






拿到考卷第一件事是?
顏色，切忌
標號、表?
Time pressure—〇To the point
ＸToo short to be clear—講清楚為原則，未
免誤解，必要時舉例
筆記 vs.作答 ：批閱你／妳考卷的人是誰？
不要放棄，再推敲，找線索
1
2

善待問者，如撞鐘，叩之以小者則
小嗚，叩之以大者則大鳴，待其從
容，然後盡其聲；不善答問者反此。
此 皆 進 學 之 道 也 。
（取材於《禮記·學記》）
3
1.
 功能與特性：
(1)抽象具象化，易於理解。
(2)比起生硬的定義，更令人印象深刻。
(3)具有情緒感染、共鳴力量。
 侷限與問題：
(1)局限於單一面向，無法面面俱到。
(2)因局限於單一層面，容易使教育全貌有扭曲
或失真之虞。
(3)隱喻存在多元詮釋空間，聽者可能並未掌握
說者藉此意欲傳達的教育觀點。
(4)聽者若不具備喻依的先備知識，恐無法理解
隱喻的意涵。

4
2.
兩個提問與所問的問題為何？
What do you mean by x?概念性的問題
How do you know (such and such is the case)?針對此
概念所提出之立場的證成性問題。
事業層次：指一段時間內的一切教學作為，除了典型
的教學行動如講課、寫板書外，可能參雜或多或少的
行動看似與教學無直接相關，如關窗戶、關電燈，但
卻是為了協助教學行動的順利進行。是以，在此層次
上，教學事業乃多樣態的，含括了典型的教學行動以
及非教學行動的行動。
教學層次： 根據教學目標與內容的設定不同，教師可
能會同時採用多種的教學行動，諸如講解、討論、影
片欣賞、辯論等。因此，行動層次上，教學並非僅限
於單一途徑，而是具有多樣態的樣貌。
5
教育
Education as initiation 經典閱讀
6
Q: 教育是什麼？
A：每個人所處生活中物理、生物及社會環境
對個體造成的全面影響稱為教育。例子：
1)
2)
教育就是一種影響力
Rousseau: ‘Education comes to us from
nature, from men and from things.’ （《愛
彌爾》（(Emile )）
B：教育是學校教師所組織與設計的特定影響。
◆
上述兩種定義，各有何缺失？
7
➢
氣候、溫度、地震對人產生的影響可稱為「教育」
嗎？
【提出「反例」(counterexample)】
➢
父親念《小王子》給小孩聽、學生教我使用
google form，他們雖非學校教師，但這些活動不
能算是「教育」嗎？
【指明「例外」 (exception)】
→顯示前述教育定義不夠周延
（太過廣泛或過於狹隘，而顯得不當）
8
教 育 即 接 生 教 育 即 塑 造 教 育 即 雕 刻 教 育 即 生 長
education
as education
as education
as education as growth
midwifery
molding
sculpture
學生是產婦，教師是 學生是泥土，教師是
心靈的產婆，由內而 塑造者，根據固定的
外 地 引 出 天 生的 觀 念 、模 型 來 塑 造 兒 童 的 心
知識
靈、人格等
教師如同藝術家針對
每塊大理石紋路加以
研究，在切磋琢磨過
程中配合先天紋路修
正構想，最終完成雕
像
承認教育功能的有限 強調教師的主動性、 承認學生的內在結構
性—受教者天生的特 權力、責任是教育成 與特質有個別差異性
質無法由外而內強加
敗關鍵（教師扮演主 （每塊大理石各有其
宰 的 角 色 ） 、 肯 定 教 成形的條件與限制）
育 功 能 （ 教 育萬 能 說 ）
教師如園丁，根據有
生命的學習主體的需
要、興趣，提供最適
宜 的 情 境 ， 使之 發 展 、
開 展 （ 避 免 揠苗 助 長 、
強調實現兒童的個別
潛能）
承認兒童必須經歷一
些階段，這是獨立於
教師的努力之上的，
園丁必須掌握有機體
生長過程的相關知識
生長隱喻賦予教師溫
和的角色
有關人類先天觀念的 漠視受教者的主動性 作品一旦完成就停止 生長方向的抉擇有待
假定屬於形上學的信 （抗拒塑造的歷程與 不動，實則受教者會 決定、不是所有潛能
念
預 定 的 模 型 ） 、 個 別 持續發展
都值得完全發展
差異性
9
Caricature: it distorts a face by emphasising
some of its salient features.
10

要想知道「教育」是什麼，
分析教育哲學家建議
可以怎麼做？
11
大綱
教育的定義（困難處）
二. 教育的隱喻（侷限性）
三. Wittgenstein建議conceptual analysis—從語
詞的實際（主要/核心）用法中，分析/歸
結出其形式要件，藉此掌握其（可能非
顯而易見的）意義。
四. Richard Stanley Peters示範：教育三規準
一.
12
如何掌握「教育」這個概念 ？




Wittgenstein提醒：不是所有字詞都有典型的指涉、描述
對象(1-1)，許多語詞有各式各樣的實際用法(1-多)，無
法只用一個簡單的定義加以界定，此時，這些字詞的意
義就顯現在其使用方式上。【要想周延掌握一個概念的
意義，必須從該字詞的用法，反推/歸納其意義】
日常語言vs.人工語言/術語 (每個概念都有單一明確、約
定俗成的定義) Ex: 教育 vs.三角形、人頭獅身像、美人
魚
對於這類語詞，我們必須從它們的使用方式（包含不同
的情境脈絡與功能等）來理解其意義。
Wittgenstein：「莫問意義，但問使用。」
13
Peters’ strategy

教育規準（回顧3個著名的教育隱
喻）
→教育定義（a positive account）
→教育隱喻（標題）
14
R. S. Peters的論點
Education is not a concept that marks out
any particular type of process such as
training, or activity such as lecturing;
rather it suggests criteria to which
processes such as training must conform
(p. 58).
 It encapsulates three basic criteria which
such educational processes must satisfy
(p. 62)

15
教育的規準 (criteria)
1.
There are three conceptual points about
‘education’ which are necessary for the
explication of its essence (p. 57)
合價值性(worthwhileness)： 教育蘊含傳遞
有價值的事物。
2.
合認知性(cognitiveness)： 教育的內涵包含
知識與理解、認知觀點。
3.
合自願性(voluntariness)： 教育歷程必須排
除違背/尊重學習者自願性者。
✓
三字訣
16
〈Education as initiation〉
an inaugural lecture delivered at the University
of London Institute of Education, 9 December
1963
(holder of Chair of philosophy of education)
R. S. Peters (1919-2011)
(1962-1983期間擔任IoE教育哲學講座教授)
17

Initiation is a rite of passage marking
entrance or acceptance into a group or society.
It could also be a formal admission to
adulthood in a community or one of its formal
components. In an extended sense it can also
signify a transformation in which the initiate is
‘reborn’ into a new role. Examples of initiation
ceremonies might include Hindu diksha,
Christian baptism or confirmation, Jewish bar
or bat mitzvah, acceptance into a fraternal
organization, secret society or religious order,
or graduation from school or recruit training.
（ http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Initiation ）
18
Structure of this paper
一.
二.
三.
四.
Background:英國1960s許多學術領域將「教
育」當作討論主題。
Rationale: 他們說的怎麼跟我在做的事情不一
樣？Is all this education? （旁觀者—教育的功
能或效果vs.局內人—教育本質上是什麼）
教育規準：合價值性、合自願性、合認知性
（涉及對三個教育隱喻的批判）
正面說明「教育是什麼」（a more positive
account of education ）
19
Background 大家談教育

A novel feature of the 1960s is the extent
to which education has become a subject
for public debate and theoretical
speculation (p. 55).
20
舉例：他們眼中的教育
Economists: education is a commodity in
which it is profitable for a community to
invest (p. 55). 教育是值得投資的商品
 Sociologists: teachers have a role of acting
as a socialising agency in the community (p.
55). 教育即是社會化
 Psychologists:
teachers’ main concern
should be for the mental health of children
(p. 56). 教育應關心學生心理健康

21
Rationale
To shut his [teachers] ears arbitrarily to
such different accounts is to limit his view
of the world—to take refuge in a kind of
monadic myopia. 充耳不聞?
 Man is such a creature that he alone has a
variable conceptual framework which
determines the aspects under which he acts
(p. 55). 概念架構/教育觀影響教育作為

22


Some of the descriptions given of what he is
doing qua teacher seriously misrepresent
what is distinctive of his calling by the
generality of the description or by
assimilating it to something else (p. 55).
部分描述恐嚴重誤解教師天職
23



To take a parallel case, 舉例：
‘kissing were to be described as a movement
of the lips that has the function of stimulating
the organism’.
The generality of this description would
omit some essential features of kissing.
24
哲學家角色—概念分析的任務

Education is different from social work,
psychiatry, and real estate. Everything is
what it is and not some other thing (p.
56)….But what on earth it [education]
is is seldom made clear.

Such
conceptual
clarification
is
preeminently the task of a philosopher of
education.
25
上述觀點問題何在?—去脈絡
(de-contextualize)



It is worth noting that what is objectionable is
to suppose that certain characteristics could
be regarded as essential irrespective of context
and of the questions under discussion.
In the context of the planning of resources, it
may be unobjectionable to think of education
as something in which a community can invest.
In the context of a theory of social cohesion,
education may be harmlessly described as a
socialising process.
26


If taken out of context, these descriptions of
education can be misleading, for they are made
from the point of view of a spectator pointing to
the ‘function’ or effects of education in a social
or economic system.
They are not descriptions of education from the
point of view of someone [insider] engaged in
the enterprise. We shall consider it
[education] from the point of view of the
teacher’s task in the classroom.【旁觀者著
眼於___；局內人關心的是___。】
27


In a similar way one might say that the
function of the medical art is to provide
employment for the makers of medicine bottles
or to increase the population. But this is not
what the doctor conceive of himself as doing
qua doctor, and it would be regrettable if he
came to view what he should be doing qua
doctor in terms of such remote effects of his
art (p 56). 旁觀者—遠端效果
Things like providing employment for printers
should not be built into the concept of
‘education’.
28
Worthwhileness: Education is an intentional
attempt made to change the educated for
the better 合價值性


‘Education’ relates to some sorts of processes
in which a desirable state of mind develops. It
would be as much of a logical contradiction to
say that a person had been educated and yet the
change was in no way desirable as it would be to
say that he had been reformed and yet had made
no change for the better (p. 57).
Both education and reform imply some change for
the better.
29

The central uses of the term [education]
are confined to situations where we
deliberately put ourselves or others in the
way of something that is thought to be
conducive to valuable states of mind (p.
57).
30
Education implies the intentional bringing
about of a desirable state of mind. But it is too
easy to assimilate it to the most familiar cases
of bringing about what is desirable.
1.
Something of a neutral sort is done for the
sake of something else that is thought to be
worthwhile. Ex: buses are boarded in order to
listen to a concert.
→ So education often appears as something
which has to be gone through, in order that
some desirable outcome will ensue, like a wellpaid job. ［instrumental model of education］

31
2.教育價值可分為「工具性價值」和
「非工具性價值」，試闡述這兩種
價值之意涵，並分別舉出「學校教
育」的工具性價值和非工具價值各
一項。【112】
32
In the useful arts where neutral
materials are fashioned into something
that is valuable. Ex: clay is made into
pots or rubber into golf-balls.
→Minds are moulded into some desirable
end-product.
[moulding model of education]
2.
33


However, there is a fundamental confusion
involved in these ways of thinking. This is due
to applying these banal ways of conceiving of
the promotion of what is valuable to education
itself rather than to the processes or activities
involved in it. 混淆:以教育促成有價值之物vs.
教育過程與活動本身自有的價值
To call something ‘educational’ is to intimate
that the processes and activities themselves
contribute to or involve something that is
worthwhile.
34
The instrumental and moulding
models of education provide a
caricature of this necessary feature of
desirability by conceiving of what is
worthwhile as an end brought out by
the process (p. 58).
 教育的工具觀與塑造觀都強調目的
/成品的可欲性/合價值性。

35
Education and growth
Some may liken education to a natural
process in which the individual develops
or ‘grows’ like a plant towards something
that is presumed to be desirable.
 a positive child-centred ideology emerges
vs. traditional methods still prevalent in
the schools

36

The ideology of the ‘progressive’ child-centred
educator, who believes in ‘growth’, cannot be
attributed to any one central thinker. He or, more
likely, she, tends to believe that education
consists in the development from within of
potentialities rather than ‘moulding’ from without,
that the curriculum should arise from the needs
and interests of the child rather than from the
demands of the teacher, that self-expression is
more important than the discipline of subject
matter, that children should not be coerced or
punished, that children should be allowed to
‘learn from experience’ rather than be told things
(p. 58).
37

1.
2.
3.

The difficulty is to pin down such views to any
one important educational theorist.
Froebel：強調研究兒童各階段的發展，［教育］所提
供的必須適合兒童的興趣與發展階段。但他深信需要依
照可欲路線結構化環境（structuring environment, ex, his
‘gifts’），而且他的教育觀受到神祕要求（個體必須體
驗自然界的統一）主宰。
Dewey：其名諱與「成長」、 「經驗」緊密相連，但他
卻 得 寫 一 本 書 《Experience and education》 來 否 認
（disclaim）自己需要為Progressive Education Movement
的部分學說負責，並且澄清人們對於他實際上較為中庸
立場（more moderate position）的誤解。
Rousseau：不相信教育純粹是協助「自然」傾向/習性
（propensities）的開展（enfoldment）[疑為unfoldment
的筆誤]，而是循序引導男孩朝向道德自由、自立、自
制、愛好真理與正義。
有賴教育思想與實踐的歷史學家的博學（erudition）來追
溯兒童中心、進步主義意識形態在英國與美國的發展。
38

But what emerged as associated with this
ideology was a ［ growth ］ model of the
educational situation in which the teacher was
regarded as one who has studied the laws of
development, and who has to provide
appropriate condition by arranging the
‘environment’ so that the child can ‘realise
himself’ to the full or ‘grow’ without becoming
stunted or arrested (p. 59).
39

This model avoids the illiberal and
instrumental intimations of the other
models; but it cannot remain for long
romantically aloft once the glare of
philosophical analysis is turned upon it.
40
For concepts such as ‘self-realisation’
and ‘growth’ presuppose standards of
value which determine both the sort of
‘self’ which is worth realising and the
direction of growth.
 Human beings are not like flowers in
having a predetermined end which serves
as a final cause of their development.
 非癌症式的生長

41
生長隱喻的問題


‘Growing’ or ‘realising oneself’ implies doing
things which are thought to be worth-while
rather than other. The standards by reference to
which they are judged to be worthwhile are
grasped by men and handed on from
generation to generation.
【生長隱喻未考量合價值性】
42
生長隱喻的賣點/貢獻
Growth model-procedural principle


It suggests another dimension in which valuejudgment can enter into education, which
relates to the manner (in which children are to
be treated) rather than to the matter of
education (i.e. what is taught) (p. 59).
They emphasise the place of procedural
principles. By this I mean that they stress the
importance of letting individual choose for
themselves, learn by experience, and direct their
own lives. [self-direction of the individual]
43
小節：生長隱喻的優、缺點
The problem for those who emphasise
‘growth’ is to do this in a way which
does justice to the fact that no educator
can be indifferent to the way in which an
individual grows.
 生長隱喻點出程序性原則的重要性(留
意教育過程中的manner)，但卻未處理
實質的價值判斷/合價值性。

44

Conceptually speaking, the growth model of
education, like the instrumental or moulding
model, is a caricature, though like all effective
caricatures, it distorts a face by emphasising
some of its salient features (p. 59).
隱喻的特性—
凸顯一方的同
時也扭曲整體
45
My second main conceptual point
about education (p. 60): voluntariness

In addition to the demand that
something valuable must be passed on,
it implies that the individual who is
educated shall come to care about the
valuable things involved, that he shall
want to achieve the relevant standards.
46
Those who believe in such authoritarian
methods of education assume that, though
children may not care about these
performances in the early stages, once they
get started on them they will eventually
come to care.
 Growth
theorists, grasping that being
educated implies interest in and care for
what is worthwhile, assumed that this
could only develop if the worthwhile things
are always presented in a way which
attracts the child.

47
The second conceptual point is that to be
educated implies
(a) caring about what is worthwhile
(b) Being brought to care about it and to
possess the relevant knowledge and skills
in a way that involves at least a minimum
of understanding and voluntariness.

48
A third conceptual point about
education (p. 60): cognitiveness



This concerns the cognitive aspect of the
concept of education.
We often say of a man that he is
highly trained but not educated.
What lies behind this condemnation?
49
The conceptual connection between
education and cognitive perspective
1)
2)
3)
4)
Educating the emotions vs. training
the emotions 情緒教育vs.情緒訓練
Sex education vs. sex training
Physical education vs. physical training
CTE (center for teacher education)vs.
CTT(center for teacher training)
50



We talk more naturally of ‘educating the
emotions’ than we do of training them. This is
surely because the distinct emotions (say, anger
and jealousy) are differentiated by their
cognitive core, by the different beliefs that go
with them (p. 61).
If we are contemplating bringing about changes
in people’s emotional attitudes and reactions, our
main task consists in trying to get them to see the
world differently (p. 61).
We speak of ‘education’ because of the work that
has to be done on his beliefs.
51
If, we speak, as we sometimes do, of training
the emotions: they have to acquire by training
a pattern of habits.
 Training
suggests the acquisition of
appropriate habits of responses in a limited
situation. 培養在特定情境內的習慣性反應。
 It lacks the wider cognitive implications of
education.

52
Peters puts forward (黃綠紅)
a more positive account of education

Education involves essentially processes
which intentionally transmit what is
valuable in an intelligible and voluntary
manner and which create in the learner
a desire to achieve it, this being seen to
have its place along with other things
in life (p. 63).
53
Initiation into?

教育就是啟發引導(initiation)學習者進
入各種的知識形式(forms of knowledge)、
理 解 (understanding) 、 認 知 觀 點
(cognitive perspectives) 、 知 覺 形 式
（ forms of awareness ） 。 【objective
standards should be written into the
content of education】
54
※以教育三大規準作為挑選「合乎教育意義與價值」
之教材、活動與方法(matter and manner) 的依據。
◆
教育(education) ：符合教育的規準，並且產生
正面影響。
◆
非教育(non-education) ：「不符合」教育的
規準，未具備教育之正向作用，例如缺乏認知的意
義，或是缺乏教育價值等，不過尚未產生嚴重的負
面影響。
◆
反教育/錯誤教育(mis-education) ：「悖離」
教育的規準，而且產生負面影響，例如違反真理的
認知意義、妨礙個人潛能發展、破壞個人自尊等。
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p.12, p. 15例子，教育乎？








（）平面三角形的內角和是兩個直角和。
（）臺北是臺灣最南端的國際海港城市。
（）子孫智慧的高低與祖墳面積大小成正比。
（）偷竊是合理的，只要你喜歡沒什麼不可以。
（）做好事來世必有善報，做壞事來世必有惡報。
（）教學生拿石頭打落水狗，看誰打得準。
（）教學生吞鴨蛋與喝汽水比賽，看誰吃/喝得多且快。
（）教學生欣賞與吟誦唐詩三百首。
資料來源：取自歐陽教（1996）。教育的概念分析。載
於歐陽教（主編），教育概論(頁1-32)。臺北市：師大
書苑。
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