ORAL COMMUNICATION Types of Communicative Strategy SPEECH ACT is an utterance that a speaker makes to achieve an intended effect. Some of the functions which are carried out using speech acts are offering an apology, greetinAg, request, complaint, invitation, compliment, or refusal. A speech act might contain just one word or several words or sentences. Cohen (1990) states that strategies must be used to start and maintain a conversation Three Types of Speech Act According to J. L. Austin (1962), a philosopher of language and the developer of the Speech Act Theory Locutionary Act is the actual act of uttering. Illocutionary Act is the social function of what is said. Perlocutionary Act is the resulting act of what is said. This effect is based on the particular context in which the speech act was mentioned. Indirect Speech Acts which occur when there is no direct connection between the form of the utterance and the intended meaning. Indirect speech act: Please pass the rice Inferred speech act: Do you have the ability to hand over the rice? Searle’s Classifications of Speech Act John Searle (1976), a professor from the University of California, Berkeley, classified illocutionary acts into five distinct categories. Assertive – the speaker expresses belief about the truth of a proposition. (Suggesting, putting forward, swearing, boasting, and concluding). Example: No one makes better pancakes than I do. Directive – the speaker tries to make the addressee perform an action. (Asking, ordering, requesting, inviting, advising, begging.) Example: Please close the door. Commissive – commits the speaker to doing something in the future. (Promising, planning, vowing, and betting.) Example: From now on, I will participate in our group activity. Expressive – the speaker expresses his/her feelings or emotional reactions. (Thanking, apologizing, welcoming, deploring.) Example: I am so sorry for not helping out in our group projects and letting you do all the work. Declaration – brings a change in the external situation. Declarations bring into existence or cause the state of affairs which they refer to. (Blessing, firing, baptizing, bidding, passing a sentence, and excommunicating.) Example: You are fired! Nomination A speaker carries out nomination to collaboratively and productively establish a topic. Basically, when you employ this strategy, you try to open a topic with the people you are talking to. Restriction in communication refers to any limitation you may have as a speaker. Turn-taking pertains to the process by which people decide who takes the conversational floor. There is a code of behavior behind establishing and sustaining a productive conversation, but the primary idea is to give all communicators a chance to speak Topic control covers how procedural formality or informality affects the development of topic in conversations. “Yes,” “Okay,” “Go on” Topic shifting, as the name suggests, involves moving from one topic to another. In other words, it is where one part of a conversation ends and where another begins. “By the way,” Repair refers to how speakers address the problems in speaking, listening, and comprehending that they may encounter in a conversation. Termination refers to the conversation participants’ closeinitiating expressions that end a topic in a conversation. Speech Writing Process Audience analysis entails looking into the profile of your target audience. This is done so you can tailor-fit your speech content and delivery to your audience. Demography (age range, male-female ratio, educational background and affiliations or degree program taken, nationality, economic status, academic or corporate designations) Situation (time, venue, occasion, and size) Psychology (values, beliefs, attitudes, preferences, cultural and racial ideologies, and needs) According to Stephen Lucas (2011), author of The Art of Public Speaking, a good delivery means that you are capable and able to present your message in a clear, coherent, and interesting way. Types of Speech According to Purpose Informative speech provides the audience with a clear understanding of a concept or idea. Ex. lectures of your teachers Entertainment speech amuses the audience E. humorous speeches of comedians Persuasive speech seeks to provide the audience with favorable or acceptable ideas that can influence their own ideas and decisions. Ex. speeches of the running candidates Types of Speech According to Delivery Extemporaneous Description Speaking with limited preparation Guided by notes or outline Delivered conversationally Most popular type Speaking Candidate for a post in a student Situations government and you deliver your campaign speech before a voting public. When you are assigned to report a topic in class Advantages Helps you look confident and engages the audience Disadvantages May not have adequate time to plan, organize, and rehearse Tips Create an outline Organize your points logically Use facts and real-life experiences as your examples Manage your time well and Rehearse Impromptu Description Speaking without advanced preparation Unrehearsed speech Spoken conversationally Speaking In an event where you are asked to say a Situations few First day at work or in class, or during an interview Advantages Spontaneous or natural speaking More focused and brief Disadvantages Tendency to be disorganized Lacks connection with the audience Nerve-racking for inexperienced speakers and beginners Tips Once you are requested to say something, pause for a moment to plan in your head what to say. State your main point briefly and deliver it at a pace your audience can follow. End by saying thank you. Manuscript Description Speaking with advanced preparation Reading aloud a written message Speaking Newscasting with a TelePrompter or an Situations autocue device Presenting the legal proceedings and verdict in court Reading the rules and criteria in a contest Advantages Exact repetition of the written words or guided speech Disadvantages Tips Memorized Description Speaking Situations Advantages Disadvantages Tips Boring and uninteresting presentation Lacks audience rapport or connection Rehearse the speech over and over again until you sound natural. Observe accomplished news anchors and note how conversational they sound when they deliver the news. Speaking with advanced preparation Reciting a written message word-for-word from memory When you deliver a declamation, oratorical, or literary piece and stage play Actor or actress in a scene performs a script from memory Exact repetition of the written words from memory Free to move around the stag Speakers might end up speaking in a monotone pattern. Alternatively, might take a fast pace When the speaker cannot control stage fright, might have difficulty remembering memorized speech. Rehearse the speech over and over again until you sound natural and feel confident. Observe how actors/actresses perform their script in a theater, television, or movie scenes. PRACTICAL RESEARCH Understanding Data and Ways to Systematically Collect Data Summarizes the advantages of sampling in the following points a. Makes the research of any type and size manageable; b. Significantly saves the cost of the research; c. Results in more accurate research findings; d. Provides an opportunity to process the information in a more efficient way; e. Accelerates the speed of primary data collection TWO (2) CATEGORIES OF SAMPLING Probability Sampling Methods: type of sampling in which all the members of an entire population have a chance of being selected. This is also called as scientific sampling and is commonly used in quantitative research. 1. 2. 3. 4. Describing Sampling Procedure and Sample HISTORY OF SAMPLING The beginning of sampling could be traced back to the early political activities of the Americans, in 1920 when Literary Digest did a pioneering survey about the American citizens’ favorite among the 1920 presidential candidates. This was the very first survey that served as the impetus for the discovery by academic researchers of other sampling strategies that they categorized into two classes: probability sampling and nonprobability sampling. Simple Random Sampling - method of choosing samples in which all the members of the population are given an equal chance of being selected. It is an unbiased way of selection, as samples are drawn by chance. There are various ways of obtaining samples through simple random sampling. These include the roulette wheel, fishbowl method, and the use of table of random numbers. Systematic Random Sampling - method of selecting every nth element of a population until the desired sample size is reached. Stratified Random Sampling - method where the population is divided into different strata (groups), and then the sampling follows. Age, gender, and educational qualifications are some possible criteria used to divide a population into strata. Cluster Sampling - used in large-scale studies. Clusters are representative samples of the population as a whole. After the clusters are established, a simple random sample of the clusters is drawn and the members of the chosen clusters are sampled. Sampling procedures are difficult and time-consuming. Non-Probability Sampling Methods : disregards random selection of subjects. The subjects are chosen based on their availability or the purpose of the study, and in some cases, on the sole discretion of the researcher. This is not a scientific way of selecting respondents, and is commonly used in qualitative research. 1. Convenience Sampling - involves choosing respondents at the convenience of the researcher. It is also called accidental or incidental sampling. 2. Purposive Sampling - involves handpicking subjects, usually to suit very specific intentions. This is also called judgmental sampling. 3. Quota Sampling - somewhat similar to stratified sampling, in that the population is divided into strata, and the researcher deliberately sets specific proportions in the sample, whether or not the resulting proportion is reflective of the total population. This is commonly done to ensure the inclusion of a particular segment of the population. 4. 5. Volunteer Sampling - involves people who self-select into the survey. Often, these folks have a strong interest in the main topic of the survey. Snowball Sampling - does not give a specific set of samples, similar to snow expanding widely or rolling rapidly. This is true for a study involving unspecified group of people. Dealing with varied groups of people such as street children, drug dependents, gang members, informal settlers, street vendors, and the like is possible in this kind of non-probability sampling. A snowball sample is achieved by asking a participant to suggest someone else who might be willing or appropriate from the study. CONSTRUCTING AN INSTRUMENT AND ESTABLISHING ITS VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY CONSTRUCTING AN INSTRUMENT is a crucial step in research, as it involves creating a tool that can accurately measure or assess the variables of interest. However, simply constructing an instrument is not enough; it is also essential to establish its validity and reliability before using it in research. Research Instruments are basic tools researchers used to gather data for specific research problems. Common instruments are performance tests, questionnaires, interviews, and observation checklist. * Red (Quanti), Blue (Quali) Ways in Developing Research Instrument: 1. First is adopting an instrument from the already utilized instruments from previous related studies. 2. Second is modifying an existing instrument when the available instruments do not yield the exact data that will answer the research problem. 3. Third is when the researcher made his own instrument that corresponds to the variable and scope of his current study. ESTABLISHING VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY of an instrument is crucial to ensure that it measures what it is supposed to measure and that the results are accurate and reliable. VALIDITY - A research instrument is considered valid if it measures what is supposed to measure. TYPES OF VALIDITY OF INSTRUMENT 1. Face Validity (logical validity) – calls for initiative judgement of the instrument as it “appear”. Just by looking at the instrument, the researcher decides if it is valid. 2. Content Validity – it is done by checking the statements or questions if this elicits the needed information. 3. Construct Validity – it refers to the validity of instruments as it corresponds to the theoretical construct of the study. 4. Concurrent Validity – when the instrument can predict results like those similar tests already validated, it has concurrent validity. 5. Predictive Validity – when the instrument can produce results similar to those similar tests that will be employed in the future, it has predictive validity. RELIABILITY –refers to the consistency of the measures or results of the instrument. Types of Reliability: 1. Test-retest – it is achieved by giving the same test to the same group of respondents twice. The consistency of the scores will be checked. 2. Equivalent Forms – it is established by administering two identical tests except for wordings to the same group of respondents. 3. Internal Consistency – It determines how well the items measure the same construct. A respondent gets high score in one item, he will also get one in similar items. GENERAL PHYSICS The Ideal Spring and Simple Harmonic Motion Periodic Motion (Oscillatory Motion) - object that regularly repeats - the object returns to a given position after a fixed time interval. When the block is displaced to a position x, the spring exerts on the block a force that is proportional to the position and given by Hooke’s Law Periodic Motion Application - include a pendulum and a beach ball floating on the waves at a beach - All periodic motions can be modeled as combinations of simple harmonic motions. o simple harmonic motion forms a basic building block for more complicated periodic motion. o basis for understanding of mechanical waves o Sound waves, seismic waves, waves on stretched strings, and water waves - For architects and engineers who design and build: o Skyscrapers and bridges appear to be rigid, they actually oscillate. - To understand how radio and television work, o We must understand the origin and nature of electromagnetic waves and how they propagate through space. - Much of what scientists have learned about atomic structure has come from information carried by waves. o Atomic physics. Things that Bounce Around Motion of a Spring-Mass System - Attached to a spring, the block is free to move on a frictionless horizontal surface - When the spring is neither stretched nor compressed, the block is at the equilibrium position x=0 Fx = -kx k- spring constant Units: N/m A is the amplitude of the motion –This is the maximum position of the particle in either the positive or negative direction w is called the angular frequency –Units are rad/s is the phase constant or the initial phase angle Motion of the Block The block continues to oscillate between – A and + A These are turning points of the motion In the absence of friction, the motion will continue forever Real systems are generally subject to friction, so they do not actually oscillate forever Acceleration, cont. - The acceleration is proportional to the displacement of the block - The direction of the acceleration is opposite the direction of the displacement from equilibrium - An object moves with simple harmonic motion whenever its acceleration is proportional to its position and is oppositely directed to the displacement from equilibrium Acceleration, final -The acceleration is not constant Therefore, the kinematic equations cannot be applied If the block is released from some position x = A , then the initial acceleration is – kA / m When the block passes through the equilibrium position, a=0 The block continues to x = - A where its acceleration is + kAm Maximum Values of v and a Because the sine and cosine functions oscillate between (+,-) 1, we can easily find the maximum values of velocity and acceleration for an object in SHM (a) When the block is displaced to the right of equilibrium (x >0), the force exerted by the spring acts to the left. (b) When the block is at its equilibrium position (x=0), the force exerted by the spring is zero. (c) When the block is displaced to the left of equilibrium (x <0), the force exerted by the spring acts to the right. Energy of the SHM Oscillator - Assume a spring-mass system is moving on a frictionless surface - This tells us the total energy is constant -The kinetic energy can be found by -The elastic potential energy can be found by - The total energy is Energy of the SHM Oscillator, cont - The total mechanical energy is constant - The total mechanical energy is proportional to the square of the amplitude - Energy is continuously being transferred between potential energy stored in the spring and the kinetic energy of the block Energy of the SHM Oscillator, cont - As the motion continues, the exchange of energy also continues - Energy can be used to find the velocity Vertical Spring Another possibility is a block hanging from a vertical spring. All of the results that we discuss for the horizontal spring will be the same for the vertical spring, EXCEPT that when the block is placed on the vertical spring, its WEIGHT will cause the spring to extend Simple Pendulum, Summary - The period and frequency of a simple pendulum depend only on the length of the string and the acceleration due to gravity - The period is independent of the mass - All simple pendula that are of equal length and are at the same location oscillate with the same period DAMPED OSCILLATION - In many real systems, nonconservative forces are present This is no longer an ideal system (the type we have dealt with so far) Friction is a common nonconservative force - In this case, the mechanical energy of the system diminishes in time, the motion is said to be damped Damped Oscillations, cont - A graph for a damped oscillation - The amplitude decreases with time - The blue dashed lines represent the envelope of the motion Example - Motion occurs when an object is attached to a spring and submerged in a viscous liquid - The retarding force can be expressed as R= - bv where b is a constant b is called the damping coefficient Part 2 -The restoring force is –kx - From Newton’s Second Law - When the retarding force is small compared to the maximum restoring force we can determine the expression for x This occurs when b is small Part 3 -The position can be described by -The angular frequency will be Damping Oscillation, Example Summary - When the retarding force is small, the oscillatory character of the motion is preserved, but the amplitude decreases exponentially with time -The motion ultimately ceases -Another form for the angular frequency where is the angular frequency in the absence of the retarding force Types of Damping Types of Damping, cont - Graphs of position versus time for – (a) an underdamped oscillator (b) a critically damped oscillator (c) an overdamped oscillator - For critically damped and overdamped there is no angular frequency FORCED OSCILLATION - is possible to compensate for the loss of energy in a damped system by applying an external force - The amplitude of the motion remains constant if the energy input per cycle exactly equals the decrease in mechanical energy in each cycle that results from resistive force Forced Oscillations, 2 - After a driving force on an initially stationary object begins to act, the amplitude of the oscillation will increase - After a sufficiently long period of time, E driving = E lost to internal Then a steady-state condition is reached The oscillations will proceed with constant amplitude Forced Oscillations, 3 - The amplitude of a driven oscillation is Is the natural frequency of the undamped oscillator Resonance -When the frequency of the driving force is near the natural frequency ( ) an increase in amplitude occurs - This dramatic increase in the amplitude is called resonance - The natural frequency is also called the resonance frequency of the system - At resonance, the applied force is in phase with the velocity and the power transferred to the oscillator is a maximum –The applied force and v are both proportional to sin –The powerdelivered is F .v - This is a maximum when F and v are in phase - Resonance(maximum peak) occurs when driving frequency equals the natural frequency - The amplitude increases with decreased damping - The curve broadens as the damping increases - The shape of the resonance curve depends on b PHILOSOPHY FREEDOM - an intrinsic and essential property of the person - human by nature is a free being and that it is in his nature to seek freedom - the ability to make choices and perform actions ( important indication of human freedom ) - “ FREEDOM TO ACT “ sets us apart from other beings FREEDOM - the power to be what you want to be and the ability to decide and create yourself -many characteristics that define our personality are often product of our choices, preferences and views ( dedicate time and effort ) -nature as a human person gives the ability to imagine the future - gives the ability to strive to achieve that goal - rooted in the human person’s self – determination and the exercise of intellect and freewill - a person’s every action is freely determined and these actions define him - enables us to come up with new choices A person becomes less free when he is no longer in control of himself Human action can uphold or diminish freedom. Self-determination - capabilty to make choices and decisions Nature of self-determination – a person’s actions determine what kind of person he becomes Freewill - do actions when he wants to Essence of freedom: it does not confine our actions to those set or expected by others; we can imagine new actions and decide to undertake them Reflection – recall and ask yourself why you chose to take the action - reflecting upon your actions will enable you to know yourself better as a person DEHUMANIZED - persons who are denied their freedom by other individuals, groups, and institutions e.g. slavery; bondage; imprisoned; wronged person “Actions that diminish freedom also dehumanize a person. “ KINDS OF FREEDOM 1. physical freedom – refers to the absence of any physical restraint - freedom of mobility - not impeded in his actions by any physical force - allows a person to act or move in a determined manner - allows to move from one place to another and go wherever you want to go 2. psychological freedom – refers to freedom of choice - free to perform actions that he considers right and wise - free to act or not to act - innate and cannot be denied a person - no outside force or influence can compel a person to take action against his will 3. moral freedom - refers to the responsible use of freedom in a manner that upholds human dignity and goodness - a person must use his freedom to grow as a person “A person becomes MORE FREE when he uses freedom WELL, but becomes LESS FREE when he uses it in a BAD way “ Humans have a NATURAL inclination for what is TRUE and GOOD, and when a person uses his freedom to do acts that violate human dignity and goodness, he dehumanizes himself and effectively negate human freedom TWO (2) ELEMENTS OF HUMAN FREEDOM 1. Voluntariness – refers to the ability of a person to act out of his own free will and self – determination - a person may decide to act or not to act, and these decisions are made out of his own free will - a person may act even if he is not required or called to take action VOLUNTARY ACTS - free acts which can be assigned a corresponding moral value “Whenever we decide to take action, this results in a certain consequences. “ CONSEQUENCES – affect not only the person who commits the action, but also other people and our surroundings 2. Responsibility – refers to the person being accountable for his actions and their consequences - can either mean a person voluntarily taking responsibility for his own action, or being held responsible by other people - can have positive or negative meaning, and goes hand – in – hand with volutariness in determining the morality of an action “As a free being, the person must accept the CONSEQUENCES of his action and take RESPONSIBILITY for them. “ VOLUNTARINESS and RESPONSIBILITY go hand – in – hand in determining a person’s freedom. without these two elements, human freedom is diminished, and the person makes imperfect actions and unwise decisions which may have negative effects on self and others. Reflect on our actions to better understand and guide us toward making the best possible decision. SELF – REFLECTION - vital in the proper exercise of human freedom “ as free and rational beings, we must recognize the importance of exercising freedom responsibly. “ - requires us to reflect on our actions, consider their effects, and make the proper choices regarding the most beneficial decisions or actions PRUDENCE means being careful about your choices, stopping and thinking before acting. It is a strength of restraint. When you are prudent, you are not taking unnecessary risks, and not saying or doing things that you might later regret 3. Each action must be made after careful thought and reflection -It is important for persons to exercise caution and prudence and reflect on possible courses of action in making decisions or doing actions. How can i exercise my freedom in a responsible and beneficial manner? 4. Recognize and uphold not only OUR individual FREEDOM but also the FREEDOM OF OTHERS. “My freedom to swing my fist ends where your nose begins” – human freedom, though essential is not absolute - this view has led to the assertion that freedom is a recognized and guaranteed right for all persons. Many societies identify certain freedoms that should be enjoyed by all, as these contribute to the quality of life of the individual and the welfare of society. These include the freedom to live and determine one’s identity; freedom from slavery and other constraints; freedom of speech; and freedom of thought, conscience, and religion. 1. Human freedom should be exercised with CONTROL and a recognition of reasonable limits – we set limits to our own freedom and learn to moderate or control our thoughts, emotions, and actions depending on the situation - a person can even choose to limit his own freedom or even surrender it entirely if it will result in greater benefits Limiting our personal freedom requires us to sacrifice certain self – interest and accept certain realities that are beyond our control. Sense of right and wrong guides us in recognizing and deciding on the limitations to our freedom. Society implements reasonable restrictions to personal freedom in order to maintain order and harmony and uphold the welfare of the public. 2. FREEDOM should be exercised with regard for knowledge and truth - as rational beings, it is natural for us think before we act - we use our freedom to act and acquire more knowledge, and we use this knowledge in order to come up with decisions and courses of actions when confronted with difficult situations Ability to acquire correct information, truthful knowledge, prudence and caution aids us in making wise and informed choices Examples: (choosing a leader, judge on upholding justice, investor in a business) Determining the proper information and truthful knowledge ensure that our choices, decisions, and actions are proper, reasonable, and just - it is therefore necessary to cultivate the intellectual virtue of prudence to be our guide in making wise and sound choices Freedom should be exercised with due regard for the welfare of other persons and one’s freedom should be exercised not as a tool to restrict the freedom of others, but as a means to enable others to fully enjoy their own freedom. People often think that the fullness of freedom is found in one’s ability to make decisions about one's life. choice is indeed an element of freedom, but freedom GOES BEYOND mere choosing. Freedom is not absolute, and in our lives, there are a lot of things that we could not choose. For example, we were not given a choice if we wanted to be born, we were simply given life. We also did not choose our parents; some of our physical traits and personal characteristics were simply genetically handed down and already form part of us. We are not in total control of everything around us, and we sometimes find ourselves with very limited choices, such as being stuck in traffic, getting mugged by someone on the street, and having strong emotions for someone. MANY THINGS IN LIFE ARE GIVEN. Although some things are given, it does not mean that we do not really have freedom. On the contrary, there are instances when we can exercise our freedom because we are not determined by these forces or situations. Difficult situations may not always be avoidable, especially if we happen to be victims of circumstance, but WE MAY TAKE THESE DIFFICULT SITUATIONS POSITIVELY OR NEGATIVELY. We may not always have the best family, but it does not mean that our future family will turn out the same way as our current one, A person with an indifferent attitude may find it hard to be motivated and excited about things in general, but it doesn’t mean that he or she is incapable of being interested and inspired to act passionately. These “GIVENS” or predetermined things do not negate our freedom but give us opportunities to exercise our freedom when we determine ourselves. The key idea is that we should ALWAYS ACT WELL in any given situation because the self Is determined by the self, We have given tendencies or inclinations, and the world also exerts some forces over us, but WE CAN TRANSCEND ALL OF THESE AND DETERMINE OURSELVES IN THE MANNER WE WANT BECAUSE WE ARE FREE. As much as possible, we must use our FREEDOM in a GOOD WAY so that we may become BETTER PEOPLE and BETTER VERSION OF OURSELVES for our own sake and the sake of others. The “Self” plays important roles in the pursuit of genuine interaction and dialogue. It must recognize that all beings are equal and unique only then genuine human interaction can be achieved. Dialogue is analogically best described as liken to a sponge when poured out with water the sponge consumes and absorbs right away the water. Meaning, there is indeed an openness and acceptance in a true dialogue. Dialogue - It is a two-way communication between persons who hold significantly differing views on subject with the purpose of learning more truth about the subject from the other. Empathy - is the ability to share emotions. It enables us to feel another person’s emotion such as happiness, anger and sadness. Availability - willingness of a person to be present and be at the disposal of another. Did you experience a time when you needed help? Who are person at your side that time? Ethics of Care - is an ethical theory that emphasizes the moral dimensions of relationships and interactions. This moral perspective encourages individuals to help other people, most especially the vulnerable. Acceptance of Differences - We understand that each person is unique, therefore, differences will exist among groups of people. When we look at physical traits and even behavior, we can see that no two persons look and think the same. When we consider views, beliefs and ideas the differences become much more pronounced. We have to accept that people will have different views and beliefs. What unites us all is out shared humanity and dignity. Embracing Diversity -It encompasses acceptance and respect, it means understanding that each individual is unique. Examples: avoiding Bullying and Harassment, Creating an inclusive Working Environment, Dignity at work, Disability and Carers Awareness, Equality and valuing Diversity for leaders and managers. ALIENATION The negative view is said to be experienced. This happens because a person ceases to view the other as distinct and authentic person and merely considers the other person as a mere object or means to satisfy personal interests.
