CHAPTER
5
Focaccia Italian Flat Fatty
Bread*
Antonella Pasqualone, Debora Delcuratolo, Tommaso Gomes
PROGESA Department, Section of Food Science and Technology,
University of Bari, Bari, Italy
CHAPTER OUTLINE
List of Abbreviations 48
Origins of Focaccia 48
Types of Focaccia Produced in
the Italian Regions 48
Piedmont 49
Focaccia Novese (Novi-Style
Focaccia) 49
Lombardy 49
Schiacciata 49
Liguria 49
Focaccia Genovese (GenoanStyle Focaccia) 49
Focaccia di Recco (Recco-Style
Focaccia) 50
Focaccia di Voltri (Voltri-Style
Focaccia) 50
Sardenaira 50
Emilia-Romagna 50
Gnocco Ingrassato 50
Stria 50
Tuscany 50
Schiaccia maremmana 50
Umbria 51
Torta al Testo or Crescia 51
Lazio 51
Pizza Bianca di Roma (RomeStyle Pizza Bianca) 51
Marches 51
Crescia Maceratese 51
Crostolo del Montefeltro 51
Campania 51
Tortano 51
Basilicata 51
Ruccolo 51
Apulia 51
Focaccia Barese (Bari-Style
Focaccia) 51
Calabria 52
Pitta Maniata 52
Sicily 52
Sfincione 52
The Basic Ingredients of
Focaccia 52
Flour 52
Fatty substances
53
Technological Issues: Effect
of Baking on the Lipid Fraction
of Focaccia 53
Level of trans isomers 54
Oxidative and hydrolytic
degradation 54
Influence of the toppings 56
Conclusions 57
Summary Points 57
References 57
*
Partially adapted from Food Chemistry, 106, D. Delcuratolo, T. Gomes, V. M. Paradiso, and R. Nasti, Changes in
the oxidative state of extra-virgin olive oil used in baked Italian focaccia topped with different ingredients,
pp. 222e226, copyright 2008, with permission from Elsevier.
Flour and Breads and their Fortification in Health and Disease Prevention. DOI: 10.1016/B978-0-12-380886-8.10005-4
Copyright Ó 2011 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
47
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Flour and Breads
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
C18:1 trans trans oleic acid
DG Diglycerides
FFA Free fatty acids
HPSEC High-performance size-exclusion chromatography
MRPs Maillard reaction products
ox-TG Oxidized triglycerides
P/L Tenacity/extensibility alveographic ratio
p-AV p-Anisidine value
PV Peroxide value
TGP Triglyceride oligopolymers
TOTOX (2 PV þ p-AV) Measure of total oxidation that takes into account the contribution
of peroxide value, an expression of primary oxidation, and of p-anisidine value, an index of
secondary oxidation
W Alveographic measure of gluten strength
ORIGINS OF FOCACCIA
The word “focaccia” derives from the Latin focus, meaning fireplace. The De Agricoltura by
Marco Porcio Catone (234e149 BC) is the first Latin written source that mentions the Libum
farrem, the ancient Roman focaccia, offered in sacrifices and during weddings (Bordo and
Surrasca, 2002). In the Middle Ages, focaccia was considered a poor food, made with remnants
of the dough destined to bread making and baked to test the temperature of wood-fired ovens
before introducing bread. Once made, it was consumed by bread makers.
48
Today, focaccia is largely appreciated for its sensory properties and has its own market. It is
usually consumed, still hot, as a “street food,” immediately after its production. If not
consumed very fresh, it loses flavor and its consistency tends to harden. It is common in Italy
to see people waiting to buy fresh-baked focaccia at bread makers’ shops. The smell of hot
focaccia spreads in the streets and induces people to buy it. It is usually baked two or three
times per daydonce or twice in the morning and once in the late afternoon.
Focaccia is made of a few simple ingredientsdflour, water, fatty substances (oil or lard), yeast,
and saltdbut a myriad of nuanced differences are obtainable by topping it, prior to cooking,
with fresh tomato, onions, potatoes, olives, cheese, etc. or flavoring it with herbs (rosemary,
sage, oregano, etc.). It usually appears as a circular flat bread, single layered, oily, and variously
topped.
Especially in its “red version,” topped with tomato, focaccia may appear similar to Italian
pizza, but actually there are many differences between these two food categories regarding
both the ingredients and the way in which they are consumed. Focaccia is characterized by
a high content of fatty substances in the dough, whereas in pizza only a very small amount of
oil is added on the surface. This contributes to a different flavor and also makes the consistency
of these two products different. In addition, focaccia is generally thicker and, above all, less
humid than pizza. The latter, being always topped with mozzarella cheese, is characterized by
the presence of some liquid on the surface.
These characteristics make a piece of focaccia a perfect street food to be eaten as a snack or an
appetizer, whereas in Italy pizza is usually consumed while sitting at a table, using dishes,
typically at dinner or, in recent years, also at lunch.
TYPES OF FOCACCIA PRODUCED IN THE ITALIAN REGIONS
Many types of focaccia are produced in Italy, varying by region (Figure 5.1). They are prepared
according to well-established traditional processing methods, which are homogeneous
CHAPTER 5
Focaccia Italian Flat Fatty Bread
FIGURE 5.1
Geographical distribution of focaccia
flat fatty breads in Italy. The map
identifies the locations of the productive
areas of different types of focaccia
according to the various Italian regions.
49
throughout the areas concerned. In some cases, this regional food has been officially recognized as a Traditional Agri-food Product according to Italian Legislative Decree of April 30,
1998, No. 173.
Piedmont
FOCACCIA NOVESE (NOVI-STYLE FOCACCIA)
Originally prepared without salt, focaccia novese is a “white” (i.e., without tomato on the
surface) focaccia containing lard and extra-virgin olive oil. After kneading the ingredients, the
dough is left to rise and then is stretched in baking trays, making cuts and dimples on the
surface. After a final proofing, it is baked at 230 C for 20 min (Bordo and Surrasca, 2002).
Focaccia novese was officially recognized in 2002 as a Traditional Agri-food Product.
Lombardy
SCHIACCIATA
This focaccia, the name of which means “flattened,” is a square white focaccia obtained from
soft wheat flour, water, lard, yeast, and salt. After kneading the ingredients, the dough is left to
rise and then flattened, cut in squares, proofed, and baked at 270 C for 20 min (Bordo and
Surrasca, 2002).
Liguria
FOCACCIA GENOVESE (GENOAN-STYLE FOCACCIA)
This white focaccia, called fugassa in Genoan dialect, is similar to the French fougasse produced
in the neighboring French region of Provence. It is made of flourdsometimes a blend of soft
SECTION 1
Flour and Breads
and durum wheat flour (INSOR, 2000)dmixed with water, extra-virgin olive oil, mashed
boiled potatoes, yeast, and salt. The ingredients are kneaded and the dough is left to rest for
approximately 45 min. Then, it is flattened in an oiled circular baking pan and sprinkled with
coarse salt and oil. After a final proofing, baking occurs at 230 C, possibly in a wood-fired
oven, until the surface appears golden brown (18e20 min). Final thickness is approximately
2 cm. Focaccia from Genoa has been included in the Italian list of Traditional Agri-food
Products and is classified as a Slow Food Product (Bordo and Surrasca, 2002).
FOCACCIA DI RECCO (RECCO-STYLE FOCACCIA)
Although single-layered focaccias represent the more usual type, focaccia di Recco is a doublelayered filled focaccia. For the dough, durum wheat flour, water, extra-virgin olive oil, yeast,
and salt are used, whereas the filling is made of stracchino soft cheese. Flour is mixed with
warm water, oil, yeast, and salt and then kneaded. The dough is left to rise for 45 min, and then
it is rolled out into two very thin sheets. One sheet is put on an oiled circular baking tray,
covered with small flakes of cheese, and then the second sheet of dough is placed on top. The
edges of the sheets are closed, and finally the surface is drizzled with oil. It is baked at 280 C
for 10 min until the color is golden brown and the cheese is melted (Bordo and Surrasca,
2002).
FOCACCIA DI VOLTRI (VOLTRI-STYLE FOCACCIA)
This is similar to focaccia from Genoa, but the consistency of its dough, before baking, is softer
because of the use of a higher amount of water. After sheeting, this focaccia is left to leaven on
surfaces sprinkled with yellow corn flour, which confers a peculiar flavor and color to the
product. Finally, it is baked directly on the lower surface of the oven (Bordo and Surrasca,
2002).
50
SARDENAIRA
This is a “red” focaccia whose dough is made of flour, water, olive oil, yeast, and salt. After
kneading and leavening, it is flattened, topped with tomato sauce, olives, and anchovies, and
then baked. The final product is approximately 4 cm thick (INSOR, 2000).
Emilia-Romagna
GNOCCO INGRASSATO
This white focaccia (literally “fatty” gnocco), also called spianata (“flatted one”), is obtained
from soft wheat flour, water, lard, small cubes of fatty ham, yeast, and salt. After leavening,
flatting in a baking tray, and sprinkling the surface with coarse salt, it is baked at 200 C for
approximately 30 min (Bordo and Surrasca, 2002). The final product is 5e8 cm thick (INSOR,
2000).
STRIA
The dough of this white, 3-cm-thick focaccia is made by kneading soft wheat flour, water, olive
oil, lard, and yeast. After resting, the dough is flattened, and the surface is dimpled, sprinkled
with coarse salt, and rubbed with lard. Finally, it is baked in a wood-fired oven (Bordo and
Surrasca, 2002).
Tuscany
SCHIACCIA MAREMMANA
Its dough is made of flour, water, and yeast. After leavening, it is sheeted upon the paddle at
a thickness of 3 or 4 cm, drizzled with extra-virgin olive oil, and baked at 280 C for
approximately 1 h. The final product is rectangular with a brown surface (Bordo and Surrasca,
2002).
CHAPTER 5
Focaccia Italian Flat Fatty Bread
Umbria
TORTA AL TESTO OR CRESCIA
It is obtained from soft wheat flour, water, extra-virgin olive oil or lard, baking soda, and salt.
After kneading and resting, the dough is flattened and baked on a hot metal plate (Bordo and
Surrasca, 2002; INSOR, 2000).
Lazio
PIZZA BIANCA DI ROMA (ROME-STYLE PIZZA BIANCA)
The local name of this focaccia, literally meaning “white pizza,” is misleading because it is not
a pizza. It is obtained from soft wheat flour, water, oil, malt, yeast, and salt. After kneading, the
dough is left to rise, and then it is flattened and baked. The final product is 2 or 3 cm thick and
has an oily, golden brown surface (Bordo and Surrasca, 2002).
Marches
CRESCIA MACERATESE
It is prepared with soft wheat flour, water, extra-virgin olive oil, yeast, and salt. This circular
white focaccia can be topped with rosemary or onions (Bordo and Surrasca, 2002).
CROSTOLO DEL MONTEFELTRO
It is a white and nutritious circular focaccia obtained from soft wheat flour, water, lard, eggs,
baking soda, salt and pepper, and, sometimes, some whey remaining from cheese making. The
dough is left to rest for 1 h, and after sheeting it is baked on a hot clay plate (Bordo and
Surrasca, 2002).
51
Campania
TORTANO
The tortano or focaccia chiena (literally “filled focaccia”) is actually a 6-cm-thick pie stuffed
with small pieces of boiled eggs, cheese, and salami, usually prepared at Easter. The dough is
made of flour, lard, water, yeast, salt, and pepper. After leavening, it is sheeted, filled, rolled,
and baked. This kind of focaccia is also produced in the neighboring Basilicata region under
the name pzzetto chieno (Bordo and Surrasca, 2002). In a variant named casatiello, one to
three entire eggs (with the shell) are fixed by thin dough strips on the surface before baking,
without including eggs in the filling.
Basilicata
RUCCOLO
It is made of soft wheat flour, water, oil, yeast, and salt. After kneading, leavening, and flattening, it is topped with oil, garlic, oregano, and hot red pepper (INSOR, 2000).
Apulia
FOCACCIA BARESE (BARI-STYLE FOCACCIA)
This “red” focaccia (Figure 5.2) is obtained by kneading a blend of soft and durum wheat flour
with water, mashed potatoes, extra-virgin olive oil, yeast, and salt. After leavening, it is flattened in a circular baking tray and topped with fresh cherry tomatoes and a few olives, which
are pressed slightly into the dough. The surface is then sprinkled with dried oregano and
a small amount of additional oil. Final baking is done at 200 C for 20 min. This 3- or 4-cmthick focaccia can be varied by changing toppings (tomatoes can be substituted with potatoes,
onions, or rosemary).
SECTION 1
Flour and Breads
FIGURE 5.2
Tomato-topped Bari-style focaccia. The picture shows a piece of Bari-style focaccia almost totally covered by fresh cherry
tomatoes.
Calabria
PITTA MANIATA
This very soft 5-cm-thick focaccia is made of soft wheat flour, water, lard, yeast, and salt. Swine
entrails, previously cooked apart with pepper, are added to the basic dough. All is kneaded
again and finally baked. A variant filled with cheese and eggs is similar to tortano produced in
the Campania region.
52
Sicily
SFINCIONE
It is made of durum wheat flour, water, yeast, and salt. After leavening, the dough is flattened
and seasoned with tomato sauce, anchovies, onions, and cheese. It is an extremely soft focaccia
up to 5 cm thick.
THE BASIC INGREDIENTS OF FOCACCIA
Flour
To obtain a good yield and a high specific volume, flour characteristics have to fulfill the
requirements of the processing technology of the focaccia type considered. The major issue is
the overall duration of the process. In the past, only the sourdough-based prolonged process
was performed. Today, to accomplish faster production rhythms, fresh compress baker’s yeast
is used in the majority of bakeries.
According to the voluntary Italian wheat grading standard, superior bread-making wheat,
suitable for the production of focaccia by prolonged process, is defined by (1) protein content
comprised between 13.5 and 14.5% dry matter, (2) tenacity/extensibility ratio (alveograph P/
L) lower than 0.6, (3) gluten strength (alveograph W) higher than 220 104 J, and (4)
farinographic stability from 10 to 15 min. Protein content between 11.5 and 13.5%, W values
within the range of 160e200 104 J, and stability from 5 to 10 min are sufficient for ordinary
bread making (Pagani et al., 2006).
Interestingly, durum wheat is used in some types of focaccia. P/L values higher than 1.0 can be
tolerated in durum wheat flours, but to avoid a too compact structure, a blend with soft wheat
flour and the addition of mashed potatoes are essential. Analysis of samples of durum wheat
re-milled semolina from southern Italy (Figure 5.3), the area where the majority of Italian
CHAPTER 5
Focaccia Italian Flat Fatty Bread
FIGURE 5.3
Alveograph curve of durum wheat re-milled semolina used in the production of Bari-style focaccia. The curve shows the
values of gluten strength and the tenacity/extensibility ratio for durum wheat re-milled semolina commonly used in focaccia
making in the Apulia region.
durum wheat milling capability is concentrated, indicated that a tenacious gluten is usually
present, with mean alveograph P/L of 1.13 (Pasqualone et al., 2004).
Fatty substances
Many fatty substances can be used in bakery: butter, lard, hydrogenated vegetable oils,
margarines, refined seed oils, olive oil, and olive-pomace oil. Their content may range from
5e15% for some bread substitutes, such as crackers, breadsticks, and focaccia, to 20e30% in
biscuits and cakes. The choice of the most suitable lipid is closely related to the desired dough
workability, the product’s rheological and sensory properties, shelf life, and consumers’ needs.
The demand for low-calorie foods has led to the marketing of bakery products with low lipid
content, commonly called “light.” To not jeopardize the product quality in terms of stability
and sensory properties, lipids are partially or completely substituted by substances with similar
functional properties but less calories (polysaccharides, proteins, and modified lipids) (Nicoli,
2003). In addition, by substituting animal fats (lard, butter, etc.) with lipids of vegetable
origin, it is possible to obtain bakery products low in cholesterol content.
Olive oil, notably extra-virgin olive oil, is an essential ingredient in the preparation of many
types of focaccia. It makes focaccia pleasant and palatable, and it provides a characteristic smell
and taste. From a nutritional and health standpoint, extra-virgin olive oil supplies nutrients
that pomace oil or lard cannot supply. It contains a wide range of substances, constituting the
unsaponifiable fraction (sterols, aliphatic and triterpene alcohols, polyphenols, and tocopherols), involved in many biochemical and physiological processes. Moreover, oleic acid, the
most represented fatty acid in olive oil (the optimal value being not less than 73%), is the most
digestible monounsaturated fatty acid for humans. Because its melting point is below the
human body temperature, olive oil stimulates pancreatic lipase secretion and enhances its
hydrolytic activity. Moreover, the high absorption coefficient of oleic acid, due to the stimulation on biliary secretion (cholecystokinetic effect), favors the absorption of the liposoluble
vitamins contained in food (Conte, 2004).
TECHNOLOGICAL ISSUES: EFFECT OF BAKING ON THE LIPID
FRACTION OF FOCACCIA
Although extra-virgin olive oil has many appreciable properties, it may undergo oxidative
alterations during thermal treatments, such as baking, that may decrease its quality and
53
SECTION 1
Flour and Breads
healthy features. Little research has focused on the impact of baking on the oxidative state of
the lipid fraction of baked products, with the exception of investigations regarding trans fatty
acids (van Erp-Baart et al., 1998). Oxidative phenomena regarding lipids have been studied for
other cooking methods, such as frying (Arroyo et al., 1992; Naz et al., 2005).
Delcuratolo et al. (2008) evaluated the impact of baking on the lipid fraction of focaccia,
focusing on hydrolytic and oxidative changes. Four types of focacciadBari-style focaccia
(tomato-topped focaccia) and three white variants of it (potato-topped focaccia, onion-topped
focaccia, and rosemary-topped focaccia)dwere studied. Approximately 400 g of dough was
seasoned with 200e250 g of toppings (except for the last type, which was topped with 2 g of
dried rosemary), flavored with extra-virgin olive oil (150 g/kg flour), and baked at 220 C for
20 min.
Level of trans isomers
The obtained results (Table 5.1) showed that the uncooked oil contained 0.02% C18:1 trans,
which was considerably lower than the allowed maximum limit (0.05%) foreseen by the
current rules (EC Regulation 2568/91, 1991) for the extra-virgin olive oil category. Moreover,
it contained only trace levels of trans isomers of linoleic and linolenic acids.
The oils extracted from the baked focaccias showed amounts of C18:1 trans four or five times
greater than that of the uncooked oil, and levels of trans isomers of linoleic and linolenic acids
ranged from 0.01 to 0.02%. The oil from the rosemary-topped focaccia showed lower levels of
C18:1 trans and trans isomers of linoleic and linolenic acids than did the oils from the other types
of focaccia examined. The amounts of trans isomers of fatty acids found in focaccias were
smaller than those generally reported for other baked products (van Erp-Baart et al., 1998).
The metabolic effects of trans isomers are today a matter of controversy, but many studies have
reported that their consumption increases the risk of cardiovascular disease (Pizzoferrato et al.,
1999).
54
Oxidative and hydrolytic degradation
Results of analyses of peroxide value (PV) and p-anisidine value (p-AV) provided initial
information about the oxidative degradation that affects olive oil during focaccia baking. Total
oxidation (TOTOX) of the oils from focaccias, calculated as 2 PV þ p-AV, was two- or threefold
greater than in the unbaked oil, with particularly high values in focaccias topped with onions
and rosemary (Table 5.2).
High-performance size-exclusion chromatography (HPSEC) of the polar compounds (PC)
provided more detailed information about both the oxidative and the hydrolytic degradation
TABLE 5.1 Levels of Fatty Acid trans Isomers of Each Oil Sample Examineda
Oil Extracted From
Sample
Extra-Virgin Olive
Oil
Potato-Topped
Focaccia
Tomato-Topped
Focaccia
Onion-Topped
Focaccia
Rosemary-Topped
Focaccia
C18:1tb
C18:2t þ C18:3tb
0.022 0.002a
Tra
0.110 0.018b,c
0.023 0.003b
0.105 0.006b,c
0.012 0.001c
0.125 0.007b
0.010 0.001c
0.085 0.008c
0.008 0.004c
Source: Modified with permission from Delcuratolo, D., Gomes, T., Paradiso, V. M., and Nasti, R. (2008). Changes in the oxidative state of extra-virgin olive oil
used in baked Italian focaccia topped with different ingredients. Food Chemistry, 106, 222e226.
a
This table shows the results of analyses performed on unbaked oil and on oil extracted from four focaccia types, after baking, to assess the contents of fatty acid
trans isomers.
b
Results of statistical analysis at p < 0.05. Mean values of three independent repetitions SD; one common letter following an entry indicates no significant
difference.
c
18:1t, trans oleic acid; C18:2t, trans linoleic acid; C18:3t, trans linolenic acid; Tr, traces (not integrated).
CHAPTER 5
Focaccia Italian Flat Fatty Bread
TABLE 5.2 Mean Results of the Indices of Oxidative and Hydrolytic Degradation Determined in Each Oil
Samplea
Oil Extracted From
Sample
Extra-Virgin
Olive Oil
TOTOXb
PCc
TGPc
ox-TGc
DGc
2 TGP% þ ox-TG%c
38.7
3.34
0.08
0.75
1.63
0.91
0.10a
0.01a
0.04a
0.16a
0.04a
Potato-Topped
Focaccia
78.0
3.68 0.13 0.73 1.55 0.99 0.06b
0.03b
0.05a
0.01a
0.06b
Tomato-Topped
Focaccia
85.4
5.44 0.22 1.06 1.95 1.50 0.10c
0.03c
0.13b
0.05b
0.12c
Onion-Topped
Focaccia
125.8
4.78 0.12d
0.27 0.02d
1.69 0.19c
1.83 0.06b
2.23 0.15d
Rosemary-Topped
Focaccia
127.2
5.55 0.25 2.08 1.85 2.58 0.12c
0.03c
0.32d
0.05b
0.31d
Source: Modified with permission from Delcuratolo, D., Gomes, T., Paradiso, V. M., and Nasti, R. (2008). Changes in the oxidative state of extra-virgin olive oil
used in baked Italian focaccia topped with different ingredients. Food Chemistry, 106, 222e226.
a
This table shows the results of analyses performed on unbaked oil and on oil extracted from four focaccia types, after baking, to assess the degree of oxidative
and hydrolytic degradation.
b
Mean values of two independent repetitions.
c
Results of statistical analysis at p < 0.05. Mean values of three independent repetitions SD; one common letter following an entry indicates no significant
difference.
DG, diglycerides; ox-TG, oxidized triglycerides; p-AV, p-anisidine value; PC, polar compounds; PV, peroxide value; TGP, triglyceride polymers; TOTOX ¼ 2 PV þ
p-AV.
of oil via the determination of the following classes of compounds: triglyceride oligopolymers
(TGP), oxidized triglycerides (ox-TG), and diglycerides (DG).
The HPSEC chromatograms of PC detected in the uncooked oil and in the oil extracted from
onion-topped focaccia are shown in Figure 5.4. The uncooked oil already contained detectable
amounts of TGP that were indicative of the inception of the oxidative process, but the same oil,
extracted from the baked focaccia, contained substantially higher TGP and ox-TG levels.
The amount of PC in the oils from all the baked focaccias was significantly greater than that in
the uncooked oil. The smallest difference was observed in the potato-topped focaccia (10%
increase over the uncooked oil). In the oil from the other three types of focaccia, increases in
PC ranged from 43 to 66%.
The amount of ox-TG measured in the uncooked oil (0.75%) was not statistically different
from the amount measured in the oil extracted from the potato-topped focaccia. By contrast,
significant differences were registered in the other types of focaccia, with ox-TG values ranging
from 1.4 to 2.7 times the amount measured in the uncooked oil. These findings confirm that
the oils from the focaccias topped with tomatoes, onions, and rosemary had undergone more
intense oxidation, as highlighted by the TOTOX values.
Baking led to the formation of oligopolymers in all the considered focaccias. The amount of
TGP in the uncooked oil was 0.08%, whereas in the potato-topped focaccia it was 0.13%,
namely 1.5 times higher. In the other three cases, the amount of TGP was almost threefold that
of the starting oil. The evaluation of the oligopolymers provided further evidence that the oil
extracted from the potato-topped focaccia presented a less intense degradation than the other
baked oils.
The amount of DG in the uncooked oil was 1.63%. Significantly higher values were found in
the baked focaccias, except for the potato-topped type.
Table 5.2 shows the values of the sum of 2 TGP% þ ox-TG%, a parameter that provides a better
evaluation of the overall oxidation (Gomes et al., 2003). Substantial increases in overall
oxidative degradation were found in oils extracted from focaccias topped with tomato, onion,
or rosemary. Again, the oil from the potato-topped focaccia seemed to be less affected by the
baking process, with an overall oxidation index (2 TGP% þ ox-TG%) of 0.99 compared to 0.91
55
SECTION 1
Flour and Breads
56
FIGURE 5.4
HPSEC chromatograms of the polar compounds in unbaked extra-virgin olive oil (A) and in the same oil extracted from
onion-topped focaccia after baking (B). The chromatogram shows the trend of the polar compound classes: 1, triglyceride
oligopolymers; 2, oxidized triglycerides; 3, diglycerides. Source: Reprinted with permission from Delcuratolo, D., Gomes,
T., Paradiso, V. M., and Nasti, R. (2008). Changes in the oxidative state of extra-virgin olive oil used in baked Italian focaccia
topped with different ingredients. Food Chem. 106, 222e226.
for the uncooked oil. As already shown by the TOTOX index, the oils from the focaccias topped
with onions and rosemary proved to be the most oxidized. TOTOX and (2 TGP% þ ox-TG%)
for all samples showed a substantial agreement and a positive correlation (p < 0.05).
Influence of the toppings
The different levels of oxidation found in the oils extracted from focaccias seem to be
ascribable to the type of toppings. When toppings were humid and covered the entire surface,
the rise of temperature during baking was mitigated as a consequence of the evaporation, thus
exposing the oil to a less severe heat stress. Seasoning with sliced potatoes seemed to better
protect the lipid fraction from oxidation, probably due to the formation of Maillard reaction
products (MRPs) (Mottram et al., 2002). MRPs have a strong antioxidant activity and effectively slow down the oxidative degradation of lipids (Severini and Lerici, 1995).
The highest oxidative degradation level was detected in focaccia topped with dry rosemary,
probably due to the absence of the protective effect of evaporation during baking. Furthermore, the drying process and storage of the herb may have negatively affected the rosemary
CHAPTER 5
Focaccia Italian Flat Fatty Bread
antioxidant substances, carnoxic acid and carnosol (Offord et al., 1997). Moreover, the
stability of the antioxidant power is little known in relation to cooking time and temperatures.
It is interesting to note that the overall level of oxidation, expressed in terms of (2 TGP% þ oxTG%), of extra-virgin olive oil extracted from baked focaccias was lower than that in uncooked
refined oils previously examined (Gomes and Caponio, 1997; Gomes et al., 2003). Moreover,
it was considerably lower than that of fried oils (Arroyo et al., 1992).
Thus, the oxidation involving seasoning oil during focaccia baking is moderate when
employing extra-virgin olive oil, which, after baking, still shows lower oxidation levels than
uncooked refined seed oils.
CONCLUSIONS
To produce focaccia, it is advisable to use extra-virgin olive oil because this oil is particularly
resistant to thermal oxidation. This is due to the presence of highly antioxidant micronutrients
and a polyunsaturated/monounsaturated/saturated fatty acid ratio equal to 0.5:5:1 (Conte,
2004). Regardless of the toppings used, the modifications induced by baking do not
compromise the final quality of focaccia.
SUMMARY POINTS
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Focaccia is a typical bakery product of many Italian regions, and it shows variants
depending on the productive area.
The productive steps of the various focaccia types are similar: mixing, kneading, leavening,
flattening, proofing, and baking.
Whereas in the past only a sourdough-based prolonged productive process was performed,
today fresh compress baker’s yeast is used in the majority of bakeries to prepare focaccia.
Durum wheat re-milled semolina is used in the production of some types of focaccia.
Olive oil, notably extra-virgin olive oil, is an essential ingredient in many types of focaccia.
Extra-virgin olive oil is characterized by well-known healthy features due to the absence of
cholesterol and the high content of antioxidant micronutrients.
The partial or total substitution of extra-virgin olive oil by refined seed or pomace-oil
negatively affects the focaccia’s sensory properties, digestibility, shelf life, and nutritional
value.
The level of degradation of the seasoning oil is influenced by the amount and percentage of
moisture of the toppings used in focaccia preparation.
Regardless of the toppings used, the modifications induced by baking on extra-virgin olive
oil extracted from focaccia are moderate and do not compromise the quality of the final
product.
The oxidation phenomena involving extra-virgin olive oil during focaccia baking lead to
levels of oxidized substances that are lower than those found in uncooked refined seed oils.
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