Industrial Psychology
#BLEPP2023
Sources: Aamodt (2016), Levy (2017), Howes & Muchinsky (2019), Riggio (2013), McShane & Glinow (2018), Dessler
(2017), Cummings & Worley (2009), Mondy & Martocchio (2016)
Organizational Theory (20)
o Scalar Principle – deals with the organization’s
Organizational Theories, Models, and Concepts
vertical growth and refers to the chain of command
Organizational Theory
that grows with levels added to the organization
o Organization – collectivities of parts that cannot
▪ Each subordinate should be accountable to only
accomplish their goals effectively if they operated
one superior (unity of command)
separately
o Line/Staff Principle
▪ a tool people use to coordinate their actions to
Line Functions: have primary responsibilities for
obtain something they desire or value to achieve
meeting the major goals of the organization, like the
a goal
production department
▪ org creates value, or else the “die”
Staff Function: support the line’s activities but are
▪ How do org create value? Environment
regarded as subsidiary in overall importance to line
(Customers, Suppliers) > Input (Raw Materials,
functions
IT, HR) > Process (Machines, Computers,
o Span-Of-Control Principle – refers to the number
KSAOs) > Output (Products, Services)
of subordinates a manager is responsible for
o Organizational Theory – set of propositions that
supervising
explains or predicts how group and individuals
▪ Large Span-of-Control produce flat
behave in varying organizational structures and
organizations, whilst, smaller Span-of-Control
circumstances
produce taller organizations
Classical Theory/Classical Organizational Theory
A. Scientific Management by Frederick Taylor
o Classical Organizational Theory – organizations
▪ The organization is a machine, a pragmatic
exists for economic reasons and to accomplish
machine whose focus is to simply run more
productivity goals
effectively
o The basic ingredient of any organization and then
▪ Taylor believed that scientific principles could
addresses how organizations should best structured
be applied to the study of work behavior to help
to accomplish its objectives
increase worker efficiency and productivity
✓ System of differentiated activities – activities
▪ Based on the concept of planning of work to
that are linked to each other
achieve efficiency, standardization,
✓ People – perform tasks and exercise authority
specialization, and simplification
✓ Cooperation toward a goal – unity of purpose in
▪ The advantages of productivity improvement
pursuit of their common goals
should go to workers
✓ Authority – ensures cooperation among people
▪ Physical stress and anxiety should be eliminated
pursuing their goals
▪ Capabilities of workers should be developed
o There is a “right” structure for an organization
through training
o Assumes there is one best configuration to
▪ Traditional boss concept should be elimated
accomplish goals
▪ Mainly associated with high levels of job
o Scientific Analysis will identify the one best way to
specialization and standardization
organize for production
▪ conducted time and motion studies and analyzed
o Deal with the formal organization and concepts to
temperature, illumination, and other conditions
increase management efficiency
of work, all while looking at the effects of these
o Both people and organizations act in accordance
conditions on productivity and efficiency
with rational economic principles
▪ Taylorism: has a premise that there is one best
o To be successful in this new economy, industrial
way to get the job done
and mechanical engineers are needed to organize
▪ Management gathers data from the workers, who
production systems to keep the machines busy and
are in the best position to understand the job
work flowing
duties and tasks
o Functional Principle – concept behind division of
▪ Workers are selected carefully or scientifically
labor, that is, organizations should be divided into
and trained so that they become more efficient
units that perform similar functions into areas of
than ever
specialization
▪ Scientific selection, data collection, and training
are combined to enhance efficiency
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Industrial Psychology
#BLEPP2023
Sources: Aamodt (2016), Levy (2017), Howes & Muchinsky (2019), Riggio (2013), McShane & Glinow (2018), Dessler
(2017), Cummings & Worley (2009), Mondy & Martocchio (2016)
▪ The work itself is redistributed, with
C. Administrative Management by Henri Fayol
management taking over tasks previously left to
▪ Aims to improve organizational productivity by
subordinated
focusing on methods that managers can use to
▪ The most effective companies have detailed
synchronize internal processes
procedures and work practices developed by
▪ Managerial practices are the key to driving
engineers, enforced by supervisors, and executed
efficiency in organizations
by employees
▪ Seeks to heighten managerial performance
▪ Taylor, along with Frank and Lillian Gilbreth
instead on individual worker efficiency
implemented the principles of scientific
▪ Proposed the creation of work groups and
management
functional departments wherein distinct
▪ Worker efficiency would lead to greater
activities are performed which contribute to the
managerial efficiency
accomplishment of greater tasks
B. Bureaucracy by Max Weber
▪ Five functions of Managers: Planning,
▪ Described the structure, organization, and
Organizing, Commanding, Coordinating, and
operation of many efficient organization
Controlling
▪ ideal form of organization
Structural Theory
▪ includes formal hierarchy, division of labor, and
o Harry Mintzberg proposed how organizations
a clear set of operating procedures
evolve to reach a certain form and shape (structure)
▪ Well-defined authority hierarchy with strict rules
which permits the organization to function in its
for governing behavior, with few members with
surroundings
highest status on the top
o The structure of an organization is an adaptive
▪ Increase productivity by reducing inefficiencies
mechanism that permits the organization to function
in organizational operations
in its surroundings
Characteristics of a Bureaucratic Organization
Seven Basic Parts of an Organization
Specialization of labor
Operating Core – responsible for conducting basic
work duties that give the organization its defining
Well-defined Authority Hierarchy
purpose; transform raw goods into a sellable products
Formal Rules and Procedures
Strategic Apex – responsible for the overall success
Impersonality – behavior is based on logical reasoning
of the entire organization; associated with executive
rather than emotional thinking
leadership
Employment decisions based on merit
Middle Line – ensures that overall goals set by
Emphasis on written records
strategic apex are being carried out by the operating
▪ Division of Labor: each job is a specialized
core
position with its own set of responsibilities and
Technostructure – possess specific technical
duties; division of tasks performed in an
expertise that facilitates overall operation of the
organization
organization; accounting, HR, IT, law departments
▪ One potential difficulty involves the
Support Staff – aid the basic mission of the
coordination of various tasks handled by various
organization and typically includes the mailroom,
employees
security, and janitorial services
▪ Tend to be top-down pyramidal organization
Ideology – belief system that compels commitment to
▪ Delegation of Authority: approach whereby
a particular value; organizations should have
supervisors assign particular tasks to separate
singularly devoted to a particular mission, and all its
employees and hold them responsible for
actions are in pursuit if that mission; employees
completing these tasks (Micromanagers);
behave in accordance with their sincere conviction in
information about which lower-level employees
the ideology of the organization, and can perform their
report to higher-level employees
work relatively independent of each other
▪ Structure: formal way an org is designed in
terms of division of labor, delegation of
Politics – side effect of ideology, causes divisiveness
authority, and span of control
and conflict; the basis is the use of power that is
▪ Characterized by Span of Control (number of
neither formally authorized or widely accepted in the
subordinates who report to a given supervisor
organization
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Industrial Psychology
#BLEPP2023
Sources: Aamodt (2016), Levy (2017), Howes & Muchinsky (2019), Riggio (2013), McShane & Glinow (2018), Dessler
(2017), Cummings & Worley (2009), Mondy & Martocchio (2016)
Neoclassical Theory
o Growth was a natural and health experience for an
o Neoclassical Theory – recognizes the importance
individual
of individual or group behavior and emphasized
o Organizations that acknowledged and aided this
human relations
growth would be more likely to prosper than those
o also known as Behavioral Theory of Organization,
that are ignored or actively inhibited this growth
Human Relations, or New Classical Theory of
o Passive to active organisms
Management
Humanistic Theory
o Based on Elton Mayo, Chester Barnard, and Herbert
o Humanistic Theory – organizational success in
Simon’s Theories
terms of employee motivation and the interpersonal
o Adds a personal or human element to the study of
relationships that emerge within the organization
organization, considering the interrelationship
▪ Theory X and Theory Y (McGregor) –
between an organization’s requirements and the
managers’ beliefs and assumptions about their
characteristics of its members
employees determine how they behave towards
o Productivity was achieved as a result of high
those employees
morale, which was influenced by the amount of
▪ Self-Fulfilling Prophecy – employees, over
individual, personal, and intimate attention workers
time, learn to act and believe in ways consistent
received
with how managers think they act and believe
o Introduced informal organization and emphasized
Theory X
the: individual, work group, and participative
- employees are viewed to be lazy, selfish,
management
uninterested in work, lack in ambition, and not very
1. Elton Mayo’s Hawthorne Experiment
intelligent
▪ Conducted in Western Electric Company
- managers control and direct employees in order to
Hawthorne, Chicago
make outputs
▪ Study if the workers would be more productive
- employees is passive and unresponsive to
depending on the levels of illumination in the
organization needs
factory
- most prevalent set of beliefs about employees from
▪ Increased productivity when lighting conditions
the birth of industry
improved
- lack of focus would lead to apathy and resistance
▪ Workers motivation increased due to interest
Theory Y
shown by the company in them and their well- much more humanistic and developmental
being
orientation, emphasizing not only the inherent
2. Chester Barnard’s Comprehensive Theory of
goodness, capacity, and potential of employees but
Behavior in Formal Organizations
also their readiness to develop those inherent
▪ People in executive roles must foster a sense of
characteristics
purpose, moral codes, ethical visions, and create
- emphasizes management’s responsibility for
formal and informal communication systems
nurturing those qualities and providing employees
▪ People should cooperate, thus making no place
with opportunities to develop their inherently positive
for conflicts among workers
characteristics in the workplace
3. Herbert Simon’s Application of Classical Theories
- without unduly constraining organizational or
to current situations of his time
managerial controls
▪ Contradicted Henri Fayol’s Administrative
o Motivation – the internal force that drives a worker
Management
to action as well as the external factors that
o Human Relations Movement – social and
encourage that action
psychological factors are important in determining
▪ Ability and skill determines whether the worker
worker productivity and satisfaction
can do the job, but motivation determines
▪ Efficient leaders are employee-centric,
whether a worker can do it properly
democratic, and follow a participative style
Three Individual differences traits that are most
o Behavioral Movement – proposes ideas how
related to work motivation
managers should behave to motivate the employees
1. Self-Esteem – the extent to which a person views
4. McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y
himself as valuable and worthy
5. Argyris’ Growth Perspective
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Industrial Psychology
#BLEPP2023
Sources: Aamodt (2016), Levy (2017), Howes & Muchinsky (2019), Riggio (2013), McShane & Glinow (2018), Dessler
(2017), Cummings & Worley (2009), Mondy & Martocchio (2016)
- Employees high in self-esteem are more motivated
satisfied when jobs involve little challenge and have a
and will perform better than employees low in selfhigh probability of success
esteem
- Employees who have a strong need for affiliation are
- Consistency Theory: employees who feel good about
motivated by jobs in which they can work with and
themselves are motivated to perform better at work
help other people
than employees who do not feel that they are valuable
- Employees who have strong need for power are
and worthy people
motivated by a desire to influence others rather than
- Employees try to perform at levels consistent with
simply to be successful
self-esteem is compounded by the fact that employees
o Other Humanistic/Motivational Theories:
with low self-esteem tend to underestimate their
1. Job Expectations Theory – a discrepancy between
actual ability and performance
what an employee expected a job to be like and the
- Chronic Self-Esteem: person’s overall feeling about
reality of the job can affect motivation and satisfaction
himself
▪ When expectations from the job was not met,
- Situational Self-Esteem: person’s feeling about
▪ the employee might feel unmotivated
himself in a particular situation
▪ Realistic Job Preview is really important
- Socially Influenced Self-Esteem: how a person feels
2. Hackman and Oldham's Job Characteristics
about himself on the basis of the expectations of
Theory/Model - employees desire jobs that are
others
meaningful, provide them opportunity to be personally
- To increase self-esteem, employees can attend
responsible for the outcome of their work, and provide
workshops in which they are given insights into their
them with feedback of the results of their efforts
strengths
▪ Jobs will have motivation potential if they allow
- Experience-with-Success: employee is given a task
employees to use a variety of skills and to
so easy that he will almost certainly succeed
connect their efforts to an outcome which has
- Galatea Effect: the relationship between selfmeaning, is useful, or is appreciated by
expectations and performance
coworkers as well as by others in society
- Train supervisors to communicate a feeling of
▪ Job Diagnostic Survey
confidence in an employee
▪ Job Enrichment: redesigning jobs to give
- Pygmalion Effect/Rosenthal Effect: if an employee
workers greater responsibility in the planning,
feels that the manager has confidence in him, his selfexecution, and evaluation of their work, raises
esteem will increase
the level of responsibility
- Golem Effect: occurs when negative expectations of
Core Job Characteristics
an individual cause a decrease in that individual’s
Skill Variety: use of different skills and talents to
actual performance
complete a variety of work activities
2. Intrinsic Motivation – they will seek to perform
Task Identity: the degree to which a job requires
well because they either enjoy performing the actual
completion of a whole or identifiable piece of work
tasks or enjoy the challenge of successfully
Task Significance: the degree to which the job affects
completing the task
the organization and/or larger society
- Extrinsic Motivation – they don’t particularly enjoy
Autonomy: provide freedom, independence, and
the tasks but are motivated to perform well to receive
discretion in scheduling the work and determining the
some type of reward or to avoid negative
procedures to be used to complete the work
consequences
Feedback: employees can tell how well they are
- Work Preference Inventory – measures the
doing from direct sensory information from the job
intrinsic and extrinsic motivation
itself
3. Needs for Achievement and Power – employees
3. Abraham Maslow’s Need Hierarchy - employees
differ in the extent to which they are motivated by the
would be motivated by and satisfied with their jobs at
need for achievement, affiliation, and power
any given point in time if certain needs were met
- Employees who have strong need for achievement
▪ This model condenses a long list of previously
are motivated by jobs that are challenging and over
studied drives into five basic categories (primary
which they have some control, whereas employees
needs)
who have minimal achievement needs are more
Hi :) this reviewer is FREE! u can share it with others but never sell it okay? let’s help each other <3 -aly
Industrial Psychology
#BLEPP2023
Sources: Aamodt (2016), Levy (2017), Howes & Muchinsky (2019), Riggio (2013), McShane & Glinow (2018), Dessler
(2017), Cummings & Worley (2009), Mondy & Martocchio (2016)
▪ Proposed that human beings are motivated by
5. Frederick Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory – some
several primary needs (drives) at the same time,
factors seemed to cause job satisfaction and
but the strongest source of motivation is the
dissatisfaction
lowest unsatisfied need
a. Motivators – related to the work itself, the type
▪ As the person satisfies the a lower-level need,
of work, level of responsibility, and the chances
the next higher need in the hierarchy becomes
for recognition, advancement, and personal
the next strongest motivator and remains so even
achievement
if never satisfied
b. Hygiene – related to the context in which people
▪ Motivation can be shaped by human thoughts
perform the job, e.g., benefits, working
a. Physiological Needs – food, air, water, shelter
conditions, type of supervision, salary, company
b. Safety Needs – physical, psychological, and
policies
financial needs
▪ Eliminate job dissatisfaction by providing basic
c. Belongingness/Social needs – interaction with
hygiene factors (compensated properly, treated
others
well, and provided with job security)
d. Ego Needs – recognition and success
6. David McClelland’s Achievement Motivation
e. Self-Actualization – highest potential
Theory – three needs are central to work motivation:
needs for achievement, power, and affiliation
Need for Achievement – drive to success and get the
job done; love the challenges of work, task-oriented,
preferring situations offering moderate levels of risk
or difficulty
Need for Power – need to direct and control the
activity of others and to be influential
- Personal Power: used toward personal ends
- Institutional Power: power that is oriented toward
organizational objectives
Need for Affiliation – desire to be liked and accepted
by others
7. Four-Drive Theory – emotions are the source of
human motivation and that these emotions are generated
4. Clayton Alderfer’s ERG Theory – states that
through four innate and universal drives
individuals can be motivated by multiple levels of need
1) Drive to acquire – seek out, take, control, and
at the same time, and that the level which is most
retain objects and personal experiences
important to them can change over time
2)
Drive to bond – variation of the need for
▪ Individual’s priorities and motivations may be
belonging and affiliation, motivates the people
fluid and can move between existence,
to cooperate and, essentially, for organizations
relatedness, and growth
and societies
3) Drive to Comprehend – need to know, discover
answers to unknown
4) Drive to defend – protect ourselves physically,
psychologically, and socially
8. Self-Regulation Theory - employee monitor their
own progress toward attaining goals and then make
the necessary adjustments: that is to self-regulate
9. Reinforcement Theory – draws principles of operant
conditioning and states simply that behavior is motivated
by consequences
▪ Operant Conditioning – employees will engage
in behaviors for which they are rewarded and
avoid behaviors for which they are punished
Hi :) this reviewer is FREE! u can share it with others but never sell it okay? let’s help each other <3 -aly
Industrial Psychology
#BLEPP2023
Sources: Aamodt (2016), Levy (2017), Howes & Muchinsky (2019), Riggio (2013), McShane & Glinow (2018), Dessler
(2017), Cummings & Worley (2009), Mondy & Martocchio (2016)
Factors the must be considered in determining the
- Gainsharing: ties groupwide financial incentives to
effectiveness of incentive programs
improvements in organizational performance
- Stock Options: employees are given the opportunity
Timing of incentive – reinforcer or punisher is most
to purchase stock in the future
effective if it occurs soon after the performance of the
behavior
Use of positive incentives versus negative incentives
– instead of rewarding employees, punish
Contingency of the consequences – if it is not
those who did wrong
possible to immediately reward or punish a behavior,
- For punishment to be effective, the employee must
it should at least be clear that the employee
understand why he is being punished and be shown
understands the behaviors that brought reward or
alternative ways of behaving that will result in some
punishment
type of desired reinforcement
- Reward and punishment must be made contingent
upon performance, and this contingency of
Fairness of the reward system
consequence must be clear to employees if we want
▪ Reinforcement – increases behavior
them to be motivated
a. Positive – addition of something to increase
Type of incentive used – supervisors should have
behavior
access to and be trained to administer different types
b. Negative – removing something to increase
of reinforcers
behavior
- Premack Principle: reinforcement is relative and that
▪ Punishment – decreases behavior
a supervisor can reinforce an employee with
4 types of Schedules
something that on the surface does not appear to be a
Fixed Interval
reinforcer
Fixed Ratio
- Financial Rewards: can be used to motivate better
Variable Interval
worker performance either by making variable pay an
Variable Ratio
integral part of an employee’s compensation package
* ratio – responses
or by using financial rewards as a bonus for
* interval – time
accomplishing certain goals
▪ Organizational Behavior Modification –
- Recognition: reward through recognition program
certain target behaviors are specified, measured,
- Social Recognition: consists or personal attention,
and rewarded
signs of approval, and expressions of appreciations;
7. Edwin Locke’s Goal Setting Theory – emphasized
informal recognitions
the role of specific, challenging performance goals and
- Travel: offer travel rewards rather than financial
worker’s commitment to those goals as key determinants
rewards
of motivation
Use of individual-based versus group-based
▪ Difficult or challenging goals will also result in
Incentive
greater levels of motivation, if the goals have
1. Individual Incentive Plans – designed to make high
been accepted by the workers
levels of individual performance financially
▪ Specific, Measurable, Attainable, Relevant,
worthwhile and the research is clear monetary
Time-Bound
incentive increase performance over the use of a
8. J. Stacey Adam’s Equity Theory – based on the
guaranteed hourly salary
premise that our levels of motivation and job
- Pay For Performance: also called as earnings-at-risk
satisfaction are related to how fairly we believe we are
(EAR) plans, pay employees according to how much
treated in comparison with others
they individually produced
▪ Inputs – those elements that we put into our
- Merit Pay: base their incentives on performance
jobs
appraisal scores rather than on such objective
▪ Outputs – elements we receive from our jobs
performance measures as sales and productivity
▪ Employees subconsciously list all their outputs
2. Group Incentive Plans – get employees participate
and inputs and then compute an input/output
in the success or failure of the organization
ratio by dividing the output value by input value
- Profit Sharing: provide employee with percentage of
▪ When an employee’s ratio is lower than those of
profits above a certain amount
others, he will become dissatisfied and be
Hi :) this reviewer is FREE! u can share it with others but never sell it okay? let’s help each other <3 -aly
Industrial Psychology
#BLEPP2023
Sources: Aamodt (2016), Levy (2017), Howes & Muchinsky (2019), Riggio (2013), McShane & Glinow (2018), Dessler
(2017), Cummings & Worley (2009), Mondy & Martocchio (2016)
motivated to make the ratios equal in one or
Motivation – represents the forces within a person
more ways
that affect his or her direction, intensity, and
▪ Our motivation decreases when our input/output
persistence of voluntary behavior
ratios are lower than others
- Direction: path along which people steer their effort
9. Vroom’s Expectancy Theory – also known as VIE
- Motivation is goal-oriented
Theory
- Intensity: amount of effort allocated to the goal
Valence – desirability of a particular outcome to an
- Persistence: refers to the length of time that the
individual
individual continues to exert effort toward an
- extent to which an employee value a particular
objective
consequence
Ability – includes both the natural aptitudes and the
- “gusto ko yumaman”
learned capabilities
- gaano mo ka-gusto yung outcome
Role Perceptions – how clearly people understand
Instrumentality – relationship between the
their job duties
performance of a particular behavior and the
Situational Factors – any context beyond the
likelihood that a certain outcome will result
employee’s immediate control
- link between one outcome and another outcome
12. Costa & McCrae’s Five Factor Model of
- outcome of a worker’s performance, if noticed,
Personality – the most researched and respected
results in a particular consequence
clustering of personality traits
- the extent to which the performance will result to the
Conscientiousness – organized, dependable, goaldesired outcome
focused, thorough, disciplined, methodical, and
- “kapag bae to yung ginawa ko, yayaman ako?”
industrious
Expectancy
Agreeableness – trusting, helpful, good-natured,
- perceived relationship between the amount of effort
considerate, tolerate, selfless, generous, and flexible
an employee puts in and the resulting outcome
Neuroticism – people who tend to be anxious,
- the extent to which the effort an employee exerted
insecure, self-conscious, depressed, and
resulted to the outcome she wanted
temperamental
- “nag-aral ako ng mabuti, nag-trabaho ako ng maayos
Openness to Experience – imaginative, creative,
kaya eto mayaman na ako”
unconventional, curious, nonconforming,
10. Organization Justice Theory – if employees are
autonomous, and aesthetically perceptive
treated fairly, they will be more satisfied and motivated
Extraversion – outgoing, talkative, energetic,
▪ Focused on fairness of many aspects such as the
sociable and assertive
process of decision making, outcome of
▪ Conscientiousness stands out as the best overall
decisions, and how it is communicated to
predictor of proficient task performance for most
employees
job, followed by Extraversion
▪ Distributive Justice – fairness of the decision
13. IMPACT Theory - each leader has one of six
itself
behavior styles: informational, magnetic, position,
▪ Procedural Justice – fairness of the procedures
affiliation, coercive, or tactical
used to arrive with the decision
Informational (Ignorance) provides info in a climate
11. MARS Model of Individual Behavior and
of ignorance, where important information is missing
Performance – Performance is predicted by the
from the group
Motivation, Ability, Role Perception, and Situational
Magnetic (Despair) leads through energy and
Factors
optimism but characterized by low morale
▪ All 4 factors are critical influences on an
Position (Instability) leads through energy and
individual’s voluntary behavior and
optimism but characterized by low morale
performance, if one is low in a given situation,
Affiliation (Anxiety) leads by liking and caring about
then, the employee will perform poorly
others
▪ Motivation, ability and role perception is
Coercive (Crisis) leads by controlling and
clustered together as they are located within the
punishment
person
Tactical (Disorganization) leads through strategy
Hi :) this reviewer is FREE! u can share it with others but never sell it okay? let’s help each other <3 -aly
Industrial Psychology
#BLEPP2023
Sources: Aamodt (2016), Levy (2017), Howes & Muchinsky (2019), Riggio (2013), McShane & Glinow (2018), Dessler
(2017), Cummings & Worley (2009), Mondy & Martocchio (2016)
14. Path-Goal Theory – a leader can adopt one of four
Systems Approach – considers organization as
behavioral leadership styles to handle each situation
systems – a system is an organized or complex whole
Instrumental – calls for planning, organizing, and
– an assemblage or combination of things or parts
controlling the activities of employees
which form a complex unitary whole
- Subsystems: different parts of the system, which are
Supportive – shows concern for employees
interrelated
Participative – shares information with employees
- Open: interact with the environment
and lets them participate in the decision making
- Closed: no interaction with the environment
Achievement-Oriented – challenging goals and
- offer an open-system view of an organization and
rewards increases in performance
recognizes its environmental interface
15. Situational Leadership Theory – a leader typically
- adopts multi-level and multi-dimensional approach,
uses one of the 4 behavioral styles:
which considers both macro and micro aspects
1. Delegating – willing and able
- 3 basic elements: Components, Linking Processes,
2. Directing – unwilling and unable
Goals of Organization
3. Coaching – willing but unable
- focuses on the internal dynamics of an
4. Supporting – unwilling but able
organization’s structure and behavior
16. Leader-Member Exchange Theory (Vertical Dyad
- applicable to all situations
Linkage Theory) – concentrates on the interactions
Socio-Technical Approach – based on the premise
between leader and subordinates
that every organization consists of the people, the
▪ Leaders develop different roles and relationships
technical system, and the environment
with other people under them and thus act
- people use tools, techniques, and knowledge to
differently with different subordinates
produce goods or services valued by consumers or
▪ In-Group: HQ relationship with the leader,
users
developed trusting and friendly relationship
- equilibrium among the social system, technical
▪ Out-Group: LQ relationship with the leader,
system, and the environment is necessary to make the
developed
org more effective
17. Ryan and Deci’s Self-Determination Theory –
- Joint Optimization: the idea that the social and
defined as the person’s ability to make choices and
technological systems should be designed to fit one
manage their own life
another as well as possible
▪ You feel in greater control, as opposed to being
- Unit Control of Variance: concerns who handles
non-self-determined, which can leave you
work problems when they arise
feeling that your life is controlled by others
- enhances the motivation, self-efficacy, and skills of
▪ People are motivated to grow and change by
the employee, and it saves the time of the specialist
three innate psychological needs
and supervisor
▪ The tendency to be either proactive or passive is
- very useful because of the trend of downsizing in
largely influenced by the social condition which
favor of advanced equipment/machinery/gadgets
we are raised
- reduces lag time associated with topo many moving
▪ Intrinsic motivation plays an important role
parts
Autonomy – people need to feel in control of their
Contingency or Situational Approach – based on
own behaviors and goals
the belief that there cannot be universal guidelines
Competence – people need to gain mastery of tasks
suitable for all situations, thus, different environment
and learn different skills
requires different organizational relationships for
Connection or Relatedness – people need to
optimum effectiveness, taking into consideration
experience a sense of belonging and attachment to
various social, legal, political, technical, and
people
economic factors
Modern Organization Theory
- focuses on external determinants of the
o Modern Organization Theory – based on the
organization’s behavior and structure
concept that the organization is a system which has
- works on the prescription which says that “it all
to adapt to changes in its environment’
depends,”
o Organization is defined as a designed and structured
process in which individuals interact for objectives
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Industrial Psychology
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Sources: Aamodt (2016), Levy (2017), Howes & Muchinsky (2019), Riggio (2013), McShane & Glinow (2018), Dessler
(2017), Cummings & Worley (2009), Mondy & Martocchio (2016)
Open System Theory by Katz & Kahn
▪ Mass Production, large span of control and long
o Open System Theory – organization develop and
chain of command
change over time as a result of both external and
▪ Continuous process, largest span of control
internal forces
▪ Deals only with manufacturing organizations
B. Lawrence and Lorsch’s Model – asserted that two
3 Key Elements of Open System Theory
processes determine the company’s ability to keep up
Inputs – raw materials, human resources, energy,
with external changes: differentiation and integration
machinery
▪ Proposed that the stability of the environment
Throughputs – production processes, service,
dictates the most effective form of organization
training
▪ Depends on the environment of the company
Outputs – products, services, knowledge
▪ Mechanistic Organization: an organization that
o The interplay between internal reality of an
depends on formal rules and regulations, makes
organization and the external reality of its
decisions at higher levels of the organization and
environment and history
has smaller spans of control (for stable
o Organization must be open to its environment to be
environments)
effective
▪ Organic Organization: organization with a large
o Organizations thrive only as long as there is a
span of control, less formalized procedures, and
continuous flow of energy from the external
decision-making at middle levels (for unstable
environment into the system and continuous export
environments)
of products out of the system
▪
Differentiation: complexity of the org structure –
o Too much Negative Entropy (all forms of
number of units, various orientations and
organization move towards disorganization or
philosophies of the managers, and the goals and
death, so orgs must avoid this movement)
interests of the organization’s members
o The negative feedback loop provides information
▪
Integration: amount and quality of collaboration
about where and how the organization is getting offC.
Fiedler’s
Contingency Model – any individual’s
course; therefore, they could correct or adjust the
leadership
style
is effective only in certain situations
course
D.
Mintzberg’s
Contingency Model – argued that one
o Equifinality – a system can reach the same end
could describe an organization by looking at several
state in different ways (there isn’t just one way to
categories of characteristics
achieve a particular outcome)
▪ the key mechanism used by the organization for
o Surviving open systems are characterized by a
coordinating its efforts
balance in energy exchange
▪
functions and roles of people in the organization
o Open systems move toward more specialized
▪
the context in which the organization operates
functions
▪
the priority level depends on the goals
o Bringing the system together as a unified process is
▪ Operating Core:
necessary for the system to continue
Basic Forms of Coordination
Contingency Theory
Mutual
Adjustments
based on Informal Comms
o The “it depends” theory
Direct Supervision
o Behavior must be selected to fit the particular
Standardization of Work Process
circumstance
Standardization of KSAOs
o This answers the problem of both classical and
Standardization of Outputs
neoclassical theories
Standardization of norms (Culture)
A. Joan Woodward’s Contingency Model – for
maximal performance, org structure needed to match the
Seven Basic Parts of an Organization
type of production technology
Operating Core – responsible for conducting basic
▪ 3 types of manufacturers: Small-batch, mass
work duties that give the organization its defining
production, and continuous production
purpose; transform raw goods into a sellable products
▪ Producers of small batches of specialty products
Strategic Apex – responsible for the overall success
required a span of control that was moderate in
of the entire organization; associated with executive
size and a short chain of command
leadership
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Industrial Psychology
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Sources: Aamodt (2016), Levy (2017), Howes & Muchinsky (2019), Riggio (2013), McShane & Glinow (2018), Dessler
(2017), Cummings & Worley (2009), Mondy & Martocchio (2016)
Middle Line – ensures that overall goals set by
- forces that maintains the status quo are broken down,
strategic apex are being carried out by the operating
and the system is opened up for change
core; mid-levels managers
- started by pointing out behaviors and outcomes
prevalent in the organization that are not consistent
Technostructure – possess specific technical
with its goals and objectives
expertise that facilitates overall operation of the
organization; accounting, HR, IT, law departments
Moving
Support Staff – aid the basic mission of the
- real org change begins to happen
organization and typically includes the mailroom,
Refreezing
security, and janitorial services
- changes become stabilized, and the organization
Ideology – belief system that compels commitment to
reaches a new level of equilibrium
a particular value; organizations should have
B. Action Research Model – social problems that
singularly devoted to a particular mission, and all its
needed to be addressed from both methodological and
actions are in pursuit if that mission; employees
social perspective
behave in accordance with their sincere conviction in
▪ Cyclical nature
the ideology of the organization, and can perform their
▪ Initial research about the organization
work relatively independent of each other
▪ Results from the research could be the guide for
Politics – side effect of ideology, causes divisiveness
further activities
and conflict; the basis is the use of power that is
▪ Sensemaking: what employees do to gain a
neither formally authorized or widely accepted in the
better understanding of their workplace
organization
C. Perrow’s Model – examined information
Organizational Models
technology, which refers to all aspects of jobs
A. Lewin’s Change Model – change as a matter of
▪ The structure of the organization adjusts to the
modifying those forces that are acting to keep things
technology
stable
▪ among the various units of the organization
o Any behavioral situation is characterized both by
D. Kotter’s Change Model – proposed an eight-stage
forces operating to maintain stability or equilibrium
model that essentially broke down Lewin’s 3 steps into
and by forces pushing for change
subcomponents based on common mistakes he saw
o Intervention: the program or initiative suggested or
organizations make when trying to change
implemented by the change agent
1) Increase Urgency
o Evolutionary Change: continual process of
2) Build Guiding Team
upgrading or improving processes
3) Develop the Vision
o Revolutionary Change: drastic changes
4) Communicate the Vision
o Change Agent: initiates the change, usually external
5) Empower Action, Remove Obstacles
to the organization, people who enjoy change and
6) Create Short-Term Wins
often make changes just for the sake of it
7) Build on Wins
o Client: recipient of the change effort
8) Embed changes into culture
o Change Resistant: individuals who prefer to keep
E. Adam Smith’s Invisible Hand Theory – individuals
things the way they are
are driven by self-interest and rationality will make
o Change Analysts: not afraid to change or make
decisions that lead to positive benefits for the whole
changes but want to make changes only if the
economy
changes will improve the organization
▪ Rational Choice Theory: individuals use rational
o Receptive Changers: people who probably will not
calculations to make rational choices and
instigate change but are willing to change
achieve outcomes that are aligned with their own
o Reluctant Changers: not instigate or welcome
personal objectives
change, but they will change if necessary
F. Peter and Waterman’s Well-Managed Model –
o Planned for change to occur in organizations with
aims at formulating a descriptive model of choice which
the least amount of tension and resistance
focuses on the expressive character of decision making
in the organization
3 Steps of Change Process
▪ Based on empirical perception of how successful
Unfreezing
organizations are being run
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Industrial Psychology
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Sources: Aamodt (2016), Levy (2017), Howes & Muchinsky (2019), Riggio (2013), McShane & Glinow (2018), Dessler
(2017), Cummings & Worley (2009), Mondy & Martocchio (2016)
G. Vroom-Yetton Model – provide a flowchart that can
▪ Establish the behavior expected of everyone in
tell a leader process to go through when making a
the group
decision
▪ Descriptive norms – developed through a
process of observation
▪ Injunctive norms - developed through a process
of conforming to gain social approval
▪ There is “oughtness” or “shouldness”
▪ Usually more obvious for behavior judged to be
important for the group
▪ Norm must be first defined and communicated,
either explicitly or implicitly
▪ The group must be able to monitor behavior and
judge whether the norm is being followed
▪ Group must be able to reward conformity and
punish nonconformity
3. Organizational Climate and Culture
Organizational Climate – shared meaning
organizational members attach to the events, policies,
Organizational Concepts
practices, and procedures they experience and the
Components of Social Systems
behaviors they see being rewarded, supported, and
o Social System – structuring events or happenings, it
expected
has no formal structure, apart from its functioning
- how things are done within an organization
▪ Sometimes referred to as informal component of
Organizational Culture – languages, values,
an organization
attitudes, beliefs, and customs of an organization
1. Roles – expectations of others about appropriate
- complex pattern of variables that, when taken
behavior in a specific position
collectively, gives each organization its unique
▪ Impersonal
“flavor”
▪ related to task behaviors
- three layers: Observable Artifacts (symbols,
▪ difficult to pin down, some people might define
language, narratives, and practices), Espoused Values
your role differently as how you define it or the
(values endorsed by the management), and Basic
other way around
Assumptions (unobservable and are at the core of the
▪ learned quickly and can produce major behavior
org)
changes
- Organizational Culture Profile – organizational reps
▪ roles and jobs are not the same, some people
sort 54 “value statements” describing such things as
have several roles in one job (e.g., Head
organizational attitudes toward quality, risk taking,
Manager, also specifically watches the
and the respect the organization gives to workers into
production department, a mother)
meaningful categories to provide a descriptive profile
▪ Role Conflict – when an individual is faced with
of the organization
incompatible or competing demands
- Organizational Practices Scale – designed
▪ Role Ambiguity – uncertainty about the
specifically to measure organizational structure
behaviors to be exhibited in a role, or boundaries
assesses the company’s culture in terms of dimensions
that define a role
such as whether the organization is “process versus
▪ Role Overload – when an individual feels
result oriented,” etc.
overwhelmed from having too many
Person-Organization Fit
responsibilities
o Person-Organization Fit (Person-Organization
▪ Role Differentiation – the extent to which
Congruence) – process of gauging the degree of fit
different roles are performed by employees in
between the two parties is mutual
the same subgroup
▪ People populating the organization who most
2. Norms – shared group expectations about appropriate
define its culture
behavior
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Industrial Psychology
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Sources: Aamodt (2016), Levy (2017), Howes & Muchinsky (2019), Riggio (2013), McShane & Glinow (2018), Dessler
(2017), Cummings & Worley (2009), Mondy & Martocchio (2016)
Downsizing, Outsourcing, Offshoring
▪ An organization’s ability to divide work among
people depends on how well those people can
Downsizing – decision to cut jobs, one of the most
coordinate with each other
radical and tumultuous ways an organization can
change in response to pressures
Coordinating Mechanisms in Organizations
- reducing cost
Informal Communication – sharing information on
- reduction-in-force
mutual tasks; forming common mental models to
- greatest losses come from middle line,
synchronize work activities
technostructure, and support staff
Formal Hierarchy – assigning legitimate power to
- Horizontal Cut: involves the loss of jobs within a
individual, who then use this power to direct work
department, but the department remains within the
processes and allocate resources
organization
Standardization – creating routine patterns of
- Vertical Cut: involves elimination of all jobs in the
behavior or output
department
o Elements of Organizational Structure:
Outsourcing – company use external employees to
1. Chain of Command
perform internal functions which known to be less
2. Span of Control
costly than hiring its own employees to perform these
3. Centralization and Decentralization
services
4. Formalization
Offshoring – work performed domestically is
5. Mechanistic vs. Organic Structure
exported to cheaper labor markets in overseas
o Traditional – have formally defined roles for their
countries
members, very rule driven, and are stable and
Mergers and Acquisition
resistant to change
Organizational Merger – marriage of two
a. Bureaucracy
organizations of equal status and power
b. Line-Staff Organizational Structure
(Principle)
Acquisition – procurement of property by another
o Nontraditional – less formalized work roles and
organization
procedures (organic)
- Hostile Takeover: dominant organization thus
▪ Generally, have fewer employees and may also
acquires an unwilling partner to enhance its financial
occur as a small organization that is a subunit of
status
a larger, more traditionally structured
- Parent: acquiring organization
organization
- target: organization being acquired
- 3 Phases: Precombination (emphasis on financial
Team Organization – workers have defined jobs, not
issues), Combination (clash between people as they
narrowly specialized positions common to
focus on differences between partners),
traditionally structured organizations, collaborate
Postcombination (integrating two cultures)
among workers, and share skills and resources (e.g.,
group of psychologists working on a single case)
Organizational Structure
o Organizational Structure – arrangement of
Project Task Force – temporary, nontraditional
positions in an organization and the authority and
organization of members from different departments
responsibility relationships among them
or positions within a traditional structure who are
o Arrangement of positions in an organization and the
assembled to complete a specific job or project (e.g.,
authority and responsibility relationships among
Avengers)
them
Matrix Organization – structured of both product
o The division of labor as well as patterns of
and function simultaneously
coordination, communication, workflow, and
o Tall – managers have smaller span of control,
formal power that direct organizational activities
longer chain of command, provide a clear, distinct
o Division of Labor – subdivision of work into
layers with obvious lines of responsibility and
separate jobs assigned to different people
control and a clear promotion structure
▪ Leads to job specialization to increase work
o Flat – span of control is larger, fewer management
efficiency
levels, focused on empowering employing rather
than adhering to the chain of command by
encouraging autonomy and self-direction; common
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Industrial Psychology
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Sources: Aamodt (2016), Levy (2017), Howes & Muchinsky (2019), Riggio (2013), McShane & Glinow (2018), Dessler
(2017), Cummings & Worley (2009), Mondy & Martocchio (2016)
when the task is repetitive and requires minimal
Organizational Development
supervision
o Organizational Development – planned,
o Functional – divides the organization into
organization-wide effort to increase organizational
departments based on the functions or tasks
effectiveness through behavioral science knowledge
performed
and technology
▪ Creates job specialists but overly focused on
✓ Involve the total organization
their own department and area of specialization
✓ Be supported (and initiated) by top management
o Divisional – based on type of products or clients
✓ Entail diagnosis of the organization, as well as
▪ Can easily expand products or services merely
implementation plan
by adding new division but there is a duplication
✓ Be long-term processes
of areas of expertise
✓ Focus on changing attitudes, behaviors, and
o Centralization – the degree to which decisionperformance of groups/team
making authority is concentrated at the top of the
✓ Emphasize the importance of goals, objectives,
organizational hierarchy
and planning
o Decentralization – process of taking the decisiono Change process through which employees
making power out of the hands of the top level and
formulate the change that’s required and implement
distributing it to lower levels
it, often with the assistance of trained consultants
o Formalization – the degree to which organizations
o When OD fails, it is often because the
standardize behavior through rules, procedures,
characteristics mentioned above has been ignored in
formal training, and related mechanisms
favor of superficial changes that have very little
o Mechanistic – characterized by narrow span of
impact on the organization’s effectiveness and
control and high degree of formalization and
result in greater stress and lower morale at the
centralization
company
▪ Have many rules and procedures, limited
o “is an effort (1) planned, (2) organization-wide, and
decision making at lower levels, tall hierarchies
(3) managed from the top, to (4) increase
of people in specialized roles, and vertical rather
organization effectiveness and health through (5)
than horizontal communication
planned interventions in the organization’s
▪ Operate better in rapidly changing environments
processes, using behavioral science knowledge,”
o Organic – operate with a wide span of control,
(Beckhard, 1969)
decentralized decision-making, and little
o Planned ahead of time (Revolutionary (abrupt) and
formalization
Evolutionary (gradual))
▪ Tasks are fluid, adjusting to new situations and
o Often involves altering the organization’s works
organizational needs
structure or influencing workers’ attitudes or
o Departmentalization – specifies how employees
behaviors to help the organization to adapt to
and their activities are grouped together
fluctuating external and internal conditions
▪ Establishes chain of command
1. identify significant problems
▪ Focus people around common mental models or
2. appropriate interventions are chosen to deal with
ways of thinking
the problems
▪ Encourages specific people and work units to
3. implementation
coordinate through informal communication
4. evaluation
a) Simple – few people minimal hierarchy
o Change Agent = OD practitioner
b) Functional – organizes employees around
o Action Research Model – social problems that
specific knowledge or other resources
needed to be addressed from both methodological
c) Divisional – group employees around
and social perspective
geographic areas, outputs, or clients
▪ Cyclical nature
d) Team Based – built around self-directed teams
▪ Initial research about the organization
that complete an entire piece of work
▪ Results from the research could be the guide for
e) Matrix – overlays two structures to leverage the
further activities
benefits of both
▪ Sensemaking – what employees do to gain a
f) Network – design and build a product or serve a
better understanding of their workplace
client though an alliance of several organizations
o Effective Interventions:
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Industrial Psychology
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Sources: Aamodt (2016), Levy (2017), Howes & Muchinsky (2019), Riggio (2013), McShane & Glinow (2018), Dessler
(2017), Cummings & Worley (2009), Mondy & Martocchio (2016)
✓ Fit the needs of the organization
create job specialist and overly focused on their
✓ Based on the causal knowledge of intended
own department and are of specialization
outcomes; and,
✓ Transfer change-management competence to
organization members
1. Survey Feedback – involves systematic collection
data, widely used intervention strategy
2. Team Building – develop teams or to enhance the
effectiveness of the existing teams
▪ In order to be successful, the members must
collaborate and be interdependent
▪ Must be initiated to correct existing problems
▪ Combined with other interventions
▪ Strongly supported by the members
▪ Product-Based Organizational Design
▪ Implemented in a participative management
(Divisional Structure) – organized based on
climate
their product output, allows the managers of a
▪ Performance was measured at the group level
particular division to focus exclusively on that
▪ Outdoor Experiential Training – makes use of
division, creating greater commitment and
outdoors and entails various physical and mental
cohesion within the division; operates as a
exercises
separate entity
3. Total Quality Management – also known as
▪
Matrix Structure – combined function and
continuous improvement or quality management
products structures
▪ Focuses on employee involvement in the control
▪ Reengineering (business process redesign) –
of quality in organizations
involves fundamental rethinking and redesign of
1) Senior management must receive training on
business processes to improve critical
what TQM is, how it operates, and what their
performance as measures by cost, quality,
responsibilities are
service, and speed
2) Employees are trained in quality methods such
Fundamental
as statistical process control (identifying
Examination of what the company does and why
problems reflective of a low-quality product or
service)
Radical
3) Employees identify not only the areas in which
Willingness to make crucial and far-reaching
their department or division excels but also
organizational changes rather than superficial ones
deviations (output variation) from quality
Dramatic
standards
Making striking performance improvements rather
4) Self-Comparison analysis, whereby the org
that slight ones
compares its effectiveness to that competitors
Processes
that set the benchmark for the industry
▪ Information Technology – science of
5) Rewards are linked to achievement of
collecting, storing, processing, and transmitting
intervention goals
information
4. Gainsharing – involves paying employees a bonus
6. Positive Organizational Development
based on improvements in productivity
▪ Positive Psychology – scientific study of the
▪ Link between pay and performance lead to
strengths and virtues of individuals and
increased employee involvement and job
institutions rather than their weaknesses and
satisfaction
impairments
5. Technostructural Interventions – focus on the
▪ Appreciative Inquiry – engages employees by
technology and structure of organizations
focusing on positive messages, the best of what
▪ Functional Organizational Design – most
employees have to offer, and the affirmation of
basic, structured according to the various
past and present strengths and successes
functions of the employees, groups employees to
1) Discovery – determine the strengths
various departments based on their expertise;
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Industrial Psychology
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Sources: Aamodt (2016), Levy (2017), Howes & Muchinsky (2019), Riggio (2013), McShane & Glinow (2018), Dessler
(2017), Cummings & Worley (2009), Mondy & Martocchio (2016)
2) Dream – information gathered from discovery is
o Individual Power – derived from personal
analyzed and elaborated upon to arrive at a
characteristics that are of value to the organization
vision statement or focused intent
and its members
3) Design – designing innovative ways to identify
Power Bases
where the organization should be going
Coercive Power – ability to punish or threaten to
4) Destiny – the design is maintained or sustained
punish others
in this stage
Reward Power – ability to give something positive
7. Organizational Transformation – any
Legitimate Power – formal rights or authority that an
intervention primarily directed toward creating a
individual possesses by virtue of a position in an
new vision for an organization and changing its
organization
beliefs, purpose, and mission
Expert Power – possession of some special, work▪ Culture Change – alteration of a pattern of
related knowledge, skill, or expertise
beliefs, values, norms, and expectations shared
Referent Power – an individual is respected, admired,
by organizational members
and liked by others
▪ Knowledge Management – organizations
Communication in the Organization
enhance their operations through attempts to
o Horizontal Communication – aims at linking
generate, transform, disseminate, and use their
related tasks, work units and divisions in the
knowledge
organization; among co-workers with the same level
▪ Organizational Change – process of altering
or similar hierarchical positions
organizations to be more adaptive and congruent
o Downward Communication – provides
with their business environment
information from the higher levels to lower levels
8. T-groups – sensitivity training, use of unstructured
o Upward Communication – serve as a control
group interaction to help workers gain insight into
system for the organization wherein subordinates
their motivations and their behavior patterns in
communicate to the higher levels
dealing with others
Organizational Decision Making
Power in the Organization
1. Setting Organization Goals
o Power – refers to the ability to get an individual or
2. Establish Performance Criteria
group to do something or change in some way
3. Classifying and defining the problem
o Politics – process to achieve power
4. Developing criteria for a successful solution
o Organizational Politics – involves any action taken
5. Generating Alternatives
to influence the behavior of others to reach personal
6. Comparing Alternatives to criteria
goals
7. Choosing an alternative
o Ingratiation – increasing one’s personal appeal
8. Implementation
through such tactics as doing favors, praising, or
9. Evaluation
flattering another (#sipsip)
Types of Individual Behavior
o Assertiveness – making orders or demands
Task Performance – individual’s voluntary goalo Rationality – using logic to convince someone
directed behaviors that contribute to organizational
o Sanction – withholding salary, threaten firing
objectives
someone
- Proficient Task Performance: refers to performing
o Exchanges – offering something in exchange for
the work efficiently and accurately
another
- Adaptive Task Performance: refers to how well
o Upward Appeals – obtaining the support of
employee modify their thoughts and behaviors to
superiors
align with and support a new or changing environment
o Blocking – threatening to stop working with the
- Proactive Task Performance: refers to how well
other person
employees take the initiative to anticipate and
o Coalition – obtaining co-workers’ support of a
introduce new work patterns that benefit the
request
organization
o Organization Power – comes from an individual’s
Organizational Citizenship Behaviors – various
position in the organization and from the control
forms of cooperation and helpfulness to others that
over important organizational resources conveyed
by that position
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Industrial Psychology
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Sources: Aamodt (2016), Levy (2017), Howes & Muchinsky (2019), Riggio (2013), McShane & Glinow (2018), Dessler
(2017), Cummings & Worley (2009), Mondy & Martocchio (2016)
Leadership
support the organization’s social and psychological
o Leadership – influencing, motivating, and enabling
context
others to contribute toward the effectiveness and
Counterproductive Behavior – voluntary behaviors
success of the organizations of which they are
that have the potential to directly or indirectly harm
members
the organization or its stakeholders
▪ Motivate others through persuasion and other
Joining/Staying with the Organization
influences tactics
Maintaining Attendance
o
High
Openness, Conscientiousness, and
Perceptual Effects
Extraversion
= great leaders
o Halo Effect – occurs when our general impression
o High Self-Monitors = leaders
of a person, usually based on prominent
Motivation to Lead
characteristic, distorts our perception of other
Affective Identity Motivation – become leaders
characteristic of that person
because they enjoy being in charge and leading others
▪ Most likely to occur when important information
Noncalculative Motivation – seeking leadership
about the perceived target it missing or we are
position that will result to personal gain
not sufficiently motivated to search for it
Social-Normative Conditions – becomes leaders out
o False-Consensus Effect (Similar-to-Me Effect) –
of a sense of duty
occurs when people overestimate the extent to
which others have similar beliefs or behaviors to
o Leadership Motive Pattern – high need for power
our own
and a low need for affiliation
▪ We are comforted by the thought of other people
o Person-Oriented leaders – acts in warm and
are similar to us
supportive manner and show concern for their
▪ We interact more with people who have similar
subordinates
views and behaviors
▪ Believe that employees are intrinsically
▪ We are more likely to remember information
motivated, seek responsibility, are selfconsistent to our own views and selectively
controlled, and do not necessarily dislike work
screen out information that is contrary to our
▪ Consult their subordinates before making
beliefs
decisions, praise their work, ask about their
o Primacy Effect – tendency to rely on the first
families, and etc.
information we receive about people to quick form
▪ Socially withdrawn
an opinion of people of them
▪ Appreciate humor
o Recency Effect – occurs when the most recent
▪ Have satisfied employees
information dominates our perception
o Task-Oriented Leaders – define and structure their
Organizational Commitment
own roles and those of their subordinates to attain
o Organizational Commitment – the extent to which
the group’s formal goals
an employee identifies with and is involved with an
▪ See their employees as lazy, extrinsically
organization
motivated, wanting security, undisciplined
▪ Manage or lead by giving directives, setting
Affective Commitment – the extent to which an
goals, and making decisions without consulting
employee wants to remain with the organization, cares
their subordinates
about the organization, and is willing to exert effort on
▪ Under pressure, they become anxious, defensive,
its behalf
and dominant
Continuance Commitment – the extent to which an
▪
Produce humor
employee believes she must remain with the
▪ Productive employees
organization due to the time, expense, and effort that
Team – both task- and person-oriented
she has already put into it or the difficulty she would
have in finding another job
Middle-Of-The-Road – moderate amounts of both
orientations
Normative Commitment – the extent to which an
employee feels obligated to the organization and, as a
Impoverished – neither task- nor person-oriented
result of this obligation, must remain with the
o Transactional Leadership – consists of many taskorganization
oriented behaviors
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Industrial Psychology
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Sources: Aamodt (2016), Levy (2017), Howes & Muchinsky (2019), Riggio (2013), McShane & Glinow (2018), Dessler
(2017), Cummings & Worley (2009), Mondy & Martocchio (2016)
o Transformational Leadership – focus on
- humans are the focus of the theory and social
changing or transforming the goals, values, ethics,
relationships and interactions are instrumental to
standards, and performance of others
organizational efficiency
▪ Visionary, charismatic, and inspirational
- introduced an informal organization structure
▪ Confident, have need to influence others, and
- the most irrational behavior is when they seek
hold a strong attitude that their beliefs and ideas
rewards from work
are correct
- human beings are interdependent, one can predict
▪ Charisma, intellectual stimulation, individual
their behavior by looking at the social and
consideration
psychological factors
o Shared Leadership – exists when employee
- integrates the classical model with behavioral
champion the introduction of new technologies and
science and even considers the environment it’s in
produces
- small groups and human behavior
▪ when employee engage in organizational
- resulted to more satisfied and efficient employees
citizenship behaviors to assist the performance
- democratic and participative
and well-being of co-workers and the overall
Modern Org Theory
team
- tend to be based on the concept that the organization
▪ flourishes in organizations where formal leaders
is a system which must adapt to changes in its
are willing to delegate power and encourage
environment
employees to take initiative and risks without
- an organization is defined as designed and structured
fear of failure
process in which individuals interact for objectives
o Managerial Leadership – daily activities that
Contingency Theory
support and guide the performance and well-being
- no particular managerial action or organizational
of individual employees and the work unit toward
design that is appropriate for all situations
current objectives and practices
- also known as situational theory
▪ Assumes the organization’s objectives are stable
- situational variables
and aligned with the external environment
- result to dynamic management style – since it adapts
▪ Micro-focused
to what is needed
o Servant Leadership – an extension or variation of
Motivation Theory
people-oriented leadership because it defines
- what drives an employee towards a particular goal or
leadership as serving others
outcome
Determine the focus and differences of Organization
- motivated employee = more productive = more
Theories
profitable
Classical Org Theory
Open Systems Theory
- views an organization as a machine with centralized
- organizations are strongly influenced by their
authority, labor specialization, and incentives to
environment (whether political, economic, or social in
optimize productivity in an organization, and in turn,
nature)
drive profits
- environment provides key resources that sustain the
- each employee must be efficient to increase
organization and lead to change and survival
efficiency
Importance of Organizational Theories
- rigid and static view of organization
o Help study an organization, its corporate designs,
- no interaction with the environment
structures and behaviors of individual or groups
- more on structural and technical aspects of
o Aim to provide an overview of how an organization
organizations
functions and the things needed to improve
- oversimplified and mechanistic assumptions
efficiency and profitability
- work as well as the economic needs of the workers
- more mechanical and impersonal
- results to work alienation and dissatisfaction
- authoritarian and bureaucratic
Neo-Classical Org Theory
- emphasized human relations
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Industrial Psychology
#BLEPP2023
Sources: Aamodt (2016), Levy (2017), Howes & Muchinsky (2019), Riggio (2013), McShane & Glinow (2018), Dessler
(2017), Cummings & Worley (2009), Mondy & Martocchio (2016)
Organizational Structures and Systems (20)
authority and
- impedes specialists’
Pros and Cons of different types of Organizational
responsibility
exposure to others within
Structures
- heightens departmental
the same specialties
Pros
Cons
cohesion and
- puts multiple-role
involvement in work
demands on people and
Functional
so creates stress
- promotes skill
- emphasizes routine
- may promote
specialization
tasks, which encourages
departmental
objectives,
- reduces duplication of
short-time horizons
as opposed to overall
scarce resources and uses
- fosters parochial
organizational objectives
resources full time
perspectives by
Simple
- enhances career
managers, which limit
development t for
their capabilities for top- minimal hierarchy
- insufficient economies
specialists within large
management positions
- highly flexible and
of scale to assign them to
departments
- reduces communication
minimizes the walls that
specialized jobs
- facilitates
and cooperation between
form between employees
- difficult to operate as
communication and
departments
the company grows and
performance because
- multiplies the
become more complex
superiors share expertise
interdepartmental
Flat/Process Structure
with their subordinates
dependencies, which can
- greater interaction
- offer few promotional
- exposes specialists to
make coordination and
between top and bottom
opportunities
others within the same
sched
of the organization
- supervision may not
specialty
- focuses resources on
always be adequate since
Multidimensional/Divisional
customer satisfaction
many workers report to
- easily expand products
- duplication of areas of
- improves speed and
the same supervisor
or services merely by
expertise
efficiency
- can threaten middle
adding new division
- workers with similar
- adapts to environmental
managers and staff
- each division operates
skills and expertise may
change rapidly
specialists
as a separate entity, thus
not be able to benefit
- increases ability to see
- requires changes in
greater accountability
from professional
total workflow
command-and-control
- growth relatively easily
interaction with each
- enhances employee
mindsets
- outcome-focused
other because they are
involvement
- duplicate scarce
- direct employee
housed in different
- lower costs because of
resources
attention to customers
divisions
less overhead structure
- requires new skills and
and products rather than
- expertise is spread
knowledge to manage
to their own specialized
across several
lateral relationships and
knowledge
autonomous business
teams
- recognizes sources of
units, which reduces the
- may take longer to
interdepartmental
ability and perhaps
make decisions in teams
dependencies
motivation of the people
- can be ineffective if
- foster an orientation
in one division to share
wrong processes are
toward overall outcomes
their knowledge with
identified
and clients
other counterparts in
Tall
- allows diversification
other divisions
- may offer lower-level
- workers at the bottom
and expansion of skills
- may use skills and
employees many different
level may feel cut-off
and training
resources inefficiently
promotional opportunities from those who are above
- ensures accountability
- limits career
throughout their careers
because they are
by departmental
advancement by
- adequate supervision
separated by many levels
managers and so
specialists to movements
since each supervisor is
- can become “top heavy”
promotes delegation of
out of their departments
only responsible for a few with administrators and
employees
managers, because the
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Industrial Psychology
#BLEPP2023
Sources: Aamodt (2016), Levy (2017), Howes & Muchinsky (2019), Riggio (2013), McShane & Glinow (2018), Dessler
(2017), Cummings & Worley (2009), Mondy & Martocchio (2016)
ratio of line workers to
Team Organization/Team-Based
supervisors is very low
- collab with other
- intragroup conflict
- executives tend to
workers to get the job
arises but it could turn
receive lower-quality and
done
into productive,
less-timely information
- each worker is viewed
functional outcome
- high overhead costs –
as knowledgeable and
- costly to maintain due
necessarily have more
skilled
to the need for ongoing
people administering the
- team members have
interpersonal skills
company
considerable input into
training
- employees feel less
organizational decision
empowered and engaged
making
in their work
- less emphasis on
Matrix
organizational status
- more flexible and
- highly flexible and
- do not work well with
responsive in turbulent
adaptable
all types of tasks or
environments
- high levels of
workers
- reduce costs
performance in dealing
- best suited for projects
- allows quicker and more
with complex, creative
and products that requires
informed decisionwork products
creativity and innovation
making
- greater work
but less suited for routine
communication and job
tasks
Project Task Force/Network
satisfaction
- report to two bosses
- offer flexibility to
- they expose the core
- makes very good use of simultaneously can cause
realign their structure
firm to market forces
resources and expertise
confusion and conflict
with changing
- information technology
- improves
- increases conflict
environmental
makes worldwide
communication
among managers who
requirements
communication much
efficiency, project
share equal power
- enable flexible and
easier, but it will never
flexibility, and innovation - can be very difficult to
adaptive response to
replace the degree of
- makes specialized,
introduce without a
dynamic environments
control organizations
functional knowledge
preexisting supportive
- creates best of the best
have when
available to all projects
management climate
organization to focus
manufacturing,
- uses people flexibly,
- increases role
resources on customer
marketing, and other
because departments
ambiguity, stress, and
and market needs
functions are in-house
maintain reservoirs of
anxiety by assigning
- enables each
- managing lateral
specialists
people to more than one
organization to leverage a
relations across
- maintains consistency
department
distinctive competency
autonomous
between different
- without power
- permits rapid global
organizations is difficult
departments and projects
balancing between
expansion
- motivating members to
by forcing
product and functional
- can produce synergistic
relinquish autonomy to
communication between
forms, lowers overall
results
join the network is
managers
performance
troublesome
- recognizes and provides
- makes inconsistent
- sustaining membership
mechanisms for dealing
demands, which may
and benefits can be
with legitimate, multiple
result in unproductive
problematic
sources of power in the
conflicts and short-term
- may give partners
organization
crisis management
access to proprietary
- can adapt to
- may reward political
knowledge/technology
environmental changes
skills as opposed to
Centralized
by shifting emphasis
technical skills
between project and
functional aspects
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Industrial Psychology
#BLEPP2023
Sources: Aamodt (2016), Levy (2017), Howes & Muchinsky (2019), Riggio (2013), McShane & Glinow (2018), Dessler
(2017), Cummings & Worley (2009), Mondy & Martocchio (2016)
Describe the elements that create organizational
- uniformity, each
- may limit individuals to
structure and their distinct relationships: Job Design,
department should
adjust to special
Departmentation, Delegation, Span of Control, and
operate with some
circumstances
Chain of Command
average level of quality
- inefficiencies in
Job Design
and efficiency
decision-making
o Job Design – developing new jobs or adding
- more efficient
responsibilities to existing jobs
operations
▪
Interview questions, training plans, development
Decentralized
plans, career implications, performance reviews,
- can make their own
- poor decision making
and compensation, tie into the job design
decisions
could backfire
▪ Process of assigning tasks to a job, including
- decision making and
interdependency of those tasks with other jobs
problems are solved at
▪ Allows a company to more easily reach its goals
lower levels, more
by having more employees perform more tasks
authority to lower-level
within the organization
employees (sense of
▪ May involve developing a new position or
empowerment)
simply adjusting set of tasks that a current
- quicker decisions,
position encompasses
greater level of
▪ Creates clear and effecting communication
procedural fairness
process throughout the company since it clearly
Mechanistic
define tasks and form them into natural work
- more flexible and
- limited decision making
units to organize duties
responsive to the changes
at lower levels
▪ Structuring the content and size of jobs for
- formal comms channel - tasks are rigidly defined
efficient task performance, flexibility, and
and are altered only by
worker satisfaction and defining their
higher authorities
component tasks, conditions, and competency
- limited autonomy and
requirements for recruitment, appraisal, reward,
self-determination which
and a number of other HR Processes
could lower intrinsic
o Job Specialization – occurs when the work
motivation of workers
required is subdivided into separate jobs assigned to
Organic
different people to improve work efficiency
- emphasize information
- may lower productivity
o
Job Enrichment – an employee assumes more
sharing and an
- too many ideas
responsibility over the tasks
empowered workforce
- slower decision-making
▪
Help improve motivation and morale for
rather than hierarchy and
- less-regulated work
employees who remain following organizational
status
- slower adaptation for
downsizing
- communication
new employees
▪
Combining highly interdependent tasks into one
decentralized down to
job (Natural Grouping)
teams and individuals
▪
Feel sense of ownership, therefore, increase job
- opportunities for
quality
creativity
▪ Putting employees in direct contact with their
- more open comms
clients rather than using another group or the
- better employee
supervisor as the liaison between employee and
satisfaction
the customer (Establishing Client Relationships)
- fewer formal procedures
o
Job
Rotation – workers are rotated among variety
- deeper employee
of
jobs,
spending certain length of time at each
relationships
▪ Exposing workers to as many areas of
organization as possible so they can gain a good
knowledge of its workings and how the various
jobs and departments fit together
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Industrial Psychology
#BLEPP2023
Sources: Aamodt (2016), Levy (2017), Howes & Muchinsky (2019), Riggio (2013), McShane & Glinow (2018), Dessler
(2017), Cummings & Worley (2009), Mondy & Martocchio (2016)
▪ Increases worker flexibility, eliminates boredom,
Departmentation/Departmentalization
and increases worker satisfaction
o Departmentalization – specifies how employees
o Job Enlargement – adding tasks to an existing job
and their activities are grouped together
▪ Might involve combining two or more complete
Simple – few people minimal hierarchy
jobs into one or just adding one or two more
Functional – organizes employees around specific
tasks to an existing job
knowledge or other resources
▪ Significantly improve work efficiency and
Divisional – group employees around geographic
flexibility
areas, outputs, or clients
▪ Employees are motivated when they perform a
Team Based – built around self-directed teams that
variety of tasks and have the freedom and
complete an entire piece of work
knowledge to structure their work to achieve the
Matrix – overlays two structures to leverage the
highest satisfaction and performance
benefits of both
o Re-engineering – fundamental rethinking and
Network – design and build a product or serve a
radical redesign of business processes to achieve
client though an alliance of several organizations
dramatic improvements in critical contemporary
Delegation
measures of performance, such as costs, quality,
o Delegation (of Authority) – supervisors, rather
service, and speed
than doing everything by themselves, assign
▪ Rethinking and redesigning its business system
particular tasks to separate employees and hold
to become more competitive
them responsible for completing tasks
▪ Focuses on the overall aspects of job designs,
▪ Strategic, focuses on outcomes, provides
org structures, and management systems
learning opportunities
o Duty Allocation – company creates a team or group
o Micromanagers – try to take charge of everything
of departments, with each having a specific role
that goes on in the organization rather than holding
o Job Crafting – informal changes that an employee
employees responsible for individual tasks
makes in their jobs
Span of Control
▪ Obtain additional responsibilities in their role
o Span of Control – number of subordinates who
over time
report to a given supervisor
▪ Organizational Citizenship Behaviors –
o Also known as Span of Management
motivated to help the org and colleagues by
o Narrow span of control exists when very few people
doing little things they are not required to do
report directly to a manager, whereas a wide span
o Hackman and Oldham's Job Characteristics
exists when a manager has many direct reports
Theory/Model - employees desire jobs that are
o Widen span of control is possible when employees
meaningful, provide them opportunity to be
perform routine jobs because they require less
personally responsible for the outcome of their
direction or advice from supervisor
work, and provide them with feedback of the results
o Narrow span of control is necessary when
of their efforts
employees perform novel or complex tasks, because
Core Job Characteristics
these employees require supervisory decisions and
Skill Variety: use of different skills and talents to
coaching
complete a variety of work activities
o Narrow span of control is necessary highly
Task Identity: the degree to which a job requires
interdependent jobs became employees tend to
completion of a whole or identifiable piece of work
experience more conflict with each other, which
Task Significance: the degree to which the job affects
requires more of a manager’s time to resolve
the organization and/or larger society
o Tall – managers have smaller span of control,
Autonomy: provide freedom, independence, and
longer chain of command, provide a clear, distinct
discretion in scheduling the work and determining the
layers with obvious lines of responsibility and
procedures to be used to complete the work
control and a clear promotion structure
Feedback: employees can tell how well they are
o Flat – span of control is larger, fewer management
doing from direct sensory information from the job
levels, focused on empowering employing rather
itself
than adhering to the chain of command by
encouraging autonomy and self-direction; common
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Industrial Psychology
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Sources: Aamodt (2016), Levy (2017), Howes & Muchinsky (2019), Riggio (2013), McShane & Glinow (2018), Dessler
(2017), Cummings & Worley (2009), Mondy & Martocchio (2016)
when the task is repetitive and requires minimal
opportunities to learn
supervision
new skills etc.
Chain of Command
- Employees develop
o Chain of Command – number of authority levels
their personal and
in a particular organization
organizational skills,
o Follows the lines of authority and status vertically
knowledge, and abilities
through the organization
- focused on the future
Importance of Aligning the Org Structures with
needs of the organization
Business strategy
and its members
o Organizational Structure improves operational
- both are beneficial for the organization and the
efficiency by providing clarity to employees at all
employees for the productivity
levels of a company
- some activities overlap: appraisal/training
o In a flat structure, front-line employees are
Human Resource Development vs. Organizational
empowered to make a range of decisions on their
Development
own and information flows quickly from bottomHRD
Org Dev
level employees to top-level employees
- mainly concerned with
- planned, organizationo In tall structure, information generally flows onethe training and overall
wide effort to increase
way from top to bottom-level employees
development of
organizational
o Organizational Structures provide a clear
employees
effectiveness through
organization chart that helps business keep track of
- this also includes
behavioral science
their human resources
performance appraisal of knowledge and
4 Business Elements
each employee
technology
Product – offerings that solve specific problems or
services of doing things
Human Resource Development vs. Employee
Market – who will be the potential clients
Training
Money – funds
HRD
Employee Training
People – make the business work
- refers to various
- provides learners with
Human Resource Development and Human Resource
activities that helps
knowledge and skills
Management (25)
people to adjust to the
needed for their present
Differentiating Human Resource Development and
organization/workplace
job
Human Resource Management, Human Resource
and its culture
- training only
Development and Organizational Development, HRD
- deals, not only with the
and Employee Training
training, but also the
Human Resource Development vs. Human Resource
development of their
Management
employees overall
HRM
HRD
- Includes training a
- process of acquiring,
- refers to an assortment
person after he/she is first
training, appraising, and
of training programs that
hired, providing
compensating employees, help people adjust to their
opportunities to learn
and of attending to their
new roles and learn more
new skills etc.
labor relations, health and about the organization
- focused on the future
safety, and fairness
and its culture
needs of the organization
concerns
- specifically deals with
and its members
- focused on the present
training and development
Activities involved in HR Development
needs of the organization of the employees in the
o Training and Development (T&D) – heart of a
and its members
organization
continuous effort designed to improve employee
- Includes training a
competency and organizational performance
person after he/she is first
▪ Includes training, career development,
hired, providing
organizational development, and organizational
learning
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Industrial Psychology
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Sources: Aamodt (2016), Levy (2017), Howes & Muchinsky (2019), Riggio (2013), McShane & Glinow (2018), Dessler
(2017), Cummings & Worley (2009), Mondy & Martocchio (2016)
o Training – provides learners with knowledge and
Training Methods
skills needed for their present job
Classroom Method – instructor physically stands in
o Development – involves learning that goes beyond
front of students
today’s job and has a more long-term focus
- instructors may convey a great deal of information in
▪ Prepares employees to keep pace with the
a relatively short time
organization as it changes and grows
- common training method
o Some possible strategic benefits of T&D: employee
- seminar, lecture, workshop
satisfaction, improved morale, higher retention,
E-Learning – online instruction using technologylower turnover, improved hiring etc.
based methods such as DVDs, company intranets, and
1. Determining Specific Training and Development
the internet
needs – Analyzing training needs
Case Study – trainees study the information provided
Organizational Analysis – determine those
in the case and make decisions based on it
organization factors that either facilitate or inhibit
- provide trainees with the opportunity to sharpen
training effectiveness
critical thinking skills
- focus on the goals the org want to achieve, the extent
Behavior Modeling and Tweeting – permits a person
to which training will achieve those goals, the
to learn by copying or replicating the behavior of
organization’s ability to conduct training, and the
others
extent to which employees are willing and able to be
- tweeting = twitter
trained
- ideal behavior rather than the behavior they might
- training will only be effective if the org is willing to
normally performed
provide supportive climate for training, it can afford
Simulation – allow the trainee to practice newly
an effective program, employees want to learn, and
learned skills and work with equipment under actual
the goals of a program are consistent with those of the
working conditions
organization
Role Playing – participants are required to respond to
Task Analysis – use of the job analysis to identify the
specific problems they may encounter in their jobs by
tasks performed by each employee, the condition
acting out real-world situations
under which these tasks are performed, and the
- learning by doing the task
competencies needed to perform the tasks under
- perform necessary interpersonal skills by acting out
identified conditions
simulated roles
- interviews, observations, task inventories
- practice what is being taught
Person Analysis – determining which employees
Training Games – games are cost effect means to
needs training and which areas
encourage learner involvement and stimulate interest
- not every employee needs further training for every
in the topic, thereby enhancing employees’ knowledge
task performed
and performance
- based on performance appraisal scores, surveys,
- Business Games: permits participants to assume
interviews, skill and knowledge tests, and critical
roles such as president, controller, or marketing vice
incidents
president of two or more hypothetical orgs and
2. Establish Specific T&D Objectives – must have
compete against each other
clear and concise objectives and be developed to
In-Basket Training – asked to establish priorities for
achieved organizational goals, designing the overall
and then handle a number of business papers, e-mails,
training program
tests, memoranda, reports, and telephone messages,
▪ Includes designing the training program by
that would typically cross a manager’s desk
setting learning objectives, creating a
On-The-Job Training – informal T&D that permits
motivational learning environment, making the
an employee to learn job tasks by actually performing
learning meaningful, making skill transfer
them
obvious and easy, reinforcement, and ensure the
- to transfer knowledge from highly skills experienced
transfer of learning
worker to a new employee, while maintaining the
3. Select T&D Methods and Delivery Systems –
productivity of both workers
developing the course
Apprenticeship – combines classroom method with
OJT
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Industrial Psychology
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Sources: Aamodt (2016), Levy (2017), Howes & Muchinsky (2019), Riggio (2013), McShane & Glinow (2018), Dessler
(2017), Cummings & Worley (2009), Mondy & Martocchio (2016)
Team Training – focuses on imparting knowledge
- Transfer of Training: the extent to which an
and skills on individuals who are expected to work
employee generalizes knowledge and skill learned in
collectively toward meeting common objective
training to the workplace, as well as maintains the
- Team Coordination Training: educates team
level of skill proficiency or knowledge learned in
members how to orchestrate the work they do to
training
complete the tasks
Organizational Results – refer to such outcomes as
- Cross-Training: educates team members about the
enhanced productivity, lower costs, and higher
other members’ jobs so that they may perform them
product or service quality
when a team member is absent, which could raise
- ROI is an important results criterion
flexibility, communication, morale, and
- Benchmarking: process of monitoring and measuring
interdepartmental relations
a firm’s internal processes, such as operations, and
Coaching – takes in two forms: experienced
then compare the data with information from
employees and professional coaches
companies that excel in those areas
Mentoring – a veteran in the organization takes
o Factors influencing T&D:
special interest in a new employee and helps him not
1. Top Management Support
only to adjust to the job but also in the organization
2. Shortage of Skilled Workers
3. Technological Advances
Delivery Systems
4. Global Complexity
Corporate University – provided under the umbrella
5. Leaning Styles
of the organization
Orientation (On-Boarding) – inform new employees
College and Universities – primary delivery system
about the company, the job, and the work group
for training professional, technical, and management
- it also familiarizes them with the corporate culture
employees
and helps them to quickly become productive
Online Higher Education – formal educational
- Employee Handbook
opportunities including degree and training programs
o Career – general course that a person chooses to
that are delivered, either entirely or partially, saves
pursue throughout his working life
employees time because it reduces their need to
▪ Career Path: a flexible line of movement
commute to school
through which a person may travel during his or
Vestibule System – takes place away from the
her work life
production area on equipment that closely resembles
Traditional Career Path – employee progresses
equipment actually used on the job
vertically upward in the organization
Video Media – cds, DVDs
Network Career Path – contains both vertical
Simulators – comprised of devices or programs that
sequence of jobs and series of horizontal opportunities
replicate actual job demands
- recognizes the interchangeability of experience at
Social Networking
certain levels and the need to broaden experience at
4. Implement T&D Programs – a perfectly conceived
one level before promotion to a higher level
program will fail if management cannot convince
Lateral Skill Path – allows for lateral moves within
participants of its merits
the firm, taken to permit an employee to become
o Thus, participants must believe that the program has
revitalized and find new challenges
value and will help them achieve their personal and
- learning a different job, an employee can increase
professional goals
his or her value to the organization and also become
5. Evaluate T&D Programs
rejuvenated and re-energized
Reactions – the extent to which the trainees liked the
- job enlargement, job enrichment
training program related to its usefulness, and quality
Dual-Career Path – recognizes that technical
of conduct
specialists can and should be allowed to contribute
Learning – the extent to which the principles, facts
their expertise to a company without having to
and techniques were understood and retained in
become managers
memory by the employee
- advises without entering the management due to
Behavior Change – changes in job-related behaviors
specialization to a certain knowledge
or performance that can be attributed to training
Hi :) this reviewer is FREE! u can share it with others but never sell it okay? let’s help each other <3 -aly
Industrial Psychology
#BLEPP2023
Sources: Aamodt (2016), Levy (2017), Howes & Muchinsky (2019), Riggio (2013), McShane & Glinow (2018), Dessler
(2017), Cummings & Worley (2009), Mondy & Martocchio (2016)
▪ any attempt to improve managerial performance
Adding Value to Your Career – an individual’s
by imparting knowledge, changing attitudes, or
knowledge must be ever expanding, and continual
increasing skills
personal development is a necessity
▪ Succession Planning: involves developing
Demotion – process of moving a worker to a lower
workforce plans for the company’s top positions
level of duties and responsibilities, typically involves
▪ Mentoring: approach to advising, coaching, and
a reduction in pay
nurturing for creating a practical relationship to
Free Agents – people who take change of all or part
enhance individual career, personal, and
of their careers by being their own bosses or by
professional growth and development
working for others in ways that fit their particular
▪ Coaching: responsibility of the immediate boss,
needs or wants
who provides assistance, but the primary focus is
o Career Management – process of enabling
about performance
employees to better understand and develop their
▪
Reverse Mentoring: process in which older
career skills and interests, and to use these skills and
employees learn from younger ones
interests more effectively
o
Performance
Appraisal – means evaluating an
o Career Development – formal approach used by
employee’s current and/or past performance relative
the organization to ensure that people with proper
to his or her performance standards
qualifications and experiences are available when
▪ For base pay, promotion, and retention decisions
needed
and continuously ensure that each employee’s
▪ Lifelong series of activities that contribute to a
performance makes sense in terms of the
person’s career exploration, establishment,
company’s overall goals
success, and fulfillment
▪ Provide an opportunity to review the employee's
▪ Must be closely parallel individual career
career plans in light of his or her exhibited
planning if a firm is to retain its best and
strengths and weakness
brightest workers
▪
(1) Setting Work Standards; (2) Assessing the
▪ Formal: includes short-term training programs,
Employee’s actual performance relative to those
education, certifications, workshops, or seminars
standards; (3) Providing feedback to eliminate
that can help build skills sets for a particular job
performance deficiencies or to continue to
or industry
perform above par
▪ Informal: includes mentorship opportunities,
Who will Evaluate the Performance?
networking events, online courses, internships,
Supervisors
– most common type of performance
and volunteering experiences
appraisal
Manager/Employee Self-Service – providing
Peers – often see the actual behavior since they work
managers with the online ability to assist employees in
directly with the employee
planning their career paths and developing required
- employees tends to react worst to negative peer
competencies
evaluation
Discussions with Knowledgeable Individuals – such
Subordinates – also called upward feedback
as HR, psychologists, counselors etc.
- Difficult because of the fear of backlash if they
Company Material – tailors to the firm’s special
unfavorable rate their supervisor
needs
- Correlate highly with upper-management ratings of
Workshops – employees define and match their
supervisors’ performance
specific career objectives with the needs of the
Customers/Clients – provide feedback on employee
company
performance by filling complaints or complimenting
o Career Planning – on-going process whereby an
the manager about one of her employees
individual sets career goals and identifies the means
- Secret Shoppers: current customers who have been
to achieve them
enlisted by a company to periodically evaluate the
▪ Self-Assessment, Formal Assessment
service their receive
o Management Development – consists of all
Self-Appraisal – allowing an employee to
learning experiences provided by an organization
evaluate her own behavior and performance
resulting in upgrading skills and knowledge
required in current and future managers
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Industrial Psychology
#BLEPP2023
Sources: Aamodt (2016), Levy (2017), Howes & Muchinsky (2019), Riggio (2013), McShane & Glinow (2018), Dessler
(2017), Cummings & Worley (2009), Mondy & Martocchio (2016)
- Suffer from leniency and correlate moderately to
- requires manager to set specific, measurable,
actual performance
organizationally relevant goals with each employee,
- Most accurate when the self-appraisal will not be
and then periodically discuss the latter’s progress
used for such administrative purposes as raises or
toward these goals
promotions
Computerized and Web-Based Performance
- Accurate when employees understand the
Appraisal – compiles computerized notes on
performance appraisal system and when employees
subordinates during the year, and then merge these
believe that an objective record of their performance
with ratings for the employee on several performance
is available with which supervisor can compare the
traits
self-appraisal
Electronic Performance Monitoring – systems use
Rating Committees – consists of employee’s
computer network technology to allow manager to
immediate supervisor and three or four other
monitor their employee’s computers
supervisors
Conversation Days – no explicit performance ratings,
- help cancel out problems such as biases and provide
just manager-employee conversations about
a way to include in the appraisal the different facets of
improvement and growth
an employee’s performance observed by different
Rating Errors
appraisers
Unclear standards – might result in unfair appraisals,
360-Degree Feedback – employer collects
because the traits and degrees of merits are ambiguous
performance information all around an employee –
Halo Effect – influence of a rater’s general
from his or her supervisors, subordinates, peers, and
impression on ratings of specific ratee qualities
internal or external customers
Central Tendency Error – rating all employee
Techniques for Appraising Performance
average
Graphic Rating Scale – simplest and the most
Leniency Error – rater is very lenient and gave the
popular method
employees higher scores, rates at the higher end of the
- list several job dimensions and range of performance
scale
values for each trait, then supervisors rate each
Strictness Error – rater is very strict and gave the
subordinate by circling or checking the score that best
employees lower scores, rates at the lower end of the
describes the subordinate’s performance
scale
Alternation Ranking Method – ranking employees
Recency Effects – rating the employee based on their
from best to worst on a trait or traits is another option
recent performance rather than their overall
Paired Comparison – for every trait, you compare
performance over the year
every employee with every other employee
o Raters who scored higher on conscientiousness,
- n(n-1)/2
tend to have stricter scoring
Forced Distribution – manager places preo Raters who scored higher on agreeableness are
determined percentages of ratees into performance
more lenient
categories
o Performance Management – continuous process
Critical Incident Method – supervisor keeps a log of
of identifying, measuring, and developing the
positive and negative examples of a subordinate’s
performance of individuals and teams, and aligning
work-related behaviors
their performance with the organization’s goals
Narrative Forms/Report – helps the employee
o Turnover – the rate at which employees leave the
understand where his or her performance was good or
firm
bad, and how to improve that performance
▪ Voluntary Turnover: employees voluntarily leave
Behaviorally Anchored Rating Scales – anchors
the organizations, maybe due to dissatisfaction
numerical rating scale with specific illustrative
etc.
examples of good and bad performance
▪ Effectively conduct exit interviews to provide
- based on critical incidents
useful insights into turnover problem areas
Management by Objectives – usually refers to a
▪ To boost employee retention the org must raise
multistep company wide goal-setting and appraisal
pay, hire smartly, discuss careers, provide
program
direction, offer flexibility, use high-performance
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Industrial Psychology
#BLEPP2023
Sources: Aamodt (2016), Levy (2017), Howes & Muchinsky (2019), Riggio (2013), McShane & Glinow (2018), Dessler
(2017), Cummings & Worley (2009), Mondy & Martocchio (2016)
HR Practices, counteroffer (if another company
law or with contractual arrangement stated or
offered their employees)
implied by the employer
o Job Withdrawal – actions intended to place
o Termination Interview – for employee dismissal
physical or psychological distance between
o Human Resource Development Manager –
employees and their work environment
empower their employees so that they can become a
▪ Absences and voluntary turnover
major asset of the company
▪ Job Withdrawal Process: tends to be
▪ Give employees training and opportunities for
incremental, often evolving from daydreaming
career growth with the hope that they will use
to absences to quiting
what they learned for the organization
o Promotions – traditionally refer to advancement to
▪ In charge of retaining talent
positions of increased responsibility
Scope, Coverage, and Processes across the different
▪ Usually mean more pay, responsibility, and job
areas of HRD
satisfaction
Training - provides learners with knowledge and
▪ Glass Ceiling: a metaphorical invisible barrier
skills needed for their present job
that prevents certain individuals from being
Career Development – formal approach used by the
promoted to higher positions
organization to ensure that people with proper
▪ Glass Cliff: women being likelier than men to
qualifications and experiences are available when
achieve leadership roles during periods of crisis
needed
or downturn, when the risk of failure is highest
Talent Management – the system or strategy used by
o Turnover – describes the number of workers that
an organization to effectively recruit, hire, develop,
leave an organization, whether by the termination of
and retain employees
the contract, resignation, or any other reason
- strategic endeavor to optimize the use of human
o Transfer – move from one job to another, usually
capital, which enables an organization to drive shortwith no change in salary or grade
and long-term results by building culture,
o Dismissal – involuntary termination of employee’s
engagement, capability, and capacity, through
employment with the firm
integrated talent acquisition, development, and
Unsatisfactory Performance
deployment processes that are aligned to business
Misconduct
goals
Lack of Qualification for the Job
- refers to the attraction, selection, and retention of
employees
Changed requirements of the Job
- management of turnovers
Insubordination – unwillingness to carry out
Performance Appraisal – means evaluating an
manager’s orders and disrespectful behavior
employee’s current and/or past performance relative to
1) Allow the employee to explain why he or she
his or her performance standards
did what he did
Employee Engagement and Empowerment
2) Have formal multistep procedure and appeal
- Employee Engagement – an individual’s emotional
process
and cognitive motivation, particularly a focused,
3) The person who does the dismissing is important
intense, persistent, and purposive effort toward work4) Dismissed employees who feel they’ve been
related goals
treated unfairly are more likely to sue
- High level of absorption in the work, the experience
▪ Statutory Exceptions: include federal and state
of focusing intensely on the task with limited
equal employment and workplace laws that
awareness of an events beyond that work
prohibit certain dismissals
- Building an engage workforce calls on MARS
▪ Common Law Exceptions: employee handbooks
model, building affective commitment, motivation
promising termination only “for just cause” may
practices, organizational-level communication, and
create an exception
leadership
▪ Public Policy Exception: against a well- Empowerment – psychological experience
established public policy
represented by four dimensions: self-determination,
▪ Wrongful Discharge: occurs when an
meaning, competence, and the impact of the
employee’s dismissal does not comply with the
individual’s role in the organization
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Industrial Psychology
#BLEPP2023
Sources: Aamodt (2016), Levy (2017), Howes & Muchinsky (2019), Riggio (2013), McShane & Glinow (2018), Dessler
(2017), Cummings & Worley (2009), Mondy & Martocchio (2016)
Org Activities involved in HRM
Predictive Workforce Monitoring – paying
o Manager – someone who is responsible for
continuous attention to workforce planning issues
accomplishing the organization’s goals, and who
Matching Projected Labor Supply and Labor
does so by managing the efforts of the
Demand
organization’s people
Succession Planning – ongoing process of
Manpower Planning/HR Planning/Workforce
systematically identifying, assessing, and developing
Planning
organization leadership to enhance performance
o Strategic Planning – the process by which top
Staffing/Workforce Planning
management determines overall organizational
o Staffing – determining what type of people should
purposes and objectives and how they are achieved
be hired, recruiting prospective employees,
o Manpower Planning/HR Planning/Workforce
selecting employees, setting performance standards,
Planning – primary source for any company,
compensating employees, evaluating performance,
process of estimating the optimum number of
counselling, training, and developing employees
people required for completing a project, task or
▪ Execution of the plans from Manpower
goal within time
Planning
▪ systematic process of matching the internal and
▪ Deciding what positions the firm will have to
external supple of people with job openings
fill and how to fill them
anticipated in the organization over a specific
▪ Identify and address the gaps between the
period of time
employer’s workforce today, and its projected
▪ process of deciding what positions the firm will
workforce needs
have to fill, and how to fill them
o Trend Analysis – studying variations in the firm’s
▪ Organizing: giving each subordinate a specific
employment levels over the past few years
tasks, establishing departments, delegating
o Ratio Analysis – means making forecasts based on
authority to subordinates, establishing channels
the historical ratio between (1) some causal factor
of authority and communication, coordinating
and; (2) the number of employees required
the work of subordinates
▪ Assumes that things like productivity remains
Strategy and Workforce Planning –
about the same
workforce/employment planning is best understood as
o Scatter Plot – shows graphically how two
an outgrowth of the firm’s strategic and business
variables, such as sales and your firm’s staffing
planning
levels, are related
- personnel needs (demands), supply of the inside
o Managerial Judgment – to adjust the forecast
candidates, and one for the supple of outside
o Forecasting starts within the organization (Internal
candidates
Recruitment)
Forecasting Personnel Needs (Labor Demands) –
▪ Personnel Replacement Charts: show the
how many people with what skills will we need?
present performance and promotability for each
- Trend Analysis: studying variations in the firm’s
position’s potential replacement
employment levels over the past few years
▪ Markov Analysis: mathematical process to
- Ration Analysis: making forecast based on historical
forecast availability of internal job candidates
ratio between (1) some causal factor and (2) the
o Job Analysis is the cornerstone of personnel
number of employees required
selection
- Scatter Plot: shows graphically how two variables
o Every essential knowledge, skill, and ability
are related
identified in the job analysis that is needed on the
Forecasting the Supply of Inside Candidates –
first day of the job should be tested, and every test
determining which current employees are qualified or
must somehow relate to the job analysis
trainable for the projected openings
o Recruitment – attracting people with right
- Markov Analysis: forecast availability of internal job
qualifications to apply for the job
candidates
▪ Internal: within the org, enhance employee
Forecasting the Supply of Outside Candidates –
morale and motivation
turning to outside candidates when there is no enough
▪ Done thru Job Postings or rehiring a employee
inside candidates to fill the anticipated openings
who already left the organization
▪ External: outside the org
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Industrial Psychology
#BLEPP2023
Sources: Aamodt (2016), Levy (2017), Howes & Muchinsky (2019), Riggio (2013), McShane & Glinow (2018), Dessler
(2017), Cummings & Worley (2009), Mondy & Martocchio (2016)
▪ Recruiting Yield Pyramid: gauge the staffing
Structure
issues it needs to address
Structured – source is job analysis, all participants
Media Advertisements – Newspaper Ads, Blind Box,
are asked with the same questions and there is a
Electronic Media, Situation-Wanted Ads, Point-ofstandardized scoring key
Purchase Methods, Recruiters
- more reliable and valid
Employee Agencies and Search Firms
Unstructured – freely asking anything they want
- Employee Agencies: outsourced agencies that helps
- Primacy Effects: first impression affected the
the company for recruitment
evaluation
- Executing Search Firms: the jobs they represent tend
- Contrast Effects: the interview performance of one
to be higher-paying, non-entry level positions
applicant may affect the interview score given to the
- Public Employment Agencies: designed primarily to
next applicant
help the unemployed find work, but they often offer
- Negative-Information Bias: negative information
services such as career advisement and resume
apparently weighs more heavily that positive
preparation
information
Employee Referrals – current employees recommend
- Interviewer-Interviewee Similarity: interviewee will
someone for hiring
receive a higher score if she is similar to the
- most effective but at risk for possible discrimination
interviewer in terms of personality, attitude, gender, or
race
Direct Mail – an employer obtains a mailing list and
send help-wanted letters or brochures to people
Style
through the mail
One-on-One – one interviewer, one applicant
Internet – employer-based websites, internet
Serial - series of single interviews
recruiters
- e.g., first interview with recruitment manager, then
Job Fairs – designed to provide information in a
HR head, to immediate supervisor, then CEO
personal fashion to as many applicants as possible
Return – similar to serial interviews with difference
Nontraditional Population – developing recruitment
being a passing of time between the first and
strategies for minorities, inmates, PWDS etc.
subsequent interviews
- e.g., returning the next day for another interview
Passive Applicants – recruiters try to find ways to
identify hidden talent and convince them to apply for
Panel – multiple interviewers, one applicant
a job with their company
Group – multiple applicants were interviewed at the
o Interviews – most commonly used method to select
same time
employees
Serial-Panel-Group – series of panel and group
▪ Clarifiers: allow the interviewer to clarify
interviews
information in the resume, cover letter, and
Medium
application, fill in gaps, and obtain necessary
Face-to-Face - both the applicant and interviewer are
information
at the same room
▪ Disqualifiers: questions that must be answered a
Telephone – often used to screen applicants but do
particular way or the applicant is disqualified
not allow the use of visual cues
▪ Skill-Level Determiners: tap an interviewee’s
Videoconference – the applicant and the interviewer
level of expertise
can hear and see each other, but the interview is
▪ Future-Focused Questions/Situational
remote
Questions: ask what they would do in a
Written – involve the applicant answering a series of
particular situation
written questions
▪ Past-Focused Questions/Patterned Behavior
o Resume – summaries of an applicant’s professional
Description Interviews/Behavioral Questions:
and educational background
focused on previous behavior
▪ Views as a history of your life or an
▪ Organizational-Fit Questions: tap the extent to
advertisement of your skills
which the applicant will fit into the culture of an
Chronological – lists previous jobs in order from the
organization or with the leadership of a
most to least recent
particular supervisor
Hi :) this reviewer is FREE! u can share it with others but never sell it okay? let’s help each other <3 -aly
Industrial Psychology
#BLEPP2023
Sources: Aamodt (2016), Levy (2017), Howes & Muchinsky (2019), Riggio (2013), McShane & Glinow (2018), Dessler
(2017), Cummings & Worley (2009), Mondy & Martocchio (2016)
(2) assessing the employee’s performance relative to
Functional – organizes jobs based on skills required
those standards
to perform them rather than the order they were
(3) providing feedback
worked
o Criteria – ways of describing employee success
Psychological – contains the strengths of both
▪ Trait-Focused: concentrates on such employee
chronological and functional styles
attributes such as dependability, honest, and
▪ Averaging versus Adding Model of Impression
courtesy
Formation: implies that activity quality is more
▪
Competency-Focused: concentrate on
important than quantity
employee’s knowledge, skills, and abilities
o Taylor-Russell Tables – designed to estimate the
▪ Task-Focused: organized by the similarity of
percentage of future employees who will be
tasks that are performed
successful in the job if an organization uses a
▪ Goal-Focused: based on the goals accomplished
particular test
by the employee
o Proportion of Correct Decisions – the only info
▪
Contextual Performance: the effort an employe
needed is employee test scores and scores on
makes to get along with peers, improve the
criterion
organization, and perform tasks that are needed
▪ Type 1 Error: False Positive (Q3)
but are not necessarily an official part of the
▪ Type II Error: false negative (Q1)
employee’s job description
▪ True Positive (Q2)
Compare the role of HRM and HRD in an Org
▪ True Negative (Q4)
o Human Resource MANAGEMENT is about
o Lawshe Tables – probability that a particular
WHOM and HOW to employ for the best outcome
applicant will be successful
o Human Resource DEVELOPMENT is about
o Brogden-Cronbach-Gleser Utility Formula –
making the employee BEST ASSET for the best
computing the amount of money an organization
outcome
would save if it used the test to select employees
Team
Dynamics (15)
Top-Down Selection – applicants are rank-ordered on
Team
Dynamics
the basis of their test scores
o
Group
– two or more people who perceive
Rule of Three – the names of top three scorers are
themselves as a group and interacts with each other
given to the person making the hiring decision
▪ Must involve some degree of structure and
Passing Scores – determines the lowest score on a
permanency
test that is associated with acceptable performance on
▪
Collection of people to be called group, the
the job
following criteria must be met: (a) the members
Multiple-Cutoff Approach – the applicants would be
of the group must see themselves as a unit; (b)
administered all of the test at one time
the group must provide rewards to its members;
Multiple-Hurdle Approach – applicant is
(c) anything that happens to one member of the
administered one test at a time
group affects every other members; and (d) the
Banding – attempts to hire the top scorers while
members of the group must share a common
allowing some flexibility for affirmative action
goal. (Gordon, 2001)
Developing, Monitoring, Maintaining, Managing
▪
Groups must have multiple members
Relationships
▪
2 (Dyad), 3 (Triad), 4 to 20 people (Small
o Leading – getting others to get the job done,
Group)
maintaining morale, and motivate subordinates
▪
an event that affects one group member should
o Controlling – setting standards such as sales quota,
affect all group members (Corresponding
quality standards, or production levels, checking to
Effects)
see how actual performance compared with the
o
Formal
Groups – subunits that the organization
standards, taking corrective action as needed
has
established
Evaluation
o Informal Group – no to little interdependence and
o Performance Appraisal – evaluating an
no organizationally mandated purpose
employee’s current and/or past performance relative
▪
They exist due to the fact that humans are social
to his or her performance standards
animals and have a drive to bond with others,
(1) setting work standards
they define themselves by their group
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Industrial Psychology
#BLEPP2023
Sources: Aamodt (2016), Levy (2017), Howes & Muchinsky (2019), Riggio (2013), McShane & Glinow (2018), Dessler
(2017), Cummings & Worley (2009), Mondy & Martocchio (2016)
affiliations, and to accomplish personal
Task Force (Project) Teams (Cross-Functional) –
objectives
members are usually drawn from different disciplines
▪ Develop apart from the official structure of the
to solve a specific problem, realize an opportunity, or
organization and exist relatively independent of
design a product or service
it
Production Teams – frontline employees producing
o Work Group – interdependent collection of
tangible outputs
individuals who share responsibility for specific
Management Teams – corporate executive teams,
outcomes for their organization
coordinate other work units under their direction
o Team – consists of interdependent workers with
Service Teams – attend the needs of the clients
complimentary skills working toward a shared goal
Advisory Teams (Parallel Teams)– solve problems
or outcome
and recommend solutions
▪ Groups of two or more people who interact with
o Process Losses – teams have additional costs and
and influence each other, that is: (1) to fulfill
resources expended on the team development and
some purpose; (2) held together by their
maintenance rather than on performing the task
interdependence and need for collaboration; (3)
▪ Refers to any nonmotivational element of a
influence each other; and, (3) perceive
group situation that detracts from the group
themselves to be a team
performance
▪ Team Permanence: how long that team exists
▪ Amplified when more people are added or
▪ Skill Diversity: each member possesses different
replace others on the team
skills and knowledge
▪ Brooks’ Law – adding more people on a project
▪ Authority Dispersion: the degree that decisionteam when the project is already on-going, the
making responsibility is distributed throughout
project will more likely finished longer than in
the team
shorter span of time
▪ Identification: extent to which group members
o Social Facilitation – involves positive effect of
identify with the team rather than in other groups
presence of others on individual’s behavior
▪ Interdependence: one member does greatly
▪ Social Inhibition – involves the negative effects
influence what another member does
of other’s presence
▪ Power Differentiation: overstepping roles,
▪ Audience Effects – takes place when a group of
challenge opinions, interrupt each other, gives
people passively watch an individual
orders, and use sarcasm
▪ Audience size, proximity, and status affects the
▪ Social Distance: an imaginary space that
performance of the group
separates two colleagues such as treating them
▪ Coaction – the effect on behavior when two or
formally and very politely rather than being
more people are performing the same task in the
casual
presence of one another
▪ Team members respond to conflict by
▪ Mere presence of others naturally produces
collaborating, try to understand the other’s views,
arousal
makes attempt to compromise, and use
o Social Loafing – considers the effect on individual
nonthreatening tones
performance when people work together on a task;
▪ Members negotiate in a win-win style in which
exerting less effort in group work than individual
the goal is for every person to come out ahead
work (Max Ringelmann)
Departmental Teams – consists of employees who
▪ Occurs on tasks with low in attractiveness
have similar or complimentary skills and are located
▪ Less likely to occur in cohesive groups
in the same unit of a functional structure
▪ Social Enhancement – occurred among group
- usually minimal task interdependence because each
members who were working on a task that was
person works with clients or with employees in other
high in attractiveness
departments
▪ Free-Rider Theory – when things are going
Self-Directed Teams – teams whose members are
well, a group member realizes that his effort is not
organized around work processes that complete an
necessary, and this does not work hard as he
entire piece of work requiring several interdependent
would if he were alone
tasks and have substantial autonomy over the
execution of those tasks
Hi :) this reviewer is FREE! u can share it with others but never sell it okay? let’s help each other <3 -aly
Industrial Psychology
#BLEPP2023
Sources: Aamodt (2016), Levy (2017), Howes & Muchinsky (2019), Riggio (2013), McShane & Glinow (2018), Dessler
(2017), Cummings & Worley (2009), Mondy & Martocchio (2016)
▪ Sucker Effect – social loafing occurs when a
▪ Disjunctive Tasks – group performance is based
group member notices that other group members
on the most talented group member
are not working hard and does are “playing him
▪ Social Impact Theory – If the group is already
for a sucker”, then decide that they will no longer
stable and cohesive, adding another member
be played for a sucker and thus reduce their effort
might be disruptive
▪ Social Compensation – when individual increase
o The higher group status, the greater cohesiveness
their efforts on collective tasks because they don’t
o It’s important to believe that a group has higher status
anticipate much help from their group members
o Groups with high-ability members outperform those
▪ To minimize social loafing:
with low-ability members
✓ Form smaller groups so each member’s
o Confidence is the key to success
performance is noticeable and important and it
o Groups whose members have task-related experience
increases individual commitment and identity
and score high in the personality dimensions of
with the team
openness to experience and emotional stability will
✓ Specialize tasks to easier observe when each
perform better than groups with no such
member performs differently
characteristics
✓ Measure individual performance
o Good Communication is also the key
✓ Increase Job Enrichment so it could have high
o Mental Model – organized knowledge structure that
motivation potential
enhance the interaction of an individual with his or
✓ Select motivated, team-oriented employees, who
her environment
are also known to have at least moderately high
▪ Shared Mental Models – organized structures
conscientiousness and agreeableness
combining the knowledge, beliefs, and
o If the leader or group member has an accurate
understandings of two or more individuals that
solution to a problem the group is trying to solve, the
help coordinate their efforts
group will probably perform at a high level
o Group Roles – extent to which its members assume
o Groupthink – members become cohesive and likedifferent roles
minded that they make poor decisions despite
▪ Task-Oriented Roles – involves behaviors such
contrary information that might reasonably lead
as offering new ideas, coordinating activities, and
them to other options
finding new information
o Mindguard – a member of a cohesive group whose
▪ Social-Oriented Roles – involve encouraging
job it is to protect the group from the outside
cohesiveness and participation
information that is inconsistent with the group’s
▪ Individual Role – blocking group activities,
views
calling attention to oneself, and avoiding group
o Team members tend to work together more
interaction
effectively when they receive some team-based
5 C’s of Effective Team Member Behavior
rewards, when the organization’s structure assigns
Cooperating – share resources, accommodate others
discrete clusters of work activity to teams
Coordinating – align work with others, keep the team
o External competition also increases motivation for
on track
teams to work together
Communicating – share info freely, efficiently,
▪ Groups that are pressured by outside forces also
respectfully, and listen actively
tend to become highly cohesive
Comforting – show empathy, provide emotional
▪ Psychological Reactance – when we believe that
comfort, build confidence in others
someone is trying to intentionally influence us to
Conflict Handling – diagnose conflict sources, use
take some particular action, we often react by
best conflict-handling style
doing the opposite
o Group Homogeneity – extent to which its members
o Smaller size of group, more cohesive
are similar
▪ Additive Tasks – those for which the group’s
▪ Homogenous Group – members are similar in
performance is equal to the sum of the
some or most ways
performances by each group member; each
▪ Heterogenous Group – members are more
contribution is important
different than alike
▪ Conjunctive Tasks – group performance
depends on the least effective group member
Hi :) this reviewer is FREE! u can share it with others but never sell it okay? let’s help each other <3 -aly
Industrial Psychology
#BLEPP2023
Sources: Aamodt (2016), Levy (2017), Howes & Muchinsky (2019), Riggio (2013), McShane & Glinow (2018), Dessler
(2017), Cummings & Worley (2009), Mondy & Martocchio (2016)
▪ The best working groups consist primarily of
▪ Members that are similar with each other have
similar people but have dissimilar person adding
higher cohesion
tension and a different vantage point
▪ More cohesive the group is, the greater:
▪ Main advantage of diverse teams is that they
performance,
decision
quality,
member
make better decisions in some situations because
satisfaction, member interaction, employee
they see a problem from different angles
courtesy
▪ Diverse teams also have broader pool of technical
▪ Cohesiveness also lose the sight of organization
abilities and provide better representation of the
goals (e.g. putting their colleagues first before
team’s constituents
their client)
o Role – set of behaviors that people are expected to
▪ The greater stability, the greater cohesiveness
perform because they hold formal or informal
▪ Groups in which members remain for long
positions in a team and organization
periods of time are more cohesive and perform
▪ Role Differentiation – process by which group
better than groups that have high turnover
or organization establishes distinct roles for
▪ Groups that are isolated or located away from
various members of the group, accomplished
other groups tend to be highly cohesive
through formal job descriptions, rules, task
▪ Smaller groups are more cohesive and when they
requirements, etc.
interact regularly
o Conflict – friction that emerges in the team
▪ The more elite a team is, the more prestige it
▪ Relationship Conflict – tension in interpersonal
confers to the members, and the more they tend
relationships
to value their membership = higher cohesion
▪ Task Conflict – results when team members have
▪ Teams with higher cohesion tend to perform
different ideas, beliefs, viewpoints
better than those with lower cohesion
▪ Process Conflict – when group members have
o Team Trust – refers to positive expectations one
incompatible ideas about how the work should be
person has toward another person in situations
completed
involving risk
o Team Building – consists of formal activities to
▪ Calculus-Based Trust: logical calculation that
improve the development and functioning of a work
other team members will act appropriately
team
because they face sanctions if their actions violate
a) Team Volunteering events
reasonable expectations
b) Team Scavenger Hunt/Treasure Hunt
▪ Knowledge-Based Trust: based on the
c) Team Sports/Exercise Competitions
predictability of another team member’s
d) Team Music Ensemble Events
behavior; you would not trust someone who tends
o Norms – informal rules and shared expectations that
to engage in harmful or dysfunctional behavior
groups establish to regulate the behavior of their
▪ Identification-Based Trust: based on mutual
members
understanding and an emotional bond among
▪ Descriptive Norms – define what most people
team members; occurs when team members
tend to do, feel, or think in a particular situation
think, feel, and act like each other
▪ Prescriptive Norms – what people should do,
Self-Directed Teams – cross-functional groups
feel, or think in a particular situation
organized around work processes that complete an
o Team Cohesion – refers to the degree of attraction
entire piece of work requiring several interdependent
people feel toward the team and their motivation to
tasks and have substantial autonomy over the execution
remain members
of those tasks
▪ Attracted to the team, committed to the team’s
- closed knit group of employees who depend on each
goals, tasks, and feel a collective sense of team
other to accomplish individual tasks
pride
- substantial autonomy over the execution of tasks with
▪ the extent to which group members like and trust
little to no direct involvement of a higher-status
one another, are committed to accomplishing a
supervisor
team goal, and share a feeling of group pride
Virtual Teams – teams whose members operate across
▪ Similarity-Attraction Effect: occurs when people
space, time, and organizational boundaries and are
assume that people are more trustworthy and
linked through information technologies to achieve
more acceptable if they are similar to them
organizational tasks
Hi :) this reviewer is FREE! u can share it with others but never sell it okay? let’s help each other <3 -aly
Industrial Psychology
#BLEPP2023
Sources: Aamodt (2016), Levy (2017), Howes & Muchinsky (2019), Riggio (2013), McShane & Glinow (2018), Dessler
(2017), Cummings & Worley (2009), Mondy & Martocchio (2016)
- members are not usually co-located
demographic
- depend on information technology rather than facecharacteristics
to-face interaction to communicate
Group Work Design
Member task
Stages of Team Development
interdependence
o Teams typically go through 5 developmental phases,
Member goal
according to Tuckman:
interdependence
1. Forming – team members get to know each other
Intragroup Processes
Group Cohesion
and decide roles, discover expectations, test
Group Efficacy or
boundaries of behavior
communication processes
2. Storming – begins to disagree with each other;
External Group
Communication outside
frustration starts individually
Processes
the group
3. Norming – easing the tension from the previous
External Interaction
stage, developing cohesion, agree on team
Patterns
objectives
Norms
4. Performing – begins to accomplish the goals,
o Norms directly reinforced through praise from highhigh cooperation and trust, conflicts resolved
status members, more access to valued resources, or
quickly
other rewards available to the team
5. Adjourning – when the team is about to disband
o The more closely the person’s social identity is
o Punctuated Equilibrium – rather than forming in
connected with the group, the more the individual is
stages, teams develop direction and strategy in the
motivated to avoid negative sanctions from that
first meeting, follow this direction for a period of
group
time, and then drastically revise their strategy about
halfway through
Cohesion
Group Processes that affect Team Effectiveness
o Members of highly cohesive team spend more time
3 Major Dimensions of Work-Team Effectiveness
together, share information more frequently, and are
Team Performance – concerns how well the team is
more satisfied with each other
performing and includes such variables such as
o When conflict arises, they tend to resolve their
productivity, quality of output, and the degree to
differences swiftly and effectively
which costs are controlled in this process
o Team cohesion has less effect on team performance
Attitudes – reflect such variables as quality of work
when the team has low task interdependence (the
life, trust in management, organizational commitment,
need to cooperate or interact)
and job satisfaction
o Teams with high cohesion perform better when their
norms are aligned with the organization’s
Withdrawal Behaviors – turnover, absence and
objectives, whereas higher cohesion can potentially
tardiness
reduce team performance when norms are
Diversity – members differ on one or more attributes
counterproductive
o Taskwork – involves the task-oriented aspects of
Trust
work; entails specific individual behaviors required
o Trust tends to decrease rather than increase over
for success
time
o Teamwork – involves the process-oriented aspects
o Employees become less forgiving and less
of work; includes wide range of activities aimed at
cooperative toward others as their level of trust
maintaining and enhancing team performance
decreases and this undermines team and
▪ Revolves around communication and
organizational effectiveness
coordination among team members, feedback,
Common problems that occur in teams
team cohesion, and norms
Constraints on Team Decision Making
Predictors of Work-Team Effectiveness
o Production Blocking – teams take longer than
Organizational Context Rewards, goals and
individuals to decide because they require time to
feedback, training
build rapport, agree on rules and norms, and
Group Composition and Cognitive Ability of
understand each other’s ideas
Size
group members,
personality traits, and
Hi :) this reviewer is FREE! u can share it with others but never sell it okay? let’s help each other <3 -aly
Industrial Psychology
#BLEPP2023
Sources: Aamodt (2016), Levy (2017), Howes & Muchinsky (2019), Riggio (2013), McShane & Glinow (2018), Dessler
(2017), Cummings & Worley (2009), Mondy & Martocchio (2016)
o Evaluation Apprehension – based on individual’s
4. Communication Barriers
desire to create a favorable self-presentation and
5. Beliefs
need to protect self-esteem
6. Personalities
▪ Team members are often reluctant to mention
Conflict Styles
ideas that seem silly because they believe that
A. Avoiding Style – ignore conflict and hope it will
other team members are silently evaluating them
resolve itself
o Team cohesion leads employees to conform to the
▪ Triangling: occurs when an employee discusses
team’s norms, thus, depending on the opinions that
the conflict with a third party
others hold to validate an individual’s views
B. Accommodating Style – a person is so intent on
▪ If coworkers disagree, they begin to question
settling a conflict that he gives in and risks hurting
their opinions even with overt peer pressure
himself
o Team Efficacy – collective confidence on how well
C. Forcing Style – handles conflict in a win-lose
they work together and the likely success of their
fashion and does what it takes to win, with little
team effort
regard for the other person
▪ Although high efficacy teams set more
D. Collaborating Style – wants to win but also wants
challenging goals and are more motivated to
the other person win as well
achieve them, teams could make worse decisions
E. Compromising Style – adopts give-and-take tactics
if they are overconfident
that enable each side to get some of what it wants
▪ They become less vigilant when making
Resolving Conflicts
decisions and engage in less constructive debate
o When conflict first occurs, two parties should be
Why Teams Don’t Always Work
encouraged to resolve the conflict on their own
1. The team is not a team
o Dispute – when they can’t agree to resolve the
2. Excessive meeting requirements
conflict
3. Lack of Empowerment
o Cooperative Problem Solving – all department reps
4. Lack of Skill
come over to solve the problem
5. Distrust of the Team Process
o Third-Party Intervention
6. Unclear Objectives
a. Mediation – neutral third party is asked to help
Group Conflict
both parties reach agreeable solution to the
o Conflict – psychological and behavioral reaction to
conflict
a perception that another person is keeping you from
b. Arbitration – neutral third party listens to both
reaching a goal
sides and make decision
o Dysfunctional Conflict – keeps people from
Individual versus Group Performance
working together, lessens productivity, spreads to
o Nominal Group – when several people individually
other areas, and increases turnover
work on a problem but do not interact
o Functional Conflict – moderate levels of conflict
o Interacting Group – when individuals interact to
can stimulate new ideas, increase friendly
solve a problem
competition, and increase team effectiveness
o Brainstorming – group members are encouraged to
Types of Conflicts
speak out their ideas
A. Interpersonal Conflicts – occurs between two
o Brainwriting – removing conversations during idea
individuals
generation
B. Individual-Group Conflicts – usually occurs when
o Group Polarization – group members will shift
the individual’s needs are different from the group’s
their beliefs to a more extreme version of what they
needs, goals, or norms
already believe individually
C. Group-Group Conflict – occurs between two or
Organizational Change and Development (20)
more groups
Differentiate: Org Change vs. Org Dev, Org Dev. vs.
Causes of Conflict
Org Transition
1. Competition for Resources
Organizational Change – refers to the actions in
2. Task interdependence – group members depends on
which a company or business alters a major
the performance of other group members
component of its organization, such as culture,
3. Jurisdictional Ambiguity – geographical boundaries
technology, infrastructure, etc.
or lines of authority are unclear
Hi :) this reviewer is FREE! u can share it with others but never sell it okay? let’s help each other <3 -aly
Industrial Psychology
#BLEPP2023
Sources: Aamodt (2016), Levy (2017), Howes & Muchinsky (2019), Riggio (2013), McShane & Glinow (2018), Dessler
(2017), Cummings & Worley (2009), Mondy & Martocchio (2016)
- process of guiding organizational change to a
Incremental Change – introduces small, but
successful resolution
meaningful changes to an organization’s systems,
- Evolutionary Change: continual process of
processes, and structures
upgrading or improving processes
- can help businesses increase their efficiency and
- Revolutionary Change: drastic changes
effectiveness
- process of altering organizations to be more adaptive
- focused on small, targeted adjustments
and congruent with their business environment
Developmental Change – seeks to build on existing
- an organization achieving a desired future state from
processes, structures, and capabilities of an
its current state with minimal disruption or negative
organization in order to bring about meaningful
impact to the organization
improvements
Organizational Development – change process
- involves introducing new systems, technologies, and
through which employees formulate the change that’s
tools that enable greater efficiency and effectiveness
required and implement it
in the workplace
- planned, organization-wide effort to increase
- focuses on building upon existing systems,
organizational effectiveness through behavioral
processes, and structures to bring about meaningful
science knowledge and technology
improvements
- how an organization achieve its purpose/change
Remedial Change – involves making corrections or
through design, function, structure, and processes
improvements to existing systems, processes and
- addresses change and how it affects organizations
structures in order to bring about more efficient and
and the individuals within those organizations
effective operations
Organizational Transition – implementation of
- troubleshooting and problem-solving
change through systematic planning, organizing and
Process and System Change – making adjustment to
implementation of change to reach desirable future
existing processes and systems in order to improve
state without affecting continuity of business
efficiency and effectiveness
Different factors driving Org Change
- introduction of new technologies, systems, and tools
1. Technology – adoption and diffusion of computers
People and Culture Change – focuses on
into work life
transforming organization’s culture, values, and
2. Cultural Diversity
behaviors in order to drive greater efficiency and
3. Emergence of advanced communication
effectiveness
technologies
- introducing new corporate policies, procedures, and
4. Globalization, Global Competition
systems that help create an environment where
5. Redistribution of economic power
employees feel supported, valued, and empowered
6. Consumer needs
Structural Change – alters the way an organization is
7. Government deregulation
structured in order to improve efficiency and
8. Environmental Standards
effectiveness
12 different types of Large-Scale Organizational
- involves introducing new policies, procedures, and
changes
systems that help to streamline operations and
Transformational Change – seeks to create
eliminate areas of waste
significant, fundamental shifts in how an organization
- re-organizing departments and teams in order to
operates and organizes itself
better align the organization’s goals, objectives, and
- involves introducing new strategies, processes,
strategies
systems, and structures that shift the way the company
Merger and Acquisition Change – involves merging
operates
or acquisition of two or more business
- more radical – it can involve overhauling existing
- combining resources, personnel, and operation from
operations or introducing larger, systemic solutions
multiple organizations into one
that may span across multiple departments
De-merger Change – involves splitting of an
- requires deep level of commitment from leaders and
organization into two or more separate entities
employees alike as it often requires them to let go of
- when an organization has grown too large, and there
traditional ways of doing things in order to embrace
is a need to streamline operations and simplify
new systems and procedures
structures in order to improve efficiency
Hi :) this reviewer is FREE! u can share it with others but never sell it okay? let’s help each other <3 -aly
Industrial Psychology
#BLEPP2023
Sources: Aamodt (2016), Levy (2017), Howes & Muchinsky (2019), Riggio (2013), McShane & Glinow (2018), Dessler
(2017), Cummings & Worley (2009), Mondy & Martocchio (2016)
Downsizing – reducing the size of an organization
accomplish tasks, help members enhance their
- involves cutting costs and reducing personnel in
interpersonal and problem-solving skills, and increase
order to achieve greater efficiency and productivity
team performance
- Confrontation Meeting: intervention designed to
Relocation Change – moving of an organization or
mobilize the resources of the entire organization to
parts of it to a new location
identify problems
- take advantage of new opportunities in different
- Microcosm Groups: consists of small number of
geographic regions, cultures, and countries
individuals who reflect the issue being addressed (e.g.,
Rebranding Change – making modifications to
minorities, marginalized groups)
organization’s brand or public image, in order to
- Large-Group Interventions: referred to variously as
create a more compelling and attractive image
“Search conferences,” “open-space meetings,” “openDifferent types of Org Interventions used to enhance
systems planning” etc.; focuses on issues that affect
org effectiveness, well-being, and productivity
the who organization or large segments of it
Human Process Interventions – related to
Technocultural Interventions – targeted toward
interpersonal relations, group, and organization
structural and technological issues such as
dynamics
organization design, work redesign, and employee
- Process Consultation: creation of a relationship that
engagement
permits the client to perceive, understand, and act on
- structural design, re-engineering, downsizing
the process events that occur in [his or her] internal
and external environment in order to improve the
Employee Involvement Applications
situation as defined by the client
1. Parallel Structures – involve members in
- works to help managers, employees, and group
resolving ill-defined, complex problems, and build
assess and improve human processes, such as
adaptability into bureaucratic organizations
communication, interpersonal relations, decision2. Total Quality Management – emphasizing quality
making, and task performance
control and represents a long-term effort to orient all
Group Process
of an organization’s activities around the concept of
1. Communication
quality
2. Functional Roles of Group Members
3. High Involvement Organizations – members
3. Group Problem Solving and Decision-Making
receive extensive training in problem-solving
4. Group Norms
techniques, plant operation, and organizational
5. The Use of Leadership and Authority
policies
Human Resource Management Interventions –
Basic Process Interventions
impact areas such as performance management, talent
1. Individual Intervention – help people be more
development, DEIB, and well-being in the workplace
effective in their communication with others
- Performance Management: process of defining,
2. Group Interventions
assessing, and reinforcing employee work behaviors
a. Process interventions: sensitize the group to its
and outcomes
own internal processes and generate interest in
- Goal Setting: managers and subordinates in jointly
analyzing them; relationships among group members,
establishing and clarifying employee goals
problem-solving and decision-making, and identity
- Performance Appraisal: feedback system that
and purpose of the group
involves direct evaluation of individual or work-group
b. Content Interventions: comments, questions, or
performance by supervisor, manager, or peers
observations about group memberships, agenda
- Reward Systems: incentives for improving employee
setting, review, and testing procedures, interpersonal
and work-group performance
issues, and conceptual inputs on task-related topics
- Coaching, Mentoring, Training, etc.
c. Structural Interventions: help the group examine
Strategic Change Interventions – revolves around
the stable and recurring methods it uses to accomplish
transformational change, restructuring, and uniting
tasks and deal with external issues
two or more organizations together during a merger
- Team Building: refers to a broad range of planned
activities that help groups improve the way they
Hi :) this reviewer is FREE! u can share it with others but never sell it okay? let’s help each other <3 -aly
Industrial Psychology
#BLEPP2023
Sources: Aamodt (2016), Levy (2017), Howes & Muchinsky (2019), Riggio (2013), McShane & Glinow (2018), Dessler
(2017), Cummings & Worley (2009), Mondy & Martocchio (2016)
Different strategies and techniques org use to manage
end
change, and/or cope with change to achieve org
efficiency
congratulations on reaching the end of this reviewer! we
will all pass #BLEPP2023!! see u in PICC this year!! i’ll
Motivating Change
1. Creating Readiness for Change – creating a felt
be in Filipiniana
need for a change by making people so dissatisfied
with the status quo
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2. Overcoming Resistance to Change
- Technical Resistance: comes from the habit of
following common procedures and the consideration
of sunk costs invested in the status quo
- Political Resistance: org changes threatens powerful
stakeholders
- Cultural Resistance: takes the form of systems and
procedures that reinforce the status quo, promoting
conformity to existing values, norms, and assumptions
3 Major Strategies for Dealing with Resistance to
change
1. Empathy and Support
2. Communication
3. Participation Involvement
Creating a Vision – to provide valued direction for
designing, implementing, and assessing organizational
changes
- can also energize commitment to change by
providing members with a common goal and a
compelling rationale for why change is necessary and
worth the effort
Developing Political Support – by assessing change
agent power, identifying key stakeholders, and
influencing them
Managing the Transition
1. Activity Planning – making a roadmap for change,
citing specific activities, and events that must occur if
the transition is to be successful
2. Commitment Planning – identifying key people
and groups whose commitment is needed for change
to occur and formulating a strategy for gaining their
support
3. Change-Management Structures – should include
people who have the power to mobilize resources to
promote change, the respect of the existing leadership
and change advocates, and the interpersonal and
political skills to guide the change process
4. Managing Learning Process
Sustaining Momentum – by building a support
system for change agents, developing new
competencies and skills, reinforcing new behaviors,
and staying in the course
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