collects the sound vibrations and serves
them to the tympanum through the auditory
meatus. From the tympanic cavity the
vibrations are transferred to the three ossicles,
which increase their strength and transmit
them to the inner ear. In the inner ear the
cochlea receives the sound waves. Through
vibrations the endolymph is set in motion,
which also vibrates the organ of corti. Finally,
the impulses are sent to the auditory nerve,
which emerges at the base of cochlea and
reaches the auditory cortex where the impulse
is interpreted.
Sound as a Stimulus
We all know that sound is the stimulus for
ears. It results from pressure variations in the
external environment. Any physical movement
92
disturbs the surrounding medium (i.e. air),
and pushes the air molecules back and forth.
This results in changes in pressure that spread
outward in the form of sound waves, travelling
at a rate of about 1,100 ft/sec. These changes
travel in waves much like the ripples set up
by a stone thrown into a pond. When these
sound waves strike our ears, they initiate a
set of mechanical pressure changes that
ultimately trigger the auditory receptors.
The simplest kind of sound wave is one
that causes successive pressure changes over
time in the form of a single repeating sine wave
(Fig.5.3). Sound waves vary in amplitude as
well as in wavelength. Amplitude is a general
measure of stimulus magnitude. It is the
amount of change in pressure, i.e. the extent
of displacement of the molecules from the
position of rest. In Fig.5.3 the amplitude of
sound wave is represented as the distance of
Psychology
2022-23
Amplitude
the crest or trough from its mean position.
Wavelength is the distance between the two
crests. Sound waves are basically formed due
to alternate compression and decompression
(rarefaction) of air molecules. A complete
change in pressure from compression to
rarefaction and again to compression makes
a cycle of the wave.
sound reflects the complexity of its sound
waves. Most of the sounds found in natural
environments are complex.
Activity 5.2
Vision and hearing are generally believed to be
the two most highly prized senses. What would
your life be if you lost any one of your senses?
Which sense would you find more traumatic to
lose? Why? Think and write down.
What if you could magically improve the
performance of one of your senses, which sense
would you choose to improve? Why? Could you
improve the performance of this one sense without
magic? Think and write down.
Discuss with your teacher.
ATTENTIONAL PROCESSES
one cycle
Fig.5.3 : Sound Waves
Sound waves are described in terms of
their frequency, which is measured in terms
of cycles per second. Its unit is called Hertz
(Hz). Frequency and wavelength have an
inverse relationship. When the wavelength
increases, the frequency decreases, and when
the wavelength decreases, the frequency
increases. Amplitude and frequency both are
physical dimensions. Besides these, there are
three psychological dimensions of sound,
namely loudness, pitch and timbre.
Loudness of the sound is determined by
its amplitude. Sound waves with large
amplitude are perceived as loud; those with
small amplitude are perceived as soft.
Loudness is measured in decibels (db). Pitch
refers to highness or lowness of a sound. The
seven notes used in Indian classical music
represent a gradual increase in their pitch.
Frequency determines the pitch of a sound
wave. The higher the frequency, the higher will
be the pitch. The range of hearing is generally
20 Hz-20,000 Hz. Timbre refers to the nature
or quality of a sound. For example, the sound
of a car engine and a person talking differ with
respect to quality or timbre. The timbre of a
In the previous section we have discussed
some sensory modalities that help us in
collecting information from the external world
and also from our internal system. A large
number of stimuli impinge upon our sense
organs simultaneously, but we do not notice
all of them at the same time. Only a selected
few of them are noticed. For example, when
you enter your classroom you encounter
several things in it, such as doors, walls,
windows, paintings on walls, tables, chairs,
students, schoolbags, water bottles, and so
on, but you selectively focus only on one or
two of them at one time. The process through
which certain stimuli are selected from a group
of others is generally referred to as attention.
At this point it may be noted that besides
selection, attention also refers to several other
properties like alertness, concentration, and
search. Alertness refers to an individual’s
readiness to deal with stimuli that appear
before her/him. While participating in a race
in your school, you might have seen the
participants on the starting line in an alert
state waiting for the whistle to blow in order
to run. Concentration refers to focusing of
awareness on certain specific objects while
excluding others for the moment. For example,
in the classroom, a student concentrates on
Chapter 5 • Sensory, Attentional and Perceptual Processes
2022-23
93
the teacher’s lecture and ignores all sorts of
noises coming from different corners of the
school. In search an observer looks for some
specified subset of objects among a set of
objects. For example, when you go to fetch
your younger sister and brother from the
school, you just look for them among
innumerable boys and girls. All these activities
require some kind of effort on the part of
people. Attention in this sense refers to “effort
allocation”.
Attention has a focus as well as a fringe.
When the field of awareness is centered on a
particular object or event, it is called focus or
the focal point of attention. On the contrary,
when the objects or events are away from the
center of awareness and one is only vaguely
aware of them, they are said to be at the fringe
of attention.
Attention has been classified in a number
of ways. A process-oriented view divides it into
two types, namely selective and sustained.
We will briefly discuss the main features of
these types of attention. Sometimes we can
also attend to two different things at the same
time. When this happens, it is called divided
attention. Box 5.2 describes when and how
the division of attention is possible.
Selective Attention
Selective attention is concerned mainly with
the selection of a limited number of stimuli or
objects from a large number of stimuli. We
Box 5.2
Factors Affecting Selective Attention
Several factors influence selective attention.
These generally relate to the characteristics
of stimuli and the characteristics of
individuals. They are generally classified as
“external” and “internal” factors.
External factors are related to the features
of stimuli. Other things held constant, the size,
intensity, and motion of stimuli appear to be
important determinants of attention. Large,
bright, and moving stimuli easily catch our
attention. Stimuli, which are novel and
moderately complex, also easily get into our
focus. Studies indicate that human
photographs are more likely to be attended to
than the photographs of inanimate objects.
Similarly, rhythmic auditory stimuli are more
readily attended to than verbal narrations.
Sudden and intense stimuli have a wonderful
capacity to draw attention.
Internal factors lie within the individual.
These may be divided into two main categories,
viz. motivational factors and cognitive factors.
Motivational factors relate to our biological
Divided Attention
In day-to-day life we attend to several things at
the same time. You must have seen people driving
a car and talking to a friend, or attending to phone
calls on a mobile set, or putting on sunglasses, or
listening to music. If we watch them closely, we
will notice that they are still allocating more effort
to driving than to other activities, even though
some attention is given to other activities. It
indicates that on certain occasions attention can
be allocated to more than one thing at the same
94
have already indicated that our perceptual
system has a limited capacity to receive and
process information. This means that it can
deal only with a few stimuli at a given moment
of time. The question is, which of those stimuli
will get selected and processed? Psychologists
have identified a number of factors that
determine the selection of stimuli.
time. However, this becomes possible only with highly
practiced activities, because they become almost
automatic and require less attention to perform than
new or slightly practiced activities.
Automatic processing has three main
characteristics; (i) It occurs without intention, (ii) It takes
place unconsciously, and (iii) It involves very little (or
no) thought processes (e.g., we can read words or tie
our shoelaces without giving any thought to these
activities).
Psychology
2022-23
or social needs. When we are hungry, we notice
even a faint smell of food. A student taking an
examination is likely to focus on a teacher’s
instructions more than other students.
Cognitive factors include factors like interest,
attitude, and preparatory set. Objects or
events, which appear interesting, are readily
attended by individuals. Similarly we pay
quick attention to certain objects or events to
which we are favourably disposed. Preparatory
set generates a mental state to act in a certain
way and readiness of the individual to respond
to one kind of stimuli and not to others.
Theories of Selective Attention
A number of theories have been developed to
explain the process of selective attention. We
will briefly discuss three of these theories.
Filter theory was developed by Broadbent
(1956). According to this theory, many stimuli
simultaneously enter our receptors creating
a kind of “bottleneck” situation. Moving
through the short-term memory system, they
enter the selective filter, which allows only one
stimulus to pass through for higher levels of
processing. Other stimuli are screened out at
that moment of time. Thus, we become aware
of only that stimulus, which gets access
through the selective filter.
Filter-attenuation theory was developed
by Triesman (1962) by modifying Broadbent’s
theory. This theory proposes that the stimuli
not getting access to the selective filter at a
Box 5.3
given moment of time are not completely
blocked. The filter only attenuates (weakens)
their strength. Thus some stimuli manage to
escape through the selective filter to reach
higher levels of processing. It is indicated that
personally relevant stimuli (e.g., one’s name
in a collective dinner) can be noticed even at a
very low level of sound. Such stimuli, even
though fairly weak, may also generate
response occasionally by slipping through the
selective filter.
Multimode theory was developed by
Johnston and Heinz (1978). This theory
believes that attention is a flexible system that
allows selection of a stimulus over others at
three stages. At stage one the sensory
representations (e.g., visual images) of stimuli
are constructed; at stage two the semantic
representations (e.g., names of objects) are
constructed; and at stage three the sensory
and semantic representations enter the
consciousness. It is also suggested that more
processing requires more mental effort. When
the messages are selected on the basis of stage
one processing (early selection), less mental
effort is required than when the selection is
based on stage three processing (late
selection).
Sustained Attention
While selective attention is mainly concerned
with the selection of stimuli, sustained
attention is concerned with concentration. It
Span of Attention
Our attention has a limited capacity to receive
stimuli. The number of objects one can attend to at
a brief exposure (i.e. a fraction of a second) is called
“span of attention” or “perceptual span”. More
specifically, the span of attention refers to the
amount of information an observer can grasp from
a complex array of stimuli at a single momentary
exposure. This can be determined by the use of an
instrument, called “tachistoscope”. On the basis of
several experiments, Miller has reported that our
span of attention varies within the limit of seven plus
or minus two. This is popularly known as the “magic
number”. It means that at a time, people can attend to
a set of five to seven numbers, which can be extended
to nine or more under exceptional conditions. That is
perhaps the reason why motorbikes or cars are given
a number plate that contains only four digit numbers
with some alphabets. In case of violation of driving rules
a traffic police can easily read and note these numbers
along with the alphabets.
Chapter 5 • Sensory, Attentional and Perceptual Processes
2022-23
95
refers to our ability to maintain attention on
an object or event for longer durations. It is
also known as “vigilance”. Sometimes people
have to concentrate on a particular task for
many hours. Air traffic controllers and radar
readers provide us with good examples of this
phenomenon. They have to constantly watch
and monitor signals on screens. The
occurrence of signals in such situations is
usually unpredictable, and errors in detecting
signals may be fatal. Hence, a great deal of
vigilance is required in those situations.
Factors Influencing Sustained Attention
Several factors can facilitate or inhibit an
individual’s performance on tasks of sustained
attention. Sensory modality is one of them.
Performance is found to be superior when the
stimuli (called signals) are auditory than when
they are visual. Clarity of stimuli is another
Box 5.4
HD)
yperactivity Disorder (AD
Attention Deficit H
(ADHD)
Hyperactivity
This is a very common behavioural disorder found
among children of the primary school age. It is
characterised by impulsivity, excessive motor
activity, and an inability to attend. The disorder is
more prevalent among boys than among girls. If
not managed properly, the attention difficulties may
persist into adolescence or adult years. Difficulty
in sustaining attention is the central feature of this
disorder, which gets reflected in several other
domains of the child. For example, such children
are highly distractible; they do not follow
instructions, have difficulty in getting along with
parents, and are negatively viewed by their peers.
They do poorly in school, and show difficulties in
reading or learning basic subjects in schools in
spite of the fact that there is no deficit in their
intelligence.
Studies generally do not provide evidence for
a biological basis of the disorder, whereas some
relationship of the disorder with dietary factors,
particularly food colouring, has been documented.
On the other hand, social-psychological factors (e.g.,
home environment, family pathology) have been
96
factor. Intense and long lasting stimuli
facilitate sustained attention and result in
better performance. Temporal uncertainty is
a third factor. When stimuli appear at regular
intervals of time they are attended better than
when they appear at irregular intervals.
Spatial uncertainty is a fourth factor. Stimuli
that appear at a fixed place are readily
attended, whereas those that appear at
random locations are difficult to attend.
Attention has several practical
implications. The number of objects one can
readily attend to in a single glance is used to
design the number plates of motorbikes and
cars so that the traffic police can easily notice
them in the case of traffic rule violations
(Box 5.3). A number of children fail to perform
well in school simply due to the problem of
attention. Box 5.4 presents some interesting
information about a disorder of attention.
found to account for ADHD more reliably than other
factors. Currently ADHD is considered to have multiple
causes and effects.
Disagreement remains over the most effective
method of treatment of ADHD. A drug, called Ritalin, is
widely used, which decreases children’s over-activity
and distractibility, and at the same time increases their
attention and ability to concentrate. However, it does
not “cure” the problem, and often also results in such
negative side-effects as the suppression in normal
growth of height and weight. On the other hand,
behavioural management programmes, featuring
positive reinforcement and structuring lear ning
materials and tasks in such a way that minimises errors
and maximises immediate feedback and success, have
been found quite useful. Successful modification of
ADHD is claimed with cognitive behavioural training
programme in which rewards for desired behaviours
are combined with training in the use of verbal selfinstructions (stop, think, and then do). With this
procedure, the ADHD children learn to shift their
attention less frequently and to behave reflectively —
a learning that is relatively stable over time.
Psychology
2022-23
PERCEPTUAL PROCESSES
In the previous section we have examined that
the stimulation of sensory organs leads us to
experience something such as, a flash of light
or a sound, or a smell. This elementary
experience, called sensation, does not provide
us with any understanding of the stimulus
that stimulated the sense organ. For example,
it does not inform us about the source of the
light, sound or fragrance. In order to make
sense out of the raw material provided by the
sensory system, we process it further. In doing
so, we give meaning to stimuli by using our
learning, memory, motivation, emotions, and
other psychological processes. The process by
which we recognise, interpret or give meaning
to the information provided by sense organs is
called perception. In interpreting stimuli or
events, individuals often construct them in
their own ways. Thus perception is not merely
an interpretation of objects or events of the
external or internal world as they exist, instead
it is also a construction of those objects and
events from one’s own point of view.
The process of meaning-making involves
certain sub-processes. These are shown in
Fig.5.4.
the whole is known as bottom-up processing.
The notion that recognition process begins
from the whole, which leads to identification
of its various components is known as topdown processing. The bottom-up approach
lays emphasis on the features of stimuli in
perception, and considers perception as a
process of mental construction. The top-down
approach lays emphasis on the perceiver, and
considers perception as a process of
recognition or identification of stimuli. Studies
show that in perception both the processes
interact with each other to provide us with an
understanding of the world.
THE PERCEIVER
Human beings are not just mechanical and
passive recipients of stimuli from the external
world. They are creative beings, and try to
understand the external world in their own
ways. In this process their motivations and
expectations, cultural knowledge, past
experiences, and memories as well as values,
beliefs, and attitudes play an important role
in giving meaning to the external world. Some
of these factors are described here.
Motivation
Processing Approaches in Perception
How do we identify an object? Do we identify
a dog because we have first recognised its furry
coat, its four legs, its eyes, ears, and so on, or
do we recognise these different parts because
we have first identified a dog? The idea that
recognition process begins from the parts,
which serve as the basis for the recognition of
The needs and desires of a perceiver strongly
influence her/his perception. People want to
fulfil their needs and desires through various
means. One way to do this is to perceive
objects in a picture as something that will
satisfy their need. Experiments were
conducted to examine the influence of hunger
on perception. When hungry persons were
Fig.5.4 : Sub-processes of Perception
Chapter 5 • Sensory, Attentional and Perceptual Processes
2022-23
97
shown ambiguous pictures, they were found
to perceive them as pictures of food objects
more often than satiated (non-hungry)
persons.
Expectations or Perceptual Sets
The expectations about what we might
perceive in a given situation also influence our
perception. This phenomenon of perceptual
familiarisation or perceptual generalisation
reflects a strong tendency to see what we
expect to see even when the results do not
accurately reflect external reality. For example,
if your milkman delivers you milk daily at
about 5.30 A.M., any knocking at the door
around that time is likely to be perceived as
the presence of the milkman even if it is
someone else.
the triangle. Those who can do it quickly will
be called “field independent”; those who take
long time will be called “field dependent”.
Activity 5.3
To demonstrate expectancy tell your friend to close
her eyes. Write 12, 13, 14, 15 on the board. Ask
her to open her eyes for 5 seconds, look at the
board, and note down what she saw. Repeat
replacing only the 12, 14, 15 with A, C, D viz. ‘A
13 C D’. Ask her again to note down what she
saw. Most people write down B in place of 13.
Cognitive Styles
Cognitive style refers to a consistent way of
dealing with our environment. It significantly
affects the way we perceive the environment.
There are several cognitive styles that people
use in perceiving their environment. One most
extensively used in studies is the “field
dependent and field independent” cognitive
style. Field dependent people perceive the
external world in its totality, i.e. in a global or
holistic manner. On the other hand, field
independent people perceive the external
world by breaking it into smaller units, i.e. in
an analytic or differentiated manner.
Look at Fig.5.5. Can you find out the
triangle hidden in the picture? How much time
do you take to locate it? Try to find out the
time other students of your class take to locate
98
Fig.5.5 : An Item to test the ‘Field Dependent’ and
‘Field Independent’ Cognitive Style
Cultural Background and Experiences
Different experiences and lear ning
opportunities available to people in different
cultural settings also influence their
perception. People coming from a pictureless
environment fail to recognise objects in
pictures. Hudson studied the perception of
pictures by African subjects, and noted several
difficulties. Many of them were unable to
identify objects depicted in pictures (e.g.,
antelope, spear). They also failed to perceive
distance in pictures, and interpreted
pictures incorrectly. Eskimos have been found
to make fine distinction among a variety of
snow that we may be unable to notice. Some
aboriginal groups of Siberian region have been
found to differentiate among dozens of skin
colours of reindeers, which we would not be
able to do.
These studies indicate that the perceiver
plays a key role in the process of perception.
People process and interpret stimuli in their
own ways depending on their personal, social
and cultural conditions. Due to these factors
our perceptions are not only finely tuned, but
also modified.
Psychology
2022-23
PRINCIPLES
OF
PERCEPTUAL ORGANISATION
Our visual field is a collection of different
elements, such as points, lines, and colours.
However, we perceive these elements as
organised wholes or complete objects. For
example, we see a bicycle as a complete object,
not as a collection of different parts (e.g.,
saddle, wheel, handle). The process of
organising visual field into meaningful wholes
is known as form perception.
You may wonder how different parts of an
objects are organised into a meaningful whole.
You may also ask if there are certain factors
that facilitate or inhibit this process of
organisation.
Several scholars have tried to answer such
questions, but the most widely accepted
answer has been given by a gr oup of
researchers, called Gestalt psychologists.
Prominent among them are Köhler, Koffka,
and Wertheimer. Gestalt means a regular
figure or a for m. According to Gestalt
psychologists, we perceive different stimuli not
as discrete elements, but as an organised
“whole” that carries a definite form. They
believe that the form of an object lies in its
whole, which is different from the sum of their
parts. For example, a flower pot with a bunch
of flowers is a whole. If the flowers are removed,
the flower pot still remains a whole. It is the
configuration of the flower pot that has
changed. Flower pot with flowers is one
configuration; without flowers it is another
configuration.
The Gestalt psychologists also indicate that
our cerebral processes are always oriented
towards the perception of a good figure or
pragnanz. That is the reason why we perceive
everything in an organised form. The most
primitive organisation takes place in the form
of figure-ground segregation. When we look
at a surface, certain aspects of the surface
clearly stand out as separate entities, whereas
others do not. For example, when we see words
on a page, or a painting on a wall, or birds
flying in the sky, the words, the painting, and
the birds stand out from the background, and
are perceived as figures, while the page, wall,
and sky stay behind the figure and are
perceived as background.
To test this experience, look at the Fig.5.6
given below. You will see either the white part
of the figure, which looks like a vase (flower
pot), or the black part of the figure, which looks
like two faces.
Fig.5.6 : Rubin’s Vase
We distinguish figure from the ground on
the basis of the following characteristics:
1. Figure has a definite form, while the
background is relatively formless.
2. Figure is more organised as compared to
its background.
3. Figure has a clear contour (outline), while
the background is contourless.
4. Figure stands out from the background,
while the background stays behind the
figure.
5. Figure appears more clear, limited, and
relatively nearer, while the background
appears relatively unclear, unlimited, and
away from us.
The discussion presented above indicates
that human beings perceive the world in
organised wholes rather than in discrete parts.
The Gestalt psychologists have given us several
laws to explain how and why different stimuli
in our visual field are organised into
meaningful whole objects. Let us look at some
of these principles.
Chapter 5 • Sensory, Attentional and Perceptual Processes
2022-23
99
The Principle of Proximity
The Principle of Smallness
Objects that are close together in space or time
are perceived as belonging together or as a
group. For example, Fig.5.7 does not look like
a square pattern of dots, but as a series of
columns of dots. Similarly, Fig.5.7 also looks
like a group of dots together in rows.
According to this principle, smaller areas tend
to be seen as figures against a larger
background. In Fig.5.10 we are more likely to
see a black cross rather than a white cross
within the circle because of this principle.
Fig.5.7 : Proximity
Fig.5.10 : Smallness
The Principle of Similarity
Objects that are similar to one another and
have similar characteristics are perceived as
a group. In Fig.5.8 the little circles and squares
are evenly spaced both horizontally and
vertically so that the proximity does not come
into play. Instead, we tend to see alternating
columns of circles and squares.
The Principle of Symmetry
This principle suggests that symmetrical areas
tend to be seen as figures against
asymmetrical backgrounds. For example, in
Fig.5.11 the black areas are seen as figures
(as they have symmetrical properties) against
their white asymmetrical background.
Fig.5.8 : Similarity
Fig.5.11 : Symmetry
The Principle of Continuity
This principle states that we tend to perceive
objects as belonging together if they appear
to form a continuous pattern. For instance,
we are more likely to identify two lines a-b
and c-d crossing than to identify four lines
meeting at the center p.
The Principle of Surroundedness
According to this principle, the areas
surrounded by others tend to be perceived as
figures. For example, the image in Fig.5.12
looks like five figures against the white
background rather than the word ‘LIFT’.
Fig.5.9 : Continuity
100
Fig.5.12 : Surroundedness
Psychology
2022-23
The Principle of Closure
Monocular Cues (Psychological Cues)
We tend to fill the gaps in stimulation and
perceive the objects as whole rather than their
separate parts. For example, in Fig.5.13 the
small angles are seen as a triangle due to our
tendency to fill the gaps in the object provided
by our sensory input.
Monocular cues of depth perception are
effective when the objects are viewed with only
one eye. These cues are often used by artists
to induce depth in two dimensional paintings.
Hence, they are also known as pictorial cues.
Some important monocular cues that help us
in judging the distance and depth in two
dimensional surfaces are described below. You
will find some of them applied in Fig.5.14.
Fig.5.13 : Closure
PERCEPTION OF SPACE, DEPTH, AND DISTANCE
The visual field or surface in which things
exist, move or can be placed is called space.
The space in which we live is organised in three
dimensions. We perceive not only the spatial
attributes (e.g., size, shape, direction) of
various objects, but also the distance between
the objects found in this space. While the
images of objects projected on to our retina
are flat and two dimensional (left, right, up,
down), we still perceive three dimensions in
the space. Why does it happen so? It occurs
due to our ability to transfer a two dimensional
retinal vision into a three dimensional
perception. The process of viewing the world
in three dimensions is called distance or depth
perception.
Depth perception is important in our daily
life. For example, when we drive, we use depth
to assess the distance of an approaching
automobile, or when we decide to call a person
walking down the street, we determine the
loudness with which to call.
In perceiving depth, we depend on two
main sources of information, called cues. One
is called binocular cues because they require
both eyes. Another is called monocular cues,
because they allow us to perceive depth with
just one eye. A number of such cues are used
to change a two dimensional image into a three
dimensional perception.
Fig.5.14 : Monocular Cues
The above picture will help you to understand some
monocular cues: Interposition and relative size (see the
trees). Which other cues can you locate in the picture?
Relative Size : The size of retinal image allows
us to judge distance based on our past and
present experience with similar objects. As
the objects get away, the retinal image
becomes smaller and smaller. We tend to
perceive an object farther away when it
appears small, and closer when it appears
bigger.
Interposition or Overlapping : These cues occur
when some portion of the object is covered by
another object. The overlapped object is
considered farther away, whereas the object
that covers it appears nearer.
Linear Perspective : This reflects a
phenomenon by which distant objects appear
to be closer together than the nearer objects.
For example, parallel lines, such as rail tracks,
Chapter 5 • Sensory, Attentional and Perceptual Processes
2022-23
101
appear to converge with increasing distance
with a vanishing point at the horizon. The more
the lines converge, the farther away they
appear.
Aerial Perspective : The air contains
microscopic particles of dust and moisture
that make distant objects look hazy or blurry.
This effect is called aerial perspective. For
example, distant mountains appear blue due
to the scattering of blue light in the
atmosphere, whereas the same mountains are
perceived to be closer when the atmosphere
is clear.
Light and Shade : In the light some parts of
the object get highlighted, whereas some parts
become darker. Highlights and shadows
provide us with information about an object’s
distance.
Relative Height : Larger objects are perceived
as being closer to the viewer and smaller
objects as being farther away. When we expect
two objects to be the same size and they are
not, the larger of the two will appear closer
and the smaller will appear farther away.
Texture Gradient : It represents a phenomenon
by which the visual field having more density
of elements is seen farther away. In the
Fig.5.15 the density of stones increases as we
look farther away.
Fig.5.15 : Texture Gradient
Motion Parallax : It is a kinetic monocular cue,
and hence not considered as a pictorial cue.
It occurs when objects at different distances
move at a different relative speed. The distant
objects appear to move slowly than the objects
102
that are close. The rate of an object’s
movement provides a cue to its distance. For
example, when we travel in a bus, closer
objects move “against” the direction of the bus,
whereas the farther objects move “with” the
direction of the bus.
Binocular Cues (Physiological Cues)
Some important cues to depth perception in
three dimensional space are provided by both
the eyes. Three of them have particularly been
found to be interesting.
Retinal or Binocular Disparity : Retinal
disparity occurs because the two eyes have
different locations in our head. They are
separated from each other horizontally by a
distance of about 6.5 centimeters. Because of
this distance, the image formed on the retina
of each eye of the same object is slightly
different. This difference between the two
images is called retinal disparity. The brain
interprets a large retinal disparity to mean a
close object and a small retinal disparity to
mean a distant object, as the disparity is less
for distant objects and more for the near
objects.
Convergence : When we see a nearby object
our eyes converge inward in order to bring the
image on the fovea of each eye. A group of
muscles send messages to the brain regarding
the degree to which eyes are turning inward,
and these messages are interpreted as cues
to the perception of depth. The degree of
convergence decreases as the object moves
further away from the observer. You can
experience convergence by holding a finger in
front of your nose and slowly bringing it closer.
The more your eyes turn inward or converge,
the nearer the object appears in space.
Accommodation : Accommodation refers to a
process by which we focus the image on the
retina with the help of ciliary muscle. These
muscles change the thickness of the lens of
the eye. If the object gets away (more than 2
meters), the muscle is relaxed. As the object
moves nearer, the muscle contracts and the
thickness of the lens increases. The signal
Psychology
2022-23
about the degree of contraction of the muscle
is sent to the brain, which provides the cue
for distance.
Activity 5.4
the image that it casts on the retina is a circle,
or an ellipse, or roughly a short line (if the
plate is viewed from the edge). It is also called
form constancy.
Brightness Constancy
Hold a pencil in front of you. Close your right eye
and focus on the pencil. Now open the right eye
and close the left eye. Keep doing it simultaneously
with both the eyes. The pencil will appear to move
from side to side in front of your face.
PERCEPTUAL CONSTANCIES
The sensory information that we receive from
our environment constantly changes as we
move around. Yet we form a stable perception
of an object seen from any position and in
any intensity of light. Perception of the objects
as relatively stable in spite of changes in the
stimulation of sensory receptors is called
perceptual constancy. Here we will examine
three types of perceptual constancies that we
commonly experience in our visual domain.
Size Constancy
The size of an image on our retina changes
with the change in the distance of the object
from the eye. The further away it is, the smaller
is the image. On the other hand, our
experience shows that within limits the object
appears to be about the same size irrespective
of its distance. For example, when you
approach your friend from a distance, your
perception of the friend’s size does not change
much despite the fact that the retinal image
(image on retina) becomes larger. This
tendency for the perceived size of objects to
remain relatively unchanged with changes in
their distance from the observer and the size
of the retinal image is called size constancy.
Shape Constancy
In our perceptions the shapes of familiar
objects remain unchanged despite changes in
the pattern of retinal image resulting from
differences in their orientation. For example,
a dinner plate looks the same shape whether
Visual objects not only appear constant in their
shape and size, they also appear constant in
their degree of whiteness, greyness, or
blackness even though the amount of physical
energy reflected from them changes
considerably. In other words, our experience
of brightness does not change in spite of the
changes in the amount of reflected light
reaching our eyes. The tendency to maintain
apparent brightness constant under different
amount of illumination is called brightness
constancy. For example, surface of a paper
which appears white in the sunlight, is still
perceived as white in the room light. Similarly,
coal that looks black in the sun also looks
black in room light.
ILLUSIONS
Our perceptions are not always veridical.
Sometime we fail to interpret the sensory
information correctly. This results in a
mismatch between the physical stimuli and
its perception. These misperceptions resulting
from misinterpretation of information received
by our sensory organs are generally known as
illusions. These are experienced more or less
by all of us. They result from an external
stimulus situation and generate the same kind
of experience in each individual. That is why
illusions are also called “primitive
organisations”. Although illusions can be
experienced by the stimulation of any of our
senses, psychologists have studied them more
commonly in the visual than in other sense
modalities.
Some perceptual illusions are universal
and found in all individuals. For example, the
rail tracks appear to be converging to all of
us. These illusions are called universal
illusions or permanent illusions as they do
not change with experience or practice. Some
other illusions seem to vary from individual
Chapter 5 • Sensory, Attentional and Perceptual Processes
2022-23
103
to individual; these are called personal
illusions. In this section, we will describe some
important visual illusions.
Geometrical Illusions
In Fig.5.16 the Muller-Lyer illusion has been
shown. All of us perceive line A as shorter than
line B, although both the lines are equal. This
illusion is experienced even by children. There
are some studies that suggest that even
A
to be important. In the absence of these, the
light points will not appear as moving. They
will appear either as one point, or as different
points appearing one after another, without
any experience of motion.
Experience of illusions indicates that
people do not always perceive the world as it
is; instead they engage in its construction,
sometimes based on the features of stimuli
and sometimes based on their experiences in
a given environment. This point will be further
made clear in the section that follows now.
B
SOCIO-CULTURAL INFLUENCES
PERCEPTION
Fig.5.16 : Muller-Lyer Illusion
animals experience this illusion more or less
like us. Besides Muller-Lyer illusion, several
other visual illusions are experienced by
human beings (also birds and animals). In
Fig.5.17 you can see the illusion of vertical
and horizontal lines. Although both the lines
are equal, we perceive the vertical line as longer
than the horizontal line.
Fig.5.17 : Vertical-Horizontal Illusion
Apparent Movement Illusion
This illusion is experienced when some
motionless pictures are projected one after
another at an appropriate rate. This illusion
is referred to as “phi-phenomenon”. When we
see moving pictures in a cinema show, we are
influenced by this kind of illusion. The
succession of flickering electrical lights also
generate this illusion. This phenomenon can
be experimentally studied with the help of an
instrument by presenting two or more lights
in a succession. For the experience of this
illusion, Wertheimer had reported the presence
of appropriate level of brightness, size, spatial
gap, and temporal contiguity of different lights
104
ON
Several psychologists have studied the
processes of perception in different sociocultural settings. The questions they try to
answer through these studies are: Does
perceptual organisation of people living in
different cultural settings take place in an
uniform manner? Are the perceptual processes
universal, or they vary across different cultural
settings? Because we know, people living in
different parts of the world look different, many
psychologists hold the view that their ways of
perceiving the world must be different in some
respects. Let us examine some studies relating
to perception of illusion figures and other
pictorial materials.
You are already familiar with Muller-Lyer
and Vertical-Horizontal illusion figures.
Psychologists have used these figures with
several groups of people living in Europe,
Africa, and many other places. Segall,
Campbell, and Herskovits carried out the most
extensive study of illusion susceptibility by
comparing samples from remote African
villages and Western urban settings. It was
found that African subjects showed greater
susceptibility to horizontal-vertical illusion,
whereas Western subjects showed greater
susceptibility to Muller-Lyer illusion. Similar
findings have been reported in other studies
also. Living in dense forests the African
subjects regularly experienced verticality (e.g.,
long trees) and developed a tendency to
overestimate it. The Westerners, who lived in
Psychology
2022-23
an environment characterised by right angles,
developed a tendency to underestimate the
length of lines characterised by enclosure (e.g.,
arrowhead). This conclusion has been
confirmed in several studies. It suggests that
the habits of perception are learnt differently
in different cultural settings.
In some studies people living in different
cultural settings have been given pictures for
identification of objects and interpretation of
depth or other events represented in them.
Hudson did a seminal study in Africa, and
found that people, who had never seen
pictures, had great difficulty in recognising
objects depicted in them and in interpreting
depth cues (e.g., superimposition). It was
indicated that informal instruction in home
and habitual exposure to pictures were
necessary to sustain the skill of pictorial depth
perception. Sinha and Mishra have carried out
several studies on pictorial perception using
a variety of pictures with people from diverse
cultural settings, such as hunters and
gatherers living in forests, agriculturists living
in villages, and people employed and living in
cities. Their studies indicate that
interpretation of pictures is strongly related
to cultural experiences of people. While people
in general can recognise familiar objects in
pictures, those less exposed to pictures have
difficulty in the interpretation of actions or
events depicted in them.
Key Terms
Absolute threshold, After images, Binocular
cues, Bottom-up processing, Cochlea, Cones,
Dark adaptation, Depth perception, Difference
threshold, Divided attention, Eustachian tube,
Figure-ground segregation, Filter theory,
Filter-attenuation theory, Gestalt, Light
adaptation, Loudness, Monocular cues, Organ
of corti, Perceptual constancies, Phiphenomenon, Pitch, Primary colours, Retina,
Rhodopsin, Rods, Selective attention,
Sustained attention, T imbre, Top-down
processing, Visual illusions, Wavelength
Summary
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Knowledge of our internal and external world becomes possible with the help of senses. Five
of them are external senses, and two are internal senses. The sense organs receive various
stimuli and send them in the form of neural impulses to specialised areas of brain for
interpretation.
Vision and audition are the two most widely used senses. Rods and cones are the receptors
for vision. Rods function in low intensities of light, whereas cones function at high intensities
of light. They are responsible for achromatic and chromatic vision, respectively.
Light and dark adaptations are two interesting phenomena of the visual system. Hue, saturation
and brightness are the basic dimensions of colour.
Sound serves as stimulus for auditory sensations. Loudness, pitch, and timbre are the properties
of sound. Organ of corti located in the basilar membrane is the chief organ of hearing.
Attention is a process through which we select certain information by filtering out many others
that appear to be irrelevant at a given moment of time. Activation, concentration, and search
are important properties of attention.
Selective and sustained attention are two major types of attention. Divided attention is evident
in the case of highly practiced tasks in which there is much automaticity of information
processing.
The span of attention is the magical number of seven plus and minus two.
Perception refers to the processes of interpretation and informed construction of the information
received from sensory organs. Human beings perceive their world in terms of their motivations,
expectations, cognitive styles, and cultural background.
Form perception refers to the perception of a visual field set off from rest of the field by visible
contours. The most primitive form of organisation takes place in the form of figure-ground
segregation.
Chapter 5 • Sensory, Attentional and Perceptual Processes
2022-23
105
•
Gestalt psychologists have identified several principles that determine our perceptual
organisations.
The image of an object projected on to the retina is two dimensional. Three dimensional
perception is a psychological process that depends on correct utilisation of certain monocular
and binocular cues.
Perceptual constancies refer to invariance of our perceptions of an object seen from any
position and in any intensity of light. There is good evidence for size, shape, and brightness
constancies.
Illusions are the examples of nonveridical perceptions. They refer to misperceptions resulting
from misinterpretation of information received by our sensory organs. Some illusions are
universal, while others are more personal and culture-specific.
Socio-cultural factors play an important role in our perceptions by generating differential
familiarity with and salience of stimuli as well as certain habits of perceptual inference
among people.
•
•
•
•
Review Questions
1. Explain the functional limitations of sense organs.
2. What is meant by light and dark adaptation? How do they take place?
3. What is colour vision and what are the dimensions of colour?
4. How does auditory sensation take place?
5. Define attention. Explain its properties.
6. State the determinants of selective attention. How does selective attention differ from
sustained attention?
7. What is the main proposition of Gestalt psychologists with respect to perception of the
visual field?
8. How does perception of space take place?
9. What are the monocular cues of depth perception? Explain the role of binocular cues in
the perception of depth?
10. Why do illusions occur?
11. How do socio-cultural factors influence our perceptions?
Project Ideas
106
1.
Collect ten advertisements from magazines. Analyse the content and message being
conveyed in each advertisement. Comment on the use of various attentional and perceptual
factors to promote the given product.
2.
Give a toy model of a horse/elephant to visually challenged and sighted children. Let the
visually challenged children feel by touching the toy model for some time. Ask the children
to describe the model. Show the same toy model to sighted children. Compare their
descriptions and find out their similarities and differences.
Take another toy model (e.g., a parrot) and give it to a few visually challenged children
to have a feel of it by touching. Then give a sheet of paper and a pencil and ask them to
draw the parrot on the sheet. Show the same parrot to sighted children for some time,
remove the parrot from their sight, and ask to draw the parrot on a sheet of paper.
Compare the drawings of the visually challenged and sighted children and examine
their similarities and differences.
Psychology
2022-23
Chapter
6
Learning
After reading this chapter, you would be able to
•
•
•
•
•
describe the nature of learning,
explain different forms or types of learning and the procedures used in
such types of learning,
understand various psychological processes that occur during learning
and influence its course,
explain the determinants of learning, and
familiarise yourself with some applications of learning principles.
Contents
Introduction
Nature of Learning
Paradigms of Learning
Classical Conditioning
Determinants of Classical Conditioning
Operant/Instrumental Conditioning
Determinants of Operant Conditioning
Classical and Operant Conditioning : Differences (Box 6.1)
Key Learning Processes
Learned Helplessness (Box 6.2)
Observational Learning
Cognitive Learning
Verbal Learning
Concept Learning
Skill Learning
Transfer of Learning
Factors Facilitating Learning
The Learner : Learning Styles
Learning Disabilities
Applications of Learning Principles
Learning preserves errors
of the past as well as its
wisdom.
Key Terms
Summary
Review Questions
Project Ideas
– A.N. Whitehead
2022-23
Introduction
At the time of birth every human baby is equipped with the capacity to make a
limited number of responses. These responses occur reflexively whenever
appropriate stimuli are present in the environment. As the child grows and
matures, s/he becomes capable of making diverse types of responses. These
include identifying the images of some persons as one’s mother, father or
grandfather, using a spoon when eating food, and learning how to identify
alphabets, to write, and to combine them into words. S/he also observes others
doing things in specific environmental conditions, and imitates them. Learning
names of objects such as book, orange, mango, cow, boy, and girl, and retaining
them is another important task. As one grows older, one observes many events or
objects, and learns their distinct features. Objects are categorised as ‘furniture’,
‘fruits’, and so on. One also learns to drive a scooter or a car, to communicate with
others effectively, and to interact with others. It is all due to learning that a person
becomes hard working or indolent, socially knowledgeable, skilled, and
professionally competent. Each individual manages her or his life and solves all
kinds of problems because of the capacity to learn and adapt. This chapter focuses
on the various aspects of learning. First, learning is defined and characterised as
a psychological process. Second, an account is presented that explains how one
learns. A number of learning methods that account for simple to complex types of
learning are described. In the third section, some empirical phenomena, that occur
in the course of learning, are explained. In the fourth section, different factors that
determine the speed and extent of learning are described including different
learning styles and learning disabilities.
NATURE
OF
LEARNING
As indicated above learning is a key process
in human behaviour. It refers to a spectrum
of changes that take place as a result of one’s
experience. Learning may be defined as “any
relatively permanent change in behaviour or
behavioural potential produced by experience”.
One must remember that some behavioural
changes occur due to the use of drugs, or
fatigue. Such changes are temporary. They are
not considered learning. Changes due to
practice and experience, which are relatively
permanent, are illustrative of learning.
Features of Learning
The process of learning has certain distinctive
characteristics. The first feature is that learning
108
always involves some kinds of experience. We
experience an event occurring in a certain
sequence on a number of occasions. If an event
happens then it may be followed by certain
other events. For example, one learns that if
the bell rings in the hostel after sunset, then
dinner is ready to be served. Repeated
experience of satisfaction after doing
something in a specified manner leads to the
formation of habit. Sometimes a single
experience can lead to learning. A child strikes
a matchstick on the side of a matchbox, and
gets her/his fingers burnt. Such an experience
makes the child learn to be careful in handling
the matchbox in future.
Behavioural changes that occur due to
learning are relatively permanent. They must
be distinguished from the behavioural changes
that are neither permanent nor learned. For
Psychology
2022-23
example, changes in behaviour often occur
due to the effects of fatigue, habituation, and
drugs. Suppose you are reading your textbook
of psychology for sometime or you are trying
to learn how to drive a motor car, a time comes
when you will feel tired. You stop reading or
driving. This is a behavioural change due to
fatigue, and is temporary. It is not considered
learning.
Let us take another case of change in one’s
behaviour. Suppose in the vicinity of your
residence a marriage is being performed. It
generates a lot of noise, which continues till
late night. In the beginning, the noise distracts
you from whatever you are doing. You feel
disturbed. While the noise continues, you
make some orienting reflexes. These reflexes
become weaker and weaker, and eventually
become undetectable. This is also one kind of
behavioural change. This change is due to
continuous exposure to stimuli. It is called
habituation. It is not due to learning. You must
have noticed that people who are on sedatives
or drugs or alcohol, their behaviour changes
as it affects physiological functions. Such
changes ar e temporary in nature and
disappear, as the effect wears out.
Lear ning involves a sequence of
psychological events. This will become clear if
we were to describe a typical learning
experiment. Suppose psychologists are
interested in understanding how a list of words
is learned. They will go through the following
sequence : (i) do a pre-test to know how much
the person knows before learning, (ii) present
the list of words to be remembered for a fixed
time, (iii) during this time the list of words is
processed towards acquiring new knowledge,
(iv) after processing is complete, new
knowledge is acquired (this is LEARNING), and
(v) after some time elapses, the processed
information is recalled by the person. By
comparing the number of words which a
person now knows as compared to what s/he
knew in the pre-test, one infers that learning
did take place.
Thus, learning is an inferred process and
is different from performance. Performance
is a person’s observed behaviour or response
or action. Let us understand what is meant
by the term inference. Suppose you are asked
by your teacher to memorise a poem. You read
that poem a number of times. Then you say
that you have learned the poem. You are asked
to recite the poem and you are able to recite
it. The recitation of the poem by you is your
per for mance. On the basis of your
performance, the teacher infers that you have
learned the poem.
PARADIGMS
OF
LEARNING
Learning takes place in many ways. There are
some methods that are used in acquisition of
simple responses while other methods are
used in the acquisition of complex responses.
In this section you will learn about all these
methods. The simplest kind of learning is
called conditioning. Two types of conditioning
have been identified. The first one is called
classical conditioning, and the second
instrumental/operant conditioning. In
addition, we have observational learning,
cognitive learning, verbal learning, concept
learning, and skill learning.
CLASSICAL CONDITIONING
This type of learning was first investigated by
Ivan P. Pavlov. He was primarily interested in
the physiology of digestion. During his studies
he noticed that dogs, on whom he was doing
his experiments, started secreting saliva as
soon as they saw the empty plate in which
food was served. As you must be aware, saliva
secretion is a reflexive response to food or
something in the mouth. Pavlov designed an
experiment to understand this process in detail
in which dogs were used once again. In the
first phase, a dog was placed in a box and
harnessed. The dog was left in the box for some
time. This was repeated a number of times on
different days. In the meantime, a simple
surgery was conducted, and one end of a tube
was inserted in the dog’s jaw and the other end
of the tube was put in a measuring glass. The
experimental setup is illustrated in Figure 6.1.
Chapter 6 • Learning
2022-23
109
In the second phase of the experiment, the
dog was kept hungry and placed in harness
with one end of the tube ending in the jaw
and the other end in the glass jar. A bell was
One-way
glass wall
Food
Tube from
salivary glands
Cup for
Recording
measuring saliva
device
Fig.6.1 : A Dog in Pavlovian Harness for Conditioning
sounded and immediately thereafter food (meat
powder) was served to the dog. The dog was
allowed to eat it. For the next few days,
everytime the meat powder was presented, it
was preceded by the sound of a bell. After a
number of such trials, a test trial was
introduced in which everything was the same
as the previous trials except that no food
followed the sounding of the bell. The dog still
salivated to the sound of the bell, expecting
presentation of the meat powder as the sound
of bell had come to be connected with it. This
association between the bell and food resulted
in acquisition of a new response by the dog,
i.e. salivation to the sound of the bell. This has
been termed as conditioning. You may have
noticed that all dogs salivate when they are
presented with food. Food is thus an
Table 6.1
110
Unconditioned Stimulus (US) and salivation
which follows it, an Unconditioned Response
(UR). After conditioning, salivation started to
occur in the presence of the sound of the bell.
The bell becomes a Conditioned Stimulus
(CS) and saliva secretion a Conditioned
Response (CR). This kind of conditioning is
called classical conditioning. The procedure
is illustrated in Table 6.1. It is obvious that
the learning situation in classical conditioning
is one of S–S learning in which one stimulus
(e.g., sound of bell) becomes a signal for
another stimulus (e.g., food). Here one stimulus
signifies the possible occurrence of another
stimulus.
Examples of classical conditioning abound
in everyday life. Imagine you have just finished
your lunch and you are feeling satisfied. Then
you see some sweet dish served on the
adjoining table. This signals its taste in your
mouth, and triggers the secretion of saliva. You
feel like eating it. This is a conditioned response
(CR). Let us take another example. In the early
stages of childhood, one is naturally afraid of
any loud noise. Suppose a small child catches
an inflated balloon which bursts in her/his
hands making a loud noise. The child becomes
afraid. Now the next time s/he is made to hold
a balloon, it becomes a signal or cue for noise
and elicits fear response. This happens because
of contiguous presentation of balloon as a
conditioned stimulus (CS) and loud noise as
an unconditioned stimulus (US).
Determinants of Classical Conditioning
How quickly and strongly acquisition of a
response occurs in classical conditioning
depends on several factors. Some of the major
Relationship of Stages of Conditioning and Operations
Stages of
Conditioning
Nature of Stimulus
Nature of Response
Before
Food (US)
Sound of the Bell
Salivation (UR)
Alertness (No Specific Response)
During
Sound of the Bell (CS) + Food (US)
Salivation (UR)
After
Sound of the Bell (CS)
Salivation (CR)
Psychology
2022-23
factors influencing learning a CR are described
below:
1. T ime Relations between Stimuli : The
classical conditioning procedures, discussed
below, are basically of four types based on the
time relations between the onset of conditioned
stimulus (CS) and unconditioned stimulus
(US). The first three are called forward
conditioning procedures, and the fourth one
is called backward conditioning procedure.
The basic experimental arrangements of these
procedures are as follows:
a) When the CS and US are presented
together, it is called simultaneous
conditioning.
b) In delayed conditioning, the onset of
CS precedes the onset of US. The CS
ends before the end of the US.
c) In trace conditioning, the onset and
end of the CS precedes the onset of US
with some time gap between the two.
d) In backward conditioning, the US
precedes the onset of CS.
It is now well established that delayed
conditioning procedure is the most effective
way of acquiring a CR. Simultaneous and trace
conditioning procedures do lead to acquisition
of a CR, but they require greater number of
acquisition trials in comparison to the delayed
conditioning procedure. It may be noted that
the acquisition of response under backward
conditioning procedure is very rare.
2. Type of Unconditioned Stimuli : The
unconditioned stimuli used in studies of
classical conditioning are basically of two
types, i.e. appetitive and aversive. Appetitive
unconditioned stimuli automatically elicits
approach responses, such as eating, drinking,
caressing, etc. These responses give
satisfaction and pleasure. On the other hand,
aversive US, such as noise, bitter taste, electric
shock, painful injections, etc. are painful,
harmful, and elicit avoidance and escape
responses. It has been found that appetitive
classical conditioning is slower and requires
greater number of acquisition trials, but
aversive classical conditioning is established
in one, two or three trials depending on the
intensity of the aversive US.
3. Intensity of Conditioned Stimuli : This
influences the course of both appetitive and
aversive classical conditioning. More intense
conditioned stimuli are more effective in
accelerating the acquisition of conditioned
responses. It means that the more intense the
conditioned stimulus, the fewer are the
number of acquisition trials needed for
conditioning.
Activity 6.1
In order to understand and explain conditioning,
you may carry out the following exercise. Take
a few pieces of mango pickle on a plate and
show it to the students in the classroom. Ask
them what they experienced in their mouth?
Most of your classmates are likely to report
some salivation in their mouth.
OPERANT/INSTRUMENTAL CONDITIONING
This type of conditioning was first investigated
by B.F. Skinner. Skinner studied occurrence
of voluntary responses when an organism
operates on the environment. He called them
operants. Operants are those behaviours or
responses, which are emitted by animals and
human beings voluntarily and are under their
control. The term operant is used because the
organism operates on the environment.
Conditioning of operant behaviour is called
operant conditioning.
Skinner conducted his studies on rats and
pigeons in specially made boxes, called the
Skinner Box. A hungry rat (one at a time) is
placed in the chamber, which was so built that
the rat could move inside but could not come
out. In the chamber there was a lever, which
was connected to a food container kept on the
top of the chamber (see Figure 6.2). When the
lever is pressed, a food pellet drops on the
plate placed close to the lever. While moving
around and pawing the walls (exploratory
behaviour), the hungry rat accidentally presses
the lever and a food pellet drops on the plate.
The hungry rat eats it. In the next trial, after
a while the exploratory behaviour again starts.
As the number of trials increases, the rat takes
Chapter 6 • Learning
2022-23
111
lesser and lesser time to press the lever for food.
Conditioning is complete when the rat presses
the lever immediately after it is placed in the
chamber. It is obvious that lever pressing is
an operant response and getting food is its
consequence.
response. They include its types – positive or
negative, number or frequency, quality –
superior or inferior, and schedule – continuous
or intermittent (partial). All these features
influence the course of operant conditioning.
Another factor that influences this type of
learning is the nature of the response or
behaviour that is to be conditioned. The
interval or length of time that lapses between
occurrence of response and reinforcement also
influences operant learning. Let us examine
some of these factors in detail.
Types of Reinforcement
Fig.6.2 : Skinner Box
In the above situation the response is
instrumental in getting the food. That is why,
this type of lear ning is also called
instrumental conditioning. Examples of
instrumental conditioning abound in our
everyday life. Children who want to have some
sweets in the absence of their mother learn to
locate the jar in which mother hides the sweets
for safekeeping and eat it. Children learn to
be polite and say ‘please’ to get favours from
their parents and others. One learns to operate
mechanical gadgets such as radio, camera,
T.V., etc. based on the principle of
instrumental conditioning. As a matter of fact
human beings learn short cuts to attain
desired goals or ends through instrumental
conditioning.
Determinants of Operant Conditioning
You have noted that operant or instrumental
conditioning is a form of learning in which
behaviour is learned, maintained or changed
through its consequences. Such consequences
are called reinforcers. A reinforcer is defined
as any stimulus or event, which increases the
probability of the occurrence of a (desired)
response. A reinforcer has numerous features,
which affect the course and strength of a
112
Reinforcement may be positive or negative.
Positive reinforcement involves stimuli that
have pleasant consequences. They strengthen
and maintain the responses that have caused
them to occur. Positive reinforcers satisfy
needs, which include food, water, medals,
praise, money, status, information, etc.
Negative reinforcers involve unpleasant and
painful stimuli. Responses that lead organisms
to get rid of painful stimuli or avoid and escape
from them provide negative reinforcement.
Thus, negative reinforcement leads to learning
of avoidance and escape responses. For
instance, one learns to put on woollen clothes,
burn firewood or use electric heaters to avoid
the unpleasant cold weather. One learns to
move away from dangerous stimuli because
they provide negative reinforcement. It may
be noted that negative reinforcement is not
punishment. Use of punishment reduces or
suppresses the response while a negative
reinforcer increases the probability of
avoidance or escape response. For instance,
drivers and co-drivers wear their seat belts to
avoid getting injured in case of an accident or
to avoid being fined by the traffic police.
It should be understood that no
punishment suppresses a response
permanently. Mild and delayed punishment
has no effect. The stronger the punishment,
the more lasting is the suppression effect but
it is not permanent.
Sometimes punishment has no effect
irrespective of its intensity. On the contrary,
the punished person may develop dislike and
Psychology
2022-23
hatred for the punishing agent or the person
who administers the punishment.
Number of Reinforcement and other Features
It refers to the number of trials on which an
organism has been reinforced or rewarded.
Amount of reinforcement means how much
of reinforcing stimulus (food or water or
intensity of pain causing agent) one receives
on each trial. Quality of reinforcement refers
to the kind of reinforcer. Chickpeas or pieces
of bread are of inferior quality as compared
with raisins or pieces of cake as reinforcer.
The course of operant conditioning is usually
accelerated to an extent as the number,
amount, and quality of r einforcement
increases.
Schedules of Reinforcement
A reinforcement schedule is the arrangement
of the delivery of reinforcement during
conditioning trials. Each schedule of
reinforcement influences the course of
conditioning in its own way; and thus
conditioned responses occur with differential
characteristics. The organism being subjected
to operant conditioning may be given
reinforcement in every acquisition trial or in
Box 6.1
1.
2.
some trials it is given and in others it is
omitted. Thus, the reinforcement may be
continuous or intermittent. When a desired
response is reinforced every time it occurs we
call it continuous reinforcement. In contrast,
in intermittent schedules responses are
sometimes reinforced, sometimes not. It is
known as partial reinforcement and has been
found to produce greater resistance to
extinction – than is found with continuous
reinforcement.
Delayed Reinforcement
The ef fectiveness of reinforcement is
dramatically altered by delay in the occurrence
of reinforcement. It is found that delay in the
delivery of reinforcement leads to poorer level
of performance. It can be easily shown by
asking children which reward they will prefer
for doing some chore. Smaller rewards
immediately after doing the chore will be
preferred rather than a big one after a long
gap.
Key Learning Processes
When learning takes place, be it classical or
operant conditioning, it involves the
occurrence of certain processes. These include
erences
Classical and Operant Conditioning : Diff
Differences
In classical conditioning, the responses are
under the control of some stimulus because
they are reflexes, automatically elicited by
the appropriate stimuli. Such stimuli are
selected as US and responses elicited by
them as UR. Thus Pavlovian conditioning, in
which US elicits responses, is often called
respondent conditioning.
In instrumental conditioning, responses
are under the control of the organism and
are voluntary responses or ‘operants’. Thus,
in the two forms of conditioning different
types of responses are conditioned.
In classical conditioning the CS and US are
well-defined, but in operant conditioning CS
is not defined. It can be inferred but is not
directly known.
3.
4.
In classical conditioning, the experimenter
controls the occurrence of US, while in operant
conditioning the occurrence of the reinforcer is
under the control of the organism that is learning.
Thus, for US in classical conditioning the
organism remains passive, while in operant
conditioning the subject has to be active in order
to be reinforced.
In the two forms of conditioning, the technical
terms used to characterise the experimental
proceedings are different. Moreover what is called
reinforcer in operant conditioning is called US in
classical conditioning. An US has two functions.
In the beginning it elicits the response and also
reinforces the response to be associated and
elicited later on by the CS.
Chapter 6 • Learning
2022-23
113
Box 6.2
Learned Helplessness
It is an interesting phenomenon, which is a result
of an interaction between the two forms of
conditioning. Learned helplessness underlies
psychological cases of depression. Seligman and
Maier demonstrated this phenomenon in a study
on dogs. First, they subjected dogs to sound (CS)
and electric shock (US) using classical conditioning
procedure. The animal had no scope to escape or
avoid the shock. This pairing was repeated a
number of times. Then the dogs were subjected to
shock in an operant conditioning procedure. The
dogs could escape the shock by pressing their
heads against the wall. After having experienced
inescapable shock in the Pavlovian contingency,
the dog failed to escape or avoid shock in the
operant conditioning procedure. The dog just
suffered the shock through, and did not attempt to
escape. This behaviour of the dog was called learned
helplessness.
This phenomenon has been shown to be operative
in humans also. It has been found that continuous
failure in a set of tasks shows the occurrence of
learned helplessness. In an experimental study, the
subjects are initially given failure experience
irrespective of their performance. In the second phase
the subjects are given a task. Learned helplessness
is often measured in terms of the subject’s ability and
persistence before they give up the task. Continuous
failure leads to little persistence and poor performance.
This shows helplessness. There are numerous studies
that demonstrate that persistent depression is often
caused by learned helplessness.
reinforcement, extinction or non-occurrence
of learned response, generalisation of
learning to other stimuli under some
specifiable conditions, discrimination
between reinforcing and non-reinforcing
stimuli, and spontaneous recovery.
lead to the desired response. Such a response
is shaped by reinforcing successive
approximations to the desired response.
Reinforcement
Reinforcement is the operation of
administering a reinforcer by the experimenter.
Reinforcers are stimuli that increase the rate
or probability of the responses that precede.
We have noted that reinforced responses
increase in rate, while non-reinforced
responses decrease in rate. A positive
reinforcer increases the rate of response that
precedes its presentation. Negative reinforcers
increase the rate of the response that precedes
their removal or termination. The reinforcers
may be primary or secondary. A primary
reinforcer is biologically important since it
determines the organism’s survival (e.g., food
for a hungry organism). A secondary reinforcer
is one which has acquired characteristics of
the reinforcer because of the organism’s
experience with the environment. We
frequently use money, praise, and grades as
reinforcers. They are called secondary
reinforcers. Systematic use of reinforcers can
114
Extinction
Extinction means disappearance of a learned
response due to removal of reinforcement from
the situation in which the response used to
occur. If the occurrence of CS-CR is not
followed by the US in classical conditioning,
or lever pressing is no more followed by food
pellets in the Skinner box, the learned
behaviour will gradually be weakened and
ultimately disappear.
Learning shows resistance to extinction.
It means that even though the learned
response is now not reinforced, it would
continue to occur for sometime. However, with
increasing number of trials without
reinforcement, the r esponse strength
gradually diminishes and ultimately it stops
occurring. How long a learned response shows
resistance to extinction depends on a number
of factors. It has been found that with
increasing number of reinforced trials
resistance to extinction increases and learned
response reaches its highest level. At this level
performance gets stabilised. After that the
number of trials do not make a difference in
Psychology
2022-23
Generalisation and Discrimination
The processes of generalisation and
discrimination occur in all kinds of learning.
However, they have been extensively
investigated in the context of conditioning.
Suppose an organism is conditioned to elicit a
CR (saliva secretion or any other reflexive
response) on presentation of a CS (light or
sound of bell). After conditioning is established,
and another stimulus similar to the CS (e.g.,
ringing of telephone) is presented, the organism
makes the conditioned response to it. This
phenomenon of responding similarly to similar
stimuli is known as generalisation. Again,
suppose a child has learned the location of a
jar of a certain size and shape in which sweets
are kept. Even when the child’s mother is not
around, the child finds the jar and obtains the
sweets. This is a learned operant. Now the
sweets are kept in another jar of a different
size and shape and at a different location in
the kitchen. In the absence of the mother the
child locates the jar and obtains the sweets.
This is also an example of generalisation. When
a learned response occurs or is elicited by a
new stimulus, it is called generalisation.
Another process, which is complimentary
to generalisation, is called discrimination.
Generalisation is due to similarity while
discrimination is a response due to difference.
For example, suppose a child is conditioned
to be afraid of a person with a long moustache
and wearing black clothes. In subsequent
situation, when s/he meets another person
dressed in black clothes with a beard, the child
shows signs of fear. The child’s fear is
generalised. S/he meets another stranger who
is wearing grey clothes and is clean-shaven.
The child shows no fear. This is an example of
discrimination. Occurrence of generalisation
means
failure
of
discrimination.
Discriminative response depends on the
discrimination capacity or discrimination
learning of the organism.
Spontaneous Recovery
Spontaneous recovery occurs after a learned
response is extinguished. Suppose an
organism has learned to make a response for
getting reinforcement, then the response is
extinguished and some time lapses. A question
now may be asked, whether the response is
completely extinguished, and will not occur if
the CS is presented. It has been demonstrated
that after lapse of considerable time, the
learned or CR recovers and occurs to the CS.
The amount of spontaneous recovery depends
on the duration of the time lapsed after the
extinction session. The longer the duration of
time lapsed, the greater is the recovery of
learned response. Such a recovery occurs
spontaneously. Fig.6.3 shows the
phenomenon of spontaneous recovery.
(1)
Acquisition
(CS+US)
Strength of the CR
the response strength. Resistance to extinction
incr eases with increasing number of
reinforcements during acquisition trials,
beyond that any increase in number of
reinforcement reduces the resistance to
extinction. Studies have also indicated that
as the amount of reinforcement (number of
food pellets) increases during the acquisition
trials, resistance to extinction decreases.
If the reinforcement is delayed during
acquisition trials, the resistance to extinction
increases. Reinforcement in every acquisition
trial makes the learned response to be less
resistant to extinction. In contrast,
intermittent or partial reinforcement during
acquisition trials makes a learned response
more resistant to extinction.
(2)
Extinction
(CS alone)
(3)
Spontaneous
recovery
(CS alone)
Rest
Baseline
Trials
Fig.6.3 : Phenomenon of Spontaneous Recovery
Chapter 6 • Learning
2022-23
115
OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING
The next form of learning takes place by
observing others. Earlier this form of learning
was called imitation. Bandura and his
colleagues in a series of experimental studies
investigated observational learning in detail.
In this kind of learning, human beings learn
social behaviours, therefore, it is sometimes
called social learning. In many situations
individuals do not know how to behave. They
observe others and emulate their behaviour.
This form of learning is called modeling.
Examples of observational lear ning
abound in our social life. Fashion designers
employ tall, pretty, and gracious young girls
and tall, smart, and well-built young boys for
popularising clothes of different designs and
fabrics. People observe them on televised
fashion shows and advertisements in
magazines and newspapers. They imitate these
models. Observing superiors and likeable
persons and then emulating their behaviour
in a novel social situation is a common
experience.
In order to understand the nature of
observational learning we may refer to the
studies conducted by Bandura. In one of his
well-known experimental study, Bandura
showed a film of five minutes duration to
children. The film shows that in a large room
there are numerous toys including a large
sized ‘Bobo’ doll. Now a grown-up boy enters
the room and looks around. The boy starts
showing aggressive behaviour towards the toys
in general and the bobo doll in particular. He
hits the doll, throws it on the floor, kicking it
and sitting on it. This film has three versions.
In one version a group of children see the boy
(model) being rewarded and praised by an
adult for being aggressive to the doll. In the
second version another group of children see
the boy being punished for his aggressive
behaviour. In the third version the third group
of children are not shown the boy being either
rewarded or punished.
After viewing a specific version of the film
all the three groups of children were placed in
116
an experimental room in which similar toys
were placed around. The children were allowed
to play with the toys. These groups were
secretly observed and their behaviours noted.
It was found that those children who saw
aggressive behaviour being rewarded were
most aggressive; children who had seen the
aggressive model being punished were least
aggressive. Thus, in observational learning
observers acquire knowledge by observing the
model’s behaviour, but perfor mance is
influenced by model’s behaviour being
rewarded or punished.
You must have noticed that children
observe adults’ behaviours, at home and
during social ceremonies and functions. They
enact adults in their plays and games. For
instance, young children play games of
marriage ceremonies, birthday parties, thief
and policeman, house keeping, etc. Actually
they enact in their games what they
observe in society, on television, and read in
books.
Children lear n most of the social
behaviours by observing and emulating adults.
The way to put on clothes, dress one’s hair,
and conduct oneself in society are learned
through observing others. It has also been
shown that children learn and develop various
personality characteristics through
observational learning. Aggressiveness, prosocial behaviour, courtesy, politeness,
diligence, and indolence are acquired by this
method of learning.
Psychology
2022-23
Activity 6.2
You can have first-hand experience of observational
learning by doing the following exercise.
Collect four or five school going children and
demonstrate how to make a boat out of a sheet of
paper. Do it two or three times and ask the children
to observe carefully. After having shown how to
fold the paper in different ways for a number of
times, give them sheets of paper and ask them to
make a toy boat.
Most children will be able to do it somewhat
successfully.
COGNITIVE LEARNING
Some psychologists view learning in terms of
cognitive processes that underlie it. They have
developed approaches that focus on such
processes that occur during learning rather
than concentrating solely on S-R and S-S
connections, as we have seen in the case of
classical and operant conditioning. Thus, in
cognitive learning, there is a change in what
the learner knows rather than what s/he does.
This form of learning shows up in insight
learning and latent learning.
Insight Learning
Kohler demonstrated a model of learning
which could not be readily explained by
conditioning. He perfor med a series of
experiments with chimpanzees that involved
solving complex problems. Kohler placed
chimpanzees in an enclosed play area where
food was kept out of their reach. Tools such
as poles and boxes were placed in the
enclosure. The chimpanzees rapidly learned
how to use a box to stand on or a pole to move
the food in their direction. In this experiment,
learning did not occur as a result of trial and
error and reinforcement, but came about in
sudden flashes of insight. The chimpanzees
would roam about the enclosure for some time
and then suddenly would stand on a box, grab
a pole and strike a banana, which was out of
nor mal reach above the enclosure. The
chimpanzee exhibited what Kohler called
insight learning – the process by which the
solution to a problem suddenly becomes clear.
In a nor mal experiment on insight
learning, a problem is presented, followed by
a period of time when no apparent progress is
made and finally a solution suddenly emerges.
In insight learning, sudden solution is the rule.
Once the solution has appeared, it can be
repeated immediately the next time the
problem is confronted. Thus, it is clear that
what is learned is not a specific set of
conditioned associations between stimuli and
responses but a cognitive relationship between
a means and an end. As a result, insight
learning can be generalised to other similar
problem situations.
Latent Learning
Another type of cognitive learning is known
as latent learning. In latent learning, a new
behaviour is learned but not demonstrated
until reinforcement is provided for displaying
it. Tolman made an early contribution to the
concept of latent learning. To have an idea of
latent learning, we may briefly understand his
experiment. Tolman put two groups of rats in
a maze and gave them an opportunity to
explore. In one group, rats found food at the
end of the maze and soon learned to make
their way rapidly through the maze. On the
other hand, rats in the second group were not
rewarded and showed no apparent signs of
learning. But later, when these rats were
reinforced, they ran through the maze as
efficiently as the rewarded group.
Tolman contended that the unrewarded
rats had learned the layout of the maze early
in their explorations. They just never displayed
their latent learning until the reinforcement
was provided. Instead, the rats developed a
cognitive map of the maze, i.e. a mental
representation of the spatial locations and
directions, which they needed to reach their
goal.
VERBAL LEARNING
Verbal learning is different from conditioning
and is limited to human beings. Human
beings, as you must have observed, acquire
knowledge about objects, events, and their
features largely in terms of words. Words then
come to be associated with one another.
Psychologists have developed a number of
methods to study this kind of learning in a
laboratory setting. Each method is used to
investigate specific questions about learning
of some kind of verbal material. In the study
of verbal learning, psychologists use a variety
of materials including nonsense syllables,
familiar words, unfamiliar words (see Table
6.2 for sample items), sentences, and
paragraphs.
Chapter 6 • Learning
2022-23
117
Table 6.2
Sample Lists of Items used in V
erbal Learning Experiments
Verbal
Nonsense syllables
Unfamiliar words
Familiar words
YOL
RUV
TOJ
LIN
LUF
GOW
NOK
RIC
NEZ
TAM
SUK
KOZ
GUD
MUP
KUG
ZILCH
PLUMB
VERVE
BLOUT
THILL
SCOFF
TENOR
WRACK
BOUGH
MALVE
PATTER
MANSE
KYDRA
BORGE
DEVEN
BOAT
NOSE
KNOW
GOAL
BOWL
LOAD
FEET
MEET
TENT
FOAM
TALE
JOKE
MALE
BALM
SOLE
Methods used in Studying Verbal Learning
1. Paired-Associates Learning : This method
is similar to S-S conditioning and S-R learning.
It is used in learning some foreign language
equivalents of mother tongue words. First, a
list of paired-associates is prepared. The first
word of the pair is used as the stimulus, and
the second word as the response. Members of
each pair may be from the same language or
two different languages. A list of such words
is given in Table 6.3.
The first members of the pairs (stimulus
term) are nonsense syllables (consonantvowel-consonant), and the second are English
nouns (response term). The learner is first
shown both the stimulus-response pairs
together, and is instructed to remember and
recall the response after the presentation of
each stimulus term. After that a learning trial
Table 6.3
begins. One by one the stimulus words are
presented and the participant tries to give the
correct response term. In case of failure, s/he
is shown the response word. In one trial all
the stimulus terms are shown. Trials continue
until the participant gives all the response
words without a single error. The total number
of trials taken to reach the criterion becomes
the measure of paired-associates learning.
2. Serial Learning : This method of verbal
learning is used to find out how participants
learn the lists of verbal items, and what
processes are involved in it. First, lists of verbal
items, i.e. nonsense syllables, most familiar
or least familiar words, interrelated words, etc.
are prepared. The participant is presented the
entire list and is required to produce the items
in the same serial order as in the list. In the
first trial, the first item of the list is shown,
Examples of Stimulus – Response PPairs
airs used in PPaired-Associates
aired-Associates Learning
Stimulus - Response
GEN
BEM
DIV
WUF
JIT
DAX
118
–
–
–
–
–
–
Stimulus - Response
LOOT
TIME
LAMP
DEER
LION
COAL
LUR
RUL
VAK
KER
HOZ
MUW
Psychology
2022-23
–
–
–
–
–
–
ROOF
GOLD
HILL
NAME
GOAT
BULL
and the participant has to produce the second
item. If s/he fails to do so within the prescribed
time, the experimenter presents the second
item. Now this item becomes the stimulus and
the participant has to produce the third item
that is the response word. If s/he fails, the
experimenter gives the correct item, which
becomes the stimulus item for the fourth word.
This procedure is called serial anticipation
method. Learning trials continue until the
participant correctly anticipates all the items
in the given order.
3. Free Recall : In this method, participants
are presented a list of words, which they read
and speak out. Each word is shown at a fixed
rate of exposure duration. Immediately after
the presentation of the list, the participants
are required to recall the words in any order
they can. Words in the list may be interrelated
or unrelated. More than ten words are
included in the list. The presentation order of
words varies from trial to trial. This method is
used to study how participants organise words
for storage in memory. Studies indicate that
the items placed in the beginning or end of
the lists are easier to recall than those placed
in the middle, which are more difficult to
recall.
Determinants of Verbal Learning
Verbal learning has been subjected to the most
extensive experimental investigations. These
studies have indicated that the course of verbal
learning is influenced by a number of factors.
The most important determinants are the
different features of the verbal material to be
learned. They include length of the list to be
learned and meaningfulness of the material.
Meaningfulness of material is measured in
several ways. The number of associations
elicited in a fixed time, familiarity of the
material and frequency of usage, relations
among the words in the list, and sequential
dependence of each word of the list on the
preceding words, are used for assessing
meaningfulness. Lists of nonsense syllables are
available with different levels of associations.
The nonsense syllables should be selected
from a list containing the same association
value. On the basis of research findings, the
following generalisations have been made.
Learning time increases with increase in
length of the list, occurrence of words with low
association values or lack of relations among
the items in the list. The more time it takes to
learn the list, stronger will be the learning. In
this respect psychologists have found that the
total time principle operates. This principle
states that a fixed amount of time is necessary
to learn a fixed amount of material, regardless
of the number of trials into which that time is
divided. The more time it takes to learn, the
stronger becomes the learning.
If participants are not restricted to the
serial learning method and are allowed to give
free recall, verbal lear ning becomes
organisational. It implies that in free recall
participants recall the words not in their order
of presentation, but in a new order or
sequence. Bousfield first demonstrated this
experimentally. He made a list of 60 words
that consisted of 15 words drawn from each
of the four semantic categories, i.e. names,
animals, professions, and vegetables. These
words were presented to participants one by
one in random order. The participants were
required to make free recall of the words.
However, they recalled the words of each
category together. He called it category
clustering. It is worth noting that, though,
the words were presented randomly the
participants organised them category-wise in
recall. Here category clustering occurred
because of the nature of the list. It has also
been demonstrated that free recall is always
organised subjectively. Subjective organisation
shows that the participants organise words
or items in their individual ways and recall
accordingly.
Verbal learning is usually intentional but
a person may learn some features of the words
unintentionally or incidentally. In this kind of
learning, participants notice features such as
whether two or more words rhyme, start with
identical letters, have same vowels, etc. Thus,
verbal learning is both intentional as well as
incidental.
Chapter 6 • Learning
2022-23
119
The world, in which we live, consists of
innumerable objects, events and living beings.
These objects and events are different in their
structures and functions. One of the many
things human beings have to do is to organise
the objects, events, animals, etc., into
categories so that within the category, objects
are treated as equivalent even though they are
different in their features. Such
categorisations involve concept learning.
Rules that are used to connect the features
to form a concept may be very simple or
complex. A rule is an instruction to do
something. Keeping in view the rules that are
used in defining concepts, psychologists have
studied two types of concepts : artificial
concepts and natural concepts or categories.
Artificial concepts are those that are welldefined and rules connecting the features are
precise and rigid. In a well-defined concept the
features that represent the concept are both
singly necessary and jointly sufficient.
Every object must have all the features in order
to become an instance of the concept. On the
other hand, natural concepts or categories are
usually ill-defined. Numerous features are
found in the instances of a natural category.
Such concepts include biological objects, real
world products, and human artefacts such as
tools, clothes, houses, etc.
Let us take the example of the concept of
a square. It is a well-defined concept. It must
have four attributes, i.e. closed figure, four
sides, each side of equal length, and equal
angles. Thus a square consists of four features
connected by a conjunctive rule. In order to
understand various rules for creating welldefined concepts let us look at Figure 6.4.
What is a Concept?
A concept is a category that is used to refer to
a number of objects and events. Animal, fruit,
building, and crowd are examples of concepts
or categories. It may be noted that the terms,
concept and category, are interchangeably
used. A concept is defined as ‘a set of features
or attributes connected by some rule’. Instances
of a concept are those objects or events or
behaviours, which have common features. A
feature is any characteristic or aspect of an
object or event or living organism that is
observed in them, and can be considered
equivalent to some features observed or
discriminated in other objects. Features are of
innumerable kinds and their discriminability
depends upon the degree of the observer’s
perceptual sensitivity. Properties like colour,
size, number, shape, smoothness, roughness,
softness, and hardness are called features.
Fig.6.4 : Sixteen figures containing two shapes –
square and triangle, two shades – pink and grey,
cross on top and bottom, circles – right or left sides
of figures. These figures are used as instances of
and non-instances of an artificial concept.
Activity 6.3
Take the following words and write them on
separate cards, and ask the participants to read
them aloud one by one. After completion of two
readings, ask them to write down the words in
any order : book, law, bread, shirt, coat, paper,
pencil, biscuit, pen, life, history, rice, curd, shoes,
sociology, sweet, pond, potato, ice-cream, muffler,
and prose. After the presentation, ask them to
write down the words they read, without bothering
about the order of presentation.
Analyse your data to see whether recalled
words show any organisation.
CONCEPT LEARNING
120
Psychology
2022-23
In Figure 6.4 there are 16 cards having two
shapes - square and triangle, two shades-pink
and grey, signs of cross on top or bottom, and
small circle on right side or left side. With the
help of these cards one can create a number of
concepts by using different rules. The set of
features that are connected by some rule are
called relevant features. The features that are
not included in the rule are considered to be
irrelevant features. For example, in the cards
shown in Figure 6.4 there are four features —
shape, shade, cross or no cross on the top, and
circle on the right or left side. In creating a
conjunctive concept by using two features
one may use shape and side as the relevant
ones, and leave out two others as irrelevant.
For such a concept, the exemplars and nonexemplars are given in Figure 6.5. You will
study more about concepts in Chapter 8 on
thinking.
Fig.6.5 : The four figures on the top are the
exemplars of the concept, and rest of the figures are
non-exemplars. The exemplars of the concept must
be triangle and grey. Other features are irrelevant.
SKILL LEARNING
Nature of Skills
A skill is defined as the ability to perform some
complex task smoothly and efficiently. Car
driving, airplane piloting, ship navigating,
shorthand writing, and writing and reading are
examples of skills. Such skills are learned by
practice and exercise. A skill consists of a
chain of perceptual motor responses or as a
sequence of S-R associations.
Phases of Skill Acquisition
Skill lear ning passes through several
qualitatively different phases. With each
successive attempt at learning a skill, one’s
performance becomes smoother and less effort
demanding. In other words, it becomes more
spontaneous or automatic. It has also been
shown that in each phase the performance
improves. In transition from one phase to the
next, when the level of performance stands
still, it is called performance plateau. Once
the next phase begins, performance starts
improving and its level starts going up.
One of the most influential accounts of the
phases of skill acquisition is presented by
Fitts. According to him, skill learning passes
through three phases, viz. cognitive,
associative and autonomous. Each phase or
stage of skill learning involves different types
of mental processes. In the cognitive phase of
skill learning, the learner has to understand
and memorise the instructions, and also
understand how the task has to be performed.
In this phase, every outside cue, instructional
demand, and one’s response outcome have to
be kept alive in consciousness.
The second phase is associative. In this
phase, different sensory inputs or stimuli are
linked with appropriate responses. As the
practice incr eases, errors decrease,
performance improves and time taken is also
reduced. With continued practice, errorless
performance begins, though, the learner has
to be attentive to all the sensory inputs and
maintain concentration on the task. Then the
third phase, i.e. autonomous phase, begins.
In this phase, two important changes take
place in per formance: the attentional
demands of the associative phase decrease,
and interference created by external factors
reduces. Finally, skilled performance attains
automaticity with minimal demands on
conscious effort.
Chapter 6 • Learning
2022-23
121
Transitions from one phase to the other
clearly show that practice is the only means
of skill learning. One has to keep on exercising
and practicing. As the practice increases,
improvement rate gradually increases; and
automaticity of errorless per formance
becomes the hallmark of skill. That is why it
is said that ‘practice makes a man perfect’.
TRANSFER
OF
LEARNING
The term transfer of learning is often called
transfer of training or transfer effect. It refers
to the effects of prior learning on new learning.
Transfer is considered to be positive if the
earlier learning facilitates current learning. It
is considered to be negative transfer if new
learning is retarded. Absence of facilitative or
retarding ef fect means zero transfer.
Psychologists use specific experimental
designs in the study of transfer effects. One
such design is presented in Table 6.4
Suppose you want to know whether
learning of English language affects learning
of French. To study this you select a large
sample of participants. Now you randomly
divide the sample into two groups, one to be
used in the experimental condition and the
other as control group. The experimental
group of participants learn English language
for a year and is tested to find out their
achievement in English. In the second year,
they study French. In the end this group is
tested to find out its achievement scores in
French. The control group in the first phase
does not learn English language and just does
its routine work for one year. In the second
year, these participants learn French for a year
and their achievement scores are obtained.
The achievement scores in French of the two
groups are then compared. If the achievement
Table 6.4
122
score of the experimental group is higher than
that of the control group, it implies that
positive transfer has taken place. If the score
is lower than the control group, it means
negative transfer has taken place. If the two
groups perform equally well, then it shows that
transfer effect is zero.
It must be noted that in the study of
transfer effect, a distinction is made between
general transfer and specific transfer. It is
now a well-known fact that prior learning
always leads to positive general transfer. It is
only in specific transfer that transfer effects
are positive or negative, and in some
conditions there is zero effect, though in
reality, due to general transfer, zero transfer
is theoretically untenable. Let us try to
understand the nature of general transfer and
specific transfer.
General (Generic) Transfer
General transfer is not clearly conceptualised
and defined in its details. However, prior
learning predisposes one to learn another task
in a better manner. The learning of one task
warms-up the learner to learn the next task
more conveniently. You must have seen a
cricketer going to the pitch to take her/his
position near the wicket. The cricketer walks
by jumping on one foot then on the other.
S/he moves her/his two hands holding the bat
sideways to loosen up. When you write answers
while appearing at the examination, your
writing is slow and sitting position awkward
for efficient writing. However, you get warmed
up after having written two or three pages. Your
speed increases and your body gets well
adjusted to the writing task. This continues
until the writing of the last answer is over. After
some time, warm-up effect disappears.
Warm-up effect lasts over one session of
Experimental Design used in the Study of T
ransf
er Eff
ects of Learning
Transf
ransfer
Effects
Group of Participants
Phase 1
Phase 2
Experimental
Control
Learns task A
Does not learn but rests
Learns task B
Learns task B
Psychology
2022-23
learning. Only in that session one can learn two
or more tasks.
Specific Transfer
Whenever an organism learns something, it
consists of a series of stimulus-response
associations. Any task can be understood as a
chain of discriminable stimuli, each of which
has to be associated with a specific response.
Specific transfer means the effect of learning
of task A on learning of task B. The learning of
task A may make the learning of task B easier
or more difficult or have no such effect. Such
transfers depend on similarity-dissimilarity
between the initial learning task and the second
task. The possible relationships between
stimuli and responses are shown in Table 6.5.
Table 6.5
3. In the third case, the stimuli are same
but responses are different. In such
conditions also some positive transfer
occurs.
4. In the fourth case, the stimuli are different,
but responses are the same. Therefore new
associations with responses are to be
learned. In this case positive transfer is
obtained.
5. In the fifth case, stimuli and responses are
the same, but associations are altered.
Because of this alteration, negative transfer
occurs in the learning of the second task.
It is so because the associations learned
in the initial task interfere in the learning
of new associations. Such interferences are
discussed in Chapter 7 which deals with
human memory.
Similarity-Dissimilarity Relationship between the Initial and Subsequent Learning T
asks
Tasks
S.No.
Initial Task
Second Task
Comments
1.
SA – R A
SC – RD
Both stimuli and responses are different
2.
SA – R A
SA – R A
Stimuli are the same and responses are similar
3.
SA – R A
SA – R D
Stimuli same but responses are different
4.
SA – R A
SC – RA
Stimuli are different but responses same
5.
SA – R A
S A – RA
Same stimuli and responses but associations
interchanged
On the basis of a long series of
experimental studies, the following
conclusions have been drawn about specific
transfer with reference to the situations shown
in Table 6.5.
1. In the first instance, the initial and transfer
tasks are very different both in stimuli as
well as in responses. Hence no specific
transfer is expected. However, due to the
mechanism of general transfer some
degree of positive transfer may occur.
2. In the second case, the stimuli of the two
tasks are the same and responses are
highly similar. Therefore, maximum
transfer may occur. It has been regularly
shown that in this condition positive
transfer takes place.
FACTORS FACILITATING LEARNING
In the preceding section we examined the
specific determinants of learning, such as
contiguous presentation of CS and US in
classical conditioning; number, amount, and
delay of reinforcement in operant conditioning;
status and attractiveness of models in
observational learning; procedure in verbal
lear ning; and the nature of rules and
perceptual features of objects and events in
concept learning. Now, we shall discuss some
general deter minants of learning. This
discussion is not exhaustive. Rather it deals
with some salient factors only which are found
very important.
Chapter 6 • Learning
2022-23
123
Continuous vs Partial Reinforcement
In experiments on learning the experimenter
can arrange to deliver reinforcement according
to a specific schedule. In the context of
learning, two kinds of schedules namely
continuous and partial have been found very
important. In continuous reinforcement the
participant is given reinforcement after each
target response. This kind of schedule of
reinforcement produces a high rate of
responding. However, once the reinforcement
is withheld, response rates decrease very
quickly, and the responses acquired under this
schedule tend to extinguish. Since organism
is getting reinforcement on each trial, the
effectiveness of that reinforcer is reduced. In
such schedules where reinforcement is not
continuous, some responses are not
reinforced. Hence, they are called partial or
intermittent reinforcement. There are several
ways in which one might reinforce responses
according to an intermittent schedule. It has
been found that partial reinforcement
schedules often produce very high rates of
responding, particularly when responses are
reinforced according to ratio. In this kind of
schedule, an organism often makes several
responses that are not reinforced. Therefore,
it becomes difficult to tell when a
reinforcement has been discontinued
completely and when it has merely been
delayed. When reinforcement is continuous it
is easier to tell when it has been discontinued.
This kind of difference has been found crucial
for extinction. It has been found that extinction
of a response is more difficult following partial
reinforcement than following continuous
reinforcement. The fact that the responses
acquired under partial reinforcement are
highly resistant to extinction is called partial
reinforcement effect.
Motivation
All living organisms have survival needs and
human beings, in addition, have growth needs.
Motivation is a mental as well as a
physiological state, which arouses an
124
organism to act for fulfilling the current need.
In other words, motivation energises an
organism to act vigorously for attaining some
goal. Such acts persist until the goal is
attained and the need is satisfied. Motivation
is a prerequisite for learning. Why does a child
forage in the kitchen when the mother is not
in the house? S/he does so because s/he
needs sweets to eat for which s/he is trying to
locate the jar in which sweets are kept. During
the course of foraging the child learns the
location of the jar. A hungry rat is placed in a
box. The animal forages in the box for food.
Incidentally it presses a lever and food drops
in the box. With repeated experience of such
activity, the animal learns to press the lever
immediately after the animal is placed there.
Have you ever asked yourself why you are
studying psychology and other subjects in
Class XI? You are doing so to pass with good
marks or grades in your final examination.
The more motivated you are, the more hard
work you do for learning. Your motivation for
learning something arises from two sources.
You learn many things because you enjoy
them (intrinsic motivation) or they provide you
the means for attaining some other goal
(extrinsic motivation).
Preparedness for Learning
The members of different species are very
different from one another in their sensory
capacities and response abilities. The
mechanisms necessary for establishing
associations, such as S-S or S-R, also vary
from species to species. It can be said that
species have biological constraints on their
learning capacities. The kinds of S-S or S-R
learning an organism can easily acquire
depends on the associative mechanism it is
genetically endowed with or prepared for. A
particular kind of associative learning is easy
for apes or human beings but may be
extremely difficult and sometimes impossible
for cats and rats. It implies that one can learn
only those associations for which one is
genetically prepared.
Psychology
2022-23
The concept of preparedness may be best
understood as a continuum or dimension, on
one end of which are those learning tasks or
associations which are easy for the members
of some species, and on the other end are those
learning tasks for which those members are
not prepared at all and cannot learn them. In
the middle of the continuum fall those tasks
and associations for which the members are
neither prepared nor unprepared. They can
learn such tasks, but only with great difficulty
and persistence.
THE LEARNER : LEARNING STYLES
You may have observed that some children,
sometimes from the same family, perform well
in school whereas others do not. There has
been a great deal of research on learning styles
over the last several decades. It demonstrates
the differences in the way people learn within
the same class, culture, community or socioeconomic group and those belonging to
different groups.
Lear ning style may be defined as
‘a learner’s consistent way of responding to
and using stimuli in the context of learning’. In
other words, it is ‘the way in which each
learner begins to concentrate, processes, and
retains new and complex information’. It may
be noted that this interaction occurs differently
for everyone. For example, you may have
noticed that children in your class are unique
in their personalities, cultural experiences,
and values. Different students prefer different
learning environments, learning modalities
and they all have unique strengths, talents,
and weaknesses.
Therefore, it is necessary to examine each
individual’s personal characteristics to
determine what is most likely to trigger each
learner’s concentration, maintain it, respond
to her or his natural processing style and
facilitate long-term memory. There are various
instruments which are used to determine a
student’s learning style.
Learning styles are mainly derived from
Perceptual Modality, Information Processing,
and Personality Patterns. A brief description
of these approaches are given below:
1. Perceptual Modality are biologically-based
reactions to the physical environment. It
refers to the preferences of persons
through which they take in information
such as auditory, visual, smell,
kinesthetic, and tactile.
2. Infor mation Processing distinguishes
between the way we are structured to
think, solve problems, and remember
information. This may be thought of as the
way we process information. For example,
active/reflective, sensing/intuitive,
sequential/global, serial/simultaneous,
etc.
3. Personality Patterns are the way we
interact with our surroundings. Each one
of us has a preferred, consistent, and
distinct way of perceiving, organising, and
retaining information. This approach
focuses on understanding how personality
affects the way people interact with the
environment, and how this affects the way
individuals respond to each other within
the learning environment.
There are several dimensions along which
learning styles differ. For example, Anderson
differentiated between analytic and relational
styles of learning. These have been illustrated
in Table 6.6. It is clear that people with a
relational style learn material best through
exposure to a full unit or phenomenon. They
comprehend parts of the unit only by
understanding their relationship to the whole.
On the other hand, people with an analytical
lear ning style lear n more easily when
information is presented step by step in a
cumulative sequential pattern that builds
towards a conceptual understanding.
One must remember that the various
learning styles are points along a scale that
help us to discover the different forms of
mental representation. They do not
characterise people. Therefore, we should not
divide the population into a set category (e.g.,
visual person, extrovert, etc.). We are capable
of learning under any style, no matter what
our preference may be.
Chapter 6 • Learning
2022-23
125
Table 6.6
Learning Styles
Relational Style
Analytical Style
1. Perceive information as part of total
picture
2. Exhibit intuitive thinking
1.
3. Learn materials that have a human,
social content and are characterised by
experiential/cultural relevance more
easily
4. Have a good memory for verbally
presented ideas and infor mation,
especially if relevant
5. Are more task-oriented concerning nonacademic areas
6. Are influenced by authority figures’
expression of confidence or doubt in
students’ ability
7. Prefer to withdraw from unstimulating
task performance
8. Style conflicts with the traditional
school environment
3.
LEARNING DISABILITIES
You must have heard, observed or read that
thousands of children get enrolled for
education in schools. Some of them, however,
find the demands of educational process too
difficult to meet, and they drop out. Such
students are called “drop-outs”. The reasons
for this are numerous, such as sensory
impairment, intellectual disability, social and
emotional disturbance, poor economic
conditions of the family, cultural beliefs and
norms or other environmental influences.
Apart from these conditions, there is another
source of obstacle in the continuance of
education that is called learning disabilities.
It makes school learning, i.e. acquisition of
knowledge and skills too difficult to grapple
with. Such children also fail to move forward
in their learning activities.
Learning disability is a general term. It
refers to a heterogeneous group of disorders
manifested in terms of difficulty in the
acquisition of learning, reading, writing,
speaking, reasoning, and mathematical
activities. The sources of such disorders are
126
2.
Able to disembed information from total
picture (focus on detail)
Exhibit sequential and structured
thinking
Learn materials that are inanimate and
impersonal more easily
4.
Have a good memory for abstract ideas
and irrelevant information
5.
Are more task-oriented concerning
academics
Are not greatly affected by the opinions
of others
6.
7.
8.
Show ability to persist unstimulating
task
Style
matches
most
school
environments
inherent in the child. It is presumed that these
difficulties originate from problems with the
functioning of the central nervous system. It
may occur in conjunction with physical
handicaps, sensory impairment, intellectual
disability or without them.
It must be noted that learning disabilities
may be observed as a distinct handicapping
condition in children of average to superior
intelligence, adequate sensory motor systems,
and adequate learning opportunities. If it is
not remedied, it may continue throughout life
and affect self-esteem, vocation, social
relations, and daily living activities.
Symptoms of Learning Disabilities
There are many symptoms of learning
disabilities. They become manifest in different
combinations in children who suffer from this
disorder irrespective of their intelligence,
motivation, and hard work for learning.
1. Difficulties in writing letters, words and
phrases, reading out text, and speaking
appear quite frequently. Quite often they
have listening problems, although they
may not have auditory defects. Such
Psychology
2022-23
children are very different from others in
developing learning strategies and plans.
2. Learning-disabled children have disorders
of attention. They get easily distracted and
cannot sustain attention on one point for
long. More often than not, attentional
deficiency leads to hyperactivity, i.e. they
are always moving, doing different things,
trying to manipulate things incessantly.
3. Poor space orientation and inadequate
sense of time are common symptoms.
Such children do not get easily oriented to
new surroundings and get lost. They lack
a sense of time and are late or sometimes
too early in their routine work. They also
show confusion in direction and misjudge
right, left, up and down.
4. Learning-disabled children have poor
motor coordination and poor manual
dexterity. This is evident in their lack of
balance, inability to sharpen pencil, handle
doorknobs, difficulty in learning to ride a
bicycle, etc.
5. These children fail to understand and
follow oral directions for doing things.
6. They misjudge relationships as to which
classmates are friendly and which ones are
indif ferent. They fail to lear n and
understand body language.
7. Learning-disabled children usually show
perceptual disorders. These may include
visual, auditory, tactual, and kinesthetic
misperception. They fail to differentiate a
call-bell from the ring of the telephone. It
is not that they do not have sensory acuity.
They simply fail to use it in performance.
8. Fairly large number of learning-disabled
children have dyslexia. They quite often
fail to copy letters and words; for example,
they fail to distinguish between b and d,
p and q, P and 9, was and saw, unclear
and nuclear, etc. They fail to organise verbal
materials.
It must be noted that lear ning
disabilities are not incurable. Remedial
teaching methods go a long way in helping
them to learn and become like other students.
Educational psychologists have developed
appropriate techniques for correcting most
of the symptoms related to learning
disabilities.
APPLICATIONS
OF
LEARNING PRINCIPLES
The principles of learning have great value for
enriching human life in all spheres of life. All
activities and behaviours that make personal,
social, and economic life peaceful and
pleasurable are learned. Their learning should
be psychologically guided. Contemporary
psychologists have developed techniques and
procedures based on the principles of classical
and operant conditioning, social learning,
verbal learning, concept learning, and skill
learning for improving many aspects of life.
We can have a glimpse of the applications of
lear ning principles in four areas, i.e.
organisations, in treatment of maladjustive
behaviours, in rearing children, and school
learning.
In organisations, a number of problems
such as absenteeism, frequent medical leave,
indiscipline, and lack of proper skills pose
serious problems. Applying the principles of
lear ning may solve these problems. To
increase attendance and reduce absenteeism,
an interesting device is used in some
organisations. At the end of every third month,
name slips of employees, not being absent on
a single working day are placed in a drum.
Four to five per cent of the names are randomly
drawn and they are given attractive rewards
for not being absent on a single working day.
Such rewards have been found to reduce
absenteeism. To increase the number of
employees, who have not gone on medical leave
for full one year, various benefits are given.
Such partial rewards reduce the incidence of
medical leave. With a view to improving
discipline, managers start functioning as
models for employees, or employees are placed
under such model managers.
Based on the principles of learning, a
number of therapeutic procedures have been
developed to modify maladaptive and socially
incapacitating habits and behaviours. In these
procedures, the principle of extinction is
employed. In the case of those children and
Chapter 6 • Learning
2022-23
127
adults who exhibit irrational and unfounded
fear with accompanying avoidance behaviour,
implosive therapy and flooding are used.
Implosive therapy starts with the person
imagining their most feared form of contact
with the feared object, accompanied by vivid
verbal descriptions by the therapist. The
therapist functions as a coach. On the other
hand, flooding is exposure that takes place in
vivo (e.g., with an actual feared object) and is
considered to be the most effective of all
treatments for fear. To help those suffering
from excessive anxieties and fears, the
technique of systematic desensitisation is
used. It is a form of behaviour therapy used
to reduce phobic patients’ anxiety responses
through counterconditioning, i.e. an attempt
to reverse the process of classical conditioning
by associating the crucial stimulus with a new
conditioned response. In order to eliminate
habits that are undesirable and injurious for
health and happiness, aversion therapy is
used. The therapist arranges things in such a
way that occurrence of maladjustive habits
generates painful experiences and to avoid
them clients learn to give them up. For
example, alcohol is paired with an emetic drug
(which induces severe nausea and vomiting)
so that nausea and vomiting become a
conditioned response to alcohol. Modeling
and systematic use of reinforcement for
shaping and developing competence are
extensively used. Persons suffering from
excessive shyness and having difficulties in
interpersonal interactions are subjected to
assertive learning. This therapy is also based
on the principles of learning. There are persons
who lose mental peace with accelerated rate
of breathing, loss of appetite, and rise in blood
pressure at the slightest provocation. In such
cases psychotherapists give biofeedback
treatment. This technique is based on the
interaction between classical and instrumental
conditioning. In biofeedback, a bodily function
(such as heart rate or blood pressure) is
monitored and information about the function
is fed back to the person to facilitate improved
control of the physiological process. You will
128
read in detail about these therapies in
Class XII.
The principles of learning are widely used
in teaching. Educational objectives are decided
after analysing the instructional tasks and
fitting them into various types of learning such
as S-S or S-R, verbal, observational, and skill
learning. Students are told what they have to
learn and appropriate practice conditions
are provided. Students are made active
participants in the acquisition of information,
meaning, and correct responses. Teachers act
as models and mentors for students to
emulate them with a view to promote
appropriate social behaviours and personal
habits. Students are provided ample
opportunities for practice as they are required
to do homework. Skills are analysed as S-R
chains and students are allowed to learn skills
practically.
The principles of learning are best applied
in child rearing, provided both the parents are
aware of the principles of learning. By using
the classical conditioning procedure children
are made to learn necessary signs of danger
and safety. The behaviour of children can
easily be modified and shaped through the
use of operant conditioning procedure. By
using rewards judiciously parents can make
children enthusiastic learners. As models and
mentors, parents make children socially
skillful, duty oriented and resourceful.
Psychology
2022-23
Key Terms
Associative learning, Biofeedback, Cognitive
map, Concept, Conditioned response,
Conditioned stimulus, Conditioning,
Discrimination, Dyslexia, Extinction, Free
recall, Generalisation, Insight, Learning
disabilities, Mental set, Modeling, Negative
reinforcement, Operant or instrumental
conditioning, Positive reinforcement,
Punishment, Reinforcement, Serial learning,
Spontaneous recovery, Transfer of learning,
Unconditioned response, Unconditioned
stimulus, Verbal learning
Summary
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Learning is any relatively permanent change in behaviour or behavioural potential produced
by experience or practice. It is an inferred process and differs from performance which is the
observed behaviour/response/action.
The main types of learning are: classical and operant conditioning, observational learning,
cognitive learning, verbal learning, concept learning, and skill learning.
Pavlov first investigated classical conditioning in the course of studies on digestion in dogs.
In this kind of learning an organism comes to associate stimuli. A neutral stimulus (CS) that
signals an unconditioned stimulus (US) begins to produce a response (CR) that anticipates
and prepares the organism for US.
Skinner first investigated operant or instrumental conditioning (OC). An operant is any
response voluntarily emitted by an organism. OC is a type of learning in which response is
strengthened if followed by reinforcement. A reinforcer can be any event that increases the
frequency of preceding response. Thus, the consequence of a response is crucial. The rate of
OC is influenced by the type, number, schedule, and delay of reinforcement.
Observational learning is also known as imitation, modeling and social learning. We acquire
knowledge by observing a model’s behaviour. The performance depends on whether the
model’s behaviour is rewarded or punished.
In verbal learning words get associated with one another on the basis of structural, phonetic,
and semantic similarity and contrast. They are often organised in clusters. In experimental
studies, paired-associates learning, serial learning, and free recall methods are used.
Meaningfulness of material, and subjective organisation influence learning. It may be
incidental also.
Concept is a category. It involves a set of features connected with a rule or instruction. A
concept can be natural or artificial. Artificial concepts are well-defined while natural concepts
are usually ill-defined. Experimental studies of well-defined concepts have been undertaken
through selection and reception procedures. The natural concepts have fuzzy boundaries.
Skill refers to the ability to carry out complex tasks smoothly and efficiently. They are learned
by practice and exercise. The skilled performance is the organisation of S-R chain into large
response patterns. It passes through cognitive, associative, and autonomous phases.
Effect of prior learning on new learning is called transfer of learning. It may be general (e.g.,
warm-up) or specific. It depends on similarity of S-R associations in the two learning tasks.
Factors facilitating learning include motivation and preparedness of the organism.
Learning style refers to the way in which each learner begins to concentrate on, process,
and retain new and difficult information.
Learning disabilities (e.g., reading, writing) restrict learning in people. They are hyperactive,
lack sense of time, and eye-hand coordination, etc.
The principles of learning are applied in organisations, treatment of maladjustive reactions,
child rearing, and school learning.
Review Questions
1. What is learning? What are its distinguishing features?
2. How does classical conditioning demonstrate learning by association?
3. Define operant conditioning. Discuss the factors that influence the course of operant
conditioning.
4. A good role model is very important for a growing up child. Discuss the kind of learning
that supports it.
5. Explain the procedures for studying verbal learning.
6. What is a skill? What are the stages through which skill learning develops?
Chapter 6 • Learning
2022-23
129
7. How can you distinguish between generalisation and discrimination?
8. How does transfer of learning takes place?
9. Why is motivation a prerequisite for learning?
10. What does the notion of preparedness for learning mean?
11. Explain the different forms of cognitive learning?
12. How can we identify students with learning disabilities?
Project Ideas
1.
2.
130
How do your parents reinforce you for behaving in the ways they think are good for you?
Select five different instances. Compare these with the reinforcement employed by teachers
in the classroom and relate them to the concepts taught in the class.
If your younger sister or brother has indulged in some undesirable behaviour, how would
you help her/him to get rid of that behaviour. Make use of the learning principles discussed
in the chapter.
Psychology
2022-23
Chapter
7
HumanMemory
After reading this chapter, you would be able to
•
•
•
•
•
•
understand the nature of memory,
distinguish between different types of memory,
explain how the contents of long-term memory are represented and
organised,
appreciate the constructive and reconstructive processes in memory,
understand the nature and causes of forgetting, and
learn the strategies for improving memory.
Contents
The advantage of bad
memory is that one
enjoys several times,
the same good things
for the first time.
Introduction
Nature of Memory
Information Processing Approach : The Stage Model
Memory Systems : Sensory, Short-term and Long-term Memories
Working Memory (Box 7.1)
Levels of Processing
Types of Long-term Memory
Declarative and Procedural; Episodic and Semantic
Long-term Memory Classification (Box 7.2)
Methods of Memory Measurement (Box 7.3)
Knowledge Representation and Organisation in Memory
Memory Making: Eyewitness and False Memories (Box 7.4)
Memory as a Constructive Process
Nature and Causes of Forgetting
Forgetting due to Trace Decay, Interference and Retrieval Failure
Repressed Memories (Box 7.5)
Enhancing Memory
Mnemonics using Images and Organisation
Key Terms
Summary
Review Questions
Project Ideas
– Friedrich Nietzsche
2022-23
Introduction
All of us are aware of the tricks that memory plays on us throughout our lives. Have
you ever felt embarrassed because you could not remember the name of a known
person you were talking to? Or anxious and helpless because everything you
memorised well the previous day before taking your examination has suddenly
become unavailable? Or felt excited because you can now flawlessly recite lines of
a famous poem you had learnt as a child? Memory indeed is a very fascinating yet
intriguing human faculty. It functions to preserve our sense of who we are, maintains
our interpersonal relationships and helps us in solving problems and taking
decisions. Since memory is central to almost all cognitive processes such as
perception, thinking and problem solving, psychologists have attempted to
understand the manner in which any information is committed to memory, the
mechanisms through which it is retained over a period of time, the reasons why it
is lost from memory, and the techniques which can lead to memory improvement.
In this chapter, we shall examine all these aspects of memory and understand
various theories which explain the mechanisms of memory.
The history of psychological research on memory spans over hundred years.
The first systematic exploration of memory is credited to Hermann Ebbinghaus, a
German psychologist of late nineteenth century (1885). He carried out many
experiments on himself and found that we do not forget the learned material at an
even pace or completely. Initially the rate of forgetting is faster but eventually it
stabilises. Another view on memory was suggested by Frederick Bartlett (1932)
who contended that memory is not passive but an active process. With the help of
meaningful verbal materials such as stories and texts, he demonstrated that memory
is a constructive process. That is, what we memorise and store undergoes many
changes and modifications over time. So there is a qualitative difference in what
was initially memorised by us and what we retrieve or recall later. There are other
psychologists who have influenced memory research in a major way. We shall
review their contributions in this chapter at appropriate places.
NATURE
OF
MEMORY
Memory refers to retaining and recalling
information over a period of time, depending
upon the nature of cognitive task you are
required to perform. It might be necessary to
hold an information for a few seconds. For
example, you use your memory to retain an
unfamiliar telephone number till you have
reached the telephone instrument to dial, or
for many years you still remember the
techniques of addition and subtraction which
132
you perhaps learned during your early
schooling. Memory is conceptualised as a
process consisting of three independent,
though interrelated stages. These are
encoding, storage, and retrieval. Any
information received by us necessarily goes
through these stages.
(a) Encoding is the first stage which refers to
a process by which information is recorded
and registered for the first time so that it
becomes usable by our memory system.
Whenever an external stimulus impinges on
Psychology
2022-23
our sensory organs, it generates neural
impulses. These are received in different areas
of our brain for further processing. In
encoding, incoming information is received
and some meaning is derived. It is then
represented in a way so that it can be
processed further.
(b) Storage is the second stage of memory.
Information which was encoded must also be
stored so that it can be put to use later.
Storage, therefore, refers to the process
through which information is retained and
held over a period of time.
(c) Retrieval is the third stage of memory.
Information can be used only when one is able
to recover it from her/his memory. Retrieval
refers to bringing the stored information to
her/his awareness so that it can be used for
performing various cognitive tasks such as
problem solving or decision-making. It may
be interesting to note that memory failure can
occur at any of these stages. You may fail to
recall an information because you did not
encode it properly, or the storage was weak
so you could not access or retrieve it when
required.
INFORMATION PROCESSING APPROACH :
THE STAGE MODEL
Initially, it was thought that memory is the
capacity to store all information that we
acquire through learning and experience. It
was seen as a vast storehouse where all
information that we knew was kept so that
we could retrieve and use it as and when
needed. But with the advent of the computer,
Information
Sensory Memory
Iconic (Sight)
Echoic (Sound)
and other senses Attention
Store Capacity large
Duration - less
than one second
human memory came to be seen as a system
that processes information in the same way
as a computer does. Both register, store, and
manipulate large amount of information and
act on the basis of the outcome of such
manipulations. If you have worked on a
computer then you would know that it has a
temporary memory (random access memory
or RAM) and a permanent memory (e.g., a hard
disk). Based on the programme commands,
the computer manipulates the contents of its
memories and displays the output on the
screen. In the same way, human beings too
register information, store and manipulate the
stored information depending on the task that
they need to perform. For example, when you
are required to solve a mathematical problem,
the memory relating to mathematical
operations, such as division or subtraction are
carried out, activated and put to use, and
receive the output (the problem solution). This
analogy led to the development of the first
model of memory, which was proposed by
Atkinson and Shiffrin in 1968. It is known as
Stage Model.
MEMORY SYSTEMS : SENSORY, SHORT-TERM
AND LONG-TERM MEMORIES
According to the Stage Model, there are three
memory systems : the Sensory Memory, the
Short-term Memory and the Long-term
Memory. Each of these systems have different
features and perform different functions with
respect to the sensory inputs (see Fig.7.1). Let
us examine what these systems are:
Short-term
Memory
Store Capacity small
Duration - less
than 30 seconds
Elaborative
Rehearsals
Long-term
Memory
Permanent
Store Capacity unlimited
Duration - upto
a lifetime
Fig.7.1 : The Stage Model of Memory
Chapter 7 • Human Memory
2022-23
133
Sensory Memory
The incoming information first enters the
sensory memory. Sensory memory has a large
capacity. However, it is of very short duration,
i.e. less than a second. It is a memory system
that registers information from each of the
senses with reasonable accuracy. Often this
system is referred to as sensory memories or
sensory registers because information from all
the senses are registered here as exact replica
of the stimulus. If you have experienced visual
after-images (the trail of light that stays after
the bulb is switched off) or when you hear
reverberations of a sound when the sound has
ceased, then you are familiar with iconic
(visual) or echoic (auditory) sensory registers.
Short-term Memory
You will perhaps agree that we do not attend
to all the information that impinge on our
senses. Information that is attended to enters
the second memory store called the short-term
memory (abbreviated as STM), which holds
small amount of information for a brief period
of time (usually for 30 seconds or less).
Atkinson and Shiffrin pr opose that
information in STM is primarily encoded
acoustically, i.e. in terms of sound and unless
rehearsed continuously, it may get lost from
the STM in less than 30 seconds. Note that
the STM is fragile but not as fragile as sensory
Box 7.1
Long-term Memory
Materials that survive the capacity and
duration limitations of the STM finally enter
the long-term memory (abbreviated as LTM)
which has a vast capacity. It is a permanent
storehouse of all information that may be as
recent as what you ate for breakfast yesterday
to as distant as how you celebrated your sixth
birthday. It has been shown that once any
information enters the long-term memory
store it is never forgotten because it gets
encoded semantically, i.e. in terms of the
meaning that any information carries. What
you experience as forgetting is in fact retrieval
failure; for various reasons you cannot retrieve
the stored information. You will read about
retrieval related forgetting later in this chapter.
So far we have only discussed the structural
features of the stage model. Questions which
still remain to be addressed are how does
information travel from one store to another
and by what mechanisms it continues to stay
in any particular memory store. Let us examine
the answers to these questions.
How does information travel from one store
to another? As an answer to this question,
Atkinson and Shiffrin propose the notion of
control processes which function to monitor
the flow of information through various
Working Memory
In recent years, psychologists have suggested that
the short-term memory is not unitary, rather it may
consist of many components. This multicomponent view of short-term memory was first
proposed by Baddeley (1986) who suggested that
the short-term memory is not a passive storehouse
but rather a work bench that holds a wide variety
of memory materials that are constantly handled,
manipulated and transformed as people perform
various cognitive tasks. This work bench is called
the working memory. The first component of the
working memory is the phonological loop which
134
registers where the information decays
automatically in less than a second.
holds a limited number of sounds and unless rehearsed
they decay within 2 seconds. The second component
visuospatial sketchpad stores visual and spatial
information and like phonological loop the capacity of
the sketchpad too is limited. The third component, which
Baddeley calls the Central Executive, organises
information from phonological loop, visuospatial
sketchpad as well as from the long-term memory. Like
a true executive, it allocates attentional resources to be
distributed to various information needed to perform a
given cognitive operation and monitors, plans, and
controls behaviour.
Psychology
2022-23
memory stores. As suggested earlier, all
informations which our senses receive are not
registered; if that be the case, imagine the kind
of pressure that our memory system will have
to cope with. Only that information which is
attended to enters the STM from sensory
registers and in that sense, selective attention,
as you have already read in Chapter 5, is the
first control process that decides what will
travel from sensory registers to STM. Sense
impressions, which do not receive attention,
fade away quickly. The STM then sets into
motion another control process of
maintenance rehearsal to retain the
information for as much time as required. As
the name suggests, these kinds of rehearsals
simply maintain infor mation through
repetition and when such repetitions
discontinue the information is lost. Another
control process, which operates in STM to
expand its capacity, is Chunking. Through
chunking it is possible to expand the capacity
of STM which is otherwise 7+2. For example,
if you are told to remember a string of digits
such as 194719492004 (note that the number
exceeds the capacity of STM), you may create
the chunks as 1947, 1949, and 2004 and
remember them as the year when India became
independent, the year when the Indian
Constitution was adopted, and the year when
the tsunami hit the coastal regions of India and
South East Asian countries.
From the STM, information enters the longterm memory through elaborative rehearsals.
As against maintenance rehearsals, which are
carried through silent or vocal repetition, this
rehearsal attempts to connect the ‘to be
retained information’ to the already existing
infor mation in long-term memory. For
example, the task of remembering the meaning
of the word ‘humanity’ will be easier if the
meanings of concepts such as ‘compassion’,
‘truth’ and ‘benevolence’ are already in place.
The number of associations you can create
around the new information will determine its
permanence. In elaborative rehearsals one
attempts to analyse the information in terms
of various associations it arouses. It involves
organisation of the incoming information in
as many ways as possible. You can expand
the information in some kind of logical
framework, link it to similar memories or else
can create a mental image. Figure 7.1, that
presents the stage model of memory, also
depicts the arrows to show the manner in
which information travels from one stage to
another.
Experiments, which were carried out to
test the stage model of memory, have produced
mixed results. While some experiments
unequivocally show that the STM and LTM
are indeed two separate memory stores, other
evidences
have
questioned
their
distinctiveness. For example, earlier it was
shown that in the STM information is encoded
acoustically, while in LTM it is encoded
semantically, but later experimental evidences
show that information can also be encoded
semantically in STM and acoustically in LTM.
Activity 7.1
I.
Try to remember the following list of digits
(individual digits)
19254981121
Now try to memorise them in the following
groups:
1 9 25 49 81 121
Finally memorise them in the following
manner:
12 32 52 72 92 112
What difference do you observe?
II.
Read out the lists given below in a row at the
speed of one digit per second to your friend
and ask her/him to repeat all the digits in
the same order:
List
Digits
1
2
3
4
5
2-6-3-8-3-4
7-4-8-2-4-1-2
4-3-7-2-9-0-3-6
9-2-4-1-7-8-2-6-5-3
8-2-5-4-7-4-7-7-3-9-1-6
(6 digits)
(7 digits)
(8 digits)
(10 digits)
(12 digits)
Remember that your friend will recall the
digits as soon as you finish the list. Note how
many digits are recalled. The memory score
of your friend will be the number of digits
correctly recalled by her/him. Discuss your
findings with your classmates and teacher.
Chapter 7 • Human Memory
2022-23
135
Shallice and Warrington in the year 1970
had cited the case of a man known as KF who
met with an accident and damaged a portion
of the left side of his cerebral hemisphere.
Subsequently, it was found that his long-term
memory was intact but the short-term memory
was seriously affected. The stage model
suggests that information are committed to the
long-term memory via STM and if KF’s STM
was affected, how can his long-term memory
be normal? Several other studies have also
shown that memory processes are similar
irrespective of whether any information is
retained for a few seconds or for many years
and that memory can be adequately
understood without positing separate memory
stores. All these evidences led to the
development of another conceptualisation
about memory which is discussed below as
the second model of memory.
LEVELS
OF
PROCESSING
The levels of processing view was proposed
by Craik and Lockhart in 1972. This view
suggests that the processing of any new
information relates to the manner in which it
is perceived, analysed, and understood which
in turn determines the extent to which it will
eventually be retained. Although this view has
undergone many revisions since then, yet its
basic idea remains the same. Let us examine
this view in greater detail.
Craik and Lockhart proposed that it is
possible to analyse the incoming information
at more than one level. One may analyse it in
terms of its physical or structural features.
For example, one might attend only to the
shape of letters in a word say cat - inspite of
whether the word is written in capital or small
letters or the colour of the ink in which it is
written. This is the first and the shallowest
level of processing. At an intermediate level
one might consider and attend to the phonetic
sounds that are attached to the letters and
therefore the structural features are
transformed into at least one meaningful word
say, a word cat that has three specific letters.
Analysing information at these two levels
136
produces memory that is fragile and is likely
to decay rather quickly. However, there is a
third and the deepest level at which
information can be processed. In order to
ensure that the information is retained for a
longer period, it is important that it gets
analysed and understood in terms of its
meaning. For instance, you may think of cat
as an animal that has furs, has four legs, a
tail, and is a mammal. You can also invoke an
image of a cat and connect that image with
your experiences. To sum up, analysing
information in terms of its structural and
phonetic features amounts to shallower
processing while encoding it in terms of the
meaning it carries (the semantic encoding) is
the deepest processing level that leads to
memory that resists forgetting considerably.
Understanding memory as an outcome of
the manner in which information is encoded
initially has an important implication for
learning. This view of memory will help you
realise that while you are learning a new
lesson, you must focus on elaborating the
meaning of its contents in as much detail as
possible and must not depend on rote
memorisation. Attempt this and you will soon
realise that understanding the meaning of
information and reflecting on how it relates
to other facts, concepts, and your life
experiences is a sure way to long-term
retention.
TYPES
OF
LONG-TERM MEMORY
As you have read in Box 7.1, the short-term
memory is now seen as consisting of more than
one component (working memory). In the same
way it is suggested that long-term memory too
is not unitary because it contains a wide
variety of information. In view of this,
contemporary formulations envisage longterm memory as consisting of various types.
For instance, one major classification within
the LTM is that of Declarative and Procedural
(sometimes called nondeclarative) memories.
All information pertaining to facts, names,
dates, such as a rickshaw has three wheels or
that India became independent on August 15
Psychology
2022-23
1947 or a frog is an amphibian or you and
your friend share the same name, are part of
declarative memory. Procedural memory, on
the other hand, refers to memories relating to
procedures for accomplishing various tasks
and skills such as how to ride a bicycle, how
to make tea or play basketball. Facts retained
in the declarative memory are amenable to
verbal descriptions while contents of
procedural memory cannot be described
easily. For example, when asked you can
describe how the game of cricket is played but
if someone asks you how do you ride a bicycle,
you may find it difficult to narrate.
Tulving has proposed yet another
classification and has suggested that the
declarative memory can either be Episodic or
Semantic.
Box 7.2
Episodic memory contains biographical
details of our lives. Memories relating to our
personal life experiences constitute the
episodic memory and it is for this reason that
its contents are generally emotional in nature.
How did you feel when you stood first in your
class? Or how angry was your friend and what
did s/he say when you did not fulfil a promise?
If such incidents did actually happen in your
life, you perhaps will be able to answer these
questions with reasonable accuracy. Although
such experiences are hard to forget, yet it is
equally true that many events take place
continuously in our lives and that we do not
remember all of them. Besides, there are
painful and unpleasant experiences which are
not remembered in as much detail as pleasant
life experiences.
Long-term Memory Classification
The study of memory is a fascinating field and
researchers have reported many new phenomena.
The following phenomena show the complex and
dynamic nature of human memory.
events contribute to it. During old age, the most recent
years of life are likely to be well remembered. However,
before this, around 30 years of age, decline in certain
kinds of memory starts.
Flashbulb Memories : These are memories of
events that are very arousing or surprising. Such
memories are very detailed. They are like a photo
taken with an advanced model camera. You can
push the button, and after one minute you have a
recreation of the scene. You can look at the
photograph whenever you want. Flashbulb
memories are like images frozen in memory and
tied to particular places, dates, and times.
Perhaps, people put in greater effort in the
formation of these memories, and highlighting
details might lead to deeper levels of processing
as well as offer more cues for retrieval.
Implicit Memory : Recent studies have indicated
that many of the memories remain outside the
conscious awareness of a person. Implicit memory is
a kind of memory that a person is not aware of. It is
a memory that is retrieved automatically. One
interesting example of implicit memory comes from
the experience of typing. If someone knows typing
that means s/he also knows the particular letters
on the keyboard. But many typists cannot correctly
label blank keys in a drawing of a keyboard. Implicit
memories lie outside the boundaries of awareness.
In other words, we are not conscious of the fact that
a memory or record of a given experience exists.
Nevertheless, implicit memories do influence our
behaviour. This kind of memory was found in patients
suffering from brain injuries. They were presented a
list of common words. A few minutes later the patient
was asked to recall words from the list. No memory
was shown for the words. However, if s/he was
prompted to say a word that begins with these letters
and two letters are given, the patient was able to
recall words. Implicit memories are also observed in
people with normal memories.
Autobiographical Memory : These are personal
memories. They are not distributed evenly
throughout our lives. Some periods in our lives
produce more memories than others. For instance,
no memories are reported pertaining to early
childhood particularly during the first 4 to 5 years.
amnesia. There is a
This is called childhood amnesia
dramatic increase in the frequency of memories
just after early adulthood, i.e. in the twenties.
Perhaps emotionality, novelty, and importance of
Chapter 7 • Human Memory
2022-23
137
Semantic memory, on the other hand, is
the memory of general awareness and
knowledge. All concepts, ideas and rules of
logic are stored in semantic memory. For
instance, it is because of semantic memory
that we remember the meaning of say ‘nonviolence’ or remember that 2+6=8 or the STD
code of New Delhi is 011 or that the word
‘elaphant’ is misspelt. Unlike episodic memory
this kind of memory is not dated; you perhaps
will not be able to tell when you learnt the
meaning of non-violence or on which date you
came to know that Bangalore is the capital of
Karnataka. Since the contents of semantic
memory relate to facts and ideas of general
awareness and knowledge, it is affect-neutral
and not susceptible to forgetting. See Box 7.2
for various other classifications of long-term
memory.
Activity 7.2
1.
2.
Think about your early school days. Write
down two separate events that occurred during
those days, and which you remember vividly.
Use separate sheets for writing about each
event.
Think of the first month in Class XI. Write down
two separate events that occurred during the
month, and which you remember vividly. Use
separate sheets for each event.
Compare these in terms of length, felt emotions,
and coherence.
Activity 7.3
Write the sentences given below on separate cards. Invite some junior students to play this
game with you. Seat her/him across a table in front of you. Tell her/him “In this game you will
be shown some cards one by one at a steady pace, you have to read the question written on
each card and answer it in yes or no”.
Note
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
down the answers.
Is the word written in capital letters?
Does the word rhyme with the word crew?
Does the word fit in the following sentence?
“____________ study in school”.
Does the word rhyme with the word gold?
Is the word written in capital letters?
Does the word fit in the following sentence?
“The son of my uncle is my ____________.”
Does the word fit in the following sentence?
My _________ is a vegetable.
Does the word fit in the following sentence?
“__________ is a piece of furniture”.
Is the word written in capital letters?
Does the word rhyme with the word wears?
Is the word written in capital letters?
Does the word rhyme with the word clear?
Does the word fit in the following sentence?
“Children like to play __________ .”
Does the word fit in the following sentence?
“People usually meet __________ in the bucket.”
Does the word fit in the following sentence?
“My class room is filled with ________.”
Does the word fit in the following sentence?
“My mother gives me enough pocket __________.”
BELT
grew
Students
mood
bread
cousin
home
Potato
TABLE
bears
marks
five
games
friends
shirts
money
After completing the task of reading the cards, ask the students to recall the words about which
the questions were asked. Note down the words recalled. Count the number of words recalled in
the structural, phonological, and semantic types of processing required by the question.
Discuss results with your teacher.
138
Psychology
2022-23
Box 7.3
Methods of Memory M
easurement
Measurement
There are many ways in which memory is
measured experimentally. Since there are many
kinds of memories, any method appropriate for
studying one type of memory may not be suited
for studying another. The major methods which
are used for memory measurement are being
presented here :
a) Free Recall and Recognition (for measuring
facts/episodes related memory) : In free recall
method, participants are presented with
some words which they are asked to
memorise and after some time they are asked
to recall them in any order. The more they
are able to recall, the better their memory is.
In recognition, instead of being asked to
generate items, participants see the items
that they had memorised along with
distracter items (those that they had not seen)
and their task is to recognise which one of
those they had lear nt. The greater the
number of recognition of ‘old items’, better is
the memory.
b) Sentence Verification Task (for measuring
semantic memory) : As you have already read,
KNOWLEDGE REPRESENTATION
ORGANISATION IN MEMORY
AND
In this section we will take a look at the
organisational structure that the contents of
long-term memory acquire over a period of
time. Since long-term memory holds a very
large amount of information which is put to
use with amazing efficiency, it would be very
useful to know how our memory system
organises its contents so that the right
information is available at the right moment.
It is important to note at this point that many
ideas relating to organisation of the content
of long-term memory have resulted from
experiments that have employed semantic
retrieval tasks. You will perhaps agree that
there cannot be any error in recalling the
contents of semantic memory. For anyone who
knows that birds fly will not make a mistake
in answering a question — Do birds fly? The
answer will be in affirmative. But people may
c)
semantic memory is not amenable to any
forgetting because it embodies general knowledge
that we all possess. In sentence verification task,
the participants are asked to indicate whether the
given sentences are true or false. Faster the
participants respond, better retained is the
information needed to verify those sentences (see
Activity 7.3 for use of this task in measurement of
semantic knowledge).
Priming (for measuring information we cannot
report verbally) : We store many kinds of
information that we can’t report verbally - for
instance, information necessary to ride a bicycle
or play a sitar. Besides, we also store information
that we are not aware of, which is described as
implicit memory. In priming method, participants
are shown a list of words, such as garden,
playground, house, etc. and then they are shown
parts of these words like gar, pla, ho, along with
parts of other words they had not seen.
Participants complete parts of seen words more
quickly than parts of words they had not seen.
When asked, they are often unaware of this and
report that they have only guessed.
take variable lengths of time in answering
questions, which require semantic judgments.
While responding to question ‘Do birds fly?’ a
person will take not more than a second but
answering a question ‘Are birds animals’? may
take longer. Depending upon how much time
people take in responding to questions such
as these, the nature of organisation in longterm memory has been inferred.
The most important unit of representation
of knowledge in long-term memory is a
concept. Concepts are mental categories for
objects and events, which are similar to each
other in one or in more than one way.
Concepts once formed get organised in
categories — a category itself is a concept but
it also functions to organise similarities among
other concepts based on common features. For
example, the word mango is a category
because different varieties of mangoes can be
subsumed within it and it is also a concept
within the category of fruit. Concepts may also
Chapter 7 • Human Memory
2022-23
139
get organised in schema. They are mental
frameworks which represent our knowledge
and assumptions about the world. For
example, think of a schema of a drawing room.
It will have different objects/things, like a sofa
set, center table, paintings, etc., which are
found in a drawing room and where they are
found in the drawing room.
So far we have examined the concept as
the basic level at which knowledge is
represented in the long-term memory and the
notions of category and schema as the first
level at which concepts are organised. Let
us now look at a higher level of organisation
that concepts acquire in the long-term
memory.
In the year 1969, Allan Collins and Ross
Quillian published a landmark research paper
in which they suggested that knowledge in
long-term memory is organised hierarchically
and assumes a network structure. Elements
of this structure are called nodes. Nodes are
concepts while connections between nodes are
labelled relationships, which indicate category
membership or concept attributes.
In order to verify the proposed network
structure of long-term knowledge, participants
of experiments were asked to verify the truth
of the statements such as ‘canary is a bird’ or
‘a canary is an animal’ (answer was in Yes/
No). These were generally class-inclusion
statements in which the subject was word
‘canary’ (perhaps, you know, it is a bird) and
the predicate took the form ‘is a’. A critical
finding of such experiments was that as the
predicate became hierarchically more remote
from the subject in a sentence, participants
took longer time to verify that it is true or false.
Thus, people took longer to verify that a
‘canary is an animal’ compared to that which
said ‘canary is a bird’ because bird is an
immediate superordinate category in which
canary is subsumed while animal is a
superordinate category which is more distant
and remote from the concept canary.
According to this view, we can store all
knowledge at a certain level that ‘applies to
all the members of a category without having
to repeat that information at the lower levels
in the hierarchy’. This ensures a high degree
of cognitive economy, which means
maximum and efficient use of the capacity of
long-term memory with minimum
redundancy.
Animal
Bird
Has skin
Breathes
Eats food
Can move around
Has wings
Can fly
Has feathers
Fish
Has fins
Can swim
Has gills
Canary
Ostrich
Can sing
Has long thin legs
Is tall
Can’t fly
Salmon
Is yellow
Shark
Can bite
Is dangerous
Fig.7.2 : The Hierarchical Network Model
140
Psychology
2022-23
Is pink
Is edible
Swims upstream
to lay eggs
So far we have discussed concept as unit
of representation of knowledge in the longterm memory and looked at various ways in
which concepts get organised. Does this mean
that knowledge is encoded only in word-like
format or can there be other ways of encoding?
It has been shown that information can be
coded in a perceptual format or in terms of
images. An image is a concrete form of
representation which directly conveys the
perceptual attributes of an object. If you were
to come across the word ‘school’, an image of
your own school will get generated. In fact,
almost all concrete objects (and concepts)
generate images and the knowledge related to
them is encoded both verbally as well as
Box 7.4
visually. This is known as dual coding
hypothesis, originally proposed by Paivio.
According to this hypothesis, concrete nouns
and information related to concrete objects are
encoded and stored in the form of images while
information related to abstract concepts
assume a verbal and a descriptive code. For
example, if you are asked to describe a bird,
the first thing that happens is that an image
of a bird is generated and based on this image,
you describe a bird. But, on the other hand,
the meanings of concepts like ‘truth’ or
‘honesty’ will not have such accompanying
images. So, any information which has been
encoded verbally as well as in the form of
images is recalled with greater ease.
alse Memories
yewitness and FFalse
Memory Making : E
Eyewitness
Eyewitness Memory
Court procedures followed in criminal trials, use
the testimony given by the eyewitness of the
offense. It is considered to be the most reliable
evidence for or against the accused. Some
experiments carried out by Loftus and her
colleagues during the mid-seventies showed that
the eyewitness’s memory is susceptible to many
flaws.
The experimental procedure followed by Loftus
was very simple. A film clipping of an event (usually
a car accident) was shown to the participants. This
was followed by some questions, which interferes
with encoding of the event. One of the questions
was “how fast were the cars going when they
smashed into each other”. In another question the
verb smashed was replaced with the verb
contacted. Those who were asked the first question
(which included the word ‘smashed’) estimated the
speed of the cars as 40.8 mph. Those who were
given the second question (i.e. with the word
‘contacted’) estimated that the speed of the cars
was only 31.8 mph. Clearly, the nature of leading
questions changed the memory. In fact, the
encoding of the event was ‘overwritten’ by
misleading questions. Some of these errors are also
committed because of affective nature of the event
itself. For example, events depicting violence or a
tragedy tend to arouse strong emotions, the
eyewitnesses get overwhelmed and do not pay
attention to details while encoding.
False Memory
An interesting phenomenon called false memory can
be induced by powerful imagination of events that did
not take place at all. Surprised? Let us look at one
such study carried out by Garry, Manning and Loftus
in 1996 and understand the features of false memory.
Initially they presented before the participants
of their experiments, a list of events that could have
occurred in their lives. In the first phase of this
experiment, they rated the likelihood that each of
these events actually took place in their lives to the
best of their childhood memories. Two weeks later,
they were invited again to the laboratory and were
asked to imagine those events and visualise as if
they actually happened to them. In particular, events
which were rated low in terms of their likelihood of
occurrence, were chosen for the task of visualising
and imagining. This was the second phase of the
experiment. Finally, in the third phase, the
experimenters pretended that they had misplaced
the event likelihood ratings which they had obtained
during the first phase and therefore requested the
participants to respond to the list, once again.
Interestingly, events which were rated low on
likelihood in the first phase but were later visualised
and imagined as real were now rated high. The
participants reported that those events actually took
place in their lives. These findings suggest that
memory can be induced and implanted through
imagination inflation — a finding that provides useful
insights into memory processes.
Chapter 7 • Human Memory
2022-23
141
Information which has been encoded and
stored in the form of images leads to the
development of mental models. There are many
routine tasks which require mental models.
For example, following a road direction,
assembling a bicycle or even preparing to cook
an exotic dish from instructions given in a
cookery book require that spatial mental
models are created from verbal descriptions.
Mental models, therefore, refer to our belief
about the manner in which our environment
is structured and such beliefs are formed with
the help of concrete images as well as verbal
descriptions.
MEMORY
AS A
CONSTRUCTIVE PROCESS
If you were to carefully examine the initial
explorations about memory processes, you will
perhaps conclude that memory primarily
consists of reproduction of stored materials.
This view was held by Ebbinghaus and his
followers who emphasised the quantity of
information that can be stored in the memory
and judged its accuracy by matching the
contents of storage and reproduction. If the
reproduced version of the stored material
showed any deviation, it was seen as an error
and a case of memory failure. This storage
metaphor of memory implied that the memory
was a passive occurrence of learnt material
that has been transported to its long-term
storehouse. This position was challenged by
Bartlett in the early thirties who contended
that memory is an active process and all that
we have stored undergoes continuous change
and modification. What we memorise is
influenced by the meaning we assign to the
stimulus material and once it is committed to
our memory system, it cannot remain in
isolation from other cognitive processes.
In essence, therefore, Bartlett saw memory
as a constructive and not a reproductive
process. Using meaningful materials such as
texts, folk tales, fables, etc. Bartlett attempted
to understand the manner in which content
of any specific memory gets affected by a
person’s knowledge, goals, motivation,
preferences and various other psychological
142
processes. He conducted simple experiments
in which reading of such stimulus materials
was followed by fifteen minutes break and then
the participants of his experiment recalled what
they had read. Bartlett used the method of
serial reproduction in which the participants
of his experiments recalled the memory
materials repeatedly at varying time intervals.
While engaging in serial reproduction of
learned material his participants committed
a wide variety of ‘errors’ which Bartlett
considered useful in understanding the
process of memory construction. His
participants altered the texts to make them
more consistent with their knowledge, glossed
over the unnecessary details, elaborated the
main theme and transformed the material to
look more coherent and rational.
In order to explain such findings, Bartlett
invoked the term schema, which according
to him ‘was an active organisation of past
reactions and past experiences’. Schemas refer
to an organisation of past experiences and
knowledge, which influence the way in which
incoming information is interpreted, stored,
and later retrieved. Memory, therefore,
becomes an active process of construction
where information is encoded and stored in
terms of a person’s understanding and within
her/his previous knowledge and expectations.
NATURE
AND
CAUSES
OF
FORGETTING
Each one of us has experienced forgetting and
its consequences almost routinely. Why do we
forget? Is it because the information we
commit to our long-term memory is somehow
lost? Is it because we did not memorise it well
enough? Is it because we did not encode the
information correctly or is it because during
storage, it got distorted or misplaced? Many
theories have been forwarded to explain
forgetting and now you will read about those
that seem plausible and have received
considerable attention.
The first systematic attempt to understand
the nature of forgetting was made by Hermann
Ebbinghaus, who memorised lists of nonsense
syllables (CVC trigrams such as NOK or SEP
Psychology
2022-23
75
50
25
0
Amount forgotten (per cent)
100
75
20 min.
1 hr.
Amount
forgotten
50
8.8 hrs.
25
Amount retained (per cent)
etc.) and then measured the number of trials
he took to relearn the same list at varying time
intervals. He observed that the course of
forgetting follows a certain pattern which you
can see in Figure 7.3.
Amount
retained
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
30 31 100
Time since learning (in days)
Fig.7.3 : Ebbinghaus’s Curve of Forgetting
As the figure indicates, the rate of forgetting
is maximum in the first nine hours, particularly
during the first hour. After that the rate slows
down and not much is forgotten even after
many days. Although Ebbinghaus’s
experiments constituted initial explorations
and were not very sophisticated yet they have
influenced memory research in many
important ways. It is now upheld, almost
unanimously, that there is always a sharp
drop in memory and thereafter the decline is
very gradual. Let us now examine the main
theories, which have been advanced to explain
forgetting.
Forgetting due to Trace Decay
Trace decay (also called disuse theory) is the
earliest theory of forgetting. The assumption
here is that memory leads to modification in
the central nervous system, which is akin to
physical changes in the brain called memory
traces. When these memory traces are not
used for a long time, they simply fade away
and become unavailable. This theory has been
proved inadequate on several grounds. If
forgetting takes place because memory traces
decay due to disuse, then people who go to
sleep after memorising should forget more
compared to those who remain awake, simply
because there is no way in which memory
traces can be put to use during sleep. Results,
however, show just the opposite. Those who
remain awake after memorising (waking
condition) show greater forgetting than those
who sleep (sleeping condition).
Because trace decay theory did not explain
forgetting adequately, it was soon replaced by
another theory of forgetting which suggested
that new information that enters the long-term
memory interferes with the recall of earlier
memories and therefore, interference is the
main cause of forgetting.
Forgetting due to Interference
If forgetting is not due to trace decay then why
does it take place? A theory of forgetting that
has perhaps been the most influential one is
the interference theory which suggests that
forgetting is due to interference between
various information that the memory store
contains. This theory assumes that learning
and memorising involve for ming of
associations between items and once acquired,
these associations remain intact in the
memory. People keep acquiring numerous
such associations and each of these rests
independently without any mutual conflict.
However, interference comes about at a time
of retrieval when these various sets of
associations compete with each other for
retrieval. This interference process will become
clearer with a simple exercise. Request your
friend to learn two separate lists of nonsense
syllables (list A and list B) one after the other
and after a while ask her/him to recall the
nonsense syllables of list A. If while trying to
recall the items of list A, s/he recalls some of
the items of list B, it is because of the
association formed while learning list B are
interfering with the earlier association which
were formed while learning list A.
There are atleast two kinds of interferences
that may result in forgetting. Interference can
be proactive (forward moving) which means
what you have learnt earlier interferes with
Chapter 7 • Human Memory
2022-23
143
Table 7.1
Experimental Designs ffor
or Retroactive and PProactive
roactive Interf
erence
Interference
Retroactive Interference
Phase 1
Phase 2
Testing Phase
Experimental participant/group
Learns A
Learns B
Recalls A
Control participant/group
Learns A
Rests
Recalls A
Experimental participant/group
Learns A
Learns B
Recalls B
Control participant/group
Rests
Learns B
Recalls B
Proactive Interference
the recall of your subsequent learning or
retroactive (backward moving) which refers to
difficulty in recalling what you have learnt
earlier because of learning a new material. In
other words, in proactive interference, past
learning interferes with the recall of later
learning while in retroactive interference the
later learning interferes with the recall of past
learning. For example, if you know English
and you find it difficult to learn French, it is
because of proactive interference and if, on
the other hand, you cannot recall English
equivalents of French words that you are
currently memorising, then it is an example
of retr oactive inter ference. A typical
experimental design that is used to
demonstrate proactive and retroactive
interference has been presented in Table 7.1.
Box
7.5
Forgetting can occur not only because the
memory traces have decayed over time (as
suggested by the disuse theory) or because
independent sets of stored associations
compete at the time of recall (as suggested by
the interference theory) but also because at
the time of recall, either the retrieval cues are
absent or they are inappropriate. Retrieval
cues are aids which help us in recovering
information stored in the memory. This
view was advanced by Tulving and his
associates who carried out several
experiments to show that contents of memory
may become inaccessible either due to
absence or inappropriateness of retrieval cues
that are available/employed at the time of
recall.
Repressed Memories
Some individuals undergo experiences that are
traumatic. A traumatic experience emotionally
hurts a person. Sigmund Freud posited that such
experiences are repressed into the unconscious
and are not available for retrieval from memory.
It is a kind of repression — painful, threatening,
and embarrassing memories are held out of
consciousness.
In some persons, traumatic experiences may
give rise to psychological amnesia. Some
individuals experience crisis, and are utterly
incapable of coping with such events. They close
their eyes, ears and mind to such harsh realities
of life, and take mental flight from them. It results
144
Forgetting due to Retrieval Failure
in highly generalised amnesia. One of the results of
such flights is the emergence of a disorder known as
‘fugue state’. Persons who become victims of such a
state assume a new identity, name, address, etc.
They have two personalities and one knows nothing
about the other.
Forgetfulness or loss of memory under stress
and high anxiety is not uncommon. Many hard
working and ambitious students aspire for high
scores in final examinations and to achieve such
ends they put in long hours in studies. But when
they receive the question paper, they become
extremely nervous and forget everything they had
prepared well.
Psychology
2022-23
Activity 7.4
Given below are two lists of words. First memorise the list in such a way that you are able to
recall the words without any error. Now you take up the second list and memorise it to the
criterion of correct recall error. Forget about the list and read something else for an hour. Now
recall the words in the first list and write them down. Note the total number of words correctly
recalled and the number of words incorrectly recalled.
List 1
Goat
Jackal
Mule
Horse
Snake
Sheep
Monkey
Deer
Cheetah
Rabbit
Leopard
Camel
Squirrel
Wolf
Parrot
List 2
Pig
Pigeon
Mynah
Bears
Buffalo
Elephant
Cobra
Lion
Fox
Mouse
Donkey
Tiger
Calf
Crow
Get the cooperation of one of your friends and request her/him to memorise the words of List 1
to the criterion as stated above. Request her/him to sing a song and have a cup of tea with you.
Keep her/him engaged in some conversation for an hour or so. Then request her/him to write
down the words s/he had memorised earlier.
Compare your recall with the one made by your friend.
Let us understand this with the help of an
example. Suppose you have memorised a list
of meaningful words like hut, wasp, cottage,
gold, bronze, ant, etc. in which words belonged
to six categories (like places of living, names
of insects, types of metal, etc.). If after a while
you are asked to recall those you may recall a
couple of them but if during the second recall
attempt, you are also provided with category
names, then you may find that your recall is
near total. Category names in this example
act as retrieval cues. Besides category names,
the physical context in which you learn also
provides effective retrieval cues.
ENHANCING MEMORY
All of us desire to possess an excellent memory
system that is robust and dependable. Who,
after all, likes to face situations of memory
failures that lead to so much of anxiety and
embarrassment? After learning about various
memory related processes, you certainly would
like to know how your memory can be
improved. There are a number of strategies for
improving memory called mnemonics
(pronounced ni-mo-nicks) to help you improve
your memory. Some of these mnemonics
involve use of images whereas others
emphasise self-induced organisation of
learned information. You will now read about
mnemonics and some suggestions given for
memory improvement.
Mnemonics using Images
Mnemonics using images require that you
create vivid and interacting images of and
around the material you wish to remember.
The two prominent mnemonic devices, which
make interesting use of images, are the
keyword method and the method of loci.
(a) The Keyword Method : Suppose you want
to learn words of any foreign language. In
keyword method, an English word (the
assumption here is that you know English
language) that sounds similar to the word of
a foreign language is identified. This English
Chapter 7 • Human Memory
2022-23
145
word will function as the keyword. For example,
if you want to remember the Spanish word for
duck which is ‘Pato’, you may choose ‘pot’ as
the keyword and then evoke images of keyword
and the target word (the Spanish word you want
to remember) and imagine them as interacting.
You might, in this case, imagine a duck in a
pot full of water. This method of learning words
of a foreign language is much superior
compared to any kind of rote memorisation.
(b) The Method of Loci : In order to use the
method of loci, items you want to remember
are placed as objects arranged in a physical
space in the form of visual images. This
method is particularly helpful in remembering
items in a serial order. It requires that you
first visualise objects/places that you know
well in a specific sequence, imagine the objects
you want to remember and associate them one
by one to the physical locations. For example,
suppose you want to remember bread, eggs,
tomatoes, and soap on your way to the market,
you may visualise a loaf of bread and eggs
placed in your kitchen, tomatoes kept on a
table and soap in the bathroom. When you
enter the market all you need to do is to take
a mental walk along the route from your
kitchen to the bathroom recalling all the items
of your shopping list in a sequence.
Mnemonics using Organisation
Organisation refers to imposing certain order
on the material you want to remember.
Mnemonics of this kind are helpful because of
the framework you create while organisation
makes the retrieval task fairly easy.
(a) Chunking : While describing the features
of short-term memory, we noted how chunking
can increase the capacity of short-term
memory. In chunking, several smaller units
are combined to form large chunks. For
creating chunks, it is important to discover
some organisation principles, which can link
smaller units. Therefore, apart from being a
control mechanism to increase the capacity
of short-term memory, chunking can be used
to improve memory as well.
146
(b) First Letter Technique : In order to employ
the first letter technique, you need to pick up
the first letter of each word you want to
remember and arrange them to form another
word or a sentence. For example, colours of a
rainbow are remembered in this way
(VIBGYOR- that stands for Violet, Indigo, Blue,
Green, Yellow, Orange and Red).
Mnemonic strategies for memory
enhancement are too simplistic and perhaps
underestimate complexities of memory tasks
and difficulties people experience while
memorising. In place of mnemonics, a more
comprehensive approach to memory
improvement has been suggested by many
psychologists. In such an approach, emphasis
is laid on applying knowledge about memory
processes to the task of memory improvement.
Let us examine some of these suggestions.
It is suggested that one must :
(a) Engage in Deep Level Processing : If you
want to memorise any information well,
engage in deep level processing. Craik and
Lockhart have demonstrated that processing
information in terms of meaning that they
convey leads to better memory as compared
to attending to their surface features. Deep
processing would involve asking as many
questions related to the information as
possible, considering its meaning and
examining its relationships to the facts you
already know. In this way, the new information
will become a part of your existing knowledge
framework and the chances that it will be
remembered are increased.
(b) Minimise Interference : Interference, as we
have read, is a major cause of forgetting and
therefore you should try to avoid it as much
as possible. You know that maximum
interference is caused when very similar
materials are learned in a sequence. Avoid this.
Arrange your study in such a way that you do
not learn similar subjects one after the other.
Instead, pick up some other subject unrelated
to the previous one. If that is not possible,
distribute your learning/practice. This means
giving yourself intermittent rest periods while
studying to minimise interference.
Psychology
2022-23
(c) Give Yourself enough Retrieval Cues :
While you learn something, think of retrieval
cues inherent in your study material. Identify
them and link parts of the study material to
these cues. Cues will be easier to remember
compared to the entire content and the links
you have created between cues and the
content will facilitate the retrieval process.
Thomas and Robinson have developed
another strategy to help students in
remembering more which they called the
methods of PQRST. This acronym stands for
Preview, Question, Read, Self-recitation, and
Test. Preview refers to giving a cursory look at
the chapter and familiarising oneself with its
contents. Question means raising questions
and seeking answers from the lesson. Now
start reading and look for answers of questions
you had raised. After reading try to rewrite
what you have read and at the end test how
much you have been able to understand.
At the end, a note of caution must be
sounded. There is no one method that can
solve all problems related to retention and bring
about an overnight memory improvement. In
order to improve your memory, you need to
attend to a wide variety of factors which affect
your memory such as your health status, your
interest and motivation, your familiarity with
the subject matter and so on. In addition, you
must learn to use strategies for memory
improvement depending upon the nature of
memory tasks you are required to accomplish.
Key Terms
Chunking, Cognitive economy, Concepts,
Control process, Dual coding, Echoic memory,
Encoding, Episodic memory, Elaborative
rehearsals, Fugue state, Infor mation
processing
approach,
Maintenance
rehearsals, Memory making, Mnemonics,
Schema, Semantic memory, Serial
reproduction, Working memory
Summary
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Memory is seen as consisting of three interrelated processes of encoding, storage and retrieval.
While encoding is registering the incoming information in a way that it becomes compatible
to the memory system, storage and retrieval refers to holding the information over a period
of time and bringing the information back to one’s awareness, respectively.
The Stage Model of Memory compares memory processes with the working of a computer
and suggests that incoming information is processed through three distinct stages of sensory
memory, short-term memory and long-term memory.
Levels of processing view of memory contends that the information can be encoded at any
of the three levels, namely, the structural, the phonetic and the semantic. If an information
is analysed and encoded semantically, which is the deepest level of processing, then it
leads to better retention.
Long-term memory has been classified in many ways. One major classification is that of
declarative and procedural memory and another is that of episodic and semantic memory.
Contents of long-term memory get represented in terms of concepts, categories and images
and are organised hierarchically.
Forgetting refers to loss of stored information over a period of time. After a material is learnt,
there is a sharp drop in its memory and then the decline is very gradual.
Forgetting has been explained as resulting from trace decay and interference. It may also
be caused due to absence of appropriate cues at the time of retrieval.
Memory is not only a reproductive but also a constructive process. What we store undergoes
change and modification within one’s past knowledge and schema.
Mnemonics are strategies for improving memory. While some mnemonics use images, other
emphasise organisation of the learnt material.
Chapter 7 • Human Memory
2022-23
147
Review Questions
1.
What is the meaning of the terms ‘encoding’, ‘storage’ and ‘retrieval’?
2.
How is information processed through sensory, short-term and long-term memory systems?
3.
How are maintenance rehearsals different from elaborative rehearsals?
4.
Differenciate between declarative and procedural memories?
5.
Describe the hierarchical organisation in long-term memory?
6.
Why does forgetting take place?
7.
How is retrieval related forgetting different from forgetting due to interference?
8.
What evidence do we have to say that ‘memory is a constructive process’?
9.
Define mnemonics? Suggest a plan to improve your own memory.
Project Ideas
1.
2.
148
Recall and write down an event of your life that you remember very clearly. Also request
others (those who were participants of that event such as your brother/sister, parents or
other relatives/friends) to do the same. Compare the two recalled versions and look for
discrepancies and similarities. Try to reason why there are similarities and discrepancies.
Narrate a story to your friend and ask her/him to write it down after an hour. Also request
her/him to narrate what s/he had written to another person. Continue this process till
you have at least 5 versions of the original story. Compare the various versions and
identify constructive processes in memory.
Psychology
2022-23
Chapter
8
Thinking
After reading this chapter, you would be able to
•
•
•
•
•
describe the nature of thinking and reasoning,
demonstrate an understanding of some cognitive processes involved in
problem solving and decision-making,
understand the nature and process of creative thinking and learn ways
of enhancing it,
understand the relationship between language and thought, and
describe the process of language development and its use.
Contents
But whatever the process, the result is
wonderful, gradually from naming an
object we advance step-by-step until
we have traversed the vast difference
between our first stammered syllable
and the sweep of thought in a
line of Shakespeare.
Introduction
Nature of Thinking
Building Blocks of Thought
Culture and Thinking (Box 8.1)
The Processes of Thinking
Problem Solving
Reasoning
Decision-making
Nature and Process of Creative Thinking
Nature of Creative Thinking
Lateral Thinking (Box 8.2)
Process of Creative Thinking
Developing Creative Thinking
Barriers to Creative Thinking
Strategies for Creative Thinking
Thought and Language
Development of Language and Language Use
Bilingualism and Multilingualism (Box 8.3)
Key Terms
Summary
Review Questions
Project Ideas
– Helen Keller
2022-23
Introduction
Think for a moment: how many times and in what ways you are using the word
‘think’ in your day-to-day conversations. Sometimes probably, you use it as a
synonym to remember (I can’t think of her name), pay attention (think about it ) or
convey uncertainty (I think today my friend will visit me). ‘Think’ has a wide range
of meanings which cover a number of psychological processes. However, in
psychology, thinking is a core subject area with an independent existence and a
meaning of its own. In this chapter, we will discuss thinking as a mental activity
directed at solving a problem, making inferences, judging certain facts, and deciding
and choosing between options. Further, the nature and characteristics of creative
thinking, what it involves and how it can be developed will also be discussed.
Have you ever seen a small child building a tower with blocks or sand? The child
would build a tower, dismantle it, make another one and so on and so forth. While
doing this, the child sometimes talks to herself or himself. The speech would primarily
include the steps s/he is following or want to follow (“not this”, “a little small”, “a
tree at the back”), evaluation of the design (“nice”). You also might have experienced
talking to yourself while solving a problem. Why do we talk while we think? What
is the relationship between language and thought? In this chapter, we shall also be
discussing the development of language and the relationship between language
and thought. Before starting our discussion on thinking, it is necessary to discuss
thinking as the base of human cognition.
NATURE
OF
THINKING
Thinking is the base of all cognitive activities
or processes and is unique to human beings.
It involves manipulation and analysis of
information received from the environment.
For example, while seeing a painting, you are
not simply focusing on the colour of the
painting or the lines and strokes, rather you
are going beyond the given text in interpreting
its meaning and you are trying to relate the
information to your existing knowledge.
Understanding of the painting involves
creation of new meaning that is added to your
knowledge. Thinking, therefore, is a higher
mental process through which we manipulate
and analyse the acquired or existing
information. Such manipulation and analysis
occur by means of abstracting, reasoning,
imagining, problem solving, judging, and
decision-making.
150
Thinking is mostly organised and goal
directed. All day-to-day activities, ranging from
cooking to solving a math problem have a goal.
One desires to reach the goal by planning,
recalling the steps that one has already
followed in the past if the task is familiar or
inferring strategies if the task is new.
Thinking is an internal mental process,
which can be inferred from overt behaviour.
If you see a chess player engrossed in thinking
for several minutes before making a move, you
cannot observe what he is thinking. You can
simply infer what he was thinking or what
strategies he was trying to evaluate, from his
next move.
Building Blocks of Thought
We already know that thinking relies on
knowledge we already possess. Such
knowledge is represented either in the form
of mental images or words. People usually
Psychology
2022-23
think by means of mental images or words.
Suppose you are travelling by road to reach a
place, which you had visited long back. You
would try to use the visual representation of
the street and other places. On the other hand,
when you want to buy a storybook your choice
would depend upon your knowledge about
different authors, themes, etc. Here, your
thinking is based on words or concepts. We
shall first discuss mental image and then move
on to concepts as the base of human thought.
Mental Image
Suppose, I ask you to imagine a cat sitting
on a tree with its tail slightly raised and
curved. You would most likely try to form a
visual image of the whole situation,
something similar to what the girl in the
picture is doing (Fig.8.1). Or think of another
experience in reading a map, remembering
the different places and subsequently locating
them in a physical map in your examination.
In doing this, you were mostly forming and
using mental images. An image is a mental
representation of a sensory experience; it
can be used to think about things, places,
and events. You can try out Activity 8.1,
which demonstrates how images are formed.
Activity 8.1
Give a map, like the following in Fig.8.2a, to your
friend to observe for 2 minutes and tell her/him
that later on s/he will be asked to locate the
marked places in a blank map. Then present a
map, like the one in Fig.8.2b, with no indications
of the different places. Ask your friend to locate
the places s/he has seen in the first map. Then
ask how s/he was able to locate the places. S/he
will probably be able to tell you the way s/he
formed an image of the whole situation.
Fig.8.2a : A Map Showing Places
Fig.8.1 : The Girl forming a Mental Image
situation where you are asked to imagine
yourself standing in front of the Taj Mahal
and describe what you see. While doing this
you are actually forming a visual image of
the event. You are probably trying to see
through your mind’s eye, just like the way
you would see a picture. Why is it useful to
draw a map while giving directions to
someone? Try to remember your earlier
Concepts
How do you know that a lion is not a bird
but a parrot is? You have already read this in
Chapter 7. Whenever we come across an
object or event familiar or unfamiliar, we try
to identify the object or event by extracting
its characteristics, matching it with the already
existing category of objects and events. For
example, when we see an apple, we categorise
Chapter 8 • Thinking
2022-23
151
In the library too you have seen books
organised as per subject areas and labelled
so that you would be able to find them
quickly with less effort. Thus, for making our
thought process quick and efficient, we form
concepts and categorise objects and events.
You can find out how children form concepts
by doing Activity 8.2.
Activity 8.2
Take a piece of cardboard and cut triangles,
circles, and squares of three different sizes each,
small, medium and large. Then colour them yellow.
Similarly prepare a second set and colour them
green and a third set and colour them red. Now
you have a set of 27 cards varying in shape, size,
and colour. Ask a child of five to six years of age
to group the similar cards together.
Fig.8.2b : A Blank Map Up Side Down
it as fruit, when we see a table we categorise
it as furniture, when we see a dog we
categorise it as an animal, and so on. When
we see a new object, we try to look for its
characteristics,
match
them
with
characteristics of an existing category, and if
matching is perfect we give it the name of that
category. For example, while walking on the
road you come across an unfamiliar
quadruped of a very small size, with a face
like a dog, wagging its tail and barking at
strangers. You would no doubt identify it as
a dog and probably think that it is of a new
breed, which you have never seen before. You
would also conclude that it would bite
strangers. A concept thus, is a mental
representation of a category. It refers to a class
of objects, ideas or events that share common
properties.
Why do we need to form concepts?
Concept formation helps us in organising our
knowledge so that whenever we need to
access our knowledge, we can do it with less
time and effort. It is something similar to
what we do to organise our things at home.
Children who are very systematic and
organised, put their things such as books,
note books, pen, pencil, and other accessories
in specific places in their cupboard, so that
in the morning, they don’t have to struggle
to find a particular book or the geometry box.
152
If you will try the above activity with a
group of small children, you will observe that
there are a number of ways in which the child
would respond. S/he would pile them up into
different groups based on:
1. size: all small triangles, squares, and
circles together, all medium sized together,
and so on.
2. shape: all triangles together, all circles
together, and so on
3. colour: all reds together, all yellows
together, and so on
4. both size and shape: all small triangles
together, all medium triangles together,
and so on.
5. size, shape and colour: all small circles of
red colour together, all medium circles of
yellow colour together, and so on.
You have already learned about concept
learning in Chapter 6, and the use of concepts
in Human Memory in Chapter 7. Concepts
usually fall into hierarchies or levels of
understanding. The levels are classified as
superordinate (the highest level), basic
(an intermediate level), and subordinate
(the lowest level). While speaking we mostly
use basic level concepts. When a person says,
“I saw a dog” a basic level is used. Such a
statement is much more likely to be made than
Psychology
2022-23
“I saw a four legged animal that barks and
wags its tail” or “an animal”. The first
(subordinate) is far too specific than is needed
for conversation, while the second
(superordinate) is far too vague to convey the
intended message. Children also learn basic
level concepts first and then the other levels.
Most of the concepts people use in thinking
are neither clear nor unambiguous. They are
fuzzy. They overlap one another and are often
poorly defined. For example, under which
category would you put a small stool? Would
you put it under the category of ‘chair’ or
under the category of ‘table’? The answer to
these questions is that we construct a model
or prototype. A prototype is the best
representative member of the category.
Eleanor Rosch argues that in considering how
people think about concepts, prototypes are
often involved in real life. In prototype
matching, people decide whether an item is a
member of a category by comparing it with
the most typical item(s) of the category.
Therefore, in the above example of the stool,
you would try to compare it with a standard
study chair (if you consider it as the typical
example of a chair) and a small study table (if
you consider it as the typical example of a
table) and then match the properties of the
stool with these two concepts. If it matches
with a chair you would put it under the
Box 8.1
category of “chair” otherwise under the
category of “table”. Consider another example:
the concept ‘cup’. Cups : (i) are concrete
objects, (ii) are concave, (iii) can hold solids
and liquids, (iv) have handles. What about
cups we see in the market: with no handle,
with a square shape or unusually big in size?
In an experiment, the participants were shown
the pictures of cups as in Fig.8.3 and W. Labov
asked them: which of these would you describe
as the prototype for the concept “cup”?
Participants mostly chose number 5.
Interestingly, some participants call number
4 a bowl and number 9 a vase because they
were so different.
1
2
3
4
5
10
13
6
11
14
12
15
7
8
16
18
9
17
19
Fig.8.3 : When is a Cup a “Cup”?
Culture and Thinking
Our beliefs, values, and social practices influence
the way we think. In a study conducted on
American and Asian students, pictures like the
following (underwater scene) were used. The
subjects were asked to have a look at the scene
for a brief period and then were asked to describe
what they saw. The American students focussed
on the biggest, brightest, and most outstanding
features (for example, “the large fish swimming
to the right”). In contrast, the Japanese students
focussed on the background (for example, “the
bottom was rocky” or “the water was green”).
Based on these kinds of findings, researchers
concluded that Americans usually analyse each
object separately which is called “analytical thinking”.
Asian people (Japanese, Chinese, Koreans) think more
about the relationship between objects and
backgrounds, which is called “holistic thinking”.
Chapter 8 • Thinking
2022-23
153
THE PROCESSES
OF
THINKING
So far we have been discussing what we mean
by thinking and what is the nature of thinking.
We also learnt that thinking uses mental
images and concepts as the base. Now we will
discuss how thinking proceeds in a particular
area: problem solving.
PROBLEM SOLVING
How do we proceed while repairing a broken
cycle, or planning a summer tour or patching
up a broken friendship? In some cases the
solution is reached quickly as in repair of a
bicycle based on immediately available cues
whereas others are more complex and require
time and effort. Problem solving is thinking
that is goal-directed. Almost all our day-today activities are directed towards a goal. Here
it is important to know that problems are not
always in the form of obstacles or hurdles that
one faces. It could be any simple activity that
Table 8.1
you perform to reach a defined goal, for
example, preparing a quick snack for your
friend who has just arrived at your place. In
problem solving there is an initial state (i.e.
the problem) and there is an end state (the goal).
These two anchors are connected by means of
several steps or mental operations. Table 8.1
would clarify your understanding of various
steps through which one solves a problem.
You can try out the problems given in
Activity 8.3 with your friends and observe how
they are approaching the problem. You can
ask them the steps they follow while solving
these problems.
Obstacles to Solving Problems
Two major obstacles to solving a problem are
mental set and lack of motivation.
Mental Set
Mental set is a tendency of a person to solve
problems by following already tried mental
operations or steps. Prior success with a
Mental Operations Involved in Solving a PProblem
roblem
Let us look at the problem of organising a play in school on the occasion of Teachers’ Day.
Problem solving would involve the following sequence.
154
Mental operation
Nature of problem
1.
Identify the problem
A week is left for teachers’ day and you are given
the task of organising a play.
2.
Represent the problem
Organising a play would involve identification of
an appropriate theme, screening of actors,
actresses, arranging money, etc.
3.
Plan the solution:
Set sub-goals
Search and survey various available themes for
a play, and consult teachers and friends who have
the expertise. The play to be decided, based on
such considerations as cost, duration, suitability
for the occasion, etc.
4.
Evaluate all solutions (plays)
Collect all the information/stage rehearsal.
5.
Select one solution and execute it
Compare and verify the various options to get the
best solution (the play).
6.
Evaluate the outcome
If the play (solution) is appreciated, think about
the steps you have followed for future reference
for yourself as well as for your friends.
7.
Rethink and redefine problems
and solutions
After this special occasion you can still think about
ways to plan a better play in future.
Psychology
2022-23
Activity 8.3
Problem 1
Anagrams : Rearrange the letters to form a word.
(You can also construct some similar words)
NAGMARA
BOLMPER
SLEVO
STGNIH
TOLUSONI
Problem 2
Joining dots : Without lifting your pencil from the
paper, connect all nine dots by drawing four
straight lines.
experienced this while solving mathematical
problems. After completing a couple of
questions, you form an idea of the steps that
are required to solve these questions and
subsequently you go on following the same
steps, until a point where you fail. At this point
you may experience difficulty in avoiding the
already used steps. Those steps would
interfere in your thought for new strategies.
However, in day-to-day activities we often rely
on past experiences with similar or related
problems.
Like mental set, functional fixedness in
problem solving occurs when people fail to
solve a problem because they are fixed on a
thing’s usual function. If you have ever used
a hardbound book to hammer a nail, then you
have overcome functional fixedness.
Lack of Motivation
Problem 3
Try out the ‘water in three bottles’ activity with
your friend.
There are three bottles, A, B, and C. Bottle A
can hold 21 ml., B can hold 127 ml., and C can
hold 3 ml. The task for your friend is to get 100 ml
of water with the help of these three bottles. There
are six more problems like this. These seven
problems are given below.
Problems
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
The required
quantity
100
99
5
21
31
20
25
The capacity of the
bottles in ml.
A
B
C
21
14
18
9
20
23
28
127
163
43
42
59
49
76
3
25
10
6
4
3
3
(Answers are given at the end of the chapter)
particular strategy would sometimes help in
solving a new problem. However, this tendency
also creates a mental rigidity that obstructs
the problem solver to think of any new rules
or strategies. Thus, while in some situations
mental set can enhance the quality and speed
of problem solving, in other situations it
hinders problem solving. You might have
People might be great at solving problems, but
all their skills and talents are of no use if they
are not motivated. Sometimes people give up
easily when they encounter a problem or failure
in implementing the first step. Therefore, there
is a need to persist in their effort to find a
solution.
REASONING
If you find a person desperately running on
the railway platform, you could infer a number
of things such as: he is running to catch the
train which is about to leave, he wants to see
off his friend sitting in the train which is about
to leave, he has left his bag in the train and
wants to get in before the train leaves the
station. To figure out why this person is
running, you could use different kinds of
reasoning, deductive or inductive.
Deductive and Inductive Reasoning
Since your previous experience indicates that
people run on the platform to catch a train,
you would conclude that this person is getting
late and is running to catch the train.
The kind of reasoning that begins with an
assumption is called deductive reasoning.
Chapter 8 • Thinking
2022-23
155
Thus deductive reasoning begins with making
a general assumption that you know or believe
to be true and then drawing specific
conclusion based on this assumption. In other
words, it is reasoning from general to
particular. Your general assumption is that
people run on the railway platform only when
they are getting late for the train. The man is
running on the platform. Therefore, he is
getting late for the train. One mistake that you
are making (and generally people do commit
such mistakes in deductive reasoning) is that
you (they) assume but do not always know if
the basic statement or assumption is true. If
the base information is not true, i.e. people
also run on the platform for other reasons then
your conclusion would be invalid or wrong.
Look at the mouse in Fig.8.4.
legs,
four ,
e
v
a
legs
ats h
All c ave four a cat
m
Ih
Ia
fore
there
DECISION-MAKING
Fig.8.4 : Is the mouse making a True and
Valid Conclusion?
Another way to figure out why the man is
running on the platform is to use inductive
reasoning. Sometimes you would analyse
other possible reasons and observe what the
man is actually doing and then draw a
conclusion about his behaviour. Reasoning,
that is based on specific facts and observation,
is called inductive reasoning. Inductive
reasoning is drawing a general conclusion
based on particular observation. In the earlier
example, you observed the other person’s
subsequent action or actions such as: entering
into the train compartment and returning with
a bag. Based on your observation you would
156
conclude that the person had left his bag in
the train. One mistake you would probably
make here is jumping to a conclusion without
knowing all possible facts.
From the above discussion we can
conclude that reasoning is the process of
gathering and analysing information to arrive
at conclusions. In this sense, reasoning is also
a form of problem solving. The goal is to
determine what conclusion can be drawn from
certain given information.
Most cases of scientific reasoning are
inductive in nature. Scientists and even
lay persons consider a number of instances
and try to determine what general rule covers
them all. Think of yourself using your
knowledge of problem solving steps discussed
earlier in planning for a play, or conducting a
project. Your inductive reasoning is being
applied here.
Analogy is another form of reasoning
which involves four parts, A is to B as C is to
D with the relation between the first two parts
being the same as the relation between the
last two. For example, water is to fish as air is
to human; white is to snow as black is to
coal. Analogies can be helpful in solving
problems. They help us in identifying and
visualising the salient attributes of an
object or event, which would otherwise go
unnoticed.
Inductive and deductive reasonings allow us
to make judgments. In judgment we draw
conclusions, form opinions, evaluate events,
objects, based on knowledge and available
evidences. Consider this example, the man is
very talkative, likes to mix with people, can
convince others with ease — he would be most
suitable for a salesperson’s job. Our judgment
of this person is based on the specific
characteristics of an expert salesperson. Here
we will discuss how we make decisions and
judgments.
Sometimes judgments are automatic and
require no conscious effort by the person and
occur as a matter of habit, for example,
Psychology
2022-23
applying brakes on seeing the red light.
However, evaluating a novel or a literary text
requires reference to your past knowledge and
experience. Judging the beauty of a painting
would involve your personal preferences. Thus
our judgments are not independent of our
beliefs and attitudes. We also make changes
in our judgments based on newly acquired
information. Consider this example. A new
teacher joins the school, students make onthe-spot judgment of the teacher as being very
strict. However, in subsequent classes, they
closely interact with the teacher and make
changes in their evaluation. Now they
judge the teacher to be extremely studentfriendly.
Many of the problems you solve each day
require you to make decisions. What to wear
for the party? What to eat for dinner? What to
say to your friend? The answer to all these
lies in picking or choosing one of several
choices. In decision-making, we sometimes
choose among options based on choices of
personal significance. Judgment and decisionmaking are interrelated processes. In decisionmaking the problem before us is to choose
among alternatives by evaluating the cost and
benefit associated with each alternative. For
example, when you have the option to choose
between psychology and economics as
subjects in Class XI, your decision would be
based upon your interest, future prospects,
availability of books, efficiency of teachers, etc.
You could evaluate them by talking to seniors
and faculty members and attending a few
classes, etc. Decision-making differs from
other types of problem solving. In decisionmaking we already know the various solutions
or choices and one has to be selected. Suppose
your friend is a very good player of badminton.
S/he is getting an opportunity to play at the
state level. At the same time the final
examination is approaching and s/he needs
to study hard for it. S/he will have to choose
between two options, practising for badminton
or studying for the final examination. In this
situation her/his decision will be based upon
evaluation of all possible outcomes.
You would observe that people differ in
their priorities and therefore their decisions
will differ. In real life situations we take quick
decisions and therefore, it is not possible
always to evaluate every situation thoroughly
and exhaustively.
NATURE AND PROCESS
THINKING
OF
CREATIVE
You might have wondered at times how some
one for the first time, thought of acts like
planting a seed, or devising a wheel, or
decorating the walls of caves with drawings,
etc. Perhaps not satisfied with the old ways of
carrying out day-to-day activities, such
persons thought of something original. There
are countless others whose creativity has led
to the present day scientific and technological
progress that we now enjoy. Music, painting,
poetry, and other forms of art that give us
pleasure and joy, are all products of creative
thinking.
You might have heard about A.D. Karve, a
botanist from our country, who got the UK’s
top energy award for devising a smokeless
‘Chullah’. He converted dry, useless sugarcane
leaves into clean fuel. You might have also
heard of Class XI student Ashish Panwar, who
won a bronze medal for assembling a five feet
tall robot at the First International Robotics
Olympiad held at Glasgow. These are only a
few examples of creativity. Try to think of some
other examples of creativity in different fields.
It is important to remember that creative
thinking is not always expressed in
extraordinary work. One does not have to be a
scientist or an artist to be a creative thinker.
Everyone has the potential to be creative.
Creative thinking can be applied in almost any
area of human activity at different levels. It
could be reflected in activities like writing,
teaching, cooking, enacting roles, story telling,
conversation, dialogues, asking questions,
playing games, trying to solve day-to-day
problems, organising activities, helping others
resolve conflicts, and so on. This concept of
‘Everyday Creativity’, which is reflected in one’s
way of perceiving thinking and problem solving,
is different from the ‘special talent creativity’
seen in outstanding creative achievements.
Chapter 8 • Thinking
2022-23
157
Nature of Creative Thinking
Creative thinking is distinguished from other
types of thinking by the fact that it involves
the production of novel and original ideas or
solutions to problems. Sometimes, creative
thinking is understood just as a new way of
thinking or thinking differently. However, it is
important to know that, besides novelty,
originality is also an important characteristic
of creative thinking. Every year new models
of household appliances, tape-recorders, cars,
scooters, and television sets produced may not
be original unless unique features are added
to these products. Creative thinking thus
refers to originality and uniqueness of ideas
or solutions that did not previously exist.
Creative thinking is also generally
characterised by what Bruner calls “effective
surprise”. If the product or idea is unusual,
the response of most who experience it is one
of instant surprise or of being startled.
Another important criterion that
characterises creative thinking is its
appropriateness in a particular context.
Simply thinking of being different without any
purpose, doing things in one’s own ways, being
non-conformist, indulging in fantasy without
any purpose or coming out with a bizarre idea,
is at times mistaken for creative thinking.
Researchers tend to agree that thinking is said
to be creative when it is reality-oriented,
appropriate, constructive, and socially
desirable.
J.P. Guilford, a pioneer in creativity
research, proposed two types of thinking:
convergent and divergent. Convergent
thinking refers to thinking that is required to
solve problems which have only one correct
answer. The mind converges to the correct
solution. To illustrate, look at the question
given below. It is based on a number series,
where you have to find the next number. Only
one right answer is expected.
Q. 3,6,9….. what will come next?
Ans. 12.
Now you try to think of certain questions
for which there is no one right answer but
158
many answers. A few such questions are given
below:
• What are the various uses of cloth?
• What improvements will you suggest in a
chair so that it becomes more comfortable
and aesthetically pleasing?
• What will happen if examinations are
abolished in schools?
Answers to the above questions require
divergent thinking which is an open-ended
thinking where the individual can think of
different answers to the questions or problems
in terms of her/his experiences. Such kind of
thinking helps in producing novel and original
ideas.
Divergent thinking abilities generally
include fluency, flexibility, originality, and
elaboration.
• Fluency is the ability to produce many
ideas for a given task or a problem. The
more ideas a person produces, the higher
his fluency ability. For example, more the
number of uses of a paper cup, more would
be the fluency.
• Flexibility indicates variety in thinking.
It may be thinking of different uses of an
object, or different interpretation of a
picture, story or different ways of solving
a problem. In case of uses of a paper cup,
for example, one may give an idea to use it
as a container or to draw a circle, etc.
Psychology
2022-23
Fig.8.5 : Thinking Divergently
Box 8.2
Lateral Thinking
Edward de Bono has used the term ‘lateral
thinking’ to what Guilford termed as divergent
thinking. He makes a distinction between vertical
thinking and lateral thinking. Vertical thinking
involves mental operations that move in a straight
line back and forth between lower and higher
level concepts whereas lateral thinking involves
looking for alter native ways of defining and
interpreting problems. He states “vertical (logical)
thinking digs the same hole deeper, i.e. thinking
deeper in the same direction; lateral thinking is
concerned with digging a hole in another place”.
De Bono suggests that lateral thinking can help
make mental leaps and is likely to create a
number of ways of thinking. De Bono developed
the ‘Six thinking hats’ technique to stimulate different
modes of thinking. One can put on or take off these
hats according to the type of thinking required to be
used. White hat means gathering information, facts,
figures, and filling gaps in information. Red hat covers
expression of feelings, and emotions on the subject.
Black hat represents judgment, caution and logic.
Yellow hat covers thinking on what will work and
why it will be beneficial. Green hat is for creativity,
alter natives and changes. Blue hat represents
thinking about the process and not the ideas as such.
The ‘six thinking hats’ reflect different perspectives
from which an issue or problem is viewed. The
technique can be used individually as well as in
groups.
Originality is the ability to produce ideas
that are rare or unusual by seeing new
relationships, combining old ideas with
new ones, looking at things from different
perspectives etc. Research has shown that
fluency and flexibility are the necessary
conditions for originality. The more and
varied ideas one produces, the greater the
likelihood of original ideas.
• Elaboration is the ability that enables a
person to go into details and workout
implications of new ideas.
Divergent thinking abilities facilitate
generation of a variety of ideas which may not
seem to be related. For example, what are the
common ideas for enhancing food production?
The likely answers would be related to quality
of seeds, fertilizers, irrigation, and so on. If
someone thinks of cultivation in a desert for
extracting protein from weeds, it would be a
remote idea. The association here is between
‘food production’ and ‘desert’ or ‘weeds’.
Ordinarily, we do not associate these together.
But, if we let our mind free to seek new and
remote associations, a number of combination
of ideas may arise out of which one or two
may turn out to be original. You must
remember that both convergent and divergent
thinking are important for creative thinking.
Divergent thinking is essential in generating
a wide range of ideas. Convergent thinking is
important to identify the most useful or
appropriate idea.
•
Activity 8.4
Frame five different kinds of questions requiring
divergent thinking on issues and problems related
to traffic management/pollution/corruption/
illiteracy/poverty. Share and discuss in the class.
Process of Creative Thinking
In recent years, more and more attention has
been given to the way the human mind
operates. Research has made it clear that
thinking of new and unusual ideas involve
more than a flash of insight. There are stages
before and after the new ideas come.
The starting point in creative process is
the need to think or bring out something new
which initiates the effort. Not everyone
experiences this need, as one can be happy
and contented, in carrying out routine work.
The need for search of new ideas and solutions
arises from sensing problems and gaps in
information. The process of creative thinking
begins with the preparation stage that
Chapter 8 • Thinking
2022-23
159
appropriateness of ideas or solutions are
tested and judged. Here, convergent thinking
plays its role in selecting the appropriate idea
or solution that works.
DEVELOPING CREATIVE THINKING
Fig.8.6 : The Creative Process
requires one to understand the task or
problem in hand, analyse the problem, and
become aware of the background facts and
related information. The process evokes
curiosity and excitement to think more and
more in different directions. The person tries
to look at the task or problem from different
angles and viewpoints. Here, divergent
thinking abilities discussed earlier play their
role to help one extend in new directions.
Coming back to the process, when the
person is trying to generate alternative ideas
and trying to view the problem or task from
an unusual perspective, there may be a feeling
of getting stuck. One may even get disgusted
with failure and may leave the problem or the
task for sometime. This is the stage of
incubation. Research shows that creative
ideas may not occur immediately during
incubation when the individual is not
consciously thinking about the problem but
seeking relaxation from conscious effort. They
may occur or strike when a person is doing
something else, for example, going to sleep,
waking up, taking a bath or just walking along.
Followed by incubation is the stage of
illumination - the ‘Aha’! or ‘I have found it’
experience, the moment we normally associate
with emergence of creative ideas. There usually
is, a feeling of excitement, even satisfaction,
of having found a creative idea. Last is the
stage of verification when the worth or
160
As discussed in the previous section, you may
recall that the potential for creative thinking
is in all of us. It is not limited to a few talented
artists or scientists or to a chosen few. The
expression of creative thinking may vary from
individual to individual. Although hereditary
factors are important in determining the extent
to which one can be creative, environmental
factors facilitate or hamper the development
of creative thinking abilities. Research in
different countries including India has shown
a slump in the level of creative thinking of
school children at different stages due to
environmental factors. On the other hand,
research also indicates that children from
lower socio-economic groups, ethnic and
minority groups have substantial untapped
creativity and that they are creative in many
different ways.
Research has also shown that all of us can
make better use of our abilities for creative
thinking through practice and training. We can
become more imaginative, flexible, and original
in solving day-to-day problems creatively and
effectively. Development of creative thinking
is important for one’s personal growth and
fulfilment.
Barriers to Creative Thinking
The first step in developing creative thinking
is to identify inhibiting factors that impede
creative expression and then make conscious
attempts to overcome the same. As we are
discussing, you may analyse how you
approach your tasks and problems.
There are blocks to creative thinking which
can be categorised as habitual, perceptual,
motivational, emotional, and cultural.
Although much habitual learning is necessary
for smooth and efficient functioning within the
daily routine, the tendency to be overpowered
by habits particularly in one’s ways of thinking
Psychology
2022-23
can be detrimental to creative expression. We
become so used to thinking and perceiving
things in a familiar way that it becomes
difficult to think in novel ways. It may be
related to our tendency to quickly jump to
conclusions, not to see problems from fresh
perspectives, be satisfied with routine patterns
of doing things, or resist to overcome preconceived viewpoints, and not to change
immediate judgment, etc. The perceptual
blocks prevent us from being open to novel
and original ideas. Try to recall the joining
dot problem in Activity 8.3, where you were
required to connect all nine dots with four
straight lines going through each dot only once
without lifting the pencil or pen from the paper.
The solution to the problem lies in going
beyond the boundaries. We assume that
boundaries exist whereas they did not. Many
would attempt to solve the problem by staying
in the square that the nine dots form. There
is nothing in the directions to do this. The
joining dots problem is indicative of the
boundaries and the limitations that are
assumed or self-imposed.
Motivational and emotional blocks also
interfere with creative thinking which show
that creative thinking is not merely a cognitive
process. Lack of motivation, fear of failure, fear
of being different, fear of ridicule or rejection,
poor self-concept, negativism, etc. may
hamper creative thinking. For example, some
people may not be motivated enough to extend
themselves and make extra efforts. A person
may find that s/he can not do it further, may
leave the problem in between or may accept
the intermediate idea as the final idea. Further,
some people, for example, have negative
assumptions about themselves. They feel that
they are not capable of doing some tasks. You
may be surprised to know that Thomas Alva
Edison, the inventor of the bulb, took years of
experimentation with hundreds of failures
before he produced the first bulb.
Cultural barriers are related to excessive
adherence to traditions, expectations,
conformity pressures, and stereotypes.
Conformity to some extent is essential for
social existence but excessive conformity to
traditions, rituals, and procedures are likely
to block creative thinking. Cultural blocks arise
due to the fear of being different, the tendency
to maintain status quo, willingness to accept
mediocrity, preservation of personal security,
social pressure, over dependence on others, etc.
The fact that everyone has the potential to
be creative and that one can differ in one’s
expression of creative thinking requires that
we all tap our creative potential and remove
the barriers as discussed above.
Activity 8.5
Ponder over some statements that we often use
and which may prevent or aid the emergence of
those creative ideas. List those which may block
new ideas like ‘This is not logical’, ‘Time is too short
to think any more’, ‘It would not work’, etc. and
positive statements like ‘Is there any other way?’,
‘What else?’, etc.
Strategies for Creative Thinking
Research on characteristics of creative people
has revealed that there are certain attitudes,
dispositions, and skills which facilitate creative
thinking. Here are some strategies to help you
enhance your creative thinking abilities and
skills:
• Become more aware and sensitive to be
able to notice and respond to feelings,
sights, sounds, textures around you. Spot
problems, missing information, anomalies,
gaps, deficiencies, and so on. Try to notice
contradictions and incompleteness in
situations that others may not do. For this,
cultivate the habit of wider reading,
exposure to a variety of information, and
develop the art of asking questions,
pondering over the mysteries of situations
and objects.
• Generate as many ideas, responses,
solutions or suggestions on a given task
or situation to increase your flow of
thoughts. Try deliberately to look for
multiple angles of a task and situation to
increase flexibility in your thinking. It
could be, for example, thinking of
alternative arrangements of furniture in a
room to generate more space, different
Chapter 8 • Thinking
2022-23
161
•
•
•
ways of conversing with people, looking for
costs and benefits of a course of study or
career, looking for ways of dealing with an
angry friend, helping others, etc.
Osborn’s Brainstorming technique can be
used to increase fluency and flexibility of
ideas to open-ended situations.
Brainstorming is based on the principle
that producing ideas should be kept
separate from the evaluation of their worth.
The basic assumption is to let the minds
think freely and the tendency to put
judgment on the worth of ideas may be
postponed, i.e. imagination should be
given priority over judgment till all the
ideas are exhausted. This helps in
increasing the fluency of ideas and piling
up alternatives. Brainstorming can be
practised by playing brainstorming games
with family members and friends keeping
its principles in mind. Use of checklists
and questions often provide a new twist
for ideas like, What other changes? What
else? In how many ways could it be done?
What could be the other uses of this object?
and so on.
Originality can be developed by practicing
fluency, flexibility, habit of associative
thinking, exploring linkages, and fusing
distinct or remote ideas. A creative thinker,
it is said, may not evolve new ideas but
evolve new combination of ideas. It is the
chain of thoughts and cross-fertilisation
of ideas that may bring out something new.
The idea of the ‘rocking chair’ has come
from the combination of ‘chair’ and ‘seesaw’. Practice making unusual and
unexpected associations using analogies.
Sometimes finding original ideas/solutions
requires a dramatic shift of focus which
can be facilitated by asking oneself : what
is the opposite of the commonplace or
usual solution to the problem? Allow
conflicting thoughts to co-exist. Looking
for solutions opposite to the obvious may
lead to original solutions.
Engage yourself more frequently in
activities which require use of imagination
and original thinking rather than routine
162
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Psychology
2022-23
work according to your interest and
hobbies. It may be decorating the house,
improvising or redesigning of old objects,
making use of waste products in multiple
ways, completing incomplete ideas in
unique ways, giving new twist to stories
or poems, developing riddles, puzzles,
solving mysteries and so on.
Never accept the first idea or solution.
Many ideas die because we reject them
thinking that the idea might be a silly idea.
You have to first generate a number of
possible ideas or solutions, then select the
best from among them.
Get a feedback on the solutions you decide
on from others who are less personally
involved in the task.
Try to think of what solutions someone
else may offer for your problems.
Give your ideas the chance to incubate.
Allowing time for incubation between
production of ideas and the stage of
evaluation of ideas, may bring in the ‘Aha!’
experience.
Sometimes ideas cluster like branches of
a tree. It is useful to diagram your thinking
so that you can follow each possible branch
to its completion.
Resist the temptation for immediate
reward and success and cope with the
frustration and failure. Encourage selfevaluation.
Develop independent thinking in making
judgments, figuring out things without any
help or resources.
Visualise causes and consequences and
think ahead, predicting things that have
never happened, like, suppose the time
starts moving backwards, what would
happen?, If we had no zero?, etc.
Be aware of your own defenses concerning
the problem. When we feel threatened by
a problem we are less likely to think of
creative ideas.
Last but not the least, be self-confident
and positive. Never undermine your
creative potential. Experience the joy of
your creation.
THOUGHT
AND
LANGUAGE
Till now, we have discussed the nature and
meaning of thinking and how thinking is based
on images and concepts. We have also
discussed the various processes of thought.
Throughout the discussion did you feel that
words or language are essential to express what
we think? This section examines the
relationship between language and thought:
that language determines thought, that thought
determines language, and that thought and
language have different origins. Let us examine
these three viewpoints in some detail.
Language as Determinant of Thought
In Hindi and other Indian languages we use a
number of different words for various kinship
relationships. We have different terms for
mother’s brother, father’s elder brother,
father’s younger brother, mother’s sister’s
husband, father’s sister’s husband, and so on.
An English person uses just one word uncle
to describe all these kinship relationships. In
the English language there are dozens of words
for colours whereas some tribal languages
have only two to four colour terms. Do such
differences matter for how we think? Does an
Indian child find it easier to think about and
dif ferentiate between various kinship
relationships compared to her Englishspeaking counterpart? Does our thinking
process depend on how we describe it in our
language?
Benjamin Lee Whorf was of the view that
language determines the contents of thought.
This view is known as linguistic relativity
hypothesis. In its strong version, this
hypothesis holds what and how individuals
can possibly think is determined by the
language and linguistic categories they use
(linguistic determinism). Experimental
evidence, however, maintains that it is possible
to have the same level or quality of thoughts
in all languages depending upon the
availability of linguistic categories and
structures. Some thoughts may be easier in
one language compared to another.
Thought as Determinant of Language
The noted Swiss psychologist, Jean Piaget
believed that thought not only determines
language, but also precedes it. Piaget argued
that children form an internal representation
of the world through thinking. For example,
when children see something and later copy
it (a process called imitation), thinking does
take place, which does not involve language.
A child’s observation of other’s behaviour and
imitation of the same behaviour, no doubt
involves thinking but not language. Language
is just one of the vehicles of thinking. As
actions become internalised, language may
affect children’s range of symbolic thinking but
is not necessary for the origins of thought.
Piaget believed that though language can be
taught to children, understanding of the words
require knowledge of the underlying concepts
(i.e. thinking). Thus, thought is basic, and
necessary if language is to be understood.
Different Origins of Language and Thought
The Russian psychologist, Lev Vyogotsky,
argued that thoughts and language develop
in a child separately until about two years of
age, when they merge. Before two years
thought is preverbal and is experienced more
in action (Piaget’s sensory motor stage). The
child’s utterances are more automatic reflexes
- crying when uncomfortable - than thoughtbased. Around two years of age, the child
expresses thought verbally and her/his speech
reflects rationality. Now children are able to
manipulate thoughts using soundless speech.
He believed that during this period the
development of language and thinking become
interdependent; the development of
conceptual thinking depends upon the quality
of inner speech and vice versa. Thought is used
without language when the vehicle of thinking
is non-verbal such as visual or movementrelated. Language is used without thought
when expressing feelings or exchanging
pleasantries, for example “Good morning! How
are you?” “Very well, I am fine”. When the two
functions overlap, they can be used together
to produce verbal thought and rational speech.
Chapter 8 • Thinking
2022-23
163
DEVELOPMENT OF LANGUAGE
LANGUAGE USE
AND
Meaning and Nature of Language
In the previous section we discussed the
relationship between language and thought.
In this section, we will examine how human
beings acquire and use language in different
age groups. Think for a moment: what would
have happened if you did not have a language
to express whatever you wanted to say? In
the absence of language you will not be able
to communicate your ideas and feelings, nor
will you have the opportunity to know or have
access to what others think and feel. As a child
when you first started saying “ma..ma..ma.”,
it not only gave you tremendous boost to
continue repeating this activity but also was
a great moment of joy for your parents and
other care-givers. Slowly you learnt to say ‘ma’
and ‘papa’ and sometime later combined two
or more words to communicate your needs,
feelings, and thoughts. You learnt words
appropriate for situations and also learnt the
rules of putting these words in sentences.
Initially you learnt to communicate in the
language being used at home (usually the
mother-tongue), went to school and learnt the
formal language of instruction (in many cases
this language is different from the mothertongue), and were promoted to higher grades
and learnt other languages. If you look back,
you will realise that your journey from crying
and saying “ma..ma..ma” to the attainment of
mastery in not one but many languages, has
been a fascinating one. In this section we shall
be discussing the salient features of language
acquisition.
You have been using language all your life.
Now try to define accurately what it is that
you have been using. Language consists of a
system of symbols organised by means of
certain rules that we use to communicate with
each other. You will notice that language has
three basic characteristics: (a) the presence of
symbols, (b) a set of rules to organise these
symbols, and (c) communication. Here we shall
164
be discussing these three characteristics of
language.
The first characteristic of language is that
it involves symbols. Symbols represent
something or someone else, for example, the
place where you live is called ‘home’, the place
where you study is called ‘school’, the thing
that you eat is called ‘food’. Words like home,
school, food, and numerous other words do
not in themselves carry any meaning. When
these words are associated with some objects/
events they attain meaning and we begin
recognising those objects/events, etc. with
particular words (symbols). We use symbols
while thinking.
The second characteristic of language is
that it involves rules. While combining two or
more words we usually follow a definite and
accepted order of presenting these words. For
example, one would most likely say “I am going
to school” and not “school am going I”.
The third characteristic of language is that
it is used for communicating one’s thought,
ideas, intentions, and feelings to others. On
many occasions we communicate through the
use of our body parts, called gestures or
postures. This type of communication is called
non-verbal communication. Some people who
cannot use oral speech, like the ones with
severe hearing and speech problems,
communicate through signs. Sign language is
also a form of language.
Development of Language
Language is a complex system and unique to
human beings. Psychologists have tried to
teach sign language, use of symbols to
chimpanzees, dolphins, parrots, etc. But it is
observed that, human language is more
complex, creative, and spontaneous than the
system of communication other animals can
learn. There is also a great deal of regularity
with which children all over the world seem to
be learning the language or languages to which
they are exposed. When you compare
individual children, you find that they differ a
Psychology
2022-23
great deal in the rate of their language
development as well as in how they go about
it. But when you take a general view of
children’s acquisition of language all over the
world you find some predictable pattern in
which children proceed from almost no use of
language to the point of becoming competent
language users. Language develops through
some of the stages discussed below.
Newborn babies and young infants make
a variety of sounds, which gradually get
modified to resemble words. The first sound
produced by babies is crying. Initial crying is
undifferentiated and similar across various
situations. Gradually, the pattern of crying
varies in its pitch and intensity to signify
different states such as hunger, pain, and
sleepiness, etc. These differentiated crying
sounds gradually become more meaningful
cooing sounds (like ‘aaa’, ‘uuu’, etc.) usually
to express happiness.
At around six months of age children enter
the babbling stage. Babbling involves
prolonged repetition of a variety of consonants
and vowel sounds (for example, da—, aa—,
ba—). By about nine months of age these
sounds get elaborated to strings of some sound
combinations, such as ‘dadadadadada’ into
repetitive patterns called echolalia. While the
early babblings are random or accidental in
nature, the later babblings seem to be imitative
of adult voices. Childr en show some
understanding of a few words by the time they
are six months old. Around the first birthday
Box 8.3
(the exact age varies from child to child) most
children enter the one-word-stage. Their first
word usually contains one syllable – ma or
da, for instance. Gradually they move to one
or more words which are combined to form
whole sentences or phrases. So they are called
holophrases. When they are 18 to 20 months
of age, children enter a two-word stage and
begin to use two words together. The two-word
stage exemplifies telegraphic speech. Like
telegrams (got admission, send money) it
contains mostly nouns and verbs. Close to
their third birthday, i.e. beyond two-and-ahalf years, children’s language development
gets focused on rules of the language they
hear.
How is language acquired? You must be
wondering: “How do we learn to speak?” As
with many other topics in psychology, the
question of whether a behaviour develops as
a result of inherited characteristics (nature)
or from the effects of learning (nurture) has
been raised with regard to language. Most
psychologists accept that both nature and
nurture are important in language
acquisition.
Behaviourist B.F. Skinner believed we
learn language the same way as animals learn
to pick keys or press bars (refer to Chapter 6
on Learning). Language development, for the
behaviourists follow the learning principles,
such as association (the sight of bottle with
the word ‘bottle’), imitation (adults use of word
“bottle”), and reinforcement (smiles and hugs
Bilingualism and Multilingualism
Bilingualism refers to attaining proficiency in
communicating through any two languages.
Learning of more than two languages is referred
to as multilingualism. The term mother tongue has
been variously defined as one’s native language,
the language spoken by the individual from the
cradle; language ordinarily used at home;
language spoken by the mother; etc. However,
generally the mother tongue is viewed as a
language with which one identifies at the
emotional level. It is possible for individuals to have
multiple mother tongues. The Indian social context is
characterised by grass root multilingualism which
makes bi/multilingualism a characteristic at the levels
of individual as well as society. Most Indians use more
than one language to communicate in various domains
of their daily life activities. Thus, multilingualism is a
way of life in India. Studies reveal that bilingualism/
multilingualism facilitates cognitive, linguistic, and
academic competence of children.
Chapter 8 • Thinking
2022-23
165
when the child says something right). There is
also evidence that children produce sounds
that are appropriate to a language of the
parent or care-giver and are reinforced for
having done so. The principle of shaping leads
to successive approximation of the desired
responses so that the child eventually speaks
as well as the adult. Regional differences in
pronunciation and phrasing illustrate how
different patterns are reinforced in different
areas.
Linguist Noam Chomsky put forth the
innate proposition of development of language.
For him the rate at which children acquire
words and grammar without being taught can
not be explained only by learning principles.
Children also create all sorts of sentences they
have never heard and, therefore, could not be
imitating. Children throughout the world seem
to have a critical period — a period when
learning must occur if it is to occur
successfully — for learning language. Children
across the world also go through the same
stages of language development. Chomsky
believes language development is just like
physical maturation- given adequate care, it
“just happens to the child”. Children are born
with “universal grammar”. They readily learn
the grammar of whatever language they hear.
Skinner’s emphasis on learning explains
why infants acquire the language they hear
and how they add new words to their
vocabularies. Chomsky’s emphasis on our
built-in readiness to learn grammar helps
explain why children acquire language so
readily without direct teaching.
Language Use
As we have discussed earlier, language use
involves knowing socially appropriate ways
of communication. Knowledge of vocabulary
and syntax of a language does not ensure
proper use of language to achieve the purpose
of communication in a variety of social
situations. When we use language we have
various pragmatic intentions such as
requesting, asking, thanking, demanding,
etc. In order to effectively serve these social
goals, language use must be pragmatically
correct or contextually appropriate besides
being grammatical and meaningful. Children
often have difficulty with choice of
appropriate utterances for politeness or for
requests and their use of language conveys
a demand or a command instead of a polite
request. When children are engaged in
conversations, they also have difficulty in
taking turns in speaking and listening like
adults.
Key Terms
Bilingualism, Brainstor ming, Concepts,
Convergent thinking, Creativity, Decisionmaking, Deductive reasoning, Divergent
thinking, Functional fixedness, Illumination,
Images, Incubation, Inductive reasoning,
Judgment, Language, Mental representation,
Mental set, Multilingualism, Problem solving,
Reasoning, Remote association, Syntax,
Thinking
Summary
•
•
•
•
166
Thinking is a complex mental process through which we manipulate information (either
acquired or stored). It is an internal process that can be inferred from behaviour. Thinking
involves mental representations that are either mental images or concepts.
Complex thought processes are problem solving, reasoning, decision-making, judgment, and
creative thinking.
Problem solving is thinking directed towards the solution of a specific problem.
Mental set, functional fixedness, lack of motivation and persistence are some of the hindrances
for effective problem solving.
Psychology
2022-23
•
Reasoning, like problem solving, is goal directed, involves inference and can be either deductive
or inductive.
In making judgment, we draw conclusions, form opinions, make evaluations about objects or
events.
In decision-making one must choose among several available alternatives.
Judgment and decision-making are interrelated processes.
Creative thinking involves the production of something new and original — it may be an idea,
object or solution to a problem.
Developing creative thinking requires overcoming blocks to creative expression and using
strategies to enhance creative thinking skills and abilities.
Language is distinctly human. It consists of symbols, organised on the basis of certain rules
to communicate intentions, feelings, motives, and desires among human beings.
Major development in language occurs during the first two to three years of age.
Language and thought are intricately related.
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Review Questions
1. Explain the nature of thinking.
2. What is a concept? Explain the role of concept in the thinking process.
3. Identify obstacles that one may encounter in problem solving.
4. How does reasoning help in solving problems?
5. Are judgment and decision-making interrelated processes? Explain.
6. Why is divergent thinking important in creative thinking process?
7. What are the various barriers to creative thinking?
8. How can creative thinking be enhanced?
9. Does thinking take place without language? Discuss.
10. How is language acquired in human beings?
Project Ideas
1.
2.
Observe children of 1 year, 2 years, and 3 years old over a period of one week. Record the
speech and note how the child is learning words and how many words the child has
learnt over this period.
Make a collage of news headlines, advertisements, cartoons etc. and arrange them in
your own way to depict a particular theme or a context other than the one in which they
were used. Write an original message or slogan to describe it. Reflect on the steps and the
barriers you experienced in thinking of original ideas.
Chapter 8 • Thinking
2022-23
167
Answers to problems in Activity 8.3
Problem 1 : ANAGRAM, PROBLEM, SOLVE, INSIGHT, SOLUTION.
Problem 2 :
Problem 3 :
The solution for this problem is fill bottle B (127 ml) completely and then pour out water in bottle A (21 ml)
to fill it completely. Now 106 ml is left in bottle B (127ml–21ml). Next pour enough water out of B to fill up C
(3 ml), and then empty the bottle C by pouring out all the water from C. Now there is 103 ml of water in B and
C is empty. Then again pour water from B to fill up C. Now you will be left with 100 ml of water in B.
In case of the first 5 problems, the desired amount can be reached by the sequence B–A–2C. However, the 6th
and 7th problems are critical. In the 6th problem, the desired amount of water is 20 ml and the capacity of
the three bottles are: A can hold 23 ml, B can hold 49 ml and C can hold 3 ml. Observe how the participant
is solving this problem. Most likely he would successfully solve the problem by following the already tried
sequence {49–23–(2 X 3)} without even thinking or trying a simpler and quick method of pouring water from
A to C. If your friend is following this procedure then you can conclude that solving the 5 problems has
formed a mental set in her/his mind. The 7th problem requires a direct solution of pouring water from A to
C. But the mental set is so powerful that many would fail to think of any other steps, other than the already
tried one.
The standard method
Problems 1-5
168
A simpler method
Problem 6
Psychology
2022-23
A case where only the simple method works
Problem 7
Chapter
9
Motivation and Emotion
After reading this chapter, you would be able to
•
•
•
•
•
understand the nature of human motivation,
describe the nature of some important motives,
describe the nature of emotional expression,
understand the relationship between culture and emotion, and
know how to manage your own emotions.
Contents
Introduction
Nature of Motivation
Types of Motives
Biological Motives
Psychosocial Motives
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Self-Motivation (Box 9.1)
Nature of Emotions
Physiological Bases of Emotions
Physiology of Emotion (Box 9.2)
Lie Detection (Box 9.3)
Cognitive Bases of Emotions
Cultural Bases of Emotions
Expression of Emotions
Culture and Emotional Expression
Culture and Emotional Labeling
Managing Negative Emotions
Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (Box 9.4)
Management of Examination Anxiety (Box 9.5)
Enhancing Positive Emotions
Emotional Intelligence (Box 9.6)
Emotion has taught mankind
to reason.
Key Terms
Summary
Review Questions
Project Ideas
– Marquis de Vauvenargues
2022-23
Introduction
Sunita, a girl from a little known town, puts in 10-12 hours of hard work everyday
in order to get through the various engineering entrance examinations. Hemant, a
physically challenged boy, wants to take part in an expedition and trains himself
extensively in a mountaineering institute. Aman saves money from his scholarship
so that he can buy a gift for his mother. These are just a few examples, which
indicate the role motivation plays in human behaviour. Each of these behaviours
are caused by an underlying motive. Behaviour is goal-driven. Goal-seeking
behaviour tends to persist until the goal is achieved. For achieving their goals people
plan and undertake different activities. How is Sunita going to feel if after all the
hard work she has put in, she does not succeed or Aman’s scholarship money gets
stolen. Sunita, perhaps, will be sad and Aman angry. This chapter will help you to
understand the basic concepts of motivation and emotion, and related developments
in these two areas. You will also get to know the concepts of frustration and conflict.
The basic emotions, their biological bases, overt expressions, cultural influences,
their relationship with motivation, and some techniques to help you manage your
emotions better will also be dealt with.
NATURE
OF
drives, needs, goals, and incentives come
under the broad cluster of motivation.
MOTIVATION
The concept of motivation focuses on
explaining what “moves” behaviour. In fact,
the term motivation is derived from the Latin
word ‘movere’, referring to movement of
activity. Most of our everyday explanation of
behaviour is given in terms of motives. Why
do you come to the school or college? There
may be any number of reasons for this
behaviour, such as you want to learn or to
make friends, you need a diploma or degree
to get a good job, you want to make your
parents happy, and so on. Some combination
of these reasons and/or others would explain
why you choose to go in for higher education.
Motives also help in making predictions about
behaviour. A person will work hard in school,
in sports, in business, in music, and in many
other situations, if s/he has a very strong need
for achievement. Hence, motives are the
general states that enable us to make
predictions about behaviour in many different
situations. In other words, motivation is one
of the determinants of behaviour. Instincts,
170
The Motivational Cycle
Psychologists now use the concept of need to
describe the motivational properties of
behaviour. A need is lack or deficit of some
necessity. The condition of need leads to drive.
Psychology
2022-23
Need
Drive
Reduction of
arousal
Achievement
Arousal
Goal-directed
behaviour
Fig.9.1 : The Motivational Cycle
A drive is a state of tension or arousal
produced by a need. It energises random
activity. When one of the random activities
leads to a goal, it reduces the drive, and the
organism stops being active. The organism
returns to a balanced state. Thus, the cycle of
motivational events can be presented as shown
in Fig.9.1.
Are there different types of motives? Are
there any biological bases explaining different
kinds of motives? What happens if your motive
remains unfulfilled? These are some of the
questions we will discuss in the following
sections.
TYPES
OF
MOTIVES
Basically, there are two types of motives :
biological and psychosocial. Biological motives
are also known as physiological motives as
they are guided mostly by the physiological
mechanisms of the body. Psychosocial
motives, on the other hand, are primarily
learned from the individual’s interactions with
the various environmental factors.
However, both types of motives are
interdependent on each other. That is, in some
kind of situations the biological factors may
trigger a motive whereas in some other
situations, the psychosocial factors may
trigger the motive. Hence, you should keep in
mind that no motive is absolutely biological
or psychosocial per se, rather they are aroused
in the individual with varying combinations.
Biological Motives
The biological or physiological approach to
explain motivation is the earliest attempt to
understand causes of behaviour. Most of
the theories, which developed later, carry
traces of the influence of the biological
approach. The approach adhering to the
concept of adaptive act holds that organisms
have needs (internal physiological imbalances)
that produce drive, which stimulates
behaviour leading to certain actions towards
achieving certain goals, which reduce the
drive. The earliest explanations of motivation
relied on the concept of instinct. The term
instinct denotes inborn patterns of behaviour
that are biologically determined rather than
learned. Some common human instincts
include curiosity, flight, repulsion,
reproduction, parental care, etc. Instincts are
innate tendencies found in all members of a
species that direct behaviour in predictable
ways. The term instinct most approximately
refers to an urge to do something. Instinct has
an “impetus” which drives the organism to do
something to reduce that impetus. Some of
the basic biological needs explained by this
approach are hunger, thirst, and sex, which
are essential for the sustenance of the
individual.
Types of Motives
Psychosocial Motives
Focus on psychological and social
(as well as environmental) factors and
how they interact with each other to
produce motivation. For example,
need for achievement, affiliation, power,
curiosity and exploration, and selfactualisation motives.
Biological Motives
Focus on the innate, biological causes
of motivation like hormones,
neurotransmitters, brain structures
(hypothalamus, limbic system, etc.).
For example, hunger, thirst and
sex motives.
Fig.9.2 : Types of Motives
Chapter 9 • Motivation and Emotion
2022-23
171
Hunger
When someone is hungry, the need for food
dominates everything else. It motivates people
to obtain and consume food. Of course we
must eat to live. But, what makes you feel
hungry? Studies have indicated that many
events inside and outside the body may trigger
hunger or inhibit it. The stimuli for hunger
include stomach contractions, which signify
that the stomach is empty, a low concentration
of glucose in the blood, a low level of protein
and the amount of fats stored in the body.
The liver also responds to the lack of bodily
fuel by sending nerve impulses to the brain.
The aroma, taste or appearance of food may
also result in a desire to eat. It may be noted
that none of these alone gives you the feeling
that you are hungry. All in combination act
with external factors (such as taste, colour,
by observing others eating, and the smell of
food, etc.) to help you understand that you
are hungry. Thus, it can be said that our food
intake is regulated by a complex feedingsatiety system located in the hypothalamus,
liver, and other parts of the body as well as
the external cues available in the environment.
Some physiologists hold that changes in
the metabolic functions of the liver result in a
feeling of hunger. The liver sends a signal to a
part of the brain called hypothalamus. The
two regions of hypothalamus involved in
hunger are - the lateral hypothalamus (LH)
and the ventro-medial hypothalamus (VMH).
LH is considered to be the excitatory area.
Animals eat when this area is stimulated.
When it is damaged, animals stop eating and
die of starvation. The VMH is located in the
middle of the hypothalamus, which is
otherwise known as hunger-controlling area
which inhibits the hunger drive. Now can you
guess about people who overeat and become
obese, and people who eat very little or who
are on a diet?
Thirst
What would happen to you, if you were
deprived of water for a long time? What makes
you feel thirsty? When we are deprived of water
172
for a period of several hours, the mouth and
throat become dry, which leads to dehydration
of body tissues. Drinking water is necessary
to wet a dry mouth. But a dry mouth does not
always result in water drinking behaviour. In
fact processes within the body itself control
thirst and drinking of water. Water must get
into the tissues sufficiently to remove the
dryness of mouth and throat.
Motivation to drink water is mainly
triggered by the conditions of the body: loss
of water from cells and reduction of blood
volume. When water is lost by bodily fluids,
water leaves the interior of the cells. The
anterior hypothalamus contains nerve cells
called ‘osmoreceptors’, which generate nerve
impulses in case of cell dehydration. These
nerve impulses act as a signal for thirst and
drinking; when thirst is regulated by loss of
water from the osmoreceptors, it is called
cellular -dehydration thirst. But what
mechanisms stop the drinking of water? Some
researchers assume that the mechanism
which explains the intake of water is also
responsible for stopping the intake of water.
Others have pointed out that the role of stimuli
resulting from the intake of water in the
stomach must have something to do with
stopping of drinking water. However, the
precise physiological mechanisms underlying
the thirst drive are yet to be understood.
Sex
One of the most powerful drives in both
animals and human beings is the sex drive.
Motivation to engage in sexual activity is a very
strong factor influencing human behaviour.
However, sex is far more than a biological
motive. It is different from other primary
motives (hunger, thirst) in many ways like,
(a) sexual activity is not necessary for an
individual’s survival; (b) homeostasis (the
tendency of the organism as a whole to
maintain constancy or to attempt to restore
equilibrium if constancy is disturbed) is not
the goal of sexual activity; and (c) sex drive
develops with age, etc. In case of lower
animals, it depends on many physiological
Psychology
2022-23
conditions; in case of human beings, the sex
drive is very closely regulated biologically,
sometimes it is very difficult to classify sex
purely as a biological drive.
Physiologists suggest that intensity of the
sexual urge is dependent upon chemical
substances circulating in the blood, known
as sex hormones. Studies on animals as well
as human beings have mentioned that sex
hormones secreted by gonads, i.e. testes in
males and the ovaries in females ar e
responsible for sexual motivation. Sexual
motivation is also influenced by other
endocrine glands, such as adrenal and
pituitary glands. Sexual drive in human
beings is primarily stimulated by external
stimuli and its expression depends upon
cultural learning.
Psychosocial Motives
Social motives are mostly learned or acquired.
Social groups such as family, neighbourhood,
friends, and relatives do contribute a lot in
acquiring social motives. These are complex
forms of motives mainly resulting from the
individual’s interaction with her/his social
environment.
Need for Affiliation
Most of us need company or friend or want to
maintain some form of relationship with
others. Nobody likes to remain alone all the
time. As soon as people see some kinds of
similarities among themselves or they like each
other, they form a group. Formation of group
or collectivity is an important feature of human
life. Often people try desperately to get close
to other people, to seek their help, and to
become members of their group. Seeking other
human beings and wanting to be close to them
both physically and psychologically is called
affiliation. It involves motivation for social
contact. Need for affiliation is aroused when
individuals feel threatened or helpless and also
when they are happy. People high on this need
are motivated to seek the company of others
and to maintain friendly relationships with
other people.
Need for Power
Need for power is an ability of a person to
produce intended effects on the behaviour and
emotions of another person. The various goals
of power motivation are to influence, control,
persuade, lead, and charm others and most
importantly to enhance one’s own reputation
in the eyes of other people.
David McClelland (1975) described four
general ways of expression of the power
motive. First, people do things to gain feeling
of power and strength from sources outside
themselves by reading stories about sports
stars or attaching themselves to a popular
figure. Second, power can also be felt from
sources within us and may be expressed by
building up the body and mastering urges and
impulses. Third, people do things as
individuals to have an impact on others. For
example, a person argues, or competes with
another individual in order to have an impact
or influence on that person. Fourth, people
do things as members of organisations to have
an impact on others as in the case of the leader
of a political party; the individual may use the
party apparatus to influence others. However,
for any individual, one of these ways of
expressing power motivation may dominate,
but with age and life experiences, it varies.
Need for Achievement
You might have observed some students work
very hard and compete with others for good
marks/grades in the examination, as good
marks/grades will create opportunities for
higher studies and better job prospects. It is
the achievement motivation, which refers to
the desire of a person to meet standards of
excellence. Need for achievement, also known
as n-Ach, energises and directs behaviour as
well as influences the perception of situations.
During the formative years of social
development, children acquire achievement
motivation. The sources from which they learn
it, include parents, other role models, and
socio-cultural influences. Persons high in
achievement motivation tend to prefer tasks
that are moderately difficult and challenging.
Chapter 9 • Motivation and Emotion
2022-23
173
They have stronger-than-average desire for
feedback on their performance, that is to know
how they are doing, so that they can adjust
their goals to meet the challenge.
a hierarchy. His viewpoint about motivation
is very popular because of its theoretical and
applied value which is popularly known as the
“Theory of Self-actualisation” (see Fig.9.3).
Curiosity and Exploration
Often people engage in activities without a
clear goal or purpose but they derive some
kind of pleasure out of it. It is a motivational
tendency to act without any specific
identifiable goal. The tendency to seek for a
novel experience, gain pleasure by obtaining
information, etc. are signs of curiosity. Hence,
curiosity describes behaviour whose primary
motive appears to remain in the activities
themselves.
What will happen if the sky falls on us?
Questions of this kind (What will happen if…)
stimulate intellectuals to find answers.
Studies show that this curiosity behaviour is
not only limited to human beings, animals too
show the same kind of behaviour. We are
driven to explore the environment by our
curiosity and our need for sensory stimulation.
The need for varied types of sensory
stimulations is closely related to curiosity. It
is the basic motive, and exploration and
curiosity are the expressions of it.
Our ignorance about a number of things
around us becomes a powerful motivator to
explore the world. We get easily bored with
repetitive experiences. So we look for
something new.
In the case of infants and small children,
this motive is very dominant. They get
satisfaction from being allowed to explore,
which is reflected in their smiling and
babbling. Children become easily distressed,
when the motive to explore is discouraged, as
you have read in Chapter 4.
MASLOW’S HIERARCHY
OF
NEEDS
There are various views on human motivation,
the most popular among these is given by
Abraham H. Maslow (1968; 1970). He
attempted to portray a picture of human
behaviour by arranging the various needs in
174
Selfactualisation
needs
Esteem needs
Belongingness needs
Safety needs
Physiological needs
Fig.9.3 : Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Maslow’s model can be conceptualised as
a pyramid in which the bottom of this
hierarchy represents basic physiological or
biological needs which are basic to survival
such as hunger, thirst, etc. Only when these
needs are met, the need to be free from
threatened danger arises. This refers to the
safety needs of physical and psychological
nature. Next comes the need to seek out other
people, to love and to be loved. After these
needs are fulfilled, the individual strives for
esteem, i.e. the need to develop a sense of selfworth. The next higher need in the hierarchy
reflects an individual’s motive towards the
fullest development of potential, i.e. selfactualisation. A self-actualised person is selfaware, socially responsive, creative,
spontaneous, open to novelty, and challenge.
S/he also has a sense of humour and capacity
for deep interpersonal relationships.
Lower level needs (physiological) in the
hierarchy dominate as long as they are
unsatisfied. Once they are adequately
satisfied, the higher needs occupy the
individual’s attention and effort. However, it
Psychology
2022-23
must be noted that very few people reach the
highest level because most people are
concerned more with the lower level needs.
Activity 9.1
Actual actions sometimes contradict the hierarchy
of needs. Soldiers, police officers, and fire
personnels have been known to protect others by
facing very endangering situations, seemingly in
direct contradiction to the prominence of safety
needs.
Why does it happen? Discuss it in your group
and then with your teacher.
Frustration and Conflict
So far we have taken a look at the various
theoretical perspectives on motivation. They
explain the process of motivation and what
leads to motivated action and what are the
reasons for different motives. Now we will try
to understand what happens when motivated
action is blocked or it fails due to certain
reasons. We will also try to understand what
happens when one is faced with more than
one motive or need at the same time. These
two concerns can be explained in the form of
two important concepts related to motivation,
namely frustration and conflict.
Frustration
We come across many occasions when things
go in an unexpected direction and we fail to
realise our goal. The blocking of a desired goal
is painful, but all of us experience it in life in
different degrees. Frustration occurs when an
anticipated desirable goal is not attained and
the motive is blocked. It is an aversive state
and no one likes it. Frustration results in a
variety of behavioural and emotional reactions.
They include aggressive behaviour, fixation,
escape, avoidance, and crying. In fact
frustration-aggression is a very famous
hypothesis proposed by Dollard and Miller.
It states that frustration produces aggression.
Aggressive acts are often directed towards the
self or blocking agent, or a substitute. Direct
aggressive acts may be inhibited by the threat
of punishment. The main sources or causes
of frustration are found in: (i) environmental
forces, which could be physical objects,
constraining situations or even other people
who prevent a person from reaching a
particular goal, (ii) personal factors like
inadequacies or lack of resources that make
it difficult or impossible to reach goals, and
(iii) conflicts between different motives.
Conflict
Conflict occurs whenever a person must
choose between contradictory needs, desires,
motives, or demands. There are three basic
forms of conflicts, for example, approachapproach conflict, avoidance-avoidance
conflict, and approach-avoidance conflict.
Approach-approach conflict comes from
having to choose between two positives and
A1
Need
A2
Failure
Drive
Arousal
Alternative
Pathways
A3
Conflict
Frustration
A4
A5
Target
Behaviour
Aggression
Fig.9.4 : Need-Conflict-Frustration Route
Chapter 9 • Motivation and Emotion
2022-23
175
Box 9.1
Self-M
SelfMotivation
Here are a few ways of motivating your own self
as well as others:
1. Be planned and organised in whatever you
do.
2. Learn to prioritise your goals (Rank them 1,2,
3…).
3. Set short-term targets (In a few days, a week,
a month, and so on).
4. Reward yourself for hitting the set targets (You
could reward yourself with small things like a
new pen, chocolates or anything that you want
desirable alternatives. Avoidance-avoidance
conflict comes from choosing between two
negatives, or mutually undesirable
alternatives. In real life, these double
avoidance conflicts involve dilemmas such as
choosing between the dentist and tooth decay,
roadside food and starvation, etc. Approachavoidance conflict comes from being attracted
to and repelled by the same goal or activity.
These types of conflicts are also difficult to
resolve, as they are more troublesome than
avoidance conflicts. A central characteristic of
approach-avoidance conflict is ambivalence —
a mix of positive and negative conflicts. Some
examples of approach-avoidance conflicts are:
a person wanting to buy a new motorbike but
not wanting to make monthly payments,
wanting to eat when one is overweight, and
planning to marry someone her/his parents
strongly disapprove of. Many of life’s important
decisions have approach-avoidance
dimensions.
A major source of frustration lies in
motivational conflict. In life, we are often
influenced by a number of competing forces
that propel us in different directions. Such
situations demonstrate the condition of
conflict. Hence, the simultaneous existence of
multiple wishes and needs characterise
conflict.
In all the cases of conflicts, the selection
of one option against the other depends on
176
5.
6.
7.
to have but attach it with some small goal).
Compliment yourself on being an achiever each time
you hit a target (Say “Cheers! I did it”, “I am really
good with that”, “I think I can do things smartly”,
etc.).
If the targets seem difficult to attain, again break
them up into smaller ones and approach them one
by one.
Always try to visualise or imagine the outcomes of
all the hard work you have to put in to reach your
set goals.
the relative strength/importance of one over
the other, and environmental factors.
Conflicting situations should be resolved after
due consideration of the pros and cons of each
of the choices. A point to note here is that
conflicts cause frustration, which in turn, can
lead to aggression. For instance, a young man
who wants to be a musician but is pursuing
a course in management due to parental
pressure and is not able to perform as per
the expectations of his parents may turn
aggressive upon being questioned on his poor
performance in the course.
Psychology
2022-23
Activity 9.2
Try to answer the following questions and work
on the weaker areas:
1. List the plans/activities you intend to
undertake during this week.
2. Do you have any goals set for the month
ahead? If yes, what are they? Try to list them.
3. Do you have a daily routine chart? If not, then
try to prepare one by distributing your time
judiciously for studies, rest, recreation, and
other activities, if any.
4. Are you able to follow your routine chart
successfully? (If you already have one).
5. If you are not able to follow a routine
successfully think about the ways in which
you could overcome your irregular habits and
try to follow them.
NATURE
OF
EMOTIONS
‘Swati is very happy. Her examination result
has been declared today and she has topped
the class. She is feeling euphoric. However, her
friend Pranoy is feeling sad, as he has not done
well. Among her friends some are feeling
jealous of Swati’s achievement. Jeevan who
has not performed up to his expectation is
angry with himself; he feels unhappy that his
parents would be very disappointed’.
Joy, sorrow, hope, love, excitement, anger,
hate, and many such feelings are experienced
in the course of the day by all of us. The term
emotion is often considered synonymous with
the terms ‘feeling’ and ‘mood’. Feeling denotes
the pleasure or pain dimension of emotion,
which usually involves bodily functions. Mood
is an affective state of long duration but of
lesser intensity than emotion. Both these
terms are narrower than the concept of
emotion. Emotions are a complex pattern of
arousal, subjective feeling, and cognitive
interpretation. Emotions, as we experience
them, move us internally, and this process
involves physiological as well as psychological
reactions.
Emotion is a subjective feeling and the
experience of emotions varies from person to
person. In psychology, attempts have been
made to identify basic emotions. It has been
noted that at least six emotions are
experienced and recognised everywhere.
These are: anger, disgust, fear, happiness,
sadness, and surprise. Izard has proposed a
set of ten basic emotions, i.e. joy, surprise,
anger, disgust, contempt, fear, shame, guilt,
interest, and excitement with combinations of
them resulting in other emotional blends.
According to Plutchik, there are eight basic or
primary emotions. All other emotions result
from various mixtures of these basic emotions.
He arranged these emotions in four pairs of
opposites, i.e. joy-sadness, acceptancedisgust, fear-anger, and surprise-anticipation.
Emotions vary in their intensity (high, low)
and quality (happiness, sadness, fear).
Subjective factors and situational contexts
influence the experience of emotions. These
factors are gender, personality, and
psychopathology of certain kinds. Evidence
indicates that women experience all the
emotions except anger more intensely than
men. Men are prone to experience high
intensity and frequency of anger. This gender
difference has been attributed to the social
roles attached to men (competitiveness) and
women (affiliation and caring).
PHYSIOLOGICAL BASES
OF
EMOTIONS
‘Divya is desperate to get a job. She has
prepared well for the interview and feels
confident. As she enters the room and the
interview begins, she becomes extremely tense.
Her feet go cold, her heart starts pounding, and
she is unable to answer appropriately’.
Why did this happen? Try thinking about
a similar situation that you have faced
sometime in your life. Can you describe
probable reasons for this? As we will see, a
great deal of physiological changes happen
when we experience emotion. When we are
excited, afraid or angry, these bodily changes
might be relatively easy to note. All of you must
have noted the increase in heart rate,
throbbing temples, increased perspiration,
and trembling in your limbs when you are
angry or excited about something.
Sophisticated equipment has made it possible
to measure the exact physiological changes
that accompany emotions. Both autonomic as
well as somatic nervous system play important
roles in the emotional process. The experience
of emotions is a result of a series of
neurophysiological activations in which
thalamus, hypothalamus, limbic system, and
the cerebral cortex are involved significantly.
Individuals with extensive injury in these brain
areas have been known to demonstrate
impaired emotional abilities. Selective
activation of different brain areas has been
experimentally shown to arouse different
emotions in infants and adults.
One of the earliest physiological theories
of emotion was given by James (1884) and
Chapter 9 • Motivation and Emotion
2022-23
177
Box 9.2
Physiology of Emotion
The nervous system, central as well as peripheral,
plays a vital role in the regulation of emotion.
activity and secretion of endocrine glands, and
organises the somatic pattern of emotional behaviour.
Thalamus : It is composed of a group of nerve
cells and acts as a relay center of sensory nerves.
Stimulation of thalamus produces fear, anxiety,
and autonomic reactions. A theory of emotion given
by Cannon and Bard (1931) emphasises the role
of thalamus in mediating and initiating all
emotional experiences.
L i m b i c S y s t e m : Along with thalamus and
hypothalamus the limbic system plays a vital role in
regulation of emotion. Amygdala is a part of limbic
system, responsible for emotional control and involves
formation of emotional memories.
Hypothalamus : It is considered the primary
center for regulation of emotion. It also regulates
the homeostatic balance, controls autonomic
Cortex : Cortex is intimately involved in emotions.
However, its hemispheres have a contrasting role to
play. The left frontal cortex is associated with positive
feelings whereas the right frontal cortex with negative
feelings.
supported by Lange, hence, it has been named
the James-Lange theory of emotion (see
Fig.9.5). The theory suggests that
environmental stimuli elicit physiological
responses from viscera (the internal organs
like heart and lungs), which in turn, are
associated with muscle movement. For
example, startling at an unexpected intense
noise triggers activation in visceral and
muscular organs followed by an emotional
arousal. Put in other words, James-Lange
theory argues that your perception about your
bodily changes, like rapid breathing, a
pounding heart, and running legs, following
an event, brings forth emotional arousal. The
main implication made by this theory is that
particular events or stimuli provoke particular
physiological changes and the individual’s
perception of these changes results in the
emotion being experienced.
However, this theory faced a lot of criticism
and fell in disuse. Another theory was
proposed by Cannon (1927) and Bard (1934).
The Cannon-Bard theory claims that the
entire process of emotion is mediated by
thalamus which after perception of the
emotion-provoking stimulus, conveys this
information simultaneously to the cerebral
cortex and to the skeletal muscles and
sympathetic nervous system. The cerebral
cortex then determines the nature of the
perceived stimulus by referring to past
experiences. This determines the subjective
experience of the emotion. At the same time
the sympathetic nervous system and the
muscles provide physiological arousal and
prepare the individual to take action (see
Fig.9.6).
The ANS is divided into two systems,
sympathetic and parasympathetic. These two
Road accident
Stimulus
Increased heart rate, perspiration
Specific physiological
changes
Perception of
physiological changes
Fig.9.5 : James-Lange Theory of Emotion
178
Psychology
2022-23
Fear
Emotion experienced
Sympathetic nervous
system, Muscles
Stimulus
Physiological changes
enabling action
Thalamus
Cerebral cortex
Subjective experience
of the emotion
Fig.9.6 : Cannon-Bard Theory of Emotion
systems function together in a reciprocal
manner. In a stressful situation the
sympathetic system prepares the body to face
the situation. It strengthens the internal
environment of the individual by controlling
the fall in heart rate, blood pressure, blood
sugar, etc. It induces a state of physiological
arousal that prepares the individual for fight
or flight response in order to face the stressful
situation. As the threat is removed the
parasympathetic system gets active and
restores the balance by calming the body. It
restores and conserves energy and brings the
individual back to a normal state.
Though acting in an antagonistic manner,
the sympathetic and parasympathetic systems
are complementary to each other in completing
Box
9.3
the process of experience and expression of
emotion.
COGNITIVE BASES
OF
EMOTIONS
Most psychologists today believe that our
cognitions, i.e. our perceptions, memories,
interpretations are essential ingredients of
emotions. Stanley Schachter and Jerome
Singer have proposed a two-factor theory in
which emotions have two ingredients:
physical arousal and a cognitive label. They
presumed that our experience of emotion
grows from our awareness of our present
arousal. They also believed that emotions are
physiologically similar. For example, your
Lie Detection
Lie detectors are also called polygraphs because
they graphically record several bodily reactions
simultaneously which measure the bodily arousal
of the individual. Typically a lie detector measures
changes in blood pressure, heart rate, breathing
rate and depth, and the Galvanic Skin Response
(GSR) which indicates variations in the electrical
conductivity of the skin.
The individual being tested is first asked a
series of neutral (control) questions to establish
the baseline. Simple questions are followed by
specific questions that are designed to evoke
responses from a guilty knowledge supposedly
indicating the individual’s involvement in the
crime being investigated. The lie detector or the
polygraph records the changes in neurophysiological
activities that occur while the suspected individual
answers these questions.
Though the polygraph makes several objective
recordings, the interpretation of these records relies
heavily on the subjective judgment by the examiner.
It is also probable that several unrelated factors
like fear, pain or anxiety being felt by the individual
during the test may affect her/his level of arousal.
It is possible for the individual to lie with it. The
validity of polygraph results is doubtful; however
these are still used by law-enforcing agencies for
lie detection.
Chapter 9 • Motivation and Emotion
2022-23
179
Fig.9.7 : Schachter-Singer Theory of Emotion
heart beats faster when you are excited or
scared or angry. You are physiologically
aroused and look to the external world for
explanation. Thus, in their view an emotional
experience requires a conscious interpretation
of the arousal.
If you are aroused after physical exercise
and someone teases you, the arousal already
caused by the exercise may lead to
provocation. To test this theory, Schachter and
Singer (1962) injected subjects with
epinephrine, a drug that produces high
arousal. Then these subjects were made to
observe the behaviour of others, either in an
euphoric manner (i.e. shooting papers at a
waste basket) or in an angry manner (i.e.
stomping out of the room). As predicted, the
euphoric and angry behaviour of others
influenced the cognitive interpretation of the
subjects’ own arousal.
CULTURAL BASES
OF
EMOTIONS
EXPRESSION
T ill now we have been discussing the
physiological and the cognitive bases of
emotions. This section will examine the role
of culture in emotions. Studies have revealed
that the most basic emotions are inborn and
do not have to be learned. Psychologists largely
have a notion that emotions, especially facial
expressions, have strong biological ties. For
example, children who are visually impaired
from birth and have never observed the smile
180
or seen another person’s face, still smile or
frown in the same way that children with
normal vision do.
But on comparing different cultures we see
that learning plays an important role in
emotions. This happens in two ways. First,
cultural learning influences the expression of
emotions more than what is experienced, for
example, some cultures encourage free
emotional expression, whereas other cultures
teach people, through modeling and
reinforcement, to reveal little of their emotions
in public.
Second, learning has a great deal to do
with the stimuli that produce emotional
reactions. It has been shown that individuals
with excessive fears (phobia) of elevators,
automobiles, and the like learnt these fears
through modeling, classical conditioning or
avoidance conditioning.
OF
EMOTIONS
Do you get to know that your friend is happy
or sad or indifferent? Does s/he understand
your feelings? Emotion is an internal
experience not directly observable by others.
Emotions are inferred from verbal and nonverbal expressions. These verbal and nonverbal expressions act as the channels of
communication and enable an individual to
express one’s emotions and to understand the
feelings of others.
Psychology
2022-23
Fear
Anger
Happy
Sad
Fig.9.8 : Sketches of Facial Expressions of Emotions
Culture and Emotional Expression
The verbal channel of communication is
composed of spoken words as well as other
vocal features of speech like pitch and
loudness of the voice. These non-verbal
aspects of the voice and temporal
characteristics of speech are called
‘paralanguage’. Other non-verbal channels
include facial expression, kinetic (gesture,
posture, movement of the body) and proximal
(physical distance during face-to-face
interaction) behaviours. Facial expression is
the most common channel of emotional
communication. The amount and kind of
information conveyed by the face is easy to
comprehend as the face is exposed to the full
view of others (see Fig.9.8). Facial expressions
can convey the intensity as well as the
pleasantness or unpleasantness of the
individual’s emotional state. Facial
expressions play an important role in our
everyday lives. There has been some research
evidence supporting Darwin’s view that facial
expressions for basic emotions (joy, fear,
anger, disgust, sadness, and surprise) are
inborn and universal.
Bodily movements further facilitate the
communication of emotions. Can you feel the
difference between your body movements
when you feel angry and movements when you
feel shy? Theatre and drama provide an
excellent opportunity to understand the
impact of body movements in communicating
emotions. The roles of gestures and proximal
behaviours are also significant. You must have
seen how in Indian classical dances like
Bharatanatyam, Odissi, Kuchipudi, Kathak
and others, emotions are expressed with the
help of movements of eyes, legs, and fingers.
The dancers are trained rigorously in the
grammar of body movement and non-verbal
communication to express joy, sorrow, love,
anger, and various other forms of emotional
states.
The processes involved in emotions have
been known to be influenced by culture.
Current research has dealt more specifically
with the issue of universality or culture
specificity of emotions. Most of this research
has been carried out on the facial expression
of emotions as the face is open to easy
observation, is relatively free from complexity
and provides a link between subjective
experience and overt expression of an emotion.
Still it must be emphasised that emotions are
conveyed not only via face. A felt emotion may
be communicated through other non-verbal
channels as well, for example, gaze behaviour,
gestures, paralanguage, and proximal
behaviour. The emotional meaning conveyed
via gestures (body language) varies from
culture to culture. For example, in China, a
handclap is an expression of worry or
disappointment, and anger is expressed with
laughter. Silence has also been found to
convey dif ferent meanings for different
cultures. For example, in India, deep emotions
are sometimes communicated via silence. This
Chapter 9 • Motivation and Emotion
2022-23
181
may convey embarrassment during
communication in Wester n countries.
Cultural differences have also been found in
the gaze behaviour. It has been observed that
the Latin Americans and the Southern
Europeans direct their gaze to the eyes of the
interactant. Asians, in particular, Indians and
Pakistanis, prefer a peripheral gaze (looking
away from the conversational partner) during
an interaction. The physical space (proximity)
also divulges different kinds of emotional
meaning during emotional exchanges. The
Americans, for example, do not prefer an
interaction too close; the Oriental Indians
consider a close space comfortable for an
interaction. In fact, the touching behaviour in
physical proximity is considered reflective of
emotional warmth. For example, it was
observed that the Arabs experience alienation
during an interaction with the North
Americans who prefer to be interacted from
outside the olfactory (too close) zone.
Activity 9.3
Emotional expressions vary in their intensity as
well as variety. In your spare time, try collecting
from old magazines or newspapers as many
pictures of different individuals expressing various
emotions. Make picture cards pasting each
photograph on a piece of cardboard and number
them. You can make a set of such cards that
represent different emotional expressions. Involve
a group of your friends in the activity. Display
these cards one by one to your friends and ask
them to identify the emotions being portrayed.
Note down the responses and notice how your
friends differ from each other in labelling the same
emotion. You can also try to categorise the pictures
using categories like positive and negative, intense
and subtle emotions, and so on. Try to notice how
people differ from each other in expressing the
same emotion. What could be the reason for such
differences? Discuss in class.
Culture and Emotional Labeling
Basic emotions also vary in the extent of
elaboration and categorical labels. The
Tahitian language includes 46 labels for the
English word anger. When asked to label
182
freely, the North American subjects produced
40 different responses for the facial expression
of anger and 81 different responses for the
facial expression of contempt. The Japanese
produced varied emotional labels for facial
expressions of happiness (10 labels), anger (8
labels), and disgust (6 labels). Ancient Chinese
literature cites seven emotions, namely, joy,
anger, sadness, fear, love, dislike, and liking.
Ancient Indian literature identifies eight such
emotions, namely, love, mirth, energy, wonder,
anger, grief, disgust, and fear. In Western
literature, certain emotions like happiness,
sadness, fear, anger, and disgust are uniformly
treated as basic to human beings. Emotions
like surprise, contempt, shame, and guilt are
not accepted as basic to all.
In brief, it might be said that there are
certain basic emotions that are expressed and
understood by all despite their cultural and
ethnic differences, and there are certain others
that are specific to a particular culture. Again,
it is important to remember that culture plays
a significant role in all processes of emotion.
Both expression and experience of emotions
are mediated and modified by culture specific
‘display rules’ that delimit the conditions
under which an emotion may be expressed
and the intensity with which it is displayed.
MANAGING NEGATIVE EMOTIONS
Try living a day in which you do not feel any
emotion. You would realise that it is difficult
even to imagine a life without emotions.
Emotions are a part of our daily life and
existence. They form the very fabric of our life
and interpersonal relations.
Emotions exist on a continuum. There are
various intensities of an emotion that can be
experienced by us. You can experience extreme
elation or slight happiness, severe grief or just
pensiveness. However, most of us usually
maintain a balance of emotions.
When faced with a conflicting situation,
individuals attempt to adjust and derive a
coping mechanism either with task or defenseoriented reactions. These coping patterns help
them prevent abnormal emotional reactions
Psychology
2022-23
such as anxiety, depression etc. Anxiety is a
condition that an individual develops in case
of failure to adopt an appropriate ego defense.
For example, if the individual fails to adhere
to a defense of rationalisation for his immoral
act (like cheating or stealing), he may develop
intense apprehension about the outcomes of
such an act. Anxious individuals find it
difficult to concentrate or to make decisions
even for trivial matters.
The state of depression affects an
individual’s ability to think rationally, feel
realistically, and work effectively. The condition
overwhelms the mood state of the individual.
Because of its enduring nature, the individual
who suffers from depression develops a variety
of symptoms like difficulty in falling asleep,
increased level of psychomotor agitation or
retardation, decreased ability to think or
concentrate, and loss of interest in personal or
social activities, etc.
In daily life, we are often faced with
conflicting situations. Under demanding and
stressful conditions, a lot of negative emotions
like fear, anxiety, disgust, etc. develop in an
individual to a considerable extent. Such
negative emotions, if allowed to prevail for a
long time, are likely to affect adversely the
person’s psychological and physical health.
This is the reason why most of the stress
management programmes emphasise emotion
management as an integral part of stress
management. The major focus of emotion
management techniques is the reduction of
Box 9.4
negative emotions and enhancing positive
emotions.
Though most researchers focus their
attention only on negative emotions like anger,
fear, anxiety, etc., recently the field of ‘Positive
Psychology’ has gained much prominence. As
the name suggests, positive psychology
concerns itself with the study of features that
enrich life like, hope, happiness, creativity,
courage, optimism, cheerfulness, etc.
Effective emotion management is the key
to effective social functioning in modern times.
The following tips might prove useful to
you for achieving the desired balance of
emotions :
• Enhance self-awareness : Be aware of
your own emotions and feelings. Try to
gain insight into the ‘how’ and ‘why’ of your
feelings.
• Appraise the situation objectively : It
has been proposed that emotion is
preceded by evaluation of the event. If the
event is experienced as disturbing, your
sympathetic nervous system is activated
and you feel stressed. If you do not
experience the event as disturbing, then
there is no stress. Hence, it is you who
decides whether to feel sad and anxious
or happy and relaxed.
• Do some self-monitoring : This involves
constant or periodic evaluation of your past
accomplishments, emotional and physical
states, real and vicarious experiences. A
positive appraisal would enhance your
Post
ost--Traumatic Stress Disorder
A disaster produces serious disruption of the
functioning of human society, resulting in
widespread material or environmental loss,
which cannot be dealt with immediately with the
existing resources. Disaster may be natural (like
earthquake/cyclone/tsunami) or man-made (like
war). The trauma an individual experiences
during a disaster may range from mere
perception of such an event to actually
encountering it, which may be life threatening.
Either of these conditions may lead to development
of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), where the
person tends to re-experience the event through
flashbacks and get overwhelming thoughts about the
event even after a substantial period of time. This
condition makes a person emotionally disturbed and
the person fails to adopt an appropriate coping
strategy in regular activities. Emotions manifest in
uniquely recognisable patterns with maladaptive
behaviour (like depression) and autonomic arousal.
Chapter 9 • Motivation and Emotion
2022-23
183
•
•
faith in yourself and lead to enhanced
feeling of wellness and contentment.
Engage in self-modeling : Be the ideal for
yourself. Repeatedly observe the best parts
of your past performance and use them
as an inspiration and motivation to
perform better in the future.
Perceptual reorganisation and cognitive
restructuring : Try viewing the events
differently and visualise the other side of
the coin. Restructure your thoughts to
enhance positive and reassuring feelings
and eliminate negative thoughts.
Box 9.5
•
•
•
Be creative : Find and develop an interest
or a hobby. Engage in an activity that
interests and amuses you.
Develop and nurture good relationships : Choose your friends carefully. In
the company of happy and cheerful friends
you will feel happy in general.
Have empathy : Try understanding other’s
feelings too. Make your relationships
meaningful and valuable. Seek as well as
provide support mutually.
Participate in community service : Help
yourself by helping others. By doing
Management of Examination Anxiety
For most of us an approaching examination brings
about a feeling of a churning stomach and anxiety.
In fact, any situation which involves performing
a task and the awareness of being evaluated for
the performance is an anxiety-provoking situation
for most people. A certain level of anxiety is
definitely essential as it motivates and pushes
us to put up our best performance but a high level
of anxiety becomes an impediment in optimum
perfor mance and achievement. An anxious
individual is highly aroused physiologically and
emotionally, and hence is not able to perform to
the best of her/his abilities.
An examination is a potentially stress
provoking situation and like other stressful
situations coping involves two strategies, i.e.
Monitoring or taking effective action, and Blunting
or avoiding the situation.
Monitoring involves taking effective and direct
action to deal with the stressful situation. The
following strategies can be used for monitoring :
e p a rre
e w e l l : Prepare well for the
•
P rre
examination and prepare well in advance.
Give yourself ample time. Familiarise yourself
with the pattern of question papers and
frequently asked questions. This gives you a
sense of predictability and control and
reduces the stress potential of the
examination.
Have a rrehearsal
ehearsal : Make yourself go through
•
a mock examination. Ask your friend to test
your knowledge. You can also rehearse
mentally in your mind. Visualise yourself
taking the examination completely relaxed and
confident and then passing with flying colours.
184
•
•
•
•
I n o c u l a t i o n : Inoculate yourself against
stress. Exposure through rehearsals and roleplaying prepares you physically and mentally to
face the examination situation better and with
confidence.
P o s i t i v e t h i n k i n g : Have faith in yourself.
Structure your thoughts with systematically listing
the thoughts that worry you and then rationally
dealing with them one by one. Emphasise on your
strengths. Suggest to yourself to be positive and
enthusiastic.
Seek support : Do not hesitate to ask for help
from your friends, parents, teachers or seniors.
Talking about a stressful situation to a close
person makes one feel light and helps gain insight.
The situation may not be as bad as it seems.
On the other hand, blunting strategies involve
avoiding the stressful situation. True, avoidance is
neither desirable nor possible in an examination
situation, but the following techniques may prove
useful:
R e l a x a t i o n : Lear n to relax. Relaxation
•
techniques help you calm your nerves and give
you an opportunity to reframe your thoughts.
There are many different relaxation techniques.
In general, this involves sitting or lying down in a
comfortable posture in a quiet place, relaxing your
muscles, reducing the external stimulation as well
as minimising the flow of thoughts and focusing.
Exer
cise : A stressful situation overactivates the
Exercise
•
sympathetic nervous system. Exercise helps in
channelising the excess energy generated by this.
A brief period of light exercise or active sport will
help you concentrate better on your studies.
Psychology
2022-23
community service (for example, helping
an intellectually challenged child learn an
adaptive skill), you will gain important
insights about your own difficulties.
•
•
Activity 9.4
Think of an intense emotional experience you have
gone through recently and explain the sequence
of events. How did you deal with it? Share it with
your class.
Managing your Anger
Anger is a negative emotion. It carries the mind
away or in other words, the person looses
control on behavioural functions during the
state of anger. The major source of anger is
the frustration of motives. However, anger is
not a reflex, rather it is a result of our thinking.
Neither is it automatic nor uncontrollable and
caused by others but it is a self-induced choice
that the individual makes. Anger is a result of
your thinking and hence is controllable by
your own thoughts only. Certain key points
in anger management are as follows:
• Recognise the power of your thoughts.
• Realise you alone can control it.
• Do not engage in ‘self-talk that burns’. Do
not magnify negative feelings.
Box 9.6
•
•
•
Do not ascribe intentions and ulterior
motives to others.
Resist having irrational beliefs about
people and events.
Try to find constructive ways of expressing
your anger. Have control on the degree and
duration of anger that you choose to
express.
Look inward not outward for anger control.
Give yourself time to change. It takes time
and effort to change a habit.
ENHANCING POSITIVE EMOTIONS
Our emotions have a purpose. They help us
adapt to the ever-changing environment and
are important for our survival and well-being.
Negative emotions like fear, anger or disgust
prepare us mentally and physically for taking
immediate action towards the stimulus that
is threatening. For example, if there was no
fear we would have caught a poisonous snake
in our hand. Though negative emotions protect
us in such situations but excessive or
inappropriate use of these emotions can
become life threatening to us, as it can harm
our immune system and have serious
consequences for our health.
Positive emotions such as hope, joy,
optimism, contentment, and gratitude
energise us and enhance our sense of
Emotional Intelligence
Expressions of emotion depend on regulation of
emotion for self or others. Persons who are
capable of having awareness of emotions for self
or others and regulate accordingly are called
emotionally intelligent. Persons who fail to do so,
deviate and thereby develop abreaction of
emotion, resulting in psychopathology of certain
kinds.
By emotional intelligence, we understand
‘the ability to monitor one’s own and other’s
emotions, to discriminate among them and to use
the information to guide one’s thinking and
actions’ (Mayer & Salovey, 1999). The concept
of emotional intelligence subsumes intrapersonal and
interpersonal elements. The intrapersonal element
includes factors like self-awareness (ability to keep
negative emotions and impulses under control), and
self-motivation (the drive to achieve despite setbacks,
developing skills to attain targets and taking initiative
to act on opportunities). The interpersonal element of
emotional intelligence includes two components:
social awareness (the awareness and the tendency
to appreciate other’s feelings) and social competence
(social skills that help to adjust with others, such as
team building, conflict management, skills of
communicating, etc.).
Chapter 9 • Motivation and Emotion
2022-23
185
emotional well-being. When we experience
positive affect, we display a greater preference
for a large variety of actions and ideas. We
can think of more possibilities and options to
solve whatever problems we face and thus,
we become proactive.
Psychologists have found that people, who
were shown films depicting joy and
contentment, came up with more ideas
regarding things they would like to do as
compared to those who were shown films
evoking anger and fear. Positive emotions give
us a greater ability to cope with adverse
circumstances and quickly return to a normal
state. They help us set up long-term plans
and goals, and form new relationships. Various
ways of enhancing positive emotions are given
below:
• Personality traits of optimism,
hopefulness, happiness and a positive selfregard.
• Finding positive meaning in dire
circumstances.
•
•
•
•
Having quality connections with others,
and supportive network of close
relationships.
Being engaged in work and gaining
mastery.
A faith that embodies social support,
purpose and hope, leading a life of
purpose.
Positive interpretations of most daily
events.
Key Terms
Amygdala, Anxiety, Arousal, Autonomic
nervous system, Basic emotions, Biological
needs (hunger, thirst, sex), Central nervous
system, Conflict, Emotional intelligence,
Esteem needs, Examination anxiety,
Expression of emotions, Frustration,
Hierarchy of needs, Motivation, Motives,
Need, Power motive, Psychosocial motives,
Self-actualisation, Self-esteem
Summary
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
186
The process of persistent behaviour directed towards a specific goal, which results from
certain driving forces, is called motivation.
There are two types of motivation, namely, biological, and psychosocial motivation.
Biological motivation focuses on the innate, biological causes of motivation like hormones,
neurotransmitters, brain structures (hypothalamus, limbic system), etc. Examples of biological
motivation are hunger, thirst, and sex.
Psychosocial motivation explains motives resulting mainly from the interaction of the
individual with his social environment. Examples of psychosocial motives are need for
affiliation, need for achievement, curiosity and exploration, and the need for power.
Maslow arranged various human needs in an ascending hierarchical order, beginning with
the most basic physiological needs, and then safety needs, love and belongingness needs,
esteem needs, and finally on the top of the hierarchy is the need for self-actualisation.
Other concepts related to motivation are frustration and conflicts.
Emotion is a complex pattern of arousal that involves physiological activation, conscious
awareness of feeling, and a specific cognitive label that describes the process.
Certain emotions are basic like joy, anger, sorrow, surprise, fear, etc. Other emotions are
experienced as a result of combination of these emotions.
Central and autonomic nervous system play a major role in regulating emotions.
Culture strongly influences the expression and interpretation of emotions.
Emotion is expressed through verbal and non-verbal channels.
It is important to manage emotions effectively in order to ensure physical and psychological
well-being.
Psychology
2022-23
Review Questions
1. Explain the concept of motivation.
2. What are the biological bases of hunger and thirst needs?
3. How do the needs for achievement, affiliation, and power influence the behaviour of
adolescents? Explain with examples.
4. What is the basic idea behind Maslow’s hierarchy of needs? Explain with suitable examples.
5. Does physiological arousal precede or follow an emotional experience? Explain.
6. Is it important to consciously interpret and label emotions in order to explain them?
Discuss giving suitable examples.
7. How does culture influence the expression of emotions?
8. Why is it important to manage negative emotions? Suggest ways to manage negative
emotions.
Project Ideas
1.
2.
Using Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, analyse what kind of motivational forces might have
motivated the great mathematician S.A. Ramanujan and the great shehnai Maestro Ustad
Bismillah Khan (Bharat Ratna) to perform exceptionally in their respective fields. Now
place yourself and five more known people in terms of need satisfaction. Reflect and
discuss.
In many households, family members do not eat without bathing first and practise religious
fasts. How have different social practices influenced your expression of hunger and thirst?
Conduct a survey on five people from different backgrounds and prepare a report.
Chapter 9 • Motivation and Emotion
2022-23
187
GLOSSARY
Absolute threshold: The minimum intensity
necessary for a stimulus to be detected.
Accommodation: Visual action of the ciliary
muscles to change the shape of the lens.
Acculturation: Cultural and psychological
changes resulting from continuous, first-hand
contact between two distinctive cultural groups.
Achievement need/motive: Need to succeed, to
perform better than others, to excel, to take
challenging tasks which demonstrate person’s
ability.
Acuity: The sharpness of vision.
Adolescence: The developmental period of
transition from childhood to early adulthood,
starting at approximately 11 to 12 years of age
and ending at 18 to 20 years of age.
Adrenaline: A very vital hormone of the human
body, which prepares one for fight, flight or fright
response.
Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH): A
hormone secreted by the anterior pituitary gland
that stimulates the adrenal to secrete its
corticoid hormones.
Aerial perspective: A monocular cue to depth
perception consisting of the relative clearness
of objects under varying atmospheric conditions.
Nearer objects are usually clearer in detail and
colour whereas farther objects are less distinct.
Afferent neurons: Neurons involved in the process
of sending information.
After images: A visual image that persists after a
stimulus is removed.
All-or–none law: The rule that a neuron will always
respond with its complete strength (action
potential) to a stimulus or will not respond at
all, regardless of the stimulus magnitude.
Amplitude: In sound waves, the distance from the
baseline to the peak of each sincisoidal wave.
In the EEG measurement, the distance from the
maximal and minimal voltage in the EEG record.
In either case, it is commonly used as a measure
of intensity.
Amygdala: Two almond-shaped neural clusters
that are components of the limbic system and
are linked to emotion.
Animism: A facet of preoperational thought; the
belief that inanimate objects have “lifelike”
qualities and are capable of action.
Anxiety: A general feeling of apprehension or dread
188
accompanied by predictable physiological
changes.
Approach-approach
conflict:
Conflict
characterising choice between two equally
pleasurable or desirable goals.
Approach-avoidance conflict: Conflict caused by
a situation that has both positive and negative
aspects. The individual, who is both repulsed
and attracted by the same goal, exhibits the
feelings of ambivalence.
Arousal: A physiological state of the body.
Artificial intelligence (AI): The field concerned
with creating machines (e.g., computers) that
can perform complex tasks formerly considered
to require human intelligence.
Associative learning: Learning that certain events
occur together. The events may be two stimuli
(as in classical conditioning) or a response and
its consequences (as in operant conditioning).
Attachment: A close emotional bond between the
infant and the parents or caregiver.
Attribution: Inference about an individual’s
internal state based on the perception of external
factors (cues).
Authoritative parenting: A parenting style in
which parents encourage children to be
independent but still place limits and control
on their actions.
Autonomic nervous system: A division of the
peripheral nervous system that regulates
smooth muscle, i.e. organ and glandular
activities; includes the sympathetic and
parasympathetic nervous system important in
emotional behaviour.
Avoidance-avoidance conflict: Conflict between
two equally undesirable or fear-evoking goals;
the solution is often escaped.
Axon: The part of the neuron that carries
information away from the cell body to other
neurons.
Basic emotions: Feeling states common to the
human species from which other feeling states
are derived.
Behaviour genetics: The study of the power and
limits of genetic and environmental influences
on behaviour.
Behaviour: Any covert or overt action/reaction a
person or animal does that can be observed in
some way.
Psychology
2022-23
Behaviourism: A school of thought that
emphasises objectivity, observable behavioural
responses, lear ning, and environmental
determinants.
Bilingualism: The acquisition of two languages
that use different speech sounds, vocabularies,
and grammatical rules.
Binocular cues: Depth cues, such as retinal
disparity and convergence, that depend on the
use of two eyes.
Biofeedback: A procedure that permits individuals
to monitor their own physiological processes
(e.g., heart rate, blood pressure), which they are
normally unaware of, to learn to control them.
Blind spot: The point at which the optic nerve
leaves the eye, creating a “blind” spot because
no receptor cells are located there.
Bottom-up processing: In form perception,
progression from individual elements to the
whole.
Brainstem: The oldest part and central core of the
brain, beginning where the spinal cord swells
as it enters the skull; it is responsible for
automatic survival functions.
Brainstorming: A problem-solving strategy in
which an individual or a group collects all
possible ideas and evaluates them only after all
ideas have been collected.
Brightness: The psychological experience
associated with a light’s intensity, or wave
amplitude.
Cannon-Bard theory: A theory of emotion that
holds that bodily changes and the experience of
emotion occur simultaneously.
Case study: A technique in which one person is
studied in depth.
Cell: The most fundamental unit of a living
organism.
Central nervous system (CNS): Subsystem of the
nervous system composed of brain and spinal
cord.
Centration: The focusing or centring of attention
on one characteristic to the exclusion of all
others.
Cephalocaudal pattern: The sequence in which
the greatest growth occurs at the top-the headwith physical growth in size, weight, and feature
differentiation gradually working from top to
bottom.
Cerebellum: Structure of the brain at the base of
the skull, which organises bodily motion,
posture, and equilibrium.
Cerebral cortex: Area of the brain that regulates
the brain’s higher cognitive and emotional
functions.
Cerebral hemispheres: Two nearly symmetrical
halves of the cerebral cortex.
Chromosomes: Threadlike structures that come
in 23 pairs, one member of each pair coming
from each parent. Chromosomes contain the
remarkable genetic substance deoxyribonucleic
acid (DNA).
Chronological age: The number of years that have
elapsed since a person’s birth; what is usually
meant by “age”.
Chunking: A group of familiar stimuli stored as a
single unit.
Classical conditioning: A type of learning in which
an organism learns to associate stimuli. The
main feature is that the originally neutral
conditioned stimulus (CS), through repeated
pairing with the unconditioned stimulus (US),
acquires the response originally given to the US.
Closure: Organisational process leading to
perception of incomplete figures as wholes.
Cochlea: The fluid-filled, coiled tunnel in the inner
ear that contains the receptors for hearing.
Cognition: All the mental activities associated with
knowing; namely, perceiving, thinking, and
remembering, etc. These are associated with
processing, understanding, and communicating
information.
Cognitive approach: The view that emphasises
human thought and all the processes of knowing
as central to the study of psychology.
Cognitive economy: A term to denote maximum
and efficient use of the capacity of long-term
memory through organisation of concepts in a
hierarchical network.
Cognitive learning: Learning that involves
reorganisation of one’s perceptions, knowledge,
and ideas.
Cognitive map: A mental representation of the
layout of one’s environment. For example, after
exploring a maze, rats act as if they have learned
a cognitive map of it.
Cognitive processes: Processes involving the
individual’s thought, intelligence, and language.
Colour blindness: Having some degree of inability
to perceive colour.
Colour constancy: The tendency to perceive a wellknown object as being a single colour, even if
its actual colour is modified by changes in
illumination.
Concept: A general category of ideas, objects,
people, or experiences whose members share
certain properties.
Concrete operational stage: The third Piagetian
stage, lasting approximately from 7 to 11 years
Glossary
2022-23
189
of age. In this stage, children can perform logical
operations, and reasoning on concrete examples
but cannot deal with abstract things.
Conditioned response (CR): In classical
conditioning, the learned or acquired response
to a conditioned stimulus (CS).
Conditioned stimulus (CS): A neutral stimulus
that, through repeated association with an
unconditioned stimulus, becomes capable of
eliciting a conditioned response (CR).
Conditioning: A systematic procedure through
which new responses are learned to stimuli.
Cones: Specialised visual receptors that play a key
role in daylight vision and color vision.
Confidentiality: Researchers are responsible for
keeping all of the data they collect completely
anonymous.
Conflict: A state of disturbance or tension resulting
from opposing motives, drives, needs, or goals.
Confounding: A term used to describe the
operation of variables in an experiment that
confuse the interpretation of the data. If the
independent variable is confounded with an
uncontrolled relevant variable, the experimenter
cannot separate the effects of the two variables
on the dependent measure.
Consciousness: Awareness of the general
condition of one’s mind, awareness of particular
mental contents, or self-awareness.
Conservation: A belief in the permanence of
certain attributes of objects or situations in spite
of superficial changes.
Content analysis: A procedure for analysing the
themes in qualitative data by determining the
frequency of specific ideas, concepts, or terms
and their relationship.
Control group: Subjects in a study who do not
receive the special treatment given to the
experimental group.
Control processes: Mechanisms which govern
transfer of information from one system of
storage to another.
Convergent thinking: Thinking that is directed
toward one correct solution to a problem.
Corpus callosum: A bundle of neural fibers
connecting the two brain hemispheres and
carrying messages between them.
Correlational research: Research with the goal of
describing the strength of the relationship
between two or more events or characteristics
or variables.
Cortex: The greyish, thin, unmyelinated
covering of the cerebrum.
Creativity: The ability to think in novel and
190
unusual ways and to come up with unique
solutions to problems.
Culture: The widely shared customs, beliefs,
values, norms, institutions, and other products
of a community that are transmitted socially
across generations.
Dark adaptation: The process in which the eyes
become more sensitive to light in low
illumination.
Data: Qualitative and quantitative information
related to mental processes and behaviour,
gathered from individuals.
Debriefing: The procedure for infor ming a
participant of the actual intent of an experiment
after its successful completion. It is specially
required if the participant was seriously misled
during the conduct of experiment.
Decision-making: The process of evaluating
alternatives and making choices among them.
Deductive reasoning: Reaching a conclusion by
accepting the premises of an argument and then
following the formal logical rules.
Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA): The genetic
material of the cell, located in the nucleus.
Dependent variable: The factor that is measured
in an experiment; it changes because of the
manipulation of the independent variable.
Depth perception: The perception of the distance
of an object from the observer or the distance
from front to back of a solid object.
Development: It is the pattern of progressive,
orderly, and predictable changes that begin at
conception and continue throughout life.
Difference threshold: The minimum difference
between a pair of stimuli that can be perceived.
Discrimination: In classical conditioning, the
ability to distinguish between a conditioned
stimulus and other stimuli that do not signal
an unconditioned stimulus. In operant
conditioning, responding differently to stimuli
that signal a behaviour will be reinforced or will
not be reinforced.
Divergent thinking: Thinking that meets the
criteria of originality, inventiveness, and
flexibility. It calls for thinking in different
directions, searching for a variety of answers to
questions that can have several answers and is
characteristic of creativity.
Divided attention: The process by which attention
is split between two or more sets of stimuli.
Dual-coding theory: Paivio’s theory that memory
is enhanced by forming semantic and visual
codes, since either can lead to recall.
Dyslexia: A general term referring to difficulty in
reading.
Psychology
2022-23
Echoic memory: A momentary sensory memory
of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere,
sounds and words can still be recalled within 3
or 4 seconds.
Efferent neurons: Conducting or conveying
(nervous system impulses) away from the central
nervous system and toward effecter units in
muscles or glands.
Egocentrism: A salient feature of pre-operational
thought, which r efers to the inability to
distinguish between one’s own perspective and
someone else’s perspective.
Elaborative rehearsals: The linking of new
information in short-term memory to familiar
material stored in long-term memory.
Emotion: Complex pattern of changes in response
to situation perceived as personally significant,
including physiological ar ousal, feelings,
thoughts, and behaviours.
Emotional intelligence: The set of skills that
underlie the accurate assessment, evaluation,
expression, and regulation of emotions.
Encephalisation: The tendency for greater
elaborations of the nervous system across
evolutionary development to be directed towards
the head end of the organism.
Encoding: The process of recording information
into the memory system for the first time.
Endocrine glands: The glands, which secrete their
hormones directly into the bloodstream.
Environment: The aggregate of external conditions
– physical, biological, social and cultural that
influence the functions of the organism.
Episodic memory: LTM component that stores
autobiographic information coded for reference
to a timeframe for past occurrences.
Esteem needs: In Maslow’s theory, needs for
prestige, success, and self-respect. They can be
fulfilled after belongingness and love needs are
satisfied.
Eustachian tube: Passage that connects the
middle ear to the throat and allows release of
pressure.
Evolution: The theory proposed by Charles Darwin
that over time organisms originate and change
in response to adaptational demands of their
unique environments.
Experiment: A series of observations conducted
under controlled conditions to investigate the
causal relationship between selected variables.
Experimental group: The subjects in study who
receive some special treatment in regard to the
independent variable.
Explicit memory: Memory of facts and experiences
that one can consciously know and “declare”
(also called declarative memory).
Extinction: The diminishing of a conditioned
response; occurs in classical conditioning when
an unconditioned stimulus (US) does not follow
a conditioned stimulus (CS); occurs in operant
conditioning when a response is no longer
reinforced.
Feedback: Information regarding performance on
a learning task; also called knowledge of results.
Field experiment: An experiment carried out in a
natural “real world” setting in which variables
are manipulated in some manner and observed
for their reactions.
Fight or flight syndrome: It is an acute reaction
to stress in which an individual reacts to
stimulus by fighting against stress or runs away
from stressful stimulus.
Fine motor skills: Motor skills that involve more
finely tuned movements, such as finger
dexterity.
Formal operational stage: The fourth Piagetian
stage in which the individuals move beyond the
world of actual or concrete experiences and
think in abstract and more logical terms.
Free recall: In memory experiments, retrieval of
stored items in any order by the participant.
Frontal lobe: The portion of the cerebral cortex
lying just behind the forehead; involved in
speaking and muscle movements and in making
plans and judgments.
Frustration: State assumed to exist when goaldirected activity is blocked in some manner.
Fugue state: Amnesia accompanied by actual
physical flight — the person may wander away
for several hours or move to another area and
establish a new life.
Functional fixedness: The tendency to think of
things only in terms of their usual functions,
an impediment to problem solving.
Functionalism: The school of psychology that
emphasised the utilitarian, adaptive functions
of the human mind or consciousness.
Galvanic skin response (GSR): Changes in
electrical conductivity of, or activity in, the skin,
detected by a sensitive galvanometer.
Gender: The social dimension of being male or
female.
Gender identity: The sense of being male or
female, which most children acquire by the time,
they are 3 years old.
Gender role: A set of expectations that prescribe
how females and males should think, act and
feel.
Glossary
2022-23
191
Generalisation: The tendency, once a response
has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the
conditioned stimulus to evoke similar responses.
Genes: The units of hereditary information, short
chromosome segments composed of DNA. Genes
act as blueprints for cells to reproduce
themselves and manufacture the proteins that
maintain life.
Gestalt: An organised whole, Gestalt psychologists
emphasise our tendency to integrate pieces of
information into meaningful wholes.
Gestalt psychology: A branch of psychology in
which behaviour is viewed as an integrated
whole, greater than the sum of its parts.
Grammar: Is the set of rules indicating how the
elements of language may be combined to make
intelligible sentences.
Gross motor skills: Motor skills that involve large
muscle activities, such as walking.
Group test: A test administered to several people
at one time by a single tester.
Hemispheres: The symmetrical halves of the
cerebrum or cerebellum.
Hemispheric dominance: Refers to control of key
motor and cognitive functions by one
hemisphere, generally the left hemisphere
Heredity: The biological transmission of traits from
parents to offspring.
Hierarchy of needs: Maslow’s pyramid represents
motivational needs in a hierarchy. The more
basic needs, such as physiological and safety
needs, are at the bottom followed by the higherlevel needs, such as love, and esteem, and selfactualisation at the top. To move up the
hierarchy, a person must have the basic
physiological needs met first.
Homeostasis: The physiological tendency to
maintain an internal, bodily state of balance in
terms of food, water, air, sleep, and temperature.
Homo sapiens: The scientific nomenclature of
modern human beings.
Hormones: Chemical substances secreted by
glands into the bloodstream.
Hue: Colour.
Humanistic psychology: The approach to
psychology that emphasises the person, or the
self, and personal growth and development.
Hypothalamus: A neural structure located just
below the thalamus; it includes centers that
govern motivated behaviour such as eating,
drinking, sex, and emotions; it also regulates
endocrine activity and maintains body
homeostasis.
Hypothesis: A tentative statement of the
192
relationship between variables as answer to
the research question.
Identification: The process of associating one’s
self closely with other persons and assuming
their characteristics or views.
Identity vs role confusion: Erikson’s psychosocial
developmental stage in which adolescents are
faced with conflicts as who they are, what they
are all about, and where they are going in life,
resolution to these leads to identity formation.
Illumination: A stage in the creative process. The
idea, solution, or new relationship emerges and
all the facts fall into place.
Incidental learning: Lear ning that is not
deliberate, or intentional and which is acquired
as a result of some other possibly unrelated,
activity.
Incubation: A stage in the creative process. The
progress is not apparent at conscious level, the
unconscious mind may work on any idea or
solution.
Independent variable: The event or situation
manipulated by an experimenter to see if it will
have a predicted effect on some other event or
situation.
Individual test: A test which can be administered
to only one person at a time. The Stanford-Binet
and the Wechsler intelligence tests are examples
of individual tests.
Inductive reasoning: The logical process by which
general principles are inferred from particular
instances.
Infancy: The developmental period extending from
birth to 24 months.
Information-processing approach: An approach
concer ned with how individuals process
information about their world, how information
enters our minds, how it is stored and
transformed, and how it is retrieved to perform
problem solving and reasoning.
Informed consent: Agreement to an experimental
or therapeutic procedure on the basis of the
subject’s or patient’s understanding of its nature
and possible risks.
Initiative vs guilt: Erikson’s stage of development
in which pre-school children face a widening
social world and are faced with the challenge of
developing purposeful behaviour to cope with
challenges, failure to which leads to development
of guilt and shame.
Insight: The ability to deal effectively with novel
situations.
Instinct: A complex universal behaviour that is
rigidly patterned throughout a species and is
unlearned.
Psychology
2022-23
Integrity vs despair: Erikson’s eighth and last
developmental stage during which individuals
look back to evaluate what they have done with
their lives, satisfaction leads to sense of integrity
and dissatisfaction to despair.
Interference: In learning theory, the activities of
the learner, either before, after, or during the
learning process interfere with learned material,
that cause forgetting.
Interposition: A depth perception cue based on
the principle that if one object seems to be
covering another, it will be perceived as being
closer.
Interview: A face-to-face dialogue for the purpose
of obtaining information, establishing a
diagnosis, assessing interpersonal behaviour
and personality characteristics, or counselling
the individual.
Intrinsic motivation: The internal desire to be
competent and to do something for its own sake.
Introspection: The process of looking inward to
one’s feelings and conscious experience.
James-Lange theory: A theory of emotion that
holds that body’s reaction to a stimulus
produces emotional perception; the overt feeling
of emotion is a result of the bodily changes.
Judgment: Process of forming opinions, reaching
conclusions, and making evaluations based on
available material; the product of the evaluation
process.
Juvenile delinquency: A variety of adolescent
behaviours ranging from socially unacceptable
behaviour to status offenses (such as running
away) to criminal offenses (such as theft).
Language: A set of symbols that convey meaning,
and rules for combining those symbols, that
can be used to generate an infinite variety of
messages.
Law of proximity: Grouping law that asserts that
nearest stimuli are grouped together.
Law of similarity: Grouping law that asserts that
stimuli are grouped together on the basis of
common elements.
Learning disabilities: Children with learning
disabilities (1) are of normal intelligence or
above, (2) have difficulties in several academic
areas but usually do not show deficits in others,
and (3) are not suffering from some other
conditions or disorders that could explain their
learning problems.
Learning: A relatively permanent change in an
organism’s behaviour due to experience.
Lie detector: An instrument whose use is based
on the idea that lying is often accompanied by
the visceral components of fear or excitement;
the detector indicates when a person’s answers
are accompanied by emotional arousal.
Light adaptation: The adjustment of the rods
and cones in the eye to changes in
illumination.
Limbic system: Brain system that processes
motivated behaviour, emotional states, and
certain kinds of memory.
Linear perspective: A monocular cue for
perceiving distance; we perceive the converging
of what we know to be parallel lines as indicating
increasing distance.
Loudness: The perception of a sound wave’s
amplitude.
Maintenance rehearsal: Active repetition of
information to enhance subsequent access to it.
Maturation: The orderly sequence of changes
dictated by each person’s genetic blueprint.
Medulla: The base of the brainstem; controls
heartbeat and breathing, waking, sleeping;
Nerve fibers connecting the brain and the body
cross over at the medulla.
Memes: Are the DNA of human society, influencing
every aspect of mind, behaviour and culture.
Menarche: The first occurrence of menstruation.
Mental representation: A mental model of a
stimulus or category of stimuli.
Mental set: Tendency to respond to a new
problem/situation in the manner used for a
previous one.
Metacognition: Knowledge and understanding of
one’s own mental processes.
Mind: Mind is a concept, which refers to unique
set of individual’s sensations, perceptions,
memories, thoughts, dreams, motives and
emotional feelings.
Mnemonics: Strategies or techniques that use
familiar associations in storing new information
to be more easily retrieved.
Modeling: In social learning theory, the process
by which a child learns social and cognitive
behaviours by observing and imitating others.
Monocular cues: Visual cues from one eye only.
Moral development: Development with respect to
rules and conventions about what people should
do in their interaction with other people/
situations.
Morphemes: The smallest units of meaning in a
language.
Motivation: A need or desire that energises and
directs behaviour.
Motives: The factors that direct and energise
behaviour.
Glossary
2022-23
193
Motor development: The progression of muscular
coordination required for physical activities.
Motor neurons: Neurons that carry impulses
away from the CNS to muscles and glands.
Natural selection: The evolutionary process that
favors individuals of a species that is best
adapted to survive and reproduce.
Need: Physiological (internal) or environmental
(external) imbalance or deficit that gives rise to
a drive.
Negative correlation: Relationship between two
variables in which as one variable goes up, the
other goes down.
Negative reinforcer: An unpleasant stimulus
whose removal leads to an increase in the
probability that a preceding response will occur
again in the future.
Nerve impulse: It is the passage of nerve sensation
from one place to another, through
electrochemical process of conduction in the
nerve.
Nervous system: A massive network of nerve cells
that relays messages to and from the brain.
Neuro psychology: It is the scientific study of
behaviour and mental processes as function of
brain activity and the nervous system.
Neuron: Nerve cell specialised to receive, process,
and/or transmit information to other cells
within the body.
Neurotic disorder: A psychological disorder that
is usually distressing but that allows one to
think rationally and function socially. Freud saw
the neurotic disorders as ways of dealing with
anxiety.
Neurotransmitters: Chemical messengers that
relay messages to and from the brain.
Norm: Standard or value, based on measurements
of a large group of people, used in interpreting
scores on psychological tests; in social
psychology, the group standard for approved
behaviour.
Nucleus: A ganglion, or clump of nerve cells in the
central nervous system.
Null hypothesis: A prediction that an experiment
will find no difference between conditions or no
relationship between variables.
Object permanence: Understanding that objects
and events continue to exist even when they
cannot directly be seen, heard, or touched.
Observation: The intentional examination and
recording of an object or process as it occurs.
Operant conditioning: A form of learning in
which voluntary responses come to be
controlled by their consequences.
194
Operationism: The viewpoint that each concept
must take its meaning as a single observable
and measurable operation.
Operations: Internalised sets of actions that allow
the child to do mentally what was done
physically before.
Organ of corti: Structure on the surface of the
basilar membrane that contains the receptor
cells for hearing.
Pancreas: An important gland that secretes
hormones related to the digestive process and
the metabolic process. Insulin is one of the
secretions of the pancreas.
Paradigm: A model or a way of approaching or
studying a set of phenomena.
Parasympathetic division: Division of the
autonomic nervous system (ANS) that monitors
the routine operation of the body’s internal
functions, and returns it to calmer functioning
after sympathetic arousal.
Peers: Children of about same age or the maturity
level.
Perception: Processes that organise sensory
information and interpret it in terms of its
environmental origins.
Perceptual constancy: The ability, in perception,
to draw similar inferences about the world from
different patterns of sensory activity (e.g., a
person seen from many different angles is still
perceived as the same person).
Performance tests: Tests that do not involve
language.
Phenotype: Observable features by which
individuals are recognised.
Phi phenomenon: The illusion of movement
created by presenting visual stimuli in rapid
succession.
Phonemes: Smallest meaningful units of sound
in a language.
Photoreceptor: A visual receptor; rod and cone
cells.
Physiological psychology: A scientific study of
human and animal behaviour based on the
relationship of physiological processes like those
of nervous system, hormones, sensory organs
and the behavioural parameters.
Pitch: The perceptual interpretation of a sound’s
frequency.
Pituitary gland: Gland that secretes hormones
that influence the secretions of all other
endocrine glands, as well as a hormone that
influences growth.
Pons: Part of the brain involved in dreaming and
walking from sleep.
Psychology
2022-23
Positive reinforcement: A stimulus or event
which, when its onset is made contingent on
a particular response, increases the
likelihood of that response.
Power motive: The desire to influence others, to
be in charge, and to have status and prestige.
Prediction: One element of the scientific process
of describing the r elationship between
antecedent variables and consequent events.
Prediction works forward in time, beginning with
measuring the antecedent variables and then
anticipating the measures of the consequent
events.
Prenatal period: The time from conception to birth.
Pre-operational stage: The second Piagetian stage
in which children begin to represent world with
words, images, and drawings but cannot
perform operations in logical manner.
Primary colours: A set of three colours, i.e. red,
green, and blue, when mixed in unequal
amounts can produce any colour.
Primary sex characteristics: The sexual
structures necessary for reproduction.
Problem solving: Behaviour that is at an advanced
stage of thinking; it can be divided into four
stages: incubation, illumination, preparation,
and verification.
Proximity principle: The Gestalt principle, which
states that objects or stimuli that are close
together will be perceived as a unity. Also called
law of proximity.
Proximodistal trend: The center -outward
direction of motor development.
Psychoanalysis : A method of psychotherapy in
which the therapist attempts to bring repressed
unconscious material into conscious.
Psychological motives: Personal and
interpersonal motives that lead people to strive
for such ends as power, self-esteem, affiliation,
and intimacy with other people.
Psychological test: A standardised measure of a
sample of a person’s behavior.
Psychophysics: Study of the relationship between
mental processes and the physical world.
Puberty: A period of rapid skeletal and sexual
maturation that occurs mainly in early
adolescence.
Punishment: The application of an unpleasant,
or noxious, stimulus for the purpose of
suppressing behaviour.
Randomisation: A procedure by which a variable
may be selected, assigned, or scheduled, in a
completely unbiased manner. Randomisation
involves the use of the table of random
numbers so that no predictable sequence can
be established.
Reasoning: Realistic thinking process that draws
a conclusion from a set of facts.
Reflex arc: A receptor neuron and an efferent
neuron capable of mediating a S-R sequence.
Reinforcement: An event following a response that
strengthens the tendency to make that response.
Reliability: A statement about the degree of
consistency of a measurement technique.
Reliable techniques yield similar measures upon
repeated measur ement under similar
conditions.
Reticular activating system (RAS): A network of
fibers beginning in the spinal cord and extending
up through the mid-brain into the higher
centers; has a role in attention and arousal.
Retina: Layer of cells at the back of the eye
containing photoreceptors.
Retrieval cues: Available internal or external
stimuli that help in recovering information from
storage in memory system.
Retroactive interference: Memory process in
which newly learned information prevents
retrieval of previously stored, similar material.
Rods: Specialised visual receptors that play a key
role in night vision and peripheral vision.
Schema: A cognitive structure; a network of
associations that organises and guides an
individual’s perceptions.
Script: A memory representation of procedural
knowledge (e.g., eating in a restaurant).
Secondary sex characteristics: Physical features
that are associated with gender but that are not
directly involved in reproduction.
Selective attention: The focusing of conscious
awareness on a particular stimulus.
Self: The individual’s perception or awareness of
herself or himself - of her or his body, abilities,
personality traits, and ways of doing things.
Self-actualisation: It is a state of self-fulfillment
in which people realise their highest potential
in their own unique way.
Self-esteem: The global evaluative dimension of
the self.
Semantic memory: LTM component that stores
memory for basic meanings of words and
concepts.
Sensation: Experience of a physical stimulation.
Sensorimotor stage: The first Piagetian stage in
which infants construct an understanding of the
world by coordinating sensory experiences
with physical and motor actions.
Sensory adaptation: Loss of responsiveness in
Glossary
2022-23
195
receptor cells after stimulation has remained
unchanged.
Sensory memory: Initial process that preserves
brief impressions of stimuli, also called sensory
register.
Sensory neurons: Also called afferent neurons;
nerve cells that carry messages from sense
receptor cells toward central nervous system.
Serial learning: The learning of a sequence of
responses in the pr ecise order of their
presentation.
Sex hormones: Substances secreted by the gonads
for reproductive functions and determination of
secondary sex characteristics, e.g. estrogen in
the female and testosterone in the male.
Shape constancy: The knowledge that even when
an object is viewed from a different angle, its
shape remains the same.
Similarity: The Gestalt principle, which states that
objects or stimuli that are similar in shape, size
or intensity, etc. are perceived as a unit.
Size constancy: A tendency to perceive familiar
objects as being the same size even when they
cast a different sized image on the retina because
of one’s distance from them.
Skeletal muscles: Muscles attached to bones,
which brings about various types of body
movements like the limb movements.
Socialisation: Process of social learning through
which a child acquires the norms, attitudes,
beliefs and behaviours that are acceptable in
her/his culture; the principal agents of
socialisation are the family, school, and peer
group.
Sociobiology: The systematic study of the
biological basis for social behaviour.
Sociology: Study of people in groups; the group
rather than the individual is the unit of study.
Soma: Any kind of cell body or in general any form
of body like that of humans and other animals.
Somatic nervous system: The part of the
peripheral nervous system that controls
voluntary muscles.
Species: A biological classification of different
living organisms.
Spontaneous recovery: In classical conditioning,
the reappearance of an extinguished response
after a period of nonexposure to the conditioned
stimulus.
Standardisation: A method of establishing norms
or standards and uniform procedures for a test
by administering it to a large group of
representative individuals.
Stimulus: Any well-defined element in the
196
environment affecting the organism, which
may lead to an overt or a covert response.
Structuralism: Associated with Wilhelm Wundt,
the approach to psychology that seeks to
understand the structure and operation of
consciousness, or the human mind.
Survey: A research method utilising written
questionnaires or personal interviews to obtain
data of a given population.
Sympathetic nervous system: The division of the
autonomic nervous system that arouses the
body, mobilising its energy in stressful
situations.
Synapse: The junction between the axon tip of the
sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of
the receiving neuron. The tiny gap at this
junction is called the synaptic gap or cleft.
Synaptic vesicle: Structures in the synaptic knobs
that store neurotransmitters prior to the release
of neurotransmitter into the synaptic cleft.
Syntax: Refers to the rules for combining words
to form acceptable phrases and sentences.
Temperament: An individual’s behavioural style
and characteristic way of responding.
Temporal lobe: The portion of the cerebral cortex
lying roughly above the ears; includes the
auditory areas, each of which receives auditory
information primarily from the opposite ear.
Texture gradient: Distance cues based on the fact
that objects lose definition and detail the farther
away they are.
Thalamus: The brain’s sensory switchboard,
located on top of the brainstem; it directs
messages to the sensory receiving areas in the
cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum
and medulla.
Thinking: The mental, or cognitive, rearrangement
or manipulation of both information from the
environment and of symbols stored in long-term
memory. Language, symbols, concepts and
images are used, and thinking is said to mediate,
or go between, stimuli and responses.
Timbre: The characteristic quality of a tone
produced by the combination of overtones heard
along with the pure tone.
Top-down processing: In form perception, a
progression from the whole to the elements.
Trace decay theory: The idea that learned
material leaves in the brain a trace or
impression, which eventually disappears unless
it is practiced and used.
Transfer of learning: The influence of earlier
learning on later learning; positive transfer
enhances later learning, while negative
transfer impedes it.
Psychology
2022-23
Traumatic experience: A injury, either physical
or psychological; psychological traumas
include emotional shocks that have a more or
less permanent effect on the personality, such
as rejection, divorce, combat, experience,
civilian catastrophes, etc.
Trust vs mistrust: Erikson’s first psychosocial
stage; development of a sense of trust requires
a feeling of physical comfort and a minimal
amount of fear and apprehension about future.
Unconditioned response (UR): The unlearned or
involuntary response to an unconditioned
stimulus.
Unconditioned stimulus (US): A stimulus that
normally produces an involuntary measurable
response.
Unobtrusive measur es: Observation and
measurement procedures specifically selected
not to interfere with the natural behaviour or
enter the conscious awareness of the subject.
Validity: The ability of a test to measure what it
was designed to measure.
Variable: Any measurable conditions, events,
characteristics, or behaviours that are
controlled or observed in a study.
Verbal learning: The process of learning to respond
verbally to verbal stimuli, which may include
symbols, nonsense syllables, and lists or words.
Verbal test: Test in which a subject’s ability to
understand and use words and concepts is
important in making the required responses.
Visual illusions: Physical stimuli that consistently
produce errors in perception.
Wavelength: The distance from the peak of one
light or sound wave to the peak of the next.
Electromagnetic wavelengths vary from the short
blips of cosmic rays to the long pulses of radio
transmission.
Word associations: Personality assessment
techniques in which individual generates
responses triggered by common words.
Working memory: Memory processes that
pr eserve recently perceived events or
experiences, also called short-term memory.
Glossary
2022-23
197

For developing further understanding on the topics, you may like
to read the following books :
• Baron, R.A. (2001/Indian reprint 2002). Psychology (5th ed.). Allyn
& Bacon.
• Das, J.P. (1998). The Working Mind : An Introduction to Psychology.
Sage Publications.
• Davis, S.F., & Palladino, J.H. (1997). Psychology. Prentice Hall, Inc.
• Gerow, J.R. (1997). Psychology : An Introduction. Addison Wesley
Longman, Inc.
• Gleitman, H. (1996). Basic Psychology. W.W. Norton & Company.
• Khandwalla, P.N. (1984). Fourth Eye : Excellence through Creativity.
A.H. Wheeler and Co.
• Malim, T., & Birch, A. (1998). Introductory Psychology. Macmillan
Press Ltd.
• Morgan, C.T., King, R.A., Weisz, J.R., & Schopler, J. (1986).
Introduction to Psychology (7th ed.). McGraw-Hill Book Company.
• Weiten, W. (2001). Psychology : Themes and Variations. Wadsworth.
• Zimbardo, P.G., & Weber, A.L. (1997). Psychology. New York:
Longman.
• Zimbardo, P.G. (1985). Psychology and Life. Harper Collins
Publishers.

• Dash, U.N., Mohanty, P.K., Mohanty, S.C., Pattanaik, L.K.,
Nanda, G.K., Misra, G., & Kar, C. (2004). Psychology - Part I. Orissa
State Bureau of Textbook Preparation and Production. Pustak
Bhawan, Bhubaneswar.
• Gleitman, H., Fridlund, A.J., & Reisberg, D. (2004). Basic
Psychology (5th ed.). W.W. Norton & Company.
• Mandal, M.K. (2004). Emotion : Basic Issues and Current Trends.
Affiliated East-West Press.
• Santrock, J.W. (1999). Life-Span Development (7th ed.). Boston:
McGraw-Hill College.
198
Psychology
2022-23