Week 1: Introduction (Part 1)
Continue from Topic 1.1: (part 2)
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A lot more Difficult than we normally expect cause it’s a
multicultural world
Learn how to critically examine the various reasons that all of
us may have, given our differences, to believe or act regarding
ethical issues
Learn how to engage in a reasoned discussion
Topic 1.1: What even are ‘Ethics’ and ‘Civics’?
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Ethics is the study of how one should live , study of (morality =
(how one should live)) even though being ethical = being
moral
Student of ethics DOES NOT MEAN being ethical
Studying ethics allow you to communicate with others about
ethical issues
Theory-led = Normative Ethics
Circumstances-led = Applied Ethics
Ethics theory usually involves a set of principles that are meant
to apply universally to anyone and what they should do in
general
Encounter a particular ethical issue = apply a theory to see
what we should do
UTILITARIANISM (The End justifies the means?)
Principle of Utility = Act in a way that maximizes overall
pleasure
The right thing to do is always to ensure that the action that
one takes has the consequence of increasing the total amount
of pleasure in the universe
Example of utilitarianism save 5 strangers over 1 friend
NO PICK AND MIX ETHICAL THEORIES OR DIFFERENT PART OF
ETHICAL THEORIES
Example: Like we cannot pick and choose theory about earth
shape according to our taste
Pick what is reasonable and what makes the most sense of
our individual and collective lived experiences
Make sure that whatever ethical theory you commit to is the
most justified and has the most explanatory power
Theory-led + Circum-led (good), Theory-led (bad) why?
Scenarios in real life are not as straightforward
Circumstances-led Approach (5 Ws)( who, what, when..)
Who
o Who exactly are the actors of given scenario
o Who exactly are the one who are acted upon
Example: Malay annals fourth raja SG execute Hang Nadim,
Hang Nadim gain respect by saving villagers from swordfish
with banana stem wall Actors (exe, raja) Acted upon (hang
Nadim)
What
o Pays attention to the aspects of a given scenario
that are morally relevant
Example: Raja’s action motivated by jealously = Morally
Relevant, Number of banana stem used to build wall = Not
relevant
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When and where?
Does the location and the time matters
Example: does the fact that this took place in the late
14th century in the kingdom of Singapura matter for
whether or not the Raja should have done what he did?
Why
Pay attention to the causes and conditions of the
scenario
Example: does it matter whether the raja should have
acted the way he did, if his decision was result of the
advice of local chiefs who were them feel threaten by
hang Nadim intelligence
Ethics example: France invade Germany afterwar , Stay
with mother = emphasizing sympathy and individual
devotion, Avenge brother’s death = emphasizing a
broader, more idealistic scope
Ethics = We not only care about which act the student
should perform, but the reasons behind why he should
do it and whether these reasons themselves are gd or
bad (Examining the reasons that support why it is the
right or wrong answer)
Ethics example: Uniqlo = long history of employing
factory workers in bad conditions, little financial stability
= production cost low, and product affordable? BUT
should or should we not buy from these brands?
Student of ethics pay attention to details of everyday
scenarios and become sensitized to what might be
ethical circumstances as we go about our lives.
Civics = study of How one should live as a citizen
Study of our right and duty to the state and to each
other as citizen of a state in relation to which we draw
benefit and protection
NOT ABOUT BEOMING GOOD CITIZEN
What sort of state in question, in addition to how
citizens relate to it and each other
State = Unique, Historical, Economic, Political, Social
Characterized each state, and citizen rights = History,
People, Culture, Goods, Services, Forms, Values
Example = Student in Sg school recite national pledge,
pledge to build democratic society based on justice and
equality
Democracy = means people of the states are the one
who have ultimate power
Monarchy = ultimate power rest on monarch(king,queen)
Democratic society like SG is a collective project to be
carried out by all its citizens, while taking also into
account others who might affected project
Rights and duties of a SG citizen relative to this collective
project and set of values
Examples = duties to pay one taxes, and equal voting
right, speak corner at hong lim park
Week 1 part 3:
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Purpose of speak corner = to speak and express themselves to
be heard, and act as a mean to exchange of reasons and an
invitation to collectively steer democratic society in certain
directions (ONLY SINGAPOREAN CITIZEN. OTHERS CAN ONLY
PRATICIPATE NO ORGANISE)
Duties of citizens might have to non-citizens example below
Meet person sessions regardless citizen or non with elected
representatives in parliament = ways of citizens relating to the
state particular to the form of government SG has, =
representative democracy with parliamentary system
o Elects politicians to represent them , power
ultimately meant to lie with citizen (democratic)
Study of how one should live as a citizen, does not only
concern vote and taxes, nor does it only concern
demonstrations and rallies. BUT also concern everyday lives
and how the right and duties of citizens might be found in the
structures we encounter daily
Doing ethics and civics does not mean merely sharing opinions
or beliefs without rational support
Nobody in ethics and civics CARES that you have a particular
belief or opinion, but only whether you SHOULD have the
belief
We only care about opinions and beliefs that have undergone
a process of an exchange of reasons with others
Nobody in ethics and civics care that there is a fancy phrase or
word for something, or that you found an -ism that sounds
cool and resonates with you
Word cool to use = just sport-fan mentality does nothing to
help to advance ethical or civic discourse-or even keep you
open to it
Knowing a lot of concepts and technical only IMPORTANT
when these allow common ground for discussion or allow you
to be more precise and accurate in saying something
Wrong thinking = ethics and civics at university level is
primarily about pithy sayings or which person say what
Correct thinking = counts against your ability to reason
independently as an individual, if using quotable quotes
What it means to do ethics and civics?
o Ethics and Civics is about an exchange of reasons
o Currency of any discussions
o Quality – not quantity – of your reasons (morally
relevant reasons) means?
Normative claims (supported by mortally relevant reason)
o What we ought to , or should do
o ‘Kai should help Deanna’
o Anti-discrimination laws
Descriptive claims
o Particular state of affairs
o ‘Kai helps Deanna’
o Observing that’ most members of a given society do
not discriminate’
Week 1 part 4:
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Example: we should people because it increases happiness
Kai should help Deanna because she is her friend
increase happiness, friendship = morally relevant reasons
Example: Having anti-discrimination laws because it
ensures that there is justice for those experience
discrimination, or such laws ensure minorities are treated
equally, in these cases, bolded words (mortally relevant)
Normality claims = are at the heart of ethics and civics, and
what we care about is studies are the relevant reasons that
support such claims
not simple enough that you have set of normative claims
by which you live, or by which you think citizens ought to
live even if they are supported by some morally relevant
Topic 1.2: Why ethics and Civics Matters for Everyone
Everyone of us live in societies with other individuals. And
each individual has very different idea and conceptions of
how they should live
Example = make money, help people,vote,pay taxes,
advocacy for those who do not have a voice
Often belong to different societies that also overlap, may
not only belong to Singapore society, but internet, global
and schools
Reflect on kind of actions would or would not contribute to
how we think should live, find that this includes wide range
of concerns
Example = whether walk or drive to hawker, people might
think ability to travel risk spreading pandemic, taking a
walk may affect how soon you reach, driving may increase
carbon footprint and so on
Our decision not only affect others but affect others in a
different way and to various extents
Therefore, when convincing others to live like them, we
must therefore give them reasons to justify or explain why
we think what we think and sometimes these reasons are
simply bad. Sometimes these reasons are good
Are always already engaged in ethics and civics
Example = Reasons why we should talk to people, Reasons
why we should to work to maximize shareholder earning,
reasons we should upsize our meal, read and reflect
whether comment are reasonable, considering reason to
vote, reasons to turn in public assemblies
Ethics and Civics necessarily multicultural because
constantly engaging in an exchange of reasons due to
culturally difference, we constantly must adapt our
beliefs and actions. (Collectively change, same for others)
Topic 1.3 Course Expectations
Identify morally relevant , explain moral responsibilities,
Critically assess, Make well-informed arguments, Apply
ethics and civics concept
Standard of Conduct = Be respectful, Be sensitive, Include
only appropriate content
Week 2: Reasoning in Ethics and Civics (Part 1)
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Topic 2.1: Clarity of Reasons
o Have the belief, one that has undergone a process of
an exchange of reasons with others
o What matters is reasonable belief. Dispute in ethics
and civics is always at the level of reasons, not
beliefs or opinions
Concept are important to serve purpose of rationally
supporting your belief
1. Allows common grounds for discussion
2. Allows you to be more precise and accurate in saying smth
Mean by ‘exchange’ of reasons?
o Simply denying or negating belief or opinion = mere
disagreement (wrong)
o Deny or negate the reasons hat someone has for
their belief to show their belief are rationally
unsupported and their position is unreasonable
(correct)
o Simply offering reasons before you show how
someone else’s reasons are unsupported = they still
have reasons to believe what they believe (wrong)
o Remember: the underlying question is always’ Why
should someone else take your reasons seriously,
especially when they already have their own
reasons?’ (correct)
When providing supporting reasons:
o Ensure you help others understand how you
rationally arrive at a certain position
o Have in mind a fellow student who is unfamiliar with
the content when presenting or writing
o Never ever assume that they should make the
argumentative connection themselves
o Provide an argument for your belief with as much or
as little contextual information as required
How can anyone be convinced, there be clarity in where
disagreements lie, to ensure that others understand your
reasons?
o Concept allow a common ground for discussion and
be more precise and accurate in saying smth
o Concept are only important when they serve the
purpose of rationally supporting your beliefs in an
exchange of reasons
o Concepts are understood in terms of their conditions
Good reason is conceptually clear
Conditions are the elements by which we define and
understand concepts precisely and accurately
General relationship between necessary and sufficient
conditions: when p is a sufficient condition for q, q is a
necessary condition for p. That is, if p,q is the same only if
q,p (IMAGE ON THE RIGHT)
Example: It is raining being a sufficient condition for my shoe
to be wet may be a causal condition, in other words, rain
makes my shoes wet
Week 2 (Part 2)
Example: X being a triangle being a sufficient condition for X to
be a polygon is a constitutive condition: having three sides (at
least partially) makes up a triangle
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Relationship between Sufficiency and Necessity
Notice crucially that here and often, stating the necessary
and sufficient conditions of a concept like triangle or
bachelor just is to define the concept
Condition Example: Plant growth depends on genes,
hormones, water, nutrients, sunlight and so on
Regression Analysis = Establish a conditional relation
between dependent variable and independent variables
Actions of a person depend on condition under which they
had to act (plant growth, recessions, and criminal motives)
Ethical and Political Concepts
Concept of happiness = life that involves rational activity in
accordance with virtue
Happiness is only about a life virtue, rational activity not
necessary (dispute with the concept on top)
A simplistic utilitarian understands that what is necessary
and sufficient for any action to be morally right is for it to
maximize overall pleasure. This would opposed, an ethical
theory where the morally right action is, for example, to
minimize the most vulnerable illness
Week 2: (Part 3)
Week 2: (Part 4)
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By defining the concepts clearly and by providing the
necessary and sufficient conditions, our reasons can be
clearly understood by others. Only then can we have any
productive discussion in ethics and civics
Topic 2.2: Cogency of Reasons
When providing reasons, structure of your argument should
be explicit. Merely listing a number of reasons is not an
argument
Logical structure = (Logic then Logical and finally Valid)
When our belief are rationally supported by our reasons, we
have a cogent argument for them
Relations between premises + Conclusion conform to a
logically valid structure = Soundness
Cogent Argument = Soundness + Premises are True
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Clarity should aim at: True/false to Propositions
Truth-aptness should aim at: propositions to state of affairs
Validity should aim at: Propositions to Logical form
A pros-and-cons presentation of reasons is Never an
argument because it does not give us any sense of the logical
relations of the reason to each other- without any sense of
their relative weightage. It provides zero support for any
claim or position. We care NOT ABOUT THE QUANTITY BUT
THE QUALITY.
More than Soundness: eg: ‘missing the point’ fallacy
Start clearly with a definition, Give the necessary and
sufficient conditions
ARGUMENT SHOULD: Involve true premises, Have a valid
logical structure, Not commit any informal fallacies
Three approaches to establish if someone reason are
inadequate
o Verify that the reasons are false
o Find that the reasons related to each other in an
invalid logical structure
o Realize that there’s an informal fallacy
Kinds of criticisms of arguments and concepts
External Criticism = How a certain standards is not met
Internal Criticism = How the claims made/actions performed
are contradictory (because something cannot be both A and
not-A at the same time)
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Utilitarian theory is embarrassed by the possibility of
utility monsters who get greater sum of utility from any
sacrifice of others then these others lose. These theories
seem to require that we all be sacrificed by the monster
maw to increase total utility
Arguments:
o If moral theory is true, not recommend us to
sacrifice for greater good
o Would recommend sacrificing other utility instead
o Therefore, theory is false
Criticisms must themselves meet the standards of cogency
if they are to be convincing
Topic 2.3: Two Types of Reasons
Individual Reason = Reason that makes reference to
properties as sufficient conditions
Structural Reason = Reason that makes reference to
position in a structure as sufficient conditions
Is action good or bad? ( we tend to use individual reason)
o Fix the necessary and sufficient conditions of what
a morally good/bad action is
o Ask whether the properties of the action satisfy
these conditions
Do general properties of agents qualify as necessary and
sufficient conditions for the agents themselves to be
morally good or bad? (They are obvious areas where we
need more than just individual reasons and thus need to
turn to B – that is, structural reasons.
Structure = elements that are systematically related to
each other according to principles particular to that
structure
Argument is a structure because:
o It has premises and a conclusion – (elements)
o It has a set of grammatical sentences – (systematic
relation)
o It conforms to logical laws – (Its principles)
Example: Shopping Mall, Element (buyers, sellers, goods,
services) Sys relation (exchange between the elements)
Principles (economics law)
Pay attention to the various types of reasons
o Helps to answer questions precisely and clearly
o Helps to understand and appreciate the various
possible approaches
Summary (clarify concept, construct arg, distinguish rea)
o Give clear reasons
o Give cogent reasons
o Convince others rationally
o Identify problematic reason
o Reasons based on properties of individual
o Reasons based on relations
Practicing will enhance your ability to participate in an
exchange of reasons required for a rational participant of
ethical and civic life
Week 3: Human Rights Part 1: Trafficking (part 1)
Week 3: part 2
Topic 3.1: Human Rights
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Entitlements = to be free to do something, exercise a power,
provided with some benefit
Duties
o To refrain from interfering with others freedom
o To refrain from interfering with others ability to
exercise a power
o To provide others with some benefit
Legal Rights
o Described in the laws of a country’s legal jurisdiction
o Government has the power to create, interpret and
enforce the laws
o Subject to the laws of specific countries which vary
from place to place and time to time
Example: Rights to health care, Women’s rights to vote
Human Rights
o Rights we have simply because we exist as human
beings (UN Human Rights)
o Legal, Moral and Universal
o Define and protect fundamental freedoms and
entitlements for all humans
Legal Rights
o A right that exists because of a legal statute or some
other government action
o New legal rights may be introduced in a jurisdiction
over time
o People in different jurisdictions may have different
legal rights
Constitution of Singapore (Part IV) (Legal right for human)
o Liberty of the Person – Article 9
o Prohibition of Slavery and Forced Labor – Article 10
o Protection Against Retrospective Criminal Laws,
Repeated Trials – Article 10
o Equal Protection – Article 12
o Prohibition of Banishment, Right to Freedom of
Movement - Article 13
o Freedom of Speech, Assembly and Association – Article
14
o Freedom of Religion – Article 15
o Rights Relating to Education – Article 16
Moral Rights
Morality, Critical Morality , Conventional Morality
A moral right may exist without being the legal right
Group of people – women for instance and disabled people do
not have rights to vote and to receive education in some parts
of the world
Respect for the ‘Inherent Dignity’ of ALL humans, and equality
Embodied by the Universal Declartion of Human Rights
(UDHR)
Adopted by the UN in 1948, succession of binding
international conventions
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UDHR as a Statement of Moral Rights
o Not a law all by itself – does not enact any legal
rights
o Asserts several moral rights
o Proclaims that these rights should be respected in
all nations
LEGAL DOES NOT MEAN MORTAL RIGHT
Universal – International Human Right Treaties
o Atrocities of the Holocaust and subsequent
Nuremberg war crime trails prompt calls for
international protection of fundamental right
o Human rights incorporated into the UN in 1945
7 Core Human Rights Treaties
International Covenant on Civil and Political Right (1966)
International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural
Right (1966(
International Covenant on the Elimination of All Forms of
Racial Discrimination (1965)
Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of
Discrimination Against Women (1979)
Convention Against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or
Degrading Treatment or Punishment (1984(
Convention on the Rights of the Child (1989(
International Convention on the Protection of the Rights
of All Migrant Workers and Member of families (1990)
UDHR consists of:
Article 1 – ‘ All human beings are born free and equal in
dignity and right, endowed with reason and conscience and
should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood’
Article 2 – Right against discrimination
Article 3-5, 19-21 – Civil and political rights, include right to
life, liberty, personal security, and political participate
Articles 16-18. 22-27 – Economic, social, and cultural rights,
including rights to an adequate standard of living, social
security, work, rest and leisure, family, education, and
participation in the cultural life of a community
Article 28 – ‘Everyone is entitled to a social and
international order in which the right and freedom set
forth in this declaration can be fully realized.’
Article 29 – Everyone has duties to the community, rights
and freedoms subject only to limitations, as determined by
law, for the purpose of securing the rights and freedoms of
others, and ‘ of meeting the just requirement of morality,
public order and the general welfare.’
Advantages
o Avoid discrimination, Improve the quality of human
beings, Set the standard for individuals to be
treated equally, Procedure and framework for
government to protect and promote human rights
Disadvantages = UDHR is not an international law, Lacks
the power to legally enforce any directive
Week 3: (Part 3)
Week 3: (Part 4)
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Countries apply some form of Human Rights legislations but at
the same time also ignore and go against others:
o Freedom of religion or worship
o Right to education
o Right to vote
o Right to basic health care
Why are some rights not enforced and protected in various
jurisdictions?
o Political context
o Limited resources
o Cultural differences
Topic 3.2: Human Trafficking
What is Human Trafficking?
The recruitment, transportation, transfer, harboring or receipt
of persons, by means of the threat or use of force or other forms
of coercion… or of a position of vulnerability or of the giving or
receiving of payments of benefits to achieve the consent of a
person having control over another person, for the purpose of
exploitation
How Trafficking Breaks Down
Actions (first) = Recruit, Transport, Provide, Obtain/Attempts
Means (second) = Force, Fraud, Coercion
Purpose(third) = Commercial Sex Acts, Labor Services
‘The World Oldest Trade’, Historical overview, human trafficking
in SEA
o Pre-colonial Southeast Asia = Angkor, Ayuthya, Malacca,
Achech, and Makassar, in their pre-colonial heyday,
require large labours that was provided by import slaves
o Debts, punishment, starvation and war captivity, slave
raiding and trade
o Debt/Bonded labor – employed close to their areas of
origin; inter-regional slave trade
o Slaves used in Agriculture, Manufacturing, Industry
Modern- day slavery? = Child abduction, Forced labor, Selling
baby, Forced chill beggar, Trafficking boat, Organ theft, Forced
marriage, Human cage, Forced prostitution
Estimated Annual Profits from Trafficking = Asia highest number
ILO Global Estimates on international Migrant workers
Human Trafficking = 40% migrants – Asia Pacific region, why?
Major countries of origin, transit and destination (Top pyramid)
Modern Slavery bottom left pyramid
Forced labor = highly gendered labor migration pattern and
trends (bottom right pyramid)
Displacement – Armed Conflict and Natural Disasters
o Forced labor in Asia-Pacific region is world’s most
lucrative
o Forced labor in fishing industry widely reported in
Cambodia, Thailand and Indonesia
o Victims are paid too little or not at all for 20hrs/day
o Reasons (on top heading)
o Displaced since 2008
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Implications for Nation States
Threats of human trafficking:
Criminal: Use of Force, Coercion, Fraud, Exploitation
National Security: Terrorism, drugs, political/armed
conflict, border security
Human/social aspects: Physical and mental health
consequences
Human rights: Protection, prosecution, legislation,
advocacy
Impact of Covid-19 pandemic
Negatively affected livelihoods and economy
Global rise in unemployment and reduction of income,
especially for low wage and informal workers
Garment, agriculture, farming, manufacturing and
domestic work sectors most affected
Impact of Covid-19 on Human Trafficking
Made a desperate situation even worse
ASEAN countries reported rise in domestic violence
Victims of abuse trapped inside their homes with abuser
Domestic servitude or sex slavery disproportionately
affects women and girls
Greater exposure to virus, less equipped to prevent it, less
access to healthcare
Topic 3.3: Related Ethical Considerations
Human Dignity – Humanity Principle (Immanuel Kant)
Article 1 of UDHR states that ‘ All human beings are born
free and equal in dignity and rights’
Prinicple of Humanity provides a rationale for this equal
dignity shared by all human beings
All human beings are rational and autonomous beings,
entitled to equal respect
Right to life, liberty, security, and other things are owed to
all human beings, because the things that people have
human rights to are needed to preserve their rationality
and autonomy
Humans as Rational and Autonomous Beings
Being rational – Using reason to figure out what to do is
morally acceptable way ( Shafer-Landau 2020)
Being autonomous: to be in control of one own life. Shaf
Kant: Rationality and autonomy of people makes them
supremely valuable and worthy of respect. Thus, to treat a
person as an end and to respect them as they deserve,
one must support their rationality and autonomy
Since all persons are rational and autonomous beings,
respected is owed to every person equally
Human Dignity – Humanity Principle (Immanuel Kant)
To always treat a person as an end, never merely as a
means (discrimination fail to respect person as ends)
Commitment to impartiality: everyone deserve equal
respect due to their rationality and autonomy – regardless
of their sex, race, age
Week 3 (Part 5)
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Week 4 part 2
Human Trafficking – Treating Persons as Mere Means
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o Principle of humanity prohibits treating someone as a mere
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means
o Treating a person as a mere means is to use them in a way that •
they could not rationally consent to being used
o Many kinds of actions are not rationally consent to , amount to •
treating people as mere means: Deception, Coercion,
Exploitation, Violations of Privacy
Human Flourishing – Eudaimonia (Aristotle)
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‘Happiness’ , ’Flourishing’ – exercise of reason
o Reflects ‘ pursuit of virtue, excellence, and the best within us’ •
(Huta & Waterman, 2014: 1426)
Good life can be attained by practicing virtues like courage, wisdom, good
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humor, moderation, kindness etc
o Eudaimonia – Highest good that human being can attain
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o Eudaimonia as intrinsically good
Golden Rule
Treat others as you want to be treated (Gensler 2013:1)
According to Gensler, Golden rule has been common to all major
religions and philosophies throughout human history
Commitment to human dignity, in the form of the golden rule, rule of •
reciprocity, or universal ethics for humans
Week 4: Human Rights Part 2: Disability (Part 1)
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Topic 4.1: Human Rights and Disability
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Disability = world largest minority . (80% lives in poor countries) means
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= less access to physical amenities, less infrastructure, less financial
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support, less social polices
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o Involves issues to do with social exclusion
o Increase exposure to abuses and vulnerability
o Up to the 1970s globally, rights of disabled persons were not
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under the main purview, not a priority
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o With the United Nations Charter there has been a slow
recognition that disabled people are rights bearers in
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international law
o UN began to adopt non-binding declarations to do with the
rights of disabled people
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o Change in terms used: Development delays for intellectual
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disorders PWD for disabled people
o Medical Model of disability which focusses on physical/medical •
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defects or impairments
o Social Model of disability which focusses on discriminatory
barriers in society and the environment
United Nations Conventions on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities •
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(UNCRPD)
o Adopted by the UN in 2006
o Very first human rights treaty that was developed by disabled •
people for disabled people
o 60 years after the UDHR
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o Goal of UDHR is to promote and protect inherent dignity and
equality of all human beings (UNCRPD same but for disabilities)
UNCRPD: What did it do?
Marks a shift in the way societies view and treat
persons with disabilities compare to the past
Emphasizes and enshrines the rights of PWDS as
right holders and subject of law
Puts them in the center with rights to fully
participate in formulating and implementing policies
that affect them
Reflects the social perspective that sees disability as
a universal human experience not unique
Shifts the lens from seeing them as just unfortunate
few, the outliers of society
Eliminate legal and social barriers that prevent
PWDs, from fully participating in society
Article 1 of the CRPD: Open-ended description of
treaty, Persons with disabilities include those who
have -long term physical, mental, intellectual or
sensory impairments which in interaction with
various barriers may hinder their full and effective
participation in society on an equal basis as other
New titles, innovative measures and mechanisms of
UNCRPD
Accessibility (Article 9)
Living independently and being included in the
community (Article 19)
Personal mobility (Article 20)
Habilitation and rehabilitation (Article 26)
Article 3: General Principles of UNCRPD consist:
Respect for inherent dignity, individual, autonomy
include freedom to make one own choice and
independence of persons
Non-discriminations
Full and effective participation and inclusion in
society
Respect for difference and acceptance of persons
with disabilities as part of human diversity and
humanity
Equality of opportunity
Accessibility
Equality between man and woman
Respect for the evolving capacities of children with
disabilities and respect for the right of children with
disabilities to preserve their identity
UNCRPD promulgated by the UN in 2006
Singapore signed UNCRPD on 30 Nov 2012, ratified
on 18 July 2013
UNCRPD is encapsulated in two of the enabling
master plans
Singapore is an inclusive society where persons with
disabilities are empowered, recognized ad given full
opportunity to become integral and contribute
Week 4 Part 3
Week 4 Part 4
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Topic 4.2: Disability in Singapore
Disability in Singapore
Those whose prospects of securing, retaining places and
advancing in education and training institutions, employment
and recreation as equal members of the community are
substantially reduced as a result of Physical, Sensory,
Intellectual and Developmental Impairments
Developmental disability encompasses Autism as well as Down
Syndrome and Cerebral Palsy
Persons with sensory (blind and deaf) and physical disabilities
constitute half of the disability group
Other half comprises those with intellectual and
Developmental Disabilities
Upward projection of persons with disability. With
demographic trend of ageing on the rise. Number of persons
with disabilities will increase significantly by 2030
Strengthened the argument for social inclusion in SG
Social Inclusion = encompasses and influences and shapes
three main domains of a person’s life,, social, economic and
political
UNESCO defines it as’ A society for all in which every individual,
each with rights and responsibilities, has an active role to play
Social Exclusion
Social inclusion can be a vague term but its easier to identify
how someone is excluded
Refers to systemic disadvantage or discrimination of an
individual based on their identity
Ethnicity, Race, Religion, Sexual Orientation, Descent, Gender,
Age, Disability, HIV status, Citizenship, Nationality
Why is social exclusion an issue?
Unequal access to resources
Unequal participation
Denial of opportunities
Implications of Social Exclusion
Corrosion and breakdown of society because of poor social
cohesion
Entrench and worsen the marginalized conditions of segments
of society
Communities who are socially excluded face unemployment,
poor educational outcomes, low income, poor housing
conditions, poor health and family breakdown
The Excluded Disabled
Face physical barriers to their inclusion
Are not included in legislations
Face financial struggles due to their inability to get education
and employment
Face attitudinal barriers and obstacles in their day-to-day life
All this shapes and defines the day-to-day experiences in
society and constitutes social exclusion of disabled people
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History of Disability and Inclusion in Singapore
Before second world war, British heck care disability
Care of poor, disabled left to voluntary welfare and
members of society
After war, British noticed alarming trends and situation
Poverty, homelessness, vagrancy, juvenile delinquency
1946, gov setup social welfare department address state
welfare policy include disabled
People with disability became cornerstone to gov policy in
light of country industrialization and modernization
The social model (People are disabled by the barriers)
Badly designed buildings, no lifts, isolation, few sign
language interpreters, inaccessible transport and public
venues, poor job prospects, no ramps, special schools
(Seek to change society to accommodate people living
with impairment)
The Medical Model (People are disabled by medical
condition)
Can’t hear or see, Need help and carers, Can’t work,
Dependent, Can’t walk, Looking for a cure ( Sought to
isolate and fix PWDS)
Shift in Government and Societal Mindset towards
Disabled Persons in SG
Very pragmatic rationale behind the gov shift in and
priorities and policies with regards to disabled person and
society with national interests of developing human
resource
Not just to develop and train certain segments but all
segments of society such that they will be productive and
contributing member of society
Key milestone SG for disabilities policy
1973 – Singapore Disability sport council, 1980 – Launch
of car park label scheme, 1991- Assessment and diagnosis
units for early identification of developmental needs,
1999- MOE launches Assistive technology fund, 2003 –
Compulsory education act, except those with special
needs, need attend primary school, Early intervention
Program for Infants and Children, 2006- first wheelchair accessible public bus, Engaging person with disabilities in
Employment Fund, 2007 to 2011 – Enabling masterplan,
2019 – Children with moderate to severe special need to
attend government funded special education schools
Social Inclusion in Singapore
PM LEE endorsed the UN catch phrase ‘ An inclusive
society where no one is being left behind,
Basic needs such as healthcare, education and public
housing that all persons in Singapore are entitled to
Social mobility so the ability to progress in life to get an
education to make a better living to support family
Succession of SG Enabling Master plans which emphasis
and highlighted need for social inclusion (more to PWD)
Week 4 Part 5:
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The Way Forward
Third Enabling Master Plan (2017-2021) envisions Singapore
to be caring and inclusive society where PWDs are
empowered to achieve their full potential and participate
fully as integral and contributing member of society
NCSS study with on needs of PWDs found that 6 in 10 PWDs
do not feel socially included, accepted and given equal
opportunities to contribute to society
Topic 4.3: Related Ethical Considerations
Human Dignity
Kant and the concept of human dignity, Prinicple of
Humanity, we should always treat humanity as an end, never
as a means
Human dignity is the founding moral principle of the human
rights framework
From UDHR, dignity is the innate worth of human beings
All human beings regardless of ability, physical appearance,
race, religion gender and so on are persons with dignity and
have innate value and worth as human beings
Prinicple about inherent dignity and worth of human being is
encapsulated in the UNCRPD which emphasizes the
importance of human dignity
Prohibition of all inhuman treatment, humiliation, or
degradation by one person over another
Assurance of the possibility for individual choice and the
conditions ‘ each individual’s self-fulfillment’, autonomy, or
self- realization
Recognition that the protection of group identity and culture
may be essential for protection of personal dignity
Creation of necessary conditions for each individual to have
their essential needs satisfied
According to Clapham (2006), one of the main goals of
human rights is the protection of dignity
Right and responsibilities
What should the rights of all individual regardless of race etc
Whose responsibility or duty?
Shift in approach towards disability issues over past 2
decades, from one motivated by charity to one based on right
and equal opportunities
Protecting and upholding rights of the disabled and
disadvantaged- should not be seen as just a concern of
philanthropy but as a duty and responsibility at individual,
societal and state levels
Limitation and disadvantages with regards to law
Companies in Thailand and Japan rather pay fine to
government for not hiring PWDs,
A law in place but societal attitudes may not be in sync
Prevailing issues still faced by PWDS
Lack of physical environment accessible to PWDs, Attitudinal
barriers, Employment, Participation in society, Discrimination
and stigma, Isolation and social exclusion
Week 4 Part 6:
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Closing Thoughts
Think about human rights as fundamental and universal
If we say human rights are fundamental and universal
because they are rights that apply to all humans, then we
should try to think beyond the lenses of nation state
boundaries
Need to move from object to subject
Related policy should focus on heterogeneity of disabled
people
Inclusion: Voices of the excluded, their aspirations, their
rights, what’s important TO them and what important FOR
them
Week 5 Part 1: Reproduction Ethics
Topic 5.1: Introduction
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Reproduction ethics, or the ethics of reproduction is broad
Consists of abortion, contraception, IVF, surrogacy, egg
donation
Ethical question arise is these area might be:
Moral status of embryo, morally acceptable to interfere in
reproductive processes, ethical to experiment on embryo,
rights of woman people vs right of fetus, surrogacy a
commodification of a woman body
Why abortion? (an issue of importance and contention)
Understanding the various perspectives around tricky or
difficult ethical situations, can give us guidance on:
o How to make decisions
o How to justify these decisions
o How to offer support and guidance to others
How is this relevant to you?
Helpful in bringing to light many of our own personal
beliefs and values
Cuts to the heart of what we think about rights, autonomy,
life, duty, responsibilities, virtues, and values
Help you reflect on these important questions and identify
what you think is important, and more crucially, be
equipped to support your choices with good reasoning
Roe v Wade overturned = 1973 ruling that recognized a
woman constitutional right to an abortion legalized it
nationwide in the US
This is likely to affect poor and minority group the hardest
Blurs the distinction between church and state, which is
key to preventing religious conflict
Sign of deepening conservatism in the US, which impact
on other issues such as gun control and healthcare
A guide for using some of the same tactics to limit access
to abortion elsewhere in the world, and increase stigma
around abortion even in countries where it is legal
Be assured that abortion is extremely controversial topic ,
give fair attention, try your best to listen, take a moment
to decide, reach out
Week 5 part 2
Week 5 part 3
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Topic 5.2: Empirical Background
Rate of abortion is decreasing
Married woman increasing, teenagers dropping reasons (risk
jobs, cannot afford, postpone childbearing)
Abortion is prohibited after 24 weeks of pregnancy unless
woman life is in danger
Statistics about the effectiveness of banning abortions (Kramer
2016):
Number of unsafe abortions rise
Estimate 47k woman die every year due to complications of
unsafe abortions
Does not prevent it from happening
Latin America and Caribbean, 97% of woman live in countries
where abortion restricted or banned, 44 abortions per 1000
woman, 26% higher than worldwide average
Facts
One of the safest surgical procedures for woman, takes place
within the first trimester and done by professional (give birth is
riskier than abortion)
No scientific evidence to support the idea that having an
abortion is any more dangerous to a woman long term mental
health than delivering and parenting a child she did not intend
Early studies suggesting an increase in breast cancer among
woman who had abortions had found to be flawed and widely
discredited
Having an abortion will not usually affect your chance of
becoming pregnant and having normal pregnancies in future
Myth
Dangerous procedure
Woman traumatized after abortions
Causes breast cancer
Causes infertility
Topic 5.3: Ethical Concern
Difference people may approach the discussion around abortion
from different focal points
Question from perspective of Right
Whether pregnant person have a right to continue with
pregnancy, does a fetus have rights or a right to life, fetus have a
right to be carried to term, what kind of right is been use right of
self determination or right to privacy
Question from the perspective of Moral status of fetus
Is it a person, when it become a person, is it consider a separate
being apart from the mother
Is the fetus right to life stronger then the mother right to her
body
The right to life is not an absolute right (Judith Jarvis Thomson
o In some cases abortion is morally permissible
o Having a right to life does not guarantee having either a
right to be given the use of the right use of another body
o Morally permissible where pregnancy cause by rape
o Morally permissible when need to save mother life
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Why killing is wrong? (abortion)(Don marquis)
Human Iife is scared, killing take away someone
personhood
Killing someone deprives them of a future, deprives them
of everything they will experience, a good future one
with happiness, future like ours
Topic 5.4: Virtue Ethics
Is a family of moral theories according to which morally
right actions are explained by the nature of a good life,
and the good character traits (virtues) need to live such a
life
How virtue ethics might be relevant to abortion?
By virtue theory, its morally permissible to have an
abortion whenever a virtuous person choose to do it
Greek philosopher and scientist who lived between 384
BCD (before Christian era) – 322BCE (ARISTOTLE)
Esteemed for his many contributions to philosophy and
ethics, physics, math, biology and politics
Believe that virtues are necessary to have a good life or a
flourishing life
Held that eudaimonia is the exercise of reason
Argue that being about to reason well was the highest
good for human because ability to reason is uniquely
human function – what separates us from other beings
Held that highest human good cannot be attained
without virtues
Held that virtue necessarily require the excellent exercise
of reason: so to be virtuous, need to be able to exercise
excellent reasoning
Virtues involves exercising reason because determining
what is virtuous require us to engage well in the process
of reasoning
Reasoning involves identifying something called the
‘mean’
‘Mean’ is what we find between two extremes of
character – on one end, ‘the excess’ and the other ‘the
deficiency’
Taking a risk = ‘drive’ towards the action of taking a risk
Excess of such a drive would be to be rash
Deficiency of such a drive would be to be cowardly
To be virtuous, you would need to exercise reason, or
practical wisdom to be more specific, and work out the
mean, which is to act neither rashly nor with cowardice,
but courageously
Practical wisdom is the ability to reason well about how
one ought to act in circumstances. Aristotle held that
reasoning consists of two abilities. Practical wisdom and
theoretical wisdom. Latter had to more with theoretical
wisdom like solving math problems
Week 5 part 4
Week 6: Euthanasia (controversial topic)
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Topic 6.1: The Concept of Death
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Aristotle and Abortion
Is the person choosing abortion exercising reason excellently?
Are they assessing the mean between the excess of their drives
or emotions and the deficiency of those drives or emotions
excellently?
Given the circumstances may decide that: being virtuous and
choice is a virtuous one, assessed poorly and are not being
virtuous, circumstances where a virtuous person choose to abort,
virtuous person would never choose abortion under any circum
AL-FARABI (Islamic philosopher born in 870 CE)
Was a greatly admired medieval Islamic philosopher of Turkish or
Persian origins
Greatly influenced by Aristotle and work on his own virtue theory
Agree with Aristotle on importance of the exercise of excellent
reason
Held that the doctrine of the mean was crucial to virtue
Offered a breakdown of practical wisdom in 4 components:
Deliberative virtue or foresight, is ability to work out how to get
what you want to get
Moral virtue, ability to discover what is morally good
Natural virtue, that which enables a person to want a morally
good end
Theoretical virtue, ability to gain knowledge about the world
‘ Sadists take pleasure in the suffering of other people. A sadist
may have excellent deliberative virtue, in that they can find
ingenious ways to make others suffer. But the sadist is not wholly
virtuous.’
‘ I could discover that it is morally good to drive less, fly less, eat
less meat, and so on, because it will help stem climate change.
Even so, I might not actually do these things,
AL Farabi and Abortion
Is the person exercising practical wisdom in decide to terminate
pregnancy?
Given the circumstances, is the person excellently exercising all 4
components of his practical wisdom?
Given the circumstances we may decide that: person is virtuous
in so far as they had excellently exercised their reasons, where a
virtuous person might choose to have an abortion, would never
choose abortion under any circumstances
Why abortion is relevant topic for us to consider in line of ethics
Empirical data collected about abortion
o Rate of abortion declining
o Most married women and not teenagers undergo
abortion
o Stats on the main reasons for abortion
Attempted to bust some myths include those that suggest
abortion compromise healthy and safety
Two most prominent argument for and against abortion
Judith Jarvis Thomson argue for, Don marquis and Objections
argue against
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Relevance of Euthanasia and Abortion
Draw out deepest and strongest ideas about various
aspects of life, understand what we value and why we
value it, lead more meaningful lives, reflect on
intuitions, process the beliefs and attitudes
What is Euthanasia? = happy death or good death
Philosophy Robert Young writes ‘ When a person
performs an act of euthanasia, bring about the death of
another person because she believes the latter’s
present existence is so bad that he would be better off
dead, or believes that unless she intervenes and end his
life, his life will very soon become so bad that he would
be better off dead. Accordingly, motive of the person
who performs an act of euthanasia is benefit the one
whose death is brought about.’
Type of Euthanasia:
Voluntary
o When it is requested by the person who
undergo it
Involuntary
o The person who undergoes it want not to do so
Non-voluntary
o The person who undergoes it is unable o
indicate if he wants it or not
Active and Passive Euthanasia
Acting (active) as opposed to doing nothing at all
(passive)
Active euthanasia = whenever anything is done that
contributes to the person death
Passive euthanasia = nothing at all is done that
contributes to the person death
Example: Human action is the main cause of death as
opposed to injury or disease is the main cause of
death
Active euthanasia = main cause of death is human
action
Passive euthanasia = main cause of death is not only
human action but instead injury or disease
Concept of death
Are your dead when your heartbeat and respiration
irreversibly cease?
Are you dead when your spontaneous heartbeat and
respiration irreversibly cease?
Are you dead if you irreversibly lose consciousness and
your whole brain is dead?
Are you dead if you irreversibly lose consciousness and
your higher brain is dead?
Week 6 part 2
Week 6 part 3
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Topic 6.2: Ethical Concerns
Ethical Considerations
Traditional View
o Passive euthanasia morally permissible and should be
legally permitted, Active is not morally permissible and is
illegal
Radical View
o Weak version: some cases where active euthanasia is
morally permissible
o Strong version: some cases where active euthanasia is
morally obligatory
Main issues for ethics then is whether there is in fact a moral
difference between active and passive euthanasia. It indeed there
is no significant moral difference, then active euthanasia should
not be illegal
Ethical Considerations
Theological reasons = tend to be same approach as the
theological one against suicide
Non-theological reasons = Appealing to moral feelings or
intuitions
Example = If a doctor let a patient die, for humane reasons, he is
in the same moral position as if he had given the patient a lethal
injection for humane reasons. If his decision was wrong-if, for
example, patient’s illness was in fact curable- the decision would
be equally regrettable no matter which method is carried out.
And if the doctor decision was the right one, method used is not
important – Rachels
Are active and passive euthanasia morally different? Arguments
situations in which passive euthanasia is morally permissible, no
morally defensible distinction between passive and active
euthanasia, any situation in which passive euthanasia is
permissible is also one in which active euthanasia is permissible,
active euthanasia is sometimes permissible
Objections to Voluntary Active Euthanasia (VAE)
Supporters of Voluntary euthanasia usually hold that if a person:
o Suffering from a terminal illness
o Unlikely to benefit from the discovery of a cure for that
illness during what remains of her life
o Is as a direct result of the illness either suffering
intolerable pain, or only has available a life that is
unacceptably burdensome
o Has an enduring, voluntary and competent wish to die
o Is unable without assistance to end her life
Then VAE is morally permissible and provisions (both legal and
medical) should be made for this person to die – YOUNG
Objections to Non Voluntary Euthanasia
Euthanasia could be justified (active or passive) for those
incapables to give their consent
o Life is no value to them (eg are in a persistent
unresponsive or comatose state)
o Life is horrible or quite likely to become horrible
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Objections to Involuntary Euthanasia
Euthanasia is done for the good of the person. So if a
person expresses a desire that it not be done, how can
is be done for the good of the person?
Topic 6.3: Ethical Theories
Utilitarianism can be a Problematic Theory ( Race,
Slavery) validity of theory should not be dependent
on the history of its proponents.
Utilitarianism is a consequentialist theory – in a
nutshell, this means that what is moral or not is
decided base on the consequences
Consequentialism is a family of moral theories that ‘
shares the idea that the morality of actions, policies,
motives, or rules depends on their producing the best
actual or expected results’ (SHAFER-LANDAU 2020)
According to utilitarianism: An action is morally
required if it maximises overall well-being. An action
maximises overall well-being when it does more to
improve overall well-being than any other action you
could have done in the circumstances ( SHAFERLANDAU 2020)
Well-being (good and valuable)
Overall well-being is the net well-being of all
individuals affected by an action
Net well-being is the net balance of benefits and losses
to well-being produced by action (Timmons 2020:7)
Everyone’s well-being counts equally:’ the benefit (or
loss) to one person counts just as much as the same
size benefit (or loss) to anyone else affected by one’s
actions’ (Timmons 2013: 114)
What to avoid = Absence of well-being
Example = Jeanette know she will not get any better,
euthanasia could free up the opportunity for another
treatment, and parents no longer need to care for her,
she feel it increases personal autonomy as she has a
sense of control over her own life
Objection to Jeanette case
How can we be sure, in advance of the act, that it
maximise overall well-being
Since:
Overall well-being is the net well-being of all
individuals affected by an action
Net well-being is the net balance of benefits and losses
to well-being produced by an action (Timmons 2020:7)
Everyone’s well-being counts equally
Its hard to say jeanette choice to be euthanized will
maximize overall well-being simply because we cannot
know with certainty
Other objections:
This put undue moral pressure on those who are ill or
vulnerable to end their lives
This creates a slippery slope to involuntary euthanasia
Week 6 Part 4
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Week 6 Part 5
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Euthanasia: Legal in Netherlands. Dutch Regulations suggest:
Carried out by a physician
Be based on a patient’s explicit request
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Patient’s decision must be durable and free
Must have an incurable condition which they find unbearable
Must be no reasonable alternative
Independent physician must agree
Euthanasia and the Hindu ethics
May not be so surprising when we consider that the term ‘
HINDUISM’ itself is not in traditional, pre-colonial Hindu literature.
Prior to the modern period of history, authors
The term itself is not rooted in any Indian language, but likely
derives from the Persian term ‘ SINDHU’, cognate with the Latin
‘INDUS’, used to refer to inhabitants of the Indian subcontinent
(Monier-Williams).
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Its historical usage is thus an umbrella term that identifies many
related religious and philosophical traditions that are not clearly
part of another Indian tradition, such as BUDDHISM and JAINISM.
(Shyam Ranganathan, Hindu Philosophy) all the content above
There is no such things as one Hindu ethics. So let be mindful of this
as we touch VERY briefly on some of these ideas in Hindu
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philosophy
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Four Values
Dharma = the ethical or moral (in action, or in character, often
translate as ‘duty’)
Kama = pleasure
Artha = economic wealth
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Moksa = liberation from rebirth and imperfection. A sort of
salvation
Hindu Philosophy and Euthanasia
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There are three aspects of Hindu philosophy that are considered in
line with euthanasia
Karma = determines the nature of a person next life. Is the net
outcome of the good and bad deeds that a person has done in their
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lifetime. If we accumulate bad karma, we are unlikely to achieve
moksha, which as we said is the liberation from the cycle of death
and rebirth. This liberation from the cycle of death and rebirth. This
liberation is the ultimate aim for Hindus because it means you attain
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eternal freedom – Namita Nimbalkar, The Hindu Perspective
Liberation = being freed from the cycle of reincarnation – being
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reborn means we re-enter into imperfection and suffering. Is an
interesting and controversial one. Some philosophers of these
traditions argue that death is kind of liberation from the material
world
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Ahimsa (non-violence) = Hindu dharma proclaims, ‘ Ahimsa Paramo
Dharma/ or, Ahimsa is the highest form of dharma (virtue). Ahimsa
means non-violence, non-injury or non-killing… We must not be
indifferent to the sufferings of others. One must consider all living
being in the image of one’s own self and thus not commit act of
violence in thought, word or deed against other living.’ Buddhism
hold it is a paramount virtue (Namita Nimbalkar)
Believers in the theory of Karma may argue that
euthanasia is not morally permissible for the following
reasons:
Bring bad karma to people doing it, because of the
violation of the principle of ahimsa. ‘In both Hinduism
and Budhist traditions, all living creatures represent
manifestations of the law of karmic rebirth. To honor
these, laws, one must show great respect for the
preservation of life and non-injury of sentient beings.
Acts destructive of life are morally condemned by the
principle of ahimsa.’ Breaking these laws, as is arguably
the case in Euthanasia, will mean that this person will
have a lesser chance of moksha, as they are likely to be
reincarnated into a life of imperfection, and this is to be
avoided. -Namita Nimbalkar. The Hindu Perspective
Some schools of thought believe that body and soul are
two separate entities. They believe that soul and body
must separated at the right time, at a time that is not
unnatural. Euthanasia, suicide, murder and so on result
in the unnatural, untimely separation of the body and
soul, which can affect moksha and liberation.
Possible Counterargument
Helping to end the life of a person who is suffering, has
autonomously chosen this for themselves, perhaps for
the benefit of other well-being, doctor or person
performing euthanasia is doing a good deed. As such,
doctor will earn good karma for fulfilling a moral duty
Perhaps even the person choosing euthanasia will incur
good karma if their decision was based on promoting
the most well-being for others
These choices arise from compassion. A’ concern for the
welfare of others, [by] one who is dying can be seen as a
sign of spiritual enlightenment.’ – Namita Nimbalkar,
The Hindu Perspective
With reference to the untimely separation of body and
soul, would not apply to prolonging some life artificially?
As this too means body and soul are not separated at
the right time
Believers in the theory of Ahimsa might be against
euthanasia because:
Ahimsa holds that ‘ One must consider all living beings
in the image of one’s own self and thus not commit acts
of violence in thought, word or deed against other living
creatures.’ – Namita Nimbalkar
Even this is complicated though: is it possible for us to
argue that voluntary euthanasia, carried out according
to regulations, with awareness and care, is not in fact
committing violence on another living creature? Or that
allow suffering, and preventing autonomy in cases
where a person is able to made a sound decision, and
therefore voluntary euthanasia, is in adherence with
ahimsa?
Week 7: Equality and Meritocracy – Two opposing Forces?
Week 7 (Part 2)
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Topic 7.1: Equality
Why study equality?
The phenomenon of equality is an important one both in academic
research as well as in practice
In the academic research, equality is studied as a conceptual topic
in many field (eg sociology, public policy, etc)
In the practical scene, equality is often discussed/addressed as a
living outcome to be attained/strengthened by means of
government/public policy (e.g. equality in access to education)
Phenomenon of equality is one that positively shapes the lives of
many individual in many societies, including ours, whichever society
we may associate ourselves with(eg improve equality of access to
better paying jobs in the job market)
What is equality?
‘Equality signifies correspondence between a group of different
objects, persons, processes or circumstances that have the same
qualities in at least one respect, but not all respect, i.e., regarding
one specific feature, with differences in other features’ (Stanford
Encyclopedia of Philosophy)
Based on the Stanford encyclopedia definition of equality, we can
therefore say that it is not conceptually meaningful to talk about
total/complete/full/absolute equality
In everyday life, it is difficult to justify the existence of
total/complete/full/absolute equality as there will be some form of
inequality between individuals/communities/ institutions/
societies
Formal Equality
When two people have equal status in at least one normatively
relevant respect. Must be treated equally with regard respect
Proportional Equality
‘ A way of treather others or a distribution is proportional or
relatively equal when it treats all relevant persons in relation to
their due’
Moral Equality
‘Everyone deserves the same dignity and respect’ ‘This is now the
widely held conception of substantive, universal, moral equality’
Example: Different nationalities are working together, which mean
there’s an equality of access to jobs, which cover formal and
proportional
Different nationalities being able to work in this common workplace
setting demonstrates that these individuals are hired without
discrimination, and this demonstrates moral equality
‘Act in such a way that you treat humanity, whether in your own
person or in the person of any other, never merely as a means, but
always at the same time as an end’ (Immanuel Kant Principle of
Humanity)
‘Treat others as you would like others to treat you’ (Golden Rule)
Three concepts of equality are applicable in real life and they are
aligned with the two moral concepts
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What is equality of opportunity?
Opportunity is defined as ‘chances of getting a good
if one seeks it’ (Arneson, 1989, .85; cited in Ferreira
& Peragine, 2015)
Equality of opportunity can be defined as ‘ equality
of chances of attaining a good if an individual seeks
it’ ( Ferreira & Peragine, 2015)
An equitable (just) society secures for all its members
equal changes to achieve their cared outcomes
(Ferrerira & Peragine, 2015)
Equality of opportunity can be difficult to realize in
real life as individuals have different economic/social
circumstances, which can affect their chances of
social mobility despite heavy intervention
What is equality of outcomes?
Outcome can be understood as living outcome (e.g.
level of income, education, access to healthcare)
Equality of outcomes can be defined as a situation
in which individuals approximately have/experience
the same set of living outcomes
Individuals have different personal goals; why should
they have the same outcomes (Phillips,2004)
According to Ronald Dworkin – the best life being the
life committed to accumulating wealth and
consuming luxuries comes as close as any such
theory to pure absurdity (Phillips,2004)
You are free to take whichever view you may wish on
the concept of equality of opportunity and equality
of outcomes, but bear in mind that the equality of
outcomes is quite a problematic concept
Strength: When equality of opportunity is
successfully practice in a given society, it can
equalize one very important living outcome, which is
access to education
Flaws: when the equal of opportunity is not
practiced effectively in a given society
Further entrench social divisions
Access to good education is not equally spread out
across as many group people from various
backgrounds as possible
Those with financial or social resources can make use
of access to good education to further better their
station in life, education level and employability level
Week 7 Part 3
Week 7 Part 4
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Topic 7.2: Meritocracy
Why study meritocracy?
Meritocracy is a social system that, in various ways to varying
degrees, is practiced in many societies, with one of the ultimate aims
being to advance a particular society’s socio-economic development
o Use of education to facilitate upward social mobility,
namely, the ability to get higher-paying jobs etc.( e.g., China,
Hong Kong, Singapore, Japan, South Korea, etc.)
o Use of job-training schemes (e.g. re-skilling/ up-skilling
courses) to facilitate employability, namely, the ability to
get and remain employed in the job market (e.g. Singapore,
European Union, etc.)
Meritocracy is a system that impacts the lives of many of us in many
societies and can be a vehicle to facilitate positive societal
development
What is Meritocracy?
‘a social system in which advancement in society is based on an
individual’s capabilities and merits rather than on the basis of family,
wealth, or social background’ (Kim & Choi (2016))
In real world situations, it is (almost) practically impossible to ignore
that individuals have different socio-economic circumstances (e.g.
different level of wealth, social connections etc.)
These connections can impact an individual’s access to and
therefore ability to take advantage of opportunities (e.g. educational
employment) to facilitate the individual’s upward social mobility
To discuss meritocracy meaningfully in real world terms, we should
understand it as a social system that rewards individuals
primarily/mainly based on merit rather than non-merit factors (e.g.
family connection)
Meritocracy does not total discount the (potential) impact of nonmerit factors on an individual’s ability to take advantage of
opportunities within a meritocratic environment to further the
individual’s station in life
It purports that meritocracy prioritizes merit as a factor to distribute
rewards to individuals in society
This contrasts with other forms of social system, for instance, an
aristocratic system, rewards individuals (mainly) based on inherited
social lineage, family connections etc.
General definition of merit:’ a quality of achievement which entitles
or gives one the right to a reward’
Platonic Meritocracy
Based on ancient philosopher Plato’s account of an ideal city, The
Republic
Platonic merit: ‘ Those who possess the natural talent and ability
that equip perform certain roles in the polis (city) deserve to be
assigned those roles after receiving proper education
‘ system in which individuals’ position and function within the whole
reflect the differences in their natural abilities, while all other
differences are neutralized and prevented from having an influence
on the social order
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Procedural Meritocracy
Based on law professor Daniel Markovits,’ The
meritocracy trap
Merit:’ individual agents deserve the rewards and
position they are able to earn in competitions that
are free to anyone willing to join’
Meritocracy produces elites in society via
‘transforming education into a rigorous and intense
contest to join the elite’ and ‘ creating a system of
work in which the most demanding jobs are also
the most lucrative (e.g. law finance)’
Differences Platonic Meritocracy (Sonia 2021)
Assume talent/ ability are natural
Morally irrelevant features include the individual
parent background, socio-economic status
Rewards are distributed accordingly to a strict social
hierarchy of roles
Goal here is to pursues the common good of the city
and education ‘ in the ideal city is designed to
perform this function, rather than equip individuals
to make the choices they want in pursuit of their
personal conception of a good life’
Differences Procedural Meritocracy
Assumes that talent/ability are learn and earn
Rewards are distributed ‘ simply the result of free
market competition
In a competitive market economy, all individuals
presumably start with the same scheme of basic
freedoms and all opportunities are open equally for
competition
A system is meritocratic by virtue of its meritocratic
procedures/processes
Visual aid platonic meritocracy external triangle:
police soldiers auxiliaries
Inner triangle bottom producers: farmers artisans
Inner triangle top rulers: guardians
Procedural meritocracy visual aid best job for the
best people (interviews)
Topic 7.3: Equality and Meritocracy
We will look at the conditions under which equality
and meritocracy oppose and complement each
other
Conditions refer broadly to the social, economic and
political situations/events/factors under which
equality and meritocracy can oppose/ complement
one another
We will apply the concepts that we have covered so
far on equality and meritocracy in the case study of
the Singapore tuition (private academy) industry
Week 7 part 5
Week 7 Part 6
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Why Singapore tuition (private academy) industry?
Education has been used as a driver of Singapore’s socioeconomic development for the past several decades, given lack
of natural resources
There is notable trend of pursuit of academic excellence in SG
Key component of this education driver and culture is the tuition
industry of SG
According to Household Expenditure Survey conducted by
Singapore’s Department of Statistics, from October 2017 to
September 2018, Singapore households spent 1.4 billion on
tuition, figure increased from 650 million 15 years ago and 1.1
billion 2012
1000 MOE registered tuition center as of 2020
Minus income of private tutors, total tuition industry revenue 1.5
bi
Look at the socio-economic divide condition to understand
equality and meritocracy can oppose or complement each other
Important to note that the socio-economic divide is not the only
condition that influence the opposing or complementary
relationship between equality and meritocracy
Rather than race or religion, class is potentially SG most divisive
fault line, which is the finding from the survey, raise question
whether SG society underpinned by equality and meritocracy
Equality and Meritocracy (SG tuition industry)
Opposing Conditions
Socio-economic divide is heavily entrenched
No/inadequate community/ public measures to help bridge
divide
No/inadequate financial support scheme/ subsidies to ease
financial access of student from lower socio-economic rung of
the ladder to resources that they need to enhance their skill set
to attain socio-educational mobility
No/inadequate outreach campaigns to inform the above
students of the existence of programs/ policies that can enable
them to enhance their skill sets
The socio-economic divide (inequality) can remain or even
worsen (meritocracy hinders equality)
Complementing Conditions
Socio economic divide is considerably addressed
Adequate community/public measures to help bridge the divide
Adequate financial support scheme/ subsidies to ease financial
access of student from lower socio-economic rung of the ladder
to resources that they need to enhance their skill set to attain
socio-educational mobility
Adequate outreach campaigns to inform the above students of
the existence of programs/ policies that can enable them to
enhance their skill sets
The socio-economic divide (inequality) can narrow or even
continue (meritocracy complement equality)
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Examples of other conditions, which can influence the
opposing or complementing relationship between
equality and meritocracy
In presence of a fair political system/government that
provides opportunities for individual regardless of their
backgrounds to maximize educational opportunities,
meritocracy can complement equality and drive socioeconomic development
Presence of an inequitable or less than equitable
political system/ government that does not provide fair
and adequate opportunities to individuals regardless of
their backgrounds to maximise their educational/
employment opportunities, meritocracy can hinder
equality and stifle socio-economic development
Practical world, amyriad of conditions can, at varying
degrees, influence the opposing or complementary
relationship of equality and meritocracy
Topic 7.4: Conclusion
Type of conditions and degree to which these
conditions influence the opposing or complementary
relationship of equality and meritocracy varies
according to the society in question
Whether these equality and meritocracy are opposing ,
or complementary force depends on the following:
Our definition of equality
Our definition of merit
Our definition of meritocracy
Society in question – existing political, economic and
social conditions that are distinct to this society
Week 08: Multiculturalism – More of a Boon or More
of a Bane? Part 1
Topic 8.1: Multiculturalism
Why study multiculturalism?
Many societies in the world today are ethnically and
culturally diverse and the reasons for this trend are
varied, arguably, for instance due to globalization
‘ globalization may be defined as the increasing
interaction among, and integration of, the activities,
especially economic activities, of human societies
around the word’ (MUSSA 2003)
may argue that globalization is one of the key drivers of
multiculturalism around the world
Most, if not all of us, whichever society we may be
affiliated with, are shaped by globalization , for
example, in our work, education, etc
Therefore, we will need to further enhance our
multicultural competencies in terms of, for example.
Communicating and interacting with various culture
Week 8 Part 2
Week 8 part 3
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Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy define
multiculturalism
‘is an ideal in which members of minority groups can
maintain their distinctive collective identities and practices.
In the case of immigrants, proponents emphasize that
multiculturalism is to compatible with, not opposed to, the
integration of immigrants into society, multiculturalism
policies provide fairer terms of integration for immigrants’
Important caveat to multiculturalism is that the definition of
multiculturalism does not assume that it, at least practically,
is free from tensions/ challenges/ difficulties
Misunderstands/miscommunication among different
cultures can arise and potentially escalate to tensions
among them
Example, a lack of understanding of the respective cultural
norms in business etiquette in a situation involving a
business deal/ discussion between parties from difference
culture may stile or even bring the business deal to a halt
Critiques of Multiculturalism
Cosmopolitan View of Culture
Culture are not distinct self-contained wholes. They have
long interacted and influenced one another through war,
imperialism, trade and migration
Preserving or protecting a culture runs the risk of privileging
one allegedly pure version of that culture, thereby crippling
its ability to adapt to change
Jeremy Waldron ‘ rejects the premise that the options
available to an individual must come from a particular
culture; meaningful options may come from a variety of
cultural sources. What people need are cultural materials,
not access to a particular cultural structure
Multiculturalism counter response ‘ cultures are
overlapping and interactive, but they maintain that
individuals belong to separate societal cultures’
Universalist ideal of equality
Brian Barry: ‘ religious and cultural minorities should be
held responsible for bearing the consequences of their own
beliefs and practices and the special accommodations are
owed to people with disabilities, but he believes religious
and cultural affiliations are difference from physical
disabilities: the former does not constrain people in the way
that physical disabilities do.’
Multiculturalism counter response ‘ many case where a law
or policy disparately impacts a religious or cultural practiceconstitute injustice.’
Postcolonial critique
‘ Some postcolonial theorists are critical of multiculturalism
and the contemporary politics of recognition for reinforcing,
rather than transforming structures, of colonial domination
in relations between settler sates and indigenous
communities.’
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Multiculturalism is an important and crucial ideal to pursue,
retain and strengthen
Through multiculturalism, different cultures/ ethnicities can
have more opportunities to interact and communicate
This can better enable the different cultures/ ethnicities to
understand each other cultural norms/ customs/beliefs etc.
in many social situations, including the workplace
With a social environment that encourages mutual
interaction, understandings, etc. between the different
cultures/ ethnicities, more diverse perspectives on
approaching/ making sense of common issues/ difficulties
confronting these cultures/ ethnicities, can be raised in the
workplace and wider society
Further encourage creative/ innovative solutions to
addressing the common issues/ difficulties and can create a
more vibrant/ innovative society and economy as a whole
Topic 8.2: Multiculturalism from the perspective of Moral
Theories
Principle of Humanity (Shaffer-Landau, 2020)
Always treat a human being (yourself included) as an end,
and never as a mere means
Humanity: ‘ all rational and autonomous beings, no matter
their species’
As an end: giving the individual the due respect
As a means: treating the individual as a means to your end
On it, multiculturalism implies respect for all cultures/
ethnicities and this in turn aligns with the ideal of treating
individuals as end
Golden Rule (Gensler, 2013)
‘Treat others as you would like others to treat you’
It implies treating other cultures/ ethnicities and by
extension, individuals as how one wants to be treated (i.e.
with respect, understanding kindness, etc.)
Utilitarianism (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (2021))
Posits that the morally right action brings about the greatest
good for the greatest number of people
Impartiality:’ Everyone happiness counts the same. When
one maximizes the good, it is the good impartially
considered. My good counts for no more than anyone else’s
good.’
Agent-neutrality: ‘ The reason I have to promote the overall
good is the same reason anyone else has to so promote the
good. It is is not peculiar to me.’
If we define utility/ good as respect for/ advancement of
cultural diversity in societies, then we can argue that
multiculturalism’s call for integrating difference cultures/
ethnicities in societies would help maximise the greatest
utility/ good as defined for the greatest number of
communities
Week 8 part 4
Week 8 part 5
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Topic 8.3: Case study of the Global Workforce
Recent report 2020 on workplace diversity by OECD
(Organisation for economic co-operation and development)
In an international organization that works to build better
policies for better lives, goal is to shape policies that foster
prosperity, equality, opportunity and well-being for all. We
draw on 60 years of experience and insights to better prepare
the world of tomorrow. Together with governments, policy
makers and citizens, we work one establishing evidencebased international standards and finding solutions to a range
of social, economic and environmental challenges
OECD society and workforce can become increasing diverse
over the past decade; women’s participation in the labor
market has increased significantly
An example, participation rate rose from 61% in 2000 to 69%
in 2018
Number of immigrants and people from ethnic minorities have
increased virtually
1/10 living in OECD countries are foreign born
Workplace diversity report by OECD (2020)
Discrimination, entrenched social norms, for specific group like
migrants, lack of networks and accessibility issue for PWDs,
result in substantial labour market and wage gaps – even in
the public sector- and are a threat to social cohesion
There is a sizeable societal and economic cost associated with
the under utilization of talent due to discrimination and noninclusion. Many businesses can benefit from having a more
diverse workforce. Public policy corporate governance both
have economic as well as ethical reasons to promote equal
opportunities
‘ World Economic Forum is the international organization for
public-private cooperation. Forum engages the foremost
political, business, cultural and other leaders of society to
shape global, regional, and industry agendas. It was
established din 1971 a not-for-profit foundation and is
headquartered in Geneva, Switzerland. It is independent,
impartial and not tied to any special interest.’
Workplace diversity by the WEF (2019
‘ usiness has transformative power to change and contribute
to a more open, diverse and inclusive society, we can only
accomplish this by starting from within our organisations.
Many of us know intuitively that diversity is good for business.
The case for establishing a truly diverse workforce, at all
organizational levels, grows more compelling each year. Moral
argument is weighty enough, but the financial impact – as
proven by multiple studies – make this a no-brainer,’
The coming together of people of different ethnicities with
different experiences in cities and societies is a key drive of
innovation. Food we eat everyday is a result of blending of
cultures. Musical genres are the product of cultural
amalgamation
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Multiculturalism, boon or bane?
More of a Boon (advantage)
In turns helps to drive creativity and innovation at the
workplace
Creates the social space for employees to voice diverse
perspectives on ways/ approaches to address as well as
solve common challenges
Creates and encourages a professional environment based
on mutual respect and understanding various applicable
cultural norms in the workplace
More of a Bane (Disadvantage)
With different cultural norms existing alongside each
other in a global workplace, misunderstandings over
common issues can arise
Examples include, but not limited to, business etiquette,
workplace communication, etc
In the worst-case scenario, these misunderstandings can
escalate to tensions/ conflicts and can hinder workplace
productivity, innovation, etc.
2017 boston consulting group survey found ‘ a strong and
statistically significant correlation between the diversity of
management teams and overall innovation’ (Lorenzo,
Voigt, Tsusaka, Krentz & Abouzahr, 2018) below average
diversity scores lesser innovation revenue
Topic 8.4: Conclusion
Advantages/ strengths of multiculturalism outweigh its
weaknesses and this stems mainly from that the fact that
multiculturalism has the potential to encourage and drive
workplace productivity, creativity and innovation
Has the potential to ultimately foster greater intercultural/ethnic understanding and respect, and in turn,
better enable use to build kinder, more emphatic, and
more tolerant societies
there is no straightforward answer to this topic, require us
to consider the following factors:
specific socio-cultural context in question ( e.g. particular
society, workplace)
specific issue/question at hand (e.g. work issue/ societal
issue)
interests/ considerations of the parties involved
(stakeholders’ interests)
Week 9 : Political Systems Types, Features, Moral
Justifications, Problematics (part 1)
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Outline = Introduction , Features, System and Ideology,
Problem of Best and Worst political System
Political Systems Categories are Fluid and Changeable
US = Liberal Democracy + illiberal Democracy
SG = Limited Democracy + Liberal Democracy
Topic 1: Features of Political Systems
General feature of democracies
Liberal Democracy
Political Freedoms: Unlimited
Free and Fair Elections: Yes
Focus of Political System: Individualism
Political Participation: Allowed with No Restrictions
Dissent and Resistance: Allowed with Restriction only of
use of violence
Example: US
Limited Democracy
Political Freedoms: Limited
Free and Fair Elections: Somewhat- Some restrictions on
who can run for office
Civil Liberties: Yes, but Somewhat limited for all
Focus of Political System: Collectivist
Political Participation: Allowed with No restrictions
Dissent and Resistance: Dissent Restricted, Resistance
Generally Not Allowed
Example: Singapore
Illiberal Democracy
Political Freedoms: Unlimited for some ethic/racial grp only
Free and Fair Elections: Yes, but for some ethnic and racial
grp
Civil Liberties: Yes, Unlimited for Some
Focus of Political System: Maintaining Status of Privileged
grp
Political Participation: Allowed with No Restrictions for
some
Dissent and Resistance: Allowed for some only
Example: Present-Day Israel
Week 9 part 2:
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Authoritarian Regimes: consist of 2 regimes
Military Regimes
Political freedoms: very restricted
Free and fair elections: No. predetermined outcomes
Civil Liberties: Restricted
Focus of political System: Order at all costs
Political Participation: Limited and as approved by Military reg
Dissent and resistance: Not allowed
Example: Pakistan ( during military regimes)
Authoritarian Monarchies
Political Freedoms: Very restricted
Free and Fair elections: No
Civil Liberties: Not allowed
Focus of political System: Order
Political Participation: Not allowed
Dissent and Resistance: Not allowed
Example: Present-Day Saudi Arabia
Totalitarian Regimes
Far-left / Far-right
Political Freedoms: Not allowed
Free and Fair elections: Not allowed
Civil Liberties: Not allowed
Focus of Political System: Control all aspect of people lives
Political Participation: Absolutely not allowed
Dissent and resistance: Absolutely not allowed
Example: Nazi Germany, Khmer Rouge Cambodia
Moral justifications of political systems
Freedom
Liberal Democracy – Rule of the People
Order
Authoritarian Military Regimes – Putting House in Order
Morality
Illiberal Democracy – Defending Rightful Citizens
Duty
Authoritarian Monarchal Regimes – Hereditary Privilege as
duty
Freedom as Order
Limited Democracy – Limited freedom in interest of order
Obedience as morality
Totalitarian Regimes – Far-right – Fascist/ Far left –
communist – Obedience as loyalty, loyalty as morality –
Morality as Duty
Totalitarian Regimes and Theocratic Regimes – Religious Rule
as Morality and Duty –
Topic 2: Political Systems and Ideologies
What are ideologies
What is the purpose of ideologies
What are the problematics of ideologies
Week 9 Part 3
Week 9 Part 4
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Structure of Ideologies
Seek to create:
Sense of identity – ideologies create identity, creating an
us versus them attitude
Societal roles – determine our roles in society/ what we
are supposed to do or not to do
Sense of goals – determine the goals for a society
Norms and values – create norms and values for society/
determine what is good and bad for us
Claims of Truth – All ideologies present their claim as The
Truth and as The Best Belief System
Group Relations – determine who are friends are, and
who our enemies ought to be
Problematics of Ideologies:
Tend to create or justify hostility towards others, the
‘outsiders’ by encouraging an us versus them mentality
Political Systems and Ideologies: Compatibilities
Democratic = Liberalism, Conservatism, Nationalism,
Socialism
Authoritarian = Conservatism, Socialism, Nationalism
Totalitarian = Fascism, Communism, Nazism
Type of Ideologies:
Liberalism = Favoring individualism, social/ political
diversity, least government control
Conservatism = favoring traditional values, status quo, low
social diversity
Nationalism = focus on nation and pride for nation –
concept of nation can supersede national boundaries,
examples: racial, ethnic, linguistic group as nations
Fascism = Ultra-Nationalistic Ideology of Racial
Supremacy, Target Minority group, No political Dissent
allowed
Nazism = extreme form of fascism, advocating racial
supremacy and elimination of racial minorities
Socialism = economic equality of citizens and sharing of all
economic resources equally
Communism = government ownership of all economic
resources
Example of Moral Justifications of Political Systems:
Totalitarian Regimes (Communist) = Khmer Rouge
Cambodia 1975-1979 Present day North Korea
Authoritarian Regimes (Socialist) = Present Day China
Liberal Democracy (Liberal) = Present Day US
Illiberal Democracies (Conservative) = Present Day Israel
Totalitarian Regimes (Fascist/Nazi) = Nazi Germany (33-45)
Democratic Socialism (Socialist) = Present Day Western EU
Limited Democracy (Conservative) = Present-Day
Singapore
Authoritarian Regimes (Conservative) = Military Regimes
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Do Far-left Far-Right Totalitarian Regimes similar feature?
Far-right (Nazi Germany) 1933-1945)
Blood and soil ultranationalist narrative = yes
Elimination and torture of political opposition = yes
Death camps and burning books = yes
Genocide: Targeting specific ethnic/racial/religious grp = yes
Groups targeted = jews, gypsies, handicap and mentally ill
persons, dissenters, intellectuals
Political system and Political Ideology = Totalitarian Nazi
Ideology
Justification: Obedience – as-Morality = yes
Religious Affiliation = Protestant Christian
Country that supported the Regime = Fascist Italy, Imperial jp
Expansion Beyond Borders = yes
Number murdered = Approx 6 million
Khmer Rouge, Cambodia (Far-left)(1975-1979)
Blood and soil ultranationalist narrative = yes
Elimination and torture of political opposition = yes
Death camps and burning books = yes
Genocide: Targeting specific ethnic/racial/religious grp = yes
Groups targeted = Ethnic Vietnamese, Ethic Chinese, cham
Muslims, Buddhist and Christian groups, intellectuals
Political system and Political Ideology = Totalitarian
Communist Ideology
Justification: Obedience – as-Morality = yes
Religious Affiliation = Atheist
Country that supported the Regime = Communist China
Expansion Beyond Borders = Desired but not achieved
Number murdered = 1.5mill – 3mill
Topic 3: Problematics of the ‘Best’ and ‘Worst’ Political
Systems
Tyranny of the Majority < liberal democracy goes to
Liberal democracy > rule of the majority ‘we the people’ >
suppression of minority views > minority fear of ostracization
> minority tendency to conform > tyranny of the majority
Democratic Despotism < liberal democracy goes to
Liberal democracy > Too much emphasis on individualism >
negation of civic duties and responsibilities > individualism in
contradiction to civic duty > bullying of others in the name of
liberty > chaos/ violence/ riots in the name of liberty/
individual freedoms > democratic despotism
Dangers of totalitarian regimes (Newspeak/Doublespeak/Thought crime)
‘Ignorance is strength freedom is slavery war is peace’ (George
orwell)
Paradoxical logic > deceiving citizens > controlling citizens
Paradoxical logic > controlling citizens
Week 9 Part 5
Week 10 Free speech (Part 1)
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Newspeak = Fictional Language Used in’ Oceania’ in the
Novel 1984
Double-speak = Tactic used by politicians in real-life
Both share same meaning which is :
Use euphemisms to hide the real meaning of things
Using words that have contradictory meaning to deceive
and control people
Example = (Orwell said at week 9 part 4), Nazi Germany
framing of extermination of jews as duty and morality
Thought Crime = category of crime in the fictional novel
1984
In Real-life, ‘thought crime’ is a central feature of
totalitarian regimes
Meaning = making dissenting ideas illegal, framing ideas of
resistance as illegal, encouraging conformity
Toxic mix of ideology and Terror
Ideology + terror = perpetuation of totalitarianism
Ideology > claims of truth > acceptance of terror as
justifiable punishment > acceptance of conformity >
perpetuation of totalitarianism
Terror > acceptance of terror as justifiable punishment >
acceptance of conformity > perpetuation of totalitarianism
Summary
Difference between liberal democracy and limited is the
degree of freedoms
Difference between liberal and illiberal is while in liberal
freedom is available to all, illiberal, freedom is only
available to some racial/ethnic/religious group
Tyranny of the majority is a concept that explains how
majority can dominate the numerical minority by voicing
their view more loudly thereby bullying the minority to
conform in liberal democracies
Difference between authoritarian and totalitarian regimes
is the level of control by the government. Similarity both
are oppressive political system
Democratic despotism is concept that too much focus on
individualism in liberal democracies can lead to negation of
civic duty and lead to violence and chaos
Certain political ideologies are compatible with certain
political systems. Though expectations can exist
All totalitarian regimes use some element of double speak
to deceive and all resort to the notion of thought crime to
intimate people into obedience and conformity
Use of ideology always combined with the use of terror in
totalitarian regimes, and it is always the combination
sustains a totalitarian regime
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Topic 1: Meaning of Speech
Speech = Expression of belief – Freedom of speech is
freedom of expression
Types:
Verbal = What said or written ( Hate speech, Anti-hate
speech, feminist speech, LBGTQ speech, published books,
published articles)
Symbolic = Speech without words = T-shirts with political
messages, Flying flags/ burning flags, Special handshakes/
salutes, Uniforms/ Banners
Associations = Speech through Associations = Religious
Associations, Conservative, Libera, Radical, Nationalistic,
Ethnic/Racial, Communities
Autonomy = Speech as Independent Action = Riots,
Resistance Movements, Peaceful Assembly, Vigilante Action,
Pornography (Exclude Chill Pornography)
Importance of Free Speech = Equality (Among Citizen),
Autonomy (Self-Determination), Political Freedom (For All
citizens), Promoting Truth (Through Free exchange of Ideas)
Reasons of Equality, political freedom, autonomy, and
promoting truth are also the reasons why undemocratic
states, especially totalitarian states, prohibit free speech
All democracies – liberal democracies (Like the US and
Western Europe ) or limited democracies (like Singapore)
allow some element of free speech
Consider the Following Quotes:
Nothing strengthens hate groups more than ceonsoring
them, as it turn them into free speech martyrs, feed their
sense of grievance and forces them to seek out more
destructive means of activism
Conversely, as the aftermath of Charlottesville has proved,
nothing exposes the evil of such groups, thus weakens them,
like letting them show their true nature’ (Glenn Greenwald)
In American society today, real power commanded by the
racist is likely to vary inversely with vulgar, with it expressed.
Those who advocate hate speech laws invite us to spend
more time worrying about speech codes than coded speech.
(Harvard university professor, henry louis gates. Jr)
Broader questions to Ponder = given logic of free speech
should it be regulated, if the rationale for free speech is to
achieve truth, should the speech of anti-vaxxers be
outlawed? (Stanford Encyclopedia of philosophy)
Topic 2: Universal Regulations of Free Speech
Circumstances when free speech is regulated (even in liberal
democratic states):
True Threat = Expressions of intent to harm against a specific
individual or group
Example: Actual words or symbols, Hate group
Fighting Words = Provocative statements to get someone to
fight with you
Examples = hurtful racist remarks, Neo-Nazis marches
Week 10 part 2
Week 10 part 3
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Harassment = Verbal or symbolic expressions of hate or insult
that alters the targeted individual’s way of life
Example: Workplace sexual harassment
Bias Crimes = Verbal or symbolic speech that incites violence
due to a bias against an individual or group
Example: Anti- LBGTQ bias, Anti-Women Bias, Antihandicapped person bias
Punishment incitements = Inciting someone else to use
violence against a specific individual or group, can be verbal
or symbolic
Examples = Leader of terrorist group/ movement, leader of
hate group/ movements
Facilitating Criminal Conduct = Providing Information or
logistics to someone to facilitate their hate crime
Examples = Collaborating with hate groups
Regular German citizens who collaborated with the Nazi
regime by reporting on the whereabouts of jews
Universal Regulation of Speech = How do determine harm
from hate speech, meaning of harm, how do deal with hurt
caused by hate speech
Harm principle
Basic = a measure to determine the extent of harm done to
the victim by unregulated speech, establishes whether harm
can be litigated (take legal action against)
‘Harms’ means direct violation of an individual rights due to
hate speech = Bodily harm done to the victim, loss of job as a
result of hate speech (harassment), inability to secure job as
a result of discrimination and hate speech, victim forced to
change their lifestyle due to fear of being targeted (bias
crime), Death – either murder or suicide
Harm principle does NOT concern itself with the following =
does not concern itself with morality or immorality of free
speech (especially in terms of pornography)
Offence Principles
Basic = relevant when hate speech does not qualify for harm
principle, intended to censure (publicly disapprove) hate
speech
What is offence principle good for = best for cases of
psychological or emotional harm, as these cannot be proved
well enough to qualify for harm principle, as such, offence
principle can be applied to case of pornography as here, too,
actual harm is hard to established, several feminists have
used the offence principle to censure pornography
Offence principle and neo-nazi march = Jewish community in
Skokie, Illinois, was not successful in prosecuting the NeoNazis for marching through their neighborhood as it was
deemed that actual harm not be established since the neoNazis did not resort to any violence, however jewish
community was able to establish offence caused by neo-nazi
march, and were therefore successful in shaming the neonazis publicly
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Hate speech and violence from hate speech (2 category)
Harm
o Physical
▪ Death
• Murder
• Suicide
▪ Hospitalization
o Personal
▪ Loss of Job/ Inability to secure a job
▪ Forced to change lifestyles
Offense
o Psychological Harm
▪ Feelings of Insult
▪ Alienation
o Emotional Harm
▪ Anger
▪ Sense of Injustice
Universal Regulations of speech
Speech
o Expressions of belief (Freedom of speech is
freedom of expressions)
▪ Unclear if qualifies for harm principle
• Verbal
• Symbolic
▪ Qualifies for harm principle
• Associations
• Autonomy
Topic 10.3: Dangers of Unregulated Free Speech
Paradox of Tolerance
Democracy > Unlimited Tolerance Unregulated Free
Speech > Proliferation of Hate groups > Intolerance of
Differences
Paradox > Tolerance leads to Intolerance
Important Note:
Paradox of Tolerance reflects Plato fear of democracies
Paradox of Tolerance is an idea forward by Karl Popper
Present-day liberal democracies DO regulate free speech,
but regulations have higher thresholds
There is no such thing as completely free speech, even in
liberal democracies – Stanley Fish, Stanford Encyclopedia
of Philosophy
Topic 10.4: Summary
‘Speech means more than just what’s said’ – speech also
includes symbols such as shirts we wear or flags we fly,
associations we join these are indirect way for us to speak
through our association with group of movement, speech
include act of autonomy
All state impose regulation on free speech (include liberal
democracies) only difference is in the threshold of
limitations
Week 10 part 4
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6 major universal criteria for regulating free speech .
True threats
Punishable
Incitements
Fighting words
Harassment
Facilitating criminal conduct
Bias crime
Harm principle is the criteria to determine whether hate speech has caused harm and if it can be
litigated. (US has higher threshold for harm principle then SG)
Offense principle was created, we learned, to censure publiciy disapprove hate speech, and this is
applied when hate speech doesn’t qualify for harm principle and cannot be litigated
2 main dangers of unregulated free speech, paradox of tolerance and process of violence