AD8411 - DATABASE DESIGN AND MANAGEMENT LABORATORY
L T PC
00 4 2
COURSE OBJECTIVES:
• To understand the database development life cycle
• To learn database design using conceptual modeling, Normalization
• To implement database using Data definition, Querying using SQL manipulation & SQL
programming
• To implement database applications using IDE/RAD tools
• To learn querying Object-relational databases
SUGGESTIVE EXPERIMENTS
1. Database Development Life cycle: Problem definition, Requirement analysis, Scope and Constraints
2. Database design using Conceptual modeling (ER-EER) – top-down approach
Mapping conceptual to relational database and validate using Normalization
3. Implement the database using SQL Data definition with constraints, Views
4. Query the database using SQL Manipulation
5. Querying/Managing the database using SQL Programming
Stored Procedures/Functions - Constraints and security using Triggers
6. Database design using Normalization – bottom-up approach
7. Develop database applications using IDE/RAD tools (Eg. NetBeans, Visual Studio)
8. Database design using EER-to-ODB mapping / UML class diagrams
9. Object features of SQL-UDTs and sub-types, Tables using UDTs, Inheritance, Method definition
10. Querying the Object-relational database using Objet Query language
COURSE OUTCOMES
After the completion of this course, students will be able to:
• Understand the database development life cycle
• Design relational database using conceptual-to-relational mapping, Normalization
• Apply SQL for creation, manipulation and retrieval of data
• Develop a database applications for real-time problems
• Design and query object-relational databases
TOTAL : 60 PERIODS
HARDWARE: Standalone Desktops
SOFTWARE: PostgreSQL
EX. NO: 1
DATE:
DATABASE DEVELOPMENT LIFE CYCLE
Problem definition, Requirement analysis, Scope and Constraints
AIM
To study about the various concepts such as Problem definition, Requirement analysis, Scope and
Constraints involved in Database Development Life Cycle.
DESCRIPTION
DATABASE ENVIRONMENT
A database environment is a collective system of components that comprise and regulates the
group of data, management, and use of data, which consist of software, hardware, people, techniques
of handling database, and the data also. One of the primary aims of a database is to supply users with
an abstract view of data, hiding a certain element of how data is stored and manipulated.
•
Hardware in a database environment means the computers and computer peripherals that are
being used to manage a database,
•
Software includes operating system (OS) to the application programs that include database
management software like M.S. Access or SQL Server.
•
People in a database environment include administrators and data users in system
COMPONENTS OF DATABASE SYSTEM ENVIRONMENT
Even the database system environment is made up of the following
1. Hardware
2. Software
3. People
4. Procedures
5. Data
System Utilities: Database system utilities are the tools that can be used by the database system
administrator to control and manage the database system.
1. Loading Utility
Loading database utility helps in loading the database file into the database.
2. Backup Utility
The backup utility in the database environment helps in creating a backup copy of the entire database.
3. Database Storage Reorganization Utility
It helps to relocate and organize the database files to a different location and it also produces a new
access path to access the files from its new location.
4. Performance Monitoring Utility
It monitors the usage of the database by its user and provides statistics for the same to the DBA.
DATABASE SYSTEM DEVELOPMENT LIFECYCLE:
•
Database life cycle (DBLC) defines the stages involved for implementing a database, starting
with requirements analysis and ending with monitoring and modification.
•
DBLC never ends because database monitoring, modification, and maintenance are part of the
life cycle, and these activities continue long after a database has been implemented.
•
DBLC encompasses the lifetime of database.
Five stages in database life cycle are:
1. Requirements analysis
2. Logical design
3. Physical design
4. Implementation
5. Monitoring, Modification and Maintenance
Database Development Life Cycle
Steps in Database System Development Process
I. REQUIREMENTS ANALYSIS or REQUIREMENTS COLLECTION:
•
Requirements Analysis is the first and most important stage in the Database Life Cycle.
•
Process of collecting and analyzing information about organization that is to be supported by
database system, and using this information to identify requirements for new system.
Requirements analysis
Planning – This stages of database design concepts are concerned with planning of entire Database
Development Life Cycle.
System definition – This stage defines the scope and boundaries of the proposed database system.
Requirement Analysis - Example
Customer/End-user expectation:
Customer/End-user receive:
Below are the two methodologies used for requirement analysis phase,
1) SDA - Structured data analysis
2) SSAD - Structured systems analysis and design method
1. Structured Data Analysis (SDA)is a method for analysing the flow of information within an
organization using data flow diagrams.
Specification documents created in requirement analysis phase are used as input to conceptual schema
design phase. Structured data analysis (systems analysis) consists of
▪
Data Flow Diagrams
▪
Systems Analysis
▪
Data Processing
Data Flow Diagrams
▪
A Data-Flow Diagram is a way of representing a flow of data through a process or a system.
DFD also provides information about the outputs and inputs of each entity and the process
itself. A data-flow diagram has no control flow — there are no decision rules and no loops.
Specific operations based on the data can be represented by a flowchart.
▪
Systems analysis is "the process of studying a procedure or business to identify its goal and
purposes and create systems and procedures that will efficiently achieve them"
▪
Data processing is, "the collection and manipulation of items of data to produce meaningful
information." It is a subset of information processing.
Data processing may involve various processes, including:
•
Validation –
•
Sorting –
•
Summarization(statistical) or (automatic) –
•
Aggregation –Analysis –
•
Reporting –
•
Classification
2. Structured Systems Analysis and Design Method (SSADM), as methodology, is a systems
approach to the analysis and design of information systems.
SSADM techniques Three most important techniques that are used in SSADM are as follows:
▪
Logical design
▪
Physical Design
▪
Implementation
II. Logical design
▪
During the first part of Logical Design, a conceptual model is created based on the needs
assessment performed in stage one.
▪
A conceptual model is typically an entity-relationship (ER) diagram that shows tables, fields,
and primary keys of database, and how tables are related (linked) to one another.
▪
Tables in the ER diagram are then normalized. Normalization resolves any problems associated
with database design, so that data can be accessed quickly and efficiently.
1. CONCEPTUAL MODEL: describes the structure of a database.
2. ENTITY-RELATIONSHIP (ER) DIAGRAM: A diagram used during design phase of
database development and represents relationships between data during database design.
3. NORMALIZATION: The process of applying increasingly stringent rules to a relational
database to correct any problems associated with poor design.
III. Physical Design
Physical
Design
stage
has
only
one
purpose:
to
maximize
database
efficiency.
This means finding ways to speed up the performance of the RDBMS. Manipulating certain database
design elements can speed up the two slowest operations in an RDBMS: retrieving data from and
writing data to a database.
The final two stages in the DBLC,
1. Implementation
2. Monitoring, Modification, and Maintenance occur after database design is complete.
IV. Implementation
During the implementation stage of the DBLC, the tables developed in the ER diagram (and
subsequently normalized) are converted into SQL statements. These SQL statements are then executed
in the RDBMS to create a database. By this stage in the database life cycle, the System Administrator
has installed and configured an RDBMS.
V. Monitoring, modification, and maintenance
A successfully implemented database must be carefully monitored to ensure that it is functioning
properly and that it is secure from unauthorized access.
RDBMS usually provides utilities to help monitor database functionality and security.
Database modification involves adding and deleting records, importing data from other systems (as
needed), and creating additional tables, user views, and other objects and tools.
DATABASE DESIGN:
▪
Database Design is a collection of processes that facilitate the designing, development,
implementation and maintenance of enterprise data management systems.
▪
Properly designed database are easy to maintain, improves data consistency and cost effective in
terms of disk storage space.
▪
Database designer decides how data elements correlate and what data must be stored.
Database Design
It helps produce database systems
1. That meet the requirements of the users
2. Have high performance.
3. The database development life cycle has a number of stages that are followed when developing
database systems.
4. The steps in the development life cycle do not necessarily have to be followed religiously in a
sequential manner.
5. On small database systems, the process of database design is usually very simple and does not
involve a lot of steps.
Database designing
•
Logical model – This stage is concerned with developing a database model based on
requirements. The entire design is on paper without any physical implementations or specific
DBMS considerations.
•
Physical model – This stage implements the logical model of the database taking into account
the DBMS and physical implementation factors.
Implementation
•
Data conversion and loading – this stage of relational databases design is concerned with
importing and converting data from the old system into the new database.
•
Testing – this stage is concerned with the identification of errors in the newly implemented
system. It checks the database against requirement specifications.
RESULT:
Thus the various concepts such as Problem definition, Requirement analysis, Scope and
Constraints involved in Database Development Life Cycle has been studied.
EX. NO: 2
IMPLEMENT THE DATABASE USING SQL DATA DEFINITION
LANGUAGE
DATE:
AIM To create a database using SQL Data Definition Language using SQL queries.
PROCEDURE
SQL Data Definition Language (DDL) Commands
▪
DDL or Data Definition Language consists of the SQL commands that can be used to define
the database schema
▪
DDL is set of SQL commands used to create, modify, and delete the structure of database
objects in the database but not data.
▪
DDL changes structure of table like creating a table, deleting a table, altering a table, etc.
▪
All the command of DDL are auto-committed that means it permanently save all the changes.
List of DDL commands:
•
CREATE: This command is used to create the database or its objects (like table, index,
function, views, store procedure, and triggers).
•
DROP: This command is used to delete objects from the database.
•
ALTER: This is used to alter the structure of the database.
•
TRUNCATE: This is used to remove all records from a table, including all spaces
•
RENAME: This is used to rename an object existing in the database.
a. SQL CREATE command It is used to create a new table in the database.
Syntax:
CREATE TABLE TABLE_NAME (COLUMN_NAME DATATYPES[,. .. ]);
Or
Create table "table_name"
("column1" "data type",
"column2" "data type",
"column3" "data type",
...
"columnN" "data type");
Example creates a table called "Persons" that contains five columns: PersonID, LastName, FirstName,
Address, and City:
Example 1
CREATETABLE Persons (
PersonID int,
LastName varchar(255),
FirstName varchar(255),
Address varchar(255),
City varchar(255)
)
PersonID
LastName
FirstName
Address
City
Example 2
SQL> CREATE TABLE EMPLOYEE (
EMP_ID INT
NOT NULL,
EMP_NAME VARCHAR (25) NOT NULL,
PHONE_NO INT
NOT NULL,
ADDRESS CHAR (30),
PRIMARY KEY (ID));
Use DESC command as follows:
SQL> DESC EMPLOYEE;
Field
EMP_ID
Type
int(11)
Null
NO
EMP_NAME varchar(25) NO
PHONE_NO
NO
ADDRESS
YES
int(11)
Key Default
PRI
Extra
NULL
NULL
NULL
NULL
char(30)
b. SQL DROP Command:
▪
The DROP TABLE statement is used to drop an existing table in a database
▪
A SQL drop table is used to delete a table definition and all the data from a table.
▪
It is used to delete both the structure and record stored in the table.
Syntax: DROP TABLE table_name;
Example
DROP TABLE EMPLOYEE;
c. SQL ALTER Command: It is used to alter the structure of the database. This will modify the
characteristics of an existing attribute or to add a new attribute.
Syntax: To add a new column in the table
ALTER TABLE table_name ADD column_name COLUMN-definition;
To modify existing column in the table:
ALTER TABLE table_name MODIFY(column_definitions. .. );
SQL ALTER TABLE Example
"Persons" table:
ID LastName FirstName Address City
ALTER TABLE Persons ADD DateOfBirth date;
ID LastName FirstName Address City DateOfBirth
d. SQL TRUNCATE:
The TRUNCATE TABLE statement is used to delete the data inside a table, but not the table
itself. It is used to delete all the rows from the table and free the space containing the table.
Syntax:
TRUNCATE TABLE table_name;
Example:
TRUNCATE TABLE EMPLOYEE;
e. SQL RENAME
Database user can easily change the name of the table by using the RENAME TABLE and ALTER
TABLE statement in SQL. This helps in changing the name of the table.
Syntax:
RENAME old_table _name To new_table_name ;
•
Suppose, you want to change the above table name Cars into "Car_2021_Details".
RENAME Cars To Car_2021_Details ;
RESULT:
Thus the Database has been created using Data Definition Language using SQL queries.
EX. NO: 3
IMPLEMENT DATABASE USING SQL DATA DEFINITION WITH VIEWS
DATE:
AIM: To Implement the database using SQL Data definition with Views
VIEWS DESCRIPTION:
•
A database view is a logical or virtual table based on a query. Views are queried just like
tables.
•
View is a virtual table based on the result-set of an SQL statement. A view also contains rows
and columns
•
To create the view, we can select the fields from one or more tables present in database.
•
A view can either have specific rows based on certain condition or all the rows of a table.
A DBA or view owner can drop a view with the DROP VIEW command.
TYPES OF VIEWS
• Updatable views – Allow data manipulation
• Read only views – Do not allow data manipulation
Example 1:
Sample table: Student_Detail
STU_ID
NAME
ADDRESS
1
Stephan
Delhi
2
Kathrin
Noida
3
David
Ghaziabad
4
Alina
Gurugram
Student_Marks
STU_ID
NAME
MARKS
AGE
1
Stephan
97
19
2
Kathrin
86
21
3
David
74
18
4
Alina
90
20
5
John
96
18
1. Creating view:
A view can be created using CREATE VIEW statement. Create a view from a single table or multiple
tables.
Syntax:
CREATE VIEW view_name AS
SELECT column1, column2.....
FROM table_name
WHERE condition;
2. Creating View from a single table
In this example, we create a View named DetailsView from the table Student_Detail.
Query:
CREATE VIEW DetailsView AS
SELECT NAME, ADDRESS
FROM Student_Details
WHERE STU_ID < 4;
Just like table query, we can query the view to view the data.
SELECT * FROM DetailsView;
Output:
NAME
ADDRESS
Stephan Delhi
Kathrin Noida
David
Ghaziabad
3. Creating View from multiple tables
View from multiple tables can be created by including multiple tables in SELECT statement.
In this, view is created named MarksView from two tables Student_Detail and Student_Marks.
Query:
CREATE VIEW MarksView AS
SELECT Student_Detail.NAME, Student_Detail.ADDRESS, Student_Marks.MARKS
FROM Student_Detail, Student_Mark
WHERE Student_Detail.NAME = Student_Marks.NAME;
To display data of View MarksView:SELECT * FROM MarksView;
NAME
ADDRESS MARKS
Stephan Delhi
97
Kathrin Noida
86
David
Ghaziabad
74
Alina
Gurugram
90
4. Deleting View - A view can be deleted using the Drop View statement.
Syntax: DROP VIEW view_name;
Example:
If we want to delete the View MarksView, we can do this as:
DROP VIEW MarksView;
5. SQL Updating a View A view can be updated with the CREATE OR REPLACE VIEW statement.
SQL CREATE OR REPLACE VIEW Syntax
CREATE OR REPLACEVIEW view_name AS
SELECTcolumn1, column2, ...
FROM table_name
WHERE condition;
RESULT:
Thus the Views using SQL has been executed using DDL and DML statements.
EX. NO: 4
QUERY THE DATABASE USING SQL MANIPULATION
DATE:
AIM:
To Query the database using SQL Manipulation i.e. Data Manipulation Language (DML)
Commands.
DESCRIPTION:
SQL DATA MANIPULATION LANGUAGE (DML)
▪
DML commands are SQL commands, used to manipulation of data i.e., modify the
data present in the database
▪
It is responsible for all form of changes in the database.
▪
The command of DML is not auto-committed that means it can't permanently save all
the changes in the database. They can be rollback.
List of DML commands:
•
INSERT : It is used to insert data into a table.
•
UPDATE: It is used to update existing data within a table.
•
DELETE : It is used to delete records from a database table.
•
SELECT: It is used to query or retrieve data from a table in the database
a. SQL INSERT: SQL INSERT statement is used to insert a single or multiple data into row of a
table.
Syntax:
INSERT INTO TABLE_NAME
(col1, col2, col3,.....col N)
VALUES (value1, value2, value3, .....valueN);
Or
INSERT INTO TABLE_NAME
VALUES (value1, value2, value3, .....valueN);
For example:
In SQL, You can insert the data in two ways:
▪
Without specifying column name
▪
By specifying column name
Sample Table - EMPLOYEE
EMP_ID EMP_NAME
CITY
SALARY AGE
1
Angelina
Chicago
200000
30
2
Robert
Austin
300000
26
3
Christian
Denver
100000
42
4
Kristen
Washington 500000
29
5
Russell
Los angels
36
200000
1. Without specifying column name
Syntax:
INSERT INTO TABLE_NAME
VALUES (value1, value2, value 3, .....Value N);
Query:
INSERT INTO EMPLOYEE VALUES (6, 'Marry', 'Canada', 600000, 48);
Output:
EMP_ID EMP_NAME
CITY
SALARY AGE
1
Angelina
Chicago
200000
30
2
Robert
Austin
300000
26
3
Christian
Denver
100000
42
4
Kristen
Washington 500000
29
5
Russell
Los angels
200000
36
6
Marry
Canada
600000
48
2. By specifying column name
To insert partial column values, you must have to specify the column names.
Syntax
INSERT INTO TABLE_NAME
[(col1, col2, col3,. ... col N)]
VALUES (value1, value2, value 3, .....Value N);
Query
INSERT INTO EMPLOYEE (EMP_ID, EMP_NAME, AGE) VALUES (7, 'Jack', 40);
Output: After executing this query, the table will look like:
EMP_ID EMP_NAME
CITY
SALARY AGE
1
Angelina
Chicago
200000
30
2
Robert
Austin
300000
26
3
Christian
Denver
100000
42
4
Kristen
Washington 500000
29
5
Russell
Los angels
200000
36
6
Marry
Canada
600000
48
7
Jack
null
null
40
b. SQL UPDATE:
•
This command is used to update or modify the value of a column in the table.
•
SQL UPDATE statement is used to modify the data that is already in the database.
•
The condition in the WHERE clause decides that which row is to be updated.
Syntax:
UPDATE table_name
SET column1 = value1, column2 = value2, ...
[WHERE CONDITION]
Sample Table:
EMPLOYEE
EMP_ID EMP_NAME
CITY
SALARY AGE
1
Angelina
Chicago
200000
30
2
Robert
Austin
300000
26
3
Christian
Denver
100000
42
4
Kristen
Washington 500000
29
5
Russell
Los angels
200000
36
6
Marry
Canada
600000
48
Updating single record
Update column EMP_NAME and set the value to 'Emma' in the row where SALARY is 500000.
Syntax:
UPDATE table_name
SET column_name = value
WHERE condition;
Query
UPDATE EMPLOYEE
SET EMP_NAME = 'Emma'
WHERE SALARY = 500000;
Output: After executing this query, the EMPLOYEE table will look like:
EMP_ID EMP_NAME
CITY
SALARY AGE
1
Angelina
Chicago
200000
30
2
Robert
Austin
300000
26
3
Christian
Denver
100000
42
4
Emma
Washington 500000
29
5
Russell
Los angels
200000
36
6
Marry
Canada
600000
48
Updating multiple records
If you want to update multiple columns, you should separate each field assigned with a comma.Syntax
UPDATE table_name
SET column_name = value1, column_name2 = value2
WHERE condition;
Query
UPDATE EMPLOYEE
SET EMP_NAME = 'Kevin', City = 'Boston'
WHERE EMP_ID = 5;
Output
EMP_ID EMP_NAME
Angelina
Chicago
200000
30
2
Robert
Austin
300000
26
3
Christian
Denver
100000
42
4
Kristen
Washington 500000
29
5
Kevin
Boston
200000
36
6
Marry
Canada
600000
48
UPDATE table_name
SET column_name = value1;
Query:
SALARY AGE
1
Without use of WHERE clause
Syntax:
CITY
UPDATE EMPLOYEE
SET EMP_NAME = 'Harry';
Output
EMP_ID EMP_NAME
CITY
SALARY AGE
1
Harry
Chicago
200000
30
2
Harry
Austin
300000
26
3
Harry
Denver
100000
42
4
Harry
Washington 500000
29
5
Harry
Los angels
200000
36
6
Harry
Canada
600000
48
c. SQL DELETE: It is used to remove one or more row from a table.
Syntax:
DELETE FROM table_name [WHERE condition];
Example :
Suppose, the EMPLOYEE table having the following records:
EMP_ID EMP_NAME
CITY
PHONE_NO SALARY
1
Kristen
Chicago
9737287378
150000
2
Russell
Austin
9262738271
200000
3
Denzel
Boston
7353662627
100000
4
Angelina
Denver
9232673822
600000
5
Robert
Washington 9367238263
350000
6
Christian
Los angels
260000
7253847382
The following query will DELETE an employee whose ID is 3.
SQL> DELETE FROM EMPLOYEE
WHERE EMP_ID = 3;
EMP_ID EMP_NAME
1
Kristen
CITY
Chicago
PHONE_NO SALARY
9737287378
150000
2
Russell
Austin
9262738271
200000
4
Angelina
Denver
9232673822
600000
5
Robert
Washington 9367238263
350000
6
Christian
Los angels
260000
7253847382
If you don't specify the WHERE condition, it will remove all the rows from the table.
DELETE FROM EMPLOYEE;
Now, the EMPLOYEE table would not have any records.
Deleting Single Record
Delete the row from the table EMPLOYEE where EMP_NAME = 'Kristen'. This will delete only the
fourth row.
Query
DELETE FROM EMPLOYEE
WHERE EMP_NAME = 'Kristen';
Output: After executing this query, the EMPLOYEE table will look like:
EMP_ID EMP_NAME
CITY
SALARY AGE
1
Angelina
Chicago
200000
30
2
Robert
Austin
300000
26
3
Christian
Denver
100000
42
5
Russell
Los angels 200000
36
6
Marry
Canada
48
Deleting Multiple Record
Delete the row from the EMPLOYEE table where AGE is 30.
Query
DELETE FROM EMPLOYEE WHERE AGE= 30;
600000
Output: After executing this query, the EMPLOYEE table will look like:
EMP_ID EMP_NAME
CITY
SALARY AGE
2
Robert
Austin
300000
26
3
Christian
Denver
100000
42
5
Russell
Los angels 200000
36
6
Marry
Canada
48
600000
Delete all of the records
Delete all the row from the EMPLOYEE table. After this, no records left to display. The EMPLOYEE
table will become empty.
Syntax
DELETE * FROM table_name;
or
DELETE FROM table_name;
Query
DELETE FROM EMPLOYEE;
Output: After executing this query, the EMPLOYEE table will look like:
EMP_ID EMP_NAME CITY SALARY AGE
DATA QUERY LANGUAGE - DQL is used to fetch data from database. It uses only one
command - SELECT
SELECT:
SELECT statement is used to query or retrieve data from a table in the database.
The returns data is stored in a table, and the result table is known as result-set.
Syntax:
SELECT expressions
FROM TABLES
WHERE conditions;
Or
SELECT column1, column2, ...
FROM table_name;
For example:
Use the following syntax to select all the fields available in the table:
SELECT * FROM table_name;
Example: EMPLOYEE
EMP_ID EMP_NAME
Kristen
1
Russell
2
Angelina
3
Robert
4
Christian
5
CITY
Chicago
Austin
Denver
Washington
Los angels
PHONE_NO
9737287378
9262738271
9232673822
9367238263
7253847382
To fetch the EMP_ID of all the employees, use the following query:
SELECT EMP_ID FROM EMPLOYEE;
Output
EMP_ID
1
2
3
4
5
SALARY
150000
200000
600000
350000
260000
To fetch the EMP_NAME and SALARY, use the following query:
SELECT EMP_NAME, SALARY FROM EMPLOYEE;
EMP_NAME SALARY
Kristen
150000
Russell
200000
Angelina
600000
Robert
350000
Christian
260000
To fetch all the fields from the EMPLOYEE table, use the following query:
SELECT * FROM EMPLOYEE
Output
EMP_ID EMP_NAME
CITY
PHONE_NO SALARY
1
Kristen
Chicago
9737287378
150000
2
Russell
Austin
9262738271
200000
3
Angelina
Denver
9232673822
600000
4
Robert
Washington 9367238263
350000
5
Christian
Los angels
260000
7253847382
RESULT:
Thus, SQL Data Manipulation Language (DML) Commands for Querying the database has
been executed.
EX. NO: 5
CREATION OF A DATABASE USING SQL QUERIES DDL, DML
DATE:
AIM To create a database and to retrieve the information from the database using SQL queries.
DDL COMMANDS DESCRIPTION
CREATE
SQL> create table student(sno number(3),name varchar(20),marks number(3),dep varchar(2),age
number(2));
Table created
Sql> desc student;
SNO
NAME
MARKS
DEP AGE
ALTER
SQL> alter table student add(ph_no number(10));
Table altered
Sql> desc student;
SNO
NAME
MARKS
DEP
AGE PH_NO
MODIFY
SQL> alter tables student modify(dep varchar(5));
Table altered
Sql> desc student;
SNO
NAME
MARKS
TRUNCATE
SQL> truncate table student;
Table truncated
DEP
AGE PH_NO
SQL> select * from student;
No rows selected
DROP
SQL> alter table student drop column ph_no ;
Table altered
SQL> desc student ;
SNO
NAME
MARKS
DEP
AGE
DML COMMANDS
INSERT
SQL> insert into student values(01,‘Manoj‘,99,‘IT‘,18) ;
1 row created
SQL>insert into student values(02,‘Ramana‘,98,‘IT‘,19);
1 row created
SQL>insert into student values(03,‘Samy‘,90,‘CSE‘,17);
1 row created
SQL>insert into student values(04,‘Prabha‘,99, ‘CSE‘,16);
1 row created
SELECT SQL> select * from student;
SNO
NAME
MARKS
DEP
AGE
01
Manoj
99
IT
18
02
Ramana
98
IT
19
03
Samy
90
CSE
17
04
Prabha
99
CSE
16
UPDATE
SQL>update student set age=18 where sno=‘04‘;
1 row updated
SQL>select * from student;
SNO
NAME
MARKS
DEP
AGE
01
Manoj
99
IT
18
02
Ramana
98
IT
19
03
Samy
90
CSE
17
04
Prabha
99
CSE
18
DELETE
SQL> delete from student where sno=‘03‘;
1 rows deleted
SQL>select * from student;
SNO
NAME
MARKS
DEP
AGE
01
Manoj
99
IT
18
02
Ramana
98
IT
19
04
Prabha
99
CSE
18
RESULT
Thus the creation of database and the SQL queries to retrieve information from the database
has been implemented using DDL and DML statements.
EX. NO : 6a
SQL PROGRAMMING USING FUNCTIONS
DATE:
AIM: To implement the concept of function Using SQL Programming
FUNCTION DESCRIPTION:
Functions are subprograms return a value. PL/SQL Function is very similar to PL/SQL
Procedure. The main difference between procedure and a function is, a function must always return a
value, and procedure may or may not return a value.
To create a function to return the total number of users in the user1 table.
Function Syntax:
Create or replace function function_name[(argument1,argument2,. ... , argument n)]
Return datatype
is
[declaration_section]
Begin
Executable-section
Return function_value
End;
TABLE CREATION: user1 table
Create table user1(id number(10) primary key, name varchar2(100));
Inserting Values in user1 Table:
After inserting 5 rows, Final table will be:
Insert into user1 values(101,’Rahul’);
Insert into user1 values(102,’Risha’);
Insert into user1 values(103,’Rithu’);
Insert into user1 values(104,’Roja’);
Insert into user1 values(105,’Rubika’);
Select * from user1
ID
NAME
101
Rahul
102
Risha
103
Rithu
104
Roja
105
Rubika
CREATE FUNCTION:
CREATE OR REPLACE FUNCTION totalCustomers
RETURN number IS
total number(2) := 0;
BEGIN
SELECT count(*) into total
FROM user1;
RETURN total;
END;
/
Output:
Function created.
FUNCTION CALL:
DECLARE
c number(2);
BEGIN
c := totalCustomers();
dbms_output.put_line('Total no. of Customers: ' || c);
END;
/
Output:
Total no. of Users: 5
Statement processed.
RESULT:
Thus the SQL Programming Functions was executed and output was verified.
EX. NO: 6b
FUNCTIONS IN SQL PROGRAMMING
DATE:
AIM: To Query/Manage the Database Using SQL Programming Functions
DESCRIPTION: To perform the addition of two numbers using Functions in SQL Programming
FUNCTION CREATION
create or replace function add(n1 in number, n2 in number)
return number
is
n3 number(8);
begin
n3 :=n1+n2;
return n3;
end;
/
OUTPUT:
Function Created
FUNCTION CALL: Program to call the function add()
DECLARE
n3 number(2);
BEGIN
n3 := add(11,22);
dbms_output.put_line('Addition is: ' || n3);
END;
/
OUTPUT:
Addition is: 33
Statement processed.
RESULT:
Thus Function for addition of two numbers using SQL Programming was executed.
EX. NO: 7
QUERYING/MANAGING THE DATABASE USING SQL PROGRAMMING
FUNCTIONS
DATE:
AIM: To Query/Manage the Database Using SQL Programming Functions
DESCRIPTION: To create a function for deposit and withdrawal of money from an account in a
bank management system this uses bank table.
TABE CREATION:
create table bank_acc(acc_no number, b_name varchar2(10), balance number);
Table created.
insert into bank_acc values (100,‘SBI‘, 25000)
1 row created.
insert into bank_acc values (101,‘SBT‘, 5000)
1 row created.
insert into bank_acc values (102,‘FEDERAL‘, 10000)
1 row created.
insert into bank_acc values (103,‘AXIS‘,15000)
1 row created.
insert into bank_acc values (104,‘CANARA‘, 50000)
1 row created
select * from bank_acc;
ACC_NO
B_NAME
BALANCE
100
SBI
25000
101
SBT
5000
102
Federal
10000
103
axis
15000
104
canara
50000
WITHDRAW FUNCTION:
Create a function for withdrawing money from an account in bank
PROGRAM:
create or replace function withdraw (n in number, amt in number)
return number is
b number;
begin
select balance into b from bank_acc where acc_no=n;
if b-500>amt then
b:=b-amt;
update bank_acc set balance=b where acc_no=n;
else
dbms_output.put_line('can not withdraw');
end if;
return b;
end;
/
Function created
WITHDRAW FUNCTION CALL:
Calling function from a PL\SQL block:
declare
n number;
begin
n:=withdraw(100,20000);
end
/
Statement processed.
select * from bank_acc;
ACC_NO
B_NAME
BALANCE
100
SBI
5000
101
SBT
5000
102
Federal
10000
103
axis
15000
104
canara
50000
ACC_NO
B_NAME
BALANCE
100
SBI
5000
101
SBT
5000
102
Federal
10000
103
axis
15000
104
canara
50000
Calling function from a PL\SQL block:
declare
n number;
begin
n:=withdraw(101,20000);
end
/
can not withdraw
Statement processed.
select * from bank_acc;
DEPOSIT FUNCTION:
Create a function for depositing money to an account in a bank
create or replace function deposit(n in number, amt in number)
return number is
b number;
begin
select balance into b from bank_acc where acc_no=n;
b:=b+amt;
update bank_acc set balance=b where acc_no=n;
return b;
end
/
Function created
DEPOSIT FUNCTION CALL
Calling function from a PL/SQL block
declare
n number;
begin
n:=deposit(104,5000);
end
/
Statement processed.
select * from bank_acc;
ACC_NO
B_NAME
BALANCE
100
SBI
5000
101
SBT
5000
102
Federal
10000
103
axis
15000
104
canara
55000
RESULT:
Thus the Function for deposit and withdrawal of money in an account in a Bank Management
System was successfully executed.
EX. NO: 8
SQL PROGRAMMING PROCEDURES
DATE:
AIM:
To write a simple procedure to perform simple insertion operation Using SQL Programming
DESCRIPTION PROCEDURE:
Procedures are subprograms do not return a value directly; mainly used to perform an action.
PL/SQL Procedure is a PL/SQL block which performs one or more specific tasks. The procedure
contains a header and a body.
•
Header: It contains name of procedure and the parameters or variables passed to the
procedure.
•
Body: It contains a declaration section, execution section and exception section
SYNTAX:
CREATE OR REPLACE PROCEDURE procedure_name (parameter_list)
IS
[declaration_statements]
BEGIN
[executable_ statements]
EXCEPTION
[exception statements]
END;
PROCEDURE CREATION:
Create a simple procedure that displays the string 'Hello World!'
CREATE OR REPLACE PROCEDURE greetings
IS
BEGIN
dbms_output.put_line('Hello World!');
END;
/
Procedure created.
PROCEDURE CALL
BEGIN
greetings;
END;
/
OUTPUT: Hello World
TABLE CREATION: user1 table
Create table user1(id number(10) primary key,name varchar2(100));
Table Description:
desc user1;
Table
Column
Data Type
Length
Precision
Scale
Primary Key
Nullable
USER1
ID
Number
-
10
0
1
-
NAME
Varchar2
100
-
-
-
PROCEDURE CREATION:
To create a Procedure to insert records in the "user1" table
create or replace procedure INSERTUSER(id in number, name in varchar)
is
begin
insert into user1 values(id,name);
end;
/
Output:
Procedure created.
PROCEDURE CALL:
Oracle program code to call above created procedure.
BEGIN
insertuser(101,'Rahul');
dbms_output.put_line('record inserted successfully');
END;
/
OUTPUT:
record inserted successfully
Statement processed.
In the "USER1" table, one record is inserted.
select * from user1;
ID
NAME
101
Rahul
Insert the second record in user1 table:
BEGIN
insertuser(102,'Risha');
dbms_output.put_line('record inserted successfully');
END;
/
Insert the third record in user1 table:
BEGIN
insertuser(103,'Rithu');
dbms_output.put_line('record inserted successfully');
END;
/
Insert the Fourth record in user1 table:
BEGIN
insertuser(104,'Roja');
dbms_output.put_line('record inserted successfully');
END;
/
Insert the Fifth record in user1 table:
BEGIN
insertuser(105,'Rubika');
dbms_output.put_line('record inserted successfully');
END;
/
After inserting 5 rows, Final table will be:
select * from user1
ID
NAME
101
Rahul
102
Risha
103
Rithu
104
Roja
105
Rubika
DROP PROCEDURE:
Syntax:
DROP PROCEDURE procedure_name;
Drop the procedure insertuser
DROP PROCEDURE insertuser;
Output:
Procedure dropped.
RESULT:
Thus the Procedure for simple insertion operation Using SQL Programming was successfully
executed.
EX. NO: 9
QUERYING/MANAGING THE DATABASE USING SQL PROGRAMMING
DATE:
PROCEDURES
AIM: To Query/Manage the Database Using SQL Programming Procedures
DESCRIPTION:
To create a procedure for deposit and withdrawal of money in an account in a bank table
Table Creation:
create table bank(acc_no number, name varchar2(10), bal number);
Table created.
Inserting Values in table:
insert into bank values (100,‘Anil‘,50000)
1 row created.
insert into bank values (101,‘Abi‘,10000)
1 row created.
insert into bank values (102,‘Bavi‘,2500)
1 row created.
insert into bank values (103,‘Chandru‘,1000)
1 row created.
insert into bank values (104,‘Divakar‘,20000)
1 row created.
select * from bank;
ACC_NO
NAME
BAL
100
Anil
50000
101
Abi
10000
102
Bavi
2500
103
Chandru
1000
104
Divakar
20000
CREATING A PROCEDURE
Create a procedure for deposit & withdrawal of money in account in a Bank table.
create or replace procedure bank_pro(opt number, amount number, n number)
as
balance number;
begin
select bal into balance from bank where acc_no=n;
if opt=1 then
balance:= balance+amount;
update bank set bal=balance where acc_no=n;
commit;
dbms_output.put_line('Balance after deposition is '||balance);
elsif opt=2 then
balance:=balance-amount;
if balance<1000 then
dbms_output.put_line('Cannot withdraw… Balance lower than'||balance);
else
update bank set bal=balance where acc_no=n;
commit;
dbms_output.put_line('Balance after withdrawal is'||balance);
end if;
end if;
end;
/
Procedure created.
PROCEDURE CALL - DEPOSIT
begin
bank_pro(1,40000,100);
end;
/
Balance after deposition is 90000
Statement processed.
select * from bank;
ACC_NO
NAME
BAL
100
Anil
90000
101
Abi
10000
102
Bavi
2500
103
Chandru
1000
104
Divakar
20000
PROCEDURE CALL - WITHDRAW
begin
bank_pro(2,1500,102);
end;
/
OUTPUT:
Balance after withdrawal is1000
Statement processed.
Select * from bank;
ACC_NO
NAME
BAL
100
Anil
90000
101
Abi
10000
102
Bavi
1000
103
Chandru
1000
104
Divakar
20000
PROCEDURE CALL - WITHDRAW
begin
bank_pro(2,1500,103);
end;
/
OUTPUT:
Cannot withdraw… Balance lower than-500
Statement processed.
select * from bank;
ACC_NO
NAME
BAL
100
Anil
90000
101
Abi
10000
102
Bavi
1000
103
Chandru
1000
104
Divakar
20000
RESULT:
Thus the Procedure for Deposit and Withdrawal of money in an account in a Bank
Management System was successfully executed.
EX. NO: 10
QUERYING/MANAGING THE DATABASE USING SQL PROGRAMMING
DATE:
TRIGGERS
AIM: To Query/Manage the Database Using SQL Programming triggers
TRIGGER DESCRIPTION:
A trigger is a stored procedure in database which automatically invokes whenever a special
event in the database occurs. For example, a trigger can be invoked when a row is inserted into a
specified table or when certain table columns are being updated.
SYNTAX:
Create trigger trigger name
BEFORE | AFTER
DELETE, INSERT, UPDATE
ON table name
FOR EACH ROW
BEGIN
Executable-statements
END;
Example:
Given Student Database, in which student marks assessment is recorded.
Create a trigger so that the total and average of specified marks is automatically calculated whenever a
record is inserted.
Database creation:
create table student(sid number(4), name varchar(30), sub1 number(2), sub2 number(2),
sub3 number(2), total number(3), per number(3));
Table Description:
Desc student;
Before Trigger Execution: Inserting Values in table:
insert into student values(1, 'Nivetha', 50, 60, 70, 0, 0);
1 row(s) inserted.
select * from student;
CREATING TRIGGER
create trigger strigger
before insert
on
Student
for each row
Begin
update student set Student.total = Student.sub1 + Student.sub2 + Student.sub3,
Student.per = Student.total/3;
end;
/
OUTPUT: Trigger Created.
After Trigger Execution Inserting Values in table:
Insert into student values(2, 'Rithani', 90, 80, 90, 0, 0);
1 row(s) inserted.
select * from student
insert into student values(3, 'Sankar', 90, 90, 90, 0, 0);
1 row(s) inserted.
select * from student;
insert into student values(4, 'Vijay', 95, 95, 95, 0, 0);
1 row(s) inserted.
select * from student;
OUTPUT:
RESULT:
Thus the trigger while insert or update or delete operations are performed on the table student
was successfully executed and output was verified
EX. NO: 11
DATABASE DESIGN USING CONCEPTUAL MODELING (ER-EER)
DATE:
MAPPING CONCEPTUAL TO RELATIONAL DATABASE
AIM:
To perform mapping from a ER-EER Model to Relational Database in a Database Design
Using Conceptual Modeling
DESCRIPTION:
ER model
•
ER model stands for an Entity-Relationship model. It is a high-level data model. This model is
used to define the data elements and relationship for a specified system.
•
It develops a conceptual design for the database. It also develops a very simple and easy to
design view of data.
•
In ER modeling, database structure is portrayed as a diagram called entity-relationship
diagram.
Example: Design a school database.
In this database, the student will be an entity with attributes like address, name, id, age, etc. The
address can be another entity with attributes like city, street name, pin code, etc and there will be a
relationship between them.
Component of ER Diagram
ER MODEL to RELATIONAL MAPPING
The database can be represented using the notations, and these notations can be reduced to a collection
of tables.
In the database, every entity set or relationship set can be represented in tabular form.
RULES FOR REDUCTION OF ER DIAGRAM TO TABLE
▪
Entity type becomes a table.
•
All single-valued attribute becomes a column for the table.
•
A key attribute of the entity type represented by the primary key.
•
The multivalued attribute is represented by a separate table.
•
Composite attribute represented by components
•
Derived attributes are not considered in the table.
The ER diagram is given below:
After Mapping, Final Relational Database Table will be:
SAMPLE ENTITY-RELATIONSHIP DIAGRAM:
TABLE CREATION
CREATE TABLE SALESMAN
(SALESMAN_ID NUMBER (4),
NAME VARCHAR2 (20),
CITY VARCHAR2 (20),
COMMISSION VARCHAR2 (20),
PRIMARYKEY (SALESMAN_ID));
CREATE TABLE CUSTOMER1
(CUSTOMER_ID NUMBER (4),
CUST_NAME VARCHAR2 (20),
CITY VARCHAR2 (20),
GRADE NUMBER (3),
PRIMARY KEY (CUSTOMER_ID),
SALESMAN_ID REFERENCES SALESMAN (SALESMAN_ID) ON DELETE SET NULL);
CREATE TABLE ORDERS
(ORD_NO NUMBER (5),
PURCHASE_AMT NUMBER (10, 2),
ORD_DATE DATE,
PRIMARY KEY (ORD_NO),
CUSTOMER_ID REFERENCES CUSTOMER1 (CUSTOMER_ID) ON DELETE CASCADE,
SALESMAN_ID REFERENCES SALESMAN (SALESMAN_ID) ON DELETE CASCADE);
TABLE DESCRIPTION:
RESULT:
Thus the mapping from a ER-EER Model to Relational Database in a Database Design Using
Conceptual Modeling was done successfully.
EX. NO: 12
DATABASE DESIGN USING NORMALIZATION
DATE:
AIM:
To Validate a Database Design Using Normalization
DESCRIPTION:
NORAMALIZATION OF TABLE
▪
Database normalization is the process of removing redundant data from tables in order to improve
storage efficiency, data integrity, and scalability
▪
Normalization is process of minimizing redundancy from a relation. Redundancy in relation may
cause insertion, deletion, and update anomalies. So, it helps to minimize redundancy in relations.
▪
Normal forms are used to eliminate or reduce redundancy in database tables
Normalization of Tables in Database
Normal Form Description
1NF
A relation is in 1NF if it contains an atomic value.
2NF
A relation will be in 2NF if it is in 1NF and all non-key attributes are fully
functional dependent on the primary key.
3NF
A relation will be in 3NF if it is in 2NF and no transition dependency exists.
BCNF
A stronger definition of 3NF is known as Boyce Codd's normal form.
4NF
A relation will be in 4NF if it is in Boyce Codd's normal form and has no
multi-valued dependency.
5NF
A relation is in 5NF. If it is in 4NF and does not contain any join dependency,
joining should be lossless.
1. FIRST NORMAL FORM
▪
If a relation contain composite or multi-valued attribute, it violates first normal form
▪
If a relation is in first normal form if it should contain only atomic values.
Example: EMPLOYEE table:
EMP_ID
14
EMP_NAME
John
EMP_PHONE
7272826385,
EMP_STATE
UP
9064738238
20
Harry
8574783832
Bihar
12
Sam
7390372389,
Punjab
8589830302
The decomposition of the EMPLOYEE table into 1NF has been shown below:
EMP_ID
EMP_NAME
EMP_PHONE
EMP_STATE
14
John
7272826385
UP
14
John
9064738238
UP
20
Harry
8574783832
Bihar
12
Sam
7390372389
Punjab
12
Sam
8589830302
Punjab
Now the table is in First normal Form
2. SECOND NORMAL FORM:
•
In the 2NF, relational must be in 1NF.
•
In second normal form, all non-key attributes are fully functional dependent on the primary key
•
Prime attribute − An attribute, which is a part of the candidate-key, is known as a prime
attribute.
•
Non-prime attribute − An attribute, which is not a part of the prime-key, is said to be a nonprime attribute.
Example 1:
In Second normal form, every non-prime attribute should be fully functionally dependent on prime key
attribute. That is, if X → A holds, then there should not be any proper subset Y of X, for which Y →
A also holds true.
In Student_Project relation that the prime key attributes are Stu_ID and Proj_ID.
According to the rule, non-key attributes, i.e. Stu_Name and Proj_Name must be dependent upon both
and not on any of the prime key attribute individually.
But Stu_Name can be identified by Stu_ID and Proj_Name can be identified by Proj_ID
independently. This is called partial dependency, which is not allowed in Second Normal Form.
In the above tables there is no partial dependency. So it is in second normal form.
Example: 2
TEACHER table
TEACHER_ID SUBJECT TEACHER_AGE
25
Chemistry
30
25
Biology
30
47
English
35
83
Math
38
83
Computer
38
In the given table, non-prime attribute TEACHER_AGE is dependent on TEACHER_ID which is a
proper subset of a candidate key. That's why it violates the rule for 2NF.
To convert the given table into 2NF, we decompose it into two tables:
TEACHER_DETAIL table:
TEACHER_ID TEACHER_AGE
25
30
47
35
83
38
TEACHER_SUBJECT table:
TEACHER_ID SUBJECT
25
Chemistry
25
Biology
47
English
83
Math
83
Computer
3. THIRD NORMAL FORM (3NF)
•
A relation will be in 3NF if it is in 2NF and not contain any transitive partial dependency.
•
If there is no transitive dependency for non-prime attributes, then the relation must be in third
normal form.
For a relation to be in Third Normal Form, it must be in Second Normal form and must satisfy −
•
No non-prime attribute is transitively dependent on prime key attribute.
•
For any non-trivial functional dependency, X → A, then either −
o
X is a superkey or,
o
A is a prime attribute, i.e., each element of Y is part of some candidate key.
Example:1
In the above Student_detail relation, Stu_ID is the key and only prime key attribute.
City can be identified by Stu_ID as well as Zip itself. Neither Zip is a superkey nor is City a prime
attribute. Additionally, Stu_ID → Zip → City, so there exists transitive dependency.
To bring this relation into third normal form, we break the relation into two relations as follows −
Now both the relations in Third Normal Form
Example 2: EMPLOYEE_DETAIL table:
EMP_ID EMP_NAME EMP_ZIP EMP_STATE EMP_CITY
222
Harry
201010
UP
Noida
333
Stephan
02228
US
Boston
444
Lan
60007
US
Chicago
555
Katharine
06389
UK
Norwich
666
John
462007
MP
Bhopal
Super key in the table above:
{EMP_ID}, {EMP_ID, EMP_NAME}, {EMP_ID, EMP_NAME, EMP_ZIP}....so on
Candidate key: {EMP_ID}
Non-prime attributes: In the given table, all attributes except EMP_ID are non-prime.
Here, EMP_STATE & EMP_CITY dependent on EMP_ZIP and EMP_ZIP dependent on EMP_ID.
The non-prime attributes (EMP_STATE, EMP_CITY) transitively dependent on super key(EMP_ID).
It violates the rule of third normal form. That's why we need to move the EMP_CITY and
EMP_STATE to the new <EMPLOYEE_ZIP> table, with EMP_ZIP as a Primary key.
After 3rd Normalization
EMPLOYEE table:
EMP_ID EMP_NAME EMP_ZIP
222
Harry
201010
333
Stephan
02228
444
Lan
60007
555
Katharine
06389
666
John
462007
EMPLOYEE_ZIP table:
EMP_ZIP EMP_STATE EMP_CITY
201010
UP
Noida
02228
US
Boston
60007
US
Chicago
06389
UK
Norwich
462007
MP
Bhopal
4. BOYCE CODD NORMAL FORM (BCNF)
Boyce-Codd Normal Form (BCNF) is an extension of Third Normal Form.
BCNF states that For any non-trivial functional dependency, X → A, X must be a super-key.
In the above Example, Stu_ID is the super-key in the relation Student_Detail and
Zip is the super-key in the relation ZipCodes.
Stu_ID → Stu_Name, Zip
Zip → City
Which confirms that both the relations are in BCNF.
•
BCNF is the advance version of 3NF. It is stricter than 3NF.
•
A table is in BCNF if every functional dependency X → Y, X is the super key of the table.
•
For BCNF, the table should be in 3NF, and for every FD, LHS is super key.
RESULT:
Thus the Database Design Using Normalization was performed
EX. NO: 13
QUERYING THE OBJECT-RELATIONAL DATABASE USING
DATE:
OBJET QUERY LANGUAGE
AIM:
To Query the Object-Relational database using Objet Query language
DESCRIPTION:
OBJECT QUERY LANGUAGE
•
Object Query Language (OQL) is a version of the Structured Query Language. Like SQL,
OQL is a declarative (not procedural) language
•
Object Query Language is a query language standard for object-oriented databases modeled
after SQL and developed by the Object Data Management Group.
•
OQL is the way to access data in an O2 database. OQL is a powerful and easy-to-use SQL-like
query language with special features dealing with complex objects, values and methods.
•
OQL is an attempt by the OO community to extend languages like C++ with SQL-like,
relation-at-a-time dictions.
CREATING DATABASE AND TABLE
Create databases and tables with the create command
Create command to create a database
create database database_name ;
Create command to create a table
create table database_name.table_name
(
column_name [constraints ] [default ] ,
[ column_name [ constraints ] [default ] , ]
[ additional_columns ]
[ unique ( column_name ) , ]
[ counter ( column_name ) , ]
[ timestamp ( column_name ) ]
);
Example 1
create database staff;
// creates the staff database
The following insert defines the managers table.
create table staff.managers
(
EmployeeID
int NOT NULL PRIMARY KEY,
Name
text NOT NULL,
Department
text default "Sales",
Gender
text,
Age
int,
unique ( EmployeeID )
);
For the managers table:
•
The EmployeeID and Name columns cannot be NULL.
•
The EmployeeID column is the primary key and must be unique.
•
If no value is inserted into the Department column for a given record it takes the value "Sales".
Example 2
The following insert creates the staff.employees table.
create table staff.employees
(
EmployeeID
int
NOT NULL PRIMARY KEY,
Name
text
NOT NULL,
Skills
text,
Gender
text,
Age
int
);
For the staff.employees table:
•
The EmployeeID and Name columns cannot be NULL.
INSERTING DATA INTO A TABLE
Use the insert keyword to insert data into a table.
Syntax:
insert into database_name.table_name
(
Column [ , column ] [ , column ]
[ ... ]
)
values
(
Data [ , data ] [ , data ]
[ ... ]
);
Specifying all the column names:
insert into staff.managers
(
EmployeeID, Name, Department, Gender, Age
)
values
(
1, "Matt", "Development", "M", 28
);
Does not specifying column names:
insert into staff.managers
values
(
2, "Jane", "Customer Services", "F", 27
);
SELECTING DATA FROM A TABLE
▪
Select keyword is used to Query or retrieve the data in a table
Syntax:
select
comma_separated_column_list
from
database_name.table_name
[ where
conditional_test ]
[ order by
field_name [asc|desc] ];
The * symbol can be used in a select statement to return all the columns of the table.
Example 1 :
select * from staff.managers;
Output:
EmployeeID=1;
Name='Matt';
Department='Development';
Gender='M';
Age=28;
EmployeeID=2;
Name='Jane';
Department='Customer Services';
Gender='F';
Age=27;
( 2 record(s) : Transaction complete )
Example 2:
select EmployeeID, Name from staff.managers
where Department = "Development";
Output:
EmployeeID=1;
Name='Matt';
( 1 record(s) : Transaction complete )
UPDATE RECORDS IN TABLE
▪
Use the update keyword to update an existing record in a table.
Syntax
The following syntax shows how to use the update keyword.
update
database_name.table_name
set
column = value [ , column = value ... ]
[ where conditional_test ] ;
If the update statement is used without a where condition, all records are updated.
Example: Updates Age column of staff.managers table for any records where Name="John"
Update staff.managers
set Age=30
where Name="John";
DATABASE AND TABLE LISTINGS
▪
Use the show keyword to list the databases, columns, or tables or the current service.
Syntax
show databases ;
show tables from database_name ;
show table database_name.table_name ;
Example 1 shows all the databases of the current service.
show databases;
databases = [ 'staff' ]
( 1 Record(s) : Transaction complete )
Example 2 shows all the tables from the staff database.
show tables from staff;
tables = [ 'managers', 'employees', 'contractors' ]
( 1 Record(s) : Transaction complete )
DELETION OF A RECORD FROM A DATABASE TABLE
▪
Delete a record from a table using the delete command.
Syntax: how to use the delete command.
Delete from database_name.table_name [ where conditional_test ] ;
Example - Deletes all records from the staff.contractors table where Name="James".
delete from staff.contractors
where Name="Jane";
Deletion of a database or table
▪
Delete a database or table using the drop command.
Syntax to use the drop command
drop table database_name.table_name ;
drop database databse_name ;
Example deletes the entire staff.managers table.
drop table staff.managers;
drop database staff;
RESULT:
Thus the Querying of Object-Relational database using Objet Query language was executed
EX. NO: 14
OBJECT FEATURES OF SQL-UDTS AND SUB-TYPES, TABLES USING UDTS,
DATE:
INHERITANCE, METHOD DEFINITION
AIM:
To Study about the various Object Features such as SQL-UDTS And Sub-Types, Tables
Using UDTS, Inheritance, Method Definition etc.,
DESCRIPTION
USER DEFINED TYPE (UDT)
•
Most important object-oriented feature added to SQL is a user defined type (UDT).
The definition of a UDT is similar to the definition of a class.
•
It can include attributes and methods and supports inheritance.
The following expression defines a new UDT called Person.
create type Person as (pid varchar(10), pname varchar(20)) not final
➢ UDT Person could also be the root of an inheritance hierarchy
➢ Key word “not final” indicate that subtypes of Person can be defined.
➢ Create two new UDTs called customer and employee both of which inherit from Person.
➢ Key word “under” is similar to the key word “extend” in Java.
create type Customer under Person as (...)
create type Employee under Person as (...)
Modifiers associated with create type statements include
•
not instantiable - objects of that type cannot be created
•
instantiable - Objects can be created similar to abstract classes in Java
•
final - type cannot have subtypes (or subclasses)
SUPERTYPES AND SUBTYPES
A subtype can be derived from a supertype either directly or indirectly through levels of
other subtypes. A supertype can have multiple sibling subtypes, but a subtype can have at most one
direct parent supertype (single inheritance).
Figure: Supertypes and Subtypes in Type Hierarchy
The hierarchy is shown as four boxes labelled A, B, C, and D.
•
A is the supertype of all
•
B and D are direct subtypes of A
•
C is a direct subtype of B
TYPE INHERITANCE
create type Person (name varchar(20), address varchar (20));
create type Student under Person (degree varchar(20), department varchar (20));
create type Teacher under Person (salary integer, department varchar (20));
Both Student and Teacher inherit the attributes of Person—namely, name and address. Student
and Teacher are said to be subtypes of Person, and Person is a supertype of Student, as well as of
Teacher
Multiple inheritance:
create type TeachingAssistant under Student , Teacher;
TeachingAssistant inherits all the attributes of Student and Teacher.
Example Creation of a simple UDT hierarchy for a business. The hierarchy implements a Person
UDT and two subtypes:
•
Agent and
•
Customer.
create type Person as Object (pid varchar(10), pname varchar(30),
address varchar(50)) not final
create type Agent under Person (commission int) not final
create type Customer under Person (discount int) not final
Objects can also be attributes of other objects. The Person type has been created to include an address
UDT. After the types are created a typed table of Agent objects is created and a new row is inserted into
the table.
create type Address as Object (street varchar(30), city varchar(30),
state char(2), zip char(10)) not final
create type Person as Object ( pid varchar(10), pname varchar(30),
pAddr Address) not final
create table Agents of Agent (pid primary key)
insert into Agents values ('001', 'John Smith', Address('123 Main', 'Lal street)
OBJECT FEATURES OF SQL
(a) Using UDTs as types for attributes such as Address and Phone
CREATE TYPE STREET_ADDR_TYPE AS (
NUMBER
VARCHAR(5),
STREET_NAME
VARCHAR(25),
APT_NO
VARCHAR(5),
SUITE_NO
VARCHAR(5)
);
CREATE TYPE USA_ADDR_TYPE AS (
STREET_ADDR
STREET_ADDR_TYPE,
CITY
VARCHAR(25),
ZIP
VARCHAR(10)
);
CREATE TYPE USA_PHONE_TYPE AS (
PHONE_TYPE
VARCHAR(5),
AREA_CODE
CHAR(3),
PHONE_NUM
CHAR(7)
);
(b) Specifying UDT for PERSON_TYPE
CREATE TYPE PERSON_TYPE AS (
NAME
VARCHAR(35),
SEX
CHAR,
BIRTH_DATE
DATE,
PHONES
USA_PHONE_TYPE ARRAY[4],
ADDR
USA_ADDR_TYPE
INSTANTIABLE
NOT FINAL
INSTANCE METHOD AGE() RETURNS INTEGER;
CREATE INSTANCE METHOD AGE() RETURNS INTEGER
FOR PERSON_TYPE
BEGIN
RETURN /* CODE TO CALCULATE A PERSON’S AGE FROM TODAY’S DATE AND BIRTH_DATE */
END;
);
(c) Specifying UDTs for STUDENT_TYPE and EMPLOYEE_TYPE as two subtypes of
PERSON_TYPE.
CREATE TYPE GRADE_TYPE AS (
COURSENO
CHAR(8),
SEMESTER
VARCHAR(8),
YEAR
CHAR(4),
GRADE
CHAR
);
CREATE TYPE STUDENT_TYPE UNDER PERSON_TYPE AS (
MAJOR CODE
CHAR (4),
STUDENT_ID
CHAR (12),
DEGREE
VARCHAR (5),
TRANSCRIPT
GRADE_TYPE ARRAY [100]
INSTANTIABLE
NOT FINAL
INSTANCE METHOD GPA() RETURNS FLOAT;
CREATE INSTANCE METHOD GPA() RETURNS FLOAT
FOR STUDENT_TYPE
BEGIN
RETURN /* CODE TO CALCULATE A STUDENT’S GPA */
END;
);
CREATE TYPE EMPLOYEE_TYPE UNDER PERSON_TYPE AS (
JOB_CODE
CHAR(4),
SALARY
SSN
FLOAT,
CHAR(11)
INSTANTIABLE
NOT FINAL
);
CREATE TYPE MANAGER_TYPE UNDER EMPLOYEE_TYPE AS (
DEPT_MANAGED
CHAR (20)
INSTANTIABLE
);
(d) Creating tables based on some of the UDTs, and illustrating table inheritance,
CREATE TABLE PERSON OF PERSON_TYPE
CREATE TABLE EMPLOYEE OF EMPLOYEE_TYPE
UNDER PERSON;
CREATE TABLE MANAGER OF MANAGER_TYPE
UNDER EMPLOYEE;
CREATE TABLE STUDENT OF STUDENT_TYPE
UNDER PERSON;
RESULT:
Thus various Object Features such as SQL-UDTS And Sub-Types, Tables Using UDTS,
Inheritance, Method Definition have been studied.
EX. NO: 15
DEVELOP DATABASE APPLICATIONS USING IDE (NETBEANS)
DATE:
AIM:
To Develop Database Applications Using IDE (Netbeans) To Connect Java Program With
MS-Access Using JDBC Connectivity
JDBC DESCRIPTION
Java has defined its own API (JDBC API) that uses JDBC drivers (written in Java language).
JDBC API is used to handle database using Java program and can perform the following activities:
1. Connect to the database
2. Execute queries and update statements to the database
3. Retrieve the result received from the database.
Java Database Connectivity with 5 Steps
There are 5 steps to connect any java application with the database using JDBC.
These steps are as follows:
1) Register the driver class
2) Create the connection object
3) Create the Statement object
4) Execute the query
5) Close the connection object
Connect Java Application with access with DSN
Creating a MS Access Database
Step 1: Open Microsoft Access and select Blank database option and give the database name as File
name option
Step 2: Create a table and insert your data into the table
Step 3: Save the table with the desired name;, we save the following records with the table name
student.
Now Creating DSN of your database
Step 4: Open your Control Panel and then select Administrative Tools.
Step 5 : Click on Data Source(ODBC)-->System DSN.
Step 6: Now click on add option for making a new DSN.select Microsoft Access Driver (*.mdb.
*.accdb) and then click on Finish
Step 7: Make your desired Data Source Name and then click on the Select option, for example in this
article we use the name mydsn
Step 8: Now you select your data source file for storing it and then click ok and then click on Create
and Finish
Step 9: Java program code
Test.java
import java.sql.*;
class TestDB
{
public static void main(String ar[])
{
Try
{
String url="jdbc:odbc:mydsn";
Class.forName("sun.jdbc.odbc.JdbcOdbcDriver");
Connection c=DriverManager.getConnection(url);
Statement st=c.createStatement();
ResultSet rs=st.executeQuery("select * from login");
while(rs.next())
{
System.out.println(rs.getString(1) + "
" + rs.getString(2)+ "
" rs.getString(2));
}
}
catch(Exception ee){System.out.println(ee);
} } }
RESULT:
Thus the Database Applications Using IDE (Netbeans) To Connect Java Program With MSAccess Using JDBC Connectivity is executed.