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Zimbabwe's World Heritage Sites
- 2010. Managing the Victoria Falls world heritage site;
problems, stakeholders views and possible solutions.
Unpublished Msc. dissertation, School of Biology &
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- 2001. Your monument our shrine: the preservation of
Great Zimbabwe (Studies in African Archaeology 19).
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plan for cultural heritage management.
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perceptions of the cultural heritage in southern Africa
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and history in the Matopos Hills of Zimbabwe. Harare:
Baobab.
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7973
z
Zimbabwe's World Heritage Sites
Simon Makuvaza I and Violah Makuvaza/
'Faculty of the Built Environment, National
University of Science and Technology,
Bulawayo, Zimbabwe
2Natural History Museum, Bulawayo, Zimbabwe
Introduction
Zimbabwe has five World Heritage sites,
which are Great Zimbabwe, Khami, Matobo
Hills, Victoria Falls, and Mana Pools. The
Nyanga Terraces are on the Tentative List
(Fig. I). Great Zimbabwe, Khami, and the
Nyanga Terraces are managed by the National
Museums and Monuments
of Zimbabwe
(NMMZ) , while the Victoria Falls and Mana
Pools are run by the Zimbabwe Parks and Wildlife Management Authority (ZPWMA). The
Matobo Hills are managed by both the NMMZ
and the ZPWMA. These sites have a long history
of research, conservation, and development well
before they were accorded World Heritage status.
Key Issues/Current Debates/Future
Directions/Examples
Great Zimbabwe
Declared the second national monument in 1937
after Victoria Falls, Great Zimbabwe (CE
1290-1450) is located near the city of Masvingo
in south central Zimbabwe. It is one of the bestknown archaeological sites in sub-Saharan Africa
(Fig. 2). The site was established following the
demise of Mapungubwe (CE 1220-1290), a
precolonial site, situated at the confluence of
Shashe and Limpopo rivers in the south. It consists
of dry-stone walls and several Dhaka (earthen)
structures of different sizes. Great Zimbabwe is
divided into three main areas: the Hill Complex,
the Valley Ruins, and the Great Enclosure. Two
perimeter walls separate the inside and external
confines of the settlement (Ndoro 2001).
Zimbabwe's World Heritage Sites
7974
Harare
.•..
-
Nyanga
Gweru
.&.
Bulawayo
Khami _ .&.
N
t
•
-Matobo
Hills
•
Great
Zimbabwe
World Heritage Sites
•••. Major Cities
-- - -
-
50
0
50
100
150
Kilometers
Zimbabwe's World Heritage Sites, Fig. 1 Map showing the location of world heritage sites in Zimbabwe
At its peak, between the fourth and fifteenth
centuries, its population probably numbered
18,000 people, settled over an area of more than
720 ha (Huffman & Vogel 1991). The site was
perhaps the largest settlement in sub-Saharan
Africa before European colonization of the
region (Ndoro 2001).
The decline of Great Zimbabwe as a center of
a powerful prehistoric state between CE 1450 and
1550 remains an unresolved archaeological problem. According to Pikirayi (2001), this is largely
due to unsystematic investigations of the late nineteenth century European antiquarians and prospectors, who destroyed its stratigraphy and looted the
site in search of Near Eastern artifacts and gold.
The site was abandoned by the middle of the
fifteenth century. Causes for the abandonment
have been suggested to be the decline of trade,
which had shifted to the north of the country,
political instability, famine, and water shortages
caused by climatic change (Garlake 1982). However, the demise of Great Zimbabwe led to the rise
of two major polities; the Mutapa state in the north
and the Torwa state in the west.
During the late nineteenth and early twentieth
centuries, Europeans who encountered Great
Zimbabwe caused great controversy among the
archaeological world. They contended that the
site was not built by the indigenous people
because of its advanced architecture. They thus
attributed its construction to the Phoenicians,
Arabians, or Egyptians (Mahachi & Ndoro 1997).
According to Huffman and Vogel (1991), this
hypothesis was based on superficial similarity
7975
Zimbabwe's World Heritage Sites
z
Zimbabwe's World
Heritage Sites,
Fig. 2 Conical Tower in
the Great Enclosure
between the site and the ruins in southern Arabia
and false resemblance in names such as Ophir and
Fura (also called Mount Darwin). The Rhodesian
government also mounted political pressure on
archaeologists to deny the authorship of the site
by the indigenous people to justify its colonization of the country (cf. Mahachi & Ndoro 1997).
This view, however, changed with the arrival of
the first systematic archaeologists from the 1920s
onwards. Evidence which demonstrated that the
site was constructed by the indigenous people
was largely based on the stratigraphical evidence
at the site and comparative research carried
out at Khami and Dhlodhlo (Danan'ombe)
(cf. Caton-Thompson 1931; Robinson 1959).
From this archaeological research, it was
ultimately concluded that the indigenous people
of Zimbabwe were responsible for the construction of the settlement.
Since from the late nineteenth century, archaeological research was carried out alongside conservation of the site, which began as far back as
1914 (Ndoro 1994). Much of it was, however,
technical and unsystematic (Pwiti 1997; Ndoro
2001). Major restorations of collapsed stone
walls were carried out on different parts of the
site and approached from misinformed interpretation of the site. This is because the site was
viewed as a product of exotic populations rather
than of the indigenous people (Pwiti 1997). At
independence from the British settler government
in 1980, the country was named Zimbabwe after
this archaeological site. Once the authorship of
the site was resolved, not much archaeological
research has been carried out at the site, and the
focus shifted to its conservation and management. Accordingly, the government began to support the management of the site as it was viewed
as a source of national pride and from which
a new identity could be forged (Pwiti 1997).
Several international consultants were sent to
Great Zimbabwe by UNESCO and UNDP and
by many European countries to provide advice
on how it should be managed (cf. Ndoro 2001).
This eventually resulted in the acknowledgement
by UNESCO of its significance and values as
universally outstanding leading to its proclamation in 1986 as a UNESCO cultural World Heritage site.
Khami
This archaeological site is a complex of dry-stone
walls that cover approximately 35 ha of land and
is located 22.5 km west of Bulawayo. Khami was
established as a Torwa state in around 1640 after
the collapse of Great Zimbabwe. The distinct
development of Khami state was a modified
style of dry-stone wall architecture, which was
inherited from the Great Zimbabwe architecture.
Its structures are terrace or retaining walls that are
constructed around and over granite hill tops. The
top surfaces of the hill tops were leveled to create
platforms at which residential houses were
built (Robinson 1959). The platforms are also
decorated with check and cords patterns, and the
general layout of Khami is a clear testimony of
z
7976
Zimbabwe's
World Heritage Sites
Zimbabwe's World
Heritage Sites,
Fig. 3 The restored Hill
Complex at Khami
the continuity from the preceding site of Great
Zimbabwe (Fig. 3). The site has seven built-up
areas believed to have been occupied by the royal
family, with open areas in the valley occupied by
the commoners.
The wealth of the Torwa state in cattle and
involvement in long distance trade was envied by
other ethnic groups. This eventually led to the
invasion of the site in around 1683 by
a powerful Rozvi people. This led to the burning
and abandonment of the Torwa capital and the
shift of the state to Dhlodhlo (Danan'ombe),
located approximately 100 krn in the east.
The archaeological footprint, which was
protected as it was the royal reserve for Lobengula, the Ndebele King, was not badly disturbed
by rampant prospecting by treasure hunters of the
Rhodesia Ancient Ruins Company Limited. The
site was examined by Randall-MacIver (1906),
by Gertrude Caton-Thompson (1931), and by
Robinson (1959), with the major aim of resolving
the authorship of Great Zimbabwe. However, this
work also provided comprehensive knowledge
about the site's history. Since then, like at Great
Zimbabwe, not much archaeological research has
been carried out at the site as attention shifted to
its conservation and protection. In 1937, Khami
was proclaimed as a national monument in
recognition of its importance in the prehistory of
the country. Its significance was, however, eventually acknowledged as universally outstanding
leading to its proclamation as a UNESCO cultural
World Heritage site in 1986, the same year Great
Zimbabwe was also accorded with the same status. Even though there are efforts which are being
made to protect the property, the site is threatened
by the constant flow of sewage into Khami River
and dam due to the expansion of the Bulawayo
high density suburbs towards this World Heritage
site.
Matobo Hills
The Matobo Hills are located in Matabeleland
South Province, about 35 krn south of Bulawayo.
They measure about 3,100 sq krn, extending from
almost to the Botswana border in the west, while
to the east they merge with the Mbalambala granite pluton (Fig. 4). The local people also refer to
this cultural landscape as Matonjeni.
The natural landscape comprises of scenic
geological formations, which provides a wide
range of niches that support a variety of flora
and fauna. The geomorphology of the hills gives
rise to microclimates and soil conditions which
change markedly over short distances. The resultant landscape comprises of extensive open
Zimbabwe's World Heritage Sites
7977
z
Zimbabwe's World
Heritage Sites,
Fig. 4 The Matobo Hills
cultural world heritage
landscape
grasslands with groups of kopjes (rock outcrops)
which are interspersed with wetlands (marshes
and streams). The combination and diversity of
flora and fauna and its long history of interaction
with humankind
has made this cultural
landscape worthy of attention and preservation
(Walker 1996).
Archaeological evidence has shown that the
hills have been inhabited from the Stone Age
period right up to the present times (Walker
1996). The hills have probably the highest concentration of rock art in southern Africa. This
testimony, which when combined, contributes to
the understanding of the precolonial history of the
region. Matobo is the abode of the oracular cult of
the High God (Mwari/Mwali) whose voice is
believed to have been heard from the rocks
(Ranger 1999). This oracle links the local communities with the hills. The hills also contain
important historical sites from the colonial and
postcolonial periods. Archaeological research in
the Matobo has been more focused on the Stone
Age period and the historical period as well as its
biodiversity (see Grobler 1974; Walker 1996).
However, not much research has been carried
out on the Iron Age period of the hills. Although
this is the case, the hills were accorded World
Heritage status in 2003, making the area the first
cultural landscape to be honored with this importance in the country.
The management of the hills has a long history, dating back to a period before the arrival of
Europeans in the area in the late nineteenth century. Before this period, the hills have been managed by traditional methods and laws (cf. Ranger
1999). With the coming of Europeans, new laws
based on European notions of management were
introduced. Today, the management of this cultural landscape is based on the combination of
traditional practices and modem legislations.
Victoria Falls
The Victoria Falls were inscribed on the World
Heritage list in 1989 as a transboundary property
shared between Zambia and Zimbabwe. This site
is located in southwestern Zambia and northwestern Zimbabwe.
At Victoria Falls, the Zambezi River course is
interrupted by the falls at approximately 1,300 km
from the river's source in the northwest province
of Zambia (Fig. 5). Below, the river traverses for
another 1,500 km to its delta on the Indian Ocean
in Mozambique. In 1855, the Victoria Falls was
named by a Scottish missionary-explorer, David
Livingstone, in honor of the British Queen
Victoria. The falls are also known by their local
z
7978
Zimbabwe's World Heritage Sites
Zimbabwe's World
Heritage Sites,
Fig. 5 The Victoria Falls
world heritage site main
falls
Kololo name, Mosi-oa-Tunya, meaning the
"smoke that thunders" because of the water's
roar and clouds of rising mist.
The management and development of Victoria
Falls as a tourist resort began from 1900 soon
after the eviction of the local communities from
the area (see McGregor 2003). On the Zambian
side, the management of the Victoria Falls began
in 1934 when an Executive Committee was set up
under the Victoria Falls Reserve Preservation
Ordinance. Its objectives were to promote tourism by managing visitor rondavels previously
located at the now defunct Rainbow Lodge as
well as managing the Zambia hydropower station
and the customs post. Subsequently in 1948, the
Preservation of Natural and Historical Monuments and Relics, which is now the National
Heritage Conservation Commission, set up
a Conservancy Committee. In the following
year, the committee enacted bylaws and extended
the protected area to the Songwe Gorge, which is
just below the falls. On the Zimbabwean side, the
Victoria Falls Reserve Preservation Act was
enacted in 1928, specifically to protect the Victoria Falls Reserve, known as the Special Area
(Fig. 6). A new legislation called the Monuments
and Relics Act was enacted in 1936. This
followed the establishment of the Commission
for the Preservation of Natural and Historical
Monuments and Relics, popularly known as the
Commission, which is now the NMMZ. A year
after, in 1937, the Victoria Falls Reserve was
proclaimed the country's first national monument. In the same year, bylaws were put in
place to protect the area (Joint Technical Committee 2007). At present, there are numerous
related legislations being implemented at the site.
With the growth of heritage tourism, which is
a special interest travel, which ranges from the
examination of physical remains of the past and
natural landscapes to the experiencing of local
cultural traditions, the Victoria Falls have
become a popular tourism area. Visitors to the
site are motivated by unique experience, exclusivity, differentiation, personal experiences, and
nostalgia for the past and the desire to experience
diverse landscapes and forms. Until a few
decades ago, the only important tourism activities
at the site were to walk and view the falls and
gorges from a few selected points. In recent years,
however, a broad range of activities have been
offered within the World Heritage area to cater
for the different needs of visitors. In view of that,
the site is currently being threatened by the
expansion of tourism facilities (Joint Technical
Committee 2007).
Zimbabwe's World Heritage Sites
7979
z
N
Key
A
ZAMBIA
Island
NRall
NRoad
f""wi Rain Forest
River
Victoria Falls Special Area
o
•
Proposed Tower &
Rcstaurcnt
Aerodrome
•
ZIMBABWE
T
Zimbabwe's World Heritage Sites, Fig. 6 The Victoria Falls special area proclaimed as Zimbabwe's
first national
monument in 1937
Also in recent years, the NMMZ and the
ZPWMA have been involved in an ownership
dispute of the Special Area. The NMMZ argues
that the Special Area is the country's first national
monument under the then Commission and should
be returned, while the ZPWMA counter argues
that the area is now part of the Victoria Falls
National Park, which was established in 1952
and it now falls under its administration. Although
this conflict is yet to be resolved, it has caused
considerable management problems of this celebrated World Heritage site (cf. Makuvaza 2010).
Mana Pools
The Mana Pools were the first to be proclaimed in
1984 as a UNESCO natural World Heritage site
in Zimbabwe. The site is located in the Hurungwe
district in Mashonaland Province. It is composed
of three adjoining protected areas, namely, the
Mana Pools National Park, Sapi, and Chewore
Safari Areas.
This World Heritage site is part of the Miombo
woodland/savannah biogeographic territory. The
area includes large areas of the rugged Zambezi
escarpment and also contains the last remaining
natural stretch of the middle Zambezi River. Wellgrassed Brachystegia communities dominate the
mountainous escarpment and higher Chewore
areas with small but significant riparian communities along the numerous streams. The valley is
dominated by the mopane (Colophospermum
spp.) woodlands. There is also a wide range of
large mammals, over 350 bird species and aquatic
wildlife in this World Heritage site.
The property has a well-defined and buffered
boundary. Each of the three areas has functional
z
7980
park management plans. However, the site does
not have an integrated site management plan to
ensure the effective management of the property.
Conservation problems affecting this World
Heritage
site, which are pollution
and
uncontrolled exploitation of its resources, have
not been fully addressed since from early 1990s
when an environmental impact study for the proposed Mupata hydroelectric power generation
was carried out (see du Toit 1982). For engineering reasons, the Mupata project was shelved and
a new feasibility study was carried out at Batoka
Gorge. However, both projects appear to have
been shelved as well given the economic and
political problems experienced in the country in
recent years. The site has also continued to be
threatened by poaching, sport hunting, boating,
and fishing. It is also regularly threatened by the
regulating effect of the Kariba Dam and continued development of tourism facilities.
Nyanga Terraces
This cultural landscape, which is located in the
Nyanga area in northeastern Zimbabwe, has been
on the UNESCO World Heritage Tentative List
since 1997. The cultural landscape has stonefaced terraces, which cover every hill and valley
sides, while hundreds of hectares of soils have
been worked into wide cultivation ridges. Associated with these are stone-built homesteads of
the builders. Old water furrows reveal the exploitation of available water resources, and traces of
iron-working show testimony of manufacturing
activities. The cultural landscape covers a total of
approximately 5,000 sq km. The whole complex
represents an agricultural society of industrious
farmers and livestock herders whose culture
developed from about CE 1300 to sometime in
the nineteenth century (Soper 2006). The terraces
have evidence of human occupation for all the
major archaeological periods identified in the
country's archaeological sequence, beginning
from the Stone Age to the historical period.
Since the placement of the terraces on the
Tentative List, no effort has been made to ultimately inscribe them on the World Heritage
List. Recently, however, the potential World
Heritage status of the site has been noted
Zimbabwe's
World Heritage Sites
(Willems & Comer 2011). If properly nominated, there is no doubt that the terraces can be
Zimbabwe's
next cultural World Heritage
landscape.
Discussion and the Future
Although there is sufficient knowledge about
sites such as Great Zimbabwe, Kharni, and the
Matobo Hills, a knowledge gap on how people
moved from their old settlement to new
established ones still exists. For instance, it is
not clear if the movement of populations from
Mapungubwe to Great Zimbabwe and from Great
Zimbabwe to Mutapa in the north and to Khami
in the west was rapid or gradual. If the movement
was steady, settlements which are associated with
this gradual process of movement require
searching and further investigation. In Matobo,
the transformation from the hunter-gatherer to the
Iron Age period also requires further archaeological enquiry. Although a lot of archaeological
research has been carried out on the Nyanga
Terraces, there still exist areas that are not very
apparent. The purpose for which the terraces have
been constructed, and the recent discovery of
gold mining by Kritzinger (2008) are still very
highly controversial issues. At Victoria Falls,
archaeological research was only active during
the 1970s (see Phillipson J 975), while there is
virtually no archaeological research carried out in
the Mana Pools World Heritage area. As a result,
not much is known about the prehistoric people
who once settled in these natural World Heritage
sites.
However, while this is the case, on the administrative side, there is also little or no effort made to
fully involve the local communities in the management of these World Heritage sites. This
explains why the integrity of some of them is
constantly threatened. The friction between the
NMMZ and the ZPWMA over the ownership of
the Special Area needs to be resolved, while coordination with the Zambian authorities is vital to
curb further development of tourist facilities in this
World Heritage area. Lastly, efforts have to be
made to nominate the Nyanga Terraces so that it
can be added to Zimbabwe's rich and diverse
natural and cultural World Heritage properties.
Zimmerman,
Larry J.
Cross-References
•. Canada: World Heritage
•. Chile's World Archaeological Heritage and its
Management
•. Cuba: Archaeological Heritage Rescue and
Management
•. Indonesia's World Heritage
•. Israel: World Heritage Sites
•. Japan: World Heritage
•. Pacific Islands: World Heritage
•. Vietnam's Archaeological World Heritage Sites
•. Zimbabwe: Cultural Heritage Management
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Zimmerman,
Larry J.
Dorothy T. Lippert
Repatriation Program, National Museum of
Natural History, Smithsonian Institution,
Washington, DC, USA
Basic Biographical Information
Larry J. Zimmerman is a North American archaeologist who is known for his work in social justice
as it relates to the practice of archaeology.
Zimmerman received a Ph.D. from the University
of Kansas in 1976 and taught at the University of
South Dakota from 1974 to 1996, where he was
Distinguished Regents Professor. He was Chair
of the American Indian and Native Studies at the
University of Iowa from 1998 to 2001 and was
Head of the Archaeology Department at the Minnesota Historical Society from 2002 to 2004.