Why is it difficult to agree with
Psammetichus that Phrygian must have
been the original human language?
Q1.
The experiment conducted by
Psammetichus, as reported by the Greek
historian Herodotus, involved raising two
infants in isolation to determine whether
human beings have an innate capacity for
speech, and if so, which particular
language is innate. After two years, the
children began to speak, and the word
they repeated most often was “bekos”,
which turned out to be the Phrygian word
for bread. From this, Psammetichus
concluded that the capacity for speech is
innate, and that the natural language of
human beings is Phrygian.
However, there are several reasons why
it’s difficult to agree with Psammetichus’s
conclusion:
1. Lack of Control: The experiment lacks
rigorous scientific controls. For instance,
the children could have been influenced
by sounds from their environment, not
just the shepherd’s silence.
2. Limited Sample Size: The conclusion is
based on the behavior of only two
children. This is a very small sample size
to make a generalization about all of
humanity.
3. Language Complexity: Languages are
complex and evolve over time. The
Phrygian language itself, now extinct,
was part of the Indo-European language
family. It’s unlikely that one word
(“becos”) could determine that Phrygian
is the original human language.
4. Innateness of Language: While it’s
widely accepted that the capacity for
language is innate, the specific language
spoken is generally understood to be
learned, not innate. This contradicts
Psammetichus’s conclusion that
Phrygian is the innate language of
humans.
Therefore, while Psammetichus’s
experiment is an interesting historical
anecdote, its conclusions about the
origins of human language are not widely
accepted in modern linguistics.
Why are interjections such as Ouch
considered to be unlikely sources of
human speech sounds?
Q2.
Interjections such as “Ouch!” are
considered to be unlikely sources of
human speech sounds for a couple of
reasons:
1. Unique Sounds: Interjections contain
sounds that are not otherwise used in
ordinary speech production. This makes
them distinct and less likely to be the
basis for the variety of sounds used in
human languages.
2. Breath Control: They are usually
produced with sudden intakes of breath,
which is the opposite of ordinary talk,
produced on exhaled breath. This
difference in breath control further
separates interjections from the typical
sounds of human speech.
3. Non-Productive: Interjections are often
seen as non-productive, standalone
utterances. They are spontaneous
emotional outbursts and are often
dismissed as contributing little to a
language’s sentences and syntax.
4. Vocal Gestures: By signaling our basic
human emotional and mental states,
interjections often seem more like vocal
gestures than real language. They are
often equated with the primitive cries of
animals, which are instinctual sounds
that a human can’t help but make when
dealing with all their feelings.
These factors contribute to the view that
interjections are unlikely to be the
primary sources of human speech sounds.
However, it’s important to note that this
doesn’t mean interjections have no role in
language—they do convey meaning and
emotion, and they are a part of our
linguistic repertoire. But they are just one
small part of the complex system that
makes up human language.
Where is the pharynx and how did it
become an important part of human
sound production?
Q3.
The pharynx, also known as the throat, is
a muscular tube that starts at the base of
the skull behind the nasal cavity and
extends down to the larynx (voice box)
and esophagus (the tube that leads to the
stomach). It consists of three major
sections: the nasopharynx (the top part of
the throat in the back of the nose), the
oropharynx (the middle part behind your
mouth), and the hypopharynx (the lowest
part, found behind the voice box).
The pharynx plays a crucial role in human
sound production. During vocalizing, the
pharynx serves the purpose of amplifying
the sound waves produced by the
vibrating of the vocal folds in the larynx.
The pharynx contains both circular and
longitudinal muscles. The circular
muscles form constrictions that help push
food to the esophagus, while the
longitudinal fibres lift the walls of the
pharynx during swallowing. These
muscles, along with the unique structure
of the pharynx, contribute to the
resonance and quality of our voice.
In addition to its role in sound
production, the pharynx also serves both
respiratory and digestive functions. It
takes in air from the nasal passages as
well as food and drink from the mouth.
The complex structure and function of the
pharynx highlight its importance in our
daily lives.
Why do you think that young deaf
children who become fluent in sign
Q4.
language would be cited in support of the
innateness hypothesis?
The innateness hypothesis suggests that
humans are born with a special capacity
for language, which is genetically
determined and not dependent on specific
physical adaptations for speech.
In George Yule’s book “The Study of
Language”, it is mentioned that even
children who are born deaf and do not
develop speech become fluent sign
language users very early in life. This
supports the innateness hypothesis in
several ways:
1. Language Modality: The fact that
deaf children can become fluent in
sign language indicates that the
human capacity for language extends
beyond speech and can manifest in
other modalities, such as visualgestural communication.
2. Language Development: Deaf
children who are exposed to sign
language from an early age often
achieve linguistic milestones at a
similar pace to hearing children
learning spoken languages. This
suggests that the ability to acquire
language is not tied to the ability to
hear, but is a more fundamental aspect
of human cognition.
3. Language Creation: There are
instances where deaf children have
been observed to develop their own
sign languages, further supporting the
idea that the capacity for language is
innate.
In conclusion, the ability of young deaf
children to become fluent in sign language
provides strong evidence in support of
the innateness hypothesis, demonstrating
that the capacity for language is a
fundamental part of human cognition, not
necessarily tied to speech, and likely to be
genetically determined.
With which of the six “sources” would
you associate this quotation? Chewing,
licking and sucking are extremely
widespread mammalian activities, which,
in terms of casual observation, have
obvious similarities with speech.
Q5.
The quotation aligns with discussions on
the biological sources of language,
highlighting innate biological
predispositions and behaviors shared
among mammals that could influence
language development. Chewing, licking,
and sucking are observed in various
mammalian species, suggesting a
fundamental biological foundation for
communication. These behaviors might
provide insights into the evolutionary
origins of speech and language, as they
demonstrate commonalities and potential
precursors to the complex vocalizations
and articulations involved in human
speech. Therefore, the quotation
underscores the importance of examining
biological aspects in understanding the
origins and nature of language.
What is the connection between the
Heimlich maneuver and the development
of human speech?
Q6.
The Heimlich maneuver is a technique to
dislodge an object stuck in the throat of a
choking person. It involves applying
sudden pressure on the abdomen, just
below the rib cage, to force air out of the
lungs and push the object out of the
airway.
The connection between the Heimlich
maneuver and the development of human
speech is that both are related to the
lower position of the larynx in
humans. The lower larynx is believed to
be one of the keys to the development of
human speech, as it allows for a wider
range of sounds and more precise
articulation. However, the lower larynx
also makes humans more prone to
choking, as it creates a longer and
narrower passage between the mouth and
the lungs, where food and other objects
can get stuck. The Heimlich maneuver is a
solution to a life-threatening problem
potentially caused by that development.
What is the connection between the
innateness hypothesis and the idea of a
Universal Grammar?
Q7.
The connection between the innateness
hypothesis and the idea of a Universal
Grammar is that both of them assume that
humans are born with some innate
knowledge or ability that enables them to
acquire and use language. The innateness
hypothesis, as described in this chapter,
claims that children have a Universal
Grammar that defines a space of possible
human languages, and that language
acquisition involves filling in the details of
this innate blueprint rather than being an
entirely inductive process. The idea of a
Universal Grammar, as proposed by
Noam Chomsky, is that there is a set of
principles and parameters that govern the
structure and function of all human
languages, and that these are part of the
genetic endowment of humans. Both of
these views imply that language is a
biological and genetic phenomenon that is
unique to humans, and that there are
some universal features of language that
are independent of the input and the
environment. However, these views have
also been challenged by various
arguments and evidence from different
sources, such as the fossil record, the
archaeological evidence, the
contemporary language diversity, the
language acquisition, and the animal
communication. These sources suggest
that language is a complex and dynamic
system that is influenced by many factors
and processes, and that there is more
diversity and variability in language than
universality and innateness. Therefore,
the connection between the innateness
hypothesis and the idea of a Universal
Grammar is not a straightforward or a
conclusive one, but rather a controversial
and a fascinating one.
Explain Christianity's theory of divine
origin of language with respect to its
story.
Q8.
According to Genesis 2:19, in the
beginning, God gave the knowledge of
words to Adam, who named all the
animals and birds that God had created
from the ground. Then according to
Genesis 11:1-9, after the great flood, the
descendants of Noah began to speak a
common language and settled in the land
of Shinar, which is also known as
Babylonia. They decided to build a city
and a tower that reached the heavens to
make a name for themselves and to avoid
being dispersed over the earth. God saw
their pride and ambition and decided to
confuse their language so that they could
not understand each other. He then
scattered them over the face of the earth
and stopped their project. The city was
called Babel, which means confusion in
Hebrew, and it was also the origin of the
word Babylon.
Explain Hinduism's theory of divine
origin of language with respect to its
story of Brahma.
Q9.
The belief is based on a myth from the
Rigveda, one of the oldest Hindu
scriptures The myth tells how there was a
wonderful tree that grew in the center of
the earth, called the Udumbara or
the world tree The tree was so tall that it
reached almost to heaven, where it
touched the Soma, the drink of the
gods The tree was proud of his height and
beauty, and wanted to hold its head in
heaven and spread its branches all over
the Earth. The tree also wanted to gather
all humans together under its shadow,
and protect them, and prevent them from
separating. The tree thought that it was
the source of all knowledge and language,
and that it could communicate with the
gods
But Brahma, the creator god was not
pleased with the tree’s pride and
ambition. He decided to punish the tree
and teach it a lesson. He cut off its
branches and cast them down on the
earth, where they sprang up as wata trees
which are a kind of fig tree He also made
differences of beliefs and speech and
customs to prevail on the earth, to
disperse humans upon its surface. He
wanted to show the tree and the humans
that they were not the masters of the
universe, but only a part of it. He also
wanted to show them that language was
not a gift from the tree, but a gift from
him
Explain America's theory of divine
origin of language with respect to its
story.
Q10.
The story behind the Aztec belief in the
divine source of language is based on a
myth from the Codex Chimalpopoca, one
of the oldest Aztec scriptures. The myth
tells how a great flood occurred and only
a man, Coxcox, and a woman,
Xochiquetzal, survived, having floated on
a piece of bark. They found themselves on
land and beget many children who were
at first born unable to speak, but
subsequently, upon the arrival of a dove,
were endowed with language, although
each one was given a different speech
such that they could not understand one
another. This was a punishment from the
supreme God, Ometeotl, who wanted to
prevent humans from becoming too
powerful and arrogant. The myth also
explains the origin of the different ethnic
groups and languages of Mesoamerica, as
the children of Coxcox and Xochiquetzal
dispersed and founded different nations.
Explain Africa's theory of divine
origin of language with respect to its
story.
Q11.
The Wa-Sania belief in the divine source
of language is a mythological view that
language diversity was a result of a divine
curse.
According to this belief, language was
originally a gift from God that enabled
humans to communicate and cooperate
with each other. However, during a severe
famine, humans became greedy and
selfish, and God punished them by making
them mad and confused. As they
wandered in all directions, they started to
speak different languages that they could
not understand. This caused them to
separate and form different tribes and
nations.
Explain Australia's theory of divine
origin of language with respect to its
story.
Q12.
The Australian aboriginal belief in the
divine source of language is a
mythological view that language diversity
was a result of a divine gift from Wurruri,
the old woman who died. According to
this belief, language was originally
unknown to humans, who lived in silence
and ignorance. However, when Wurruri
died, her body became a source of
nourishment and knowledge for the
hungry and curious people. As they ate
different parts of her body, they acquired
different languages that enabled them to
communicate and understand the world.
Who were Homo Erectus and what
is their relation to the development of
language?
Q13.
Homo erectus was an extinct species of
human that lived from about 2 million
years ago to about 100,000 years ago. It
was the first human ancestor to have a
more modern body shape, to use fire, and
to migrate out of Africa to different parts
of Eurasia
The relation between Homo erectus and
the development of language is not clear,
but some researchers have suggested that
they may have had some form of primitive
speech or communication. This is based
on evidence such as their brain size, their
social behavior, their tool use, and their
possible seafaring abilities. However,
other researchers have argued that Homo
erectus lacked the genetic and anatomical
features necessary for complex language,
and that they may have only used simple
vocalizations or gestures
The debate on whether Homo erectus had
language or not is still ongoing, and more
fossil and genetic evidence is needed to
resolve it. Language is one of the key
features that distinguish modern humans
from other animals, and understanding its
origins and evolution is a major scientific
challenge.
Who were Homo Neanderthalensis
and what is their relation to the
development of language?
Q14.
Homo neanderthalensis, or Neanderthals,
were an extinct species or subspecies of
archaic humans who lived in Eurasia until
about 40,000 years ago. They are closely
related to modern humans, and interbred
with them in some regions.
There is evidence that Neanderthals had
the ability to speak and communicate like
modern humans. They had a similar hyoid
bone, a structure in the neck that
supports speech production. They also
had a similar hearing range and ear
anatomy to modern humans, which would
allow them to process speech sounds.
Moreover, some researchers suggest that
Neanderthals shared genes and cultural
traits with modern humans, such as
symbolic art and burial practices, which
imply language use.
Therefore, it is possible that Neanderthals
and modern humans had a common
origin of language, or that they influenced
each other’s language development
through interbreeding and cultural
exchange.
Why did Plato disagree with
language deprivation experiments?
Q15.
Plato disagreed with language deprivation
experiments because he believed that
language was innate and not learned from
the environment. He argued that humans
have a natural capacity for rational
thought and knowledge, which is
expressed through language. He also
claimed that language reflects the eternal
and universal forms or ideas that exist
beyond the physical world. Therefore, he
thought that isolating children from
human speech would not reveal the origin
or nature of language, but rather deprive
them of their natural potential and harm
their souls.
How did the physical adaptation of
early humans enable them to produce
Q16.
speech sounds and possibly develop
language?


Human speech was made possible by
the evolution of certain physical features
that set humans apart from other
animals. These features included the
shape and position of the skull, the
larynx, the tongue, and the vocal tract.
One of the key changes that enabled
speech was the transition to upright
posture and bipedal locomotion, which
freed the front limbs and allowed more
control over breathing and vocalization.
This also affected the shape and size of
the rib cage, the diaphragm, and the
lungs, which are involved in producing
sound.


Another important change was the
reduction of the jaw and the flattening
of the face, which occurred in the
ancestors of Neanderthals and modern
humans. This allowed the development
of a larger brain, which is essential for
language and cognition. It also enabled
the production of some consonant-like
sounds, such as labials and dentals,
which are absent in most primates.
The most distinctive feature of human
speech, however, was the ability to
produce a wide range of contrasting
vowel sounds, which are crucial for
building words and sentences. This was
achieved by the partial adaptations of
the larynx, the tongue, and the vocal
tract, which occurred in different stages
in the evolution of Homo sapiens.


The larynx, or the voice box, is the organ
that produces sound by vibrating the
vocal cords. In most mammals, the
larynx is located high in the throat, near
the nasal cavity, which allows them to
breathe and swallow at the same time.
However, in humans, the larynx is lower
in the throat, creating more space for
the tongue to move and shape the
airflow into different sounds.
The tongue is the organ that
manipulates the airflow and creates
different sound patterns. In most
primates, the tongue is high and flat,
limiting the range of movements and
sounds that it can make. In humans, the
tongue is lower and rounder, allowing
more flexibility and precision in the
vocal tract.


The vocal tract is the tube that connects
the larynx to the mouth and the nose,
and it is where the sound is modified
into speech. In most primates, the vocal
tract is straight and uniform, producing
only one vowel sound. In humans, the
vocal tract is curved and variable,
producing many vowel sounds.
These features were more streamlined
and coordinated in humans than in
other primates, which may have
facilitated the production of a wider
range of sounds and the integration of
speech and gesture. However, these
features themselves may not have
triggered speech, but rather indicated
that the creatures possessing them were
capable of speech. Speech also required
cognitive, social, and environmental
factors to develop.
How does the theory of language's
physical adaptation relate to human
teeth?
Q17.


The theory of language’s physical
adaptation proposes that human speech
evolved from the movements of the
mouth, tongue and lips that were used
for other purposes, such as chewing,
licking and sucking.
Human teeth are different from other
animals in that they are aligned in a flat
row, which allows for more precise
control of airflow and sound production.


Human teeth also play a role in the
formation of consonants and vowels,
which are essential elements of
language. For example, the front teeth
are used to produce sounds like /f/ and
/v/, while the back teeth are used to
produce sounds like /k/ and /g/.
Human teeth are influenced by a gene
called FOXP2, which is also involved in
the nervous and muscular control of
speech. Mutations in this gene can affect
the development of teeth and the ability
to produce language.
How does the theory of language's
physical adaptation relate to human lips?
Q18.
The theory of language’s physical
adaptation relates to human lips in the
following ways:



Human lips have more complex muscle
interlacing than other primates, which
allows them to produce a variety of
sounds such as P, B, and M.
Human lips are flexible and mobile,
which enables them to coordinate with
the tongue, teeth, and larynx to
produce speech sounds.
Human lips are suitable for chewing,
which may have facilitated the
development of speech by reducing
the need for jaw movements and
freeing the tongue for articulation.
How does the theory of language's
physical adaptation relate to human
mouth and tongue?
Q19.
The theory of language’s physical
adaptation relates to human mouth and
tongue in the following ways:


Human mouths are smaller than other
animals, which allows them to have an
extended vocal tract with an L-shape,
not a straight path from front to back.
This shape enables humans to produce
a wide range of speech sounds by
changing the configuration of the vocal
tract.
Human tongues are larger and more
muscular than other primates, which
gives them more control and flexibility
for articulation. Human tongues can
produce complex motions and
coordinate with the lips, teeth, and
larynx to produce consonants and
vowels.

Human tongues are freed from the jaw
movements required for chewing,
which may have facilitated the
development of speech by allowing the
tongue to focus on sound production.
Human tongues can also retract the
back part (the tongue root) to create
more space for the vocal tract.
How does the theory of language's
physical adaptation relate to human
larynx and pharynx?
Q20.
The larynx, also known as the voice box, is
an organ that contains the vocal cords and
manipulates pitch and volume, which are
essential for phonation. The larynx is
located at the top of the neck and
connects the pharynx with the trachea1
The pharynx, also known as the throat, is
a muscular tube that connects the nose
and mouth to the larynx and esophagus.
The pharynx is part of both the
respiratory and digestive systems, and it
carries food to the esophagus and air to
the larynx.
The larynx in humans is lower than that
of other primates, allowing more space
for the tongue to move during speech
production. The descended tongue root
(i.e. the back of the tongue) allows
additional degree of freedom for vocal
tract acrobatics during speech
production. This mobility of the tongue
allows it to produce highly coordinated
motions, and therefore giving humans the
ability to produce consonants and vowels.
The descent of the larynx in humans may
have been influenced by selective
evolution, as it is also found in some other
animals, such as koalas, deers, and lions.
However, these animals do not use
language like humans, suggesting that
other factors, such as nervous and
muscular control, are also involved in the
evolution of the vocal tract.
The pharynx plays a role in both
swallowing and breathing, and it has to
coordinate these functions to prevent
food from entering the larynx and the
lungs. The epiglottis is a flap of cartilage
that covers the larynx during swallowing,
and the pharyngeal muscles contract to
push the food down the esophagus.
The pharynx also contributes to the
resonance and quality of the voice, as it
acts as a resonating chamber for the
sound waves produced by the larynx. The
shape and size of the pharynx can be
altered by the pharyngeal muscles, which
affect the pitch and timbre of the voice.
Critique the physical adaptation
source of language.
Q21.
The physical adaptation source of
language is a theory that suggests that
human language evolved from the
physical features and processes that are
distinct from other animals, such as
upright posture, revised role for the front
limbs, and descended larynx This theory
implies that these adaptations enabled
speech production and communication
among humans
However, this theory has some limitations
and criticisms. For example:





It does not explain how language evolved
from speech sounds to complex grammar
and syntax
It does not account for the cognitive and
social aspects of language, such as
meaning, intention, and cooperation
It does not address the diversity and
variation of human languages across
cultures and regions
It does not consider the evidence that
some animals, such as birds and whales,
also have complex vocalizations and
communication systems
It does not acknowledge that a descended
larynx is not unique to humans, and that
it may have other functions besides
speech, such as size exaggeration or
thermoregulation
Therefore, the physical adaptation source
of language is not a sufficient or
comprehensive explanation for the origin
and evolution of human language. It may
be one of the factors, but not the only or
the main one
Q22.
How does the theory of language's
tool-making source relate to brain? What
is meant by lateralization?
The theory of language’s tool-making
source
This theory suggests that language and
tool-making skills evolved at the same
time, because they both depend on
complex planning and the coordination of
actions According to this theory, the
physical adaptations regarding teeth and
mouth were preceded by the manual
adaptation regarding right-hand
preference and the manipulation of
objects This implies that the brain regions
that control the muscles of the arms and
hands, and the brain regions that control
the articulatory muscles of the face, jaw
and tongue are located close to each other
in the left hemisphere
Lateralization of brain function
Lateralization of brain function is the
tendency for some neural functions or
cognitive processes to be specialized to
one side of the brain or the other The
human brain is divided into two
hemispheres, left and right, connected by
the corpus callosum Although the two
hemispheres appear to be almost
identical, they have different
compositions of neuronal networks that
allow for specialized functions For
example, the left hemisphere is associated
with language functions, such as
grammar, vocabulary and literal meaning,
while the right hemisphere is associated
with more visuospatial functions, such as
visualization, depth perception and
spatial navigation Lateralization of brain
function is based on general trends, but
there are individual variations and
exceptions
Critique the theory of genetic
source of language.
Q23.

The experiment was based on a false assumption that there is a natural or
original language that all humans are born with. However, there is no evidence
to support this idea, and it contradicts the fact that languages evolve and
change over time.

The experiment was ethically questionable, as it involved depriving the
children of human contact and care, which could have harmed their physical
and mental development. It also violated their rights and dignity as human
beings.
The experiment was methodologically flawed, as it did not control for other
variables that could have affected the outcome. For example, the shepherd
who raised the children may have unintentionally communicated with them
through gestures, facial expressions, or body language. The children may have
also heard other sounds from animals, nature, or human activities.
The experiment was not replicated or verified by other researchers, which
makes it unreliable and unscientific. The only source of information about the
experiment is Herodotus, who was not an eyewitness and may have distorted


or embellished the story. There is no independent confirmation or
documentation of the experiment or its results.