Classical Finite Transformation Semigroups
Algebra and Applications
Volume 9
Managing Editor:
Alain Verschoren
University of Antwerp, Belgium
Series Editors:
Alice Fialowski
Eötvös Loránd University, Hungary
Eric Friedlander
Northwestern University, USA
John Greenlees
Sheffield University, UK
Gerhard Hiss
Aachen University, Germany
Ieke Moerdijk
Utrecht University, The Netherlands
Idun Reiten
Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Norway
Christoph Schweigert
Hamburg University, Germany
Mina Teicher
Bar-llan University, Israel
Algebra and Applications aims to publish well written and carefully refereed monographs with up-to-date information about progress in all fields of algebra, its
classical impact on commutative and noncommutative algebraic and differential geometry, K-theory and algebraic topology, as well as applications in related domains,
such as number theory, homotopy and (co)homology theory, physics and discrete
mathematics.
Particular emphasis will be put on state-of-the-art topics such as rings of differential
operators, Lie algebras and super-algebras, group rings and algebras, C*algebras,
Kac-Moody theory, arithmetic algebraic geometry, Hopf algebras and quantum
groups, as well as their applications. In addition, Algebra and Applications will
also publish monographs dedicated to computational aspects of these topics as well
as algebraic and geometric methods in computer science.
Olexandr Ganyushkin
•
Volodymyr Mazorchuk
Classical Finite
Transformation Semigroups
An Introduction
ABC
Olexandr Ganyushkin
Kyiv Taras Shevchenko University
Volodymyrska Street, 64
Kyiv
Ukraine
ganiyshk@univ.kiev.ua
Volodymyr Mazorchuk
Uppsala University
Dept. Mathematics
SE-751 06 Uppsala
Sweden
mazor@math.uu.se
ISBN: 978-1-84800-280-7
e-ISBN: 978-1-84800-281-4
DOI: 10.1007/978-1-84800-281-4
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
Library of Congress Control Number: 2008941019
c Springer-Verlag London Limited 2009
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specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant laws and regulations and therefore free
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The publisher makes no representation, express or implied, with regard to the accuracy of the information
contained in this book and cannot accept any legal responsibility or liability for any errors or omissions
that may be made.
Printed on acid-free paper
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Preface
Semigroup theory is a relatively young part of mathematics. As a separate
direction of algebra with its own objects, formulations of problems, and
methods of investigations, semigroup theory was formed about 60 years ago.
One of the main motivations for the existence of some mathematical
theories are interesting and natural examples. For semigroup theory the obvious candidates for such examples are transformation semigroups. Various
transformations of different sets appear everywhere in mathematics all the
time. As the usual composition of transformations is associative, each set of
transformations, closed with respect to the composition, forms a semigroup.
Among all transformation semigroups one can distinguish three classical
series of semigroups: the full symmetric semigroup T (M ) of all transformations of the set M ; the symmetric inverse semigroup IS(M ) of all partial
(that is, not necessarily everywhere defined) injective transformations of M ;
and, finally, the semigroup PT (M ) of all partial transformations of M . If
M = {1, 2, . . . , n}, then the above semigroups are usually denoted by Tn ,
IS n and PT n , respectively. One of the main evidences for the importance of
these semigroups is their universality property: every (finite) semigroup is a
subsemigroup of some T (M ) (resp. Tn ); and every (finite) inverse semigroup
is a subsemigroup of some IS(M ) (resp. IS n ). Inverse semigroups form a
class of semigroups which are closest (in some sense) to groups.
An analogous universal object in group theory is the symmetric group
S(M ) of all bijective transformations of M . Many books are dedicated to the
study of S(M ) or to the study of transformation groups in general. Transformation semigroups had much less luck. The “naive” search in MathSciNet
for books with the keywords “transformation semigroups” in the title results
in two titles, one being a conference proceedings, and another one being old
50-page-long lecture notes in Russian ([Sc4]). Just for comparison, an analogous search for “transformation groups” results in 75 titles. And this is in
spite of the fact that the semigroup T (M ) was studied by Suschkewitsch
already in the 1930s. The semigroup IS(M ) was introduced by Wagner
in 1952, but the first relatively small monograph about it appeared only
in 1996 ([Li]). The latter monograph considers some basic questions about
IS(M ): how one writes down the elements of IS(M ), when two elements
of IS(M ) commute, what is the presentation of IS(M ), what are the con-
v
vi
PREFACE
gruences on IS(M ). For example, such basic semigroup-theoretical notions
as ideals and Green’s relations are mentioned only in the Appendix without
any direct relation to IS(M ).
Much more information about the semigroup T (M ) can be found in the
last chapter of [Hi1]; however, it is mostly concentrated around the combinatorial aspects. Otherwise one is left with the options to search through
examples in the parts of the abstract theory of semigroups using the classical books [CP1, Gri, Ho3, Ho7, Hi1, Law, Pe] or to look at original research
papers.
The aim of the present book is to partially fill the gaps in the literature.
In the book we introduce three classical series of semigroups, and for them
we describe generating systems, ideals, Green’s relations, various classes of
subsemigroups, congruences, conjugations, endomorphisms, presentations,
actions on sets, linear representations and cross-sections. Some of the results
are very old and classical, some are quite young. In order not to overload
the reader with too technical and specialized results, we decided to restrict
the area of the present book to the above-mentioned parts of the theory of
transformation semigroups.
The book was thought to be an elementary introduction to the theory of
transformation semigroups, with a strong emphasis on the concrete examples in the form of three classical series of finite transformation semigroups,
namely, Tn , IS n and PT n . The book is primarily directed to students, who
would like to make their first steps in semigroup theory. The choice of the
semigroups Tn , IS n and PT n is motivated not only by their role in semigroup theory, but also by our strong belief that a good understanding of
a couple of interesting and pithy examples is more important for the first
acquaintance with some theory than a formal learning of dozens of theorems.
Another good motivation to consider the semigroups Tn , IS n and PT n at
the same time is the observation that many results about these semigroups,
which for each of them were obtained independently by different people and
in different times, in reality can be obtained in a unified (or almost unified)
way.
Several results which will be presented extend in one or another way to
the cases of infinite transformation semigroups. However, we restrict ourselves to the case of finite semigroups to make the exposition as elementary
and accessible for a wide audience as possible. We are not after the biggest
possible generality. Another argument is that we also try to attract the
reader’s attention to numerous combinatorial aspects and applications of
the semigroups we consider.
With our three principal examples of semigroups on the background we
also would like to introduce the reader to the basics of the abstract theory of
semigroups. So, along the discussion of these examples, we tried to present
many important basic notions and prove (or at least mention) as many
classical abstract results as possible.
PREFACE
vii
The requirements for the reader’s mathematical background are very
low. To understand most of the content, it is enough to have a minimal
mathematical experience on the level of common sense. Perhaps some familiarity with basic university courses in algebra and combinatorics would be a
substantial help. We have tried to define all the notions we use in the book.
We have also tried to make all proofs very detailed and to avoid complicated
constructions whenever possible.
The penultimate section of each chapter is called “Addenda and Comments.” A part of it consists of historical comments (which are by no means
complete). Another part consists of some remarks, facts, and statements,
which we did not include in the main text of the book. The reason is usually
the much less elementary level of these statements or the more complicated
character of the proofs. However, we include them in the Addenda as from
our point of view they deserve attention in spite of the fact that they do not
really fit into the main text. Some statements here are also given with proofs,
but these proofs are less detailed than those in the main text. For this part
of the book, our requirements for the reader’s mathematical background are
different and are closer to the standard mathematical university curriculum.
In the Addenda, we sometimes also mention some open problems and try to
describe possible directions for further investigations.
The division of the book into the main text and the Addenda is not
very strict as sometimes the notions and facts mentioned in the Addenda
are used in the main text.
The last section of each chapter contains problems. Some problems (not
many) are also included in the main text. The latter ones are mostly simple
and directed to the reader. Sometimes they also ask to repeat a proof given
before for a different situation. These problems are in some sense compulsory
for the successful understanding of the main text (i.e., one should at least
read them). The additional problems of the last section of each chapter
can be quite different. Some of them are easy exercises, while others are
much more complicated problems, which form an essential supplement to
the material of the chapter. Hints for solutions of the latter ones can be
found at the end of the book.
The book was essentially written during the visit of the first author to
Uppsala University, which was supported by The Royal Swedish Academy
of Sciences and The Swedish Foundation for International Cooperation in
Research and Higher Education (STINT). The financial support of The
Academy and STINT, and the hospitality of Uppsala University are gratefully acknowledged. We thank Ganna Kudryavtseva, Victor Maltcev, and
Abdullahi Umar for their comments on the preliminary version of the book.
Kyiv, Ukraine
Uppsala, Sweden
Olexandr Ganyushkin
Volodymyr Mazorchuk
Contents
Preface
v
1 Ordinary and Partial Transformations
1.1 Basic Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2 Graph of a (Partial) Transformation . . . .
1.3 Linear Notation for Partial Transformations
1.4 Addenda and Comments . . . . . . . . . . .
1.5 Additional Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2 The
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
2.7
2.8
2.9
2.10
Semigroups Tn , PT n , and IS n
Composition of Transformations .
Identity Elements . . . . . . . . . .
Zero Elements . . . . . . . . . . . .
Isomorphism of Semigroups . . . .
The Semigroup IS n . . . . . . . .
Regular and Inverse Elements . . .
Idempotents . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Nilpotent Elements . . . . . . . . .
Addenda and Comments . . . . . .
Additional Exercises . . . . . . . .
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1
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35
3 Generating Systems
39
3.1 Generating Systems in Tn , PT n , and IS n . . . . . . . . . . . 39
3.2 Addenda and Comments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
3.3 Additional Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
4 Ideals and Green’s Relations
4.1 Ideals of Semigroups . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2 Principal Ideals in Tn , PT n , and IS n .
4.3 Arbitrary Ideals in Tn , PT n , and IS n .
4.4 Green’s Relations . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.5 Green’s Relations on Tn , PT n , and IS n
4.6 Combinatorics of Green’s Relations
in the Semigroups Tn , PT n , and IS n . .
ix
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45
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x
CONTENTS
4.7
4.8
Addenda and Comments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Additional Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5 Subgroups and Subsemigroups
5.1 Subgroups . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.2 Cyclic Subsemigroups . . . . . .
5.3 Isolated and Completely Isolated
Subsemigroups . . . . . . . . . .
5.4 Addenda and Comments . . . . .
5.5 Additional Exercises . . . . . . .
62
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88
6 Other Relations on Semigroups
6.1 Congruences and Homomorphisms
6.2 Congruences on Groups . . . . . .
6.3 Congruences on Tn , PT n , and IS n
6.4 Conjugate Elements . . . . . . . .
6.5 Addenda and Comments . . . . . .
6.6 Additional Exercises . . . . . . . .
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91
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7 Endomorphisms
7.1 Automorphisms of Tn , PT n , and IS n
7.2 Endomorphisms of Small Ranks . . . .
7.3 Exceptional Endomorphism . . . . . .
7.4 Classification of Endomorphisms . . .
7.5 Combinatorics of Endomorphisms . . .
7.6 Addenda and Comments . . . . . . . .
7.7 Additional Exercises . . . . . . . . . .
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8 Nilpotent Subsemigroups
8.1 Nilpotent Subsemigroups and Partial
8.2 Classification of Maximal Nilpotent
Subsemigroups . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.3 Cardinalities of Maximal Nilpotent,
Subsemigroups . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.4 Combinatorics of Nilpotent Elements
8.5 Addenda and Comments . . . . . . .
8.6 Additional Exercises . . . . . . . . .
9 Presentation
9.1 Defining Relations . . .
9.2 A presentation for IS n .
9.3 A Presentation for Tn .
9.4 A presentation for PT n
9.5 Addenda and Comments
9.6 Additional Exercises . .
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111
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114
115
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131
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Orders
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in IS n
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138
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148
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153
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. 173
CONTENTS
xi
10 Transitive Actions
10.1 Action of a Semigroup on a Set . . .
10.2 Transitive Actions of Groups . . . .
10.3 Transitive Actions of Tn . . . . . . .
10.4 Actions Associated with L-Classes .
10.5 Transitive Actions of PT n and IS n
10.6 Addenda and Comments . . . . . . .
10.7 Additional Exercises . . . . . . . . .
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175
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187
11 Linear Representations
11.1 Representations and Modules
11.2 L-Induced S-Modules . . . .
11.3 Simple Modules over IS n and
11.4 Effective Representations . .
11.5 Arbitrary IS n -Modules . . .
11.6 Addenda and Comments . . .
11.7 Additional Exercises . . . . .
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189
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211
12 Cross-Sections
12.1 Cross-Sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12.2 Retracts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12.3 H-Cross-Sections in Tn , PT n , and IS n
12.4 L-Cross-Sections in Tn and PT n . . .
12.5 L-Cross-Sections in IS n . . . . . . . .
12.6 R-Cross-Sections in IS n . . . . . . . .
12.7 Addenda and Comments . . . . . . . .
12.8 Additional Exercises . . . . . . . . . .
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215
215
216
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222
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233
235
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PT n
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13 Variants
13.1 Variants of Semigroups . . . . . . . . .
13.2 Classification of Variants for IS n , Tn ,
and PT n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13.3 Idempotents and Maximal Subgroups
13.4 Principal Ideals and Green’s Relations
13.5 Addenda and Comments . . . . . . . .
13.6 Additional Exercises . . . . . . . . . .
14 Order-Related Subsemigroups
14.1 Subsemigroups, Related to the Natural
Order . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
14.2 Cardinalities . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
14.3 Idempotents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
14.4 Generating Systems . . . . . . . . . .
14.5 Addenda and Comments . . . . . . . .
14.6 Additional Exercises . . . . . . . . . .
237
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240
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251
253
257
260
267
273
xii
CONTENTS
Answers and Hints to Exercises
277
Bibliography
283
List of Notation
297
Index
307
Chapter 1
Ordinary and Partial
Transformations
1.1
Basic Definitions
The principal objects of interest in the present volume are finite sets and
transformations of finite sets. Let M be a finite set, say M ={m1 , m2 , . . . , mn },
where n is a nonnegative integer. Transformation of M is an array of the
following form:
m1 m2 · · · mn
,
(1.1)
α=
k1 k2 · · · kn
where all ki ∈ M . If x ∈ M , say x = mi , the element ki will be called the
value of the transformation α at the element x and will be denoted by α(x).
The fact that α is a transformation of M is usually written as α : M → M .
As the nature of elements of M is not important for us, instead of M we
shall usually consider the set N = Nn = {1, 2, . . . , n}.
Apart from the transformations of M we shall also consider the so-called
partial transformations of M , that is, transformations of the form α : A→M ,
where A = {l1 , l2 , . . . , lk } is a subset of M . Note that the set A can be empty.
Again, the element α can be written in the following tabular form:
l2
···
lk
l1
.
(1.2)
α=
α(l1 ) α(l2 ) · · · α(lk )
Abusing notation, we may also write α : M → M for a partial transformation, having in mind that such α is only defined on some elements from M .
Note that the order of elements in the first row of arrays (1.1) and (1.2) is
not important.
With each (partial) transformation α as above we associate the following
standard notions:
• The domain of α: dom(α) = A
O. Ganyushkin, V. Mazorchuk, Classical Finite Transformation Semigroups, Algebra
and Applications 9, DOI: 10.1007/978-1-84800-281-4 1,
c Springer-Verlag London Limited 2009
1
2
CHAPTER 1. ORDINARY AND PARTIAL TRANSFORMATIONS
• The codomain of α: dom(α) = M \A
• The image of α: im(α) = {α(x) : x ∈ A}
The word range, which is also frequently used in the literature, is a synonym
of the word image. If dom(α) = M , the transformation α is called full or
total .
The set of all total transformations of M is denoted by T (M ), and the
set of all partial transformations of M is denoted by PT (M ). Obviously,
T (M ) ⊂ PT (M ). To simplify our notation we set Tn = T (N) and PT n =
PT (N).
Sometimes it is convenient to use a slightly modified version of (1.2) for
some α ∈ PT n . In the case of PT n it is natural to form the first row of
the array for α by simply listing all the elements from N in their natural
order. Then, to define α completely, one needs a special symbol to indicate
that some element x belongs to dom(α). We shall use the symbol ∅. In
other words, α(x) = ∅ means that x ∈ dom(α). Thus the element α can be
written in the following form:
1 2 ... n
,
(1.3)
α=
k1 k2 . . . kn
where ki = α(i) if i ∈ dom(α) and ki = ∅ if i ∈ dom(α).
Example 1.1.1
1
1
1 2
,
1 ∅
Here is the list of all elements of PT 2 :
2
1 2
1 2
1 2
,
,
,
,
1
1 2
2 1
2 2
1 2
1 2
1 2
1 2
,
,
,
.
2 ∅
∅ 1
∅ 2
∅ ∅
The first row of this list consists of total transformations and hence lists all
elements in T2 .
Proposition 1.1.2 The set Tn contains nn elements and the set PT n contains (n + 1)n elements.
Proof. Each element α ∈ Tn is uniquely defined by array (1.3), where each
ki ∈ N. Since the choices of ki s are independent, we have |Tn | = nn
by the product rule. In the case of PT n , the elements ki can be independently chosen from the set N ∪ {∅}. Hence the product rule implies
|PT n |=(n + 1)n .
The cardinality |im(α)| of the image of a partial transformation α ∈ PT n
is called the rank of this partial transformation and is denoted by rank(α).
Thus rank(α) equals the number of different elements in the second row of
array (1.2). The number def(α) = n − rank(α) is called the defect of the
partial transformation α.
1.2. GRAPH OF A (PARTIAL) TRANSFORMATION
3
A partial transformation α ∈ PT n is called
• Surjective if im(α) = N
• Injective if x = y implies α(x) = α(y) for all x, y ∈ dom(α)
• Bijective if α is both surjective and injective
If α is given by (1.2), then surjectivity means that the second row of array
(1.2) contains all elements of N; and injectivity means that all elements in
the second row of array (1.2) are different. Bijective transformations on N
are also called permutations of N.
Proposition 1.1.3 Let α ∈ Tn . Then the following conditions are equivalent:
(a) α is surjective
(b) α is injective
(c) α is bijective
Proof. By the definition of a bijective transformation, it is enough to show
that the conditions (a) and (b) are equivalent. We start by proving that
injectivity implies surjectivity. Let α ∈ Tn be injective and given by (1.3).
Because of the injectivity of α, the second row of (1.3) gives n different
elements of the set N, namely, α(1), α(2), . . . , α(n). But N contains exactly
n elements. Hence N = {α(1), α(2), . . . , α(n)}, and thus α is surjective.
Conversely, let α ∈ Tn be surjective and given by (1.3). Then the second
row of (1.3) contains all n elements of the set N. But this row contains
exactly n elements. Hence they all must be different. This implies that α is
injective.
1.2
Graph of a (Partial) Transformation
With each partial transformation α on N one naturally associates a directed
graph Γα . A directed graph (or a digraph) is a pair, Γ = (V, E), where V is
a set and E ⊂ V × V . The elements of V are called vertices of Γ and the
elements of E are called directed edges or arrows of Γ . If (a, b) ∈ E, then
the vertex a is called the tail of (a, b) and the vertex b is called the head of
(a, b).
The graph Γα = (Vα , Eα ) is called the graph of the transformation α and
is constructed in the following way: The set Vα of vertices coincides with N;
for x, y ∈ N the element (x, y) belongs to Eα if and only if x ∈ dom(α) and
α(x) = y.
4
CHAPTER 1. ORDINARY AND PARTIAL TRANSFORMATIONS
Example 1.2.1 For the transformation
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
α=
8 9 7 13 7 16 ∅ 1 13 11 16 4 12 9 14 13
the graph Γα has the following form:
10
/ 11
15
2
/9
14
BB
BB
BB
BB
!
16
6
H8
4
| O
1
||
||
|
|
}|
|
||
||
|
}||
/ 13
/ 12
3
5
(1.4)
7
It is obvious that a directed graph Γ = (N, E) will be the graph of some
total (partial) transformation of N if and only if each vertex is the tail of
exactly one (at most one) arrow. The graph Γα decomposes into a disjoint
union of connected components. Intuitively, this is an obvious notion, for example, graph (1.4) has three connected components. The rigorous definition
is as follows.
First we define a subgraph. If Γ = (V, E) is a directed graph, a subgraph
of Γ is a directed graph Γ = (V , E ) such that V ⊂ V and E ⊂ E. A directed graph Γ = (V, E) is called connected if for each partition of V into a
disjoint union of nonempty subsets V1 and V2 there exists a ∈ V1 and b ∈ V2
such that either (a, b), or (b, a) is an arrow. If Γ is a directed graph, then the
connected components of Γ are simply the maximal connected subgraphs of
Γ , that is, those connected subgraphs of Γ which are not proper subgraphs
of any other connected subgraph of Γ .
Exercise 1.2.2 Prove that two different connected components of a directed
graph Γ do not have common arrows.
To understand the structure of Γα it is of course enough to understand
the structure of its connected components. For this we shall need some more
graph-theoretical notions. Let Γ (V, E) be a directed graph and a, b ∈ V . An
oriented path from a to b in Γ is a sequence x0 = a, x1 , . . . , xk = b of vertices
such that (xi , xi+1 ) ∈ E for each i = 0, 1, . . . , k − 1. Vertex a is called the
tail of the path and vertex b is called the head of the path. If we have an
oriented path such that a = b and xi = xj for all 0 ≤ i < j < k, then such
path is called an (oriented) cycle and is denoted by (x0 , x1 , . . . , xk−1 ). If Γ
does not contain any arrow with tail b we will say that our path breaks at b.
Analogously one defines infinite paths. Such paths may be without tails,
without heads, or without both tails and heads.
Let Γ be a directed graph and v be a vertex of Γ . We define a trajectory
of v as any longest possible path with the tail v. There are two possibilities:
1.2. GRAPH OF A (PARTIAL) TRANSFORMATION
5
either such trajectory is finite and hence breaks at some point, or this trajectory is infinite. For example, 5, 7 is a trajectory of vertex 5 in graph (1.4),
which breaks at vertex 7; and 2, 9, 13, 12, 4, 13, 12, 4, 13, . . . is a trajectory
of point 2. In general, a point can have many different trajectories. However,
we have the following obvious statement.
Lemma 1.2.3 Let Γ be a directed graph. Then the following conditions are
equivalent:
(a) Each vertex of Γ has a unique trajectory
(b) Each vertex of Γ is the tail of at most one arrow
We will say that the infinite trajectory x0 = v, x1 , . . . terminates at
the cycle (xk , xk+1 , . . . , xk+m−1 ) if the path xk , xk+1 , . . . , xk+m−1 is a cycle,
xi = xi+m for all i ≥ k and xk−1 = xk+m−1 . Thus, the trajectory of vertex 2
in graph (1.4) terminates at the cycle (13, 12, 4); and the trajectory of vertex
4 terminates at the cycle (4, 13, 12).
Proposition 1.2.4 Let α ∈ PT n .
(i) Every vertex of Γα has a unique trajectory.
(ii) The trajectory of each x ∈ N in Γα either breaks at some vertex or
terminates at some cycle.
(iii) α is total if and only if the trajectory of each x ∈ N in Γα terminates
at some cycle.
(iv) Let x, y ∈ N. If y occurs in the trajectory of x in Γα , then the trajectory
of y is a subsequence of the trajectory of x.
Proof. Since each vertex of Γα is a tail of at most one arrow, the statement (i) follows immediately from Lemma 1.2.3. The statement (iv) follows
immediately from (i).
Assume that the trajectory x = x0 , x1 , . . . of x does not break. Since
Γα is finite, this trajectory must contain repetitions of some vertices. Let
k be minimal for which there exists a repetition of xk and let xk+m be the
first repetition of xk . Since each vertex of Γα is a tail of at most one arrow,
the condition xk = xk+m implies xk+1 = xk+m+1 , which, in turn, implies
xk+2 = xk+m+2 , and so on. Hence our trajectory terminates at the cycle
(xk , xk+1 , . . . , xk+m−1 ). This proves (ii).
If α is total, the trajectory of each vertex cannot break. Hence (iii) follows
from (ii).
For α ∈ PT n and x ∈ N we denote by trα (x) the trajectory of x in Γα .
This is well-defined because of Proposition 1.2.4(i). Define now the binary
relation ωα on N in the following way: For x, y ∈ N set x ωα y if trα (x) and
trα (y) have at least one common vertex.
6
CHAPTER 1. ORDINARY AND PARTIAL TRANSFORMATIONS
Lemma 1.2.5 The relation ωα is an equivalence relation.
Proof. That ωα is reflexive and symmetric is obvious. To prove the transitivity of ωα consider x, y, z ∈ N such that x ωα y and y ωα z. Let a be a
common vertex of trα (x) and trα (y) and b be a common vertex of trα (y)
and trα (z). Without loss of generality we can assume that the first occurrence of a in trα (y) is not later than the first occurrence of b in trα (y). But
this means that b occurs in trα (a) by Proposition 1.2.4(iv). Another application of Proposition 1.2.4(iv) implies that b occurs in trα (x). Hence x ωα z,
completing the proof.
The equivalence classes of ωα are called the orbits of α. For x ∈ N the
orbit of x in Γα will be denoted by oα (x). From the definition of ωα it follows
that for any x ∈ dom(α) we have x ωα α(x). Hence all vertices which occur
in trα (x) belong to oα (x). Furthermore, for each x ∈ N we can restrict the
partial transformation α to the orbit K = oα (x), obtaining a new partial
transformation, α(K) ∈ PT (oα (x)). Certainly, α(K) does not depend on the
choice of the vertex in K.
Proposition 1.2.6 For each x ∈ N the graph Γα(K) is a connected component of Γα .
Proof. From the definition of ωα it follows that the graph Γα(K) is connected
and contains all those arrows of Γα , for which both the heads and the tails
belong to K. Assume now that (x, y) is an arrow of Γα such that x ∈ K.
Then y ∈ trα (x) and hence x ωα y, that is, y ∈ K. If (x, y) is an arrow of Γα
such that y ∈ K, then again y ∈ trα (x) and hence x ωα y, that is, x ∈ K.
This means that Γα(K) is not properly contained in any connected subgraph
of Γα , which proves our statement.
As an immediate corollary of Proposition 1.2.6 we have:
Corollary 1.2.7 The mapping K → Γα(K) is a bijection between the orbits
of α and the connected components of Γα .
A directed graph Γ =Γ (V, E) is called a tree with the sink a ∈ V provided
that for each x ∈ V the trajectory of x in Γ is unique and breaks at a. For
instance, in the example (1.4) if K = oα (3), the connected component Γα(K)
is a tree with the sink 7. A (nonempty) disjoint union of several trees with
sinks is called a forest of trees with sinks.
Exercise 1.2.8 Let Γ be a tree with the sink a. Show that Γ is connected;
that each b = a is a tail of exactly one arrow; and that Γ contains neither
oriented nor unoriented cycles.
A directed graph Γ = (V, E) is called a cycle provided that we can
enumerate V = {a1 , . . . , ak } such that E = {(a1 , a2 ), (a2 , a3 ), . . . , (ak−1 , ak ),
1.2. GRAPH OF A (PARTIAL) TRANSFORMATION
7
(ak , a1 )}. If Γi = (Vi , Ei ), i ∈ I, are directed graphs, then their union Γ =
∪i∈I Γi is defined as follows Γ = (V, E), where V = ∪i∈I Vi and E = ∪i∈I Ei .
For example, each directed graph is a union of its connected components.
Theorem 1.2.9 Each connected component of Γα , α ∈ PT n , is either
(i) a tree with a sink, or
(ii) a union of a forest of trees with sinks with a cycle on the set of all
their sinks.
We note that the forest in Theorem 1.2.9(ii) may contain only one tree
with a sink. The union of this tree with a sink with the cycle on its sink is not
a tree with a sink anymore. We also note that the forest in Theorem 1.2.9(ii)
may also have some trivial trees with sinks, that is, trees consisting only of
sinks. If all trees in this forest are trivial, Theorem 1.2.9(ii) simply describes
a cycle.
Proof. Let α ∈ PT n and Γα(K) = (K, EK ) be a connected component of Γα ,
and x ∈ K. Then Lemma 1.2.3 and Proposition 1.2.4(i) imply that x has a
unique trajectory in both Γα and Γα(K) . Moreover, since K is a connected
component of Γα we also have that the trajectories of x in Γα and Γα(K)
coincide (and hence they both are equal to trα (x)).
Assume first that trα (x) breaks at some vertex, say a. Let y ∈ K be
arbitrary. Then, by definition, trα (x) and trα (y) have a common vertex,
say z. Hence trα (z) is a subsequence of both trα (x) and trα (y). But trα (x)
breaks at a, which means that trα (z) must break at a as well. This implies
that trα (y) breaks at a. This means, by definition, that Γα(K) is a tree with
the sink a, that is, of the type Theorem 1.2.9(i).
Now we assume that trα (x) terminates at some cycle, say (a1 , a2 , . . . , ak ).
For each ai , i = 1, . . . , k, the trajectory of ai is unique by Proposition 1.2.4(i)
and hence is ai , ai+1 , . . . , ak , a1 , . . . . For every y ∈ K, the trajectory trα (y)
has a common subsequence with trα (x) and thus must contain some ai . For
i = 1, . . . , k we denote by Ki the set of all those vertices y from K such
that the first vertex from the cycle (a1 , a2 , . . . , ak ) in trα (y) is ai . Note that
Ki ∩ Kj = ∅ for i = j by definition.
Assume that i = j and let (x, y) be an arrow in Γα(K) such that x ∈ Ki
and y ∈ Kj . Then trα (x) has the form x, y, y1 , . . . , where y, y1 , . . . is just
trα (y). However, the first element from the cycle (a1 , a2 , . . . , ak ) in trα (x) is
ai , whereas in trα (y) it is aj = ai . This is possible only in the case of x = ai
and y = aj . This means that every arrow in Γα(K) from some element in Ki
to some element in Kj in fact belongs to the cycle (a1 , a2 , . . . , ak ).
For each i = 1, . . . , k, consider the graph Γi = (Ki , Ei ), where
Ei = ((Ki × Ki ) ∩ E)\{(ai , ai )},
8
CHAPTER 1. ORDINARY AND PARTIAL TRANSFORMATIONS
(this means that Ei consists of all arrows from E, which has both tails and
heads in Ki , with the exception of the arrow (ai , ai )). Let Γ0 be the cycle
(a1 , a2 , . . . , ak ). From the previous paragraph, we have that Γα(K) = ∪ki=0 Γi .
Furthermore, Ki s are disjoint for i = 1, . . . , k. To show that Γα(K) is of
the form described in Theorem 1.2.9(ii) it remains to show that each Γi ,
i = 1, . . . , k, is a tree with the sink ai .
By definition, Γi does not contain any arrow with the tail ai . Let y ∈ Ki .
Then trα (y) has the form y = y0 , y1 , . . . , ym = ai , ai+1 , . . . , where ym = ai
is the first occurrence of ai in trα (y). By the definition of Ki , all vertices
y1 , . . . , ym−1 do not belong to Γ0 . Hence the definition of Ei implies that
y = y0 , y1 , . . . , ym = ai is the trajectory of y in Γi , and it breaks at ai . In
other words, the trajectory of each vertex in Γi breaks at ai and thus Γi is
a tree with the sink ai . This completes the proof.
Example 1.2.10 The graph Γα from Example 1.2.1 is given by (1.4) and
has three connected components. The third component is a tree with the
sink 7. The second component is a cycle (that is, the union of the cycle
(1, 8) with the corresponding forest of trivial trees with sinks). The first
component is the union of the cycle (4, 13, 12) with the following forest of
trees with sinks:
15
/ 14
@@
@@
@@
@@
/9
2
@@
@@
@@
@@
13
11 o
|
||
||
|
}|
|
|
||
||
|
}|
|
16 o
6
10
12
4
An immediate corollary of Theorem 1.2.9 is the following:
Corollary 1.2.11 Different cycles of Γα belong to different connected components of Γα .
1.3
Linear Notation for Partial Transformations
The graphical presentation of a transformation α ∈ PT n via Γα is very
transparent, but also rather space consuming. For a plain mathematical
text, it would be very useful to have some space-saving alternative. For
permutations this is known as the cyclic notation and can be easily described
by the following example:
Example 1.3.1 For the permutation
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
α=
9 8 15 2 10 1 14 4 7 5 6 11 13 3 12
1.3. LINEAR NOTATION FOR PARTIAL TRANSFORMATIONS
9
the graph Γα has the following form:
1O
/9
/7
/ 14
6o
11 o
12 o
15
/3
~
~
~~
~~
~
~
2O
4
/8
H5
13Y
10
Using the notation for cycles, introduced on page 4 in the paragraph after
Exercise 1.2.2, we may write
α = (1, 9, 7, 14, 3, 15, 12, 11, 6)(2, 8, 4)(5, 10)(13).
Clearly the above notation is not uniquely defined. Writing a cycle we
can start from each of its vertices. Moreover, the order of cycles in the cyclic
notation can also be chosen in an arbitrary way. In this subsection, we would
like to generalize this notation to be able to use it for all elements of PT n .
A very good hint how to do this is given by Theorem 1.2.9, which roughly
says that we only have to find a nice notation for trees with sinks. We call
our notation linear and will define it recursively.
Assume for the moment that the graph Γα , where α ∈ PT n , is a tree
with the sink a. If a is the only vertex of Γ , we shall write Γα = [a] (or
simply α = [a]). If Γα contains some other vertices, then it has to have the
following form:
Γ1
...
...
//
//
//
//
//
//
//
//
...
// . . . // . . . //
//
// // / / a
a1 OO
o k
OOO
ooo
OOO
o
o
OOO
oo
OOO
ooo
' wooo
Γk
(1.5)
a
For i = 1, . . . , k, the subgraph Γi of the graph (1.5) above is a tree with the
sink ai and has strictly less vertices than Γα . Assume that we already have
the linear notation Γ̃i for Γi , i = 1, . . . , k. Then the linear notation for Γα
(and α) is defined recursively as follows
Γα = [Γ̃1 , Γ̃2 , . . . , Γ̃k ; a].
This defines the notation for the elements given by Theorem 1.2.9(i).
Assume now that Γα is connected and given by Theorem 1.2.9(ii). Then
Γα is the union of some cycle, say (a1 , . . . , ak ), with certain disjoint trees Γi
with sinks ai , i = 1, . . . , k. Let Γ̃i , i = 1, . . . , k, be the corresponding linear
notation. In this case, we define the linear notation for Γα (and α) as follows
Γα = (Γ̃1 , Γ̃2 , . . . , Γ̃k ).
10
CHAPTER 1. ORDINARY AND PARTIAL TRANSFORMATIONS
Finally, for any α ∈ PT n , we define the linear notation for Γα (and α)
to be the product of linear notation over all connected components of Γα ,
written in an arbitrary order. In the same way as the classical cycle notation
for permutations, the linear notation for (partial) transformartions is unique
only up to permutation of certain components of the notation. Namely, the
connected components can be written in an arbitrary order, and on each
step of the recursive procedure the order of the components Γ̃1 , . . . , Γ̃k can
also be chosen arbitrarily.
Note that, by the above definition, the ordinary cycle (a1 , a2 , . . . , ak ) is
denoted by ([a1 ], [a2 ], . . . , [ak ]). This is of course not very practical, so to
avoid this unnecessary complication inside the notation for cycles (but not
for trees with sinks!) we shall usually skip the brackets “[ ]” surrounding
trivial trees with sinks. Sometimes, if n is fixed, one can also skip all loops
(i.e., the elements of the form (x) = ([x])). This just means that all x ∈ N,
which do not appear in the notation, correspond to loops. It is clear that
this does not give rise to any confusion, moreover, it restores the original
notation for usual cycles and permutations.
Example 1.3.2 For the transformation α from Example 1.2.1 we have
α = ([[[[15]; 14], [2]; 9], [[[10]; 11], [6]; 16]; 13], 12, 4)(1, 8)[[3], [5]; 7].
1.4
Addenda and Comments
1.4.1 To use graphs for presentation of transformations was proposed by
Suschkewitsch in [Su1].
1.4.2 Let α ∈ PT n . The element x ∈ N satisfying α(x) = x is usually called
a fixed point of α. If α is a permutation, then all the connected components
of Γα are cycles. Fixed points of α correspond to cycles of length 1. In
the cyclic notation for α such cycles are usually omitted (for the identity
element one thus has to use a special notation, for example ε). If after such
simplification the cyclic notation for α contains only one cycle, say of length
k, the α is usually called a cycle of length k. Cycles of length 2 are called
transpositions.
1.4.3 An alternative “linear” notation for total transformations was proposed in [AAH]. Although [AAH] works only with total transformations
it is fairly straightforward to generalize their notation to cover all partial
transformations. Roughly speaking the [AAH]-notation reduces to listing
the trajectories of all vertices of the graph Γα . If we know the trajectory
x0 = x, x1 , x2 , . . . of the vertex x, then of course we know the trajectories of
each of the vertices x1 , x2 , . . . , so we can omit the latter ones. A trajectory
is denoted by [a1 , a2 , . . . , ak |aj ], where 1 ≤ j ≤ k. This means the following:
1.4. ADDENDA AND COMMENTS
11
• If j < k, the trajectory a1 , a2 , . . . of the vertex a1 terminates at the
cycle (aj , aj+1 , . . . , ak )
• If j = k and ak does not occur previously, then the trajectory a1 , a2 , . . .
of the vertex a1 terminates at the cycle (ak )
• If j = k and ak does occur previously, it means that we already know
the trajectory of ak , in this case the trajectory of the vertex a1 is
obtained by attaching a1 , a2 , . . . , ak to the known trajectory of ak
On each step we choose any vertex, say a, whose trajectory is not yet written
down, and we write down the trajectory of a until we either reach a vertex,
whose trajectory is already written down, or we terminate the trajectory of
a in some cycle. To make the notation as short as possible, on each step one
should try to choose a new vertex, which is not a head of any arrow in Γα .
For example, for the transformation
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
α=
8 9 7 13 7 16 7 1 13 11 16 4 12 9 14 13
the [AAH]-notation for α will have the following form:
[15, 14, 9, 13, 12, 4|13][10, 11, 16, 13|13][6, 16|16][2, 9|9][8, 1|8][3, 7|7][5, 7|7].
For comparison, our notation for α looks as follows:
([[[[15]; 14], [2]; 9], [[[10]; 11], [6]; 16]; 13], 12, 4)(1, 8)([[3], [5]; 7]).
From our point of view the [AAH]-notation has some disadvantages,
namely,
• The cyclic notation for permutations is not a partial case of the [AAH]notation
• The [AAH]-notation is long, that is, it always contains elements occurring more than one time
• The [AAH]-notation is by far not unique, even up to permutations of
certain components of this notation
Another disadvantage of the [AAH]-notation, related to the composition
of transformations, will be discussed in 2.9.3. An advantage of the [AAH]notation in comparison to our notation is that it contains less brackets.
1.4.4 In [Ka] it was shown that the number of those α ∈ Tn for which Γα
is connected equals
n−1
nk−1
n!
k!
k=0
12
CHAPTER 1. ORDINARY AND PARTIAL TRANSFORMATIONS
This can be proved, for example, in the following way:
From Theorem 1.2.9 it follows that Γα is connected if and only if it is
a union of a forest of trees with sinks with a cycle on the set of all sinks.
(i)
For each such α and for each i ≥ 0 we define the set Nα as the set of all
x ∈ N such that the first element from the cycle occurs in trα (x) on step i.
(0)
Obviously, Nα consists of the elements of our cycle and N = ∪i≥0 Nα(i) is
(i)
(i−1)
a disjoint union. Furthermore, α(Nα ) ⊂ Nα
for i > 0. The number of
(i)
those α, for which |Nα | = ni , 0 ≤ i ≤ t, and such that ti=0 ni = n equals
n
t
(n0 − 1)!nn0 1 nn1 2 . . . nnt−1
(1.6)
n0 , n1 , . . . , nt
(here the polynomial coefficient n0 ,n1n,...,nt gives the number of ordered
partitions of N into blocks with cardinalities n0 ,. . . , nt , respectively; (n0 −1)!
n
is the number of ways to form a cycle out of n0 elements; and ni i+1 is the
number of maps from the block with ni+1 elements to the block with ni
elements). We can rewrite (1.6) as follows
n
n t
n! nn0 1 nn1 2
·
. . . t−1 .
·
n0 n1 ! n2 !
nt !
(1.7)
Now to find the number Xn0 of those α ∈ Tn for which Γα is connected and
contains a cycle of length n0 one has to add up all summands of the form
(1.7) for all t ≤ n − n0 and all decompositions n1 + · · · + nt = n − n0 . Let
n − n0 = k. Then
(n0 + k)k−1 1
(k − 1)!
nk−1
=
=
·
· ni · k k−1−i =
k!
k!
k! i!(k − 1 − i)! 0
k−1
i=0
=
k
n1 =1
k k−n1
nn0 1 −1
·
,
(n1 − 1)! (k − n1 )!
where for the last equality we substituted i by n1 − 1. Continuing in the
same way we get
nk−1
=
k!
k
=
n1 =1
k−n1 −···−nt−1
k−n
t −1
1 nn2 −1
nnt−1
nn0 1 −1
1
·
···
· n−1 =
(n1 − 1)!
(n2 − 1)!
(nt − 1)! t
n2 =1
=
1
n0
k
n1 =1
nt =1
k−n
nn0 1 1
n1 !
n2 =1
=
nn1 2
···
n2 !
k−n1 −···−nt−1
n1 +···+nt =n−n0
nt =1
t
nnt−1
=
nt !
n
n t
1 nn0 1 nn1 2
·
. . . t−1 . (1.8)
·
n0 n1 ! n2 !
nt !
1.5. ADDITIONAL EXERCISES
13
k−1
Hence Xn0 = n! · n k! , where k = n − n0 . Since 1 ≤ n0 ≤ n, the final answer
is now computed as follows
n
Xn0 = n!
n0 =1
1.5
n−1
k=0
nk−1
.
k!
Additional Exercises
1.5.1 Let N denote the set of all positive integers. Give an example of a
transformation α : N → N such that
(a) α is injective but not surjective.
(b) α is surjective but not injective.
1.5.2 Prove that limn→∞
|PT n |
|Tn |
= e.
1.5.3 Directed graphs Γi = (Vi , Ei ), i = 1, 2, are called isomorphic provided
that there exists a bijection ϕ : V1 → V2 which induces a bijection from E1
to E2 . Compute the number of pairwise nonisomorphic graphs Γα , where
(a) α ∈ T3 .
(b) α ∈ T4 .
(c) α ∈ PT 2 .
(d) α ∈ PT 3 .
(e) α ∈ PT 4 .
1.5.4 Find the number of those partial transformations α ∈ PT 8 , whose
graphs are isomorphic to the following graph:
•
•
•o
•
•O o
•
/•o
•
1.5.5 For α ∈ PT n characterize dom(α), im(α), dom(α), rank(α), and
def(α) in terms of Γα .
1.5.6 Compute the number of those α ∈ Tn (resp. α ∈ PT n ) for which
im(α)
(a) Does not contain given elements a1 , a2 ,. . . , ak
14
CHAPTER 1. ORDINARY AND PARTIAL TRANSFORMATIONS
(b) Contains given elements a1 , a2 ,. . . , ak
(c) Coincides with the given set {a1 , a2 , . . . , ak }
1.5.7 Prove that the number of those α ∈ PT n , for which Γα is a tree with
a sink, equals nn−1 .
1.5.8 Prove that the number
α ∈ PT n , for which Γα does not
of those
n−k .
contain cycles, equals nk=1 n−1
n
k−1
1.5.9 (a) Find the number of those α ∈ Tn which fix at least one (resp.
exactly one) element (that is, α(x) = x for at least one or exactly one
element x ∈ N, respectively).
(b) The same problem for PT n .
1.5.10 Let Γ = (V, E) be a directed graph. Consider the set X , which
consists of all possible unordered partitions of V into disjoint unions of
nonempty subsets Vi s such that for each i = j the graph Γ does not contain any arrow from Vi to Vj . The set X is partially ordered in the natural
way with respect to inclusions of components of partitions. Prove that the
partition of V , which corresponds to the partition of Γ into connected components, is the minimum of X .
1.5.11 Let Γ = (V, E) be a directed graph. Consider the set Y, which
consists of all possible unordered partitions of V into disjoint unions of
nonempty subsets Vi s such that for each i we have that the subgraph
(Vi , (Vi × Vi ) ∩ E) is connected. The set Y is partially ordered in the natural
way with respect to inclusions of components of partitions. Prove that the
partition of V , which corresponds to the partition of Γ into connected
components, is the maximum of Y.
1.5.12 For α ∈ Tn , let tk (α) denote the number of those x ∈ N for which
|{y ∈ N : α(y) = x}| = k. Prove that
n
tk (α) = n,
(a)
k=0
(b)
n
ktk (α) = n.
k=0
1.5.13 For α ∈ PT n let tk (α) denote the number of those x ∈ N for which
|{y ∈ N : α(y) = x}| = k. Prove that
n
tk (α) = n,
(a)
k=0
(b)
n
k=0
ktk (α) ≤ n.
Chapter 2
The Semigroups Tn , PT n ,
and IS n
2.1
Composition of Transformations
Let X and Y be two sets. A mapping from X to Y is an array of the form
x
,
f=
f (x) x∈X
where all f (x) ∈ Y . This is usually denoted by f : X → Y . The element f (x)
is called the value of the mapping f at the element x. A transformation, as
defined in Sect. 1.1, is just a mapping from a set to itself. Let now X, Y, Y , Z
be sets such that Y ⊂ Y and let f : X → Y and g : Y → Z be two
mappings. In this situation, we can define the product or the composition gf
of f and g by the following rule: The composition gf is the mapping from
X to Z such that for all x ∈ X we have (gf )(x) = g(f (x)). In particular,
we can always compose two total transformations of the same set and the
result will be a total transformation of this set.
The above definition admits a straightforward generalization to partial
mappings. A partial mapping from X to Y is a mapping α : X → Y , where
X ⊂ X. In this case, we say that the partial mapping α is defined on
elements from X . Again, a partial transformation, as defined in Sect. 1.1, is
a partial mapping from a set to itself. One usually abuses notation and writes
α : X → Y just emphasizing that α is a partial mapping. Let α : X → Y and
β : Y → Z be two partial mappings. We define their product or composition
βα as the partial mapping, defined on all those x ∈ X for which α and β
are defined on the elements x and α(x), respectively; on such x the value
of βα is given by (βα)(x) = β(α(x)). In particular, we can always compose
two partial transformations of the same set and the result will be another
O. Ganyushkin, V. Mazorchuk, Classical Finite Transformation Semigroups, Algebra
and Applications 9, DOI: 10.1007/978-1-84800-281-4 2,
c Springer-Verlag London Limited 2009
15
CHAPTER 2. THE SEMIGROUPS Tn , PT n , AND IS n
16
partial transformation of this set. We also note that the definition of the
composition of total transformations is just a special case of that of partial
transformations.
Proposition 2.1.1 The composition of (partial) mappings is associative,
that is, if α, β, and γ are partial mappings, then the composition γ(βα) is
defined if and only if the composition (γβ)α is defined, and if they both are
defined, we have γ(βα) = (γβ)α.
Proof. Follows immediately from the following picture:
X
Y
Z
V
a _ ] [ Y W
g e c
γβ
U S
i
k
α
Q(
,• m
,
,
•
•
γ
β
6z
9 v•
y
x Q S
m
k
U W
Y [ ] _ a c e g i
βα
γ(βα)=(γβ)α
Associativity of the composition of partial transformations naturally
leads to the notion of a semigroup. Let S be a nonempty set, and let · :
S × S → S be a binary operation on S. Then (S, ·) is called a semigroup
provided that · is associative, that is, a · (b · c) = (a · b) · c for all a, b, c ∈ S.
To simplify the notation, in the case when the operation · is clear from the
context one usually writes S for (S, ·). Furthermore, one usually writes ab
instead of a · b.
Exercise 2.1.2 Let (S, ·) be a semigroup. Show that the value of the product
a1 a2 · · · an , where all ai ∈ S, does not depend on the way of computing it
(that is, of putting brackets into this product).
Let (S, ·) be a semigroup. From Exercise 2.1.2 it follows that for every
a ∈ S we have a well-defined element ak = a
· a · · · a. The number of elements
ktimes
in S is called the cardinality of S and is denoted by |S|.
By Proposition 2.1.1, in both Tn and PT n the composition of (partial)
transformations is an associative operation. Hence we have:
Proposition 2.1.3 Both Tn and PT n are semigroups with respect to the
composition of (partial) transformations.
The semigroup Tn is called the full transformation semigroup on the set
N or the symmetric semigroup of all transformations of N. The semigroup
PT n is called the semigroup of all partial transformations on N.
2.2. IDENTITY ELEMENTS
17
A nonempty subset T of a semigroup (S, ·) is called a subsemigroup of
S provided that T is closed with respect to · (that is, a · b ∈ T as soon as
a, b ∈ T ). Obviously, in this case, T itself is a semigroup with respect to the
restriction of the operation · to T . The fact that T is a subsemigroup of S
is usually denoted by T < S.
Exercise 2.1.4 Show that for arbitrary α, β ∈ PT n the following is true:
(a) dom(βα) ⊂ dom(α)
(b) im(βα) ⊂ im(β)
(c) rank(βα) ≤ min(rank(α), rank(β))
2.2
Identity Elements
An element e of a semigroup S is called a left or a right identity provided
that ea = a, or ae = a, respectively, for all a ∈ S. An element e, which is a
left and a right identity at the same time, is called a two-sided identity or
simply an identity.
If S contains some left identity el and some right identity er we have
el = el · er = er and hence these two elements coincide. Hence in this case S
contains a unique identity element, which is, moreover, a two-sided identity.
However, a semigroup may contain many different left identities or many
different right identities (see Exercise 2.10.2). It is possible for a semigroup
to contain neither left nor right identities. An example of such a semigroup
is the semigroup (N, +). Another example is the semigroup {2, 3, 4, . . . } with
respect to the ordinary multiplication.
A semigroup which contains a two-sided identity element is called a
monoid. The absence of an identity element can be easily repaired in the
following way.
Proposition 2.2.1 Each semigroup can be extended to a monoid by adding
at most one element.
Proof. Let (S, ·) be a semigroup. If S contains an identity, we have nothing
to prove. If S does not contain any identity element, consider the set S 1 =
S ∪ {1}, where 1 ∈ S. Define the binary operation ∗ on S 1 as follows: For
a, b ∈ S 1 set
⎧
⎪a · b, a, b ∈ S;
⎨
a ∗ b = a,
b = 1;
⎪
⎩
b,
a = 1.
A direct calculation shows that ∗ is associative, hence S 1 is a semigroup.
Furthermore, from the definition of ∗ we have that 1 is the identity element
in S 1 . Moreover, the restriction of the operation ∗ to S coincides with the
original operation ·. Hence S is a subsemigroup of S 1 .
18
CHAPTER 2. THE SEMIGROUPS Tn , PT n , AND IS n
Denote by εn : N → N the identity transformation
1 2 ··· n
.
εn =
1 2 ··· n
If n is clear from the context we shall sometimes write ε instead of εn . The
following statement is obvious.
Proposition 2.2.2 The transformation εn is the (two-sided) identity element in both Tn and PT n . In particular, both, Tn and PT n , are monoids.
Let S be a monoid with the identity element 1. An element a ∈ S is called
invertible or a unit provided that there exists b ∈ S such that ab = ba = 1.
Such an element b, if it exists, is unique. Indeed, assume that b1 and b2 are
different such elements, then
b1 = b1 · 1 = b1 (ab2 ) = (b1 a)b2 = 1 · b2 = b2 .
The element b is called the inverse of a and is denoted by a−1 . Note that if
b is the inverse of a, then a is the inverse of b. In other words, (a−1 )−1 = a.
The set of all invertible elements of the monoid S is denoted by S ∗ . Note
that 1 ∈ S ∗ since 1 · 1 = 1. In particular, S ∗ is not empty.
The above terminology and notation deserve some explanation. Usually
the operation in an abstract semigroup is thought of as a multiplication.
Since the element 1 is the identity element in such multiplicative semigroups
as N, Z, R, C, it is natural to denote the identity element of an abstract
semigroup by the same symbol 1. This also justifies the notions “unit” and
“inverse.” However, there are many semigroups where the operation is not
the multiplication, for example the semigroup (Z, +). The identity element
in this semigroup is the number 0 and not the number 1. And the inverse of
the number n ∈ Z is the number −n and not the number n−1 (note that the
latter one is not always defined, and when it is defined, it is not an integer
in general).
A monoid in which each element has an inverse is called a group.
Proposition 2.2.3 Let S be a monoid with the identity element 1. Then
S ∗ is a group.
Proof. Obviously, if a ∈ S ∗ , then a−1 ∈ S ∗ as well. If a, b ∈ S ∗ , then we have
ab · b−1 a−1 = a · bb−1 · a−1 = a · 1 · a−1 = aa−1 = 1.
Analogously one shows that b−1 a−1 · ab = 1 and hence b−1 a−1 = (ab)−1 . In
particular, ab ∈ S ∗ . Thus S ∗ is a submonoid of S and each element of S ∗
has an inverse in S ∗ . The claim follows.
Proposition 2.2.4 Let α ∈ Tn , or α ∈ PT n . Then α is invertible if and
only if α is a permutation on N.
2.3. ZERO ELEMENTS
19
Proof. Assume that α is invertible and β is a (partial) transformation such
that αβ = βα = ε. Note that dom(ε) = N. Hence Exercise 2.1.4(a) implies
dom(α) = N. Further, if x, y ∈ N are such that x = y, then ε(x) = ε(y).
If α(x) = α(y), we would get ε(x) = β(α(x)) = β(α(y)) = ε(y), a contradiction. This means that α(x) = α(y). Hence α is everywhere defined and
injective and thus is a permutation by Proposition 1.1.3.
Conversely, if
1 2 ··· n
α=
i1 i2 · · · in
is a permutation, the element
α=
i1 i2 · · ·
1 2 ···
in
n
is a permutation as well and a direct computation shows that αβ = βα = ε,
that is, α is invertible.
The group Tn∗ = PT ∗n of all permutations on N is called the symmetric
group on N and is denoted by Sn .
2.3
Zero Elements
An element 0 of a semigroup S is called a left or a right zero provided that
0a = 0, or a0 = 0, respectively, for all a ∈ S. An element 0 which at the
same time is a left and a right zero, is called a two-sided zero or simply a
zero.
If S contains some left zero 0l and some right zero 0r , we have 0l =
0l · 0r = 0r and hence these two elements coincide. Hence in this case S
contains a unique zero element, which is, moreover, a two-sided zero. The
analog of Proposition 2.2.1 is the following statement.
Proposition 2.3.1 Each semigroup can be extended to a semigroup with
zero by adding at most one element.
Proof. Let (S, ·) be a semigroup. If S contains a zero, we have nothing to
prove. Otherwise, consider the set S 0 = S ∪ {0}, where 0 ∈ S. Define the
binary operation ∗ on S 0 as follows: For a, b ∈ S 0 set
⎧
⎪
⎨a · b, a, b ∈ S;
a ∗ b = 0,
b = 0;
⎪
⎩
0,
a = 0.
A direct calculation shows that ∗ is associative, hence S 0 is a semigroup.
Furthermore, from the definition of ∗ we have that 0 is the zero element in S 0
and that the restriction of ∗ to S coincides with ·. Hence S is a subsemigroup
of S 0 .
20
CHAPTER 2. THE SEMIGROUPS Tn , PT n , AND IS n
Denote by 0n the partial transformation 0n : ∅ → N on N. We have
dom(0n ) = ∅. If n is clear from the context, we shall usually write simply
0 instead of 0n .
Proposition 2.3.2 0n is the zero element of the semigroup PT n .
Proof. The equalities α0n = 0n α = 0n , α ∈ PT n , are obvious.
For a ∈ N define the total transformation 0a : N → N via 0a (x) = a for
all x ∈ N. The transformation 0a is called the constant transformation.
Proposition 2.3.3 For n > 1 the semigroup Tn does not contain any right
zeros. α ∈ Tn is a left zero if and only if α = 0a for some a ∈ N. In
particular, the semigroup Tn contains exactly n left zeros.
Proof. From the obvious equality 0a β = 0a for any β ∈ Tn we obtain that
each constant transformation on Tn is a left zero. Hence Tn contains at least
n different left zeros. In particular, for n > 1 the semigroup Tn cannot
contain any right zeros.
Note that constant transformations are the only transformations of
rank 1. Let α ∈ Tn be a transformation of rank at least 2. Then for any 0a
the rank of α0a is 1 by Exercise 2.1.4(c) and hence the equality α0a = α is
not possible. This implies that α is not a left zero of Tn .
We note that the semigroup T1 consists of the identity element only. This
element is the zero element at the same time.
2.4
Isomorphism of Semigroups
Let (S, ·) and (T, ∗) be two semigroups. The semigroups S and T are said
to be isomorphic (denoted by S ∼
= T ) provided that there exists a bijection
ϕ : S → T such that
ϕ(a) ∗ ϕ(b) = ϕ(a · b) for all a, b ∈ S.
(2.1)
The bijection ϕ is called an isomorphism from S to T . Note that if ϕ : S → T
is an isomorphism, then ϕ−1 : T → S is an isomorphism as well.
Exercise 2.4.1 Show that the relation of being isomorphic semigroups is
an equivalence relation.
Example 2.4.2 It is rather handy to present small semigroups using their
multiplication tables, which is also called Cayley tables. Such table is a square
matrix with |S| rows and |S| columns, which are indexed by the elements
of S. At the intersection of the ath row and the bth column, a, b ∈ S, one
2.4. ISOMORPHISM OF SEMIGROUPS
21
writes the product ab. For example, the semigroup T2 = {ε, (12), 01 , 02 } has
the following Cayley table:
·
ε
(1, 2)
01
02
ε
(12) 01
ε
(12) 01
(1, 2)
ε
02
01
01 01
02
02 02
02
02
01 .
01
02
(2.2)
The following set of 2 × 2 matrices is also a semigroup with respect to the
usual matrix multiplication
1 0
0 1
1 1
0 0
S=
,
,
,
.
0 1
1 0
0 0
1 1
To simplify the notation we denote
1 0
0 1
1 1
0 0
E=
, A=
, B=
, C=
.
0 1
1 0
0 0
1 1
The Cayley table for S has the following form
·
E
A
B
C
E
E
A
B
C
A
A
E
B
C
B
B
C
B
C
C
C
B
B
C
.
(2.3)
It is easy to check that the bijection
ε (12) 01 02
ϕ=
E A B C
transforms the Cayley table (2.2) to the Cayley table (2.3) and hence is an
isomorphism from T2 to S.
The primary importance of the semigroup Tn is revealed by the following
statement.
Theorem 2.4.3 (Cayley’s Theorem) Each finite semigroup S of cardinality
n is isomorphic to a subsemigroup of either Tn or Tn+1 .
Proof. First we assume that S contains the identity element 1. Let S =
{a1 = 1, a2 , . . . , an } and define the mapping ϕ : S → Tn as follows
1 2 ··· n
,
ϕ(a) =
i1 i2 · · · in
CHAPTER 2. THE SEMIGROUPS Tn , PT n , AND IS n
22
where for k = 1, . . . , n, the number ik is uniquely determined by the equality
aak = aik .
Since ak · 1 = ak , we have ϕ(ai )(1) = i for all i = 1, . . . , n. In particular,
ϕ(ai ) = ϕ(aj ) if i = j and hence the mapping ϕ is injective. The mapping
ϕ : S → ϕ(S) is therefore even bijective.
Further, the equality (ab)ak = a(bak ) implies the equality ϕ(ab)(k) =
ϕ(a)(ϕ(b)(k)) for all k = 1, . . . , n and a, b ∈ S. This means that ϕ(ab) =
ϕ(a)ϕ(b) for all a, b ∈ S and thus ϕ is an isomorphism from S to the subsemigroup ϕ(S) of Tn .
If S does not contain any identity element, we can consider S as a subsemigroup of the semigroup S 1 and |S 1 | = n + 1. By the above, S 1 is isomorphic to a subsemigroup of Tn+1 , and the claim follows.
2.5
The Semigroup IS n
Obviously, the composition αβ of two partial injections α and β is again
a partial injection. This observation leads to the definition of another very
important subsemigroup of PT n , namely, the semigroup IS n of all partial
injective transformations of N, which is usually called the symmetric inverse
semigroup.
Theorem 2.5.1
|IS n | =
n 2
n
k=0
k
· k!.
Proof. Each partial injection α : N → N can be considered as a bijection
α : dom(α) → im(α). Let us count the number
of such bijections of rank k.
n
different
ways. The set B = im(α)
The set A = dom(α) can be chosen
in
k
can be independently chosen in nk different ways. If A and B are fixed,
there
n nare
exactly k! different bijections from A to B. Hence we have exactly
k · k · k! bijections of rank k. Since k can be an arbitrary integer between
0 and n, the statement of the theorem is obtained by applying the sum
rule.
Partial injections α : N → N are also called partial bijections or partial
permutations on N.
If α : N → N is a partial injection, then each x ∈ N has at most
one preimage. In particular, the graph Γα is much simpler than for general
partial transformations. From Theorem 1.2.9 it follows that each connected
component of Γα is either a cycle or has the form
a1
/ a2
/ a3
/ ...
/ ak−1
In our linear notation such a graph is denoted by
[[[. . . [[[a1 ]; a2 ]; a3 ]; . . . ]; ak−1 ]; ak ].
/ ak .
(2.4)
2.6. REGULAR AND INVERSE ELEMENTS
23
Since the order of the brackets in this expression is fixed, we can simplify the
notation by omitting all inner brackets. So, in what follows the graph (2.4)
(and the corresponding element) will be denoted by [a1 , a2 , a3 , . . . , ak−1 , ak ].
Such element is called a chain. This allows us to use for partial permutations
a simplified version of linear notation, which we call the chain-cycle notation.
For example, the partial permutation
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
α=
,
14 12 11 13 7 ∅ 3 15 ∅ ∅ 5 2 1 9 10
written in the chain-cycle notation has the following form:
α = (5, 7, 3, 11)(2, 12)[4, 13, 1, 14, 9][8, 15, 10][6].
Obviously the chain-cycle notation for a partial permutation α is unique up
to a permutation of components and cyclic permutation of elements in each
cycle. Note that no permutations of elements in chains are allowed.
As IS n contains the identity element ε and the zero element 0 of the
bigger semigroup PT n , these elements will be the identity element and the
zero element of IS n , respectively. Moreover, we have inclusions Sn ⊂ IS ∗n ⊂
PT ∗n = Sn , which imply IS ∗n = Sn . The following diagram characterizes the
connection between the principal objects of the present book:
.
Tn
PT
< ncGG
GG
zz
z
GG
z
GG
zz
z
1Q
z
IS
bEE
;w n
w
EE
ww
EE
ww
EE
w
w
1Q -w
Sn
Note that all these inclusions are proper for n > 1.
2.6
Regular and Inverse Elements
An element a of a semigroup S is called regular provided that there exists
b ∈ S such that aba = a. Elements a, b ∈ S form a pair of inverse elements
provided that aba = a and bab = b. Set
VS (a) = {b ∈ S : aandbis a pair of inverse elements}.
If a and b is a pair of inverse elements, then one says that a is an inverse
of b and b is an inverse of a. This might be slightly confusing, since in such
generality the inverse element of a given element is not uniquely defined.
Note that this notion extends the notion of an inverse element for invertible
elements: if a ∈ S is invertible, then aa−1 a = a and a−1 aa−1 = a−1 . Hence
a and a−1 is a pair of inverse elements.
24
CHAPTER 2. THE SEMIGROUPS Tn , PT n , AND IS n
Exercise 2.6.1 Let a ∈ S be invertible. Show that VS (a) = {a−1 }.
If a has at least one inverse (i.e., VS (a) = ∅), then the element a is
obviously regular. The converse is also true.
Proposition 2.6.2 Let a ∈ S be regular and b ∈ S be such that aba = a.
Then a and c = bab is a pair of inverse elements.
Proof. Follows from the following computation
aca = a · bab · a = aba · ba = aba = a
cac = bab · a · bab = b · aba · bab = b · aba · b = bab = c.
The semigroup S is called regular provided that every element of S is
regular. Obviously, each group is a regular semigroup.
Theorem 2.6.3 The semigroups Tn , PT n , and IS n are regular.
Proof. Let α ∈ PT n . Let us construct the element β ∈ Tn as follows: For
each x ∈ im(α) take some y ∈ N such that α(y) = x and set β(x) = y. For
x ∈ im(α) define β(x) = 1. A direct calculation shows that αβα = α. It
follows that both Tn and PT n are regular semigroups.
Let now α ∈ IS n . Define β ∈ IS n as follows: First of all we set dom(β) =
im(α), and for each x ∈ im(α) we define β in the same way as before.
Since α was a partial bijection, that is, a bijection from dom(α) to im(α),
the element β is simply the inverse bijection from im(α) to dom(α). In
particular, β ∈ IS n . As before, we still have the equality αβα = α and
hence the semigroup IS n is regular as well.
Let us study the structure of inverse elements in the semigroups Tn and
PT n in more detail.
Theorem 2.6.4 Let α, β ∈ PT n . Then the element β is inverse to the element α if and only if the following conditions are satisfied:
(a) dom(β) ⊃ im(α).
(b) β(a) ∈ {x ∈ N : α(x) = a} for all a ∈ im(α).
(c) im(β) = β(im(α)).
Proof. Let im(α) = {a1 , a2 , . . . , ak }. For i = 1, . . . , k set Bi = {x ∈ N :
α(x) = ai }. Then the equality αβα = α is equivalent to the following condition:
(2.5)
β(ai ) ∈ Bi for alli = 1, 2, . . . , k.
Assume now that the condition (2.5) is satisfied. Then for all i we have
(αβ)(ai ) = ai and (βαβ)(ai ) = β(ai ). Set B = {β(y) : y ∈ im(α)}. From
2.6. REGULAR AND INVERSE ELEMENTS
25
the previous equality we have (βα)(b) = b for all b ∈ B. As im(βαβ) ⊂ B,
the equality βαβ = β requires im(β) ⊂ B. However, the latter condition is
also sufficient. Indeed, as β(y) ∈ B for any y ∈ dom(β), we have (βαβ)(y) =
(βα)(β(y)) = β(y) and thus βαβ = β. This completes the proof.
Theorem 2.6.4 is also true for the semigroup Tn , just in this case the
condition (a) is superfluous since it is automatically satisfied.
Corollary 2.6.5 Let α ∈ PT n , im(α) = {a1 , a2 , . . . , ak }, Bi = {x ∈ N :
α(x) = ai } and mi = |Bi |. Then
(i) |VPT n (α)| = m1 m2 · · · mk · (k + 1)n−k ;
(ii) if α is total, then |VTn (α)| = m1 m2 · · · mk · k n−k .
Proof. For each ai ∈ im(α) we have to choose β(ai ) ∈ Bi . As for different i
these choices are independent, we have m1 m2 · · · mk different ways to define
β on im(α).
After this we have to define β on the set N\im(α). From Theorem 2.6.4
it follows that the restriction of β to N\im(α) is an arbitrary (partial in the
case of PT n ) mapping from N\im(α) to the set {β(y) : y ∈ im(α)}. The
latter set contains exactly k elements. Hence the restriction of β to N\im(α)
can be chosen in k n−k different ways for Tn and in (k + 1)n−k different ways
for PT n .
Exercise 2.6.6 Show that for any a ∈ N we have
(a) |VTn (0a )| = n.
(b) |VPT n (0a )| = n · 2n−1 .
A regular semigroup S is called an inverse semigroup provided that each
a ∈ S has a unique inverse element. This inverse element is usually denoted
by a−1 (this can now be justified by the requirement that it is unique). From
Corollary 2.6.5 it follows that in the case of n > 1 the semigroups Tn and
PT n are not inverse semigroups.
Theorem 2.6.7 The semigroup IS n is an inverse semigroup.
Proof. Let α ∈ IS n and β ∈ VPT n (α). Let us try to analyze in which
case β is a partial permutation. Since α is injective, the sets Bi from the
proof of Theorem 2.6.4 consist of one element each. Hence β is uniquely
defined on im(α) by Theorem 2.6.4(b). At the same time, the injectivity of
β and Theorem 2.6.4(c) imply that β must be undefined on N\im(α). Thus
VPT n (α) ∩ IS n contains a unique element, implying that IS n is an inverse
semigroup.
CHAPTER 2. THE SEMIGROUPS Tn , PT n , AND IS n
26
Since the notion of an inverse element is a natural extension of the corresponding notion for invertible elements, inverse semigroups are very natural
generalizations of groups. In some sense they form the class of semigroups,
which is “closest” to groups.
Exercise 2.6.8 Prove the following identities in any inverse semigroup
(a) (a−1 )−1 = a,
(b) (ab)−1 = b−1 a−1 .
2.7
Idempotents
Identities and zero elements in semigroups are special cases of a more general
notion. An element e of a semigroup S is called an idempotent provided that
e2 = e. The set of all idempotents of S is denoted by E(S).
Theorem 2.25 describes idempotents in PT n . To formulate it we need
some notation. If α ∈ PT n and B ⊂ N, one says that B is invariant with
respect to α provided that α(x) ∈ B for all x ∈ B ∩ dom(α). In case B is
invariant with respect to α we can define the restriction α|B of α to B as
follows: α|B is a partial transformation on B, dom(α|B ) = B ∩ dom(α), and
for x ∈ dom(α|B ) we have α|B (x) = α(x).
Exercise 2.7.1 Show that for each α ∈ PT n the sets N, ∅, and im(α) are
invariant with respect to α.
Theorem 2.7.2 α ∈ PT n is an idempotent if and only if im(α) ⊂ dom(α)
and the restriction α = α|im(α) is the identity transformation on im(α).
Proof. If α2 = α, for all x ∈ dom(α) we have α(x) = α2 (x) = α(α(x)).
Hence im(α) ⊂ dom(α) and for each y ∈ im(α) we have α(y) = y.
Conversely, if α acts as the identity on im(α), we have α2 (x) = α(x) for
any x ∈ dom(α). Since dom(α2 ) ⊂ dom(α), it follows that α2 = α.
Corollary 2.7.3 The element α ∈ IS n is an idempotent if and only if α
is the identity transformation of some A ⊂ N. In particular, IS n contains
exactly 2n idempotents.
Proof. For α ∈ IS n we have |im(α)| = |dom(α)| by the injectivity of α.
Hence im(α) ⊂ dom(α) in this case implies im(α) = dom(α). The condition that α|im(α) is the identity transformation means exactly that α is the
identity transformation on im(α). Since N has exactly 2n subsets, the claim
follows.
For A ⊂ N we denote by εA the unique idempotent of IS n such that
dom(εA ) = A. We have ε = εN and 0 = ε∅.
2.7. IDEMPOTENTS
27
Corollary 2.7.4 The number un of idempotents in the semigroup Tn equals
n n n−k
k
.
un =
k
k=1
Proof. To define an idempotent
α of rank k we have to choose a k-element
set im(α) (this can be done in nk different ways), and then we have to define
a mapping from N\im(α) to im(α) in an arbitraryway
(this can be done
in k n−k different ways). Hence Tn contains exactly nk k n−k idempotents of
rank k. The statement is now obtained applying the sum rule.
Corollary 2.7.5 The number un of idempotents in the semigroup PT n equals
n n
un =
(k + 1)n−k .
k
k=0
Proof. The difference with the proof of Corollary 2.7.4 is just the facts that
PT n contains idempotents of rank 0, and that the mapping from N\im(α)
to im(α) may be partial.
There is a very close connection between the idempotents and the regular
elements. Indeed, each idempotent e is a regular element as e · e · e = e.
Conversely, if a is a regular element and aba = a, then the elements ab and
ba are idempotents: ab · ab = aba · b = ab and ba · ba = b · aba = ba. In
terms of idempotents, the inverse semigroups can be detected in the set of
all regular semigroups using the following:
Theorem 2.7.6 A regular semigroup S is inverse if and only if all idempotents of S commute.
Proof. Let S be a regular semigroup in which all idempotents commute. Let
further a ∈ S and b1 , b2 ∈ S be two inverse elements to a. Then ab1 a = a,
b1 ab1 = b1 , ab2 a = a, b2 ab2 = b2 , and as we mentioned above, the elements
ab1 , ab2 , b1 a, and b2 a are idempotents. Hence we have
b1 = b1 ab1 = b1 ab2 ab1 = b1 · ab2 · ab1 = b1 · ab1 · ab2 = b1 ab2 =
= b1 ab2 ab2 = b1 a · b2 a · b2 = b2 a · b1 a · b2 = b2 · ab1 a · b2 = b2 ab2 = b2 .
This means that each a ∈ S has a unique inverse and thus S is inverse.
Conversely, let S be an inverse semigroup and e, f ∈ S be two idempotents. Let us first prove that their product ef is an idempotent. Consider
a = (ef )−1 . We have
ef · a · ef = ef, a · ef · a = a.
Using this we obtain the following equalities:
ef · ae · ef = ef · a · e2 f = ef · a · ef = ef,
ae · ef · ae = a · e2 f · ae = a · ef · a · e = ae.
28
CHAPTER 2. THE SEMIGROUPS Tn , PT n , AND IS n
Hence ae is also an inverse to ef , which means ae = a. Analogously one
shows that f a = a. Thus
a2 = ae · f a = a · ef · a = a,
and hence a is an idempotent. In particular, a−1 = a, and thus a = ef .
Analogously one shows that f e is an idempotent as well. Moreover, we
have
f e · ef · f e = f · e2 · f 2 · e = f e · f e = f e,
ef · f e · ef = e · f 2 · e2 · f = ef · ef = ef.
This means that (ef )−1 = f e. However, since ef is an idempotent, we also
have (ef )−1 = ef . Thus f e = ef and we are done.
A semigroup S is called commutative or abelian if ab = ba for all a, b ∈ S.
From Theorem 2.7.6 it follows that the set E(S) of idempotents of an inverse
semigroup S is a commutative subsemigroup of S. In particular, E(IS n ) is
a commutative semigroup of order 2n .
Exercise 2.7.7 Prove that εA · εB = εA∩B for all A, B ⊂ N and use this
to show that the semigroup E(IS n ) is isomorphic to the semigroup of all
subsets of N with respect to the operation of the intersection of subsets.
Exercise 2.7.8 (a) Show that E(T2 ) is a noncommutative subsemigroup
of T2 .
(b) Show that E(Tn ) is not a subsemigroup of Tn for all n > 2.
Exercise 2.7.9 Show that E(PT n ) is not a subsemigroup of PT n for all
n > 1.
We know already that for n > 1 the semigroups Tn and PT n are not
inverse. This fact also follows from Theorem 2.7.6 and Exercises 2.7.8 and
2.7.9.
2.8
Nilpotent Elements
An element a of a semigroup S with the zero 0 is called nilpotent or a nilelement provided that ak = 0 for some k ∈ N. The minimal k for which
ak = 0 is called the nilpotency degree or nilpotency class of the element a
and is denoted by nd(a).
Proposition 2.8.1 α ∈ PT n is nilpotent if and only if the graph Γα does
not contain cycles.
2.8. NILPOTENT ELEMENTS
29
Proof. If Γα contains a cycle, say (a1 , a2 , . . . , am ), then a1 ∈ dom(αk ) for all
k > 0 (it is easy to see that αk (a1 ) = a(1+k) mod m ). As the zero element 0
of PT n satisfies dom(0) = ∅, we have αk = 0 for all k > 0 and hence the
element α cannot be nilpotent.
If Γα does not contain any cycle, the trajectory of each vertex a must
break. More precisely, this trajectory has the form a0 = a, a1 , a2 , . . . , am ,
where all ai are pairwise different and Γα does not contain any arrow with
the tail am (i.e., am ∈ dom(α)). This means that αm (a) = am and that
a ∈ dom(αm+1 ) since otherwise we would have αm+1 (a) = α(am ), which
does not make sense since am ∈ dom(α). Since the length of any trajectory
does not exceed n, we have dom(αn ) = ∅ and thus α is nilpotent.
From the proof of Proposition 2.8.1 we, in fact, derive the following:
Proposition 2.8.2 The nilpotency degree of a nilpotent element α ∈ PT n
equals the length of the longest trajectory in Γα .
Corollary 2.8.3 The partial permutation
α = (a1 , . . . , ak ) · · · (b1 , . . . , bl )[c1 , . . . , cp ] · · · [d1 , . . . , dq ] ∈ IS n
is nilpotent if and only if it does not contain cycles. If α ∈ IS n is nilpotent,
the nilpotency degree of α equals the maximum max(p, . . . , q) of the lengths
of all chains.
Denote by S(n, k) the Stirling number of the second kind, that is, the
number of partitions N = A1 ∪ A2 ∪ · · · ∪ Ak into an unordered disjoint
union of k nonempty blocks.
Theorem 2.8.4 ([LU1]) The semigroup PT n contains nk · S(n, k + 1) · k!
nilpotent elements of rank k.
Proof. We have the unique nilpotent
element of rank 0, namely, the element
0 itself. On the other hand, n0 · S(n, 1) · 0! = 1. Hence for the rest of the
proof we may assume k ≥ 1.
Let α ∈ PT n be a nilpotent element of rank k. Assume that im(α) =
{a1 , a2 , . . . , ak }. Then the sets Ai = {x ∈ N : α(x) = ai }, i = 1, . . . , k, and
Ak+1 = dom(α) form a partition N = A1 ∪ A2 ∪ · · · ∪ Ak+1 of the set N
into k + 1 block (note that Ak+1 = ∅ since α is nilpotent). This observation
suggests the following procedure for constructing all nilpotent elements of
rank k (we construct some nilpotent element α): First we choose im(α) =
{a
1 , . . . , ak }. This is a k-element subset of N and hence it can be chosen in
n
k different ways. Then we choose a partition, N = B1 ∪ B2 ∪ · · · ∪ Bk+1
into an unordered disjoint union of nonempty blocks. This can be done in
S(n, k + 1) different ways. Now for each ai we have to choose its preimage,
which is one of the blocks B1 , . . . , Bk+1 , such that the resulting element is
30
CHAPTER 2. THE SEMIGROUPS Tn , PT n , AND IS n
nilpotent. The choice of the preimage for ai means that we choose some
arrows for Γα in such a way that the resulting graph does not contain any
cycles.
The preimage of a1 can be any of the blocks B1 , . . . , Bk+1 , which does
not contain a1 (since otherwise Γα would contain a loop at a1 , which is a
cycle of length 1). This means that the preimage of a1 can be chosen in k
different ways.
We proceed by induction. Assume that we have already chosen the preimages for a1 , . . . , am (and let these preimages be the blocks Bi1 , . . . , Bim , respectively). Denote X = Bi1 ∪ · · · ∪ Bim and consider two different cases.
Case 1: am+1 ∈ X. This means that there is no arrow with the tail am+1
yet. Hence the preimage of am+1 could be any of the remaining blocks, which
does not contain am+1 . This preimage can be chosen in (k+1−m)−1 = k−m
different ways.
Case 2: am+1 ∈ X. Consider the trajectory a(0) = am+1 , a(1) , . . . , a(t) of
am+1 in that part of Γα , which is already constructed. Since the constructed
part of Γα does not contain cycles, this trajectory breaks at a(t) ∈ X. In
order to ensure that the choice of the preimage for am+1 does not create a
cycle in Γα , it is necessary and sufficient to make sure that this preimage
does not contain a(t) . Hence we again have (k + 1 − m) − 1 = k − m ways to
choose the preimage for am+1 .
From the above we have that for fixed {a1 , . . . , ak } and N = B1 ∪ B2 ∪
· · · ∪ Bk+1 the element α can be constructed in k(k − 1) · · · (k − (k − 1)) = k!
different
ways. Hence the total number of nilpotent elements of rank k equals
n
k · S(n, k + 1) · k!.
Theorem 2.8.5 The number of nilpotent elements of
defect
k in the semin−1
group IS n equals the signless Lah number Ln,k = n!
.
k! k−1
Proof. By Corollary 2.8.3, a nilpotent partial permutation of defect k has
the following form:
[i1 , i2 , . . . , im1 ][im1 +1 , im1 +2 , . . . , im2 ] · · · [imk−1 +1 , imk−1 +2 , . . . , imk ].
To get the above expression from the permutation i1 , i2 , . . . , in of 1, 2, . . . , n,
it is enough to choose the ends im1 , im2 , . . . , imk−1 of the first k − 1 chains
(as mk = n automatically). This can be done in n−1
k−1 different ways. Going
through all permutations we will get chain-cycle notation for all nilpotent
elements of defect k. Since the order of chains in the chain-cycle notation
is not important (because all chains in the chain-cycle notation commute),
every nilpotent element of defect k will be counted k! times. Indeed, the
chains in each chain-cycle notation can be permuted in k! different ways
without changing the corresponding partial transformation of N; however,
each of these permutations of chains corresponds to a different permutation
2.9. ADDENDA AND COMMENTS
31
of N. This means that n! permutations of N give k! repetitions of each
nilpotent
element. Hence the number of nilpotent elements of defect k equals
n! n−1
k! k−1 .
Corollary 2.8.6 The semigroup IS n contains
n
n! n − 1
k! k − 1
k=1
nilpotent elements.
2.9
Addenda and Comments
2.9.1 A subset M ⊂ N is called invariant with respect to S ⊂ PT n provided
that M is invariant with respect to each α ∈ S. Obviously, the union and
the intersection of invariant subsets is an invariant subset. Further, for each
α ∈ PT n and x ∈ N the set of vertices of trα (x) is invariant with respect
to α.
Let α ∈ PT n . If there exists a partition N = N1 ∪ N2 of N into a
disjoint union of two invariant subsets, then the study of the action of α on
N reduces to the study of the action of α on N1 and N2 . Continuing this
procedure, the study of the action of α on N reduces to the study of the
action of α on all its orbits:
Proposition 2.9.1 Each orbit of α is invariant with respect to α. If N =
N1 ∪ N2 is a partition into invariant subsets, then each of them is a union
of orbits.
Hence the partition of N into orbits is the finest possible partition of N
into a disjoint union of nonempty invariant subsets.
2.9.2 Let α ∈ PT n and let N = N1 ∪ N2 be a partition into invariant
subsets. For each i = 1, 2 set
α(x), x ∈ Ni ,
α(i) (x) =
x,
otherwise.
In other words, α(i) acts on Ni in the same way as α, and α(i) acts on the
complement N1−i as the identity transformation. It is easy to see that
α = α(1) α(2) = α(2) α(1) .
Analogous transformations α(i) and the corresponding decomposition
α = α(1) α(2) · · · α(m) can be defined for any partition N = N1 ∪N2 ∪· · ·∪Nm
of N into a disjoint union of arbitrarily many invariant subsets. In particular,
if some Ni is an orbit, the graph of the transformation α(i) has the following
32
CHAPTER 2. THE SEMIGROUPS Tn , PT n , AND IS n
form: one of its components coincides with the corresponding component of
Γα (the one which corresponds to the orbit Ni ), and all other components
consist of loops. In some sense α(i) can be identified with the corresponding
connected component. Then the decomposition of α described in Sect. 1.3
can be interpreted as a decomposition of α into a product of its connected
components. In particular, for permutation we get the usual decomposition
into a product of independent cycles.
2.9.3 Let us interpret [a1 , a2 , . . . , ak |ai ] as the notation for the element from
Tn , which acts as the element
a1 a2 · · · ak−1 ak
a2 a3 · · ·
ak
ai
on the set A = {a1 , a2 , . . . , ak }, and as the identity on the set N\A. Then
the linear notation
μ = [a1 , a2 , . . . , ak |ai ][b1 , b2 , . . . , bl |bj ] · · · [c1 , c2 , . . . , cm |ch ],
described in 1.4.3 can be considered as the following decomposition of μ:
μ = [c1 , c2 , . . . , cm |ch ] · · · [b1 , b2 , . . . , bl |bj ][a1 , a2 , . . . , ak |ai ]
(note that the factors should be taken in the reverse order). In the general case, the factors of this decomposition do not correspond to connected
components, the factors themselves (and even the number of these factors)
depend on the choice of certain elements along the way to write down this
decomposition, and these factors do not commute. This is another disadvantage of the notation from [AAH].
2.9.4 Let α ∈ PT n . As each orbit of α is invariant with respect to α
and the intersection of invariant sets is invariant, each minimal (with respect to inclusions) nonempty invariant set is contained in some orbit. From
Theorem 1.2.9 it follows that the trajectory of each vertex from a fixed connected component either contains a cycle (if it exists in this component) or
terminates at components sink. On the other hand, the set of all vertices
in a cycle, and the set consisting of the sink are obviously invariant. Hence
only these sets are minimal (with respect to inclusions) nonempty invariant
sets.
Let now K be an orbit of α. If the corresponding connected component
of Γα contains a cycle, the set of all vertices of this cycle is called the kernel
of the orbit K. If K does not contain any cycle, we say that the kernel of
this orbit is empty.
Proposition 2.9.2 Let α ∈ PT n , R be an orbit of α containing a cycle and
K be the kernel of R. Assume |K| = k > 0. Then
2.9. ADDENDA AND COMMENTS
33
(i) αk (x) = x for all x ∈ K.
(ii) If y ∈ R and m > 0 are such that αm (y) = y, then y ∈ K, k|m and
K = {y, α(y), . . . , αk−1 (y)}.
2.9.5 Let α ∈ PT n . The stable image of α is the set
stim(α) =
im(αk ).
k∈N
Proposition 2.9.3 For each α ∈ PT n the set stim(α) is invariant with
respect to α. The restriction of α to stim(α) is a permutation, moreover,
stim(α) is the maximum subset of N (with respect to inclusions) such that
the restriction of α to this subset is defined and is a permutation.
It is easy to see that stim(α) is the union of kernels of all orbits of α.
The restriction of α to stim(α) is called the permutational part of α.
2.9.6 Let α ∈ PT n . The stable rank of α is defined as the following number:
strank(α) = mink∈N rank(αk ).
Proposition 2.9.4 strank(α) = |stim(α)|.
2.9.7 The notation for the elements of IS n , introduced in Sect. 2.5, is close
to the notation used in [Li].
2.9.8 The role of IS n in the theory of inverse semigroups is analogous to the
role of Sn in group theory, and to the role of Tn in semigroup theory. Namely,
we have the following analog of Cayley’s Theorem for inverse semigroups:
Theorem 2.9.5 (Preston–Wagner) Any inverse semigroup T is isomorphic
to a subsemigroup of the semigroup IS(T ) of all partial injective transformations of the set T .
The idea of the proof is as follows: for each a ∈ T we consider the
transformation ρa : a−1 T → aT , defined via ρa (x) = ax. This transformation turns out to be bijective. Hence we can consider ρa as a partial
permutation on T . For the mapping ϕ : T → IS(T ), ϕ(a) = ρa , one easily checks that ϕ(ab) = ϕ(a)ϕ(b) and that ϕ is injective. For details, see
[CP1, Theorem 1.20].
2.9.9 If (S, ·) is a semigroup, we can consider the new semigroup (S, ∗),
where a ∗ b = b · a. The semigroup (S, ∗) is called the opposite semigroup
←
or the dual semigroup or simply the dual of S. It is usually denoted by S .
←
Obviously, the second dual of S is isomorphic to S. If S ∼
= S, the semigroup
S is called self-dual.
CHAPTER 2. THE SEMIGROUPS Tn , PT n , AND IS n
34
If S is an inverse semigroup, from Exercise 2.6.8 it follows that the map←
ping a → a−1 is an isomorphism from S to S . Hence all inverse semigroups
are self-dual, in particular, the semigroup IS n is self-dual.
However, not any semigroup is self-dual. For example, for n > 1 the
semigroup Tn is not self-dual. Indeed, we know that Tn contains left zeros
←
but not right zeros (see Proposition 2.3.3). Hence Tn contains right zeros
but no left zeros. At the same time each isomorphism must map left zeros
to left zeros, and right zeros to right zeros.
2.9.10 The number of nilpotent elements in PT n is given by the following
statement.
Theorem 2.9.6 ([LU1]) PT n contains exactly (n + 1)n−1 nilpotent elements.
Proof. For α ∈ PT n and k ≥ 0 let Nk denote the set of all x ∈ N for
which the trajectory of x breaks at the kth step, that is, has the form
x0 = x, x1 , . . . , xk . Assume that the nilpotency degree of α equals t. In this
case from the proof of Proposition 2.8.1 it follows that the sets N0 , N1 , . . . , Nt
are not empty and form a partition of N. Moreover, α(Ni ) ⊂ Ni−1 for all i.
Hence each nilpotent element of nilpotency degree t can be obtained in the
following way: First we choose an ordered partition N = N0 ∪N
2 ∪· · ·∪Nt of
N into t + 1 nonempty blocks (this can be done in n0 ,n1n,...,nt different ways,
where ni = |Ni |, i = 0, . . . , t). Then for each i > 0 we define some mapping
t
from Ni to Ni−1 (altogether such mappings can be defined in nn0 1 nn1 2 · · · nnt−1
different ways).
The total number of nilpotent elements in PT n is denoted by n(PT n ).
By the above, we have
n
t
n(PT n ) =
nn1 nn2 · · · nnt−1
=
n0 , n1 , . . . , nt 0 1
1≤t<n
n0 +n1 +···+nt =n
=
1≤t<n
n0 +n1 +···+nt =n
n
n t
n! nn0 1 nn1 2
·
·
· · · t−1 .
n0 ! n1 ! n2 !
nt !
Using (1.8) we have
n(PT n ) =
n
n0 =1
=
n
n0 =1
n!
(n0 − 1)!
n
1≤t<n−n0
n1 +···+nt =n−n0
n t
1 nn0 1 nn1 2
·
· · · t−1 =
·
n0 n1 ! n2 !
nt !
nk−1 n!
(n − 1)!
·
=
· nk = (n + 1)n−1 .
(n0 − 1)!
k!
(n − 1 − k)!k!
n−1
k=0
2.10. ADDITIONAL EXERCISES
35
In [LU1] Theorem 2.9.6 is proved in a different way. One more way to
prove it is to use [Hi1, Lemma 6.1.4]. Yet another way to prove this theorem
is to use Cayley’s theorem on the number of labeled trees: If we have a tree,
say Γ on the set {1, 2, . . . , n + 1} of vertices, we can consider it as a rooted
tree with the root (n + 1). In particular, we have a well-defined notion of a
distance of a vertex to the root. Now we can define the nilpotent element
α from PT n as follows: If i is a vertex, let j denote the unique vertex of
Γ such that (i, j) is an edge and whose distance to the root is smaller than
that of i. Define α(i) = j if j is not the root and α(i) = ∅ otherwise. One
verifies that the correspondence Γ → α is a bijection from the set of all
labeled trees on {1, 2, . . . , n + 1} to the set of all nilpotent elements in PT n .
From Theorem 2.9.6 it follows that
n(PT n )
(n + 1)n−1
1
=
.
=
n
|PT n |
(n + 1)
n+1
From Theorems 2.8.4 and 2.9.6 we get the following identity.
Corollary 2.9.7
n−1
k=0
2.10
n
S(n, k + 1)k! = (n + 1)n−1 .
k
Additional Exercises
2.10.1 Let S be a nonempty set such that 0 ∈ S. For all a, b ∈ S set
a · b = 0. Show that (S, ·) is a semigroup (it is called a semigroup with zero
multiplication or a null semigroup).
2.10.2 Let S be a nonempty set. For a, b ∈ S define a · b = b. Show that
(S, ·) is a semigroup, each element of which is at the same time a left identity
and a right zero (such S is usually called a semigroup of left identities or
a right zero semigroup; analogously, using a · b = a one defines a left zero
semigroup or a semigroup of right identities).
2.10.3 Show that Tn+1 contains a subsemigroup, isomorphic to the semigroup PT n .
2.10.4 Let X be a nonempty set and B(X) be the set of all subsets of X (the
Boolean of X). Show that both (B(X), ∪) and (B(X), ∩) are commutative
semigroups. Furthermore, show that these two semigroups are isomorphic.
2.10.5 Let K be an orbit of some transformation α ∈ PT n . Prove that the
kernel of K coincides with the set
∩x∈K {αm (x) : m ≥ 0}.
36
CHAPTER 2. THE SEMIGROUPS Tn , PT n , AND IS n
2.10.6 Let α ∈ Tn . Prove that x ∈ N belongs to the kernel of an orbit K if
and only if {y : αk (y) = xfor somek > 0} = K.
2.10.7 Let α ∈ PT n . Characterize stim(α) and strank(α) in terms of Γα .
2.10.8 Let α ∈ PT n .
(a) Prove that stim(α) is invariant with respect to αk for each k > 0.
(b) Let β ∈ PT n be such that α = β k for some k > 0. Prove that stim(α)
is invariant with respect to β.
2.10.9 ([HS]) Denote by un the number of idempotents in Tn . For a prime
p show that
(a) up+1 ≡ 2 mod p;
(b) up+2 ≡ 7 mod p.
2.10.10 ([HS]) Let un be as in 2.10.9 and set u0 = 1. Show that
un+1
n n
(k + 1)un−k .
=
k
k=0
2.10.11 Show that for each α ∈ PT n the set VPT n (α) · α is a left zero
semigroup and the set α · VPT n (α) is a right zero semigroup.
2.10.12 Prove that each regular semigroup with only one idempotent is a
group.
2.10.13 Prove that the operations of extending a semigroup with the element 1 (as in Proposition 2.2.1) and with the element 0 (as in Proposition 2.3.1) commute, that is, (S 1 )0 = (S 0 )1 (note the equality and not the
isomorphism sign).
2.10.14 Prove that the set A × B with respect to the operation (a1 , b1 ) ∗
(a2 , b2 ) = (a1 , b2 ) is a semigroup in which each pair of elements is a pair of
inverse elements (such a semigroup is called a rectangular band).
2.10.15 Show that the elements
α = (a1 , . . . , ak ) · · · (b1 , . . . , bl )[c1 , . . . , cp ] · · · [d1 , . . . , dq ],
β = [dq , . . . , d1 ] · · · [cp , . . . , c1 ](bl , . . . , b1 ) · · · (ak , . . . , a1 )
of the semigroup IS n form a pair of inverse elements.
2.10.16 Prove that for n > 1 the set of left zeros in the semigroup Tn forms
a noncommutative semigroup.
2.10. ADDITIONAL EXERCISES
37
2.10.17 Prove or disprove the following statements:
(a) If the idempotents a and b commute, their product ab is an idempotent.
(b) If the product ab of two idempotents, a and b, is an idempotent, then a
and b commute.
2.10.18 ([GH1]) Prove that
(a) IS n contains n! nilpotent elements of defect 1,
(b) PT n contains n! nilpotent elements of defect 1.
2.10.19 ([LU1]) Let Nn denote the total number of nilpotent elements in
the semigroup IS n . Prove that Nn = |IS n | − n|IS n−1 |, n > 1.
2.10.20 ([BRR]) Prove the following recursive relation (for n > 2):
|IS n | = 2n|IS n−1 | − (n − 1)2 |IS n−2 |.
2.10.21 ([GM, Theorem 9]) For Nn as in 2.10.19 show that
Nn
= 0.
n→∞ |IS n |
lim
2.10.22 For α ∈ PT n denote by c(α) the number of connected components
of the graph Γα . Prove the following:
(a)
1
1
1 c(α) = 1 + + · · · + .
|Sn |
2
n
α∈Sn
(b) ([Hi1, Lemma 6.1.12])
n
n!
1 c(α) =
.
|Tn |
k(n − k)!nk
α∈Tn
k=1
(c) ([GM5, Corollary 1])
α∈IS n
c(α) =
n 1
1+
|IS n−k |n(n − 1) · · · (n − k + 1).
k
k=1
2.10.23 Prove that the semigroup PT n is not self-dual for n > 1.
2.10.24 (a) Let α, β ∈ Tn . Show that we either have Sn αSn = Sn βSn , or
Sn αSn ∩ Sn βSn = ∅.
38
CHAPTER 2. THE SEMIGROUPS Tn , PT n , AND IS n
(b) For α ∈ Tn let tk (α) be as in Exercise 1.5.12. Set
t(α) = (t0 (α), t1 (α), . . . , tn (α))
and call this vector the type of α. Show that Sn αSn = Sn βSn if and only
if t(α) = t(β).
2.10.25 (a) Let α, β ∈ PT n . Show that we either have Sn αSn = Sn βSn , or
Sn αSn ∩ Sn βSn = ∅.
(b) For α ∈ PT n let tk (α) be as in Exercise 1.5.13. Set
t(α) = (t0 (α), t1 (α), . . . , tn (α))
and call this vector the type of α. Show that Sn αSn = Sn βSn if and only
if t(α) = t(β).
Chapter 3
Generating Systems
3.1
Generating Systems in T n , PT n , and IS n
Let S be a semigroup and A ⊂ S be a set. An element s ∈ S is said to
be generated by A provided that s can be written as a finite product of
elements from A. The set of all elements from S generated by A is usually
denoted by A. If S is a monoid, we will understand the identity element of
this monoid as a trivial finite product of elements from A (of length 0). Thus
1 ∈ A for any A ⊂ S. A subset A of the semigroup S is called a generating
system or a generating set for S provided that A = S. A generating system
is called irreducible provided that each proper subset of A is no longer a
generating system.
One of the first most natural questions in the study of some semigroup
is to describe some (irreducible) generating system and to classify all (irreducible) generating systems.
Until the end of this section we let S denote one of the semigroups Tn ,
PT n , or IS n . Let us recall that each of these semigroups contains Sn as the
group of units (see Proposition 2.2.4).
Lemma 3.1.1 (i) Each generating system of S must contain a generating
system of Sn .
(ii) If A is an irreducible generating system of S, then A ∩ Sn is an irreducible generating system of Sn .
Proof. Sn coincides with the set of all elements of S of rank n. By
Exercise 2.1.4(c), an element of rank n can be a product of elements of
rank n only. This implies both (i) and (ii).
Lemma 3.1.2 Each generating system of S must contain at least one element of rank (n − 1).
Proof. The semigroup S contains elements of rank (n − 1). The set of elements of rank n coincides with Sn and is closed under composition. Hence
O. Ganyushkin, V. Mazorchuk, Classical Finite Transformation Semigroups, Algebra
and Applications 9, DOI: 10.1007/978-1-84800-281-4 3,
c Springer-Verlag London Limited 2009
39
40
CHAPTER 3. GENERATING SYSTEMS
from the inequality of Exercise 2.1.4(c) it follows that an element of rank
(n − 1) can be written as a product of elements of rank (n − 1) and n only.
Moreover, an element of rank (n − 1) cannot be written as a product of
elements of rank n. The claim follows.
Theorem 3.1.3 Let A be a generating system of Tn . Then this system is irreducible if and only if A = A1 ∪ {α}, where A1 is an irreducible generating
system of Sn and rank(α) = n − 1.
Proof. Taking Lemmas 3.1.1 and 3.1.2 into account, it is enough to show
that any set of the form A = A1 ∪ {α}, where A1 is an irreducible generating
system of Sn and rank(α) = n − 1 is a generating system of Tn .
As A1 is an irreducible generating system of Sn , we have Sn = A1 ⊂
A. Let us first show that A contains all elements of Tn of rank (n − 1).
Assume that
1 2 ··· i − 1 i i + 1 ··· j − 1 j j + 1 ··· n
α=
a1 a2 · · · ai−1 a ai+1 · · · aj−1 a aj+1 · · · an
and let
β=
1 2 ···
b1 b2 · · ·
k − 1 k k + 1 ···
bk−1 b bk+1 · · ·
l − 1 l l + 1 ···
bl−1 b bl+1 · · ·
n
bn
be an arbitrary element from Tn of rank (n − 1). Let π ∈ Sn be an arbitrary
permutation satisfying π(k) = i and π(l) = j. Then
1 2 ··· k − 1 k k + 1 ··· l − 1 l l + 1 ··· n
απ =
c1 c2 · · · ck−1 a ck+1 · · · cl−1 a cl+1 · · · cn
is an element of rank (n − 1). Consider now the permutation
c1 c2 · · · ck−1 ck+1 · · · cl−1 cl+1 · · · cn a x
,
τ=
b1 b2 · · · bk−1 bk+1 · · · bl−1 bl+1 · · · bn b y
where {x} = N\im(α) and {y} = N\im(β). A direct calculation shows that
β = τ απ and hence β ∈ A.
So, A contains all elements of Tn of defects 0 and 1. Let us prove by
induction on k that A contains all elements of Tn of defect k. We only
now have to prove the induction step. Let γ ∈ Tn be an element of defect
k, k > 1. Since def(γ) > 0, there exists a ∈ im(γ) such that its preimage
B = {x ∈ N : γ(x) = a} contains more than one element. Let b1 , b2 ∈ B be
such that b1 < b2 . Finally, let a ∈ N\im(γ). Consider the idempotent
1 2 · · · b1 − 1 b1 b1 + 1 · · · b2 − 1 b2 b2 + 1 · · · n
μ=
1 2 · · · b1 − 1 b1 b1 + 1 · · · b2 − 1 b1 b2 + 1 · · · n
of rank (n − 1) and the transformation δ, which coincides with γ on N\{b2 },
and such that δ(b2 ) = a . Then def(δ) = (k − 1) and hence δ ∈ A by
3.1. GENERATING SYSTEMS IN Tn , PT n , AND IS n
41
induction. We also know that μ ∈ A since def(μ) = 1. At the same time,
we have γ = δμ and hence γ ∈ A. This completes the induction step and
the proof.
Theorem 3.1.4 Let A be a generating system of IS n . Then this system is
irreducible if and only if A = A1 ∪{α}, where A1 is an irreducible generating
system of Sn and rank(α) = (n − 1).
Proof. Repeat Theorem 3.1.3 with the following changes: For the partial
permutations
1 2 ··· i − 1 i i + 1 ··· n
α=
a1 a2 · · · ai−1 ∅ ai+1 · · · an
and
β=
1 2 ···
b1 b2 · · ·
j − 1 j i + 1 ···
bj−1 ∅ bj+1 · · ·
n
bn
the permutations π and τ should be chosen as follows: π(j) = i;
c1 c2 · · · cj−1 cj+1 · · · cn x
.
τ=
b1 b2 · · · bj−1 bj+1 · · · bn y
For the partial permutation
i1 i2 · · ·
γ=
j1 j2 · · ·
ik ik+1 · · ·
jk ∅ · · ·
in
∅
the partial permutations δ and μ should be chosen as follows:
i1 i2 · · · ik ik+1 ik+2 · · · in
δ=
j1 j2 · · · jk jk+1 ∅ · · · ∅
μ=
i1 i2 · · ·
i1 i2 · · ·
ik ik+1 ik+2 · · ·
ik ∅ ik+2 · · ·
in
in
.
Theorem 3.1.5 Let A be a generating system of PT n . Then this system is
irreducible if and only if A = A1 ∪ {α, β}, where A1 is an irreducible generating system of Sn , α is a total transformation of rank (n − 1) and β is a
partial permutation of rank (n − 1).
Proof. A composition of total transformations is a total transformation. On
the other hand, a composition which consists of nontotal maps only, results
in an element which is not total either. Hence from the proof of Lemma 3.1.2,
it follows that each generating system of the semigroup PT n must contain at
least one total transformation, say α, of rank (n − 1) and at least one partial
transformation, say β, of rank (n−1), which is not total. We have |dom(β)| ≤
42
CHAPTER 3. GENERATING SYSTEMS
(n − 1) and |im(β)| = (n − 1). Moreover, the mapping β : dom(β) → im(β)
is surjective. This implies |dom(β)| = n − 1 and β : dom(β) → im(β) is
bijective.
Taking Lemma 3.1.1 and the previous paragraph into account, we have
to only show that any A = A1 ∪{α, β}, where A1 is an irreducible generating
system of Sn , α is a total transformation of rank (n − 1), and β is a partial
permutation of rank (n − 1), generates PT n .
By Theorems 3.1.3 and 3.1.4 the sets A1 ∪ {α} and A1 ∪ {β} generate
Tn and IS n , respectively. Each γ ∈ PT n can be extended to a total transformation γ ∈ Tn . Then we have γ = γ εdom(γ) and εdom(γ) ∈ IS n . Hence
γ ∈ A. This completes the proof.
3.2
Addenda and Comments
3.2.1 Theorem 3.1.3 was proved in [Vo2].
3.2.2 Although all groups are semigroups, group theory and semigroup theory are two completely different directions of modern algebra. They differ
both in formulations of the principal problems and in methods of their solutions. In particular, a problem in semigroup theory is usually considered as
solved if it is reduced to a problem in group theory. Theorems 3.1.3–3.1.5 are
good examples of such reduction. They reduce the problem of classification
of all irreducible generating systems for the semigroups PT n , Tn , and IS n
to the analogous problem for the group Sn . Irreducible generating systems
in Sn have very complicated structure. Two classical irreducible generating
systems are: the Coxeter system {(1, 2), (2, 3), . . . , (n − 1, n)} and the system
{(1, 2), (1, 2, . . . , n)} consisting of two generators. However, the problem to
classify all irreducible generating systems in Sn is still open. At the same
time Theorems 3.1.3–3.1.5 give a satisfactory classification of irreducible
generating systems for PT n , Tn , and IS n .
3.2.3 In each of the semigroups PT n , Tn , and IS n , the set of all noninvertible elements forms a subsemigroup (called the singular part of the original
semigroup). Hence we have a new natural problem: to study generating systems for the singular parts of our semigroups PT n , Tn , and IS n . Here, apart
from irreducibility, one could also impose other conditions, for example to
consist of idempotents, to consist of elements of defect 1, to consists of elements with prescribed structure of connected components, and so on. One
of the first works in this direction was [Ho1] in which it was shown that
the singular part of Tn is generated by idempotents of defect 1. One of the
most recent works is [AAH], where the authors reprove some known results
(in particular, the above-mentioned result from [Ho1]) and give several new
examples of generating systems for the singular part of Tn .
3.3. ADDITIONAL EXERCISES
3.3
43
Additional Exercises
3.3.1 Prove that each element of defect k from Tn can be written as a
product of a permutation and k idempotents of defect 1.
3.3.2 Let A ⊂ Sn be a subset consisting of transpositions. Define the (unoriented) graph ΓA in the following way: the vertices are {1, 2, . . . , n}, and
for i, j ∈ {1, 2, . . . , n} the graph ΓA contains the edge (i, j) if and only if
(i, j) ∈ A. Prove the following:
(a) A is a generating system of Sn if and only if ΓA is connected.
(b) A is an irreducible generating system of Sn if and only if ΓA is a tree.
(c) Sn has exactly nn−2 irreducible generating systems, consisting of transpositions.
3.3.3 (a) Show that for n > 2 the group Sn does not contain any oneelement generating system.
(b) Show that (1, 2), (2, 3),. . . , (n − 1, n) generate Sn .
(c) Show that (1, 2) and (1, 2, . . . , n) generate Sn .
3.3.4 ([Ho1]) Prove that the semigroup Tn \Sn is generated by the set of all
idempotents of defect 1.
Chapter 4
Ideals and Green’s Relations
4.1
Ideals of Semigroups
Let S be a semigroup. If A, B ⊂ S, we set AB = {ab : a ∈ A; b ∈ B}.
A subset I ⊂ S is called a left ideal provided that for all a ∈ S and b ∈ I
we have ab ∈ I (in other words, SI ⊂ I). Analogously, I is called a right
ideal provided that IS ⊂ I. Left and right ideals are also called one-sided
ideals. A subset I ⊂ S is called a two-sided ideal or simply an ideal provided
that it is both a left and a right ideal.
Let I be a (one-sided) ideal of S. Then we have I · I ⊂ I by definition
and hence I is a subsemigroup of S. The converse is not true in the general
case. For example, the group Sn is a subsemigroup of each of the semigroups
Tn , PT n , and IS n . However, for each (partial) transformation α ∈ Sn both
sets αSn and Sn α do not have any common elements with Sn .
It is easy to see that both the intersection and the union of an arbitrary
family of left (right, two-sided) ideals of S are in turn a left (resp. right,
two-sided) ideal of S.
Exercise 4.1.1 Show that for any A ⊂ S the set AS is a right ideal of S;
the set SA is a left ideal of S; and the set SAS is a two-sided ideal of S.
For each semigroup S we denote the semigroup S by S 1 provided
that S contains an identity element, and the semigroup constructed in
Proposition 2.2.1 provided that S does not contain any identity element.
Analogously we define S 0 . We also note that for k > 1 the notation S k means
something completely different, namely, S k = {a1 a2 · · · ak : ai ∈ S. i =
1, . . . , k}.
A left (resp. right or two-sided) ideal I of S is called principal provided
that there exists a ∈ S such that I = S 1 a (resp. I = aS 1 , I = S 1 aS 1 ). The
element a is called the generator of the ideal I. Note that a ∈ S 1 a, a ∈ aS 1 ,
and a ∈ S 1 aS 1 by definition.
O. Ganyushkin, V. Mazorchuk, Classical Finite Transformation Semigroups, Algebra
and Applications 9, DOI: 10.1007/978-1-84800-281-4 4,
c Springer-Verlag London Limited 2009
45
46
CHAPTER 4. IDEALS AND GREEN’S RELATIONS
Proposition 4.1.2 Each left (right or two-sided) ideal is a union of principal left (resp. right or two-sided) ideals.
Proof. Since a ∈ S 1 a, if I ⊂ S is a left ideal, we have I = ∪a∈I S 1 a. For
other ideals the argument is similar.
4.2
Principal Ideals in T n , PT n , and IS n
Since the semigroups Tn , PT n , and IS n are in fact monoids, we have S = S 1
for these semigroups.
Theorem 4.2.1 Let S denote one of the semigroups Tn , PT n , or IS n . Then
for each α ∈ S the right principal ideal generated by α has the following form
αS = {β ∈ S : im(β) ⊂ im(α)}.
Proof. Denote X = {β ∈ S : im(β) ⊂ im(α)}. If γ ∈ S, we have αγ(x) =
α(γ(x)) by definition. Hence im(αγ) ⊂ im(α) and thus αS ⊂ X.
To prove the inverse inclusion consider an arbitrary β ∈ X. We have
im(β) ⊂ im(α). For each b ∈ im(β) choose some ab such that α(ab ) = b.
Consider the transformation γ for which dom(γ) = dom(β) and such that
for x ∈ dom(β) we have γ(x) = ab if and only if β(x) = b. A direct calculation
then shows that αγ = β. Note that in the case S = IS n the injectivity of α
and β gives the following implications for x1 , x2 ∈ dom(γ):
x1 = x2 ⇒ b1 = β(x1 ) = β(x2 ) = b2 ⇒ ab1 = ab2 ⇒ γ(x1 ) = γ(x2 ).
Hence γ ∈ IS n . Thus β ∈ αS. This implies that X ⊂ αS and completes the
proof.
Corollary 4.2.2 (i) Each of the semigroups PT n and IS n has exactly
2n different principal right ideals.
(ii) The semigroup Tn has exactly 2n − 1 different principal right ideals.
Proof. From Theorem 4.2.1 we have that a principal right ideal is uniquely
determined by im(α), that is, by a subset of N, which must be nonempty in
the case of Tn . The claim follows.
Corollary 4.2.3 Let S denote one of the semigroups Tn , PT n , or IS n and
α ∈ S be such that rank(α) = k. Then
⎧
⎪
S = Tn ;
kn ,
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎨(k + 1)n ,
S = PT n ;
|αS| =
k
n k
⎪
⎪
⎪
i!, S = IS n .
⎪
⎩
i
i
i=0
4.2. PRINCIPAL IDEALS IN Tn , PT n , AND IS n
47
Proof. Theorem 4.2.1 says that in the case of Tn the ideal αS is the set
of all mappings from N to im(α), where |N| = n and |im(α)| = k. Hence
|αS| = k n .
In the case of PT n , Theorem 4.2.1 says that αS is the set of all partial
mappings from N to im(α), that is, the set of all mappings from N to
im(α) ∪ {∅}. Hence |αS| = (k + 1)n .
Finally, for IS n , Theorem 4.2.1 says that αS is the set of all partial injections from N to im(α). Such a partial injection can have rank i = 0, 1, . . . , k.
If i is fixed, to define such a partial injection, say β, we have to
choose its
domain, that is, an i-element subset of N, which can be done in ni different
ways; then we have to choose
im(β), that is, an i-element subset of im(α),
which can be done in ki different ways; finally we have to define a bijection
from dom(β) to im(β), which can be done in i! different ways. The statement
now follows by applying the product rule and the summing up over all i.
With each α ∈ PT n , we associate the binary relation πα on N in the
following way
x πα y ⇔ x, y ∈ dom(α)andα(x) = α(y) or x, y ∈ dom(α) .
(4.1)
In other words, x πα y if either α is not defined on both x and y, or α is
defined on both x and y and α(x) = α(y). It is clear that πα is an equivalence
relation and the equivalence classes of πα are dom(α) and all full preimages
of elements from im(α).
Theorem 4.2.4 Let S denote one of the semigroups Tn , PT n , or IS n . Then
for each α ∈ S the left principal ideal generated by α has the following form
Sα = {β ∈ S : dom(β) ⊂ dom(α) and πα ⊂ πβ }.
(4.2)
Proof. Denote the right-hand side of (4.2) by X. Let β ∈ Sα. Then β = γα
for some γ ∈ S. For arbitrary x ∈ dom(β) we have β(x) = γ(α(x)). Hence
x ∈ dom(α) and thus dom(β) ⊂ dom(α). Furthermore, if x, y ∈ dom(β) and
α(x) = α(y), we have β(x) = γ(α(x)) = γ(α(y)) = β(y). Thus πα ⊂ πβ and
we have Sα ⊂ X.
Assume now that β ∈ X. Set M = α(dom(β)) and define the mapping
γ : M → N as follows:
γ(α(y)) = β(y).
(4.3)
The mapping γ is well-defined since if x = α(y1 ) = α(y2 ), we have y1 πα y2 ,
which implies y1 πβ y2 and thus β(y1 ) = β(y2 ). Hence the value γ(x) is
uniquely defined.
If S = Tn , we have dom(β) = N and M = α(N) = im(α). In this case, we
can extend γ to a total transformation on N in an arbitrary way. Abusing
notation we denote the resulting total transformation also by γ. If S =
Tn , we just consider γ as a partial transformation on N with domain M .
In particular, if S = IS n and x1 = α(y1 ), x2 = α(y2 ) are two different
48
CHAPTER 4. IDEALS AND GREEN’S RELATIONS
elements in M , we have y1 = y2 and from the injectivity of β it follows that
γ(x1 ) = β(y1 ) and γ(x2 ) = β(y2 ) are also different. This means that in this
case γ ∈ IS n as well.
From the definition of γ we have that y ∈ dom(β) implies either y ∈
dom(α), or α(y) ∈ M . Indeed, assume that y ∈ dom(α) and α(y) ∈ M .
Then there exists y1 ∈ dom(β) such that α(y) = α(y1 ). Hence y πα y1 and
thus y πβ y1 , implying y ∈ dom(β), a contradiction. This means that for
y ∈ dom(β) the equality (γα)(y) = γ(α(y)) implies that y ∈ dom(γα).
If y ∈ dom(β), we have α(y) ∈ M and the equality (4.3) implies that
(γα)(y) = γ(α(y)) = β(y). This means that β = γα and thus β ∈ Sα. Thus
X ⊂ Sα completing the proof.
If S = Tn , then dom(α) = dom(β) = N and hence the first condition in
(4.2) can be omitted. If S = IS n , then the restriction of πα to dom(α) becomes the equality relation. Hence dom(β) ⊂ dom(α) automatically implies
πα ⊂ πβ . This means that for the semigroup S = IS n the second condition
in (4.2) can be omitted.
The number of all unordered partitions N = N1 ∪ N2 ∪ · · · ∪ Nk of the
set N into disjoint unions of nonempty blocks is called the nth Bell number
numbers S(n, k) of
and is denoted by Bn . From the definition of the Stirling the second kind we immediately have the equality Bn = nk=1 S(n, k).
Corollary 4.2.5 (i) The number of different principal left ideals in the
semigroup Tn equals Bn .
(ii) The number of different principal left ideals in the semigroup PT n
equals Bn+1 .
(iii) The number of different principal left ideals in the semigroup IS n
equals 2n .
Proof. From Theorem 4.2.4 we have that a principal left ideal of Tn is
uniquely determined by the partition of N into the equivalence classes of
the relation πα . Since all partitions obviously give rise to some ideals, we
obtain that the number of ideals equals Bn . This proves (i).
To prove (ii) we take a new symbol, say n + 1. Let α ∈ PT n . With πα
we associate the following equivalence relation πα on the set N ∪ {n + 1}:
If dom(α) = N, we adjoin n + 1 to the block dom(α); if dom(α) = N, then
we say that {n + 1} is a new equivalence class. Obviously, πα is uniquely
determined by πα . Conversely, any πα uniquely determines πα and dom(α).
By Theorem 4.2.4 each principal left ideal of PT n is uniquely determined by the pair (πα , dom(α)). Hence the previous paragraph says that
the mapping (πα , dom(α)) → πα is a bijection from the set of all principal
left ideals of PT n to the set of all unordered partitions of N ∪ {n + 1}, the
latter containing n + 1 element. Thus the number of different principal left
ideals of PT n equals Bn+1 . This proves (ii).
4.2. PRINCIPAL IDEALS IN Tn , PT n , AND IS n
49
Finally, to prove (iii) we note that by Theorem 4.2.4 each principal left
ideal of IS n is uniquely determined by the set dom(α), which is just a subset
of N. Hence the number of such ideals is 2n .
Remark 4.2.6 Corollary 4.2.5(iii) also follows from Corollary 4.2.2(ii) and
2.9.9.
Corollary 4.2.7 Let S denote one of the semigroups Tn , PT n , or IS n , and
α ∈ S be an element of rank k. Then we have the following:
⎧
⎪
S = Tn ;
nk ,
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎨(n + 1)k ,
S = PT n ;
|Sα| =
k ⎪
n k
⎪
⎪
i!, S = IS n .
⎪
⎩
i
i
i=0
Proof. We start with the cases S = Tn and S = PT n . As πα ⊂ πβ , each
transformation β ∈ Sα is uniquely determined by its values on the set of
those equivalence classes of πα which are contained in dom(α). We have k
such classes and for each of them we have to choose the value of β on this
class, which is an element from N (or N ∪ {∅} in the case of PT n ). Now
for Tn and PT n the statements are obtained by applying the product rule.
In the case S = IS n the proof is similar to that of the corresponding
part of Corollary 4.2.3. The only difference is that now one has to consider
partial injections from dom(α) to N.
Theorem 4.2.8 Let S denote one of the semigroups Tn , PT n , or IS n and
α ∈ S. Then the principal ideal generated by α has the following form:
SαS = {β ∈ S : rank(β) ≤ rank(α)}.
(4.4)
Proof. Let X denote the right-hand side of (4.4). The inclusion SαS ⊂ X
follows from Exercise 2.1.4(c), so we have only to prove the inclusion X ⊂
SαS.
Let im(α) = {a1 , a2 , . . . , ak }, and β ∈ X be such that rank(β) = m, and
im(β) = {b1 , b2 , . . . , bm }. Then m ≤ k and for each i = 1, . . . , k we choose
some element ci in the set Ai = {x ∈ N : α(x) = ai }. Define γ ∈ PT n
in the following way: dom(γ) = dom(β), and for all y ∈ Bj = {z ∈ N :
β(z) = bj }, j = 1, . . . , m, we set γ(y) = cj . Note that β ∈ Tn implies γ ∈ Tn
and β ∈ IS n implies γ ∈ IS n by construction. Let δ be any permutation
satisfying δ(ai ) = bi , i = 1, . . . , m. Then a direct calculation gives δαγ = β,
which implies β ∈ SαS. Thus X ⊂ SαS and the proof is complete.
Corollary 4.2.9 Each of the semigroups PT n and IS n contains (n + 1)
different principal ideals. The semigroup Tn contains n different principal
ideals.
50
CHAPTER 4. IDEALS AND GREEN’S RELATIONS
Proof. By Theorem 4.2.8 a principal ideal is uniquely determined by the
rank of the generator. For PT n and IS n the rank varies between 0 and n,
for Tn it varies between 1 and n.
Corollary 4.2.10 Let S denote one of the semigroups Tn , PT n , or IS n ,
and α ∈ S be an element of rank k. Then we have the following:
⎧
k
⎪
⎪
n!
⎪
⎪
,
S = Tn ;
S(n, i)
⎪
⎪
(n
− i)!
⎪ i=1
⎪
⎪
⎪
k
⎨
n!
|SαS| =
, S = PT n ;
S(n + 1, i + 1)
⎪
(n
− i)!
⎪
i=0
⎪
⎪
⎪
k 2
⎪
⎪
n
⎪
⎪
i!,
S = IS n .
⎪
⎩
i
i=0
Proof. According to Theorem 4.2.8, to determine |SαS| we have
to find the
number ti of elements of rank i ∈ N and then form the sum i≤k ti .
If S = Tn , then an element of rank i is uniquely determined by an
unordered partition of N into i nonempty blocks (which can be done in
S(n, i) different ways), and then an injective mapping from the blocks of
n!
this partition into N (this can be done in n(n − 1) · · · (n − i + 1) = (n−i)!
n!
different ways). Hence in this case ti = S(n, i) (n−i)!
.
For S = PT n the argument is almost the same with the difference that
we should consider partitions of N∪{n+1} instead of those of N. The block
n!
in
containing n + 1 corresponds to dom(β). Hence ti = S(n + 1, i + 1) (n−i)!
this case.
For S = IS n the number of partial permutations of rank k was computed
in Theorem 2.5.1.
4.3
Arbitrary Ideals in T n , PT n , and IS n
Theorem 4.3.1 Let S denote one of the semigroups Tn , PT n , or IS n . Then
all two-sided ideals in S are principal and are generated by any element of
the ideal, which has the maximal possible rank.
Proof. Let I ⊂ S be a two-sided ideal. Choose α ∈ I of maximal possible
rank. As SIS ⊂ I, we have SαS ⊂ I. On the other hand, by Theorem 4.2.8
the set SαS contains all elements whose rank does not exceed that of α.
Hence I ⊂ SαS and thus I = SαS.
Let S denote one of the semigroups Tn , PT n , or IS n . For k ≤ n set
Ik = {α ∈ S : rank(α) ≤ k}. By Theorem 4.3.1, each Ik is an ideal of S,
and each ideal in S is of the form Ik for some k. In particular, the set of all
4.3. ARBITRARY IDEALS IN Tn , PT n , AND IS n
51
ideals of S forms a chain with respect to inclusions. For Tn this chain has
the form
I1 ⊂ I2 ⊂ · · · ⊂ In = Tn .
For PT n and IS n this chain has the form
{0} = I0 ⊂ I1 ⊂ I2 ⊂ · · · ⊂ In = PT n (orIS n ).
Note that In \In−1 = Sn in all cases.
The Boolean B(X) of a set X is partially ordered with respect to inclusions. Recall that an antichain of a partially ordered set is a subset such
that each two elements in this subset are not comparable. In particular, if
A1 , A2 , . . . , Am ⊂ N, the set {A1 , . . . , Am } is an antichain of B(N) if and
only if for all i = j we have both Ai ⊂ Aj and Aj ⊂ Ai .
Let L ⊂ B(N) be an antichain. Set
IL = {α ∈ S : there existsA ∈ Lsuch thatim(α) ⊂ A}.
Theorem 4.3.2 Let S denote one of the semigroups Tn , PT n , or IS n .
(i) For each antichain L ⊂ B(N) the set IL is a right ideal of S.
(ii) Let L1 and L2 be two antichains in B(N). Then L1 = L2 implies
IL1 = IL2 .
(iii) For each right ideal I of S there exists an antichain L ⊂ B(N) such
that I = IL .
Proof. For each α ∈ IL and μ ∈ S from im(αμ) ⊂ im(α) (see Exercise 2.1.4(b))
it follows that im(αμ) ∈ IL . This proves (i).
Let L1 = L2 . Without loss of generality we may assume L1 \L2 = ∅. Let
A ∈ L1 \L2 . We have to consider two possible cases.
Case 1: A is not comparable with any element of L2 . In this case each
α ∈ S for which im(α) = A is contained in IL1 but not in IL2 . Hence
IL1 = IL2 .
Case 2: There exists B ∈ L2 such that A and B are comparable. Then
B ⊂ L2 \L1 . Without loss of generality we may assume B ⊂ A. As B = A,
each element α ∈ S for which im(α) = A is contained in IL1 \IL2 . Hence
IL1 = IL2 in this case as well.
The above proves (ii).
To prove (iii) we first observe that the maximal (with respect to inclusions) elements of the set {im(α) : α ∈ I} obviously form an antichain, say
L, of B(N). By the definition of L, for each α ∈ I there exists A ∈ L such
that im(α) ⊂ A. Hence α ∈ IL and I ⊂ IL .
On the other hand, for each β ∈ IL there exists A ∈ L and α ∈ I such
that im(β) ⊂ A and im(α) = A. By Theorem 4.2.1 we have β ∈ αS. But
αS ⊂ I since α ∈ I and I is a right ideal. Hence β ∈ I. This means that
IL ⊂ I and thus IL = I. The proof is complete.
52
CHAPTER 4. IDEALS AND GREEN’S RELATIONS
←
The identity mapping from S to the dual semigroup S maps left ideals to right ideals and vice versa. For the inverse semigroup IS n we have
←
IS n ∼
= IS n via the mapping a → a−1 . Hence Theorem 4.3.2 can be used
to describe all left ideals in IS n . The only change one has to make is
to substitute im by dom. Indeed, the equalities im(α−1 ) = dom(α) and
im(α) = dom(α−1 ) follow from the proof of Theorem 2.6.7. Hence we get
the following statement:
Theorem 4.3.3 For each antichain L of B(X) the set
LI
= {α ∈ S : there existsA ∈ Lsuch thatdom(α) ⊂ A}
is a left ideal of IS n and the mapping L → L I is a bijection from the set of
all antichains of B(X) to the set of all left ideals of IS n .
As Tn and PT n are not self-dual (see 2.9.9 and Exercise 2.10.23), the
description of all left ideals in these semigroups requires more efforts.
Let Partn denote the set of all (unordered) partitions of N. Define a
partial order on Partn in the following way: Let ρ = A1 ∪ · · · ∪ Ak and
τ = B1 ∪ · · · ∪ Bm be two partitions. We will write ρ τ provided that each
block Ai is a union of some blocks of the partition τ (i.e., of some Bj s). In
particular, the maximum partition is the one into one element blocks and
the minimum partition is the one with one block.
Let ρ be a partition of N. Denote by πρ the corresponding equivalence
relation (x πρ y if and only if x and y belong to the same block of ρ). It is
easy to see that ρ τ if and only if πρ ⊃ πτ .
Example 4.3.4 If we have A1 = {a1 , . . . , ap }, A2 = {b1 , . . . , bq }, . . . , Ak =
{c1 , . . . , cr }, the partition A1 ∪ A2 ∪ · · · ∪ Ak can be written for example
as follows:
a1 , . . . , ap |b1 , . . . , bq | · · · |c1 , . . . , cr .
Using this notation the Hasse diagram of the partially ordered set of all
partitions of {1, 2, 3, 4} looks as follows:
1|2|3|4 TT
jjjojo 
jjjoojooo 
j
j
j

o
jjj
1|23|4 14|2|3 1|24|3
??OOOTTT
?? OOOTTTT
OO TTTT
?
T
13|2|4 12|3|4 1|2|34
// OOO // OOO //
// tt lll//ll // OOO/O/ OOO/O/
tttl/tl//lll /// /O/ OO
// /O/ OO
tll / /
/
/ OOOO // OOOlOtltltltl
///
///
OOO/ lllttO OO
///
///
l
// // lllllt/t/O/tOtOOO OOOOO /// ///
llll tt
O
O
14|23 TT1|234
124|3
13|24
123|4
134|2
j 12|34
TTTT OOO ??
 oooo jjjjjj
TTTT OOO ??

j

o
TTTTOOO?? ooojjjjj
TT
 ojjj
1234
4.4. GREEN’S RELATIONS
53
To each element α ∈ Tn we associate the partition ρα of N into equivalence classes with respect to the relation πα . Then ρα ρβ if and only if
π α ⊃ πβ .
Theorem 4.3.5 For each antichain L in Partn the set
LI
= {α ∈ Tn : there existsρ ∈ Lsuch thatρα ρ}
is a left ideal of Tn and the mapping L → L I is a bijection from the set of
all antichains of Partn to the set of all left ideals of Tn .
Proof. For any μ, ν ∈ Tn the equality μ(x) = μ(y) implies the equality
(νμ)(x) = (νμ)(y). Hence πμ ⊂ πνμ and ρνμ ρμ . Thus for arbitrary α ∈ L I
and β ∈ Tn , from ρα ρ it follows that ρβα ρα ρ. Hence βα ∈ L I and
L I is a left ideal.
It is clear that for each partition ρ ∈ Partn there exists α ∈ Tn such that
ρα = ρ. Hence using the same arguments as in the proof of Theorem 4.3.2(ii)
(with the obvious substitution of im(α) by ρα ) we obtain that for all
antichains L1 and L2 of Partn such that L1 = L2 the ideals L1 I and L2 I
are different.
Finally, to prove that each left ideal of Tn has the form L I for some
antichain L in Partn one should just follow the proof of Theorem 4.3.2(iii):
If I is a left ideal of Tn , the antichain L is defined as the set of maximal
(with respect to ) elements of the set {ρα : α ∈ I}. One should also use
Theorem 4.2.4 instead of Theorem 4.2.1.
With each element α ∈ PT n we associate the partition ρα of N ∪ {n + 1}
as it was done in the proof of Corollary 4.2.5(ii).
Theorem 4.3.6 For each antichain L in Partn+1 the set
LI
= {α ∈ PT n : there existsρ ∈ Lsuch thatρα ρ}
is a left ideal of PT n and the mapping L → L I is a bijection from the set
of all antichains of Partn+1 to the set of all left ideals of PT n .
Proof. The proof repeats that of Theorem 4.3.5.
4.4
Green’s Relations
In this section, we introduce several equivalence relations on semigroups,
which play a central role in the structure theory. Let S be a semigroup.
Elements a, b ∈ S are called L-equivalent provided that they generate the
same principal left ideal. In other words, aLb if and only if S 1 a = S 1 b.
Equivalence classes of the relation L are called L-classes. For a ∈ S, the
L-class containing a will be denoted by L(a). In other words, aLb if and
only if a ∈ L(b). The following easy but very useful fact follows immediately
from the definition.
54
CHAPTER 4. IDEALS AND GREEN’S RELATIONS
Proposition 4.4.1 aLb if and only if there exist x, y ∈ S 1 such that a = xb
and b = ya.
In the dual way we define the relation R: Elements a, b ∈ S are called
R-equivalent provided that they generate the same principal right ideal. In
other words, aRb if and only if aS 1 = bS 1 . Equivalence classes of the relation
R are called R-classes. For a ∈ S the R-class containing a will be denoted
by R(a).
Proposition 4.4.2 aRb if and only if there exist x, y ∈ S 1 such that a = bx
and b = ay.
Note that for every x ∈ S 1 the equality S 1 a = S 1 b implies the equality
= S 1 bx; and the equality aS 1 = bS 1 implies the equality xaS 1 = xbS 1 .
In other words, the relation L is compatible with the right multiplication by
elements of S 1 (this is also called right compatible), that is, aLb implies
axLbx. Dually, the relation R is left compatible, that is, aRb implies xaRxb.
A relation which is both left and right compatible is simply called compatible.
If X is a set and ξ, η are two binary relations on X, then the product
ξ ◦ η is defined in the following way:
S 1 ax
ξ ◦ η = {(a, b) : there existsc ∈ Xsuch that(a, c) ∈ ξand(c, b) ∈ η}.
Exercise 4.4.3 Show that the set of all binary relations on X with respect
to the product defined above is a monoid.
Lemma 4.4.4 The relations L and R commute, that is, L ◦ R = R ◦ L.
Proof. Let (a, b) ∈ L ◦ R. Then there exists c ∈ S such that aLc and cRb.
By Propositions 4.4.1 and 4.4.2, there exist x, y ∈ S 1 such that a = xc,
b = cy. Moreover, cRb implies xcRxb, and aLc implies ayLcy. But xc = a,
xb = xcy = ay, and cy = b. Hence aRxcy and xcyLb, which implies (a, b) ∈
R ◦ L, and thus L ◦ R ⊂ R ◦ L.
Analogously one shows that R ◦ L ⊂ L ◦ R and hence L ◦ R = R ◦ L.
Exercise 4.4.5 Let ξ and η be two equivalence relations on X. Show that
ξ ◦ η = η ◦ ξ implies that ξ ◦ η is again an equivalence relation. Moreover,
show that this product is the minimum equivalence relation which contains
both ξ and η.
The minimum equivalence relation on S which contains both R and L
is denoted by D and is called the D-relation. From Lemma 4.4.4 it follows
that D = L ◦ R = R ◦ L. All other notions and notation for D are similar to
the ones used for L. In particular, D(a) denotes the D-class of an element a.
The intersection of two equivalence relations is always an equivalence
relation. We define the H-relation as the intersection of R and L. All other
4.4. GREEN’S RELATIONS
55
notions and notation for H are similar to the ones used for L. In particular,
H(a) denotes the H-class of an element a.
Finally, we will say that the elements a and b are J -equivalent provided
that they generate the same principal two-sided ideal, that is, S 1 aS 1 =
S 1 bS 1 . All other notions and notation for J are similar to the ones used
for L. In particular, J (a) denotes the J -class of an element a.
It is obvious that R ⊂ J and L ⊂ J . In particular, it follows that
D ⊂ J . Hence we have the following diagram depicting the introduced
relations on S:
> L @o
@@
~
@@
~~
@@
~~
~
/ ~~
@

H @o
D
?
@@
~
@@
~~
@@
~~
~
@ / ~~
/J
R
The relations L, R, H, D, and J on the semigroup S are called Green’s
relations after J. A. Green, who introduced them in 1951 in [Gr].
Lemma 4.4.6 The following conditions are equivalent:
(a) aDb.
(b) R(a) ∩ L(b) = ∅.
(c) L(a) ∩ R(b) = ∅.
Proof. Since the relation D is symmetric, it is enough to show that (a)⇔(b).
Let aDb. As D = R ◦ L, there exists c ∈ S 1 such that aRc and cLb. But
this means that c ∈ R(a) and c ∈ L(b). Thus R(a) ∩ L(b) = ∅, proving the
implication (a)⇒(b).
Assume that c ∈ R(a) ∩ L(b). Then c ∈ R(a) and c ∈ L(b), which means
that aRc and cLb. By definition, this implies that (a, b) ∈ R ◦ L = D.
Lemma 4.4.6 says that every L-class and every R-class which belong to
the same D-class have a nonempty intersection. Hence it is convenient to
think of a D-class as a rectangular table in which the rows correspond to,
say, R-classes and the columns correspond to L-classes:
R(a1 )
R(a2 )
..
.
R(ak )
...
...
..
.
..
.
..
.
...
L(b1 ) L(b2 ) . . . L(bm )
56
CHAPTER 4. IDEALS AND GREEN’S RELATIONS
The cells in this table give all H-classes, contained in our D-class. From
Lemma 4.4.6 it follows that all cells are nonempty. The rectangular table
above is called the egg-box diagram of the D-class.
Lemma 4.4.7 (Green) Let S be a semigroup and a, b ∈ S be such that aRb.
Let further u, v ∈ S 1 be such that au = b and bv = a.
(i) The mapping Λu : x → xu maps L(a) to L(b), and the mapping
λv : y → yv maps L(b) to L(a).
(ii) λu : L(a) → L(b) and λv : L(b) → L(a) are mutually inverse bijections.
(iii) Both λu and λv preserve R-classes, that is, xRλu (x) and yRλv (y) for
all x ∈ L(a) and y ∈ L(b).
Here is an illustration of the statement of Lemma 4.4.7:
R(a) = R(b)
a = bv
x
yv o
L(a)
b = au
λu
/ xu
λv
y
L(b)
Proof. The statement (i) follows from the fact that L is right compatible.
Let x ∈ L(a). Then there exists p ∈ S 1 such that x = pa. Hence
(λv λu )(x) = λv (λu (x)) = xuv = pauv = pa = x.
This means that λv λu is the identity transformation of L(a). Analogously
one shows that λu λv is the identity transformation of L(b). This proves the
statement (ii).
Let x ∈ L(a). Using (ii) we have
λu (x) = xu
and x = λv (xu) = xu · v = λu (x) · v.
Using Proposition 4.4.2 we have xRλu (x). Hence λu preserves R. Since λv
is inverse to λu , it must preserve R as well. This completes the proof.
From Green’s Lemma it follows that the mappings λu and λv induce
mutually inverse bijections between the sets of H-classes in L(a) and L(b).
Moreover, λu and λv also induce mutually inverse bijections between the
corresponding H-classes.
←
Applying Green’s Lemma to the opposite semigroup S we obtain the
following dual version of this lemma.
4.4. GREEN’S RELATIONS
57
Lemma 4.4.8 Let S be a semigroup and a, b ∈ S be such that aLb. Let
u, v ∈ S 1 be such that ua = b and vb = a.
(i) The mapping μu : x → ux maps R(a) to R(b), and the mapping μv :
y → vy maps R(b) to R(a).
(ii) μu : R(a) → R(b) and μv : R(b) → R(a) are mutually inverse bijections.
(iii) Both μu and μv preserve L-classes, that is, xLμu (x) and yLμv (y) for
all x ∈ R(a) and y ∈ R(b).
We note that the existence of the elements u and v, which are essentially
used in Lemmas 4.4.7 and 4.4.8, follows from Propositions 4.4.1 and 4.4.2.
Corollary 4.4.9 All H-classes inside the same D-class are of the same
cardinality.
Proof. Let aDb. As D = L ◦ R, there exists c ∈ S 1 such that aRc and
cLb. By Propositions 4.4.1 and 4.4.2, there exist u, v ∈ S such that c = au,
b = vc. By Green’s Lemma, the mapping λu is a bijection from H(a) to
H(c). By the dual of Green’s Lemma the mapping μv is a bijection from
H(c) to H(b).
H(c)
H(a)
R(a)
a
λu
/
c
μv
b o
H(b)
L(b)
Hence the composition μv λu is a bijection from H(a) to H(b).
Exercise 4.4.10 Let S be a semigroup such that for each a ∈ S we have
aS = Sa = S. Show that S is a group.
Theorem 4.4.11 Let H be an H-class of S. Then the following conditions
are equivalent:
(a) H is a group.
(b) H contains an idempotent.
(c) There exist a, b ∈ H such that ab ∈ H.
58
CHAPTER 4. IDEALS AND GREEN’S RELATIONS
Proof. Assume that H is a group. Let e ∈ H be the identity element. Then
e · e = e and hence (a)⇒(b). The implication (b)⇒(c) is obvious.
To complete the proof we have to prove the implication (c)⇒(a). Let
a, b, ab ∈ H. As abLb and aRab, by Green’s Lemma we have
aH = H = Hb.
(4.5)
Let now x ∈ H be arbitrary. From (4.5) we have ax ∈ H and xb ∈ H.
Analogously to the proof of (4.5) we have Hx = xH = H. As x is arbitrary,
H · H = H and thus H is a semigroup. The statement now follows from
Exercise 4.4.10.
4.5
Green’s Relations on T n , PT n , and IS n
The description of principal ideals in Tn , PT n , and IS n obtained in Sect. 4.2
allows us to describe Green’s relations in these semigroups. As before for a
(partial) transformation α we denote by ρα the partition of N (in the case of
Tn ) or N∪{n+1} (in the case of PT n , or IS n ) generated by the relation πα .
Theorem 4.5.1 Let S be one of the semigroups Tn , PT n , or IS n , and
α, β ∈ S. Then
(i) αRβ if and only if im(α) = im(β)
(ii) αLβ if and only if ρα = ρβ
(iii) αHβ if and only if im(α) = im(β) and ρα = ρβ
(iv) αDβ if and only if rank(α) = rank(β)
(v) αJ β if and only if rank(α) = rank(β)
Proof. The statement (i) follows from Theorem 4.2.1.
The statement (ii) follows from Theorem 4.2.4.
The statement (iii) follows from (i) and (ii) since H = R ∩ L.
The statement (v) follows from Theorem 4.2.8.
As D ⊂ J , from (v) it follows that αDβ implies rank(α) = rank(β).
Conversely, let rank(α) = rank(β). Set im(α) = {a1 , a2 , . . . , ak } and im(β) =
{b1 , b2 , . . . , bk } and consider the element γ, defined in the following way:
γ(x) = bj if and only ifα(x) = aj , j = 1, . . . , k.
Obviously ργ = ρα and hence αLγ by (ii). On the other hand, im(γ) =
im(β) and hence γLβ by (i). This means that (α, β) ∈ L ◦ R = D and
proves (iv).
4.5. GREEN’S RELATIONS ON Tn , PT n , AND IS n
59
Corollary 4.5.2 In the semigroups Tn , PT n , and IS n we have D = J .
As we have already mentioned after Theorem 4.2.4, for the semigroup
IS n the condition ρα = ρβ is equivalent to the condition dom(α) = dom(β).
Proposition 4.5.3 Let S be one of the semigroups Tn , PT n , or IS n , and
α, β ∈ S. Then αLβ if and only if there exists μ ∈ Sn such that α = μβ.
Proof. Let α = μβ, where μ ∈ Sn . Since μ is invertible, we have β = μ−1 α.
Hence αLβ by Proposition 4.4.1.
Conversely, let αLβ. Then ρα = ρβ . Let A1 , . . . , Ak be those blocks of
ρα which are contained in dom(α) and let α(x) = ai and β(x) = bi for all
x ∈ Ai , i = 1, . . . , k. Take any permutation μ ∈ Sn such that μ(bi ) = ai ,
i = 1, . . . , k. Then a direct calculation shows that α = μβ.
Proposition 4.5.4 Let α, β ∈ IS n . Then
(i) αRβ if and only if there exists μ ∈ Sn such that α = βμ.
(ii) αDβ if and only if there exists μ, ν ∈ Sn such that α = νβμ.
Proof. The statement (i) follows from Proposition 4.5.3 and the fact that
←
IS n ∼
= IS n .
If α = νβμ for some μ, ν ∈ Sn , then β = ν −1 αμ−1 and hence the principal
ideals generated by α and β coincide. This means αJ β. The latter implies
αDβ using Theorem 4.5.1(iv) and (v).
Conversely, if αDβ, then there exists γ such that αLγ and γLβ. By
Proposition 4.5.3 we have α = νγ for some ν ∈ Sn , and by (i) we have
γ = βμ for some μ ∈ Sn . Thus α = νβμ.
Example 4.5.5 Here we present the egg-box diagrams for all D-classes of
the semigroup PT 3 . This semigroup has four D-classes Di , i = 0, 1, 2, 3,
indexed
by the rank of elements inside the D-class. The transformation
1 2 3
from PT 3 is given by the second row (a1 a2 a3 ) (do not mix
a1 a2 a3
this with our notation for cycles). To accommodate the picture to the page
size we are forced to transpose it. So, in our picture rows are L-classes and
columns are R-classes. For each L-class L we show on the left of the diagram
the partition ρα of the domain of α ∈ L, and for each R-class R we show
above the diagram the set im(α), where α ∈ R. The elements marked with
∗ are idempotents.
60
CHAPTER 4. IDEALS AND GREEN’S RELATIONS
{1, 2, 3}
D3 :
1|2|3
(123)∗ , (132), (213), (231), (312), (321)
{1, 2}
D2 :
12|3
13|2
1|23
1|2
1|3
2|3
{1, 3}
{2, 3}
(112), (221)
(113)∗ , (331) (223)∗ , (332)
∗
(121) , (212)
(131), (313)
(232), (323)∗
∗
∗
(122) , (211) (133) , (311)
(233), (322)
(12∅)∗ , (21∅) (13∅), (31∅) (23∅), (32∅)
(1∅2), (2∅1) (1∅3)∗ , (3∅1) (2∅3), (3∅2)
(∅12), (∅21) (∅13), (∅31) (∅23)∗ , (∅32)
D1 :
123
12
13
23
1
2
3
{1}
{2}
{3}
(111)∗
(222)∗
(11∅)∗
(22∅)∗
(333)∗
(33∅)
(3∅3)∗
(∅33)∗
(3∅∅)
(∅3∅)
(∅∅3)∗
(1∅1)∗ (2∅2)
(∅11) (∅22)∗
(1∅∅)∗ (2∅∅)
(∅1∅) (∅2∅)∗
(∅∅1) (∅∅2)
D0 :
∅
(∅∅∅)∗
If from the above tables we delete all elements containing the symbol ∅, we
obtain the egg-box diagram for the semigroup T3 . If from the above tables
we delete all elements containing some repetitions of 1, 2, or 3, we obtain
the egg-box diagram for the semigroup IS 3 .
4.6
Combinatorics of Green’s Relations
in the Semigroups T n , PT n , and IS n
From the definition of Green’s relations we have that the number of L-, Rand J -classes in a semigroup coincides with the number of principal left,
right and two-sided ideals, respectively. Hence from Corollaries 4.2.2, 4.2.5,
and 4.2.9 we get:
Proposition 4.6.1 (i) The semigroup Tn contains Bn different L-classes,
(2n − 1) different R-classes and n different J -classes.
(ii) The semigroup PT n contains Bn+1 different L-classes, 2n different Rclasses and n + 1 different J -classes.
(iii) The semigroup IS n contains 2n different L-classes, 2n different Rclasses and n + 1 different J -classes.
4.6. COMBINATORICS OF GREEN’S RELATIONS
61
Since in Tn , PT n , and IS n we have J = D by Theorem 4.5.1, in what
follows we will not consider J -classes.
For each semigroup Tn , PT n , and IS n and each k = 0, . . . , n we denote
by Dk the D-class which consists of elements of rank k. Then Tn has D-classes
Dk , k = 1, . . . , n, and PT n and IS n have an additional D-class D0 . Note
that in each of these semigroups the ideal Ik has the form Ik = ∪i≤k Dk and
hence Dk = Ik \Ik−1 .
The cardinality of Dk was already determined during the proof of
Corollary 4.2.10:
Proposition 4.6.2 Let S be one of the semigroups Tn , PT n , or IS n . We
have
⎧
⎪S(n, k) n! ,
S = Tn ;
⎪
(n−k)!
⎨
n!
|Dk | = S(n + 1, k + 1) (n−k)! , S = PT n ;
⎪
⎪
⎩n2 k!,
S = IS .
k
n
Proposition 4.6.3 For each of the semigroups Tn , PT n , and IS n there is a
natural bijection between the k-element subsets of Nand
the R-classes inside
the D-class Dk . In particular, Dk contains exactly nk different R-classes.
Proof. By Theorem 4.5.1 each R-class is uniquely defined by the image
of elements from this class. For R-classes inside Dk the image can be an
arbitrary k-element subset of N. The statement follows.
Proposition 4.6.4 (i) For the semigroup Tn there is a natural bijection
between partitions of N into k blocks and the L-classes inside the Dclass Dk . In particular, Dk contains S(n, k) different L-classes.
(ii) For the semigroup PT n there is a natural bijection between partitions
of N ∪ {n + 1} into k + 1 blocks and the L-classes inside the D-class
Dk . In particular, Dk contains S(n + 1, k + 1) different L-classes.
(iii) For the semigroup IS n there is a natural bijection between k-element
subsets of N and the L-classes
inside the D-class Dk . In particular,
Dk contains exactly nk different L-classes.
Proof. By Theorem 4.5.1 each L-class L of Tn is uniquely determined by
some partition ρα of the set N. This partition is the same for all elements
of L. For L-classes inside the Dk such partition can be an arbitrary partition
of N into k blocks. The statement (i) follows.
The proof of (ii) is analogous to that of (i) with substitution of N by
N ∪ {n + 1}.
The proof of (iii) repeats that of Proposition 4.6.3 considering domains
instead of images.
62
CHAPTER 4. IDEALS AND GREEN’S RELATIONS
Proposition 4.6.5 (i) In each of the semigroups
Tn , PT n and IS n every
L-class inside the Dk contains exactly nk different H-classes.
(ii) In semigroups Tn , PT n and IS
n every R-class inside the Dk contains
S(n, k), S(n + 1, k + 1) and nk different H-classes, respectively.
(iii) In semigroups Tn , PT n and IS n every D-class Dk contains S(n, k) nk ,
2
S(n + 1, k + 1) nk and nk different H-classes, respectively.
Proof. Let D be a D-class. By Lemma 4.4.6, there is a bijection between
the H-classes inside D and pairs (R, L), where L and R are an L-class and
an R-class inside D, respectively. The bijection is given by taking R ∩ L.
Hence the number of H-classes inside R equals the number of L-classes inside
D, and vice versa. The statement now follows from Propositions 4.6.3 and
4.6.4.
Theorem 4.6.6 For each of the semigroups Tn , PT n , and IS n the cardinality of any H-class inside the D-class Dk equals k!.
Proof. Let H be an H-class inside the D-class Dk . By Theorem 4.5.1(iii) it
consists of all elements α for which the image im(α) and the partition ρα
are fixed. Let im(α) = {a1 , . . . , ak } and B1 , . . . , Bk be those blocks of ρα
which are contained in dom(α). Then each element from H is completely
determined by a surjective function from the set {B1 , . . . , Bk } to the set
{a1 , . . . , ak }. The number of such functions is obviously k!.
From Theorem 4.6.6 and Proposition 4.6.5 we obtain:
Corollary 4.6.7 (i) In each of the semigroups Tn, PT n , and IS n each
L-class inside the D-class Dk contains exactly nk k! elements.
inside the D-class
(ii) In the semigroups Tn , PT n , and IS n each R-class
Dk contains S(n, k)k!, S(n+1, k+1)k! and nk k! elements, respectively.
4.7
Addenda and Comments
4.7.1 Two-sided ideals of Tn were independently described by Mal’cev in
[Ma1] and Vorob’ev in [Vo1]. However, principal one-sided ideals of Tn had
been described already by A. Suschkewitsch in [Su2]. Two-sided ideals of IS n
and PT n were described by Liber in [Lib] and Sutov in [Sut2], respectively.
The cardinalities of all principal one-sided ideals of Tn were determined in
[HM]. We did not manage to find any description of all one-sided ideals for
Tn , PT n , or IS n in the literature.
4.7.2 Green’s relations were introduced in [Gr]. They play a very important
role in the study of the structure of semigroups. One of the main reasons
is that Green’s Lemma 4.4.7 in some sense allows us to define a kind of
Cartesian coordinate system on each D-class.
4.7. ADDENDA AND COMMENTS
63
4.7.3 Green’s relations for Tn were described by Miller and Doss, see [Do]. A
nice presentation of this description can be found in [CP1, Sect. 2.2]. Green’s
relations for IS n and PT n were described by Reilly in [Re1] and FitzGerald
and Preston in [FP], respectively.
4.7.4 In Sect. 2.7 we already mentioned a very close connection between
regular elements and idempotents. Another aspect of this connection is the
following:
Proposition 4.7.1 Let S be a semigroup and a ∈ S. Then the following
conditions are equivalent:
(a) a is regular.
(b) There exists an idempotent e ∈ S such that aRe.
(c) There exists an idempotent e ∈ S such that aLe.
Proof. Assume that a is regular and b is an inverse of a. Then ab = a · b and
a = ab · a. Hence aRab by Proposition 4.4.2. At the same time e = ab =
(aba)b = (ab)2 is an idempotent. This proves the implication (a)⇒(b).
Let aRe for some idempotent e. Then, by Proposition 4.4.2, there exist
x, y ∈ S 1 such that ax = e and ey = a. If x = 1, then a = e is an idempotent,
hence regular. If x = 1, we have x ∈ S and axa = ea = e · ey = ey = a.
Hence a is regular, which proves the implication (b)⇒(a).
The equivalence (a)⇔(c) is proved similarly.
Corollary 4.7.2 Let S be a semigroup and s ∈ S. If the element a is regular,
then every element from D(a) is regular as well.
A D-class containing a regular element is called a regular D-class. As the
semigroups Tn , PT n , and IS n are regular, we have the following:
Corollary 4.7.3 (i) In the semigroups Tn , PT n , and IS n all principal
(right, left, two-sided) ideals are generated by idempotents.
(ii) In the semigroups Tn , PT n , and IS n each L-class and each R-class
contain an idempotent.
4.7.5 The D-class Dk of the semigroup Tn contains nk k n−k idempotents.
This is shown in the proof
of Corollary 2.7.4. The D-class Dk of the semi
group PT n contains nk (k + 1)n−k idempotents. This is shown in the proof
of Corollary 2.7.5.
4.7.6 Let G be a group and a, b ∈ G. Then each of the equations ax = b and
ya = b has a (unique) solution. Hence if G is a subgroup of some semigroup
S, then any two elements from G are both L- and R-equivalent in S. Hence
they are H-equivalent. This means that any subgroup of S is contained in
64
CHAPTER 4. IDEALS AND GREEN’S RELATIONS
some H-class, say H. In particular, H must contain an idempotent: the
identity element of this group. By Theorem 4.4.11, in this case H itself is a
group.
Theorem 4.7.4 Let H be an H-class of Tn , PT n , or IS n , which contains
an idempotent of rank k. Then H is isomorphic to the symmetric group Sk .
Proof. Let ∈ H be an idempotent. Let further im() = {a1 , . . . , ak } and
for i = 1, . . . , k let Bi be the full preimage of ai . From 2 = we have that
ai ∈ Bi for all i. Then, by Theorem 4.5.1(iii) the elements from H are given
by all possible injections from the set {B1 , . . . , Bk } to the set {a1 , . . . , ak }. In
particular, the restriction to {a1 , . . . , ak } defines a bijective mapping from H
to the symmetric group on {a1 , . . . , ak }. It is easy to see that this mapping
is compatible with the composition and hence is an isomorphism. The image
of this mapping is obviously isomorphic to Sk .
4.7.7 Let S be one of the semigroups Tn , PT n , or IS n . Let further H1 and
H2 be two different H-classes of S inside the same D-class. If both H1 and
H2 are groups, then from Theorem 4.7.4 it follows that H1 ∼
= H2 . This is a
special case of the following more general statement.
Theorem 4.7.5 Let S be a semigroup and H1 and H2 be two different
H-classes of S inside the same D-class. If both H1 and H2 are groups, then
H1 ∼
= H2 as groups.
Proof. Denote the idempotents of H1 and H2 by e and f , respectively. Then
e and f are the identities in the groups H1 and H2 , respectively. Let a ∈
R(e) ∩ L(f ). As eRa, there exists b ∈ S 1 such that a = eb. Hence ea =
e · eb = eb = a. Analogously one shows that af = a.
H(e)
R(e)
e
λa
μa
R(f )
a
L(e)
/
a
μa
λa
/ f
o
H(f )
L(f )
By Green’s Lemma the mapping λa : x → xa is a bijection of the L-class
L(e) onto the L-class L(a) = L(f ). Let a ∈ L(e) be such that λa (a ) = f .
4.8. ADDITIONAL EXERCISES
65
As a e = a , the dual Green’s lemma says that the mapping μa : y → a y is
a bijection from R(e) to R(f ). In particular, μa (a) = a a = λa (a ) = f .
The composition ϕ = μa λa : x → a xa is a bijection from H(e) to H(f ).
Since f = a a and a = af , by Green’s Lemma the mapping μa : R(f ) →
R(e) is inverse to the mapping μa . Analogously λa : L(f ) → L(e) is inverse
to λa . Hence (λa μa )(f ) = e. On the other hand,
(λa μa )(f ) = af a = af · a = aa .
This shows that aa = e, which implies the following:
ϕ(xy) = a xya = a xeya = a xa · a ya = ϕ(x)ϕ(y).
Hence ϕ is an isomorphism from H1 to H2 .
4.7.8 If S is a semigroup with the zero element 0, then for each nonempty
subset A ⊂ S we can define the left annihilator of A as follows:
Annl (A) = {x ∈ S : xa = 0for alla ∈ A}.
Analogously one defines the right annihilator of A as follows:
Annr (A) = {x ∈ S : ax = 0for alla ∈ A}.
It is easy to see that Annl (A) is a left ideal of S and Annr (A) is a right ideal
of S for each A.
If A = {a}, one usually uses the notation Annl (a), or Annr (a) instead of
Annl ({a}), or Annr ({a}), respectively.
4.8
Additional Exercises
4.8.1 Prove the identity
Bn+1 =
n
k=1
n n
Bk .
(k + 1)S(n, k) =
k
k=0
4.8.2 Let I be an ideal of one of the semigroups Tn , PT n , or IS n . Prove
that I 2 = I.
4.8.3 Prove that in each of the semigroups Tn , PT n , or IS n the number
aR of right ideals satisfies the inequality
n
22 > aR >
n
k=1
n
2(k ) − n.
66
CHAPTER 4. IDEALS AND GREEN’S RELATIONS
4.8.4 Find the number of left ideals in IS n for
(a) n = 2,
(b) n = 3,
(c) n = 4.
4.8.5 Let ξ be an equivalence relation on some set X. Prove that ξ ◦ ξ = ξ.
4.8.6 (a) Let S = Tn , or S = PT n . Prove that αRαη for each η ∈ Sn and
each α ∈ S.
(b) Let S = Tn , n > 3, or S = PT n , n > 1. Show that for α, β ∈ S the
relation αRβ in general does not imply the existence of η ∈ Sn such
that α = βη.
4.8.7 ([HM]) Let n > 3, 1 < k < n, and α ∈ Tn be an element of rank k.
Prove that |αTn | ≥ |Tn α|, moreover, the equality is possible only if n = 4
and k = 2.
4.8.8 Compute the number of elements in each D-class of the semigroups
(a) IS 5 ,
(b) T5 ,
(c) PT 5 .
4.8.9 Prove that a regular semigroup is inverse if and only if for each principal one-sided ideal I there exists a unique idempotent which generates I.
4.8.10 An ideal I ⊂ S is called prime provided that ab ∈ I implies a ∈ I,
or b ∈ I for all a, b ∈ S. Find all prime ideals in Tn , PT n , and IS n .
4.8.11 An ideal I ⊂ S is called semiprime provided that a2 ∈ I implies
a ∈ I for all a ∈ S. Find all semiprime ideals in Tn , PT n , and IS n .
4.8.12 An ideal I ⊂ S is called reflexive provided that ab ∈ I implies ba ∈ I
for all a, b ∈ S. Find all reflexive ideals in Tn , PT n , and IS n .
4.8.13 Find the number of idempotents in each R-class inside Dk for the
semigroup
(a) Tn
(b) PT n
4.8.14 (a) Let α ∈ Tn be a transformation of rank k and n1 , . . . , nk be
the cardinalities of the full preimages of elements from im(α). Find the
number of idempotents in R(α).
(b) The same problem for PT n .
4.8. ADDITIONAL EXERCISES
67
4.8.15 Prove that the class H(α) of the semigroup Tn contains an idempotent if and only if for each block B of the partition ρα we have B∩im(α) = ∅.
4.8.16 (a) Let R be an R-class of some semigroup S and e ∈ R be an
idempotent. Show that e is a left identity on R, that is, ex = x for all
x ∈ R.
(b) Let L be an L-class of some semigroup S and e ∈ L be an idempotent.
Show that e is a right identity on L, that is, xe = x for all x ∈ L.
4.8.17 For each α ∈ IS n prove that |Annl (α)| = |Annr (α)|.
4.8.18 Let α ∈ PT n . Determine:
(a) |Annl (α)|
(b) |Annr (α)|
4.8.19 Prove that in the semigroups PT n and IS n none of the ideals Ik ,
0 < k < n, is a (left or right) annihilator of some set.
Chapter 5
Subgroups
and Subsemigroups
5.1
Subgroups
Let S be a semigroup and G be a subgroup of S. Then G contains the
unique idempotent e (the identity element of G). Conversely, if e ∈ S is an
idempotent, then {e} forms a trivial subgroup of S. This shows that there
is a close connection between the subgroups of S and idempotents of S. In
this section we would like to illustrate this connection. We start from the
following two obvious statements:
Lemma 5.1.1 Let e ∈ E(S). Then eSe is a submonoid of S with the identity
element e.
Lemma 5.1.2 Let G be a subgroup of S with the identity element e ∈ E(S).
Then G is a subgroup of (eSe)∗ .
A subgroup G of S is called maximal provided that G is not properly
contained in any other subgroup of S.
Theorem 5.1.3 (i) For each e ∈ E(S) there is a unique maximal subgroup Ge of S in which e is the identity element.
(ii) If e, f ∈ E(S) and e = f , then Ge ∩ Gf = ∅.
Proof. From Lemma 5.1.2 it follows that any subgroup of S in which e
is the identity element is contained in (eSe)∗ . The latter is a group by
Proposition 2.2.3. Hence Ge = (eSe)∗ . This proves (i).
Let a ∈ Ge ∩ Gf and let b and c denote the inverses to a in Ge and
Gf , respectively. We have ab = e and ca = f . From this and the facts that
f a = a (since a ∈ Gf ) and ae = e (since a ∈ Ge ) we have
e = ab = f ab = f e = cae = ca = f,
a contradiction.
O. Ganyushkin, V. Mazorchuk, Classical Finite Transformation Semigroups, Algebra
and Applications 9, DOI: 10.1007/978-1-84800-281-4 5,
c Springer-Verlag London Limited 2009
69
70
CHAPTER 5. SUBGROUPS AND SUBSEMIGROUPS
In 4.7.6 it is shown that maximal subgroups of S are exactly the
H-classes H(e), e ∈ E(S). As each H-class contains at most one idempotent
and different H-classes do not have common elements, we get an alternative
proof of Theorem 5.1.3. In what follows for e ∈ E(S) we shall denote the
corresponding maximal subgroup by Ge . For the semigroups Tn , PT n , and
IS n the following statement is a direct consequence of Theorems 4.5.1
and 4.7.4:
Theorem 5.1.4 Let S denote one of the semigroups Tn , PT n , or IS n . For
∈ E(S) we have:
(i)
G = {α ∈ S : im(α) = im(), ρα = ρ }.
(ii) If rank() = k, then G ∼
= Sk .
An element g ∈ S is called a group element provided that g ∈ Ge for
some e ∈ E(S).
Exercise 5.1.5 Let S denote one of the semigroups Tn , PT n , or IS n . Show
that an element α ∈ S is a group element if and only if the full subgraph
of Γα with the vertex set N\stim(α) is an empty graph, that is, it does not
contain any arrow.
Proposition 5.1.6 (i) The semigroup Tn contains nk=1 nk k n−k k! group
elements.
(ii) The semigroup PT n contains nk=1 nk (k + 1)n−k k! group elements.
(iii) The semigroup IS n contains nk=1 nk k! group elements.
Proof. In the proofs of Corollaries 2.7.4, 2.7.5, and 2.7.3, it was shown that
the semigroups Tn , PT n , and IS n contain
n n−k
n
n
n−k
k
,
(k + 1)
, and
k
k
k
idempotents of rank k, respectively. After this the claim follows directly from
Theorems 5.1.3(ii) and 5.1.4(ii).
5.2
Cyclic Subsemigroups
A semigroup S is called cyclic provided that it has a generating system
consisting of one element. If this element is a, one writes S = a.
Let S = a be a finite cyclic semigroup. Then the sequence of elements
a1 = a, a2 , a3 , . . . must contain repeating elements. Assume that the elements a, a2 , . . . , al are pairwise different and al+1 = ak , where k ≤ l. The
5.2. CYCLIC SUBSEMIGROUPS
71
number l is called the order of a and is denoted by |a|, the number k is called
the index of a and the number m = (l + 1) − k is called the period of a. The
pair (k, m) is called the type of a.
From ak+m = ak we get that the different elements in the sequence a = a,
2
a , a3 , . . . are
a = {a, a2 , . . . , ak+m−1 }.
Lemma 5.2.1 If a and b are of the same type, the semigroups a and b
are isomorphic.
To prove Lemma 5.2.1 we have to recall some notation. Recall that for
x ∈ Z and y ∈ N the expression x mod y denotes the unique number 0 ≤
z < y such that x − z is divisible by y. This number is called the residue of
x modulo y. The set {x + sy : s ∈ Z} is called the residue class of x modulo
y and is denoted by x. The set Zy of all residue classes modulo y forms a
group with respect to the addition + of residues, defined as follows:
a+b = a + b.
(5.1)
This group is usually referred to as the group of residue classes modulo y.
Exercise 5.2.2 Show that the addition of residue classes, defined in (5.1),
is well defined, that is, a = a and b = b imply a + b = a + b .
Exercise 5.2.3 Check that (Zy , +) is indeed a group.
Proof of Lemma 5.2.1. If a is an element of type (k, m), then
s+t<k+m
as+t ,
s
t
a ·a =
k+(s+t−k)
mod
m
s + t ≥ k + m.
a
(5.2)
Hence in the semigroup a the multiplication is completely determined by
the type of a. Thus if b has the same type as a, the mapping ai → bi ,
1 ≤ i ≤ k + m − 1, is an isomorphism of semigroups.
Lemma 5.2.4 For each pair (k, m) ∈ N2 there exists a cyclic semigroup,
generated by an element of type (k, m).
Proof. A direct calculation shows that the element
α = [1, 2, . . . , k](k + 1, k + 2, . . . , k + m) ∈ IS k+m
has type (k, m) and hence generates the necessary cyclic semigroup.
Lemma 5.2.5 Let a be a cyclic semigroup, generated by the element a
of type (k, m). Then the set P = {ak , . . . , ak+m−1 } is a subgroup of a.
Moreover, this subgroup is isomorphic to Zm .
72
CHAPTER 5. SUBGROUPS AND SUBSEMIGROUPS
Proof. That P is a subsemigroup of a is obvious. Consider the mapping
ϕ:
P → Zm
ak+i → k + i,
where i = 0, 1, . . . , m − 1. The mapping ϕ is obviously a bijection. On the
other hand, we have
ϕ(ak+i ·ak+j ) = ϕ(a2k+i+j ) = 2k + i + j = k + i+k + j = ϕ(ak+i )+ϕ(ak+j ).
Hence ϕ is an isomorphism.
Corollary 5.2.6 Let S be a semigroup and a ∈ S be an element of finite
order. Then the semigroup a contains an idempotent. In particular, each
finite semigroup contains an idempotent.
Proof. To prove the first statement we just have to note that the identity
element of the group P from Lemma 5.2.5 is an idempotent. The proof is
then completed by observing that in a finite semigroup all elements have
finite order.
The identity element of P is the ak+i for which ϕ(ak+i ) = 0, that is, i ≡
−k(mod m). It is worth noting that ak+(−k mod m) is the unique idempotent
of a, as for each b ∈ a\P we have bk ∈ P and hence b cannot be an
idempotent.
The cyclic semigroup a, generated by an element of type (k, m), can
be depicted via the following diagram.
ak+1
a1
a2
a3
...
w
ww
ww
w
w
ww
ak+2
...
ak+m−2
...
ak GG
GG
GG
GG
G
ak+m−1
The results obtained above can be summarized in the following statement.
Theorem 5.2.7 (Structure theorem for finite cyclic semigroups)
(i) Let S be a finite cyclic semigroup, generated by the element a. Then
there exist k, m ∈ N such that S = a = {a1 , a2 , . . . , ak+m−1 } and
ak+m = ak .
(ii) For each k, m ∈ N there exists a finite cyclic semigroup, generated by
an element of type (k, m).
5.2. CYCLIC SUBSEMIGROUPS
73
(iii) Two finite cyclic semigroups are isomorphic if and only if they are
generated by elements of the same type.
(iv) If a has type (k, m), then the set {ak , ak+1 , . . . , ak+m−1 } is a subgroup
of a, which is isomorphic to the group (Zm , +).
(v) Every finite cyclic semigroup contains a unique idempotent.
Proof. Almost everything was already proved in Lemmas 5.2.1, 5.2.4, 5.2.5
and Corollary 5.2.6. The only thing which we have to show is that if the
semigroups a and b are isomorphic, then the types of a and b coincide.
Let (k, m) be the type of a and (k , m ) be the type of b. The fact that a
and b are isomorphic implies k + m = k + m . From the observation after
Corollary 5.2.6 we have that an element of a is a group element if and
only if it belongs to P . In particular, a contains exactly m group elements.
As a and b are isomorphic, we get that b contains exactly m group
elements as well. Hence m = m and thus k = k as well, since we already
know that k + m = k + m . This completes the proof.
Proposition 5.2.8 Let α ∈ PT n . Then the index of α equals the minimum
k for which im(αk ) = stim(α), and the period of α equals the order of the
permutation α|stim(α) .
Proof. For every i > 0 the set im(αi ) is invariant with respect to α. Hence
we have the following chain of invariant sets:
im(α) ⊃ im(α2 ) ⊃ im(α3 ) ⊃ · · · .
(5.3)
As im(αi ) = im(αi+1 ) implies im(αi ) = im(αi+j ) = stim(α) for all j > 0,
the chain (5.3) has the form
im(α) im(α2 ) · · · im(αk ) = im(αk+1 ) = · · · .
By Proposition 2.9.3, the restriction of α to stim(α) is a permutation. Let
m be the order of this permutation. Then the elements α1 , α2 , . . . , αk+m−1
are different. Indeed, the first k elements have different images, the last m
elements have the same image, but their restrictions to this image are permutations αk |stim(α) , αk+1 |stim(α) ,. . . , αk+m−1 |stim(α) , which are all different
since the order of α|stim(α) is m. It is obvious that αk+m cannot be equal
to any of αi , i < k, because the image of αk+m is different from that of
each such αi . At the same time, we claim that αk+m = αk . Indeed, for every
x ∈ dom(αk ) we have
αk+m (x) = αm (αk (x)) = αk (x)
as αk (x) ∈ stim(α) and αm acts as the identity transformation on stim(α).
Since dom(αk+m ) ⊂ dom(αk ), we get αk+m = αk . This means that α has
index k and period m, as claimed. The statement is proved.
74
CHAPTER 5. SUBGROUPS AND SUBSEMIGROUPS
Exercise 5.2.9 For each α ∈ Tn the period of α equals the least common
multiple of the cardinalities of the kernels of all orbits of α.
Exercise 5.2.10 For each α ∈ Tn the index of α is the maximum over all
cardinalities of trajectories for the vertices of the full subgraph of Γα with
the vertex set N\stim(α).
5.3
Isolated and Completely Isolated
Subsemigroups
A subsemigroup T of a semigroup S is called completely isolated provided
that ab ∈ T implies a ∈ T , or b ∈ T for all a, b ∈ S.
Exercise 5.3.1 Show that a proper subsemigroup T S is completely isolated if and only if its complement T = S\T is a subsemigroup. In particular,
if T is completely isolated, then T is completely isolated as well.
A subsemigroup T of a semigroup S is called isolated provided that
an ∈ T implies a ∈ T for all a ∈ S and n ∈ N. It is obvious that each
completely isolated subsemigroup is isolated. Each semigroup is a completely
isolated subsemigroup of itself.
Exercise 5.3.2 Show that a proper subsemigroup T S is isolated if and
only if T is a union of subsemigroups.
Immediately from the definitions, Exercises 5.3.1 and 5.3.2 we have
Proposition 5.3.3 Let S be a semigroup.
(i) The intersection of any family of isolated subsemigroups of S is an
isolated subsemigroup. In particular, for each a ∈ S there exists a
minimum isolated subsemigroup of S, containing a.
(ii) If a union of some family of (completely) isolated subsemigroups of S
is a semigroup, then it is a (completely) isolated subsemigroup of S.
For each e ∈ E(S) set
√
e = {x ∈ S : xm = efor somem > 0}.
Lemma 5.3.4 Let S be a semigroup.
(i) If T ⊂ S is an isolated subsemigroup, then
√
e ⊂ T for all e ∈ T .
√
(ii) If T ⊂ S is isolated and S is finite, then T = ∪e∈E(T ) e.
5.3. ISOLATED SUBSEMIGROUPS
75
√
Proof. The statement (i) is obvious. From (i) it follows that ∪e∈E(T ) e ⊂ T .
On the other hand, S is finite and hence if a ∈ T , then a contains a unique
√
idempotent, say e, by Theorem 5.2.7. This means that a ∈ e and thus
√
T ⊂ ∪e∈E(T ) e. This proves (ii) and completes the proof.
√
Remark 5.3.5 If S is finite, then e always contains Ge , that is, the maximal subgroup, corresponding to e.
√
Remark 5.3.6 For the semigroups Tn , PT n , and IS n we have ε = Sn .
√
Exercise 5.3.7 Show that 0 is not a subsemigroup of IS n if n > 1.
To describe all (completely) isolated subsemigroups of Tn , PT n , and IS n
we will need a number of auxiliary statements. For simplicity we shall call
noninvertible elements of semigroups singular. Also for simplicity, we shall
use the following notation for the elements from PT n :
A1 A2 . . . Am
,
α=
a1 a2 . . . am
which means that α(a) = ai for all a ∈ Ai , i = 1, . . . , m, and that on the
complement B = N\(A1 ∪ · · · ∪ Am ) the element α acts as the identity on
all elements, on which it is defined. If we consider several elements at the
same time, we assume that they act in the same way on the complement B.
Lemma 5.3.8 Let S be one of the semigroups Tn , PT n , or IS n , and T be
a proper isolated subsemigroup of S. If T contains all singular idempotents
of S, then T = In−1 .
Proof. The ideal In−1 coincides with the set of all singular elements in S.
The cyclic subsemigroup of S, generated by a singular element a, contains
√
√
a singular idempotent, say e. But a ∈ e by definition, and hence e ⊂ T
by Lemma 5.3.4(i). Hence In−1 ⊂ T . On the other hand, if T would contain
some invertible element, T would contain the identity transformation as
a power of this element, and hence the whole Sn by Remark 5.3.6 and
Lemma 5.3.4(i). This would imply T = S, a contradiction. Hence T =
In−1 .
Lemma 5.3.9 Let T be an isolated subsemigroup of Tn . If T contains all
left zeros of Tn , then T contains all singular idempotents of Tn .
Proof. Since in T2 each singular idempotent is a left zero, we may assume
n > 2. Let A ⊂ N and let a ∈ A, b, c ∈ A, b = c. We have
b c A
c a a
2
=
b c A
a a a
=
b c A
a b a
2
,
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CHAPTER 5. SUBGROUPS AND SUBSEMIGROUPS
b c A
a b a
b c A
c a a
=
b c A
b a a
.
b c A
a a a
,
Hence if an isolated subsemigroup T contains the element
b c A
then T contains the element
as well. Applying the last stateb a a
ment inductively startingfromleft zeros, we get that T contains all idemA
potents of the form A =
, where A ⊂ N, |A| > 1, and a ∈ A. For the
a
element A we have that the corresponding partition ρ A contains a unique
block A of cardinality |A| ≥ 2, and each of the remaining blocks of this
partition consists of one element. Let now
A1 A2 · · · Ak
=
a1 a2 · · · ak
be a singular idempotent, where A1 , . . . , Ak are all blocks of ρ , which consists of more than one element. The proof is now completed by observing
that = A1 A2 · · · Ak .
Let ∈ E(Tn ) be a singular idempotent and A ⊂ N. We will say that is singular on A provided that A is invariant with respect to and acts as
the identity transformation on the complement N\A.
If A is the unique block of ρ , which contains more than one element, we
will say that the idempotent ρ is a constant on A. Clearly, via restriction,
all constants on A can be considered as left zeros of the semigroup T (A).
Lemma 5.3.10 Let T be an isolated subsemigroup of Tn . Assume that for
some A ⊂ N, |A| ≥ 3, the semigroup T contains all idempotents, singular
on A. Then for each k ∈ N\A the semigroup T contains all idempotents,
singular on A ∪ {k}.
Proof. Taking Lemma 5.3.9 into account, it is enough to show that T contains all constants on A ∪ {k}. Let a ∈ A. Fix a partition A\{a} = A1 ∪ A2
and ai ∈ Ai , i = 1, 2. The element
A1 a A2 k
ωa =
a a a k
is a constant on A and hence belongs to T by our assumptions. For the
elements
A1 a A2 k
A1 a A2 k
β=
,
, γ=
a1 a1 k a2
a1 k k a
A1 a A2 k
δ=
k k k a
5.3. ISOLATED SUBSEMIGROUPS
77
we have that the elements
A1 a A2 k
A1 a A2 k
, γ2 =
, δ 2 = ωa
β2 =
a1 a1 a2 k
a1 a a k
are singular idempotents on A. Hence β, γ, δ ∈ T . The latter implies that
the following elements belong to T as well:
A1 a A2 k
A1 a A2 k
, μk = δμa =
.
μa = ωa βγ =
a a a a
k k k k
The statement follows.
Corollary 5.3.11 Let T be an isolated subsemigroup of Tn . Assume that for
some A ⊂ N, |A| ≥ 3, the semigroup T contains all idempotents, singular
on A. Then T contains In−1 .
Proof. Inductively applying Lemma 5.3.10 we obtain that T contains all
singular idempotents and the statement follows from Lemma 5.3.8.
For k, m ∈ N, m = k, let εm,k denote the unique idempotent of Tn of
rank (n − 1) satisfying εm,k (m) = εm,k (k) = m.
Lemma 5.3.12 Let T be an isolated subsemigroup of Tn . If for some k1 = k2
and m the semigroup T contains εm,k1 and εm,k2 , then T contains In−1 .
Proof. Without loss of generality we may assume k1 = 1, m = 2, and k2 = 3.
Let us
show thatT contains all constants on the set {1, 2, 3}. For the element
1 2 3
α=
we have α2 = ε2,1 and hence α ∈ T . Then
3 3 2
αε2,3 =
1 2 3
3 3 3
∈ T, ε2,3 α =
1 2 3
2 2 2
∈ T.
1 2 3
Analogously one also shows that
∈ T . By Lemma 5.3.9 we
1 1 1
thus have that T contains all idempotents, singular on A. The statement
now follows from Corollary 5.3.11.
Lemma 5.3.13 Let T be an isolated subsemigroup of Tn . Assume that T
contains εm1 ,k1 and εm2 ,k2 for some pairwise different k1 , k2 , m1 , m2 . Then
T contains In−1 .
Proof. Without loss of generality we may assume m1 = 1, k1 = 2, m2 = 3,
k2 = 4. By the same arguments as in the proof of Lemma 5.3.12, it is enough
to show that T contains all constants on {1, 2, 3, 4}. For the element α =
1 2 3 4
we have α3 = ε3,4 and hence α ∈ T . Thus β = ε1,2 αε1,2 ∈ T
2 3 1 1
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CHAPTER 5. SUBGROUPS AND SUBSEMIGROUPS
and a direct commutation shows that β is the constant on {1, 2, 3, 4} with
image {1}. At the same time αβ ∈ T and αβ is the constant on {1, 2, 3, 4}
with image {2}. Analogously one shows that the remaining constants are
also in T .
Lemma 5.3.14 Let T be an isolated subsemigroup of Tn . Assume that T
contains some idempotent of rank r < n − 1. Then T contains an idempotent of rank (r + 1).
Proof. If the partition ρ has some block B of cardinality |B| ≥ 3, then
an idempotent of rank (r + 1) in T can be easily obtained using the same
construction as in the proof of Lemma 5.3.9. If all blocks of ρ contain at
most two elements, there should be more than one two-element block. Hence
without loss of generality we may assume that
1 2 3 4 5 ··· n
.
=
1 1 3 3 a5 · · · an
For the elements
1 2 3 4 5 ···
α=
3 4 1 1 a5 · · ·
n
an
,
β=
1 2 3 4 5 ···
3 3 1 2 a5 · · ·
n
an
we have α2 = β 2 = and hence α, β ∈ T . Thus
1 2 3 4 5 ··· n
βα =
∈ T,
1 2 3 3 a4 · · · an
and the element βα is an idempotent of rank (r + 1).
Lemma 5.3.15 Let T be an isolated subsemigroup of Tn . Assume that T
contains some idempotent of rank (n − 2). Then T contains In−1 .
1 2 3
Proof. Without loss of generality we may assume that =
, or
1 1 1
1 2 3 4
=
.
1 1 3 3
1 2 3
In the case =
we may use the same construction as in
1 1 1
the proof of Lemma 5.3.9 to get ε1,2 , ε1,3 ∈ T . Thus T contains In−1 by
Lemma 5.3.12.
1 2 3 4
In the case =
we may use the same construction as
1 1 3 3
in the proof of Lemma 5.3.14 to get ε1,2 , ε3,4 ∈ T . Thus T contains In−1 by
Lemma 5.3.13.
√
Lemma 5.3.16 Let ∈ E(Tn ) be of rank (n − 1). Then = G .
5.3. ISOLATED SUBSEMIGROUPS
79
√
√
Proof. The inclusion G ⊂ is obvious. Let now α ∈ . Then αm = for
some m > 0. From the inequalities
n > rank(α) ≥ rank() = n − 1
we have rank(α) = n − 1. As im(α) is invariant with respect to α, and
αm = , we have stim(α) = im(α). From Proposition 5.2.8 it now follows
that the index of α is 1 and hence by Theorem 5.2.7 the semigroup α
is a group. Hence α is a group element and thus α ∈ G . This proves the
√
inclusion ⊂ G and completes the proof.
Theorem 5.3.17 Let n > 2. A subsemigroup T of Tn is isolated if and only
if it belongs to the following set:
{Tn , Sn , In−1 } ∪ Gεm,k ∪ Gεk,m : m, k ∈ N, m = k ∪
∪ ∪m∈M Gεm,k : k ∈ N, ∅ = M ⊂ N\{k} .
Proof. As both Sn and In−1 are subsemigroups, Sn ∩In−1 = ∅ and Tn = Sn ∪
In−1 , each of the semigroups Sn , In−1 , and Tn is an isolated subsemigroup
of Tn .
Let T be an isolated subsemigroup of Tn such that T ∩ Sn = ∅. As Sn is
√
a finite group, T must contain ε and hence Sn = ε ⊂ T by Lemma 5.3.4(i).
If at the same time T ∩ In−1 = ∅, then Lemma 5.3.14 guarantees that T
contains an idempotent of rank (n−1). Thus T contains a generating system
for Tn by Theorem 3.1.3, which implies that T = Tn . If, on the other hand,
T ∩ In−1 = ∅, we have T = Sn .
It is left to consider the case when T ∩ Sn = ∅ and T = In−1 . From
Lemmas 5.3.14 and 5.3.15 it follows that in this case T contains only idempotents of rank (n − 1), that is, of the form εm,k .
Let E(T ) = {εmi ,ki : i = 1, . . . , t}. If {mi , ki } ∩ {mj , kj } = ∅ for some
i, j, then T ⊃ In−1 by Lemma 5.3.13, which is not possible. Hence for all
i, j we have {mi , ki } ∩ {mj , kj } = ∅. Moreover,
k l m
εl,m εm,k =
l l l
is an idempotent of rank (n − 2) as well. For i = j the possibility mi = mj is
prohibited by Lemma 5.3.12. Hence we either have ki = kj , or mi = kj and
mj = ki . In the last case the only possibility is E(T ) = {εm,k , εk,m } as for
any other εm ,k such that {m , k } ∩ {k, m} = ∅ we would have k = k = m,
which is impossible.
So, we have either E(T ) = {εm,k , εk,m }, or E(T ) = {εmi ,k : i = 1, . . . , t}.
Because of Lemmas 5.3.4(ii) and 5.3.16 it remains to show that each of
the sets
P = Gεm,k ∪ Gεk,m and Q = Gεm1 ,k ∪ · · · ∪ Gεmt ,k
(5.4)
80
CHAPTER 5. SUBGROUPS AND SUBSEMIGROUPS
is a subsemigroup of Tn . In the first case of (5.4) for arbitrary α ∈ Gεm,k
and β ∈ Gεk,m we have ραβ = ρβ = ρα and im(αβ) = im(α). Hence αβ ∈
Gεm,k by Theorem 4.5.1(iii) and because of the symmetry of the situation
we conclude that Gεm,k ∪ Gεk,m is a semigroup.
In the second case of (5.4) we have
im(εm1 ,k ) = im(εm2 ,k ) = · · · = im(εmt ,k ) = N\{k}.
For any α, β ∈ Q we have ραβ = ρβ and im(αβ) = N\{k}. By Theorem
4.5.1(iii) we have αβ ∈ H(β) ⊂ Q. Hence Q is a subsemigroup as well. This
completes the proof.
Remark 5.3.18 The only isolated subsemigroup of T1 is T1 itself. The
semigroup T2 has five isolated subsemigroups: T2 , S2 , I1 , {ε1,2 }, {ε2,1 }.
Corollary 5.3.19 For n > 1 the only completely isolated subsemigroups of
Tn are Tn , Sn , and In−1 .
Proof. Since each completely isolated subsemigroup is isolated, we have just
to check which of the subsemigroups, given by Theorem 5.3.17, are completely isolated. It is obvious that Tn is completely isolated. Further, both
Sn and In−1 are completely isolated as each of these semigroups is the complement of the other one.
Let T be an isolated subsemigroup of Tn , different from Tn , Sn , and In−1 .
Then from Theorem 5.3.17 we get that T consists only of group elements of
rank (n − 1).
If n = 2, then neither {ε1,2 } nor {ε2,1 } is completely isolated. Indeed,
assume {ε1,2 } is completely isolated. Then (1, 2) · ε2,1 = ε1,2 ∈ T . As (1, 2)
has rank 2, we have (1, 2) ∈ T , implying ε2,1 ∈ T and hence T = In−1 , a
contradiction. Analogously one shows that {ε2,1 } is not completely isolated.
Assume n > 2. Then the complement T = Tn \T contains Sn and the
element
1 2 3 4 ···
n
α=
,
1 1 2 3 ··· n − 1
which is not a group element by Exercise 5.1.5. By Theorem 3.1.3 the set
Sn ∪ {α} generates the whole Tn and hence T cannot be a subsemigroup.
Hence T is not completely isolated by Exercise 5.3.1.
Let us now describe isolated and completely isolated subsemigroups of
IS n . The elements of N which will be omitted in the notation of some
transformation α will be assumed to be fixed points of α.
Lemma 5.3.20 If an isolated subsemigroup T ⊂ IS n contains some idempotent of rank at most (n − 2), then T contains at least two different
idempotents of rank (n − 1).
5.3. ISOLATED SUBSEMIGROUPS
81
Proof. Let rank() = n − k, k > 1, and dom() = {a1 , a2 , . . . , ak }. Then the
elements α = [a1 , a2 , . . . , ak ] and β = [ak , a2 , . . . , a1 ] satisfy αk = β k = .
Hence α, β ∈ T and thus βα, αβ ∈ T . But both βα = [ak ] and αβ = [a1 ] are
idempotents of rank (n − 1), and they are obviously different.
Lemma 5.3.21 If an isolated subsemigroup T ⊂ IS n contains two different
idempotents of rank (n − 1), then T contains In−1 .
Proof. Assume that T contains the idempotents [x] and [y], x = y. If n = 2,
then T contains [x][y] and thus contains all singular idempotents. This means
that T contains In−1 by Lemma 5.3.8.
Assume now that n > 2 and let z ∈ {x, y}. Then ([x](y, z))2 = [x] and
hence [x](y, z) ∈ T . This means that T also contains the element
α = [y] · [x](y, z) · [y] = [x][y][z].
Further, T contains both β = [x, y, z] and γ = [z, y, x] since β 3 = γ 3 = α.
Hence the idempotent [z] = γβ is also contained in T . In particular, T
contains all singular idempotents of rank (n − 1). As every singular idempotent = [a1 ][a2 ] . . . [ak ] of IS n is a product of singular idempotents [ai ],
i = 1, . . . , k, of rank (n − 1), we obtain that T contains all singular idempotents. Hence T contains In−1 by Lemma 5.3.8.
Theorem 5.3.22 The only isolated subsemigroups of IS n are IS n , Sn ,
In−1 , and G[x] , x ∈ N.
Proof. Let T be an isolated subsemigroup of IS n . Repeating the arguments
of the first part of the proof of Theorem 5.3.17 one shows that either T ∈
{IS n , Sn , In−1 }, or T In−1 .
If T In−1 , from Lemmas 5.3.20
and 5.3.21 we have that E(T ) = {[x]}
for some x ∈ N. But then T = [x] = G[x] by Lemma 5.3.4(ii). On the
other hand, the semigroup [x] = G[x] is obviously isolated.
Corollary 5.3.23 The only completely isolated subsemigroups of IS n are
IS n , Sn , and In−1 .
Proof. Each completely isolated subsemigroup is isolated. So, we have just
to go through the list given by Theorem 5.3.22. The semigroups IS n , Sn ,
and In−1 are obviously completely isolated. On the other hand, if n > 1,
none of the semigroups G[x] , x ∈ N, is completely isolated. Indeed, let y = x.
If G[x] were completely isolated, from (x, y)[y](x, y) = [x] and (x, y) ∈ G[x]
it would follow [y] ∈ G[x] , which is not the case.
Finally, let us describe all completely isolated subsemigroups of PT n .
Note that PT 1 = IS 1 . We shall need the following obvious result:
Lemma 5.3.24 (i) Let S be a semigroup and A < B < S. If A is completely isolated in S, then A is completely isolated in B.
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CHAPTER 5. SUBGROUPS AND SUBSEMIGROUPS
(ii) Let S be a semigroup, A < S completely isolated and B < S. Then
A ∩ B is either empty or a completely isolated subsemigroup of B.
Theorem 5.3.25 For n > 1 the semigroup PT n has seven completely
isolated subsemigroups, namely, PT n , Tn , Sn , PT n \Sn , Tn \Sn , PT n \Tn ,
PT n \(Tn \Sn ).
Proof. A product of two nontotal transformations is not total either. Hence
the complement PT n \Tn of the subsemigroup Tn is a subsemigroup itself.
This means that both PT n \Tn and Tn are completely isolated in PT n .
Further, as both Sn and In−1 = PT n \Sn are subsemigroups of PT n , they
both are completely isolated by Exercise 5.3.1.
Let T be a completely isolated subsemigroup of PT n . The intersection
T ∩ Tn is either a empty or a completely isolated subsemigroup of Tn because of Lemma 5.3.24(ii). Hence T ∩ Tn is either Tn , or Sn , or Tn \Sn by
Corollary 5.3.19. The product of two noninvertible transformations of N is
not invertible, and the product of two nontotal transformations is not total.
Hence the subsemigroup Tn \Sn is completely isolated.
Assume that T ∩ (PT n \Tn ) = ∅. Then T contains some idempotent
A ··· B C
=
∈ PT n \Tn .
a ··· b ∅
Let x ∈ im() and c ∈ C. Set x = (x, c)(x, c). We claim that x ∈ T . Indeed,
this is obvious if (x, c) ∈ T . If (x, c) ∈ T , then (x, c)x (x, c) = ∈ T and
hence x ∈ T since T is completely isolated. Thus T contains the element =
x , which is an idempotent and im( ) = im()\{x}. Continuing inductively
we get that T contains the element 0n . From 0n = [1][2] . . . [n] we have
that T [k] for some k ∈ N. By the same arguments as above we get that
for each l = k the semigroup T contains the element (k, l)[k](k, l) = [l].
In particular, T contains all [k], k ∈ N, and all their products, that is, all
singular idempotents from IS n .
If n = 2, the above gives us that PT 2 contains three minimal completely
isolated subsemigroups: S2 , T2 \S2 , and PT 2 \T2 = IS 2 \S2 . Any union of
these subsemigroups is again a semigroup, hence completely isolated by
Proposition 5.3.3(ii).
Assume now that n ≥ 3. We continue the consideration of the case
T ∩ (PT n \Tn ) = ∅ and recall that we already know that T contains all
singular idempotents from IS n . Consider the following elements in PT n :
1 2 3
1 2 3
1 2 3
α=
, β=
, αβ =
.
1 1 ∅
∅ 3 3
∅ ∅ ∅
αβ is a singular idempotent of IS n . Hence α ∈ T , or β ∈ T . Without loss of
generality we may assume α ∈ T . As in the previous paragraph one shows
that πατ ∈ T for all π, τ ∈ Sn , which implies that T contains all idempotents
5.4. ADDENDA AND COMMENTS
83
from PT n \Tn of rank (n − 2), that is, all elements of the form εz,y [x], where
x, y, z ∈ N are arbitrary different elements.
Now let
A1 · · · Ak B
∈ PT n \Tn
δ=
a1 · · · ak ∅
be any idempotent, written such that all blocks Ai , i = 1, . . . , k, consist of
more than one element. For each i = 1, . . . , k consider the idempotent
Ai B
.
δi =
ai ∅
Let Ai = {ai , x1 , . . . , xk } and b ∈ B. We have
δi = εN\B · εai ,x1 [b] · εai ,x2 [b] · · · εai ,xk [b]
and hence δi ∈ T . At the same time δ = δ1 δ2 · · · δk and hence δ ∈ T .
Therefore T contains all idempotents from PT n \Tn and thus T contains
PT n \Tn by Lemma 5.3.4(ii).
The above explanation gives us that for n > 2 the semigroup PT n
contains three minimal completely isolated subsemigroups: Sn , Tn \Sn , and
PT n \Tn . Any union of these subsemigroups is again a semigroup, hence
completely isolated by Proposition 5.3.3(ii). This completes the proof.
5.4
Addenda and Comments
5.4.1 For each semigroup S the Boolean B(S) has the following natural
structure of a semigroup with respect to the multiplication: A · B = {a · b :
a ∈ A, b ∈ B}, A, B ⊂ S (it is very easy to check that this multiplication is
associative). The semigroup B(S) is called the global semigroup or the power
semigroup of S. Theorem 5.2.7 was proved by Frobenius in 1895 for the
elements of the semigroup B(S), where S is a finite group (this restriction
did not play an essential role in the proof). Since that time Theorem 5.2.7
has been rediscovered by many different authors.
5.4.2 Finite semigroups have the following property:
Theorem 5.4.1 Let S be a finite semigroup. Then D = J .
Proof. As we already know that D ⊂ J (see Sect. 4.4), it is enough to
show that J ⊂ D. Let aJ b, that is, S 1 aS 1 = S 1 bS 1 . Then there exist
u, v, x, y ∈ S 1 such that uav = b and xby = a. Thus (xu)a(vy) = a and even
(xu)k a(vy)k = a for all k ∈ N. As S 1 is finite, there exist k and l such that
e = (xu)k and f = (vy)l are idempotents. We have
a = (xu)kl a(vy)kl = eaf,
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CHAPTER 5. SUBGROUPS AND SUBSEMIGROUPS
which implies ea = a and af = a. From the first equality we have
(xu)k−1 x · ua = a and u · a = ua.
Hence aLua. Analogously one shows that aRav, implying uaRuav, that is,
uaRb. Thus aDb.
5.4.3 A subsemigroup T ⊂ S is called maximal provided that T = S and for
any subsemigroup X ⊂ S the inclusion T ⊂ X implies T = X, or X = S.
Obviously, if S is one of the semigroups PT n , Tn , or IS n , and G is a
subgroup of Sn , then the set In−1 ∪ G is a subsemigroup of S.
Theorem 5.4.2 Let S be one of the semigroups Tn or IS n . Then the only
maximal subsemigroups of S are Sn ∪ In−2 and In−1 ∪ G, where G is a
maximal subgroup of Sn .
Proof. Let T be a maximal subsemigroup of S. If Sn ⊂ T , then T ∪ In−1 is
a subsemigroup and T ⊂ T ∪ In−1 S. Hence T = T ∪ In−1 . On the other
hand, G = T ∩ Sn is a subsemigroup of Sn and hence is a subgroup since
Sn is finite. Furthermore, G has to be a maximal subgroup for otherwise
there would exist a subgroup G of Sn such that G G Sn . In this case
G ∪ In−1 is a subsemigroup of S and T G ∪ In−1 Sn , a contradiction.
If Sn ⊂ T , the semigroup T cannot contain any element of rank (n−1) for
otherwise T = S by Theorems 3.1.3 or 3.1.4. Hence T ⊂ Sn ∪ In−2 . On the
other hand, Sn ∪ In−2 is a subsemigroup of S and hence T = Sn ∪ In−2 .
Theorem 5.4.3 The only maximal subsemigroups of PT n are:
(a) In−1 ∪ G, where G is a maximal subgroup of Sn ;
(b) PT n \A, where A = {α ∈ Tn : rank(α) = n − 1};
(c) PT n \B, where B = {α ∈ IS n : rank(α) = n − 1}.
Proof. The proof is similar to that of Theorem 5.4.2. One has only to note
that each element of rank (n − 1) from PT n is either a total transformation
or a partial injection.
By the above theorems, the classification of maximal subsemigroups in
PT n , Tn , and IS n reduces to the classification of maximal subgroups of the
symmetric group Sn . The latter problem is very difficult. The only known
solution so far, which can be found in [LPS], is based on the so-called classification of finite simple groups. The correctness of the latter result is still
questioned by many specialists.
5.4. ADDENDA AND COMMENTS
85
5.4.4 From Theorem 5.4.2 it is easy to see that each maximal subsemigroup
of IS n is inverse. Thus as a bonus we get a description of all maximal
inverse subsemigroups of IS n , see [X.Ya1]. Analogous questions can be asked
for both PT n and Tn , especially taking into account that every α ∈ Tn is
contained in some inverse subsemigroup of Tn , see [Sc5]. These questions
were studied in particular in [Ni, Re2, KS, H.Ya].
5.4.5 Let α ∈ PT n . By Proposition 5.2.8 and Exercises 5.2.9 and 5.2.10 the
computation of the order of α can be easily reduced to the computation of
the order of the permutation α|stim(α) . If π = (a1 , . . . , ak ) · · · (b1 , . . . , bl ), then
the order of π is just the least common multiple (lcm) of the lengths k, . . . , l
of the cycles. However, given some m to find the number of those σ ∈ Sn
which have order m is a difficult problem. It reduces to the determination
of all decompositions n = n1 + · · · + nk such that lcm(n1 , . . . , nk ) = m.
Determination of the maximal possible order Pmax (Sn ) for elements in Sn
is equivalent to finding
max
n1 +···+nk =n
lcm(n1 , . . . , nk ),
which is also very difficult. Analogous problems for the semigroups PT n ,
Tn , and IS n are of the same level of difficulty.
5.4.6 On the other hand, the asymptotic behavior of Pmax (Sn ) is much
easier to describe. Already in 1903 E. Landau has proved in [La] the following
formula:
(5.5)
ln(Pmax (Sn )) ∼ n ln(n), n → ∞.
A very elementary proof of this statement can be found in [Mi]. Some additional comments about the asymptotic behavior of Pmax (Sn ) can be found in
[Sz]. From the formula (5.5) one easily obtains the following result about the
asymptotic behavior of the orders of elements in the semigroups Tn , PT n ,
and IS n .
Theorem 5.4.4
ln(Pmax (Tn )) ∼ ln(Pmax (PT n )) ∼ ln(Pmax (IS n )) ∼
n ln(n), n → ∞.
5.4.7 From the proof of Theorem 2.4.3 it follows that each finite semigroup
S can be considered as a subsemigroup of some Tn , moreover if S is a monoid,
then one can even assume that the identity element of S coincides with the
identity transformation in Tn . The group S ∗ becomes, under such identification, a subgroup of Sn . As a consequence of this and Lemma 5.3.24(ii) we
obtain:
Proposition 5.4.5 If S is a finite semigroup, then both S ∗ and S\S ∗ are
completely isolated subsemigroups of S.
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CHAPTER 5. SUBGROUPS AND SUBSEMIGROUPS
The statement of Proposition 5.4.5 is wrong in the general case as the
group of units of an infinite semigroup does not have to be completely isolated (a bijective transformation can be a composition of two transformations, each of which is not bijective).
5.4.8 Let S be a semigroup. There is a natural partial order on the set of
all J -classes of S, given by the inclusion of the principal two-sided ideals:
J (a) ≤ J (b)
⇔
S 1 aS 1 ⊂ S 1 bS 1 .
If S is finite, then J = D by Theorem 5.4.1 and hence the above partial
order is also a partial order on the set of all D-classes of S.
Theorem 5.4.6 Let S be a finite monoid and assume that in the set of all
D-classes of S, different from D(1), there is the maximum D-class D.
√
(i) For any idempotent e ∈ D we have e = Ge .
(ii) Let e1 , e2 , . . . , ek be a collection of idempotents from D which either
belong to the same R-class or to the same L-class. Then Ge1 ∪ Ge2 ∪
· · · ∪ Gek is an isolated subsemigroup of S.
We note that the semigroups Tn , PT n , and IS n satisfy all conditions of
Theorem 5.4.6.
Proof. Consider S as a subsemigroup of some Tn . Then aRb in S implies
aRb in Tn by Proposition 4.4.2. Hence aRb implies im(a) = im(b) by Theorem 4.2.1. Analogously, aLb implies ρa = ρb by Theorem 4.2.4. In particular,
all elements from the same D-class of S have the same rank.
Obviously D(ak ) ≤ D(a). Hence for any idempotent e ∈ D we have
√
√
e ⊂ D. Let a ∈ e. From the equalities am = e, rank(a) = rank(e), and the
fact that im(a) is invariant with respect to a, we get that stim(a) = im(a).
Hence, by Proposition 5.2.8, a has index one and thus is a group element.
√
It follows that e ⊂ Ge , which proves (i).
To prove (ii) it is enough to show that Ge1 ∪ Ge2 ∪ · · · ∪ Gek is closed
with respect to multiplication. Let e = ei and f = ej for i = j and a ∈ Ge ,
b ∈ Gf . Assume first that all ei s belong to the same R-class. We claim that
in this case ab ∈ Gf . As S is a subsemigroup of Tn , we have im(a) = im(b) by
Theorem 4.5.1(i). Since both a and b are group elements, different elements
of im(a) = im(b) must belong to different classes of the partitions ρa and ρb ,
respectively. Hence ρab = ρb and im(ab) = im(a). This means that ab ∈ Gf
by Theorem 4.5.1(iii).
If all ei s belong to the same L-class, then using analogous arguments one
shows that ab ∈ Ge . This completes the proof.
5.4.9 The description of isolated semigroups for PT n is even more technical
than that for Tn . Hence we just present here the result and an idea of the
proof. To work out all the details of the proof is left to the reader.
5.4. ADDENDA AND COMMENTS
87
Theorem 5.4.7 A subsemigroup T of PT n is isolated if and only if T
belongs to the following list:
(a) Completely isolated subsemigroups of PT n , given by Theorem 5.3.25.
(b) Isolated but not completely isolated subsemigroup of Tn \Sn (given by the
list from Theorem 5.3.17 with {Sn , Tn , In−1 } taken away).
(c) Semigroups T (x, P ), where x ∈ N and P is an isolated subsemigroup of
T (N\{x}), defined as follows:
T (x, P ) = {α ∈ PT n : dom(α) = {x}, α|N\{x} ∈ P }.
All possibilities for the semigroup P are given by Theorem 5.3.17.
(d) Semigroups T (x, S(N\{x}))
N\{x}.
∪m∈M Gεm,x , where x ∈ N and ∅ = M ⊂
Sketch of the Proof. By Theorem 5.3.25, the semigroup PT n has three minimal completely isolated subsemigroups, namely, Sn , Tn \Sn , and PT n \Tn .
If T ⊂ PT n is an isolated subsemigroup and S is a minimal completely
isolated subsemigroup of PT n , then S ∩ T is an isolated subsemigroup of S.
Let us first determine all possible intersections of T with the minimal
completely isolated subsemigroups of PT n . The semigroup T ∩ Sn is obviously either empty or equals Sn . From Theorem 5.3.17 the semigroup
T ∩ (Tn \Sn ) is either empty, or equals Tn \Sn or is given exactly by (b).
The complicated part is to show that if T ∩ (PT n \Tn ) is a proper subsemigroup of PT n \Tn , then it is given by (c).
So, let T be a proper isolated subsemigroup of PT n \Tn . First we claim
that T contains an idempotent e such that |dom(e)| = 1. This can be proved
analogously to the proof of Lemma 5.3.20. Then one shows that such T
cannot contain 0n . For this one shows that if T contains 0n , then T contains
all idempotents of PT n \Tn and hence must coincide with the latter. This
again can be done generalizing the arguments of Lemma 5.3.20. The next
step is to show that T contains an idempotent e such that all blocks of ρe on
which e is defined contain at most two elements. This is similar to the proof
of Lemma 5.3.9. Generalizing the arguments of the proof of Lemma 5.3.21
one shows that all idempotents of T must satisfy |dom(e)| = 1. From this it
follows easily that there should exist x ∈ N such that dom(α) = N\{x} for
all α ∈ T . In particular, it follows that x ∈ im(α) for all α ∈ T and hence the
set N\{x} is invariant with respect to all elements from T . The restriction
to N\{x} defines a homomorphism from T to T (N\{x}), the image of which
is an isolated subsemigroup of T (N\{x}), call it P . This gives T = T (x, P )
as in (c). On the other hand, it is easy to check that every T = T (x, P ) is
isolated (this also follows from Exercise 5.5.13(a)).
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CHAPTER 5. SUBGROUPS AND SUBSEMIGROUPS
It is left to see whether we can form a union of some of the semigroups
given by (a), (b), and (c). A case-by-case analysis shows that the only possible unions are either the ones already described in (a) or the ones given by
(d). The main argument of the analysis is that multiplying elements from
different components of our union it is prohibited to get elements of smaller
ranks. We leave the details to the reader.
5.4.10 There are of course many other natural classes of subsemigroups in
the semigroups Tn , PT n , and IS n , defined using various conditions. For instance, one can consider abelian subsemigroups, or nilpotent subsemigroups,
or subsemigroups defined via some combinatorial conditions (for example,
consisting of all α such that α(x) ≤ x for all x ∈ N, or consisting of all
α such that x ≤ y implies α(x) ≤ α(y) for all x, y ∈ N). Some of these
classes are of independent interest and are intensively studied. In this book,
we shall only briefly discuss nilpotent subsemigroups later on in Chap. 8.
5.5
Additional Exercises
5.5.1 Let G be a maximal subgroup of Tn , or IS n . Show that G is a maximal
subgroup of PT n .
5.5.2 Let S be a finite semigroup and a ∈ S. Prove that the following
conditions are equivalent:
(a) a is a group element.
(b) a is a group.
(c) ak = a for some k > 1.
(d) a is regular and commutes with at least one of its inverses.
5.5.3 Let α ∈ PT n and assume that rank(αk ) = rank(αk+1 ). Prove that
(a) rank(αk+j ) = rank(αk ) for all j > 0
(b) strank(α) = strank(αk )
(c) im(αk+j ) = im(αk ) for all j > 0
(d) stim(α) = stim(αk )
5.5.4 Let α ∈ PT n . Assume that for some m > 1 the restriction αm |stim(α)
is the permutation, which is inverse to the permutation α|stim(α) . Prove that
the element α is a group element if and only if α and αm form a pair of
inverse elements.
5.5.5 Let S be a semigroup and e ∈ E(S). Show that eSe is the maximum
submonoid of S, which has e as the identity element.
5.5. ADDITIONAL EXERCISES
89
5.5.6 Let α ∈ PT n be a group element. Show that the restriction α|im(α) is
a permutation.
5.5.7 Let α ∈ PT n . Show that α is a group element if and only if im(α) =
im(α2 ).
5.5.8 (a) Let S be a cyclic semigroup, which is not a group. Show that S
has a unique irreducible generating system.
(b) Show that for each k ∈ N there exists a finite cyclic group and an irreducible generating system in this group, containing exactly k elements.
5.5.9 Let [p]q = p(p − 1)(p − 2) · · · (p − q + 1), and let P (n, m) denote the
number of elements of order m in the symmetric group Sn .
(a) Show that the number of elements of type (k, m) in the semigroup Tn
equals
n
k
nn2 1 nn3 2 · · · nk k−1 nnk+1
P (nk+1 , m).
n1 +···+nk +nk+1 =n
(b) Show that the number of elements of type (k, m) in the semigroup PT n
equals
n
k
nn2 1 nn3 2 · · · nk k−1 nnk+1
P (nk+1 , m).
n1 +···+nk +nk+1 ≤n
(c) Show that the number of elements of type (k, m) in the semigroup IS n
equals
[n2 ]n1 [n3 ]n2 · · · [nk ]nk−1 P (nk+1 , m).
n1 +···+nk +nk+1 =n
5.5.10 Prove that a (one-sided) ideal I of a semigroup S is an isolated
subsemigroup of S if and only if I is semiprime.
5.5.11 Construct a semigroup S and a subsemigroup T such that a2 ∈ T
implies a ∈ T for any a ∈ S, but at the same time T is not an isolated
subsemigroup of S.
5.5.12 Find the number of isolated subsemigroups in Tn , n > 2.
5.5.13 (a) Let T be an isolated subsemigroup of S and X be an isolated
subsemigroup of T . Show that X is an isolated subsemigroup of S.
(b) Let T be a completely isolated subsemigroup of S and X be a completely
isolated subsemigroup of T . Is it true that X is a completely isolated
subsemigroup of S?
5.5.14 Show that the intersection of completely isolated subsemigroups is
not completely isolated in general.
Chapter 6
Other Relations
on Semigroups
6.1
Congruences and Homomorphisms
Recall that a binary relation ρ on a semigroup S is called left compatible
provided that a ρ b implies ca ρ cb for all a, b, c ∈ S; ρ is called right compatible
provided that a ρ b implies ac ρ bc for all a, b, c ∈ S; and ρ is called compatible
provided that it is both left and right compatible.
A left compatible equivalence relation is called a left congruence. A right
compatible equivalence relation is called a right congruence. A compatible
equivalence relation is called a congruence.
Example 6.1.1 (a) From Sect. 4.4 we know that Green’s relation L is a
right congruence and Green’s relation R is a left congruence.
(b) Each semigroup S has two trivial congruences: the equality relation
(the identity congruence ιS ) and the uniform congruence ωS = S × S
consisting of just one equivalence class S.
If S is a set and ρ is an equivalence relation on S, there are several
ways to show that some a, b ∈ S belong to the same class of ρ. This can be
written as follows: a ρ b, or (a, b) ∈ ρ, or a ≡ b(ρ) or simply a ≡ b if there
is no confusion about which congruence we are considering. In what follows
we may use any of the above notation.
Exercise 6.1.2 Prove that the intersection of an arbitrary family of congruences on S is a congruence on S.
Lemma 6.1.3 Let S be a semigroup and ρ be a congruence on S. Let further
K be an equivalence class of ρ. If K contains some ideal of S, then K is an
ideal of S itself. In addition, at most one class of ρ can be an ideal.
O. Ganyushkin, V. Mazorchuk, Classical Finite Transformation Semigroups, Algebra
and Applications 9, DOI: 10.1007/978-1-84800-281-4 6,
c Springer-Verlag London Limited 2009
91
92
CHAPTER 6. OTHER RELATIONS ON SEMIGROUPS
Proof. Let I be the ideal of S, contained in K. Fix some b ∈ I and let
a ∈ K and x ∈ S be arbitrary. As a ≡ b, we have xa ≡ xb and ax ≡ bx. But
xb, bx ∈ I since I is an ideal. This implies xa ∈ K and ax ∈ K.
Let I and J be two ideals of S. Then IJ ⊂ I ∩J, in particular, I ∩J = ∅.
Hence I and J cannot be at the same time two different equivalence classes
of an equivalence relation on S.
Let S be a semigroup and I ⊂ S an ideal. Define the equivalence relation
ρI on S as follows:
ρI = (I × I) ∪ {(a, a) : a ∈ S\I}.
In other words, all elements from I form one equivalence class, and all
other equivalence classes are trivial (each consists of a single element). The
fact that I is an ideal guarantees that ρI is a congruence. Indeed, if a ≡ b(ρI ),
then either a = b, or a, b ∈ I. In the last case ac, bc, ca, cb ∈ I for any c ∈ S.
The congruence ρI is called the Rees congruence on S with respect to the
ideal I.
If ρ is a congruence on S and a ∈ S, the equivalence class of a in ρ is
denoted by aρ or simply by a if the congruence ρ is clear from the context.
Let ρ be a congruence on a semigroup S. Consider the set S/ρ of all
equivalence classes. For a, b ∈ S set
a · b := ab.
(6.1)
Lemma 6.1.4 The formula (6.1) defines a binary associative operation on
S/ρ. In other words, (S/ρ, ·), where · is defined by (6.1), is a semigroup.
Proof. First we have to show that (6.1) defines a well-defined binary operation on S/ρ. Let a ∈ a and b ∈ b. Since ρ is compatible we have
ab ≡ ab ≡ a b and hence a · b = a · b , that is, the operation · is well-defined.
The associativity of · follows from the associativity of the multiplication
in S:
(a · b) · c = ab · c = abc = a · bc = a · (b · c).
The semigroup (S/ρ, ·) constructed above is called the quotient or the
factor of S modulo the congruence ρ. If ρ = ρI , one usually simply writes
S/I instead of S/ρI . The semigroup S/I is called the Rees quotient of S
modulo the ideal I.
If S is a monoid with the identity element 1, then from (6.1) we get
that 1 will be the identity element in S/ρ. The quotient S/ιS is naturally
identified with S. The quotient S/ωS is the one-element semigroup.
Let now (S, ·) and (T, ∗) be two semigroups. A mapping ϕ : S → T is
called a homomorphism provided that for all a, b ∈ S we have
ϕ(a · b) = ϕ(a) ∗ ϕ(b).
(6.2)
6.1. CONGRUENCES AND HOMOMORPHISMS
93
The notion of an isomorphism from Sect. 2.4 is just a special case of
the notion of a homomorphism. An isomorphism is just a bijective homomorphism. Other special cases of homomorphisms are (1) injective
homomorphisms, which are called monomorphisms and (2) surjective
homomorphisms, which are called epimorphisms. Monomorphisms are usually denoted by the symbol →, and epimorphisms by the symbol .
A homomorphism ϕ : S → S is called an endomorphism of S. A bijective
endomorphism is called an automorphism. The set of all endomorphisms of
S is denoted by End(S) and the set of all automorphisms of S is denoted by
Aut(S). Both these sets are not empty since they both contain the identity
transformation on S.
Proposition 6.1.5 The set End(S) is a monoid with respect to the composition of mappings. Aut(S) is the group of units in End(S), in particular,
Aut(S) is a group.
Proof. Let ϕ, ψ ∈ End(S). For any a, b ∈ S we have
ϕ(ψ(ab)) = ϕ(ψ(a)ψ(b)) = ϕ(ψ(a))ϕ(ψ(b)).
Hence End(S) is closed with respect to the composition of mappings. Since
this composition is associative (by Proposition 2.1.1), End(S) is a semigroup.
The identity element of End(S) is the identity transformation. As the composition of bijections is a bijection, Aut(S) is a subsemigroup of End(S). Let
ϕ ∈ Aut(S) and consider the inverse bijection ϕ−1 . Applying ϕ−1 to (6.2)
for any a, b ∈ S we have
ab = ϕ−1 (ϕ(a)ϕ(b)).
(6.3)
Take x = ϕ(a) and y = ϕ(b). Then a = ϕ−1 (x) and b = ϕ−1 (y) and (6.3)
becomes
ϕ−1 (x)ϕ−1 (y) = ϕ−1 (xy)
and x, y ∈ S are arbitrary since a, b ∈ S were arbitrary and ϕ−1 is a bijection. This means that ϕ−1 ∈ Aut(S) and thus all elements of Aut(S) are
invertible. On the other hand, each invertible transformation from End(S)
is a bijection and hence belongs to Aut(S). This completes the proof.
If S is a semigroup and ρ is a congruence on S, we can define the canonical
projection or the canonical epimorphism πρ : S S/ρ via a → a. The
mapping πρ is surjective by definition and is a homomorphism by (6.1).
Let S and T be two semigroups and ϕ : S → T be a homomorphism.
The equivalence relation
Ker(ϕ) = {(a, b) ∈ S × S : ϕ(a) = ϕ(b)}
94
CHAPTER 6. OTHER RELATIONS ON SEMIGROUPS
is called the kernel of ϕ. This relation is a congruence on S. Indeed,
ϕ(a) = ϕ(b)
⇒
ϕ(ca) = ϕ(c)ϕ(a) = ϕ(c)ϕ(b) = ϕ(cb),
which shows that Ker(ϕ) is left compatible. That Ker(ϕ) is right compatible
is proved analogously. On the other hand, if ρ is a congruence on S, then we
have the homomorphism πρ : S S/ρ and Ker(πρ ) = ρ. This means that
each congruence is the kernel of some homomorphism.
If ϕ : S T is an epimorphism, T is called a homomorphic image of S. It
turns out that all homomorphic images of a semigroup can be characterized
up to isomorphism.
Theorem 6.1.6 Let ϕ : S → T be a homomorphism of semigroups, and
π be the canonical projection π : S S/Ker(ϕ). Then the mapping ψ :
S/Ker(ϕ) → T defined via ψ(a) = ϕ(a) is a monomorphism and ϕ = ψπ,
that is, the following diagram commutes:
ϕ
/
S II
u: T
II
u
II
u
I
u
π III$
,u ψ
$
S/Ker(ϕ)
Moreover, if ϕ is an epimorphism, then ψ is an isomorphism.
Proof. First, we have to check that ψ is well defined. For a ∈ a we have
ϕ(a ) = ϕ(a) by the definition of Ker(ϕ). Hence ψ(a ) = ϕ(a ) = ϕ(a) =
ψ(a).
Now let us check that ψ is injective. Indeed, if ψ(a) = ψ(b), then ϕ(a) =
ϕ(b) by definition and hence a ∈ b, that is, a = b.
The next step is to check that ψ is a homomorphism. Let a, b ∈ S/Ker(ϕ).
Then
ψ(a · b) = ψ(ab) = ϕ(ab) = ϕ(a)ϕ(b) = ψ(a)ψ(b).
Now for a ∈ S we have ψ(π(a)) = ψ(a) = ϕ(a) and hence ϕ = ψπ.
Finally, if ϕ is surjective, then so is ψ since ϕ = ψπ. We already know that
ψ is always injective. Hence ψ is bijective for surjective ϕ. This completes
the proof.
From Theorem 6.1.6 it follows that, up to isomorphism, all homomorphic
images of a semigroup S are exhausted by the quotients of S.
6.2
Congruences on Groups
Our main goal in the first part of this chapter is to describe all congruences
on the semigroups Tn , PT n , and IS n . This will be done in Sect. 6.3. In the
present section, we briefly recall the description of all congruences on groups.
6.2. CONGRUENCES ON GROUPS
95
Lemma 6.2.1 (i) Let S be a monoid and ρ be a congruence on S. Then
the class 1 is a subsemigroup of S.
(ii) If S is a group, then 1 is a group as well.
Proof. Let a, b ∈ 1. Since ρ is left compatible we have that 1 ≡ b implies
a ≡ ab. Hence ab ∈ 1, proving (i).
Assume that S is a group and let a ∈ 1. Since ρ is left compatible we
have that 1 ≡ a implies a−1 ≡ a−1 a = 1. Hence a−1 ∈ 1, proving (ii).
Lemma 6.2.2 Let G be a group, ρ a congruence on G and H = 1. Then
for any g ∈ G and h ∈ H we have g −1 hg ∈ H.
Proof. Since ρ is left compatible, we have that 1 ≡ h implies g −1 ≡ g −1 h.
Since ρ is right compatible, we have that g −1 ≡ g −1 h implies 1 = g −1 g ≡
g −1 hg. Hence g −1 hg ∈ H.
Recall that a subgroup H of a group G is called normal provided that
g −1 hg ∈ H for all g ∈ G and h ∈ H. The fact that H is a normal subgroup
of G is usually denoted by H G.
Let G be a group and H be a subgroup of G. For g ∈ G the set gH =
{gh : h ∈ H} is called a left coset of G modulo H. The set of all left cosets
of G modulo H is denoted by G/H. Given G and H as above define the
binary relation ρH on G as follows: (a, b) ∈ ρH if and only if a ∈ bH.
Lemma 6.2.3 Let G be a group and H be a subgroup of G. Then ρH is an
equivalence relation on G.
Proof. H is a subgroup, in particular, 1 ∈ H. Hence a = a · 1 ∈ aH, which
means that ρH is reflexive.
Let (a, b) ∈ ρH . Then a = bh for some h ∈ H by definition. Since H is
a group, h−1 ∈ H and hence b = bhh−1 = ah−1 , implying b ∈ aH. Hence
(b, a) ∈ ρH and ρH is symmetric.
Let (a, b), (b, c) ∈ ρH . Then a = bh and b = ch for some h, h ∈ H.
Hence a = ch h. Since H is a subgroup, we have h h ∈ H and thus a ∈ cH
implying (a, c) ∈ ρH . This means that ρH is transitive and completes the
proof.
As an immediate corollary from Lemma 6.2.3 we obtain:
Corollary 6.2.4 Let G be a group, H be a subgroup of G, and a, b ∈ G.
Then either aH = bH or aH ∩ bH = ∅.
Now we are ready to describe all possible congruences and quotients of
a group.
96
CHAPTER 6. OTHER RELATIONS ON SEMIGROUPS
Theorem 6.2.5 Let G be a group.
(i) If H G, then ρH is a congruence on G.
(ii) Every congruence on G has the form ρH for some normal subgroup
H G.
(iii) If ρ is a congruence on G, then the semigroup G/ρ is, in fact, a group.
Proof. Let H G. We already know from Lemma 6.2.3 that ρH is an equivalence relation on G. Let (a, b) ∈ ρH and g ∈ G. Then a = bh for some h ∈ H
and multiplying with g from the left we get ga = gbh, that is, (ga, gb) ∈ ρH .
Thus ρH is left compatible. On the other hand, multiplying with g from the
right, we have ag = bhg = bg(g −1 hg). As H is normal, we have g −1 hg ∈ H
and hence (ag, bg) ∈ ρH . Thus ρH is right compatible as well. This proves (i).
Let ρ be a congruence on G. Set H = 1. By Lemmas 6.2.1(ii) and 6.2.2,
H is a normal subgroup of G. Let a, b ∈ G be such that (a, b) ∈ ρ. Since ρ is
left compatible we get 1 = a−1 a ≡ a−1 b. Hence a−1 b ∈ H and multiplying
with a from the left we get b ∈ aH, that is, (a, b) ∈ ρH . This shows that
ρ ⊂ ρH . On the other hand, let (a, b) ∈ ρH . Then (1, a−1 b) ∈ ρH by the left
stability of ρH . But then a−1 b ∈ H = 1 and hence (1, a−1 b) ∈ ρ. Multiplying
the latter with a from the left we get (a, b) ∈ ρ as ρ is left compatible. Hence
ρH ⊂ ρ and thus ρ = ρH , proving (ii).
We already know that G/ρ is a monoid with the identity element 1. To
prove (iii) one just has to observe that a · a−1 = 1 and hence all elements of
G/ρ are invertible. This completes the proof.
6.3
Congruences on T n , PT n , and IS n
Let S denote one of the semigroups Tn , PT n , or IS n .
From Theorem 4.5.1(iii) we have that some elements α, β ∈ S belong to
the same H-class of the D-class Dk if and only if they have the following
form:
A1 A2 · · · Ak Ak+1
,
α=
a1 a2 · · · ak
∅
(6.4)
A1
A2 · · ·
Ak Ak+1
β=
,
aμ(1) aμ(2) · · · aμ(k)
∅
where the sets A1 , . . . , Ak , Ak+1 are pairwise disjoint, μ ∈ Sk , and the set
Ak+1 may be empty. If S = Tn , we always have Ak+1 = ∅. If S = IS n , we
have |A1 | = · · · = |Ak | = 1. Sometimes we shall omit the set Ak+1 in our
notation.
For every k = 1, 2, . . . , n and for every normal subgroup R Sk we define
an equivalence relation ≡R on S as follows:
6.3. CONGRUENCES ON Tn , PT n , AND IS n
97
• If rank(α) < k, then α ≡R β if and only if rank(β) < k.
• If rank(α) > k, then α ≡R β if and only if α = β.
• If rank(α) = k, then α ≡R β if and only if αHβ and if α and β are
given by (6.4), then μ ∈ R.
Lemma 6.3.1 The relation ≡R is well defined, that is, it does not depend
on the order of the blocks A1 , . . . , Ak+1 in the presentation of α in the form
(6.4).
Proof. Assume that we permute the Ai s in some way, say B1 = Aη(1) , B2 =
Aη(2) , . . . , Bk = Aη(k) . In this numeration, we have
B1
B2 · · · Bk
B1 B2 · · · Bk
α=
, β=
,
bτ (1) bτ (2) · · · bτ (k)
b1 b2 · · · bk
where bi = aη(i) , i = 1, . . . , k. Then for all i we have
bτ (i) = aμ(η(i)) = bη−1 (μ(η(i))) = b(η−1 μη)(i) .
Hence τ = η −1 μη. As R is a normal subgroup of Sk , we have τ ∈ R if and
only if μ ∈ R. The claim follows.
Lemma 6.3.2 The relation ≡R is a congruence on S.
Proof. First we check that ≡R is an equivalence relation on S. That ≡R
is reflexive is obvious. That R is symmetric and transitive for elements of
rank = k is also obvious. Let us show that R is symmetric and transitive for
elements of rank k. Let
A1 A2 · · · Ak
,
α=
a1 a2 · · · ak
A1
A2 · · ·
Ak
A1 A2 · · · Ak
β=
=
,
aμ(1) aμ(2) · · · aμ(k)
b1 b2 · · · bk
A2 · · · Ak
A1
.
γ=
bτ (1) bτ (2) · · · bτ (k)
Then
α=
γ=
A1
A2
bμ−1 (1) bμ−1 (2)
···
···
A2
···
A1
aμ(τ (1)) aμ(τ (2)) · · ·
Ak
bμ−1 (k)
Ak
aμ(τ (k))
,
.
If α ≡R β and β ≡R γ, then μ, τ ∈ R and hence both μ−1 and μτ are
elements of R as well, since R is a group. Thus β ≡R α and α ≡R γ, which
means that ≡R is indeed an equivalence relation.
98
CHAPTER 6. OTHER RELATIONS ON SEMIGROUPS
Let us now show that ≡R is both left and right compatible. If we have
rank(α), rank(β) < k, then for any γ the ranks of the elements αγ, βγ, γα,
and γβ do not exceed (k − 1) as well (by Exercise 2.1.4(c)). Hence
αγ ≡R βγ and γα ≡R γβ.
(6.5)
If α = β, then relations (6.5) are obvious. So, we are left with the case
rank(α) = rank(β) = k. Let α and β be given by (6.4) and α ≡R β. For any
a1 a2 · · · ak · · ·
γ=
c1 c2 · · · c k · · ·
we have
γα =
A1 A2 · · ·
c1 c2 · · ·
Ak
ck
, γβ =
A2 · · ·
A1
cμ(1) cμ(2) · · ·
Ak
cμ(k)
.
If some of the symbols c1 , c2 , . . . , ck are equal to ∅ or coincide, then we
have rank(γα), rank(γβ) < k and hence γα ≡R γβ. In the other case we
have γαHγβ. Hence we can consider γα and γβ as two elements, written in
the form (6.4). The corresponding permutation of indices is μ ∈ R. Hence
γα ≡R γβ again. This proves that ≡R is left compatible.
To prove that ≡R is right compatible set Bi = {x ∈ N : γ(x) ∈ Ai },
i = 1, . . . , k. If Bi = ∅ for some i, then rank(αγ), rank(βγ) < k and hence
αγ ≡R βγ. In the other case we have
B1
B2 · · · Bk
B1 B2 · · · Bk
αγ =
, βγ =
cμ(1) cμ(2) · · · cμ(k)
c1 c2 · · · ck
and the same argument as in the previous paragraph shows that αγ ≡R βγ
again. This proves that ≡R is right compatible and completes the proof.
Remark 6.3.3 If R = S1 , then ≡R is the identity congruence on S.
Our ultimate goal in this section is to show that any congruence on S
is either the uniform congruence or has the form ≡R for some R. To prove
this we will need a series of auxiliary lemmas.
Recall
from Sect. 2.3 that for
N
a ∈ N we denote by 0a the element 0a =
∈ Tn . Recall also from
a
Sect. 2.7 that for A ⊂ N the element εA is the idempotent of IS n such that
dom(εA ) = A.
Lemma 6.3.4 Let ρ be a congruence on Tn . If ρ = ιS , then the ideal I1 is
contained in some class of ρ.
Proof. By assumption, there exist α = β ∈ Tn such that α ≡ β. This means
that for some x ∈ N we have a = α(x) = β(x) = b. Take arbitrary y, z ∈ N
and let
a b ···
γ=
.
y z ···
6.3. CONGRUENCES ON Tn , PT n , AND IS n
99
Then γα0x = 0y and γβ0x = 0z , implying 0y ≡ 0z . Hence all elements from
I1 belong to the same class of ρ.
Lemma 6.3.5 Let ρ be a congruence on S, and α, β ∈ S be such that
rank(α) = k, rank(β) = m, k > m, and α ≡ β. Then Ik ⊂ α.
Proof. First, we consider the case S = PT n or S = IS n . As α ∈ Ik , it is
enough to show that Ik ⊂ 0. For this we show that Il ⊂ 0 for all l ≤ k by
induction on l. That 0 ∈ 0 is obvious. Assume that l < k and that Il ⊂ 0.
Let us show that Il+1 ⊂ 0 as well.
We have im(α)\im(β) = ∅ because of our assumptions. Take some
a0 ∈ im(α)\im(β) and complete it to some (l + 1)-element subset A =
{a0 , a1 , . . . , al } ⊂ im(α). From α ≡ β we have εA α ≡ εA β. However,
im(εA β) ⊂ {a1 , . . . , al } and thus rank(εA β) ≤ l. This implies εA β ∈ 0
and thus εA α ∈ 0 as well. But im(εA α) = A and thus rank(εA α) = l + 1. As
0 contains the ideal I0 , by Lemma 6.1.3 the set 0 must be an ideal itself.
Hence 0 contains the principal ideal SεA αS, which coincides with Il+1 by
Theorem 4.2.8.
Let now S = Tn . By Lemma 6.3.4 one of the classes of ρ contains I1 . Now
the proof is analogous to the one given above. The only difference is that
instead of the idempotent εA one should consider the following idempotent:
a0 X1 · · · Xl
εA =
,
a0 a1 · · · al
where Xi are arbitrary such that ai ∈ Xi , i = 1, . . . , l.
If ρ is a congruence on S, different from the identity congruence, then by
Lemmas 6.3.4 and 6.1.3 it always contains a unique congruence class which
is an ideal of S. We denote this class by Iρ .
Lemma 6.3.6 Let ρ be a congruence on S, different from the identity congruence. If α ≡ β and α ∈ Iρ , then αHβ.
Proof. Without loss of generality we may assume n > 1.
Assume that im(α) = im(β). Without loss of generality we may assume
im(α)\im(β) = ∅. Let a ∈ im(α)\im(β) and b ∈ im(α)\{a}. Consider the
idempotent , uniquely defined by the following conditions:
⎧
⎪
⎨x, x = a;
(x) = b, x = aandS = Tn ;
⎪
⎩
∅, x = aandS = Tn .
Then we have α ≡ β = β. Hence α ≡ α. On the other hand, im(α) =
im(α)\{a} and hence rank(α) < rank(α). Applying Lemma 6.3.5 we get
α ∈ Iρ , a contradiction. Hence im(α) = im(β).
100
CHAPTER 6. OTHER RELATIONS ON SEMIGROUPS
Let im(α) = {a1 , . . . , ak }. Then we may assume that
B1 B2 · · ·
A1 A2 · · · Ak Ak+1
, β=
α=
a1 a2 · · · ak
∅
a1 a2 · · ·
Bk Bk+1
ak
∅
,
where the sets Ak+1 and/or Bk+1 may be empty. Assume that ρα = ρβ .
Then either Ak+1 = Bk+1 , or Ak+1 = Bk+1 (that is, dom(α) = dom(β)) and
there exist elements x, y ∈ dom(α), x = y, which belong to the same block
of ρα but to different blocks of ρβ .
Consider the second case first. In this case k ≥ 2 and without loss of
generality we may assume that there exist b1 ∈ B1 and b2 ∈ B2 such that
b1 , b2 ∈ Al , l < k + 1. Consider the element
a1 a2 · · · ak · · ·
.
γ=
b1 b2 · · · bk · · ·
From γα ≡ γβ we have (γα)2 ≡ (γβ)2 . But
A1 A2 A3 · · ·
2
(γα) =
bl bl c3 · · ·
B1 B2 B3 · · ·
(γβ)2 =
b1 b2 b3 · · ·
Ak Ak+1
ck
∅
Bk Bk+1
bk
∅
,
.
Hence
rank((γα)2 ) ≤ k − 1 < k = rank((γβ)2 ).
Applying Lemma 6.3.5 we get Ik ⊂ Iρ , and hence α ∈ Iρ as rank(α) = k, a
contradiction. Therefore ρα = ρβ in this case.
Consider now the case Ak+1 = Bk+1 . Without loss of generality we may
assume that there exists d1 ∈ Ak+1 ∩ B1 . Choose any di ∈ Bi , i = 2, . . . , k,
and consider the element
a1 a2 a3 · · · ak · · ·
.
δ=
d1 d2 d3 · · · dk · · ·
From δα ≡ δβ we have (δα)2 ≡ (δβ)2 . But
A1 A2 A3 · · ·
2
(δα) =
∅ s2 s3 · · ·
B1 B2 B3 · · ·
(δβ)2 =
d1 d2 d3 · · ·
Ak Ak+1
sk
∅
Bk Bk+1
dk
∅
,
.
Using the same arguments as in the previous paragraph, we conclude that
α ∈ Iρ , a contradiction. Therefore ρα = ρβ in this case as well.
From Theorem 4.5.1(iii) it now follows that αHβ. This completes the
proof.
6.3. CONGRUENCES ON Tn , PT n , AND IS n
101
Lemma 6.3.7 Let ρ be a congruence on S, and α ∈ S be an element of rank
k such that there exists β = α with the property α ≡ β. Then Iρ ⊃ Ik−1 .
Proof. If α ∈ Iρ , then Iρ contains even Ik (the principal ideal, generated
by α). So, we may now assume that α ∈ Iρ . By Lemma 6.3.6, we may assume
that
Aμ(1) Aμ(2) · · · Aμ(k)
A1 A2 · · · Ak
, β=
,
α=
a1 a2 · · · ak
a1
a2
···
ak
where μ ∈ Sk is different from the identity. In particular, k > 1. Let k = 2.
If S = Tn , then I1 ⊂ Iρ follows from Lemma 6.3.4. If S = Tn , then ε{a1 } ∈ S
and since μ = (1, 2) we have
A2
A1
γ1 = ε{a1 } α =
=
= ε{a1 } β = γ2 .
a1
a1
Moreover, even dom(γ1 ) = A1 = A2 = dom(γ2 ), that is, γ1 ∈ H(γ2 ). However, γ1 ≡ γ2 and as rank(γ1 ) = 1, the inclusion I1 ⊂ Iρ follows now from
Lemma 6.3.6.
If k > 2, then, since μ is different from the identity transformation, it is
easy to see that we can choose t, t + 1 ∈ N such that {t, t + 1} = {μ(t), μ(t +
1)}. Consider first the case S = Tn , or S = PT n . Take any element
a1 · · · at at+1 at+2 · · · ak · · ·
.
γ=
a1 · · · at at at+2 · · · ak · · ·
Then γα ≡ γβ. The partition ργα is obtained from ρα uniting the blocks
At and At+1 . On the other hand, the partition ργβ is obtained from ρβ
uniting the blocks Aμ(t) and Aμ(t+1) . As {t, t + 1} = {μ(t), μ(t + 1)}, we get
At ∪ At+1 = Aμ(t) ∪ Aμ(t+1) . Hence ργα = ργβ . From Lemma 6.3.6 it thus
follows that γα ∈ Iρ . As rank(γα) = k − 1, it follows that Iρ ⊃ Ik−1 .
In the case S = IS n the proof is similar, one has just to choose t such
that μ(t) = t and consider the element
a1 . . . at−1 at at+1 · · · ak · · ·
.
γ=
a1 · · · at−1 ∅ at+1 · · · ak · · ·
Lemma 6.3.8 Let ρ be a congruence on S and Iρ = Ik . If α, β ∈ S are
such that rank(α) > k + 1 and rank(β) > k + 1, then α ≡ β if and only if
α = β.
Proof. By Lemma 6.3.7, the inequality α = β implies Iρ ⊃ Ik+1 . The claim
follows.
Lemma 6.3.9 Let ρ be a congruence on S, which is neither identity nor
uniform. Assume that Iρ = Ik−1 . Then ρ has the form ≡R for some normal
subgroup R of Sk .
102
CHAPTER 6. OTHER RELATIONS ON SEMIGROUPS
Proof. If Iρ = Ik−1 , all elements of rank at least (k + 1) form one-element
equivalence classes by Lemma 6.3.8. Hence we have only to find out the
structure of equivalence classes for elements of rank k. By Lemma 6.3.6, for
such elements we have that γ ≡ δ implies γHδ.
Let γ be an idempotent of rank k. Then H(γ) is a group with the identity
element γ by Theorem 4.4.11. Moreover, H(γ) ∼
= Sk by Theorem 5.1.4. The
set H(γ) × H(γ) is a union of congruence classes of ρ by Lemma 6.3.6.
This also induces a congruence on H(γ), call it ργ . This means that the
set G(γ) = {δ ∈ H(γ) : δ ≡ γ} is a normal subgroup of H(γ) and ργ
coincides with the partition of H(γ) into left cosets of H(γ) modulo G(γ)
by Theorem 6.2.5.
We shall need an explicit form of the above statement. Let the idempotent γ be of the following form:
M1 M 2 · · · M k
.
γ=
m1 m2 · · · mk
Then each element δ ∈ H(γ) has the form
M2 · · ·
M1
δ=
mμ(1) mμ(2) · · ·
Mk
mμ(k)
.
And an isomorphism H(γ) ∼
= Sk is given by using the mapping δ → μ, say.
Under this isomorphism G(γ) is mapped to some normal subgroup of Sk ,
call it R.
Let us now show that ρ =≡R . Let α and β be two H-related elements of
rank k in S. Assume that they are given by (6.4). Choose in each block Ai
some element ai and consider the elements
M 1 M2 · · · Mk
a1 · · · ak · · ·
ν=
,
π
=
,
a1 a2 · · · ak
m1 · · · mk · · ·
A1 A2 · · · Ak
m1 · · · mk · · ·
, π1 =
,
ν1 =
m1 m2 · · · mk
a1 · · · ak · · ·
where π, π1 ∈ Sn . Then γ = παν, δ = πβν, α = π1 γν1 , β = π1 δν1 . Hence
α ≡ β if and only if γ ≡ δ. From the previous paragraph we know that
the latter is the case if and only if μ ∈ R. Hence ρ =≡R , completing the
proof.
Now we can summarize the above results into the following:
Theorem 6.3.10 Let S be one of the semigroups PT n , Tn , or IS n .
(i) For each k, 1 ≤ k ≤ n, and for each normal subgroup R of Sk the
relation ≡R is a congruence on S. The congruence ≡R is uniform if
and only if n = 1 and S = Tn , and is the identity congruence if and
only if k = 1.
6.4. CONJUGATE ELEMENTS
103
(ii) Let ρ be a congruence on S, which is not uniform. Then there exists
k ∈ {1, 2, . . . , n} and a normal subgroup R of Sk such that ρ =≡R .
Proof. The statement (i) is proved in Lemma 6.3.2. The statement (ii) follows from Lemmas 6.3.4 to 6.3.9.
6.4
Conjugate Elements
Let G be a group. An element a ∈ G is said to be conjugate to an element
b ∈ G provided that there exists c ∈ G such that a = c−1 bc.
Exercise 6.4.1 Show that the binary relation “a is conjugate to b” is an
equivalence relation on G.
Conjugation plays a very important role in group theory. Hence it is very
natural to study various generalizations of this notion for certain classes of
semigroups, in the best case, for all semigroups. There are several ways to
generalize this notion. The most direct one works for monoids and is defined
as follows: Let S be a monoid and G = S ∗ be the group of units of S. An
element a ∈ S is said to be G-conjugate to an element b ∈ S provided that
there exists c ∈ S ∗ such that a = c−1 bc. Obviously, if S is a group, then the
relations of the usual conjugation and of G-conjugation coincide.
Exercise 6.4.2 Show that the binary relation “a is G-conjugate to b” is an
equivalence relation on S.
Recall that two graphs Γ1 = (V1 , E1 ) and Γ2 = (V2 , E2 ) are said to be
isomorphic provided that there exists a bijection ϕ : V1 → V2 such that for
all a, b ∈ V1 we have (a, b) ∈ E1 if and only if (ϕ(a), ϕ(b)) ∈ E2 . In other
words, two graphs are isomorphic if they can be obtained from each other
via a renumeration of vertices.
Proposition 6.4.3 Let S be one of the semigroups PT n , IS n , or Tn . Two
elements α, β ∈ S are G-conjugate if and only if the graphs Γα and Γβ are
isomorphic.
Proof. In our case we have S ∗ = Sn . Let α, β ∈ S and π ∈ Sn be such that
α = π −1 βπ. For x, y ∈ N the arrow (x, y) is an arrow of the graph Γα , or Γβ
if and only if y = α(x), or y = β(x), respectively. We first rewrite α = π −1 βπ
as follows: πα = βπ. Then for any x ∈ dom(α) we have π(α(x)) = β(π(x)),
that is, the following diagram is commutative:
x
α
α(x)
π
/ π(x)
β
π
/ π(α(x)) = β(π(x))
(6.6)
104
CHAPTER 6. OTHER RELATIONS ON SEMIGROUPS
The above diagram says that π maps arrows from Γα to arrows from Γβ .
Analogously one shows that the inverse permutation π −1 maps arrows from
Γβ to arrows from Γα . Hence π is an isomorphism from Γα to Γβ .
The converse statement is obvious. If π : N → N is an isomorphism from
Γα to Γβ , then from (6.6) it follows that α = π −1 βπ.
A more interesting semigroup generalization of the notion of group conjugation is the following one: Let S be a semigroup. Elements a, b ∈ S are
said to be primarily S-conjugate provided that there exist u, v ∈ S 1 such
that a = uv and b = vu. The fact that a and b are primarily S-conjugate is
denoted by a ∼pS b. From the definition it is obvious that the relation ∼pS
is reflexive and symmetric. However, it is not transitive in general.
Exercise 6.4.4 Let α = [1, 2, 3], β = [1, 2][3], γ = [1][2][3] be elements from
IS 3 . Show that α ∼pS β and β ∼pS γ but α ∼pS γ.
Denote by ∼S the minimal transitive binary relation on S, which contains
∼pS . Such minimal binary relation is usually called the transitive closure of
the initial relations.
Exercise 6.4.5 Show that ∼S is an equivalence relation on S.
We will say that the elements a, b ∈ S are S-conjugate provided that
a ∼S b. The notion of S-conjugation generalizes that of G-conjugation.
Indeed, if a, b ∈ S are G-conjugate and c ∈ S ∗ is such that a = c−1 bc,
then for u = c−1 and v = bc we have a = uv and vu = bcc−1 = b. Hence
a ∼S b (and even a ∼pS b).
Proposition 6.4.6 Let S be a semigroup and let x, y ∈ S. Then we have:
(i) If x ∼pS y, then xi ∼pS y i for all i ∈ N.
(ii) If e = xi and f = y j are idempotents and x ∼pS y, then e ∼pS f .
Proof.
Letx = ab and y = ba for some
a, b ∈ S. Then xi = (ab)i =
i−1
i
i
i−1
a (ba) b and y = (ba) = (ba) b a implying xi ∼pS y i and proving
(i). To prove (ii) we observe that e = xi = xij and f = y j = y ij and that
xij ∼pS y ij by (i).
Lemma 6.4.7 Let S be a semigroup and e, f, g be three idempotents from
S such that e ∼pS f and e ∼pS g. Then f ∼pS g.
Proof. Let x, y, u, v ∈ S be such that e = xy, f = yx, e = uv, g = vu. Since
e is an idempotent we also have e = e2 = xyxy = xf y and analogously f =
yex, e = ugv, g = veu. This implies g = vxf yu and f = yugvx. Therefore
g = g 2 = (vxf )(yug) and f = f 2 = (yug)(vxf ) and thus g ∼pS f .
6.4. CONJUGATE ELEMENTS
105
An immediate corollary from Lemma 6.4.7 is the following:
Corollary 6.4.8 Let S be a semigroup. Then the restriction of ∼pS to E(S)
is an equivalence relation.
Corollary 6.4.9 Let S be a finite semigroup and x, y ∈ S be such that
x ∼S y. Let i, j ∈ N be such that e = xi and f = y j are idempotents. Then
e ∼pS f .
Proof. Let x = x1 , x2 , . . . , xl = y be a sequence of elements from S such that
xi ∼pS xi+1 for i = 1, . . . , l−1. Since S is finite, for every i = 2, . . . , l−1 there
i
exists mi ∈ N such that yi = xm
is an idempotent. Let y1 = e and yl = f .
i
From Proposition 6.4.6(ii) we obtain yi ∼pS yi+1 for all i = 1, . . . , l − 1.
Applying Lemma 6.4.7 inductively, we get that e ∼pS yi for all i = 2, . . . , l.
In particular, e ∼pS f .
Corollary 6.4.10 Let S be a finite semigroup. Then the restrictions of the
relation ∼pS and ∼S to E(S) coincide.
Proof. For e, f ∈ E(S) that e ∼pS f implies e ∼S f is obvious. The converse
implication is a special case of Corollary 6.4.9.
Corollary 6.4.11 Let S be a finite semigroup and e, f ∈ E(S). Then e ∼pS
f if and only if eDf .
Proof. Let u, v ∈ S 1 be such that uv = e and vu = f . Then e = e2 =
uvuv = uf v and f = f 2 = vuvu = veu. Hence S 1 eS 1 = S 1 f S 1 and we have
eJ f . By Theorem 5.4.1 we thus also have eDf since S is finite.
Conversely, if eDf , we can take a ∈ R(e) ∩ L(f ) and a ∈ R(f ) ∩ L(e)
as in the proof of Theorem 4.7.5. For such a and a we have e = aa and
f = a a and hence e ∼pS f .
Let π ∈ Sn . The cyclic type of π is the vector ct(π) = (l1 , l2 , . . . , ln ),
where li is the number of cycles of length i in the cyclic decomposition of π
(or, equivalently, in the graph Γπ ). Obviously 1 · l1 + 2 · l2 + · · · + n · ln = n.
Lemma 6.4.12 Let α, β ∈ PT n and α ∼pS β. Then we have strank(α) =
strank(β) and ct(α|stim(α) ) = ct(β|stim(β) ).
Proof. Let α = μη and β = ημ. For each a1 ∈ stim(α) consider the cycle
(a1 , a2 , . . . , ak ) of the permutation α|stim(α) , which contains a1 . We have
η
μ
η
μ
μ
η
μ
η
μ
a1 → b1 → a2 → b2 → . . . → ak−1 → bk−1 → ak → bk → a1 .
It follows that (b1 , b2 , . . . , bk ) = (η(a1 ), . . . , η(ak )) is a cycle for β. Obviously b1 , . . . , bk ∈ stim(β) and hence (b1 , b2 , . . . , bk ) is a cycle of the permutation β|stim(β) . Note that the lengths of the cycles (a1 , a2 , . . . , ak ) and
(b1 , b2 , . . . , bk ) coincide. It follows that η and μ induce mutually inverse bijections between cycles of α and cycles of β, which preserve lengths of cycles.
The claim follows.
106
CHAPTER 6. OTHER RELATIONS ON SEMIGROUPS
Theorem 6.4.13 Let S denote one of the semigroups PT n , Tn , or IS n ,
and α, β ∈ S. Then α ∼S β if and only if strank(α) = strank(β) and
ct(α|stim(α) ) = ct(β|stim(β) ).
Proof. The necessity follows from Lemma 6.4.12. Let us prove the sufficiency.
For any γ ∈ S define the following sets:
M0 (γ) = stim(γ),
M0 (γ) = im(γ)\dom(γ),
M0 (γ) = M0 (γ) ∪ M0 (γ),
M1 (γ) = {x ∈ M0 (γ) : α(x) ∈ M0 (γ)},
Mi (γ) = {x : α(x) ∈ Mi−1 (γ)}, i ≥ 2.
(6.7)
Note that M0 (γ) = ∅ for γ ∈ Tn . From Theorem 1.2.9, which describes the structure of connected components of Γγ it follows that the
sets M0 (γ), M0 (γ), M1 (γ), M2 (γ), . . . are pairwise disjoint and that
γ(Mi (γ)) ⊂ Mi−1 (γ) for all i > 0. Obviously Mi (γ) = ∅ for some i implies
Mj (γ) = ∅ for all j > i. Of course it makes sense to consider only those sets
from (6.7), which are nonempty, say these are the sets M0 (γ), . . . , Mk (γ).
Then we have the following picture:
M0 (γ)
γ
gOOO
OOO γ
OOO
OOO
γ
O o
rr
r
r
γ rr
rrr
r
r
r
M1 (γ)
< rx
... o
γ
o
Mk−1 (γ)
γ
Mk (γ)
M0 (γ)
Now let us apply the above to our element α. If S = PT n , or S = IS n
and k > 0, or if S = Tn and k > 1, we consider an idempotent , which
satisfies the following conditions:
• im() = M0 (α) ∪ M1 (α) ∪ · · · ∪ Mk−1 (α);
• dom() = im() if S = PT n , or S = IS n ; and (Mk (α)) ⊂ Mk−1 (α) if
S = Tn .
In the case S = PT n , or S = IS n the idempotent is uniquely determined,
while in the case S = Tn we might have a choice. For such we obviously have
α = α. On the other hand, for the element α1 = α the nonempty part of
the sequence (6.7) will be one step shorter. Further, for all i = 0, . . . , k − 2
6.4. CONJUGATE ELEMENTS
107
we obviously have Mi (α1 ) = Mi (α). If S = PT n , or S = IS n , we also
have Mk−1 (α1 ) = Mk−1 (α) if k > 1 and M0 (α1 ) = M0 (α) if k = 1. If
S = Tn , it is easy to see that Mk−1 (α1 ) = Mk−1 (α) ∪ Mk (α). Further,
strank(α1 ) = strank(α) and α|stim(α) = α1 |stim(α1 ) .
Now we can apply the same procedure to α1 , obtaining the element α2 ,
and so on. We obtain the sequence α0 = α, α1 ,. . . , such that αi ∼pS αi+1
for all i. Now we have to consider two different cases.
Case 1. S = PT n , or S = IS n . Let α = αk if k > 0, and α = α in the
opposite case. Then M0 (α ) = M0 (α ) = stim(α) = im(α). Analogously we
obtain the element β . We have α ∼S α , β ∼S β and using the assumptions
of our theorem we also have
α|stim(α) = α |stim(α) = (a1 , . . . , ap )(b1 , . . . , bq ) . . . (c1 , . . . , cr ),
β|stim(β) = β |stim(β) = (a1 , . . . , ap )(b1 , . . . , bq ) . . . (c1 , . . . , cr ).
Consider the elements
a1 · · ·
μ=
a
1 · · ·
a1 · · ·
η=
a1 · · ·
ap
ap
ap
ap
b1
b1
b1
b1
···
···
···
···
bq
bq
bq
bq
···
···
···
···
c1
c1
c1
c1
···
···
···
···
cr
,
cr cr
,
cr
(6.8)
(6.9)
where dom(μ) = dom(α ) = im(α ) and dom(η) = dom(β ) = im(β ). We
have α = ηβ · μ and β = μ · ηβ . Hence α ∼pS β and thus α ∼S β.
Case 2. S = Tn . Let α = αk−1 if k > 1, and α = α in the opposite
case. For this element the sequence (6.7) has at most two nonempty sets:
M0 (α ) = M0 (α ) and possibly M1 (α ) = N\M0 (α ). Analogously we get
the element β . As above, we have stim(α) = stim(α ) = im(α ), stim(β) =
stim(β ) = stim(β ), α ∼S α , β ∼S β and by the assumptions of the
theorem we also have the decompositions (6.8). Consider some permutation
μ̃, which coincides with the element μ from (6.9) on im(α ). Let η̃ = μ̃−1 .
Then η̃ coincides with the element η from (6.9) on im(β ) and for the element
δ = μ̃α · η̃ we have α ∼pS δ as α = η̃ · μ̃α . Moreover, we also have
stim(δ) = im(β ) and δ|im(β ) = β |im(β ) .
Set π = β |im(β ) . If im(β ) = {d1 , d2 , . . . , dm }, then β can be written as
follows:
D1 · · · Dm
d1
···
dm
β =
d1 · · · dm π(d1 ) · · · π(dm )
(some Di s may be empty). At the same time we can write δ as follows:
F1 · · · Fm
d1
···
dm
δ=
.
d1 · · · dm π(d1 ) · · · π(dm )
For the element
τ=
···
F1
−1
π (d1 ) · · ·
Fm
d1 · · ·
−1
π (dm ) d1 · · ·
dm
dm
108
CHAPTER 6. OTHER RELATIONS ON SEMIGROUPS
we then have τ β = β and β τ = δ. Hence β ∼pS δ, which implies α ∼S β.
This completes the proof.
Corollary 6.4.14 Let α, β ∈ Sn . Then α and β are conjugate if and only
if ct(α) = ct(β).
Proof. If α and β are conjugate, then α = π −1 · βπ for some π ∈ Sn .
As β = βπ · π −1 , we get α ∼pS β if we consider α and β as elements of
PT n . Hence ct(α) = ct(β) by Theorem 6.4.13. Conversely, if ct(α) = ct(β),
choosing μ and η as in (6.9) we get μ ∈ Sn , η = μ−1 and α = ηβμ. Hence α
and β are conjugate.
6.5
Addenda and Comments
6.5.1 Congruences on Tn were described by Mal’cev in [Ma1]. This description was used by Liber in [Lib] to describe congruences on IS n . Congruences
on PT n were described by Sutov in [Sut2].
6.5.2 A subsemigroup T of PT n is said to be Sn -normal provided that for
all α ∈ T and σ ∈ Sn we have σ −1 ασ ∈ T . For example, the semigroups
PT n , Tn and IS n are Sn -normal subsemigroups of PT n . Moreover, any ideal
in each of these semigroups is an Sn -normal subsemigroup of PT n as well.
Levi has shown in [Le] that for n > 4 all nontrivial congruences on almost
all Sn -normal subsemigroups have the form ≡R . The results of Mal’cev,
Liber, and Sutov are special cases of this general result of Levi.
6.5.3 Theorem 6.1.6 is true for a very general class of universal algebras of
the same type. The proof of this very general result is technically slightly
more difficult as one has to consider the cases of an arbitrary collection of
operations with different numbers of arguments.
6.5.4 Let Sem denote the category, whose objects are semigroups, and morphisms are all possible homomorphisms between semigroups. Categorical
monomorphisms in Sem are exactly the injective homomorphisms of semigroups, while the non-surjective embedding (N, +) → (Z, +) is a categorical
epimorphism in Sem. It is a good exercise to prove this.
6.5.5 Normal subgroups of the symmetric group Sk are very well known.
If n = 4, then the only normal subgroups of Sk are: the group Sk itself,
the subgroup Ak of all even permutation (also known as the alternating
group), and the subgroup Ek consisting of the identity transformation. For
n = 4 this was proved by Galois in about 1830. A short and easy argument
for this can be found for example in [KM]. In addition to S4 , A4 , and E4 ,
the group S4 has one more normal subgroup, namely, the so-called Klein
4-group V4 = {ε, (12)(34), (13)(24), (14)(23)}. We note that S1 = A1 = E1
and A2 = E2 . Hence from Theorem 6.3.10 we have the following corollary:
6.5. ADDENDA AND COMMENTS
109
Corollary 6.5.1 (i) For n > 1 all congruences on each of the semigroups
PT n , Tn and IS n form the following chain:
ιS =≡S1 ≡E2 ≡S2 ≡E3 ≡A3 ≡S3 ≡E4 ≡V4 ≡A4 ≡S4 ≡E5 ≡A5 ≡S5 · · · ≡En ≡An ≡Sn ωS .
(ii) Each congruence on IS n , or Tn is a restriction of some congruence on
PT n . Moreover, for n > 1 different congruences on PT n restrict to
different congruences on both IS n and Tn .
6.5.6 The criterion for S-conjugacy of two elements in IS n given in
Theorem 6.4.13 was obtained in [GK1]. For the semigroups PT n and
Tn an analogous result is obtained in [KuMa1]. Several abstract results
about S-conjugacy can be found in [Ku2, KuMa1, KuMa3, KuMa4].
6.5.7 With each α ∈ PT n one associates the binary relation
Φα = {(x, y) : x ∈ N, y = α(x)}
on N. This can be used to define the natural partial order on PT n :
αβ
if and only if Φα ⊂ Φβ .
Note that the restriction of the natural partial order to Tn coincides with
the equality relation.
It is easy to see that the natural partial order is a compatible relation.
The restriction of the natural partial order to IS n has a transparent algebraic interpretation:
Lemma 6.5.2 Let α, β ∈ IS n . Then α β if and only if αβ −1 = αα−1 .
It is hence natural and interesting to try to understand the structure of
all compatible partial orders on the semigroups PT n , Tn , and IS n . It turns
out that the only compatible partial order on Tn is the equality relation Δ
(see [Mo2]). For PT n and IS n the answer is much more interesting.
Theorem 6.5.3 ([Mo1]) (i) For each collection of numbers as follows:
0 ≤ k1 < k2 < · · · < km ≤ lm < · · · < l1 ≤ n, m ≥ 1, km < n, the
relation
Ψk1 ,...,km ,lm ,...,l1 = (Δ ∪ (Ik1 × Il1 ) ∪ · · · ∪ (Ikm × Ilm ))∩ (6.10)
is a compatible partial order on PT n . Moreover, different collections
give different compatible partial orders.
(ii) Each compatible partial order on the semigroup PT n has either the
form Ψk1 ,...,km ,lm ,...,l1 or is transposed to some Ψk1 ,...,km ,lm ,...,l1 .
110
CHAPTER 6. OTHER RELATIONS ON SEMIGROUPS
Theorem 6.5.4 ([Mo1]) (i) For each collection of numbers as follows:
0 ≤ k1 < k2 < · · · < km < lm < · · · < l1 ≤ n, m ≥ 1, the relation Ψk1 ,...,km ,lm ,...,l1 as in (6.10) is a compatible partial order on IS n .
Moreover, different collections give different compatible partial orders.
(ii) Each compatible partial order on IS n different from Δ has either the
form Ψk1 ,...,km ,lm ,...,l1 or is transposed to some Ψk1 ,...,km ,lm ,...,l1 .
Corollary 6.5.5 ([Mo1])
orders on PT n .
(i) There are exactly 2n+2 −5 compatible partial
(ii) There are exactly 2n+1 − 1 compatible partial orders on IS n .
6.6
Additional Exercises
6.6.1 Prove that the alternating group An of all even permutations is a
normal subgroup of Sn .
6.6.2 Prove that the Klein group V4 is normal in S4 .
6.6.3 Describe all left compatible and all right compatible equivalence relations on a group.
6.6.4 Let ρ be a congruence on a semigroup S. Let ϕ : S S/ρ be an
epimorphism such that Ker(ϕ) = ρ. Is it possible to claim that ϕ always
coincides with the canonical epimorphism?
6.6.5 ([Mo2]) Prove that the only compatible partial order on Tn is Δ.
6.6.6 Show that the set of all maximal elements of PT n with respect to the
natural partial order coincides with Tn .
6.6.7 Prove that for the semigroup IS n the following conditions are equivalent:
(a) α β
(b) α−1 β −1
(c) βα−1 = αα−1
(d) α−1 β = α−1 α
(e) αβ −1 = αα−1
(f) β −1 α = α−1 α
(g) αβ −1 α = α
(h) α−1 βα−1 = α−1
6.6.8 Prove Corollary 6.5.5.
Chapter 7
Endomorphisms
7.1
Automorphisms of T n , PT n , and IS n
Recall from Sect. 6.1 that an automorphism of a semigroup S is a bijective
mapping ϕ : S → S such that ϕ(x · y) = ϕ(x) · ϕ(y) for all x, y ∈ S.
Proposition 7.1.1 Let S be a monoid. For each a ∈ S ∗ the mapping Λa :
x → a−1 xa, x ∈ S, is an automorphism of S.
Proof. For x, y ∈ S we have
Λa (xy) = a−1 xya = a−1 xa · a−1 ya = Λa (x)Λa (y)
and hence Λa is an endomorphism of S. Further for all x ∈ S we have
Λa−1 Λa (x) = aa−1 xaa−1 = x, Λa Λa−1 (x) = a−1 axa−1 a = x.
Hence Λa is a bijection with the inverse Λa−1 . The claim follows.
Automorphisms of the form Λa , a ∈ S ∗ , are called inner automorphisms
of S. The set of all inner automorphisms of S is denoted by Inn(S).
Proposition 7.1.2 Let S be a monoid.
(i) The mapping a → Λa−1 , a ∈ S ∗ , is an epimorphism from S ∗ to Inn(S).
(ii) Inn(S) is a normal subgroup of Aut(S).
Proof. The mapping a → Λa−1 , a ∈ S ∗ , is obviously surjective. Let a, b ∈ S ∗ .
For any x ∈ S we have
Λ(ab)−1 (x) = abx(ab)−1 = abxb−1 a−1 = Λa−1 (bxb−1 ) = Λa−1 Λb−1 (x).
Hence Λa−1 Λb−1 = Λ(ab)−1 . This proves (i).
In the proof of Proposition 7.1.1 we have shown that Λ−1
a = Λa−1 for
all a ∈ S ∗ . Together with the above proof of (i) we hence have that Inn(S)
O. Ganyushkin, V. Mazorchuk, Classical Finite Transformation Semigroups, Algebra
and Applications 9, DOI: 10.1007/978-1-84800-281-4 7,
c Springer-Verlag London Limited 2009
111
112
CHAPTER 7. ENDOMORPHISMS
is closed with respect to both composition of maps and taking the inverse
map. This means that Inn(S) is a subgroup of Aut(S).
Let now a ∈ S ∗ , ψ ∈ Aut(S) and x ∈ S. Then
ψ −1 Λa ψ(x) = ψ −1 (a−1 ψ(x)a) = ψ −1 (a−1 )xψ −1 (a) = Λψ−1 (a) (x).
This means that ψ −1 Λa ψ = Λψ−1 (a) ∈ Inn(S) and completes the proof of (ii).
Theorem 7.1.3 Let S be one of the semigroups Tn , PT n , or IS n . Then
Inn(S) = Aut(S) ∼
= Sn .
Proof. We start our proof with the following lemma:
Lemma 7.1.4 Let σ and τ be different elements of Sn . Then the elements
Λσ and Λτ of Inn(S) are also different.
Proof. As σ = τ , there exists x ∈ N such that y = σ(x) = τ (x) = z. If
S = Tn or S = PT n , then Λσ (0x ) = 0y = 0z = Λτ (0x ). Hence Λσ = Λτ .
If S = IS n , then Λσ (ε{x} ) = ε{y} = ε{z} = Λτ (ε{x} ). Hence Λσ = Λτ
again.
Lemma 7.1.4 says that the epimorphism which was described in Proposition
7.1.2(i) is injective. In particular, this mapping induces an isomorphism
Inn(S) ∼
= S∗ ∼
= Sn . To complete the proof we only need to show that any
automorphism of S is inner. Since we already have n! different (inner) automorphisms of S, it is in fact enough to show that |Aut(S)| ≤ n!. We shall
do it via a case-by-case analysis.
Let ψ ∈ Aut(S). Since S is finite and all two-sided ideals of S form
a chain (by Theorem 4.3.1), ψ induces the identity mapping on the set of
all two-sided ideals. In particular, for all i = 0, 1, . . . , n we have that the
restriction map ψ|Ii : Ii → Ii is bijective.
Case 1. S = Tn . In this case we have I1 = {0a : a ∈ N}. Since the
restriction of ψ to I1 is a bijection, we can define the permutation ψ ∈ Sn
by the following rule: ψ(0a ) = 0ψ(a) , a ∈ N. The mapping ψ → ψ is a
homomorphism of groups. Indeed,
0ηψ(a) = ηψ(0a ) = η(ψ(0a )) = η(0ψ(a) ) = 0ηψ(a)
for all a ∈ N and hence ηψ = ηψ. Since |Sn | = n!, to complete the proof it
is enough to show that the kernel of the mapping ψ → ψ is trivial.
In other words, let ψ ∈ Aut(Tn ) be such that ψ(0a ) = 0a for all a ∈ N.
We have to show that ψ(α) = α for all α ∈ Tn . For α ∈ Tn set
M (α) = {(a, b) ∈ N × N : α · 0b = 0a }.
From the definition it is clear that (a, b) ∈ M (α) if and only if α(b) = a. Take
now some α ∈ Tn and let ψ(α) = β. Applying ψ to the equality α0b = 0a
7.1. AUTOMORPHISMS OF Tn , PT n , AND IS n
113
we get that this equality is equivalent to the equality β0b = 0a . This means
that M (α) = M (β), in particular, α(x) = β(x) for all x ∈ N. Therefore
β = α. Hence ψ(α) = α for all α ∈ Tn and the proof in the case S = Tn is
completed.
Case 2. S = IS n . The set X = {ε{a} : a ∈ N} is the set of all idempotents of rank one, that is, the set of all idempotents in I1 \I0 . As an
automorphism, ψ sends idempotents to idempotents. Since the restriction
of ψ to both I1 and I0 is a bijection, ψ induces a permutation on X, in
particular, we can define the permutation ψ ∈ Sn by the following rule:
ψ(ε{a} ) = ε{ψ(a)} , a ∈ N. As in the previous case one checks that the mapping ψ → ψ is a homomorphism of groups. To complete the proof it is
enough to show that the kernel of this mapping is trivial.
In other words, let ψ ∈ Aut(IS n ) be such that ψ(ε{a} ) = ε{a} for all
a ∈ N. We have to show that ψ(α) = α for all α ∈ IS n . For α ∈ IS n set
M (α) = {(a, b) ∈ N × N : ε{a} αε{b} = 0}.
From the definition it is clear that (a, b) ∈ M (α) if and only if α(b) = a.
Now take some α ∈ IS n and let ψ(α) = β. Applying ψ to the inequality
ε{a} αε{b} = 0 we get the inequality ε{a} βε{b} = 0. This means that M (α) =
M (β), and thus α = β. Hence ψ(α) = α for all α ∈ IS n and the proof in
the case S = IS n is completed as well.
Case 3. S = PT n . We could apply exactly the same arguments as in the
proof given in Case 2 provided that we could prove that ψ preserves the set
X. To prove this we will need the following:
Lemma 7.1.5 For α ∈ PT n we have
|dom(α)| = |dom(ψ(α))|
and
|im(α)| = |im(ψ(α))|.
Proof. Obviously αβ = 0 if and only if dom(α) ∩ im(β) = ∅, that is, if
im(β) ⊂ dom(α). Hence the right annihilator Annr (α) = {β : αβ = 0}
of the element α contains exactly (|dom(α)| + 1)n elements. Moreover, the
equality ψ(0) = 0 implies that αβ = 0 if and only if ψ(α)ψ(β) = 0. Hence
ψ(Annr (α)) = Annr (ψ(α)). As any automorphism is a bijection, we have
|Annr (α)| = |Annr (ψ(α))| and hence |dom(α)| = |dom(ψ(α))|.
Analogously, we have βα = 0 if and only if im(α) ∩ dom(β) = ∅, that
is, if dom(β) ⊂ im(α). Hence the left annihilator Annl (α) = {β : βα = 0}
of the element α contains exactly (n + 1)n−|im(α)| elements. Analogously
to the previous paragraph one shows that ψ(Annl (α)) = Annl (ψ(α)) and
|Annl (α)| = |Annl (ψ(α))|. Thus |im(α)| = |im(ψ(α))|.
From Lemma 7.1.5 it follows that for any a ∈ N the element α = ψ(ε{a} )
is an idempotent such that |dom(α)| = 1 and |im(α)| = 1. Hence α ∈ X.
This completes the proof.
114
7.2
CHAPTER 7. ENDOMORPHISMS
Endomorphisms of Small Ranks
Recall from Sect. 6.1 that an endomorphism of a semigroup S is a mapping
ϕ : S → S such that ϕ(x · y) = ϕ(x) · ϕ(y) for all x, y ∈ S. Our main goal for
the rest of this chapter is to describe all endomorphisms of the semigroups
Tn , IS n , and PT n . The final classification will be done basically using the
case-by-case analysis. If S is a semigroup and ϕ ∈ End(S), the number |ϕ(S)|
is called the rank of ϕ. We start with constructing some endomorphisms of
small ranks.
Let S denote one of the semigroups Tn , IS n , or PT n . Let ∈ S be an
idempotent. Define the mapping Φ : S → S via Φ (α) = for all α ∈ S.
The following statement is obvious:
Lemma 7.2.1 (i) For any idempotent the mapping Φ is an endomorphism of S of rank one.
(ii) If = , then Φ = Φ .
(iii) Every endomorphism of S or rank one has the form Φ for some idempotent ∈ S.
Let , δ ∈ S be different idempotents such that δ = δ = δ. Define the
mapping Ψ ,δ : S → S as follows:
, α ∈ Sn ;
Ψ ,δ (α) =
δ, otherwise.
Lemma 7.2.2 (i) For any pair , δ of different idempotents of S satisfying
δ = δ = δ the mapping Ψ ,δ is an endomorphism of S of rank two.
(ii) If the pairs , δ and , δ are different, then Ψ
,δ
= Ψ
,δ .
(iii) Every endomorphism of S or rank two has the form Φ
unequal idempotents , δ ∈ S satisfying δ = δ = δ.
,δ
for some
Proof. The statement (i) is proved by a direct calculation and the statement
(ii) is obvious. To prove (iii) we should assume that S = T1 as |T1 | = 1.
Let ϕ ∈ End(S) be an endomorphism of rank two. Then the congruence
Ker(ϕ) contains exactly two congruence classes. Going through the list of all
congruences on S given by Theorem 6.3.10, we see that the only congruence
on S with exactly two congruence classes is ≡Sn . The congruence classes
are S ∗ and In−1 . As the representatives of the two congruence classes of
this congruence we can take for example the identity transformation εn and
any (left) zero element γ of S. These are idempotents and obviously satisfy
εn γ = γεn = γ. Since they belong to different congruence classes, we have
= ϕ(εn ) = ϕ(γ) = δ. Moreover, δ = δ = δ. By definition, in this notation
we have ϕ = Φ ,δ . This completes the proof of (iii).
7.3. EXCEPTIONAL ENDOMORPHISM
115
Let , δ ∈ S be different idempotents such that δ = δ = δ. Let further
τ ∈ G be an element of order two (i.e., τ 2 = , τ = ) such that τ δ = δτ = δ.
Define the mapping Θτ,δ : S → S as follows:
⎧
⎪
⎨, α ∈ An ;
Θτ,δ (α) = τ, α ∈ Sn \An ;
⎪
⎩
δ, otherwise.
Lemma 7.2.3 (i) For any triple , δ, τ as above the mapping Θτ,δ is an
endomorphism of S of rank three.
(ii) If the triples , δ, τ and , δ , τ are different, then Θτ,δ = Θτ ,δ .
(iii) Every endomorphism of S or rank three has the form Θτ,δ for some ,
δ, and τ as above.
Proof. The statement (i) is proved by a direct calculation and the statement (ii) is obvious. To prove (iii) we should assume n > 1 as |PT 1 | = 2.
Let ϕ ∈ End(S) be an endomorphism of rank three. Then the congruence
Ker(ϕ) contains exactly three congruence classes. Going through the list of
all congruences on S given by Theorem 6.3.10, we see that the only congruence on S with exactly three congruence classes is ≡An , n > 1. The
congruence classes are An , Sn \An , and In−1 . As the representatives of the
three congruence classes of this congruence we can take for example the identity transformation εn , the transposition (1, 2) and any (left) zero element
γ of S. These elements obviously satisfy εn γ = γεn = γ, γ(1, 2) = γ, and
(1, 2) ∈ Gεn . Further, either (1, 2)γ = γ or (1, 2)γ is another left zero, and
hence belongs to In−1 . Since our representatives belong to different congruence classes, we have = ϕ(εn ) = ϕ(γ) = δ and ϕ((1, 2)) = τ is an element
of order two in G . Further, from the above we also get that δ = δ = δ
and τ δ = δτ = δ. By definition, in this notation we have ϕ = Θτ,δ . This
proves (iii).
7.3
Exceptional Endomorphism
Let ϕ ∈ Aut(Sn ) and S = IS n or S = PT n . Define the mapping Ωϕ : S → S
as follows:
ϕ(α), α ∈ Sn ;
Ωϕ (α) =
0,
otherwise.
Lemma 7.3.1 Ωϕ is an endomorphism of both IS n and PT n .
Proof. Follows by a direct calculation.
116
CHAPTER 7. ENDOMORPHISMS
To proceed we need some additional notation. Let α ∈ PT n be an element of rank (n − 1). We would like to associate with α some element α̂ of
rank one. There are two possibilities. The first one is dom(α) = N. Then we
define α̂ as the unique element of rank one such that
dom(α̂) = dom(α), im(α̂) = N\im(α).
Here is an example of such α and α̂ for n = 5:
1 2 3 4 5
1 2 3 4 5
α=
, α̂ =
.
2 5 ∅ 1 3
∅ ∅ 4 ∅ ∅
The second possibility is that there exists a unique pair a, b ∈ N such that
α(a) = α(b). Then we define α̂ as the unique element of rank one such that
dom(α̂) = {a, b}, im(α̂) = N\im(α).
Here is an example of such α and α̂ for n = 5:
1 2 3 4 5
1 2 3 4 5
α=
, α̂ =
.
2 5 2 1 3
4 ∅ 4 ∅ ∅
Define the mapping Ξ : PT n → PT n , n > 1, as follows:
⎧
⎪
⎨α, rank(α) = n;
Ξ(α) = α̂, rank(α) = n − 1;
⎪
⎩
0, otherwise.
Note that Ξ maps IS n to IS n . Abusing notation we denote the induced
mapping on IS n also by Ξ.
Lemma 7.3.2 Let S = IS n or S = PT n , n > 1.
(i) Ξ is an endomorphism of S.
(ii) If ϕ, ψ ∈ Aut(PT n ) and ϕ = ψ, then ϕΞ = ψΞ.
Proof. To prove (i) we have to check that
Ξ(αβ) = Ξ(α)Ξ(β)
(7.1)
for all α, β ∈ S. By the definition of Ξ this is obvious if both α and β are
permutations or if one of them has rank at most (n − 2). There are three
cases left.
Case 1. α ∈ Sn , rank(β) = n−1. In this case rank(αβ) = n−1 and hence
Since α is a permutation, we have
(7.1) reduces to the equality αβ̂ = αβ.
dom(αβ) = dom(β) and im(αβ) = α(im(β)). Hence the equality αβ̂ = αβ
follows from the definition of Ξ.
7.3. EXCEPTIONAL ENDOMORPHISM
117
Case 2. rank(α) = n−1, β ∈ Sn . In this case rank(αβ) = n−1 and hence
Since β is a permutation, we have
(7.1) reduces to the equality α̂β = αβ.
−1
dom(αβ) = β (dom(α)) and im(αβ) = im(α). Hence the equality α̂β = αβ
follows from the definition of Ξ.
Case 3. rank(α) = n − 1, rank(β) = n − 1. Here we have two possibilities.
The first one is that rank(αβ) < n − 1. This is possible if im(β) contains
two different a and b such that α(a) = α(b) or if im(β) ∩ dom(α) = ∅. In
both cases the definition of Ξ gives α̂β̂ = 0. The second possibility is that
rank(αβ) = n − 1. This is possible if and only if im(β) ⊂ dom(α) and α is
injective on im(β). In particular, from the definition of Ξ we have that the
unique element in N\im(β) belongs to dom(α̂), that is, im(β̂) ⊂ dom(α̂). We
= dom(β̂) and im(αβ)
= im(α̂), which implies α̂β̂ = αβ
thus get dom(αβ)
since both elements in the last equality have rank one. This proves (i). To
prove (ii) one can just observe that ϕΞ and ψΞ act differently on idempotents
of rank (n − 1).
Now let n = 4. In this case we have an additional normal subgroup of
S4 , namely, V4 . The cosets of S4 modulo V4 are the following sets:
X1 =
X2 =
X3 =
X4 =
X5 =
X6 =
1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4
2 1 3 4
1 2 3 4
1 3 2 4
1 2 3 4
3 2 1 4
1 2 3 4
2 3 1 4
1 2 3 4
3 1 2 4
1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4
,
,
,
,
2 1 4 3
3 4 1 2
4 3 2 1
1
,
1
1
,
2
1
,
4
1
,
1
1
,
4
2 3 4
2 4 3
2 3 4
4 1 3
2 3 4
1 2 3
2 3 4
4 2 3
2 3 4
2 1 3
1
,
4
1
,
3
1
,
1
1
,
4
1
,
1
2 3 4
3 1 2
2 3 4
1 4 2
2 3 4
4 3 2
2 3 4
1 3 2
2 3 4
3 4 2
1
,
3
1
,
4
1
,
2
1
,
3
1
,
2
2 3 4
4 2 1
2 3 4
2 3 1
2 3 4
3 4 1
2 3 4
2 4 1
2 3 4
4 3 1
,
,
,
,
.
We see that each of these cosets contains a unique element α satisfying
α(4) = 4 (the first element of each coset). Mapping the whole coset to this
element defines the endomorphism ψ : S4 → S4 with kernel V4 . Define the
following transformations of PT 4 :
ψ(α), α ∈ S4 ;
ψ(α), α ∈ S4 ;
Υ1 (α) =
Υ2 (α) =
0,
otherwise;
ε{4} , otherwise;
Υ3 (α) =
ψ(α),
04 ,
α ∈ S4 ;
Υ4 (α) =
otherwise;
ψ(α)ε{1,2,3} , α ∈ S4 ;
0,
otherwise;
118
CHAPTER 7. ENDOMORPHISMS
Υ5 (α) =
ψ(α)ε{1,4} , α ∈ S4 ;
Υ6 (α) =
0,
otherwise;
ψ(α)ε{2,4} , α ∈ S4 ;
0,
otherwise;
ψ(α)ε{3,4} , α ∈ S4 ;
Υ7 (α) =
0,
otherwise.
Note that Υ1 , Υ2 , and Υ4 preserve IS 4 and Υ3 preserves T4 . Abusing notation we shall denote the induced mappings on IS 4 and T4 by the same
symbols.
Exercise 7.3.3 Let i ∈ {1, 2, . . . , 7} and ϕ, ψ ∈ Aut(PT 4 ) be two different automorphisms. Show that the restrictions of ϕΥi and ψΥi to S4 are
different.
Lemma 7.3.4
(i) Υi ∈ End(PT 4 ) for all i = 1, . . . , 7.
(ii) If ϕ, ψ ∈ Aut(PT 4 ) and ϕ = ψ, then ϕΥi = ψΥi for all i = 1, . . . , 7.
(iii) The statement (ii) holds as well for the restrictions to IS 4 and T4 in
appropriate cases.
Proof. We prove the statement (i) for Υ1 . All other cases are similar. We
have to check that
Υ1 (αβ) = Υ1 (α)Υ1 (β)
(7.2)
for all α, β ∈ PT 4 . If both α and β are permutations, (7.2) follows from the
fact that ϕ is a homomorphism. If both α and β are not permutations, (7.2)
follows from the fact that 0 is an idempotent. If exactly one of α and β is
a permutation, then αβ is not a permutation and hence both sides of (7.2)
are equal to 0. This proves (i).
Finally, (ii) and (iii) follow from Exercise 7.3.3.
7.4
Classification of Endomorphisms
Theorem 7.4.1 (i) Let n = 4. Then each endomorphism of Tn has one
of the following forms:
(a) Λπ , where π ∈ Sn .
(b) Φ , where ∈ Tn is an idempotent.
(c) Ψ ,δ , where = δ ∈ Tn are idempotents such that δ = δ = δ.
(d) Θτ,δ , where = δ ∈ Tn are idempotents such that δ = δ = δ and
τ ∈ G is an element of order two such that τ δ = δτ = δ.
(ii) In addition to the above endomorphisms, the semigroup T4 has also
endomorphisms Λπ Υ3 , π ∈ Sn .
7.4. CLASSIFICATION OF ENDOMORPHISMS
119
Proof. We start with some auxiliary statements:
Lemma 7.4.2 For n > 1 the semigroup Tn does not contain any element α
such that πα = α for all π ∈ Sn .
Proof. Let α ∈ Tn , x ∈ N and y = α(x). Let further z ∈ N be such that
z = y. Then (y, z)α(x) = z = y = α(x) and hence (y, z)α = α.
Lemma 7.4.3 Let S denote one of the semigroups Tn , IS n , or PT n . Let
ϕ ∈ End(S). Assume that all elements of Sn form one-element congruence
classes of Ker(ϕ). Then ϕ(Sn ) ⊂ Sn and ϕ|Sn ∈ Aut(Sn ).
Proof. By assumptions, ϕ(Sn ) ∼
= Sn is a subgroup of S. It is of course then
contained in some maximal subgroup. But, by Theorem 5.1.4, all maximal
subgroups of S are isomorphic to Sm , m ≤ n, and there is only one maximal
subgroup isomorphic to Sn , namely, Sn itself. Hence ϕ maps Sn to Sn and
thus induces an automorphism of Sn .
Lemma 7.4.4 Let ϕ ∈ End(Tn ). Then either Ker(ϕ) = ιTn or Ker(ϕ) = ωTn
or Ker(ϕ) =≡R , where R is a normal subgroup of Sn .
Proof. The statement is obvious for n = 1 so we assume n > 1.
Assume that Ker(ϕ) has the form ≡R , where R is a normal subgroup of
Sk and k < n. From the definition of ≡R (see Sect. 6.3) it follows that all
elements of Sn form one-element congruence classes. From Lemma 7.4.3 we
have that ϕ maps Sn to Sn and induces an automorphism of Sn .
If k = 1, then ≡R coincides with ιTn . If k > 1, then by the definition of
≡R the ideal Ik−1 forms one congruence class and hence is mapped by ϕ to
some idempotent, say γ. But Ik−1 is an ideal and hence satisfies αβ ∈ Ik−1
for all α ∈ Sn and β ∈ Ik−1 . Applying ϕ yields ϕ(α)γ = γ. Since the
restriction of ϕ to Sn is bijective by the previous paragraph, we have πγ = γ
for all π ∈ Sn . But Tn , n > 1, does not contain any γ with such property
by Lemma 7.4.2. This means that the case 1 < k < n is impossible, which
completes the proof.
Let n = 4 and ϕ ∈ End(Tn ). If Ker(ϕ) is a uniform congruence, then ϕ
has rank one and thus coincides with some Φ by Lemma 7.2.1(iii). If Ker(ϕ)
is the identity congruence, then ϕ is an automorphism and thus coincides
with some Λπ by Theorem 7.1.3. In all other cases Ker(ϕ) =≡R , where R
is En , An , or Sn by Lemma 7.4.4. If R = Sn , then ϕ has rank two and thus
coincides with some Ψ ,δ by Lemma 7.2.2(iii). If R = An , then ϕ has rank
three and thus coincides with some Θτ,δ by Lemma 7.2.3(iii).
For n = 4 it remains to consider the case when R = En . In this case all
elements of Sn form separate congruence classes. Hence Lemma 7.4.3 shows
that ϕ induces an automorphism of Sn . The ideal In−1 is a congruence class
and should be sent by ϕ to some idempotent γ. As ϕ|Sn ∈ Aut(Sn ), as in the
120
CHAPTER 7. ENDOMORPHISMS
proof of Lemma 7.4.4 we obtain πγ = γ for all π ∈ Sn . But such element γ
does not exist by Lemma 7.4.2. Hence the case when R = En is not possible.
Let now n = 4. In this case the only difference with the arguments above
is the fact that R can be equal to V4 . For such R we have ϕ(S4 ) ∼
= S3 , which
S
,
where
γ
is
an
idempotent
may be a subgroup of either S4 or some Gγ ∼
= 3
of rank 3 (see Theorem 5.1.4).
Assume first that ϕ(S4 ) ⊂ S4 . Then ϕ(S4 ) ∼
= S3 is a subgroup of S4 .
Exercise 7.4.5 Show that S4 contains exactly four subgroups, isomorphic
to S3 , namely, the subgroups Hi = {α ∈ S4 : α(i) = i}, i = 1, 2, 3, 4.
From Exercise 7.4.5, ϕ(S4 ) = Hi for some i ∈ {1, 2, 3, 4}. Consider now
the endomorphism
ϕ,
i = 4;
ϕ =
(7.3)
Λ(i,4) ϕ, i = 4.
We have ϕ (S4 ) = H4 , in particular, ϕ induces an automorphism of H4 ∼
= S3
via restriction.
Exercise 7.4.6 Show that Aut(S3 ) = Inn(S3 ) ∼
= S3 .
Taking into account (7.3) and using Exercise 7.4.6 we obtain that there
exists π ∈ S4 such that Λπ ϕ restricts to the identity map on H4 . The ideal
I3 is a congruence class and thus should be mapped by Λπ ϕ to some noninvertible idempotent α of T4 . As in the proof of Lemma 7.4.4 we get βα = α
for all β ∈ H4 , in particular, for β = (1, 2, 3). Hence for any x ∈ im(α) we
should have β(x) = x, which means that im(α) = {4}, and thus α = 04 .
Therefore Λπ ϕ = Υ3 and hence ϕ = Λπ−1 Υ3 .
Finally, assume that ϕ(S4 ) = Gγ , where γ has rank 3. Let δ = ϕ(I3 ).
Then δ is an idempotent and the fact that I3 is an ideal implies that
δα = αδ = δ for all α ∈ Gγ . From γδ = δ we have im(δ) ⊂ im(γ). In
the proof of Theorem 4.7.4 it was shown that the restriction to im(γ) defines an isomorphism from Gγ to S(im(γ)). Take any α ∈ Gγ , whose image
in S(im(γ)) under this isomorphism does not have any fixed point. Then for
any x ∈ N we have α(δ(x)) = δ(x) since δ(x) ∈ im(γ). This means that the
equality αδ = δ is not possible, a contradiction. Hence the case ϕ(S4 ) = Gγ ,
where γ has rank 3, is not possible. This completes the proof.
Theorem 7.4.7 (i) Let n = 4. Then each endomorphism of IS n has one
of the following forms:
(a) Λπ , where π ∈ Sn .
(b) Φ , where ∈ IS n is an idempotent.
(c) Ψ ,δ , where = δ ∈ IS n are idempotents such that δ = δ = δ.
(d) Θτ,δ , where = δ ∈ IS n are idempotents such that δ = δ = δ
and τ ∈ G is an element of order two such that τ δ = δτ = δ.
7.4. CLASSIFICATION OF ENDOMORPHISMS
121
(e) Ωψ , ψ ∈ Aut(Sn ).
(f ) Λπ Ξ, π ∈ Sn .
(ii) In addition to the above endomorphisms, the semigroup IS 4 also has
endomorphisms Λπ Υi , i = 1, 2, 4, π ∈ Sn .
Proof. The statement is obvious for n = 1 so until the end of the proof we
assume n > 1. Let ϕ ∈ End(IS n ). Assume first that all elements of Sn form
separate congruence classes of Ker(ϕ). By Lemma 7.4.3, ϕ preserves Sn and
induces an automorphism on it. Consider first the case n = 6. Then this
automorphism is inner (see 7.6.2) and hence there exists π ∈ Sn such that
ϕ = Λπ ϕ induces on Sn the identity mapping. Set = εN\{1} . The element
ϕ () must be an idempotent, say ϕ () = εB for some B ⊂ N. To determine
B more precisely we shall need an auxiliary notion and statement.
For α ∈ IS n the set {π ∈ Sn : απ = πα} is called the centralizer of α
in Sn and is denoted by CSn (α).
Lemma 7.4.8 For A ⊂ N we have
CSn (εA ) = {π ∈ Sn : π(A) = A}.
In particular, |CSn (εA )| = |A|! · (n − |A|)!.
Proof. Since π is invertible, πεA = εA π is equivalent to εA = πεA π −1 .
Obviously πεA π −1 = επ(A) . Hence εA = πεA π −1 is equivalent to εA = επ(A) ,
that is, A = π(A). This proves the first claim and the second claim follows
immediately from the first one.
Applying ϕ to π = π we get πεB = εB π as ϕ (π) = π for all π ∈ Sn .
This implies that CSn () ⊂ CSn (εB ). Using Lemma 7.4.8 we obtain that
{π ∈ Sn : π(N\{1}) = N\{1}} ⊂ {π ∈ Sn : π(B) = B}.
(7.4)
This gives the following possibilities for B: B = N\{1}, B = {1} or B = N.
Lemma 7.4.9 Let S, T be semigroups and A ⊂ S be a generating system of
S. Let f : A → T be any mapping. Then there exists at most one homomorphism F : S → T such that F |A = f .
Proof. As S = A, each x ∈ S can be written in the form x = a1 a2 · · · ak
for some ai ∈ A. Then
F (x) = F (a1 a2 · · · ak ) = F (a1 )F (a2 ) · · · F (ak ) = f (a1 )f (a2 ) · · · f (ak ),
which means that F (x) is uniquely determined by f .
122
CHAPTER 7. ENDOMORPHISMS
By Theorem 3.1.4, the semigroup IS n is generated by Sn and . By
Lemma 7.4.9 this means that any endomorphism of IS n is uniquely determined by its values on Sn and . In the situation we have ϕ (π) = π
for all π ∈ Sn and we have three possibilities for ϕ (), namely, ϕ () = ,
ϕ () = ε{1} and ϕ () = 0. The first possibility is realized by the identity
automorphism, the second one is realized by the endomorphism Ξ, and the
third one is realized by the endomorphism Ωθ , where θ is the identity automorphism of Sn . This means that the original automorphism ϕ = Λπ−1 ϕ is
of the form (ia), (if), or (ie).
Let now n = 6. In addition to the cases considered above we have to
consider the case when ϕ induces on Sn an automorphism, which is not
inner. Such automorphisms are known explicitly, see 7.6.2. In particular,
each such automorphism maps transpositions from the subgroup
CS6 () = {π ∈ S6 : π(1) = 1} < S6
to permutations, each of which is a product of three different commuting
transpositions. It is easy to see that this implies that the only subset of N,
invariant under all such permutations, is the set N itself. Hence Lemma 7.4.8
implies that the only possibility for ϕ() in this case is 0. This means that
ϕ is of type (ie).
Now we have to consider all cases when ϕ does not induce an automorphism of Sn . If Ker(ϕ) = ωIS n , then ϕ is of type (ib) by Lemma 7.2.1(iii).
In all other cases from Theorem 6.3.10 we have Ker(ϕ) =≡R , where R is
a nontrivial normal subgroup of Sn . If R = Sn , then ϕ is of type (ic) by
Lemma 7.2.2(iii). If R = An , then ϕ is of type (id) by Lemma 7.2.3(iii). It
remains to consider the case R = V4 . We leave it to the reader to verify that
in this case ϕ is of type (ii).
Theorem 7.4.10 (i) Let n = 4. Then each endomorphism of PT n has
one of the following forms:
(a) Λπ , where π ∈ Sn
(b) Φ , where ∈ PT n is an idempotent
(c) Ψ ,δ , where = δ ∈ PT n are idempotents such that δ = δ = δ
(d) Θτ,δ , where = δ ∈ PT n are idempotents such that δ = δ = δ
and τ ∈ G is an element of order two such that τ δ = δτ = δ
(e) Ωϕ , ϕ ∈ Aut(Sn )
(f ) Λπ Ξ, π ∈ Sn
(ii) In addition to the above endomorphisms, the semigroup PT 4 also has
endomorphisms Λπ Υi , i = 1, 2, . . . , 7, π ∈ Sn .
Exercise 7.4.11 Prove Theorem 7.4.10.
7.5. COMBINATORICS OF ENDOMORPHISMS
7.5
123
Combinatorics of Endomorphisms
Corollary 7.5.1
(i) The semigroup T1 has one endomorphism.
(ii) The semigroup T4 has 345 endomorphisms.
(iii) The semigroup Tn , n = 1, 4, has
⎞
⎛
m−1
n
m−2r
2
n−m
m−r−k
m
·k
⎠
n! ⎝1 +
2r · (n − m)! · (m − 2r − k)! · k! · r!
m=1 r=0
(7.5)
k=1
endomorphisms.
Proof. The statement (i) is obvious. The statement (ii) follows from the formula of (iii) and the note that T4 has 24 additional endomorphisms described
in Theorem 7.4.1(ii). Hence we have to prove (iii).
The semigroup Tn has n! automorphisms by Theorem 7.1.3. By Theorem
7.4.1, if we forget about the additional endomorphisms T4 , we have only to
count the number of endomorphisms of Tn of ranks 1, 2, and 3.
By Lemma 7.2.1(iii) the endomorphisms
1 correspond bijectively
n−m
of rank
n
m
endomorphisms of
to idempotents of Tn . Hence we have nm=1 m
rank 1 by Corollary 2.7.4.
By Lemma 7.2.2(iii) the endomorphisms of rank 2 correspond to pairs
of idempotents (, δ) of Tn satisfying the condition δ = δ = δ.
Lemma 7.5.2 Let , δ ∈ Tn be two idempotents. Then the following conditions are equivalent:
(a) δ = δ = δ
(b) im(δ) ⊂ im() and ρδ ρ
Proof. If δ = δ, then im(δ) ⊂ im() by Exercise 2.1.4(b). If δ = δ, then
ρδ ρ by Theorem 4.2.4. Hence (a) implies (b). Conversely, if im(δ) ⊂ im()
and ρδ ρ , then a direct calculation shows that δ = δ = δ. Hence (b)
implies (a).
Now we can use Lemma 7.5.2 to count the number of all pairs (, δ)
of different idempotents of Tn satisfying the condition δ = δ = δ. Let
m = rank() and k = rank(δ). Since = δ and im(δ)
n ⊂ im(), we have
1 ≤ k < m ≤ n. The image of can be chosen in m
different ways. By
Lemma 7.5.2, the
image of δ should be chosen inside the im() and this
can be done in m
k different ways. As is an idempotent, (x) = x for all
x ∈ im(). To define on other elements, we should map each x ∈ N\im()
to some element of im(). This can be done in mn−m different ways. For
x ∈ im()\im(δ) let Ax = {y ∈ N : (y) = x}. From Lemma 7.5.2, to define
δ we should map each Ax , x ∈ im()\im(δ) to some element of im(δ). This
124
CHAPTER 7. ENDOMORPHISMS
can be done in k m−k different ways. Using the multiplication rule and then
adding everything up for all possible m and k we get
n m−1
n m
mn−m k m−k
m
k
(7.6)
m=2 k=1
endomorphisms of rank 2.
By Lemma 7.2.3(iii) the endomorphisms of rank 3 correspond to triples
(, δ, τ ) of Tn , where and δ are different idempotents of Tn satisfying the
condition δ = δ = δ, and τ ∈ G is an element of order 2 such that
τ δ = δτ = δ. The restrictions on and δ are given by Lemma 7.5.2.
Lemma 7.5.3 Let , δ ∈ Tn be two idempotents such that δ = δ = δ. Let
further τ ∈ G . Then the following conditions are equivalent:
(a) τ δ = δτ = δ
(b) τ (x) = x for all x ∈ im(δ); and δ(x) = δ(y) for all x, y ∈ im() such
that x = y and τ (x) = y
Proof. Assume (a). Let x ∈ im(δ). Then x = δ(x) = τ δ(x) = τ (x). Let
x, y ∈ im() be such that x = y and τ (x) = y. Then δ(x) = δτ (x) = δ(y).
Hence we have (b).
Assume (b) and let x ∈ N. As τ (x) = x for all x ∈ im(δ), we have τ δ = δ.
By assumptions we have τ = τ and δ = δ. Hence the equality δτ = δ is
equivalent to δτ = δ, which means that the equality δτ = δ should be
checked only for x ∈ im(). For those x ∈ im() for which τ (x) = x, the
equality δτ (x) = δ(x) is obvious. If τ (x) = y = x for some x, y ∈ im(),
then δτ (x) = δ(x) follows from the second condition of (b). Thus δτ = δ,
implying (a). This completes the proof.
An element of order 2 in the symmetric group Sm is a product of r
m
commuting transpositions, where 0 < r ≤ m
2 . There are 2 ways to choose
m−2
the first transposition, 2 ways to choose the second transposition, and
so on. As the order of transpositions is not important, for each r as above
we have that Sm contains exactly
m m−2
· · · · · m−2r+2
m!
2 ·
2
2
=
(7.7)
r!
(m − 2r)! · r! · 2r
elements of order 2, which are products of r commuting transpositions.
Let us now count the number of triples (, δ, τ ) as above. The rank
m of n
can have values m = 2, . . . , n. The image of can be chosen in m
different
ways and to define completely we should assign some element from im() to
each element outside this image. This can be done in mn−m different ways.
Now we choose τ . This is an element of order 2 in G ∼
= Sm and hence it can
7.5. COMBINATORICS OF ENDOMORPHISMS
125
be a product of r commuting transpositions, where 0 < r ≤ m
2 . However,
,
that
is,
0
<
r
≤
m−1
τ (x) = x for all x ∈ im(δ) = ∅. Hence r = m
2
2 . For
m!
each such r by (7.7) we have (m−2r)!r!2r ways to choose τ .
After we
have chosen τ let k be the rank of δ. We have 1 ≤ k ≤ m − 2r.
There are m−2r
different ways to choose im(δ). For x ∈ im() set Ax =
k
{y ∈ N : (y) = x}. As ρδ ρ by Lemma 7.5.2(b) and δ(x) = δ(y) for
all x, y ∈ im() such that x = y and τ (x) = y by Lemma 7.5.3(b), to define
δ we should assign to each Ax , x ∈ im()\im(δ), an element of im(δ), such
that the same element is assigned to Ax and Ay as soon as τ (x) = y. Such
assignment can be done in k m−r−k different ways. Adding everything up,
we get
m−1
n
m−2r
2
n m − 2r m! · mn−m · k m−r−k
(7.8)
m
k
(m − 2r)! · r! · 2r
m=2 r=1
k=1
endomorphisms of order 3. If for r = 0 in the formula (7.8) we allow k
to vary from 1 to (m − 1), we will obtain the formula (7.6). Further, the
formula (7.6) would count all endomorphisms of rank one for Tn as well if
we allow k = m and the value 1 for m. Taking this into account, adding
n! automorphisms, and rewriting binomial coefficients in terms of factorials
gives the formula (7.5).
Corollary 7.5.4
(i) The semigroup IS 1 has three endomorphisms.
(ii) The semigroup IS 2 has 14 endomorphisms.
(iii) The semigroup IS 4 has 282 endomorphisms.
(iv) The semigroup IS 6 has 5,244 endomorphisms.
(v) The semigroup IS n , n = 1, 2, 4, 6, has
⎞
⎛
m
n 2
m−3r
2
⎠
n! ⎝3 +
(n − m)! · (m − 2r)! · r!
(7.9)
m=0 r=0
endomorphisms.
Proof. The semigroup IS 1 has the trivial automorphism and two endomorphisms of type Theorem 7.4.7(ib). This proves (i). The statements (iii) and
(iv) follow from the general formula (v) taking into account 72 additional
endomorphisms of IS 4 given by Theorem 7.4.7(ii) and 6! additional endomorphisms of IS 6 corresponding to the outer automorphisms of S6 in
Theorem 7.4.7(ie). The statement (ii) follows from (v) taking into account
that for n = 2 the only endomorphism of type Theorem 7.4.7(ie) has rank
3 (and hence is of type Theorem 7.4.7(id) as well), and all endomorphisms
of type Theorem 7.4.7(if) are in fact automorphisms. So, we have to prove
only the statement (v).
126
CHAPTER 7. ENDOMORPHISMS
For n > 1 the semigroup IS n has n! automorphisms by Theorem 7.1.3,
n! endomorphisms of type (ie), which correspond to inner automorphisms
of Sn , and n! endomorphisms of type (if). So again we are left to count the
number of endomorphisms of ranks 1, 2, and 3.
Let us count endomorphisms of rank at most three. By Lemmas 7.2.1,
7.2.2, and 7.2.3 these are given by triples (, δ, τ ) where and δ are idempotents satisfying δ = δ = δ (not necessarily different) and τ ∈ G is an
element
n of order at most 2 satisfying τ δ = δτ = δ. Let m = rank(). Then we
choices for im() = A. Assume now that τ is a product of exactly
have m
m!
r transpositions, 0 ≤ r ≤ m
2 . Then by (7.7) we have exactly (m−2r)!r!2r
possibilities to choose τ . To proceed we need to know the restrictions on δ
imposed by the condition τ δ = δτ = δ.
Lemma 7.5.5 For α ∈ IS n and B ⊂ N we have αεB = εB α = εB if and
only if α(x) = x for all x ∈ B.
Proof. We have εB (x) = x for all x ∈ B by definition. Hence already αεB =
εB implies α(x) = x for all x ∈ B. On the other hand, if α(x) = x for
all x ∈ B, then αεB = εB is obvious, which also reduces εB α = εB to
εB αεB = εB , that is, εB α = εB should be checked only for x ∈ B. However,
for such x the equality εB α = εB follows immediately from α(x) = x.
Lemma 7.5.5 says that im(δ) can be an arbitrary set of fixed points for τ .
By construction τ has (m − 2r) fixed points. Hence we have 2m−2r ways to
choose δ. Summing everything up gives
n 2 n
m
m=0 r=0
m! · 2m−2r
m (m − 2r)! · r! · 2r
endomorphisms of rank at most 3. The claim follows.
Corollary 7.5.6
(i) The semigroup PT 1 has three endomorphisms.
(ii) The semigroup PT 2 has 18 endomorphisms.
(iii) The semigroup PT 4 has 1,374 endomorphisms.
(iv) The semigroup PT 6 has 170,772 endomorphisms.
(v) The semigroup PT n , n = 1, 2, 4, 6, has
⎞
⎛
m
n 2 m−2r
n−m · (k + 1)m−r−k
(m
+
1)
⎠
n! ⎝3 +
2r · (n − m)! · (m − 2r − k)! · r! · k!
m=0 r=0 k=0
endomorphisms.
Exercise 7.5.7 Prove Corollary 7.5.6.
(7.10)
7.6. ADDENDA AND COMMENTS
7.6
127
Addenda and Comments
7.6.1 Automorphisms of Tn were described by Schreier in [Sch]. A different
argument was later proposed by Mal’cev in [Ma1]. Automorphisms of IS n
and PT n were described by Liber and Sutov in [Lib] and [Sut2], respectively.
7.6.2 For n = 2, 6 all automorphisms of Sn are inner and Aut(Sn ) ∼
= Sn . The
semigroup S2 has only the trivial automorphism (which is of course inner).
In contrast to S2 , for the semigroup S6 we have |Aut(S6 )/Inn(S6 )| = 2.
A noninner automorphism of S6 was first constructed in [Hoe]. The reason
that all automorphisms of Sn , n = 6, are inner is purely numerical. Any
automorphism maps conjugate elements to conjugate elements and preserves
the order of an element. Let X be the set of all transpositions in Sn . This is
a conjugacy class of elements of order two. A straightforward combinatorial
computation shows that for n = 6 all other conjugacy classes of elements
of order two have cardinalities different from |X|. Hence for n = 6 any
automorphism maps transpositions to transpositions. From here it is fairly
straightforward to deduce that any automorphism is inner. Details can be
found for example in [KM]. Each outer (that is, not inner) automorphism
of S6 maps a transposition to a product of three commuting transpositions.
7.6.3 Endomorphisms of IS n , Tn , and PT n were described and their numbers were counted in [ST1], [ST2], and [ST3], respectively. Although the
generic statement is correct, there are some typos in the exceptional cases
of [ST1] and [ST3]. In particular, for n = 6 the authors missed the endomorphisms of the form Ωϕ , where ϕ is an outer automorphism of S6 .
7.6.4 Here is the table for |End(S)|, where S = IS n , Tn , and PT n for
small n:
n
|End(IS n )|
|End(Tn )|
|End(PT n )|
1
3
1
3
2
14
7
18
3
54
40
138
4
282
345
1,374
5
918
3,226
13,178
6
5,244
38,503
170,772
7
25,560
529,614
2,507,690
8
168,828
8,219,025
41,387,036
7.6.5 The problem to describe all homomorphisms (monomorphisms, epimorphisms) from S to T , where S, T ∈ {IS n , Tn , PT n : n ≥ 1}, is open in
general.
7.6.6 In [ST1], [ST2], and [ST3] for S = IS n , Tn , and PT n Schein and
→ 0, n → ∞. More generally they ask to
Teclezghi asked whether |End(S)|
|S|
find an estimate for the asymptotic of |End(S)|. For the semigroup IS n both
questions were answered in [JM]:
Theorem 7.6.1 ([JM])
(ii)
|End(IS n )|
|IS n |
(i) |End(IS n )| ∼ 3n!, n → ∞.
→ 0, n → ∞.
128
CHAPTER 7. ENDOMORPHISMS
Proof. Set
m
Xn = n! ·
n 2
m=0 r=0
2m−3r
.
(n − m)! · (m − 2r)! · r!
Because of Corollary 7.5.4(v) to prove (i) it is enough to show that
Xn /n! → 0, n → ∞. We have
n 2 n
m
2r
m
Xn =
m=0 r=0
m
2r
r
· 2m−3r · r!
(7.11)
All binomial coefficients in (7.11) are smaller than 2n and r ≤ n/2. Hence
m
Xn ≤ 8n · n/2! ·
n 2
2m−3r ≤ 16n · (n/2)! · n2 .
(7.12)
m=0 r=0
Using the Stirling formula we have
√
16n · (n/2)! · n2 16n · n2 · nn/2 · en · πn
√
=
∼
n!
2n/2 · en/2 · nn · 2πn
n
n
n
1
= √ · en ln 16+2 ln n+ 2 ln n+n− 2 ln 2− 2 −n ln n . (7.13)
2
Since the exponent is − 12 n ln n + O(n), we obtain that the right-hand side
of (7.13) approaches 0 for large n. This proves (i).
n 2
By Theorem 2.5.1 we have |IS n | ≥ n−1
(n − 1)! = n · n!. Hence, using
(i), we have
0≤
|End(IS n )|
3 · n!
3 · n!
∼
≤
→ 0, n → ∞.
|IS n |
|IS n |
n · n!
The claim (ii) follows.
For S = Tn and PT n the corresponding problems are still open.
7.7
Additional Exercises
7.7.1 Show that the only element α ∈ PT n satisfying the condition πα = α
for all π ∈ Sn is the element α = 0.
7.7.2 Determine all elements α ∈ PT n which satisfy the condition απ = α
for all π ∈ Sn .
7.7.3 Let A ⊂ N. Show that α ∈ IS n satisfies the condition αεA = εA α if
and only if both A and N\A are invariant with respect to α. Use this to show
that the centralizer of εA in IS n can be identified with IS(A) × IS(N\A).
7.7. ADDITIONAL EXERCISES
129
7.7.4 Determine |{α ∈ IS 3 : αε{1} = ε{1} α}|.
7.7.5 If S is a semigroup, then the center of S is the set
Z(S) = {α ∈ S : αβ = βαfor allβ ∈ S}.
Determine Z(S), where S = IS n , PT n , and Tn .
7.7.6 Show that Aut(I1 ) = Sn for the ideal I1 of IS n .
7.7.7 ([ST1, ST2, ST3]) An endomorphism ϕ ∈ End(S) is called a retraction
provided that ϕ · ϕ = ϕ. Classify all retractions of IS n , Tn , and PT n .
7.7.8 Classify all endomorphisms and all retractions of Sn .
7.7.9 Let S be a finite semigroup such that End(S) = Aut(S). Prove that
|S| = 1.
7.7.10 Let S = (Q>0 , +) be the semigroup of all positive rational numbers
with respect to addition. Show that End(S) = Aut(S) ∼
= (Q>0 , ·).
7.7.11 Classify all endomorphisms of the semigroup (N, +) of all positive
integers with respect to addition.
7.7.12 Classify all endomorphisms of the finite cyclic semigroup S generated
by an element of type (k, m).
7.7.13 Let ∈ PT n be an idempotent of rank one with domain D and
image {x}. Show that π ∈ Sn commutes with if and only if π(x) = x and
π(D) = D. Use this to show that the number of permutations commuting
with equals (|D| − 1)! · (n − |D|)!.
Chapter 8
Nilpotent Subsemigroups
8.1
Nilpotent Subsemigroups and Partial Orders
A semigroup S with the zero element 0 is said to be nilpotent provided that
there exists k ∈ N such that S k = {0}, that is, a1 · a2 · · · ak = 0 for all
a1 , . . . , ak ∈ S. If S is nilpotent, then the minimal k ∈ N such that S k = {0}
is called the nilpotency degree or nilpotency class of S and is denoted by
nd(S).
Remark 8.1.1 Note that here we slightly abuse the notation S 1 . In the
present chapter, we will use this notation to denote the first power of S,
that is, the semigroup S itself, and not the semigroup S with the adjoint
identity element, as we did before.
Proposition 8.1.2 Let S be a finite semigroup with the zero element 0.
Then the following conditions are equivalent:
(a) S is nilpotent
(b) Every element a ∈ S is nilpotent
Proof. If S is nilpotent, nd(S) = k and a ∈ S, then ak = 0. Hence a is
nilpotent. This proves the implication (a)⇒(b).
Conversely assume that each element of S is nilpotent. Let a1 , a2 , . . . , ak
be arbitrary elements of S such that a1 a2 · · · ak = 0. For i = 1, . . . , k set
bi = a1 a2 · · · ai and note that bi = 0. Assume that bi = bj for some i < j
and let x = ai+1 ai+2 · · · aj . Then for all m ∈ N we have
bi xm = (bi x)xm−1 = (bj )xm−1 = bi xm−1 = · · · = bi .
(8.1)
Hence (8.1) implies that xm = 0 for all m. This contradicts (b). Hence all
elements bi , i = 1, . . . , k, are different and nonzero and thus k < |S|. In
particular, S |S| = {0} and thus S is nilpotent. This proves the implication
(b)⇒(a).
O. Ganyushkin, V. Mazorchuk, Classical Finite Transformation Semigroups, Algebra
and Applications 9, DOI: 10.1007/978-1-84800-281-4 8,
c Springer-Verlag London Limited 2009
131
132
CHAPTER 8. NILPOTENT SUBSEMIGROUPS
Corollary 8.1.3 Let S be a finite nilpotent semigroup. Then nd(S) ≤ |S|.
Exercise 8.1.4 Let S be the Rees quotient of the semigroup (Q>0 , +) of
all positive rational numbers with respect to the addition modulo the ideal,
consisting of all rational number greater than 1. Show that each element of
S is nilpotent and that S is not nilpotent.
The aim of the present chapter is to study nilpotent subsemigroups of the
semigroups Tn , PT n , and IS n . Note that only PT n , and IS n contain a zero
element, so the notion of nilpotent elements and nilpotent subsemigroups is
really natural only for these two semigroups. In this natural case, one just
considers those nilpotent subsemigroups of PT n or IS n , which share the
zero element with the original semigroup. Of course one can also consider
nilpotent subsemigroups in which the zero element is different from the
zero element of the original semigroup. In such interpretation, it also makes
sense to study nilpotent subsemigroups of Tn . However, it turns out that
this study for Tn , PT n , and IS n can be basically reduced to the study of
nilpotent subsemigroups of PT n or IS n with the global zero element. We
shall explain this in the Addenda. Until then we restrict our attention to the
semigroups PT n and IS n and consider only those nilpotent subsemigroups
of these semigroups whose zero element is the global zero element 0.
For a semigroup S with the zero element 0 denote by Nil(S) the set of
all nilpotent subsemigroups of S with the zero element 0. The set Nil(S)
is nonempty (it contains the nilpotent subsemigroup {0}) and is partially
ordered with respect to inclusions. The subsemigroup {0} is the minimum
element of Nil(S). If the semigroup S itself is nilpotent, then S is the maximum element of S. In the case when S is not nilpotent, the set Nil(S)
may contain many different maximal elements. They are called the maximal
nilpotent subsemigroups of S.
For k ∈ N denote also by Nilk (S) the subset of Nil(S) consisting of all
nilpotent subsemigroups of nilpotency degree k. The set Nil(S) decomposes
into a disjoint union of Nilk (S), k ∈ N. Note that Nil1 (S) = {0} . For
a given k the set Nilk (S) may be empty. For example, Nilk (S) is certainly
empty for all k big enough if S is finite. If it is not empty, then it inherits
a partial order with respect to inclusions from Nil(S). In general, the set
Nilk (S) may have many minimal and many maximal elements.
Our main goal for this chapter is to classify all maximal elements in all
Nilk (S), where S = PT n or IS n . The combinatorial tool we shall use for
this is the set On of all antireflexive partial orders on the set N. The set On
itself is partially ordered with respect to inclusions.
The inclusion IS n → PT n induces inclusions Nil(IS n ) → Nil(PT n )
and Nilk (IS n ) → Nilk (PT n ) for all k ∈ N. Hence we can identify Nil(IS n )
and Nilk (IS n ) with the corresponding images of the above inclusions.
For T ∈ Nil(PT n ) define the binary relation τT on N as follows:
xτT y if and only if there existsσ ∈ T such that σ(y) = x.
8.1. NILPOTENT SUBSEMIGROUPS AND PARTIAL ORDERS
133
Lemma 8.1.5 τT ∈ On .
Proof. Let x, y, z ∈ N be such that xτT y and yτT z. Then there exist α, β ∈ T
such that α(y) = x and β(z) = y. This gives (αβ)(z) = α(β(z)) = α(y) = x.
Hence xτT z and the relation τT is transitive.
Assume that xτT x for some x ∈ N. Then there exists α ∈ T such that
α(x) = x. But this means that αk (x) = x for all k ∈ N. Hence α is not
nilpotent, contradicting the nilpotency of T . Hence τT is antireflexive and
thus belongs to On .
By Lemma 8.1.5, we have the mapping T → τT from the set Nil(PT n )
to On . It restricts to a mapping from Nil(IS n ) to On .
For each τ ∈ On define the subsemigroups Nτ ∈ PT n and Nτ ∈ IS n as
follows:
Nτ = {α ∈ PT n : α(x)τ xfor allx ∈ dom(α)},
Lemma 8.1.6
Nτ = Nτ ∩ IS n .
(i) Nτ ∈ Nil(PT n ).
(ii) Nτ ∈ Nil(IS n ).
Proof. The statement (ii) follows from (i). To prove (i) we consider any
αi ∈ Nτ , i = 1, . . . , n. Let α = α1 α2 · · · αn and assume that x ∈ dom(α). For
i = 1, . . . , n set βi = αi αi+1 · · · αn . Then x ∈ dom(βi ) for all i = 1, . . . , n and
we set xi = βi (x) for all such i. Set xn+1 = x. Then we have xi = αi (xi+1 ) for
all i = 1, . . . , n. Hence xi τ xi+1 for all i = 1, . . . , n. As τ is an antireflexive
partial order, we get that all elements x1 , x2 , . . . , xn+1 must be different,
contradicting |N| = n. Hence dom(α) = ∅ and thus α = 0. This implies
that Nτn = {0} and therefore Nτ ∈ Nil(PT n ).
By Lemma 8.1.6 we have the mapping τ → Nτ from On to Nil(PT n )
and the mapping τ → Nτ from On to Nil(IS n ). The crucial properties of
the mappings we have constructed are:
Proposition 8.1.7
(i) If S, T ∈ Nil(PT n ) and S ⊂ T , then τS ⊂ τT .
(ii) If τ, σ ∈ On and τ ⊂ σ, then Nτ ⊂ Nσ and Nτ ⊂ Nσ .
(iii) For any σ ∈ On we have τNσ = σ and τNσ = σ.
Proof. The statements (i) and (ii) are obvious from the definitions, so we
have to prove only the statement (iii). Let x, y ∈ N be such that xσy.
Consider the element α ∈ IS n of rank one, defined as follows: dom(α) = {y}
and α(y) = x. Then α ∈ Nσ ⊂ Nσ . From the definition it follows that yτNσ x
and hence σ ⊂ τNσ and σ ⊂ τNσ .
134
CHAPTER 8. NILPOTENT SUBSEMIGROUPS
Conversely, let x, y ∈ N be such that xτNσ y (for Nσ the arguments are
similar). Then there exists α ∈ Nσ such that α(y) = x. But the latter
implies xσy by the definition of Nσ . Hence τNσ ⊂ σ and the statement (iii)
follows.
Let τ ∈ On . The maximal possible k ∈ N for which there exist elements
x1 , . . . , xk ∈ N such that xi τ xi+1 for all i = 1, . . . , k − 1 is called the height
of τ . Thus any linear order on N has height n, while the empty partial
(k)
order on N has height 1. For k ∈ N we denote by On the subset of On
consisting of all partial orders of height k. Obviously, we have the following
decomposition into a disjoint union of subsets:
On =
n
O(k)
n .
k=1
Lemma 8.1.8
(k)
(i) If T ∈ Nilk (PT n ), then τT ∈ On .
(ii) If τ ∈ On , then Nτ ∈ Nilk (PT n ) and Nτ ∈ Nilk (IS n ).
(k)
Proof. Let α1 , . . . , αk−1 ∈ T be such that α = α1 α2 · · · αk−1 = 0. Fix some
x ∈ dom(α) and for i = 1, . . . , k − 1 set xi = αi αi+1 · · · αk−1 (x). Then under
the convention xk = x we have xi τT xi+1 for all i = 1, . . . , k − 1 and hence
the nilpotency degree of T does not exceed the height of τT .
Let xi , i = 1, . . . , m, be elements of N such that xi τT xi+1 for all i =
1, . . . , m − 1. By the definition of τT there exist αi ∈ T , i = 1, . . . , m − 1,
such that αi (xi+1 ) = xi . Then for α = α1 α2 · · · αm we have xm ∈ dom(α)
and hence α = 0. This implies that the height of τT does not exceed nd(T ).
This proves (i).
The statement (ii) follows from the statement (i) and the assertion of
Proposition 8.1.7(iii).
Corollary 8.1.9
Nil(PT n ) =
n
k=1
Nilk (PT n ),
Nil(IS n ) =
n
Nilk (IS n ).
k=1
Proof. Follows from Lemma 8.1.8(i) since, obviously, the maximal possible
height of a partial order on N is n.
8.2
Classification of Maximal Nilpotent
Subsemigroups
Let k ∈ N, 1 ≤ k ≤ n, and m = (M1 , M2 , . . . , Mk ) be an ordered partition of
N into a disjoint union of nonempty subsets, that is, N = M1 ∪M2 ∪· · ·∪Mk ;
8.2. CLASSIFICATION OF NILPOTENT SUBSEMIGROUPS
135
Mi = ∅, i = 1, . . . , k; and Mi ∩ Mj = ∅ if i = j. Define the partial order τm
on N in the following way:
xτm y
if and only if x ∈ Mi , y ∈ Mj , and i < j.
Example 8.2.1 For m = {{1, 2}, {3, 4}, {5, 6, 7}} the Hasse diagram of the
partial order τm is as follows:
5 >TTTTT
6>
jjj 7
>> TTTT
>>
jjjj
j
TTTT
j
>>
>
j
T jjj>
>>
jjjTjTTTTT>T>
jjjj
3 NNN
4
NNN ppppp
NpNpNp
ppp NNNNN
ppp
1
Proposition 8.2.2
(k)
in On .
2
(i) For m as above the order τm is a maximal element
(k)
(ii) Every maximal element in On has the form τm for some m as above.
(iii) If m = n, then τm = τn .
(k)
Proof. First we note that τm ∈ On . Indeed, if x1 , . . . , xm are such that
xi τm xi+1 for all i = 1, . . . , m − 1, then all xi ’s belong to different Mj ’s and
hence m ≤ k. At the same time, taking some xi ∈ Mi , i = 1, . . . , k, we have
xi τm xi+1 for all i = 1, . . . , k − 1. Hence the height of τm equals k.
(k)
Next we claim that τm is a maximal element of On . Indeed, let σ ∈ On
be such that τm σ. Then there exist x, y ∈ N such that xσy, x ∈ Mi ,
y ∈ Mj and j ≤ i. Choose any xs ∈ Ms , s = 1, . . . , i − 1, and any yt ∈ Mt ,
t = j + 1, . . . , k. As τm ⊂ σ, for the sequence
z1 = x1 , . . . , zi−1 = xi−1 , zi = x, zi+1 = y, zi+2 = yj+1 , . . . , zi+k−j+1 = yk
we have zs σzs+1 for all s = 1, . . . , i+k−j. As j ≤ i, we have i+k−j+1 ≥ k+1
(k)
and hence the height of σ is at least k + 1. Thus σ ∈ On . This shows that
(k)
τm is a maximal element of On and thus proves (i).
(k)
Now to prove (ii) we have to show that each σ ∈ On is contained in
(k)
some τm . Let σ ∈ On . Define M1 as the set of all minimal elements of
N with respect to σ, M2 as the set of all minimal elements of N\M1 with
respect to σ, M3 as the set of all minimal elements of N\(M1 ∪ M2 ) with
respect to σ and so on.
(k)
We claim that Mk = ∅. Indeed, as σ ∈ On , there exist xi , i = 1, . . . , k,
such that xi σxi+1 , i = 1, . . . , k − 1. Assume xi ∈ Mf (i) , i = 1, . . . , k. Then
f (i) < f (j) if i < j and hence f (k) ≥ k. At the same time Mf (k) = ∅ and
thus Mk = ∅.
136
CHAPTER 8. NILPOTENT SUBSEMIGROUPS
Now we claim that Mk+1 = ∅. Assume not and let xk+1 ∈ Mk+1 . Then,
by construction, there exist xi ∈ Mi , i = 1, . . . , k, such that xi σxi+1 for all
i = 1, . . . , k. This contradicts the fact that the height of σ is k.
Finally, we claim that σ ⊂ τm , where m = (M1 , M2 , . . . , Mk ). Let x ∈
Mi , y ∈ Mj and i ≤ j. Then yσx would imply that x is not minimal in
N\(M1 ∪ · · · ∪ Mi−1 ), which contradicts the definition of Mi . Hence for all
x and y as above we have that yσx does not hold. This means that σ ⊂ τm ,
which proves the claim (ii).
The claim (iii) is obvious.
Now we are ready to formulate our main result of this chapter:
Theorem 8.2.3 Let k ∈ Z, 1 ≤ k ≤ n.
(i) For each m as above the semigroups Nτm and Nτm are maximal elements in Nilk (PT n ) and Nilk (IS n ), respectively.
(ii) Each maximal element of Nilk (PT n ) and Nilk (IS n ), has, respectively,
the form Nτm and Nτm for some m as above.
(iii) If m = n, then Nτm = Nτn and Nτm = Nτn .
Proof. Assume that Nτm ⊂ T for some T ∈ Nilk (PT n ). Then τNτm ⊂ τT
by Proposition 8.1.7(i). However, τNτm = τm by Proposition 8.1.7(iii). As
(k)
(k)
τm is a maximal element in On by Proposition 8.2.2(i) and τT ∈ On by
Lemma 8.1.8(i), we get that τm = τT . Hence T ⊂ Nτm by the definition of
Nτm . This implies T = Nτm and proves (i) in the case of PT n . In the case
of IS n the proof is just the same.
(k)
Let now T ∈ Nilk (PT n ) be a maximal element. Then τT ∈ On and
hence τT ⊂ τm for some m as above by Proposition 8.2.2(ii). Now Proposition 8.1.7(ii) implies that T ⊂ Nτm . Moreover, Nτm ∈ Nilk (PT n ) by
Lemma 8.1.8(ii). Hence T = Nτm by the maximality of T . This proves (ii)
in the case of PT n . In the case of IS n the proof is just the same.
Finally, let m = n. Without loss of generality we may assume that in
this case there exist x, y ∈ N such that xτm y holds while xτn y does not
hold. Consider the element α ∈ IS n of rank one, which is uniquely defined
by the property α(y) = x. Then α ∈ Nτm and α ∈ Nτm , while α ∈ Nτn and
α ∈ Nτn . This completes the proof.
Example 8.2.4 If M1 = {1}, M2 = {2, 3} and m = {M1 , M2 }, then the
semigroup Nτm has the following elements:
1 2 3
1 2 3
1 2 3
1 2 3
.
,
,
,
∅ 1 1
∅ 1 ∅
∅ ∅ 1
∅ ∅ ∅
The first three of these elements form the semigroup Nτm .
8.2. CLASSIFICATION OF NILPOTENT SUBSEMIGROUPS
137
Corollary 8.2.5 If k < n, then each maximal element of Nilk (PT n ) and
Nilk (IS n ) is contained in some maximal element of the sets Nilk+1 (PT n )
and Nilk+1 (IS n ), respectively.
Proof. Let m = (M1 , M2 , . . . , Mk ). As k < n, by the Pigeonhole Principle
there exists i ∈ {1, 2, . . . , k} such that |Mi | > 1. Let x ∈ Mi and consider
n = (M1 , . . . , Mi−1 , {x}, Mi \{x}, Mi+1 , . . . , Mk ).
(k+1)
Obviously τm ⊂ τn and n ∈ On
. Hence, by Proposition 8.1.7(ii) we have
Nτm ⊂ Nτn and Nτm ⊂ Nτn . As by Theorem 8.2.3(ii) each maximal element
of Nilk (PT n ) and Nilk (IS n ) has, respectively, the form Nτm and Nτm for
some m as above, the claim follows.
Corollary 8.2.6 (i) The maximal elements of Nil(PT n ) and Niln (PT n )
(respectively of Nil(IS n ) and Niln (IS n )) coincide.
(ii) Both PT n and IS n contain n! maximal nilpotent subsemigroups (that
is, maximal elements in Nil(PT n ) and Nil(IS n ), respectively).
(iii) If T1 and T2 are maximal nilpotent subsemigroups of PT n (or IS n ),
then there exists ϕ ∈ Inn(PT n ) (resp. Inn(IS n )) such that ϕ(T1 ) = T2 .
In particular, T1 ∼
= T2 .
Proof. The statement (i) follows immediately from Corollaries 8.2.5 and
8.1.9.
(n)
As |N| = n, any element m = (M1 , . . . , Mn ) ∈ On is just a permutation
of the elements of N. Conversely, each permutation defines a unique element
(n)
of the form m = (M1 , . . . , Mn ). Hence On contains exactly n! maximal
elements. This proves (ii).
To prove (iii) consider m = ({a1 }, . . . , {an }) and n = ({b1 }, . . . , {bn }).
Let further α ∈ Sn such that α(ai ) = bi , i = 1, . . . , n. Then a direct calculation shows that α−1 Nτn α = Nτm , which proves (iii) and thus completes the
proof.
Remark 8.2.7 Strictly speaking a “maximal nilpotent subsemigroup” is
a maximal element of Nil(S). For example, in formulations of theorems we
will use only this meaning. However, in the general discussion (for example,
in the title of this section), it is often convenient to use this phrase meaning
maximal elements of some Nilk (S).
(n)
Exercise 8.2.8 Prove that |On | = n!.
Exercise 8.2.9 Let m = (M1 , . . . , Mk ) and n = (M1 , . . . , Mk ) be such that
|Mi | = |Mi | for all i = 1, . . . , k. Show that Nτm ∼
= Nτn and Nτm ∼
= Nτn .
138
CHAPTER 8. NILPOTENT SUBSEMIGROUPS
Corollary 8.2.10 The number of maximal elements in both Nilk (PT n ) and
Nilk (IS n ) equals
k
i k
(k − i)n = k! · S(n, k).
(−1)
i
i=0
Proof. By Theorem 8.2.3(ii), the number of maximal elements in both sets
Nilk (PT n ) and Nilk (IS n ) equals the number X of ordered partitions N =
M1 ∪· · ·∪Mk into a disjoint union of nonempty subsets. From the definition of
S(n, k) we immediately get X = k!S(n, k). In contrast, each ordered partition
M1 ∪· · ·∪Mk of N as above defines a surjective function f : N → {1, 2, . . . , k}
via f (i) = t such that i ∈ Mt , i = 1, . . . , n. This correspondence is obviously
bijective and hence the statement follows by a standard application of the
inclusion–exclusion formula.
8.3
Cardinalities of Maximal Nilpotent,
Subsemigroups
Let m = (M1 , . . . , Mk ) be as in the previous section. From Exercise 8.2.9 it
follows that |Nτm | and |Nτm | depend only on the cardinalities mi = |Mi |,
i = 1, . . . , k. Set also m0 = 1. We fix this notation for this section.
Proposition 8.3.1
(i)
|Nτm | =
k
(m0 + m1 + m2 + · · · + mi−1 )mi .
i=1
(ii) Each maximal nilpotent subsemigroup of PT n has cardinality n!.
Proof. To construct some α ∈ Nτm we have to define α(x) for each x ∈ N.
If x ∈ Mi , then the definition of Nτm says that either x ∈ dom(α) or α(x) ∈
M1 ∪ M2 ∪ · · · ∪ Mi−1 . Hence we have m0 + m1 + m2 + · · · + mi−1 independent
choices for α(x) for each such x. The statement (i) is now obtained applying
the product rule.
The statement (ii) is a special case of (i) as for a maximal nilpotent
subsemigroup we have k = n and mi = 1 for all i.
In the case of IS n the analogous question is much more interesting and
nontrivial. To answer it we will need some preparation. We fix the following
notation:
X(m1 , . . . , mk ) = |Nτm |.
If f (x) = am xm + am−1 xm−1 + · · · + a1 x + a0 is a polynomial with integer
coefficients, we set
f (B) = am Bm + am−1 Bm−1 + · · · + a1 B1 + a0 ,
where Bi denotes the i-th Bell number.
8.3. CARDINALITIES OF NILPOTENT SUBSEMIGROUPS
139
Exercise 8.3.2 Let f (x) and g(x) be two polynomials with integer coefficients and r ∈ Z. Show that (f + g)(B) = f (B) + g(B) and (rg)(B) = r(g(B)).
Finally, for m ∈ N we set [x]m = x(x − 1)(x − 2) . . . (x − m + 1) and
define the polynomial Fm1 ,...,mk (x) as follows:
Fm1 ,...,mk (x) = [x]m1 [x]m2 · · · · · [x]mk .
In the case of IS n the cardinalities of Nτm are given by the following quite
amazing result:
Theorem 8.3.3
(i) |Nτm | = Fm1 ,...,mk (B).
(ii) Each maximal nilpotent subsemigroup of IS n has cardinality Bn .
Proof. We start with the statement (ii). By Corollary 8.2.6(i), the maximal
nilpotent subsemigroups of IS n correspond to the case mi = 1 for all i. So,
we may assume m = ({a1 }, . . . , {an }). Under such assumptions let α ∈ Nτm .
Then the connected components of Γα form an unordered partition of N
into a disjoint union of subsets. Conversely, let X1 , . . . , Xs be an unordered
partition of N into a disjoint union of subsets. For each j = 1, . . . , s let
|Xj | = kj and, further, let us write the elements of Xj in the same order as
they appear in the sequence a1 , . . . , an . Let xj1 , xj2 , . . . , xjkj be the resulting
sequence. Now define the element α as follows:
s
dom(α) =
{xj2 , xj3 , . . . , xjkj },
j=1
and α(xjt ) = xjt−1 for all j = 1, . . . , s and t = 2, . . . , kj . In other words, we
define α as the element with the following graph Γα :
x11 o
α
x12 o
α
... o
α
x1k1
x21 o
α
x22 o
α
... o
α
x2k2
..
.
xs1 o
..
.
α
xs2 o
..
.
α
... o
..
.
α
xsks
From the definition of Nτm we have α ∈ Nτm . Moreover, the connected
components of Γα are exactly X1 , . . . , Xs . It is easy to see that α is the
only element of Nτm such that the connected components of Γα are exactly
140
CHAPTER 8. NILPOTENT SUBSEMIGROUPS
X1 , . . . , Xs . Hence we obtain a bijection between the elements of Nτm and
partitions of N into unordered disjoint unions of nonempty subsets. This
means that |Nτm | = Bn in this case, proving (ii).
To prove the statement (i) we will need one auxiliary lemma.
Lemma 8.3.4
X(m1 , . . . , mi−2 , mi−1 , 1, mi+1 , . . . , mk ) =
= X(m1 , . . . , mi−2 , mi−1 , mi+1 + 1, . . . , mk )+
+ mi+1 · X(m1 , . . . , mi−2 , mi−1 , mi+1 , . . . , mk ).
Proof. Assume that |Mi | = 1, or in other words that
m = (M1 , . . . , Mi−1 , {a}, Mi+1 , . . . , Mk ).
We decompose Nτm into a disjoint union of two sets T1 and T2 as follows:
T1 = {α ∈ Nτm : a ∈ α(Mi+1 )},
T2 = {α ∈ Nτm : a ∈ α(Mi+1 )}.
By definition, the set T1 coincides with Nτn , where
n = (M1 , . . . , Mi−1 , Mi+1 ∪ {a}, Mi+2 , . . . , Mk ).
Let Mi+1 = {a1 , . . . , ami+1 }. For j ∈ {1, 2, . . . , mi+1 } define
T2j = {α ∈ T2 : α(aj ) = a}.
m
Then T2 = T21 ∪ · · · ∪ T2 i+1 is a partition of T2 into a disjoint union of
nonempty subsets. Fix now j ∈ {1, 2, . . . , mi+1 }. With every α ∈ T2j , we
associate the element α ∈ Nτk , where k = (M1 , . . . , Mi−1 , Mi+1 , . . . , Mk ),
in the following way:
α(y), y = aj ;
α (y) =
α(a), y = aj .
Obviously, the mapping α → α from T2j to Nτk is bijective. Hence |T2j | =
|Nτk |. This gives
X(m1 , . . . , mi−1 , 1, mi+1 , mi+2 , . . . , mk ) =
= |Nτm | = |T1 | + |T2 | = |Nτn | + mi+1 |Nτk | =
= X(m1 , . . . , mi−1 , mi+1 + 1, mi+2 , . . . , mk )+
+ mi+1 · X(m1 , . . . , mi−1 , mi+1 , mi+2 , . . . , mk )
and the claim follows.
8.4. COMBINATORICS OF NILPOTENT ELEMENTS IN IS n
141
We prove the statement (i) by induction on the sum m of all mi ’s such
that mi > 1. If m = 0, then mi = 1 for all i. In particular, F1,...,1 (x) = xn
and F1,...,1 (B) = Bn = |Nτm | according to the definitions and the statement
(ii), proved above.
Assume now that m > 0. Choose some i such that mi ≥ 2. Applying
Lemma 8.3.4 and the inductive assumption we get
X(m1 , . . . , mi−1 , mi , . . . , mk ) =
= X(m1 , . . . , mi−1 , 1, mi − 1, mi+1 , . . . , mk )−
− (mi − 1) · X(m1 , . . . , mi−1 , mi − 1, mi+1 , . . . , mk ) =
= Fm1 ,...,mi−1 ,1,mi −1,mi+1 ,...,mk (B)−
− (mi − 1) · Fm1 ,...,mi−1 ,mi −1,mi+1 ,...,mk (B). (8.2)
Now we observe that
[x]m = (x − (m − 1))[x]m−1 = [x]m−1 [x]1 − (m − 1)[x]m−1 .
From this and the definition of the polynomials Fm1 ,...,mk (x) we get
Fm1 ,...,mi−1 ,mi ,...,mk (x) = Fm1 ,...,mi−1 ,1,mi −1,mi+1 ,...,mk (x)−
− (mi − 1) · Fm1 ,...,mi−1 ,mi −1,mi+1 ,...,mk (x). (8.3)
Applying (8.3) to (8.2) and using Exercise 8.3.2 we get
X(m1 , . . . , mi−1 , mi , . . . , mk ) = Fm1 ,...,mi−1 ,mi ,...,mk (B),
completing the proof.
8.4
Combinatorics of Nilpotent Elements in IS n
In this section, we discover some combinatorial relations between different
numbers, associated with the semigroup IS n , especially with nilpotent elements of IS n . Define the following numbers:
In = the cardinality of IS n
Nn = the total number of nilpotent elements in IS n
Ln = the total number of chains in the chain decompositions of
all elements of IS n
Mn = the total number of chains in the chain decompositions of all
nilpotent elements of IS n ,
Pn = the total number of fixed points of all elements of IS n
142
CHAPTER 8. NILPOTENT SUBSEMIGROUPS
Example 8.4.1 The semigroup IS 1 has 2 elements:
1
1
.
,
∅
1
For this semigroup, we have
I1 = 2,
N1 = 1,
L1 = 1,
Example 8.4.2 The semigroup IS 2
1 2
1 2
,
,
1 2
2 1
1 2
1
,
∅ 1
∅
M1 = 1,
P1 = 1.
has 7 elements:
1 2
1 2
,
,
1 ∅
2 ∅
2
1 2
,
.
2
∅ ∅
For this semigroup, we have
I2 = 7,
N2 = 3,
L2 = 6,
M2 = 4,
P2 = 4.
Now we will present some combinatorial relations involving In , Nn , Ln ,
Mn , and Pn .
Proposition 8.4.3
Ln =
strank(α).
α∈IS n
Proof. Consider the sets
A = {(α, c, x) : α ∈ IS n , c is a cycle of α, x is a point of c},
B = {(β, l) : β ∈ IS n , l is a chain from the chain decomposition of β}.
Obviously, our statement is equivalent to the equality |A| = |B|.
Consider the mapping f : A → B, defined as follows:
f ((α, (x, a, . . . , b), x)) = (β, [x, a, . . . , b]),
where β is obtained from α substituting the cycle (x, a, . . . , b) with the chain
[x, a, . . . , b]. Consider also the mapping g : B → A, which is defined as
follows: g((β, [x, a, . . . , b])) = (α, (x, a, . . . , b), x), where α is obtained from
β substituting the chain [x, a, . . . , b] with the cycle (x, a, . . . , b). Obviously
f and g are inverse to each other and thus |A| = |B|.
Theorem 8.4.4
Pn +
1
Ln = In .
n
(8.4)
8.4. COMBINATORICS OF NILPOTENT ELEMENTS IN IS n
143
Proof. Rewrite the equality (8.4) in the following form:
nPn + Ln = nIn .
(8.5)
Consider the following sets:
A = {(α, x) : α ∈ IS n , x ∈ N},
B = {(β, l) : β ∈ IS n , l is a chain for the chain decomposition of β},
C = {(γ, y, z) : γ ∈ IS n , y is a fixed point of γ, z ∈ N}.
The equality (8.5) is equivalent to the equality |C| + |B| = |A|. To prove the
latter equality, we decompose A into a disjoint union A = A1 ∪ A2 , where
A1 = {(α, x) ∈ A : x belongs to some chain of α},
A2 = {(α, x) ∈ A : x belongs to some cycle of α}.
Consider the transformation which maps the cycle (x, a, . . . , b) to the chain
[x, a, . . . , b]. As in the proof of Proposition 8.4.3 this transformation induces
a bijection A2 → B. Hence |A2 | = |B|.
To prove |A1 | = |C|, we construct mutually inverse bijections f : A1 → C
and g : C → A1 . Consider any element (α, x) ∈ A1 . If x is the starting point
of some chain [x, a, . . . , b] of length at least 2 from the chain decomposition
of α, we define f ((α, x)) = (γ, x, a), where γ is obtained from α substituting
the chain [x, a, . . . , b] with the cycle (x) and the cycle (a, . . . , b). If x is the
only point of the chain [x], we define f ((α, x)) = (γ, x, x), where γ is obtained
from α substituting the chain [x] with the cycle (x). Finally, if x is contained
in some chain [a, . . . , b, x, c, . . . , d] and is different from the starting point a
of this chain, we define f ((α, x)) = (γ, x, b), where γ is obtained from α
substituting the chain [a, . . . , b, x, c, . . . , d] with the cycle (x) and the chain
[a, . . . , b, c, . . . , d].
Let now (γ, y, z) ∈ C. If y = z, we define g((γ, y, z)) = (α, y), where
α is obtained from γ substituting the cycle (y) with the chain [y]. If z
is a point of some chain [a1 , . . . , as , z, b1 , . . . , bt ] in the chain decomposition of γ, we set g((γ, y, z)) = (α, y), where α is obtained from γ substituting the cycle (y) and the chain [a1 , . . . , as , z, b1 , . . . , bt ] with the chain
[a1 , . . . , as , z, y, b1 , . . . , bt ]. Finally, if z is a point of some cycle (z, a1 , . . . , as )
of γ, we set g((γ, y, z)) = (α, y), where α is obtained from γ substituting the
cycles (y) and (z, a1 , . . . , as ) with the chain [y, z, a1 , . . . , as ].
Obviously, f and g are inverse to each other implying |A1 | = |C|, and
the statement follows.
Let Nn denote the set of all nilpotent elements of IS n . We have |Nn |=Nn .
Proposition 8.4.5
In = Nn + Pn .
144
CHAPTER 8. NILPOTENT SUBSEMIGROUPS
Proof. The element α ∈ IS n can have some fixed points only in the case
when α is not nilpotent. For every α ∈ Nn let Aα = stim(α) and Aα =
N \Aα . Consider the set
Mα = {β ∈ IS n : stim(β) = Aα and α|Aα = β|Aα }.
Obviously, |Mα | = strank(α)! and either Mα = Mβ or Mα ∩ Mβ = ∅ for
arbitrary α, β ∈ IS n . Hence the sets Mα form a partition of IS n \Nn into a
disjoint union of subsets.
Lemma 8.4.6 The total number of fixed points of all elements of Sn
equals n!.
Proof. Consider the following sets:
A = {(α, x, y) : α ∈ Sn , x, y ∈ N, α(x) = x},
B = {(β, z) : β ∈ Sn , z ∈ N}.
The statement of lemma is obviously equivalent to the equality |A| = |B|.
Define the function f : A → B as follows: f ((α, x, y)) = (β, y), where
β = α if x = y, and β is obtained from α substituting the cycles (x) and
(y, a1 , . . . , ak ) with the cycle (x, y, a1 , . . . , ak ) if x = y. Further define the
function g : B → A as follows: g((β, z)) = (α, x, z), where α = β and x = z
if β(z) = z, and α is obtained from β substituting the cycle (x, z, a1 , . . . , ak )
with the cycles (x) and (z, a1 , . . . , ak ) in the case β(z) = z. Obviously f and
g are mutually inverse bijections and hence |A| = |B|.
By Lemma 8.4.6 the total number of fixed points for all elements in Mα
equals strank(α)! and hence equals the cardinality of Mα . Hence the total
number Pn of all fixed points for all elements of IS n equals the total number
of those elements of IS n which are not nilpotent. The claim follows.
Theorem 8.4.7
(ii) In =
(i) Nn = n1 Ln .
1
n+1 Mn+1 .
Proof. Using Theorem 8.4.4 and Proposition 8.4.5 we have
1
Ln = In − Pn = In − (In − Nn ) = Nn .
n
This proves (i).
Consider the following sets:
A = {(x, α) : x ∈ {1, 2, . . . , n + 1}, α ∈ IS({1, 2, . . . , n + 1}\{x})}
B = {(β, l) : β ∈ Nn+1 , l is a chain of β}
To prove (ii) it is enough to show that |A| = |B|.
8.4. COMBINATORICS OF NILPOTENT ELEMENTS IN IS n
145
Define the mapping f : A → B in the following way. Let (x, α) ∈ A and
assume that
a1 . . . ak
ai1 . . . aik
is the permutational part of α, where a1 < a2 < · · · < ak . Set f ((x, α)) =
(β, l) ∈ B, where l = [ai1 , . . . , aik , x] and β is obtained from α substituting
the permutational part with l.
Define the mapping g : B → A, g : (β, l) → (x, α) in the following way: if
l = [a1 , . . . , ak , ak+1 ], we set x = ak+1 and α is obtained from β substituting
l with the permutational part
ai1
a1
...
...
aik
ak
,
where ai1 < ai2 < · · · < aik are elements a1 , . . . , ak , written with respect
to the natural increasing order. Obviously, f and g are mutually inverse
bijections, which implies |A| = |B| and completes the proof.
Theorem 8.4.8
(i) Nn = In−1 + Ln−1 .
(ii) In = Nn + Mn .
Proof. Consider the following sets:
A = {α ∈ Nn : n ∈ im(α)},
B = {α ∈ Nn : n ∈ im(α)},
C = {(β, l) : β ∈ IS n−1 , lis a chain ofβ}.
We have A ∪ B = Nn , A ∩ B = ∅, |C| = Ln−1 . Hence the equality (i) would
follow if we showed that |A| = In−1 and |B| = |C|.
Lemma 8.4.9 |A| = In−1 .
Proof. This proof is rather similar to that of Theorem 8.4.7(ii). Define the
function f : A → IS n−1 in the following way: Let α ∈ A and [n, a1 , . . . , ak ]
be the chain starting at n (it exists since n ∈ im(α)). We set f (α) = β,
where β(y) = α(y) for all y ∈ {a1 , . . . , ak } and on {a1 , . . . , ak } the element
β is defined to be the following permutation:
ai1
a1
...
...
aik
ak
,
where ai1 < ai2 < · · · < aik are elements a1 , . . . , ak , written with respect to
the natural increasing order.
146
CHAPTER 8. NILPOTENT SUBSEMIGROUPS
Define further the function g : IS n−1 → A as follows: For β ∈ IS n−1 let
stim(β) = {a1 , . . . , ak }, where a1 < a2 < · · · < ak . Assume further that on
stim(β) the element β acts as the following permutation:
a1
ai1
...
...
ak
aik
.
We set g(β) = α, where
⎧
⎪
β(y),
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎨a ,
i1
α(y) =
⎪
a
ij+1 ,
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎩∅,
y
y
y
y
∈ stim(β);
= n;
= aij andj < k;
= aik .
Obviously, f and g are mutually inverse bijections, and hence |A| = In−1 .
Lemma 8.4.10 |B| = |C|.
Proof. Define the function f : B → C in the following way: Let α ∈ B and
[a1 , . . . , ak , n, b1 , . . . , bm ] be the chain containing n (note that k ≥ 1 since
n ∈ im(α)). We set f (α) = (β, l), where β is obtained from α substituting the
chain [a1 , . . . , ak , n, b1 , . . . , bm ] by the chain [a1 , . . . , ak ] and the permutation:
bi1
b1
...
...
bim
bm
,
where bi1 < bi2 < · · · < bim are elements b1 , . . . , bm , written with respect to
the natural increasing order. Further, we set l = [a1 , . . . , ak ].
Define the function g : C → B as follows: For (β, l) ∈ C let l =
[a1 , . . . , ak ], stim(β) = {b1 , . . . , bm }, where b1 < b2 < · · · < bm and assume
that on stim(β) the element β acts as the following permutation:
b1
bi1
...
...
bm
bim
.
We set g(β, l) = α, where α is obtained from β substituting l and the above
permutation by the chain [a1 , . . . , ak , n, bi1 , . . . , bim ]. Obviously, f and g are
mutually inverse bijections, and hence |B| = |C|.
The statement (i) now follows from Lemmas 8.4.9 and 8.4.10.
Using Theorem 8.4.7(ii) and Proposition 8.4.5 we can rewrite the equality
of (ii) as follows:
(8.6)
Pn = nIn−1 .
8.4. COMBINATORICS OF NILPOTENT ELEMENTS IN IS n
147
To prove (8.6) consider the following two sets:
D = {(α, x) : α ∈ IS n , x ∈ N, α(x) = x},
E = {(β, y) : y ∈ N, β ∈ IS(N\{y})}.
The equality (8.6) is equivalent to the equality |D| = |E|.
Define the mapping f : D → E in the following way: f ((α, x)) = (β, x),
where β is the restriction of α to N\{x}. Define the mapping g : E → D in
the following way: g((β, y)) = (α, y), where
β(z), z = y;
α(z) =
y,
z = y.
Obviously, f and g are mutually inverse bijections and hence |D| = |E|. This
proves (8.6) and completes the proof.
Corollary 8.4.11 Pn = Mn .
Proof. Follows from Proposition 8.4.5 and Theorem 8.4.8(ii).
Theorem 8.4.12 Nn = |{α ∈ IS n : 1 ∈ dom(α)}|.
Proof. Set A = {α ∈ IS n : 1 ∈ dom(α)} and consider the following decomposition of A into a disjoint union of subsets:
A=
AX ,
X⊂{2,3,...,n}
where AX = {α ∈ A : stim(α) = X}.
Consider also the following decomposition of Nn into a disjoint union of
subsets:
BX ,
Nn =
X⊂{2,3,...,n}
where
BX = {β ∈ Nn : β contains a chain [b1 , . . . , bl , 1, a1 , . . . , ak ]
and {a1 , . . . , ak } = X}.
For a fixed X = {a1 , . . . , ak }, a1 < a2 < · · · < ak , define the mapping f :
AX → BX as follows: f (α) = β, where β is obtained from α substituting the
chain [b1 , . . . , bl , 1] of α (which exists as 1 ∈ dom(α)) and the permutational
part
a1 . . . ak
(8.7)
ai1 . . . aik
of α by the chain [b1 , . . . , bl , 1, ai1 , . . . , aik ].
148
CHAPTER 8. NILPOTENT SUBSEMIGROUPS
Define the mapping g : BX → AX as follows: g(β) = α, where α is
obtained from β substituting the chain [b1 , . . . , bl , 1, ai1 , . . . , aik ] by the chain
[b1 , . . . , bl , 1] and the permutational part given by (8.7). The mappings f and
g are obviously mutually inverse bijections and hence |AX | = |BX | for all
X. The statement of our theorem follows.
8.5
Addenda and Comments
8.5.1 In the context of ring theory, nilpotent semigroups were studied already in [Ko, Lev]. The oldest purely semigroup theoretical paper, dedicated
to the study of nilpotent semigroups, which we managed to find, is [She].
8.5.2 An alternative notion of nilpotent semigroups was proposed in [Ma2].
This notion generalizes the notion of nilpotent groups. Finite nilpotent semigroups in our sense are sometimes referred to as nil-semigroups.
8.5.3 From the results of [KRS] it follows that almost all semigroups are
nilpotent in the following sense: Let An denote the total number of semigroup
structures on N and Bn denote the total number of nilpotent semigroup
structures on N, then Bn /An → 1, n → ∞. The proof of the main statement
of [KRS] (which implies the above claim) is only outlined and no complete
argument was ever published, so some specialists put this proof in question.
Nevertheless, the experimental data obtained so far strongly suggest that
the above statement is true. Thus in [SYT] it is shown that 99% of almost
2×109 semigroups consisting of 8 elements are nilpotent.
8.5.4 The idea to use partial orders for description of maximal nilpotent
subsemigroups appears first in the papers [GK2, GK3, GK4]. In particular,
the results of Sect. 8.1 and 8.2 are essentially proved in these papers. This
idea has proved to be very useful and applicable to many different situations,
see for example [GM1, GM2, KuMa3, Sh1, Sh2, St1, Ts4]. Furthermore, this
idea led to the development of a very general and abstract approach to the
study of nilpotent subsemigroups proposed in [GM6].
8.5.5 Theorem 8.3.3 is due to M. Pavlov. It appeared in [GP] for the first
time, and can also be found in [GM4]. In [GM2] analogous ideas were successfully applied to determine the cardinalities of some maximal nilpotent
subsemigroups of the semigroup IOn of all partial order-preserving injections on the chain 1 < 2 < · · · < n.
8.5.6 The results of Sect. 8.4 are obtained in [GM5]. Some of these results
were reproved in [JM] using generating functions.
8.5.7 Let A ⊂ N and T ⊂ IS n be a nilpotent semigroup with the zero
element εA .
8.5. ADDENDA AND COMMENTS
149
Lemma 8.5.1 α(x) = x for all α ∈ T and x ∈ A.
Proof. Since εA is the zero element in T and εA (x) = x for all x ∈ A, we
have
α(x) = α(εA (x)) = (αεA )(x) = εA (x) = x.
Lemma 8.5.2 Let α ∈ T and x ∈ dom(α) ∩ (N\A). Then α(x) ∈ N\A.
Proof. Assume that α(x) = y ∈ A. Then α(x) = α(y) by Lemma 8.5.1,
which contradicts the fact that α is a partial injection. The claim follows.
By Lemma 8.5.2 we can consider the restriction map
T → IS(N\A)
α → α|N\A .
By Lemma 8.5.1 this mapping is even injective. Since εA |N\A is the zero
element of IS(N\A), the image of T under this restriction is a nilpotent
subsemigroup of IS(N\A), now with the usual zero element. This reduces
the study of all nilpotent subsemigroups of IS n to the study of nilpotent
subsemigroups with the usual zero element.
8.5.8 Define the mapping in : PT n → Tn+1 in the following way: for α ∈
PT n and x ∈ {1, 2, . . . , n + 1} set
α(x),
x ∈ dom(α);
in (α)(x) =
n + 1,
otherwise.
A direct calculation shows that in is a homomorphism. Furthermore, in is
obviously injective. The mapping in is called the canonical inclusion of PT n
to Tn+1 .
Proposition 8.5.3 (i) Let T ⊂ PT n be a nilpotent subsemigroup with
the usual zero. Then in (T ) is a nilpotent subsemigroup of Tn+1 with
the zero element 0n+1 .
(ii) Let T ⊂ Tn+1 be a nilpotent subsemigroup with the zero element 0n+1 .
Then T = in (S) for some nilpotent subsemigroup S ⊂ PT n with the
usual zero.
Proof. The statement (i) follows from the facts that in is a homomorphism
and in (0) = 0n+1 .
To prove (ii) consider any nilpotent subsemigroup T ⊂ Tn+1 with the
zero element 0n+1 . For each α ∈ T we have
α(n + 1) = α(0n+1 (n + 1)) = (α0n+1 )(n + 1) = 0n+1 (n + 1) = n + 1.
150
CHAPTER 8. NILPOTENT SUBSEMIGROUPS
In particular, for α, β ∈ T we have α = β if and only if there exists x ∈
{1, 2, . . . , n} such that α(x) = β(x). Let S be the set of all γ ∈ PT n such that
in (γ) ∈ T . Then the previous argument implies that in induces a bijection
between S and T . A direct calculation shows that S is in fact a subsemigroup
of PT n . This completes the proof.
Proposition 8.5.3 reduces the study of nilpotent subsemigroups of Tn+1
with the zero element 0n+1 to the study of nilpotent semigroups of PT n with
the usual zero. Since all left zeros of Tn+1 can be mapped to 0n+1 using some
inner automorphisms, we can reduce the study of all nilpotent subsemigroups
of Tn+1 with zero elements of the form 0x , x ∈ {1, 2, . . . , n + 1}, to the study
of nilpotent semigroups of PT n with the usual zero.
8.5.9 Let now ∈ PT n be any idempotent and T ⊂ PT n be any nilpotent
subsemigroup of PT n with the zero element . Note that if ∈ Tn , then
n
from α(n+1) = for all α ∈ T it follows that dom(α) = N for all α ∈ T , in
particular, T is a nilpotent subsemigroup of Tn . So the study of all nilpotent
subsemigroups of Tn reduces to the study of all nilpotent subsemigroups of
PT n .
Let A = dom(), {a1 , . . . , ak } = im() and A = A1 ∪ · · · ∪ Ak be the
partition such that (x) = ai for all x ∈ Ai .
Lemma 8.5.4 Each α ∈ T has the following properties:
(a) α(x) ∈ Ai for all i and all x ∈ Ai .
(b) α(ai ) = ai for all i.
(c) α(x) ∈ N\A for all x ∈ (N\A) ∩ dom(α).
Proof. Let x ∈ Ai . Then for α(x) we have (α(x)) = (α)(x) = (x) = ai .
Hence α(x) ∈ Ai , which proves (a). The statement (c) is proved analogously.
For any i = 1, . . . , k we have α(ai ) = α((ai )) = (α)(ai ) = (ai ) = ai .
This proves (b) and completes the proof.
By Lemma 8.5.4 we can restrict each α ∈ T to each of the sets A1 , . . . , Ak ,
N\A. These restrictions in fact define homomorphisms from T to T (Ai ),
i = 1, . . . , k, and PT (N\A). If α, β ∈ T and α = β, then the images of α
and β with respect to at least one of these homomorphisms are different.
The images of these homomorphisms are nilpotent subsemigroups of T (Ai ),
whose zero elements are some left zeros of T (Ai ), and nilpotent subsemigroups of PT (N\A) with the usual zero. This reduces the study of nilpotent
subsemigroups of PT n with the zero element to the study of nilpotent subsemigroups of PT n with the usual zero element and the study of nilpotent
subsemigroups of Tn , whose zero is a left zero of Tn (see 8.5.8). It might be
a good exercise for the reader to write down all necessary details.
8.6. ADDITIONAL EXERCISES
151
8.5.10 Let M be a finite set and G be a subgroup of S(M ). Define the
binary relation ∼ on M as follows: x ∼ y if and only if there exists g ∈ G
such that x = g(y). It is easy to check that ∼ is an equivalence relation.
The equivalence classes of this relation are called the G-orbits of M . Let OG
denote the number of G-orbits. For g ∈ G let fi(g) denote the number of
fixed points of g. In the case G = S(M ) the number of G-orbits on M is
obviously 1. Hence Lemma 8.4.6 is a special case of the following famous
statement, known as Burnside’s Lemma, the Cauchy-Frobenius Lemma or
the Orbit-counting Theorem:
Theorem 8.5.5
OG =
1 fi(g).
|G|
g∈G
The proof of this statement can be found in many general books on
combinatorics and group theory. We refer the reader to [Ne].
8.5.11 From Exercise 2.10.21 and Proposition 8.4.5 it follows that Pn /In → 1,
n → ∞. This is an asymptotic analogue of Lemma 8.4.6 for IS n .
8.5.12 If m = (M1 , . . . , Mk ) and n = (M1 , . . . , Mk ), then the semigroups
Nτ (m) and Nτ (n) are isomorphic if and only if |Mi | = |Mi | for all i. This is
proved in [GK4].
8.6
Additional Exercises
8.6.1 For each k ∈ N construct a nilpotent semigroup S such that |S| =
nd(S) = k.
8.6.2 Show that every nilpotent semigroup contains exactly one idempotent.
8.6.3 Let S and T be two nilpotent semigroups. Consider the set S × T =
{(s, t) : s ∈ S, t ∈ T } with the operation (s, t) · (s , t ) = (ss , tt ). Show that
S × T is a nilpotent semigroup.
8.6.4 Let ϕ : S T be an epimorphism of semigroups.
(a) Show that the semigroup T is nilpotent provided that S is nilpotent.
(b) Construct an example of S, T , and ϕ as above such that T is nilpotent
and S is not nilpotent.
8.6.5 Let ϕ : S T be an epimorphism of semigroups. Assume that T is
nilpotent and nd(T ) = k. Let 0 be the zero element of T and assume that
X = ϕ−1 (0) = {s ∈ S : ϕ(s) = 0} is a nilpotent semigroup and nd(X) = l.
Show that S is a nilpotent semigroup and nd(S) ≤ l · k.
152
CHAPTER 8. NILPOTENT SUBSEMIGROUPS
8.6.6 ([Ko, Lev]) Let Matn (C) denote the semigroup of all n × n complex
matrices with respect to the usual matrix multiplication. Let further T ⊂
Matn (C) be some nilpotent subsemigroup. Show that nd(T ) ≤ n.
8.6.7 ([Ko, Lev, Fa, KuMa3]) Classify all maximal nilpotent subsemigroups
of the semigroup Matn (C).
8.6.8 Let T ⊂ PT n (or T ⊂ IS n ) be a subsemigroup, containing I1 . Show
that for each k > 0 the mapping X → T ∩ X defines a bijection between the
set of maximal elements in Nilk (PT n ) (resp. Nilk (IS n )) and the set Nilk (T ).
8.6.9 Construct a subsemigroup T ⊂ IS n , which contains I1 and for which
there exist two nonisomorphic maximal nilpotent subsemigroups of nilpotency degree n.
8.6.10 For each m as in Sect. 8.2 determine the cardinality of the subsemigroup Nτm ∩ I1 of IS n .
8.6.11 Prove that Nn equals the number of all partial injections from N to
{1, 2, . . . , n − 1}.
8.6.12 ([GM5]) Prove that
2
n
n
(n − k)
k! =
[n]k In−k .
k
n−1
k=0
k=1
8.6.13 ([GM5]) Prove that the following two sets have the same cardinality:
A = {(α, l) : α ∈ IS n , l is a chain of α},
B = {(β, x) : β ∈ IS n , 1 ∈ dom(β), x = β k (1) for some k ≥ 0}.
8.6.14 ([GM2, GM4]) Prove that the number of those α ∈ IS n , which
satisfy the following two conditions:
(a) α(x) < α(y) for all x, y ∈ N, x < y
(b) α(x) < x for all x ∈ N
equals the n-th Catalan number Cn =
2n
1
n+1 n
.
Chapter 9
Presentation
9.1
Defining Relations
Let A be a nonempty set, which we will call the alphabet. Elements of A
will be called letters. Any finite nonempty sequence a1 a2 · · · ak of elements
from A will be called a word or a word over A. The set of all words over A is
denoted A+ . If u = a1 a2 · · · ak and v = b1 b2 · · · bm are two words, we define
their product or concatenation or juxtaposition as follows:
uv = a1 a2 · · · ak b1 b2 · · · bm .
It is obvious that this binary operation is associative, which turns A+ into
a semigroup. This semigroup is called the free semigroup with base A. Obviously, A is a generating system of A+ .
Let now S be a semigroup and A be a generating system for S. On the one
hand, then every element s ∈ S can be written as a product s = a1 a2 · · · ak of
some elements from A, however not uniquely in general. On the other hand,
every product a1 a2 · · · ak can be considered as an element of A+ . If there
exist two words u = a1 a2 · · · ak and v = b1 b2 · · · bm in A+ , which determine
the same element s ∈ S, we say that the relation u = v holds in S.
Proposition 9.1.1 The binary relation
ρ(S, A) = {(u, v) ∈ A+ × A+ : u = v is a relation in S}
is a congruence on A+ , moreover A+ /ρ(S, A) ∼
= S canonically.
Proof. The mapping ϕ : A+ → S, which sends the word a1 a2 · · · ak to the
product a1 a2 · · · ak , is obviously a homomorphism of semigroups. It is surjective since A generates S. We further have ρ(S, A) = Ker(ϕ) by definition.
Hence ρ(S, A) is a congruence on A+ . The claim A+ /ρ(S, A) ∼
= S follows
from Theorem 6.1.6.
O. Ganyushkin, V. Mazorchuk, Classical Finite Transformation Semigroups, Algebra
and Applications 9, DOI: 10.1007/978-1-84800-281-4 9,
c Springer-Verlag London Limited 2009
153
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CHAPTER 9. PRESENTATION
Fixing some representatives in all classes of ρ(S, A) determines a canonical form for each element of S with respect to the generating system A.
Sometimes, it is convenient to identify the elements from S with their canonical forms. Such identification might be useful if the following two natural
conditions are satisfied:
• There exists a constructable description for all canonical forms
• If the canonical forms of some elements g, h ∈ S are known, then one
can determine the canonical form of the element gh
Let u = v be a relation in S = A. We will say that some congruence
ρ on A+ contains the relation u = v provided that (u, v) ∈ ρ. In particular,
the uniform congruence ωA+ = A+ × A+ contains all possible relations. As
the intersection of an arbitrary family of congruences is a congruence, for
each set Σ of relations, there exists an unique minimal congruence ρΣ on
A+ , which contains all relations from Σ. If ρΣ = ρ(S, A), the set Σ is called
a set or a system of defining relations for S with respect to A. In this case,
one says that S is a semigroup generated by A with the system Σ of defining
relations. This is denoted S = A|Σ. The pair A|Σ is called a presentation
of S. Note that a system of defining relations for S with respect to A is not
unique in general.
Let Σ be a subset of A+ × A+ . A pair (u, v) ∈ A+ × A+ will be called
a Σ-pair provided that u = v or there exist decompositions u = su1 t and
v = sv1 t (where s, t, u1 , v1 ∈ A+ or either s or t or both are empty), such
that either (u1 , v1 ) or (v1 , u1 ) belongs to Σ.
Proposition 9.1.2 Congruence ρΣ coincides with the set of all pairs (u, v)
for which there exists a finite collection w1 , w2 , . . . , wk ∈ A+ such that each
of the pairs (u, w1 ), (w1 , w2 ), . . . , (wk−1 , wk ) and (wk , v) is a Σ-pair.
Proof. Let Ω denote the set of all pairs (u, v), which satisfy the condition of
the proposition. Obviously, each Σ-pair is contained in ρΣ . As each congruence is an equivalence relation, in particular, is transitive, we get Ω ⊂ ρΣ .
To complete the proof it is enough to show that Ω is a congruence.
Let (u, v) ∈ Ω and (u, w1 ), (w1 , w2 ), . . . , (wk−1 , wk ), (wk , v) be the corresponding collection of Σ-pairs. Then for every w ∈ A+ we have that the
pairs (wu, ww1 ), (ww1 , ww2 ), . . . , (wwk−1 , wwk ), (wwk , wv) are Σ-pairs as
well. Hence (wu, wv) ∈ Ω and Ω is left compatible. Analogously one shows
that Ω is right compatible. This completes the proof.
A relation u = v is said to follow from Σ provided that (u, v) ∈ ρΣ .
Remark 9.1.3 Assume that both u = v and v = w follow from Σ. Then,
obviously, u = w follows from Σ as well.
9.1. DEFINING RELATIONS
155
If S contains the unit element 1, we will always assume that every generating system A of S contains 1 and every system Σ of defining relations
contains all relations of the form a · 1 = a and 1 · a = a, a ∈ A. Such relations will be called trivial. As trivial relations for monoids should always be
present, we always assume that they are present, and normally omit them.
Let now A and B be two generating systems for S. Then for every a ∈ A
there exists v(a) ∈ B + such that a = v(a), and for every b ∈ B there exists
w(b) ∈ A+ such that b = w(b). We fix such v(a), a ∈ A, and w(b), b ∈ B.
For arbitrary x = a1 a2 · · · ak ∈ A+ and any y = b1 b2 · · · bm ∈ B + set
v(x) = v(a1 )v(a2 ) · · · v(ak ) ∈ B + ,
w(y) = w(b1 )w(b2 ) · · · w(bm ) ∈ A+ .
Let Σ be an arbitrary system of relations for the generating system A.
Define a new system ΣB
A of relations for the generating system B in the
following way:
• If Σ contains the relation a1 · · · ak = a1 · · · am , then ΣB
A contains the
relation v(a1 · · · ak ) = v(a1 · · · am )
• If b ∈ B and w(b) = a1 · · · ak , then ΣB
A contains the relation b =
v(a1 · · · ak ) (in the proof of Theorem 9.1.4 it will be convenient to
denote the right-hand side of this relation by f (b))
• ΣB
A does not contain any other nontrivial relations
Theorem 9.1.4 Let Σ be a system of defining relations of S with respect
to the generating system A. Then ΣB
A is a system of defining relations of S
with respect to the generating system B.
Proof. From the definitions we have ΣB
A ⊂ ρ(S, B). Hence, it is enough to
show that every relation in ρ(S, B) follows from ΣB
A . Let
b1 b2 · · · bk = b1 b2 · · · bm
(9.1)
be some relation in ρ(S, B). For every i, 1 ≤ i ≤ k, and every j, 1 ≤ j ≤ m,
the system ΣB
A contains the relations bi = f (bi ) and bj = f (bj ). This yields
that the relations
b1 b2 · · · bk = f (b1 )f (b2 ) · · · f (bk ) and b1 b2 · · · bm = f (b1 )f (b2 ) · · · f (bm )
B
follow from ΣB
A (even belong to ΣA ).
From (9.1) it follows that ρ(S, A) contains the relation w(b1 b2 · · · bk ) =
w(b1 b2 · · · bm ). As ρ(S, A) = ρΣ , by Proposition 9.1.2 there exists a finite
collection w1 , . . . , wr ∈ A+ such that all pairs
(w(b1 b2 · · · bk ), w1 ), (w1 , w2 ), . . . , (wr−1 , wr ), (wr , w(b1 b2 · · · bm ))
156
CHAPTER 9. PRESENTATION
are Σ-pairs. However, if (x, y) is a Σ-pair, then the pair (v(x), v(y)) is a
ΣB
A -pair by definition. This means that the relation
v(w(b1 b2 · · · bk )) = v(w(b1 b2 · · · bm ))
follows from ΣB
A.
Observe now that the word v(w(b1 b2 · · · bk )) coincides with the word
f (b1 )f (b2 ) · · · f (bk ), and at the same time the word v(w(b1 b2 · · · bm )) coincides with the word f (b1 )f (b2 ) · · · f (bm ). Hence, the relation (9.1) follows
B
from ΣB
A by Remark 9.1.3. As every relation from ρ(S, B) follows from ΣA ,
B
we obtain that ΣA is a system of defining relations of S with respect to the
generating system B and the proof is complete.
9.2
A presentation for IS n
According to Lemma 3.1.1 and Theorem 3.1.4, a subset A ⊂ IS n is a generating system for IS n if and only if A contains some generating system A1
of the symmetric group Sn and an element of rank (n − 1).
Lemma 9.2.1 Transpositions (1, 2), (1, 3), . . . , (1, n) generate Sn .
Proof. This follows from the equality (i, j) = (1, i)(1, j)(1, i) and the standard fact that the set of all transpositions generates Sn (see Exercise 3.3.2).
The above implies that we can choose for example the following generating system A for IS n : we take (n−1) transpositions πk = (1, k), k = 2, . . . , n,
and the idempotent ε(1) = ε{2,3,...,n} . Let Σ1 denote an arbitrary system of
defining relations for the group Sn with respect to the generating system
A1 = {π2 , . . . , πn }. We also set ε(k) = πk ε(1) πk for all k = 2, . . . , n.
Theorem 9.2.2 Let n ≥ 4 and Σ denote the union of Σ1 with the set of the
following relations:
(a) ε2(1) = ε(1)
(b) ε(1) ε(2) = ε(2) ε(1)
(c) ε(2) πk = πk ε(2) , k = 3, 4, . . . , n
(d) ε(k) π2 = π2 ε(k) , k = 3, 4, . . . , n
(e) π2 ε(1) ε(2) = ε(1) ε(2)
Then Σ is a system of defining relations for the semigroup IS n with respect
to the generating system A.
9.2. A PRESENTATION FOR IS n
157
To prove this theorem we will need several lemmas. Note that, since Σ1
is a system of defining relations for Sn , we may use arbitrary relations from
Sn in the proof.
Lemma 9.2.3 The relation ε2(i) = ε(i) follows from Σ for any i.
Proof. As πi2 = ε and ε2(1) = ε(1) belongs to Σ, we have
ε2(i) = πi ε(1) πi · πi ε(1) πi
= πi ε(1) · ε(1) πi
= πi ε(1) πi
= ε(i) .
Lemma 9.2.4 For any k = 1 and k = i the relation πi ε(k) = ε(k) πi follows
from Σ.
Proof. If k = 2 or i = 2, the claim follows from the relations (c) and (d),
respectively. If both k = 2 and i = 2, then we have
πi ε(k) = πi πk π2 ε(2) π2 πk
= πk π2 πk πi πk ε(2) π2 πk
(by (c)) = πk π2 ε(2) πk πi πk π2 πk
= πk π2 ε(2) π2 πk πi
= ε(k) πi
using the relations πi πk π2 = πk π2 πk πi πk and π2 πk πi = πk πi πk π2 πk in Sn .
Lemma 9.2.5 Let k = 1. If π ∈ Sn is a cyclic permutation such that
π(i) = k, then π can be written as π = τ (1, k)(1, i), where τ (k) = k.
Proof. For i = 1 we consider all possible cases:
(1) if i = k, then π = π(1, k)(1, i)
(2) if π = (i, k), then π = (1, i)(1, k)(1, i)
(3) if π = (i, k, a, . . . , b), a = 1, b = 1, then π = (1, a, . . . , b, i)(1, k)(1, i)
(4) if π = (1, i, k, a, . . . , b), then π = (1, a, . . . , b)(1, k)(1, i)
(5) if π = (i, k, 1, a, . . . , b), then π = (i, a, . . . , b)(1, k)(1, i)
If i = 1, then the only possible cases are (2) and (3). The case (2) is trivial.
In the case (3) we have π = (1, a, . . . , b)(1, k).
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CHAPTER 9. PRESENTATION
Lemma 9.2.6 Let k = 1 and π ∈ Sn be such that π(k) = k. Then π may
be written as π = πj1 πj2 · · · πjm such that k ∈ {j1 , j2 , . . . , jm }.
Proof. This statement is obvious.
Lemma 9.2.7 Let π ∈ Sn be such that π(i) = k. Then the relation πε(i) =
ε(k) π follows from Σ.
Proof. We first consider the case k, i = 1. From Lemmas 9.2.5 and 9.2.6 it
follows that π can be written as a product π = πj1 πj2 · · · πjm πk πi such that
k ∈ {j1 , . . . , jm }. Then
πε(i) = πj1 πj2 · · · πjm πk πi · πi ε(1) πi
= πj1 πj2 · · · πjm πk ε(1) πi
= πj1 πj2 · · · πjm πk ε(1) πk · πk πi
= πj1 πj2 · · · πjm ε(k) πk πi
(by Lemma 9.2.4) = ε(k) πj1 πj2 · · · πjm πk πi
= ε(k) π.
If k = 1 and i = 1, for the permutation τ = π2 π we have τ (i) = 2 and hence
τ ε(i) = ε(2) τ by the arguments above. From this we obtain
πε(i) = π2 π2 πε(i)
= π2 τ ε(i)
= π2 ε(2) τ
= π2 ε(2) π2 π
= ε(1) π.
The case i = 1 now follows by symmetry.
Lemma 9.2.8 The relation ε(i) ε(k) = ε(k) ε(i) follows from Σ.
Proof. The statement is obvious in the case i = k. We split the rest into
three different cases:
First we consider the case when i = 2. Because of the relation (b) we
may assume k > 2. We have
ε(2) ε(k) = ε(2) πk ε(1) πk
(by Lemma 9.2.4) = πk ε(2) ε(1) πk
(by (b)) = πk ε(1) ε(2) πk
= πk ε(1) πk · πk ε(2) πk
= ε(k) πk ε(2) πk
(by (c)) = ε(k) ε(2) πk πk
= ε(k) ε(2) .
9.2. A PRESENTATION FOR IS n
159
Now we consider the case i = 1. Because of the relation (b) we may
assume k > 2. We have
ε(1) ε(k) = π2 ε(2) π2 ε(k)
(by Lemma 9.2.4) = π2 ε(2) ε(k) π2
(using the case i = 2) = π2 ε(k) ε(2) π2
(by Lemma 9.2.4) = ε(k) π2 ε(2) π2
= ε(k) ε(1) .
Finally we consider the case i, k > 2. We have
ε(i) ε(k) = ε(i) πk ε(1) πk
(by Lemma 9.2.4) = πk ε(i) ε(1) πk
(using the case i = 1) = πk ε(1) ε(i) πk
(by Lemma 9.2.4) = πk ε(1) πk ε(i)
= ε(k) ε(i) .
Lemma 9.2.9 The relation πi ε(1) ε(i) = ε(1) ε(i) follows from Σ.
Proof. For i = 2 the statement coincides with the relation (e). For i > 2 we
first observe that
ε(1) ε(2) π2 = ε(2) ε(1) π2
= π2 ε(1) π2 · π2 ε(2) π2 · π2
= π2 ε(1) ε(2)
(by (e)) = ε(1) ε(2) .
We further have:
πi ε(1) ε(i) = πi ε(1) πi ε(1) πi
= πi π2 ε(2) π2 πi ε(1) π2 π2 πi
(using π2 πi = πi π2 πi π2 ) = πi π2 ε(2) πi π2 πi π2 ε(1) π2 π2 πi
(by Lemma 9.2.4) = πi π2 πi ε(2) π2 πi ε(2) π2 πi
(by Lemma 9.2.4) = πi π2 πi π2 π2 ε(2) π2 ε(2) πi π2 πi
(using π2 πi = πi π2 πi π2 ) = π2 πi ε(1) ε(2) π2 πi π2
(using the observation above) = π2 πi ε(1) ε(2) πi π2
(by Lemma 9.2.4) = π2 πi ε(1) πi ε(2) π2
= π2 ε(i) ε(2) π2
(by Lemma 9.2.4) = ε(i) π2 ε(2) π2
= ε(i) ε(1) .
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CHAPTER 9. PRESENTATION
Lemma 9.2.10 For any transposition (i, j) = πj πi πj we have that the relation (i, j)ε(i) ε(j) = ε(i) ε(j) follows from Σ.
Proof. Using Lemma 9.2.4 we have
πj πi πj ε(i) ε(j) = πj πi ε(i) πj ε(j) πj πj
= πj πi ε(i) ε(1) πj
(by Lemmas 9.2.8 and 9.2.9) = πj ε(i) ε(1) πj
(by Lemma 9.2.4) = ε(i) πj ε(1) πj
= ε(i) ε(j) .
Lemma 9.2.11 Let {1, 2, . . . , n} = {i1 , . . . , im } ∪ {j1 , . . . , jn−m } and assume m ≥ 2. Let further π, τ ∈ Sn be such that π(jk ) = τ (jk ) for all
k = 1, . . . , n − m. Then the relation
πε(i1 ) · · · ε(im ) = τ ε(i1 ) · · · ε(im )
(9.2)
follows from Σ.
Proof. For π and τ as above we have π = τ μ, where μ acts on the set
{j1 , . . . , jn−m } as the identity transformation. Hence we can write μ =
μr · · · μ1 , where each factor is a transposition on {i1 , . . . , im }. Let μ1 =
(a, b). As ε(i1 ) , . . . , ε(im ) commute by Lemma 9.2.8 and are idempotents by
Lemma 9.2.3, we have
ε(i1 ) · · · ε(im ) = ε(a) ε(b) ε(i1 ) · · · ε(im ) .
(9.3)
Now we compute:
πε(i1 ) · · · ε(im ) = τ μr · · · μ1 ε(i1 ) · · · ε(im )
(by (9.3)) = τ μr · · · μ1 ε(a) ε(b) ε(i1 ) · · · ε(im )
(by Lemma 9.2.10) = τ μr · · · μ2 ε(a) ε(b) ε(i1 ) · · · ε(im )
(by (9.3)) = τ μr · · · μ2 ε(i1 ) · · · ε(im ) .
Now the statement follows by induction.
Proof of Theorem 9.2.2. A straightforward calculation shows that the relations (a)–(e) hold in IS n .
From Lemmas 9.2.4 and 9.2.7, it follows that every word over the alphabet A can be written in the form
πε(j1 ) ε(j2 ) · · · ε(jm ) ,
(9.4)
9.3. A PRESENTATION FOR Tn
161
where m ≥ 0 and π ∈ Sn . Using Lemmas 9.2.3 and 9.2.8, the word (9.4) can
be written in the form
πε(i1 ) ε(i2 ) · · · ε(ik ) ,
where k ≥ 0 and 1 ≤ i1 < i2 < · · · < ik ≤ n.
It is left to show that every relation in IS n of the form
πε(i1 ) ε(i2 ) · · · ε(ik ) = τ ε(j1 ) ε(j2 ) · · · ε(jm ) ,
(9.5)
where π, τ ∈ Sn , k ≥ 0, m ≥ 0, 1 ≤ i1 < i2 < · · · < ik ≤ n and 1 ≤ j1 <
j2 < · · · < jm ≤ n, follows from Σ.
For α = πε(i1 ) ε(i2 ) · · · ε(ik ) we have dom(α) = {i1 , . . . , ik }. Analogously
for β = τ ε(j1 ) ε(j2 ) · · · ε(jm ) we have dom(β) = {j1 , . . . , jm }. Hence (9.5)
implies k = m, i1 = j1 , . . . , ik = jk and also π(l) = τ (l) for any element
l ∈ N\{i1 , . . . , ik }. Hence the relation (9.5) has the form
πε(i1 ) ε(i2 ) · · · ε(ik ) = τ ε(i1 ) ε(i2 ) · · · ε(ik ) .
(9.6)
If k = 0 or k = 1, the permutations π and τ coincide and thus π = τ follows
from Σ1 , implying that (9.6) follows from Σ. If k ≥ 2, the relation (9.6)
follows from Σ by Lemma 9.2.11. This completes the proof.
9.3
A Presentation for T n
Recall that in Sect. 5.3 we denoted by εm,k the idempotent of rank (n − 1) in
Tn such that εm,k (m) = εm,k (k) = m. From Lemma 3.1.1 and Theorem 3.1.3
it follows that the set A, which consists of ε, all transpositions (i, j) ∈ Sn
and all idempotents εm,k of rank (n − 1), is a generating system of Tn .
Let Σ1 denote an arbitrary system of defining relations for the group Sn
with respect to the generating system A1 , consisting of the identity element
and all transpositions. Denote by Σ the system of relations obtained by
adding to Σ1 the following relations where the letters i, j, k, l denote different
elements of N:
(a) (k, l)εi,j (k, l) = εi,j
(b) (j, k)εi,j (j, k) = εi,k
(c) (k, i)εi,j (k, i) = εk,j
(d) (i, j)εi,j (i, j) = εj,i
(e) εi,j εl,k = εl,k εi,j
(f) εi,j εi,k = εi,k εi,j = εi,j εj,k
(g) εi,j εk,i = εk,j (i, j)
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CHAPTER 9. PRESENTATION
(h) εi,j εk,j = εk,j
(i) εi,j εi,j = εi,j
(j) εi,j εj,i = εi,j
(k) εi,j (i, j) = εi,j
Theorem 9.3.1 The system Σ is a system of defining relations for Tn with
respect to the generating system A.
As in the previous section, to prove this theorem we will need several
technical lemmas. By the same arguments as in the previous section we will
freely use all relations in the symmetric group.
Lemma 9.3.2 The relation πεi,j π −1 = επ(i),π(j) follows from Σ for every
π ∈ Sn .
Proof. If π is the identity element, the claim is obvious. If π is a transposition, the claim follows from the relations (a)–(d). In the general case
the claim follows by inductions since every permutation can be written as a
product of transpositions.
Lemma 9.3.3 Let k > 1 and f = εik ,jk εik−1 ,jk−1 · · · εi1 ,j1 be such that
{ik , jk } ∩ {j1 , . . . , jk−1 } = ∅
and
{im , jm } ∩ {j1 , . . . , jm−1 } = ∅
for all m < k. Then the relation
εik−1 ,jk−1 εik−2 ,jk−2 · · · εi1 ,j1 ,
f=
(ik , jk )εik−1 ,jk−1 · · · εi1 ,j1 ,
jk ∈ {j1 , . . . , jk−1 },
otherwise
follows from Σ.
Proof. We prove the statement by induction on k. For k = 2 the claim
follows from the relations (h) and (i) if j2 = j1 or the relations (g), (b) and
Lemma 9.3.2 if j2 = j1 .
Assume now that k ≥ 3 and that the statement is proved if the number
of factors is less than k. Consider first the case jk ∈ {j1 , . . . , jk−1 }. Let
jk = jm for some m < k. If m > 1, then from the inductive assumption we
have
εik ,jk εik−1 ,jk−1 · · · εim ,jm = εik−1 ,jk−1 · · · εim ,jm ,
which implies f = εik−1 ,jk−1 εik−2 ,jk−2 · · · εi1 ,j1 as required.
Let now m = 1. If εi2 ,j2 and εi1 ,j1 commute, we have
εik ,jk εik−1 ,jk−1 · · · εi2 ,j2 εi1 ,j1
= εik ,jk εik−1 ,jk−1 · · · εi3 ,j3 εi1 ,j1 εi2 ,j2
(by the inductive assumption) = εik−1 ,jk−1 · · · εi3 ,j3 εi1 ,j1 εi2 ,j2
= εik−1 ,jk−1 · · · εi3 ,j3 εi2 ,j2 εi1 ,j1 .
9.3. A PRESENTATION FOR Tn
163
Finally, assume that εi2 ,j2 and εi1 ,j1 do not commute. Because of (e),
this is possible only in the case {i1 , j1 } ∩ {i2 , j2 } = ∅. We have j1 ∈ {i2 , j2 }
by assumption. The case i1 = i2 is not possible because of the relation (f).
Hence i1 = j2 . In this case the relation (f) yields
εi2 ,j2 εi1 ,j1 = εi2 ,j1 εi2 ,j2 .
(9.7)
Using (9.7) we compute:
εik ,jk εik−1 ,jk−1 · · · εi3 ,j3 εi2 ,j2 εi1 ,j1
= εik ,jk εik−1 ,jk−1 · · · εi3 ,j3 εi2 ,j1 εi2 ,j2
(by the inductive assumption) = εik−1 ,jk−1 · · · εi3 ,j3 εi2 ,j1 εi2 ,j2
(by (9.7)) = εik−1 ,jk−1 · · · εi3 ,j3 εi2 ,j2 εi1 ,j1 .
If jk ∈ {j1 , . . . , jk−1 }, then ik ∈ {j1 , . . . , jk−1 }. This case is dealt with by
analogous arguments and is left to the reader.
Let J = {j1 , . . . , jk } ⊂ N be nonempty and i ∈ N\J. The relation
(f) implies that the elements εi,j1 , . . . , εi,jk pairwise commute. Hence the
product εi,j1 εi,j2 · · · εi,jk does not depend on the order of the factors. Let
us denote this product by εi,J . Note that from (e) we have εi1 ,J1 εi2 ,J2 =
εi2 ,J2 εi1 ,J1 provided that (J1 ∪ {i1 }) ∩ (J2 ∪ {i2 }) = ∅.
Lemma 9.3.4 Let k ≥ 1 and f = εik ,jk εik−1 ,jk−1 · · · εi1 ,j1 be such that
{im , jm } ∩ {j1 , . . . , jm−1 } = ∅
for all m ≤ k. Then there exists a partition {j1 , . . . , jk } = K1 ∪ · · · ∪ Kr into
disjoint nonempty blocks and elements {k1 , . . . , kr } ∈ {i1 , . . . , ik } such that
(Kp ∪ {kp }) ∩ (Kq ∪ {kq }) = ∅ if p = q
and the relation f = εkr ,Kr εkr−1 ,Kr−1 · · · εk1 ,K1 follows from Σ.
Proof. For k = 1 the claim is obvious. The rest is proved by induction on k.
From the inductive assumption we have
εik−1 ,jk−1 · · · εi1 ,j1 = εls ,Ls · · · εl1 ,L1 ,
(9.8)
where L1 ∪ · · · ∪ Ls = {j1 , . . . , jk−1 }, l1 , . . . , ls ∈ {i1 , . . . , ik−1 } and also
(Lp ∪ {lp }) ∩ (Lq ∪ {lq }) = ∅ for p = q.
We first assume that ik ∈ {l1 , . . . , ls }. As all factors on the right-hand
side of (9.8) commute, we may assume ik = ls . In this case we have
εik ,jk εls ,Ls
= εls ,jk εls ,Ls
= εls ,Ls ,
where Ls = Ls ∪ {jk }. This gives the necessary decomposition for the
product f : f = εls ,Ls εls−1 ,Ls−1 · · · εl1 ,L1 .
164
CHAPTER 9. PRESENTATION
Assume ik ∈ {l1 , . . . , ls }. If jk ∈ {l1 , . . . , ls }, then we set ls+1 = ik ,
Ls+1 = {jk }, and have the necessary decomposition for the product f : f =
εls+1 ,Ls+1 εls ,Ls · · · εl1 ,L1 . If jk ∈ {l1 , . . . , ls }, then as before we may assume
jk = ls . Let Ls = {x1 , . . . , xt }. Then we compute:
εik ,jk εls ,Ls
= εik ,ls εls ,x1 · · · εls ,xt
(by the relation (f)) = εik ,x1 εik ,ls εls ,x2 · · · εls ,xt
= ···
= εik ,x1 · · · εik ,xt εik ,ls .
If we now set ls = ik and Ls = Ls ∪ {ls }, we again obtain the necessary
decomposition for the product f : f = εls ,Ls εls−1 ,Ls−1 · · · εl1 ,L1 .
As in Exercise 2.10.24 for α ∈ Tn we let t(α) = (t0 (α), . . . , tn (α)) denote
the type of α.
Lemma 9.3.5 Let Δ = (t0 , t1 , . . . , tn ) be a vector with nonnegative integer
coefficients. Then the following conditions are equivalent:
(i) There exists α ∈ Tn such that Δ = t(α).
(ii)
n
tk = n and
k=0
n
ktk = n.
k=0
Proof. The implication (i)⇒(ii) is Exercise 1.5.12. To prove the implication
(ii)⇒(i) let Δ be such that the condition (ii) is satisfied. Define the idempotent transformation πΔ in the following way: Consider the usual order
on N. Partition N into an ordered collection of disjoint nonempty subsets
as follows: first take t1 subsets K1 = {1}, K2 = {2}, . . . , Kt1 = {t1 }; then
take t2 subsets L1 = {t1 + 1, t1 + 2}, . . . , Lt2 = {t1 + 2t2 − 1, t1 + 2t2 }; then
take t3 subsets M1 = {t1 + 2t2 + 1, t1 + 2t2 + 2, t1 + 2t2 + 3}, . . . , Mt3 =
{t1 + 2t2 + 3t3 − 2, t1 + 2t2 + 3t3 − 1, t1 + 2t2 + 3t3 }; and so on. Let k1 , . . . , kt1 ,
l1 , . . . , lt2 , m1 , . . . , mt3 and so on denote the corresponding minimal elements
in these subsets. Set
K1 · · · Kt1 L1 · · · Lt2 M1 · · · Mt3 · · ·
.
(9.9)
πΔ =
k1 · · · kt1 l1 · · · lt2 m1 · · · mt3 · · ·
It follows from the construction that t(πΔ ) = Δ.
Remark 9.3.6 The transformation πΔ from Lemma 9.3.5 can be constructed in a different
x ∈ N there exists a unique numway: For every
iti < x and
iti ≥ x. Then a straightforward
ber k(x) such that
i<k(x)
i≤k(x)
calculation shows that
the assignment
x − 1 − i<k(x) iti
iti + k(x)
πΔ (x) =
k(x)
i<k(x)
defines πΔ .
+1
9.3. A PRESENTATION FOR Tn
165
Using (9.9), to each vector Δ, which satisfies Lemma 9.3.5(ii), we associate the word
εΔ = εl1 ,L1 \{l1 } · · · εlt2 ,Lt2 \{lt2 } εm1 ,M1 \{m1 } · · · εmt3 ,Mt3 \{mt3 } · · · .
(9.10)
Lemma 9.3.7 Let μ, η ∈ E(Tn ) be such that t(μ) = t(η). Then there exists
σ ∈ Sn such that η = σμσ −1 .
Proof. Set
Mkμ = {x ∈ N : |{y ∈ N : μ(y) = x}| = k} .
Similarly define Mkη As |Mkμ | = |Mkη | for each k, we can define bijections
τk : Mkμ → Mkη for all k > 0. For every x ∈ Mkμ each of the sets Pkx =
{y ∈ N : μ(y) = x} and Qxk = {y ∈ N : η(y) = τk (x)} contains exactly k
elements. Moreover, x ∈ Pkx and τk (x) ∈ Qxk . Hence we can define bijections
Θkx : Pkx → Qxk such that θkx (x) = τk (x).
Pkx = N and Pkx11 ∩Pkx22 = ∅ if (k1 , x1 ) = (k2 , x2 ), the bijections
As
k>0 x
{θkx } define a permutation σ ∈ Sn . The equality η = σμσ −1 is checked by a
direct calculation.
Lemma 9.3.8 For each word u over A there exist α, β ∈ Sn and a uniquely
defined vector Δ satisfying Lemma 9.3.5(ii) such that the relation u = αεΔ β
follows from Σ.
Proof. The word u has the form γ1 γ2 · · · γm , where each γ is either an element from Sn or has the form εi,j . By Lemma 9.3.2, the word u can be
reduced to the form
u = εik ,jk · · · εi1 ,j1 μ,
(9.11)
where μ ∈ Sn . Among all possible relations of this form we choose the one
with minimal possible k. Then we claim that {im , jm } ∩ {j1 , . . . , jm−1 } = ∅
for all m ≤ k. Indeed, if not, then there exists t ≤ k such that {it , jt } ∩
{j1 , . . . , jt−1 } = ∅ and we may assume that t is minimal having this property. Then from Lemma 9.3.3 we obtain that
u = εik ,jk · · · εit+1 ,jt+1 νεit−1 ,jt−1 εi1 ,j1 μ,
(9.12)
where ν ∈ Sn . Applying Lemma 9.3.2 again we reduce the right-hand side of
(9.12) to the form (9.11) with k − 1 factors of the form εi,j . This contradicts
the minimality of k.
Thus {im , jm } ∩ {j1 , . . . , jm−1 } = ∅ for all m ≤ k. By Lemma 9.3.4, we
can reduce u to the form
u = εkr ,Kr · · · εk1 ,K1 μ,
where (Kp ∪ {kp }) ∩ (Kq ∪ {kq }) = ∅ for p = q.
166
CHAPTER 9. PRESENTATION
The product γ = εkr ,Kr · · · εk1 ,K1 is an idempotent of Tn . Let Δ = t(γ).
By Lemma 9.3.7 there exists α ∈ Sn such that γ = αεΔ α−1 . If we now set
β = α−1 μ, the relation u = αεΔ β follows from Σ by Lemma 9.3.2.
From Exercise 2.10.24 we have that u = α1 εΔ1 β1 = α2 εΔ2 β2 implies
t(εΔ1 ) = t(εΔ2 ). The proof is now completed by the observation that εΔ is
uniquely determined by its type.
Lemma 9.3.9 Let α ∈ Tn and t(α) = (t0 , t1 , . . . , tn ). Then
|Sn αSn | =
(n!)2
.
t0 !t1 ! · · · tn !(1!)t1 · · · (n!)tn
Proof. From Exercise 2.10.24 we have that β ∈ Sn αSn if and only if t(β) =
t(α). In particular, rank(β) = t1 + t2 + · · · + tn . Each such element β can be
obtained in the following way: Take any partition of N into t1 blocks with
and so on. After this we choose
one element, t2 blocks with two elements
n
im(β) (which we can do in rank(β)
different ways) and define an arbitrary
bijection between our blocks and im(β) (which we can do in (rank(β))!
different ways).
To get all necessary partitions of N consider some permutation i1 ,
i2 , . . . , in of the elements from N and say that the blocks with one element
are {i1 }, {i2 }, . . . , {it1 }; the blocks with two elements are {it1 +1 , it1 +2 }, . . . ,
{it1 +2t2 −1 , it1 +2t2 }; and so on. As the order of blocks of the same cardinality
and the order of elements in each block are not important, each partition
will be obtained exactly t1 ! · · · tn !(1!)t1 · · · (n!)tn times. Hence
n
n!
(t1 + · · · + tn )!
|Sn αSn | =
t1 ! · · · tn !(1!)t1 · · · (n!)tn t1 + · · · + tn
(n!)2
=
.
t0 !t1 ! · · · tn !(1!)t1 · · · (n!)tn
Lemma 9.3.10 Let α ∈ Tn and Δ = t(α) = (t0 , t1 , . . . , tn ). Then the
number of congruence classes in ρΣ , which contain words of the form αεΔ β,
α, β ∈ Sn , does not exceed
(n!)2
.
t0 !t1 ! · · · tn !(1!)t1 · · · (n!)tn
Proof. Let πΔ be as in (9.9). Denote by PΔ the set of all elements from Sn ,
for which the sets B1 = {k1 , k2 , . . . , kt1 }, B2 = {l1 , . . . , lt2 } and so on are
invariant. Set B0 = N\(B1 ∪ · · · ∪ Bn ). Obviously PΔ is a subgroup of Sn of
order pΔ = t0 !t1 ! · · · tn !.
Let us show that for any ν ∈ PΔ , there exists μ ∈ Sn such that the
relation νεΔ μ = εΔ follows from Σ. Note that PΔ is generated by those
9.3. A PRESENTATION FOR Tn
167
transpositions (i, j) for which both i and j belong to the same Bk , k =
0, . . . , n. Hence, it is enough to consider the case when ν = (i, j) such that
i, j ∈ Bk .
Consider the set {x ∈ N : πΔ (x) = i} =: {i1 , . . . , ik }. As i ∈ {i1 , . . . , ik },
we may assume i = i1 . Analogously, we define the set {j1 = j, j2 , . . . , jk }.
Set μ = (i1 , j1 ) · · · (ik , jk ) and let us show that νεΔ μ = εΔ follows from Σ.
If i, j, k, l are pairwise different, we have
(k, l)εi,j
= (k, l)εi,j (k, l)2
(by (a)) = εi,j (k, l).
From this and the relation (9.10) it follows that it is enough to prove the
relation
(i1 , j1 )εi1 ,i2 · · · εi1 ,ik εj1 ,j2 · · · εj1 ,jk (i1 , j1 ) · · · (ik , jk ) =
= εi1 ,i2 · · · εi1 ,ik εj1 ,j2 · · · εj1 ,jk
(9.13)
Using Lemma 9.3.2, the left-hand side of (9.13) can be reduced to the
following:
εj1 ,i2 · · · εj1 ,ik εi1 ,j2 · · · εi1 ,jk (i2 , j2 ) · · · (ik , jk ).
Using the relation (e), the latter can be reduced to
εj1 ,i2 εi1 ,j2 εj1 ,i3 εi1 ,j3 · · · εj1 ,ik εi1 ,jk (i2 , j2 ) · · · (ik , jk ).
Finally, using (a) the last expression reduces to
εj1 ,i2 εi1 ,j2 (i2 , j2 )εj1 ,i3 εi1 ,j3 (i3 , j3 ) · · · εj1 ,ik εi1 ,jk (ik , jk ).
(9.14)
As soon as, using (g), we have
εk,j εi,l (l, j) = εk,j εj,l εi,j
(by (f)) = εk,j εk,l εi,j
(by (f)) = εk,l εk,j εi,j
(by (h)) = εk,l εi,j ,
the word (9.14) reduces to the form
εj1 ,j2 εi1 ,i2 εj1 ,j3 εi1 ,i3 · · · εj1 ,jk εi1 ,ik .
The latter reduces to the right-hand side of (9.13) using (e).
Now let QΔ denote the set of all permutations from Sn , with respect to
which all sets in the upper row of (9.9) are invariant. Then QΔ is a subgroup
of Sn of order qΔ = (1!)t1 · · · (n!)tn . Let us show that for any θ ∈ QΔ the
relation εΔ θ = εΔ follows from Σ. As above, it is enough to consider the
168
CHAPTER 9. PRESENTATION
case θ = (i, j), where both i and j belong to the same set R from the upper
row of (9.9). Let R = {i1 , . . . , ik }. From (a) and (9.10) it follows that it is
enough to prove the relation
εi1 ,i2 · · · εi1 ,ik (i, j) = εi1 ,i2 · · · εi1 ,ik .
(9.15)
From (f) we have that the εi1 ,im ’s commute. If i = i1 or j = i1 , we can
permute the factors such that the factor εi1 ,im is such that {i1 , im } = {i, j}.
In this case (9.15) follows from (k). If i, j = i1 , we have
εi1 ,i2 · · · εi1 ,ik (i, j) = · · · εi1 ,i εi1 ,j (i, j)
(by (f)) = · · · εi1 ,i εi,j (i, j)
(by (k)) = · · · εi1 ,i εi,j
(by (f)) = · · · εi1 ,i εi1 ,j .
For every ν ∈ PΔ let μν be such that the relation νεΔ μν = εΔ follows
from Σ. Then for arbitrary α, β ∈ Sn the congruence class of ρΣ , containing
αεΔ β, will contain all ανεΔ θμν β, where ν ∈ PΔ and θ ∈ QΔ . Hence this class
contains at least |PΔ | · |QΔ | = pΔ qΔ words from Sn εΔ Sn . This implies that
the number of congruence classes of ρΣ which contain words from Sn εΔ Sn
does not exceed
(n!)2
|Sn |2
=
.
pΔ q Δ
t0 !t1 ! · · · tn !(1!)t1 · · · (n!)tn
Proof of Theorem 9.3.1. The mapping ϕ : A+ → Tn for which the letters are
mapped to the corresponding elements of Tn is, obviously, an epimorphism.
The kernel of this epimorphism coincides with ρ(Tn , A). By Theorem 6.1.6,
we have Tn ∼
= A+ /Ker(ϕ). It is easy to check that all relations (a)–(k) hold
in Tn . Hence Ker(ϕ) ⊃ ρΣ . If Ker(ϕ) = ρΣ , we would have
|Tn | = |A+ /Ker(ϕ)| < |A+ /ρΣ |.
However, from Lemmas 9.3.8–9.3.10, it follows that |A+ /ρΣ | ≤ |Tn |. Hence
Ker(ϕ) = ρΣ and the proof is complete.
Remark 9.3.11 From Theorem 3.1.3 it follows that Tn is already generated
by the subset A of A, consisting of transpositions (1, 2), . . . , (1, n), and the
idempotent ε1,2 . Using Theorem 9.1.4 the system Σ of defining relations with
respect to A can be transformed into a system Σ of defining relations with
respect to A .
9.4. A PRESENTATION FOR PT n
9.4
169
A presentation for PT n
For the semigroup PT n we consider the set
A = {(1, 2), (1, 3), . . . , (1, n), ε1,2 , ε(1) },
which is a generating system by Theorem 3.1.5. Let Σ̃ denote the system of
relations, which consists of the system Σ from Theorem 9.2.2, the system Σ
from Remark 9.3.11 and the following relations:
(a) ε(2) ε1,2 = ε1,2 , ε1,2 ε(2) = ε(2)
(b) ε(1) ε1,2 = ε1,2 ε(1) ε(2)
(c) ε(3) ε1,2 = ε1,2 ε(3)
Theorem 9.4.1 For n ≥ 4 the system Σ̃ is a system of defining relations
for PT n with respect to the generating system A.
We again will need several lemmas. Taking into account that Σ̃ contains
systems of defining relations for both IS n and Tn , we will freely use relations
between elements of each of these semigroups.
Lemma 9.4.2 The relation εi,j ε(i) ε(j) = ε(i) εi,j follows from Σ̃.
Proof. Let us first show that ε1,j ε(1) ε(j) = ε(1) ε1,j follows from Σ̃. We have
ε1,j ε(1) ε(j) =
(from Tn ) = (2, j)ε1,2 (2, j)ε(1) ε(j)
(from IS n ) = (2, j)ε1,2 ε(1) ε(2) (2, j)
(by (b)) = (2, j)ε(1) ε1,2 (2, j)
(from IS n ) = ε(1) (2, j)ε1,2 (2, j)
(from Tn ) = ε(1) ε1,j .
Using this we have
εi,j ε(i) ε(j) =
(from Tn ) = (1, i)ε1,j (1, i)ε(i) ε(j)
(from IS n ) = (1, i)ε1,j ε(1) ε(j) (1, i)
(previous relation) = (1, i)ε(1) ε1,j (1, i)
(from IS n ) = ε(i) (1, i)ε1,j (1, i)
(from Tn ) = ε(i) εi,j .
170
CHAPTER 9. PRESENTATION
Lemma 9.4.3 If k = i and k = j, then the relation εi,j ε(k) = ε(k) εi,j follows
from Σ̃.
Proof. Let us first show that for k > 2 the relation ε1,2 ε(k) = ε(k) ε1,2 follows
from Σ̃. If k = 3, the relation coincides with (c). For k > 3 we have
ε1,2 ε(k) =
(from IS n ) = ε1,2 (1, k)(1, 3)(1, k) · (1, k)ε(3) · (1, 3)(1, k)
(from IS n and Tn ) = (1, k)(1, 3)(1, k)ε1,2 · ε(3) (1, k) · (1, 3)(1, k)
(by (c)) = (1, k)(1, 3)(1, k) · ε(3) ε1,2 · (1, k)(1, 3)(1, k)
(from IS n and Tn ) = (1, k)(1, 3) · ε(3) (1, k) · (1, k)(1, 3)(1, k)ε1,2
(from IS n ) = ε(k) ε1,2 .
To prove the general case choose t = 1, 2 and μ ∈ Sn such that μ(1) = i,
μ(2) = j and μ(t) = k. Using the previous relation we have
εi,j ε(k) = με1,2 μ−1 ε(k)
(from IS n ) = με1,2 ε(t) μ−1
(previous relation) = με(t) ε1,2 μ−1
(from IS n ) = ε(k) με1,2 μ−1
= ε(k) εi,j .
Lemma 9.4.4 The relation εi,j ε(j) = ε(j) follows from Σ̃.
Proof. Let μ ∈ Sn be such that μ(1) = i, μ(2) = j. We have
εi,j ε(j) = με1,2 μ−1 ε(j)
(from IS n ) = με1,2 ε(2) μ−1
(by (a)) = με(2) μ−1
(from IS n ) = ε(j) .
Lemma 9.4.5 Let N = {i1 , . . . , in−m } ∪ {j1 , . . . , jm }, where m ≥ 1. Then
for the element
i1 · · · in−m {j1 , . . . , jm }
∈ Tn
γ=
i1 · · · in−m
i1
the relation γε(j1 ) · · · ε(jm ) = ε(j1 ) · · · ε(jm ) follows from Σ̃.
Proof. Observe that γ = εi1 ,j1 εj1 ,j2 εj2 ,j3 · · · εjm−1 ,jm . As the ε(t) ’s commute,
the statement of the lemma follows from Lemma 9.4.4.
9.4. A PRESENTATION FOR PT n
171
Lemma 9.4.6 Let N = {i1 , . . . , in−m } ∪ {j1 , . . . , jm }, where m ≥ 1. If
α, β ∈ Tn are such that α(ik ) = β(ik ) for all k, 1 ≤ k ≤ n − m, then the
relation
αε(j1 ) · · · ε(jm ) = βε(j1 ) · · · ε(jm )
(9.16)
follows from Σ̃.
Proof. Let γ be as in Lemma 9.4.5. Then the relation (9.16) can be rewritten
as follows:
αγε(j1 ) · · · ε(jm ) = βγε(j1 ) · · · ε(jm ) .
For α and β, satisfying our assumptions, we have αγ = βγ in Tn . Hence
αγ = βγ follows from Σ̃, which yields the statement of the lemma.
Proof of Theorem 9.4.1. One easily checks the relations (a)–(c) for the corresponding elements in PT n .
From the IS n case (Lemmas 9.2.4 and 9.2.7) we know how to commute
the ε(i) ’s with transpositions. From Lemmas 9.4.2 and 9.4.3 we know how
to commute the ε(i) ’s with the εk,j ’s. Using these rules, every word in the
alphabet A can be written in the form
αε(j1 ) · · · ε(jm ) , m ≥ 0, α ∈ Tn .
Since the ε(i) ’s commute, we may assume 1 ≤ j1 < · · · < jm ≤ n.
It is left to show that in the semigroup PT n every relation of the form
αε(j1 ) · · · ε(jm ) = βε(i1 ) · · · ε(ik ) ,
(9.17)
where α, β ∈ Tn , m, k ≥ 0, 1 ≤ j1 < · · · < jm ≤ n and 1 ≤ i1 < · · · < ik ≤ n,
follows from Σ̃. From the equalities
dom(αε(j1 ) · · · ε(jm ) ) = {j1 , . . . , jm },
dom(βε(i1 ) · · · ε(ik ) ) = {i1 , . . . , ik }
it follows that k = m and is = js for all s = 1, . . . , k. Further from (9.17) it
follows that α(l) = β(l) for any l ∈ N\{i1 , . . . , ik }. Hence the relation (9.17)
has the form
(9.18)
αε(j1 ) · · · ε(jm ) = βε(j1 ) · · · ε(jm ) .
If m = 0, we have an equality of two elements in Tn , which follows from Σ̃
as the latter contains a system of defining relations for Tn . If m > 0, the
relation (9.18) follows from Σ̃ by Lemma 9.4.6. This completes the proof.
172
9.5
CHAPTER 9. PRESENTATION
Addenda and Comments
9.5.1 Theorem 9.1.4 is proved by Aizenshtat in [Ai1]. Theorems 9.2.2 and
9.4.1 are taken from Sutov’s announcement [Sut1], where proofs are only
outlined. Theorem 9.3.1 is proved in [II].
9.5.2 The group Sn contains lots of generating systems, even irreducible
ones (see for example Exercises 3.3.2 and 3.3.3). For many of them some
systems of defining relations are known. In particular, for the generating
system {πi : i = 2, . . . , n} from Sect. 9.2 one of the systems of defining
relations is proposed by Carmichael, see [Ca, p. 169]. This system looks as
follows:
π22 = · · · = πn2 = (π2 π3 )3 = · · · = (πn−1 πn )3 = (πn π2 )3 = ε;
(πi πi+1 πi πj )2 = ε, 2 ≤ i, j ≤ n, j ∈ {i, i + 1}, πn+1 = π2 .
9.5.3 In representation theory one mostly uses the following system of
Coxeter generators of Sn :
τ1 = (1, 2), τ2 = (2, 3), . . . , τn−1 = (n − 1, n).
The name refers to the fact that Sn is an example of a Coxeter group,
the latter being defined axiomatically via a fixed presentation. For Sn the
corresponding system of defining relations looks as follows:
2
= ε;
τ12 = · · · = τn−1
(τi τj )2 = ε, i ≤ j − 2;
(τi τi+1 )3 = ε, 1 ≤ i ≤ n − 2.
This system was proposed by Moore in [Moo]. Using the first relation, the
two last relations can be rewritten as follows:
τi τj = τj τi , i ≤ j − 2;
τi τi+1 τi = τi+1 τi τi+1 .
The latter relations are known as braid relations.
9.5.4 Independently of Sutov, Popova in 1961 proposed a system of defining
relations for IS n with respect to the generating system {τ1 , . . . , τn−1 , ε(1) }
(see [Pp]). This system consists of the relations from 9.5.3 and the following
relations:
ε(1) = ε2(1) = τ2 ε(1) τ2 = τn−1 τn−2 · · · τ2 ε(1) τ2 · · · τn−2 τn−1 ;
(ε(1) τ1 )2 = ε(1) τ1 ε(1) = (τ1 ε(1) )2 .
(9.19)
Another system of defining relations for the same generating system can
be found in [Li, Chap. 9]. It again consists of the relations from 9.5.3 and
the following relations:
ε2(1) = ε(1) ; (ε(1) τ1 )2 = (ε(1) τ1 )3 ; ε(1) τk = τk ε(1) , 2 ≤ k < n.
(9.20)
9.6. ADDITIONAL EXERCISES
173
Solomon in [So] proposes a presentation for IS n with respect to the
generating system {τ1 , . . . , τn−1 , ν = [1, 2, . . . , n]}. It is obtained by adding
to the relations from 9.5.3 the following relations (here 1 ≤ i ≤ n − 1):
τi ν i+1 = ν i+1 ; ν n−i+1 τi = ν n−i+1 ; ντi = τi+1 ν;
ντn−1 τn−2 · · · τ1 ν = ν.
Delgado and Fernandes show in [DF] that the following collection of relations is a system of defining relations for IS n with respect to the generating
system {π = (1, 2), τ = (1, 2, . . . , n), ε(1) }:
π 2 = τ n = (τ π)n−1 = (πτ n−1 πτ )3 = ε;
(πτ n−k πτ k )2 = ε, 2 ≤ k ≤ n − 2;
τ n−1 πτ ε(1) τ n−1 πτ = τ πε(1) πτ n−1 = ε(1) = ε2(1) ;
(ε(1) π)2 = ε(1) πε(1) = (πε(1) )2 .
9.5.5 Let S be a semigroup. A presentation S = A|Σ of S is called irreducible provided that A is an irreducible generating system and Σ is a
minimal system of relations in the sense that any proper subset of Σ is not
a system of defining relations for S with respect to A. Obviously, if A is
irreducible and Σ is finite, then we can always find a subset Σ of Σ such
that the presentation S = A|Σ is irreducible.
For the semigroups IS n , PT n , and Tn , it is clear that every irreducible
presentation of each of these semigroups contains an irreducible presentation
of the symmetric group Sn .
Irreducible presentations are of course “most effective”. However, rather
often some other properties, for example simplicity, existence of canonical
forms, existence of effective algorithms for reduction to canonical forms,
etc., are more important than irreducibility. With respect to irreducible
presentations of Tn the following result of Aizenshtat from [Ai1] looks rather
remarkable:
Theorem 9.5.1 For every irreducible generating system of Tn there is an
irreducible presentation of Tn with respect to this system, which is obtained
adding not more than seven relations to the corresponding system of defining
relations for Sn .
9.6
Additional Exercises
9.6.1 Prove that A is the only irreducible generating system for A+ .
9.6.2 Describe the congruence ρ(S, A) for the cyclic semigroup S = a,
generated by the element a of type (k, m).
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CHAPTER 9. PRESENTATION
9.6.3 Let S be a semigroup, A = S, and Σ consist of all relations s · t = st,
s, t ∈ S. Prove that S = A|Σ is a presentation of S.
9.6.4 Let Σ denote some system of defining relations for the semigroup
S with respect to the generating system A. Let Σ be another system of
relations with respect to A. Prove that Σ is a system of defining relations
if and only if every relation from Σ follows from Σ .
9.6.5 ([KuMa2]) Consider for IS n the generating system
A = {τ1 , . . . , τn−1 , ε(1) , . . . , ε(n) }.
Show that a system of defining relations for A can be obtained by adding
to the relations from 9.5.3 the following relations:
ε2(i) = ε(i) ; ε(i) ε(j) = ε(j) ε(i) ; τi ε(i) ε(i+1) = ε(i) ε(i+1) ;
τi ε(i) = ε(i+1) τi ; τi ε(j) = ε(j) τi , j = i, i + 1.
9.6.6 Prove that
ε, ε(1) |ε2 = ε, ε2(1) = ε(1) , εε(1) = ε(1) ε = ε(1) is a presentation of IS 1 .
9.6.7 Show that the relation (1, 2)2 = ε together with the relations
ε2(1) = ε(1) ; ε(1) ε(2) = ε(2) ε(1) ; (1, 2)ε(1) ε(2) = ε(1) ε(2) ; (1, 2)ε(1) = ε(2) (1, 2)
are defining relations for IS 2 with respect to the generating system ε(1) ,
(1, 2).
9.6.8 Write down a system of defining relations of IS 3 with respect to the
generating system {ε, π2 , π3 , [1, 2]}.
9.6.9 ([Sut1]) Let
α=
{i1 , . . . , im } B1 · · ·
i
c1 · · ·
Bk
ck
∈ Tn ,
where i ∈ {c1 , . . . , ck }. Using Lemmas 9.4.2 and 9.4.3 show that the relation
αε(i1 ) · · · ε(im ) = ε(i) α follows from Σ̃.
9.6.10 Prove that every relation from (9.19) follows from relations (9.20).
Chapter 10
Transitive Actions
10.1
Action of a Semigroup on a Set
Let S be a semigroup and M be a nonempty set. An action of S on M is,
roughly speaking, a realization of each element from S as a (partial) transformation of M such that the product in S corresponds to the composition
of (partial) transformations. More formally, an action of S on M is a homomorphism from S to one of the semigroups T (M ), PT (M ), or IS(M ).
Depending on the choice of the latter semigroup, one speaks of the action
of S on M by transformations, by partial transformations, or by partial
permutations, respectively.
If S has a unit element, then it is usually required that it is represented
by the identity transformation of M . In particular, if S is a group, then each
element of S is represented by an invertible transformation of M and thus
an action of a group on M is just a homomorphism from this group to the
group of all invertible transformations of M (the symmetric group on M ).
Let ϕ and ψ be actions of S on some sets M and N , respectively (we
allow N = M ). These actions are called equivalent or similar if they can be
reduced to each other by some bijection between elements of M and N , that
is, if there exists a bijection π : M → N such that the following diagram
commutes for each s ∈ S:
M
π
N
ϕ(s)
ψ(s)
/M
π
/N
(that is, πϕ(s) = ψ(s)π for all s ∈ S). If M = N , from Theorem 7.1.3
we get that an equivalent requirement is ϕ = Λπ ψ, where Λπ is the inner
automorphism of Tn , PT n , or IS n , respectively, which is induced by π.
To describe all actions of a given semigroup on a given set, even up
to similarity, is usually a difficult problem. It is thus natural to consider
O. Ganyushkin, V. Mazorchuk, Classical Finite Transformation Semigroups, Algebra
and Applications 9, DOI: 10.1007/978-1-84800-281-4 10,
c Springer-Verlag London Limited 2009
175
176
CHAPTER 10. TRANSITIVE ACTIONS
some classes of actions, defined by some natural properties. One of the most
natural properties of an action is transitivity. An action ϕ of S on M is
called transitive provided that for any x, y ∈ M (note that x = y is allowed)
there exists s ∈ S such that ϕ(s) maps x to y.
Let ϕ be an action of S on M and N ⊂ M . The subset N is said to be
invariant with respect to ϕ provided that for every m ∈ N and for every
s ∈ S such that ϕ(s)(m) is defined we have ϕ(s)(m) ∈ N . The whole M and
the empty subset are invariant with respect to any action. The action ϕ is
called quasi-transitive provided that M cannot be written as a disjoint union
of two nonempty subsets, invariant with respect to ϕ. Each transitive action
is obviously quasi-transitive. The converse is true for groups; however, for
semigroups it need not be true in the general case.
Exercise 10.1.1 Let S be a semigroup acting on M . Show that this action
is transitive if and only if the only invariant subsets with respect to this
action are M and the empty subset.
Exercise 10.1.2 Construct an example of a quasi-transitive but not transitive action of a finite semigroup S on a finite set M .
An action ϕ is called faithful provided that ϕ is injective. By Cayley’s
Theorem (Theorem 2.4.3), each finite semigroup admits a faithful action on a
finite set by transformations. Analogously, by the Preston-Wagner Theorem
(Theorem 2.9.5), each inverse semigroup admits a faithful action on a finite
set by partial permutations.
Example 10.1.3 The identity maps define the actions of Sn , Tn , PT n , and
IS n on N, which are called natural. These actions are obviously transitive
and faithful. More general, any automorphism of Sn , Tn , PT n , and IS n
defines a faithful action of the respective semigroup on N. For Tn , PT n , and
IS n such actions are all similar to the natural action by Theorem 7.1.3. For
Sn such actions are similar to the natural action unless n = 6, see 7.6.2.
Example 10.1.4 Mapping all elements of a semigroup S to the identity
transformation of {1} defines an action trivS of S, which is called trivial. This
action is obviously transitive; however, it is faithful if and only if |S| = 1.
Exercise 10.1.5 Let ϕ be an action of S on M . Show that ϕ is transitive if
and only if for every x, y ∈ M there exists a sequence x = x0 , x1 , x2 , . . . , xk =
y (where k may depend on both x and y) of elements from M and a sequence
s1 , s2 , . . . , sk of elements from S such that ϕ(si )(xi−1 ) = xi for all i.
In the present chapter, we will describe all transitive actions of Tn , PT n ,
and IS n on finite sets by appropriate transformations up to similarity. Without loss of generality, we may assume that our semigroups act on the set Nk
for some k. To start with we recall the description of transitive actions for
groups.
10.2. TRANSITIVE ACTIONS OF GROUPS
10.2
177
Transitive Actions of Groups
Let G be a group acting on a set M via ϕ. To simplify the notation, if
the action ϕ is fixed, for g ∈ G and m ∈ M we will write g · m instead of
ϕ(g)(m) (and we will use this notation for semigroups as well). The kernel
Ker(ϕ) has the form ρH with respect to some normal subgroup H G by
Theorem 6.2.5. Abusing both the language and notation we call H the kernel
of ϕ and denote it by Ker(ϕ).
Let m ∈ M . Then the set
StG (m) = {g ∈ G : g · m = m}
is called the stabilizer of m with respect to the action ϕ. Note that StG (m)
is nonempty as it contains the identity element of G. From the definition we
also have that
Ker(ϕ) =
StG (m).
(10.1)
m∈M
Example 10.2.1 Consider the natural action of the symmetric group Sn
on N. Then the stabilizer of the element n ∈ N consists by definition of all
π ∈ Sn such that π(n) = n. This stabilizer can be canonically identified with
Sn−1 via the restriction to the subset {1, 2, . . . , n − 1}, which is invariant
with respect to all π ∈ StSn (n).
Lemma 10.2.2 Let G be a group acting on a set M .
(i) For every m ∈ M the set StG (m) is a subgroup of G.
(ii) For every m ∈ M and g ∈ G we have StG (m) = g −1 StG (g · m)g.
Proof. As we have already noted, the set StG (m) contains the identity element 1 of G. If g, h ∈ StG (m), then g · (h · m) = g · m = m and hence
gh ∈ StG (m). Finally, if g ∈ StG (m), then applying g −1 to m = g · m we get
g −1 · m = g −1 · (g · m) = g −1 g · m = 1 · m = m
(10.2)
and hence g −1 ∈ StG (m). The statement (i) follows.
Let h ∈ StG (g · m). Then, using (10.2) we get
g −1 hg · m = g −1 · (h · (g · m)) = g −1 · (g · m) = m,
hence g −1 hg ∈ StG (m) and thus g −1 StG (g · m)g ⊂ StG (m). Analogously,
we have ghg −1 ∈ StG (g · m) provided that h ∈ StG (m), which implies
gStG (m)g −1 ⊂ StG (g · m). Multiplying the latter inclusion with g −1 from
the left and with g from the right, we get StG (m) ⊂ g −1 StG (g · m)g and the
statement (ii) follows.
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CHAPTER 10. TRANSITIVE ACTIONS
Let G be a group and H be a subgroup of G. Consider the set G/H =
{gH : g ∈ G} of all left cosets of G modulo H (see Sect. 6.2).
Proposition 10.2.3 (i) For x, g ∈ G the assignment x ·H gH := xgH
defines a transitive action of G on G/H.
(ii) The kernel of this action is the normal subgroup
g −1 Hg of G.
g∈G
Proof. Let 1 denote the identity element of G. Then 1 ·H gH := 1gH = gH,
and hence 1 acts as the identity transformation on G/H. Further, if g, x, y ∈
G, we have
x ·H (y ·H gH) = x ·H ygH = xygH = xy ·H gH,
which proves that ·H is indeed an action. As for any x, y ∈ G we have
(xy −1 ) ·H yH = xy −1 yH = xH, it follows that ·H is transitive. This proves
the statement (i).
As 1 ·H 1H = 1H and StG (1H) = H, the statement (ii) follows from
(10.1) and Lemma 10.2.2(ii).
Let G act transitively on M and let m ∈ M be fixed. Set H = StG (m)
and for each k ∈ M choose some gk ∈ G such that gk (m) = k. Using these
conventions, we have the following complete description of transitive group
actions up to similarity:
Theorem 10.2.4 (i) The action of G on M is similar to the action ·H
of G on G/H, defined in Proposition 10.2.3, via the mapping f : M →
G/H defined as follows: f (k) = gk H.
(ii) If H and F are subgroups of G, then the actions ·H and ·F are similar
if and only if there exists g ∈ G such that H = g −1 F g (in other words
if and only if H and F are conjugate).
Proof. Let g ∈ G and k ∈ M . On the one hand, we have g ·H f (k) =
g ·H gk H = ggk H. On the other hand, let g · k = l for some l ∈ M . Then
f (g · k) = f (l) = gl H. At the same time,
gl−1 ggk · m = gl−1 · (g · (gk · m)) = gl−1 · (g · k) = gl−1 · l = m
by (10.2). This implies gl−1 ggk ∈ H and thus ggk H = gl H. Therefore g ·H
f (k) = f (g · k), which proves the statement (i).
We first prove the sufficiency part of the statement (ii). Assume that
H = g −1 F g for some g ∈ G. With respect to the action ·F we have F =
StG (F ) by definition. Applying Lemma 10.2.2(ii) for the same action we
obtain StG (g −1 F ) = g −1 StG (F )g = H. Now the fact that ·H and ·F are
similar follows from (i).
10.3. TRANSITIVE ACTIONS OF Tn
179
To prove the necessity part of (ii) assume that ·H and ·F are similar via
some mapping α : G/H → G/F . Let α(H) = gF for some g ∈ G. Then for
any x ∈ H we have
x ·F (gF ) = x ·F (α(H)) = α(x ·H H) = α(xH) = α(H) = gF.
In particular, H ⊂ StG (gF ). If x ∈ H, then xH = H and thus α(xH) = gF
since α is bijective, which implies x ∈ StG (gF ). This means that H =
StG (gF ). From Lemma 10.2.2(ii) it follows that H and F are conjugate.
This completes the proof.
From Theorem 10.2.4, we see that all groups, in particular, the symmetric group Sn , admit a lot of different transitive actions on finite sets.
Moreover, from Proposition 10.2.3(ii) and 6.5.5 it follows that, apart from
few exceptions, all such actions of Sn are faithful. It will be interesting to
compare this result with the corresponding results for the semigroups Tn ,
PT n , and IS n , which we will obtain in the next sections.
10.3
Transitive Actions of T n
In this section, we determine, up to similarity, all transitive actions of Tn .
As Tn is finite, it is enough to consider finite sets. The answer is given by
the following:
Theorem 10.3.1 Let ϕ be a transitive action of Tn on Nm for some m.
Then either m = 1 and ϕ is the trivial action or m = n and ϕ is similar to
the natural action.
To prove this theorem we will need the following lemma:
Lemma 10.3.2 Let ψ be an action of Tn on Nm .
(i) For every a ∈ N each block of the partition ρψ(0a ) of Nm is invariant
with respect to ψ.
(ii) The set
im(ψ(0a ))
a∈N
is invariant with respect to ψ.
Proof. Let x ∈ Nm and α ∈ Tn . As 0a is a left zero, we have
0a · (α · x) = (0a α) · x = 0a · x
and the statement (i) follows.
Let α ∈ Tn , a ∈ N and x = 0a · y for some y ∈ Nm . Then we have
α · x = α · (0a · y) = (α0a ) · y = 0α(a) · y
and the statement (ii) follows.
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CHAPTER 10. TRANSITIVE ACTIONS
Proof of Theorem 10.3.1. Assume first that ϕ is faithful. To distinguish the
elements of Tn and Tm in this proof, we will use the notation α(m) to emphasize that α is an element of Tm . Because of Lemma 10.3.2(i), the transitivity of ϕ implies that for every a ∈ N the element ϕ(0a ) must have rank
(m)
one, that is, there exists f (a) ∈ Nm such that ϕ(0a ) = 0f (a) . Because of
Lemma 10.3.2(ii), the transitivity of ϕ implies that
{f (a)}.
Nm =
a∈N
As ϕ is faithful, all f (a)’s are different and we get m = n. Hence ϕ determines
an automorphism of Tn . By Theorem 7.1.3 every automorphism of Tn is a
conjugation by some element from Sn . By definition, the means that ϕ is
similar to the natural action.
Now assume that ϕ is not faithful. Then, by Theorem 6.3.10 we have
ϕ(0a ) = ϕ(0b ) for all a, b ∈ N. The same arguments as in the previous
(m)
paragraph imply first that for all a ∈ N we have ϕ(0a ) = 0z for some fixed
z ∈ Nm ; and then even that Nm = {z}. Hence ϕ is the trivial action in this
case. This completes the proof.
The following corollary now shows quite a striking difference with the
symmetric group Sn :
Corollary 10.3.3 Every transitive and faithful action of Tn is similar to
the natural action.
10.4
Actions Associated with L-Classes
In this section, we present one general construction of transitive actions by
partial transformation for arbitrary semigroups.
Let S be a semigroup and e ∈ E(S). From Theorem 4.4.11 we know that
the H-class H(e) is a group. Let H be a subgroup of H(e). Consider the
L-class L(e). It is a disjoint union of H-classes, so we can pick a representative in each such H-class. Let a = {ai : i ∈ I} denote this collection of
representatives. Note that ai ∈ S 1 e by definition and hence ai e = ai for all
i ∈ I. As we also have e ∈ S 1 ai by definition, there exists ai ∈ S 1 such that
ai ai = e. In this situation from Green’s lemma we have that the assignment
x → ai x defines a bijective mapping from H(e) to H(ai ), whose inverse is
given by y → ai y. In particular, every element from L(e) admits a unique
presentation as a product ai g, where i ∈ I and g ∈ H(e). Note further that
{gH : g ∈ H(e)} = z{gH : g ∈ H(e)} for any z ∈ H(e). This, in particular,
means that the following set:
M(e, H) = {ai gH : i ∈ I, g ∈ H(e)}
does not depend on the choice of a.
10.4. ACTIONS ASSOCIATED WITH L-CLASSES
181
For every s ∈ S we define the partial transformation ξe,H (s) of the set
M(e, H) by prescribing its value on ai gH, g ∈ H(e), in the following way:
sai = aj g for somej ∈ I, g ∈ H(e);
aj g gH,
s · ai gH =
∅,
sai ∈ L(e).
Theorem 10.4.1 (i) ξe,H is a transitive action of the semigroup S by
partial transformations on the set M(e, H).
(ii) If ê ∈ E(S) is such that êDe, then there exists an appropriate subgroup
Ĥ of H(ê) such that the actions ξe,H and ξê,Ĥ are similar.
Proof. Let s, t ∈ S and i ∈ I. Then st · ai gH is defined if and only if
S 1 stai = S 1 ai . As S 1 stai ⊂ S 1 tai ⊂ S 1 ai , we have S 1 stai = S 1 ai if and
only if S 1 stai = S 1 tai and S 1 tai = S 1 ai , in other words if and only if both
t · ai gH and s · tai gH are defined.
Now assume that stai , tai ∈ L(e) and further that tai = aj g, saj = ak h
and (st)ai = al z for appropriate j, k, l ∈ I and g, h, z ∈ H. We have
al z = (st)ai = s(tai ) = s(aj g) = (saj )g = (ak h)g = ak (hg),
(10.3)
which implies k = l and z = hg because of the uniqueness of the presentation
of stai . This proves that ξe,H is indeed an action by partial transformations.
The transitivity of this action follows immediately from the definitions and
Green’s lemma. The statement (i) follows.
To prove (ii) let us first assume that êLe. For such ê from ê ∈ S 1 e it
follows that êe = ê and similarly eê = e. In this case for x, y ∈ H(e) we have
ê(xy) = êxey = êxeêy = êxêy = (êx)(êy),
which means that the mapping x → êx from H(e) to H(ê) is a group isomorphism. As xê = x for all x ∈ L(ê), we have
{ai gH : g ∈ H(e)} = {ai êgêH : g ∈ H(e)} = {ai (êg)(êH) : êg ∈ H(ê)}.
This means that M(e, H) = M(ê, êH), which proves the statement (ii) in
the case êLe.
If ê ∈ L(e), we can pick some element a ∈ D(e) such that aRe and aLê.
Let u, v ∈ S be such that au = e and ev = a. Then Green’s lemma says that
the mapping λv : L(e) → L(ê), x → xv is a bijection. Let H(ê) = λv (H(ai )).
From Theorem 4.7.5 it follows that the composition of λv with x → ai x
induces a group isomorphism from H(e) to H(ê). Let Ĥ denote the image
of H under this isomorphism. Note that λv maps the set ak gH to the set
ak gHv = ak egHv = ak ai ai egHv = ak ai ai gHv = ak ai ai gvai Hv.
As the element ĝ = ai gv belongs to H(e), we have ĝ = êĝ. Hence ak gHv =
ak ai ê(ĝ Ĥ), moreover, the factor ak ai ê = ak ai ai ev = ak ev = ak v belongs
182
CHAPTER 10. TRANSITIVE ACTIONS
to L(ê). Then λv induces a bijection from M(e, H) to M(ê, êH), which by
definition commutes with the left multiplication with elements from S. The
statement (ii) follows and the proof is complete.
From Theorem 10.4.1 it follows that, up to similarity, the action ξe,H
defined above depends only on the choice of a regular D-class and a subgroup
H in the abstract group, which is isomorphic to every maximal subgroup of
S, contained in this D-class.
Remark 10.4.2 If s ∈ S is such that the two-sided ideal S 1 sS 1 does not
intersect the L-class Le , then the domain of the transformation ξe,H (s) is
empty. In particular, if the set
{s ∈ S : S 1 sS 1 ∩ Le = ∅}
contains more than one element, then the action ξe,H is not faithful.
10.5
Transitive Actions of PT n and IS n
In the previous section, we constructed some natural transitive actions of
semigroups. In this section we will show that for the semigroups PT n and
IS n these are all transitive actions.
Theorem 10.5.1 (i) Let S be one of the semigroups PT n or IS n . Then
each transitive action of S is either trivial or similar to ξe,H for some
e ∈ E(S) and a subgroup H of H(e).
(ii) For the semigroup IS n each action ξe,H is an action by partial permutations.
Proof. Let ϕ be a transitive action of S on some set M . As S is finite and
ϕ is transitive, we have that M is finite as well. We split the proof of the
statement (i) into a sequence of observation. We start with the following
easy one:
Lemma 10.5.2 Every x ∈ im(ϕ(0)) is invariant with respect to ϕ.
Proof. Let α ∈ S and x = 0 · y for some x, y ∈ M . Then
α · x = α · (0 · y) = (α0) · y = 0 · y = x
and the claim follows.
Assume now that im(ϕ(0)) = ∅. In this case from Lemma 10.5.2 and the
transitivity of ϕ we derive M = im(ϕ(0)), moreover, M consists of exactly
one element. Hence ϕ is the trivial action.
From now on we assume that im(ϕ(0)) = ∅. Let k > 0 be minimal for
which there exists an idempotent e of rank k such that im(ϕ(e)) = ∅. Our
principal observation is the following:
10.5. TRANSITIVE ACTIONS OF PT n AND IS n
183
Lemma 10.5.3 M is a disjoint union of im(ϕ(εA )), A ⊂ N, |A| = k.
Moreover, im(ϕ(εA )) = ∅ for all such A.
Proof. First we claim that im(ϕ(εA )) = ∅ for each A ⊂ N, |A| = k. Indeed,
if we assume that im(ϕ(εA )) = ∅, then im(ϕ(α)) = ∅ for all α ∈ SεA S.
However, e ∈ SεA S by Theorem 4.2.8, which contradicts our assumption
im(ϕ(e)) = ∅.
Now we claim that im(ϕ(εA )) ∩ im(ϕ(εB )) = ∅ for any A = B ⊂ N,
|A| = |B| = k. Indeed, as A = B and |A| = |B| = k we have |A ∩ B| < k
and thus for any x ∈ im(ϕ(εB )) we obtain
εA · (εB · x) = (εA εB ) · x = εA∩B · x = ∅
by our assumptions. This implies im(ϕ(εA )) ∩ im(ϕ(εB )) = ∅.
Finally we claim that the set
im(ϕ(εA ))
N=
A⊂N, |A|=k
is invariant with respect to ϕ. Let α ∈ S and x ∈ im(ϕ(εA )) for some A ⊂ N
such that |A| = k. Then α · x = α · (εA · x) = αεA · x. If rank(αεA ) < k, then
from αεA = εim(αεA ) αεA it follows that im(ϕ(αεA )) ⊂ im(ϕ(εim(αεA ) )) = ∅,
which means that α · x = ∅. Hence we may assume rank(αεA ) = k. Then
for B = im(αεA ) we have |B| = k, implying αεA = εB αεA . From this we
obtain
εB · (α · x) = εB · (αεA · x) = (εB αεA ) · x = αεA · x = α · (εA · x) = α · x,
implying α · x ∈ im(ϕ(εB )).
The statement of the lemma now follows from the transitivity of ϕ. This
completes the proof.
Our next step is the following:
Lemma 10.5.4 Let A ⊂ N, |A| = k. Then ϕ induces a transitive action of
the group H(εA ) on im(ϕ(εA )).
Proof. By Exercise 10.1.1 we have to prove that the only subsets of the set
im(ϕ(εA )) invariant with respect to the restriction of ϕ to H(εA ) are the
whole im(ϕ(εA )) and the empty set. Assume that this is not the case and
let X ⊂ im(ϕ(εA )) be a proper invariant subset.
Let α ∈ S be such that rank(αεA ) = k. Then either im(αεA ) = A, in
which case αεA ∈ H(εA ), or im(αεA ) = B = A for some B ⊂ N, |B| = k. In
the second case, from αεA = εB αεA it follows that α · im(εA ) ⊂ im(εB ). As
X is invariant with respect to the action of H(εA ), for any x ∈ X we have
{α · x : α ∈ S} ⊂ X ∪
im(ϕ(εB )) = M
B⊂N, |B|=k, B=A
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CHAPTER 10. TRANSITIVE ACTIONS
by our assumptions and Lemma 10.5.3. This contradicts the transitivity of
the action ϕ.
Let A = {1, 2, . . . , k} and e = εA . For B ⊂ N, |B| = k, let αB denote
the unique increasing bijection from A to B. Note that all αB are elements
−1
in IS n . Then
of IS n , in particular, we have their inverse elements αB
a = {αB : B ⊂ N, |B| = k} contains exactly one representative of each
H-class in L(e). Finally, fix some x ∈ im(ϕ(εA )) and set H = StH(εA ) (x).
Our final step in the proof of the statement (i) is the following:
Lemma 10.5.5 The mapping f : M(e, H) → M , αB βH → αB β · x (here
αB ∈ a and β ∈ H(e)) produces a similarity between the actions ξe,H and ϕ.
Proof. For α ∈ S we have α · x = α · (e · x) = αe · x. If α · x = ∅, then
rank(αe) = k, in particular, αe ∈ L(e). This implies M = S · x = L(e) · x.
Since each element of L(e) belongs to some αi βH, from the transitivity of
ϕ we get that f is surjective.
Assume αB β · x = αC γ · x. Then B = C follows from Lemma 10.5.3.
−1
−1
−1
We further have αB
αB β · x = αB
αB γ · x. Note that αB
αB = εA by
construction, which yields β · x = γ · x. Hence γ −1 β ∈ H and βH = γH.
This implies that f is injective, and hence bijective.
Let now α ∈ S. If rank(ααB ) < k, then both α · αB βH = ∅ and
α · (αB β · x) = (ααB β) · x = ∅. If rank(ααB ) = k, then ααB ∈ L(e) can
be uniquely written as ααB = αC γ for some γ ∈ H(e). Then from the
definitions we have
f (α · αB βH) = f (αC γβH) = αC γβ · x = ααB β · x =
= α · (αB β · x) = α · f (αB βH),
which completes the proof of the lemma.
The statement (i) is proved.
Now we prove the statement (ii). We retain the notation from the paragraph before Lemma 10.5.5. By Theorem 10.5.1 we may assume e = εA . Let
β ∈ IS n be such that βαB πH = βαC τ H ∈ M(e, H) for some αB , αC ∈ a
and π, τ ∈ H(εA ). Then
β −1 βαB πH = β −1 βαC τ H ∈ M(e, H)
(10.4)
as well since β −1 βαB πH ∈ M(e, H) would imply for any h ∈ H the inequality rank(β −1 βαB πh) < rank(βαB πh) and thus
rank(βαB πh) = rank(ββ −1 βαB πh) ≤ rank(β −1 βαB πh) < rank(βαB πh),
a contradiction.
We have β −1 β = εD for some D ⊂ N. As both αB and αC are elements
of rank k, from (10.4) it follows that both εD αB and εD αC have rank k
10.6. ADDENDA AND COMMENTS
185
as well. This yields εD αB = αB and εD αC = αC . Now the equality (10.4)
implies αB πH = αC τ H, which shows that ξe,H (β) is a partial permutation.
This completes the proof.
Corollary 10.5.6 Let S be one of the semigroups PT n or IS n . Then every
transitive and faithful action of S is similar to the natural action.
Proof. By Theorem 10.5.1, any action of S is equivalent to some ξe,H . From
Theorem 4.2.8 and the construction of the action ξe,H it follows that for any
α ∈ S such that rank(α) < rank(e) we have S 1 αS 1 ∩ L(e) = ∅. Hence from
Remark 10.4.2 we derive that ξe,H is not faithful unless rank(e) = 1.
If rank(e) = 1, then H(e) ∼
= S1 by Theorem 5.1.4(ii). As S1 contains
exactly one subgroup, from Theorem 10.5.1 we obtain that S has, up to
similarity, at most one transitive and faithful action. Our statement now
follows from the obvious observation that the natural action is both transitive and faithful (see Example 10.1.3).
10.6
Addenda and Comments
10.6.1 The notion of similarity admits a categorical definition. Consider the
category A defined as follows: The objects of A are triples (S, M, ϕ), where S
is a semigroup, M is a nonempty set, and ϕ is an action of S on M by some
fixed type
of transformations.
If (S, M, ϕ) and (S , M , ϕ ) are two objects,
then A (S, M, ϕ), (S , M , ϕ ) is the set of all pairs (α, f ), where α : S → S
is a homomorphism and f : M → M is a mapping, such that for all s ∈ S
the following diagram commutes:
M
f
M
ϕ(s)
/M
ϕ (α(s))
f
/ M .
The composition
of two morphisms (α,
f ) ∈ A (S, M, ϕ), (S , M , ϕ ) and
(α , f ) ∈ A (S , M , ϕ ), (S , M , ϕ ) is defined to be (α α, f f ). For a fixed
S let AS denote the subcategory whose objects are (S, M, ϕ) for all possible
M and ϕ, and morphisms are (id, f ) for all possible f . Using the categorical
language, similar actions of S are exactly the actions which can be obtained
from each other by composing with an isomorphism in AS . Both categories
A and AS seem to be quite complicated and not much is known about them.
10.6.2 The results presented in Sects. 10.3–10.5 are special cases of a more
general result obtained by Ponizovskiy in [Po1, Po2]. A special case of
Corollary 10.5.6 for IS n appears also in [Vl1]. In fact, Ponizovskiy classified
all transitive actions by partial transformations of all finite semigroups. His
186
CHAPTER 10. TRANSITIVE ACTIONS
answer of course includes the actions ξe,H constructed in Sect. 10.4; however, in the general case one has to consider technically more complicated
actions on L-classes as well. These actions generalize the action ξe,H and
have the form L(e)/ρ, where ρ is a left compatible equivalence relation on
L(e). Combinatorial description of such relations even for the semigroup Tn
is complicated.
10.6.3 The actions considered in this chapter are left actions. One defines
right actions in the obvious dual way. Left actions of S are naturally the same
←
as right actions of S . As IS n is inverse, description of transitive right IS n actions is simply the dual to the description of the transitive left actions,
presented in Theorem 10.5.1. For the semigroups Tn and PT n description
of right actions by partial transformations is much more complicated and
requires the general approach of [Po1]. At the same time an analogue of
←
Theorem 10.3.1 for the semigroup Tn trivializes, see Exercise 10.7.7. This
shows that right actions for transformation semigroups are less natural than
left actions.
10.6.4 There is a rather advanced and well developed abstract theory of
semigroups acting on sets, see for example [CP2, Chap. 11]. There is also a
well-developed abstract theory of semigroup actions, in particular, transitive
actions, by binary relations. This one was developed by Schein, see [Sc2, Sc3].
10.6.5 Schein also developed in [Sc1] a general theory of actions of inverse
semigroups in terms of the so-called closed subsemigroups. Let S be an inverse semigroup. A subsemigroup H of S is said to be closed provided that
α ∈ H implies β ∈ H for every β ∈ S such that α−1 α = β −1 α (for elements of IS n the latter condition is equivalent to dom(α) ⊂ dom(β) and
α(x) = β(x) for any x ∈ dom(α)). For a closed inverse subsemigroup H of a
semigroup S Schein naturally defines cosets of S modulo H and constructs
a transitive action of S by partial permutations on the set of all cosets.
Applications of this approach to IS n are discussed in [Vl1].
The above notion of closed subsemigroups admits a natural generalization to PT n : a subsemigroup H of PT n is said to be closed provided that
α ∈ H implies β ∈ H for every β ∈ S such that dom(α) ⊂ dom(β) and
α(x) = β(x) for any x ∈ dom(α). However, as far as we know, there is
no classification of closed subsemigroups of PT n similar to that of closed
inverse subsemigroups of IS n , given in [Vl1, Theorem 1] (see also Exercise 10.7.10 below). We also do not know of any description of arbitrary
closed subsemigroups of PT n .
10.6.6 Let ϕ be an action of some semigroup S on some set M . The action
ϕ is said to be semitransitive provided that for any x, y ∈ M (we allow
x = y) there exists some s ∈ S such that either s · x = y or s · y = x.
Each transitive action is obviously semitransitive. The converse is not true
10.7. ADDITIONAL EXERCISES
187
in general. The easiest general example is the following: Let S be a finite
monoid with unit 1 and G = G1 = S. Let further ϕ be an action of G on
some set M . Consider the set M = M ∪ {∗} (we assume ∗ ∈ M ) and define
the action ϕ of S on M as follows:
ϕ(s)(m),
s ∈ G, m ∈ M ;
ϕ(s)(m) =
∗,
otherwise.
It is straightforward to verify that ϕ is an action. It is further easy to see
that ϕ is semitransitive if and only if ϕ is transitive.
The notion of a semitransitive action is a natural generalization of that
of a transitive action. However, it seems that for the moment not much is
known about such actions, even for classical semigroups. Some first results
in the study of semitransitive actions of inverse semigroups are obtained in
[C-O], where the reader will also find some references to the literature, where
such actions naturally appear.
10.7
Additional Exercises
10.7.1 Let S denote one of the semigroups Sn , Tn , PT n , or IS n . For α ∈ S
and X ∈ B(N) define
α · X = {α(x) : x ∈ X ∩ dom(α)}.
Show that this defines an action of S on B(N). Will this action be faithful?
transitive? quasi-transitive?
10.7.2 Is it true that a quasi-transitive action of an inverse semigroup by
partial permutations is transitive?
10.7.3 Let S denote one of the semigroups Sn , Tn , PT n , or IS n . The group
Aut(S) acts on S in the natural way. Is this action faithful? transitive?
quasi-transitive?
10.7.4 Let S denote one of the semigroups Sn , Tn , PT n , or IS n . The semigroup End(S) acts on S in the natural way. Is this action faithful? transitive?
quasi-transitive?
10.7.5 Show that the assignment α · π = απα−1 defines an action of IS n on
itself by transformations. Is this action faithful? transitive? quasi-transitive?
10.7.6 Let S be a semigroup. Show that the assignment s·x = sx defines an
action of S on itself by transformations. Prove that this action is transitive
if and only if S has exactly one L-class.
←
10.7.7 Describe all transitive actions of Tn by transformations.
188
CHAPTER 10. TRANSITIVE ACTIONS
10.7.8 Show that any semitransitive action of a group is transitive.
10.7.9 ([KuMa4]) Let S be a finite inverse monoid. For x ∈ S let ex denote
the idempotent, which has the form xk for some k.
(a) Prove that the assignment
axa−1 ,
a·x=
∅,
a−1 aex = ex ;
otherwise,
where a, x ∈ S, defines an action of S by partial transformations on
itself.
(b) Prove that for x, y ∈ S the elements x and y are conjugate (that is,
x ∼S y) if and only if there exist a, b, z ∈ S such that a · x = b · y = z.
10.7.10 ([Vl1]) Let A ⊂ N and H be a subgroup of H(εA ). Denote by
C(A, H) the subsemigroup of IS n , which consists of all α for which there
exists β ∈ H such that α(x) = β(x) for all x ∈ A.
(a) Show that C(A, H) is a closed inverse subsemigroup of IS n .
(b) Show that every closed inverse subsemigroup of the semigroup IS n is
of the form C(A, H) for appropriate A and H.
10.7.11 ([Vl2, Vl3]) Describe all closed inverse subsemigroups and all transitive actions (up to similarity) for every finite inverse semigroup S satisfying
the following condition: there exists a ∈ S such that the minimal inverse
subsemigroup of S containing a coincides with S.
10.7.12 Classify up to similarity all transitive actions of Tn by partial permutations on finite sets.
10.7.13 Classify up to similarity all transitive actions of PT n by partial
permutations on finite sets.
10.7.14 Prove that every transitive action of IS n by partial permutations
on a finite set remains transitive when restricted to Sn .
10.7.15 ([Po2]) (a) Let ϕ be an action of a finite inverse semigroup S by
partial permutations on a finite set M . Prove that there exists a decomposition M = M1 ∪ M2 ∪ · · · ∪ Mk into invariant subsets such that for
any i ∈ {1, 2, . . . , k} either |Mi | = 1 or for any x, y ∈ Mi there exists
s ∈ S such that ϕ(s)(x) = y.
(b) Prove that the statement (a) is no longer true in general if instead of
an action by partial permutations one considers an action by partial
transformations.
Chapter 11
Linear Representations
11.1
Representations and Modules
In this chapter, we work over the field C of complex numbers, in particular,
all vector spaces are vector spaces over C.
Let S be a semigroup and V a vector space (which we always assume
to be finite-dimensional). A representation of S in V is a homomorphism ϕ
from S to EndC (V ), the semigroup of all linear transformations of V . If S is
a monoid, one additionally requires that ϕ maps the identity element from
S to the identity transformation on V .
An alternative but equivalent notion is that of a module. If V is a vector
space, then one says that V has the structure of an S-module (alternatively
is a module over S) if we are given a mapping S × V → V , (s, v) → s · v
such that the following conditions are satisfied:
• s · (v + w) = s · v + s · w for all s ∈ S, v, w ∈ V
• s · (λv) = λ(s · v) for all s ∈ S, v ∈ V and λ ∈ C
• s · (t · v) = st · v for all s, t ∈ S and v ∈ V
• 1 · v = v for all v ∈ V if 1 is the identity element of S
Exercise 11.1.1 Show that the notion of a representation is equivalent to
that of a module.
The language of modules usually requires simpler notation and hence we
will mostly use it. Let V be an S-module. A subspace W ⊂ V is called a
submodule of V provided that s · w ∈ W for all w ∈ W and s ∈ S. Obviously,
the whole V and the zero vector space 0 are submodules of any module.
An S-module V is called simple provided that it is nonzero and the only
submodules of V are V and 0. The corresponding representation is called
irreducible.
O. Ganyushkin, V. Mazorchuk, Classical Finite Transformation Semigroups, Algebra
and Applications 9, DOI: 10.1007/978-1-84800-281-4 11,
c Springer-Verlag London Limited 2009
189
190
CHAPTER 11. LINEAR REPRESENTATIONS
If V is an S-module and W is a submodule of V , then the quotient space
V /W carries the natural structure of an S-module given by
s · (v + W ) = sv + W.
(11.1)
This module is called the quotient of V modulo W .
Exercise 11.1.2 Verify that (11.1) indeed defines an S-module structure
on V /W .
Example 11.1.3 Let S be any semigroup. Then the assignment s · c = c,
c ∈ C, defines on C the structure of an S-module. This module is called
the trivial S-module and is usually denoted by Ctriv . The trivial module is
simple because C, being one-dimensional, has only two subspaces, namely,
C and 0. The same argument implies that every one-dimensional S-module
is simple.
Example 11.1.4 Let S denote one of the semigroups Sn , IS n , Tn , or PT n .
For α ∈ S let ϕ(α) = (mi,j )ni,j=1 denote the n × n-matrix such that
1,
α(j) = i;
mi,j =
0,
otherwise.
For example, we have
⎛
ϕ
1 2 3 4 5 6
2 1 1 ∅ 5 3
⎜
⎜
⎜
=⎜
⎜
⎜
⎝
0
1
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
⎞
⎟
⎟
⎟
⎟.
⎟
⎟
⎠
As α is a (partial) transformation, we obtain that each column of the matrix
ϕ(α) contains at most one nonzero element. It is easy to check that for v ∈ Cn
the assignment α · v = ϕ(α)v defines on Cn the structure of an S-module.
This module is called the natural S-module.
If α ∈ Sn , then every row and every column of ϕ(α) contains exactly
one nonzero element. If α ∈ IS n , then every row and every column of ϕ(α)
contains at most one nonzero element. The latter corresponds to placements
of nonattacking rooks on an n×n chessboard. Because of this interpretation,
the semigroup IS n is sometimes called the rook monoid.
Exercise 11.1.5 Verify that the natural module is indeed a module, and
show that the natural module is simple if and only if S = IS n or S = PT n .
Exercise 11.1.6 Let M be an S-module. Show that M is simple if and only
if for any nonzero m ∈ M the linear span of s · m, s ∈ S, coincides with M .
11.1. REPRESENTATIONS AND MODULES
191
Let V and W be two S-modules. A linear mapping f : V → W is called a
homomorphism or an S-homomorphism provided that it commutes with the
action of all elements from S, that is, for every s ∈ S the following diagram
is commutative:
s·
/V
V
f
W
s·
f
/ W.
The trivial example of a homomorphism is the zero mapping. A less trivial
example is the identity homomorphism in the case V = W . The set of all
S-homomorphisms from V to W is denoted by HomS (V, W ). This set carries
the natural structure of a vector space.
Two S-modules V and W are called isomorphic or equivalent provided
that HomS (V, W ) contains an isomorphism. The fact that V and W are
isomorphic is denoted by V ∼
= W . As usually, for most of the questions
about S-modules, in particular, classification problems, it makes sense to
formulate and study them only up to isomorphism. Some basic facts about
homomorphisms and isomorphisms are collected in the following statement:
Proposition 11.1.7 Let V and W be S-modules and f ∈ HomS (V, W ).
(i) The kernel Ker(f ) of f is a submodule of V .
(ii) The image im(f ) of f is a submodule of W .
(iii) If both V and W are simple module, then f is either an isomorphism
or zero.
Proof. Let v ∈ V be such that f (v) = 0. Then f (s · v) = s · f (v) = s · 0 = 0
and hence s · v ∈ Ker(f ). This proves the statement (i).
Let v ∈ V . Then s · f (v) = f (s · v), which implies the statement (ii).
If V is simple, then for the vector space Ker(f ), which is a submodule
of V by (i), we have only two possibilities: Ker(f ) = V or Ker(f ) = 0. In
the first case, f is the zero mapping. In the second case, f is injective. Now
im(f ) is a submodule of W by (ii). As W is simple, we have two options:
im(f ) = 0 or im(f ) = W . The first one is not possible as V = 0 and f is
injective. For the second one, we obtain that f is surjective, hence it is an
isomorphism.
Corollary 11.1.8 Let V and W be two simple
C,
V
∼
HomS (V, W ) =
0,
V
S-modules. Then
∼
= W;
∼
= W.
192
CHAPTER 11. LINEAR REPRESENTATIONS
Proof. If V ∼
W , then the fact that HomS (V, W ) = 0 follows immediately
=
from Proposition 11.1.7(iii).
If V ∼
= W , we have an obvious isomorphism of vector spaces between
HomS (V, W ) and HomS (V, V ). Let f ∈ HomS (V, V ) be a nonzero homomorphism. As C is algebraically closed, f has an eigenvalue, λ ∈ C say.
Then f − λε ∈ HomS (V, V ) (here ε is the identity transformation of V ). As
f − λε has a nontrivial kernel, we have f − λε = 0 by Proposition 11.1.7(iii).
Thus f = λε and we are done.
Example 11.1.9 Let S be a finite semigroup. Consider the vector space
CS with the formal basis {vt : t ∈ S}. For every s ∈ S define a linear
operator on CS by prescribing its action on basis elements in the following
way: s · vt = vst . We have
r · (s · vt ) = r · vst = vrst = rs · vt ,
which implies that the above assignment defines on CS the structure of an
S-module. This module is called the regular S-module.
On the one hand, for every a ∈ S the linear mapping fa : CS → CS
defined via fa (vt ) = vta is an endomorphism of CS since for any s ∈ S we
have
fa (s · vt ) = fa (vst ) = vsta = s · vta = s · fa (vt ).
On the other hand, if S is a monoid with identity 1, then any homomorphism
f ∈ HomS (CS, CS) is uniquely determined by its value on v1 since
f (vs ) = f (s · v1 ) = s · f (v1 )
for all s ∈ S. Hence
if f (v1 ) = a∈S ca va = a∈S ca fa (v1 ) for some ca ∈ C,
we have f = a∈S ca fa . The homomorphisms fa ’s are linearly independent
as the set {va = fa (v1 ) : a ∈ S} is a basis of CS. This means that we have
an isomorphism of vector spaces
HomS (CS, CS) ∼
= CS.
Exercise 11.1.10 Prove that the homomorphisms {fg : g ∈ S} form a
semigroup with respect to the composition. Further, show that this semi←
group is isomorphic to S .
11.2
L-Induced S -Modules
In this section, we present a construction of some S-modules using modules
over maximal subgroup. The idea is very similar to the one described in
Sect. 10.4.
Let S be a semigroup for which all regular L-classes are finite. Fix some
e ∈ E(S) and let M denote some H(e)-module. Let a = {ai : i ∈ I}
L-INDUCED S-MODULES
193
be a fixed collection of representatives from all H-classes inside L(e), one
for each H-class. In particular, I is finite and indexes R-classes inside the
D-class D(e). Then, analogously to Sect. 10.4, we have that the mapping
x → ai x is a bijection from H(e) to H(ai ) for every i ∈ I, in particular,
every y ∈ L(e) can be uniquely written in the form ai x for some i ∈ I and
x ∈ H(e). For i ∈ I let M (i) denote a copy of M and ηi : M → M (i) denote
the canonical identification. Consider the vector space
Va(M ) =
#
M (i) .
i∈I
Note that dim(Va(M )) = m · dim(M ), where m is the number of H-classes
inside L(e) (this number is finite by our assumptions). For s ∈ S, i ∈ I and
v ∈ M define
ηj (x · v), sai = aj x, j ∈ I, x ∈ H(e);
s · ηi (v) =
0,
otherwise.
Proposition 11.2.1 (i) The above assignment defines on the vector space Va(M ) the structure of an S-module.
(ii) Let a be another collection of representatives of H-classes inside L(e).
Then Va(M ) ∼
= Va (M ).
Proof. Let s, t ∈ S, i ∈ I and v ∈ M . Because of the first paragraph of the
proof of Theorem 10.4.1 we have that stai ∈ L(e) implies that tai ∈ L(e) as
well. Hence it is enough to consider the case stai , tai ∈ L(e). In this case let
tai = aj g, saj = ak h and stai = al z. Then from (10.3) we have l = k and
z = hg. Hence
st · ηi (v) = ηk (z · v) = ηk (hg · v) = ηk (h · (g · v)) = s · ηj (g · v) = s · (t · ηi (v)).
The statement (i) follows.
To prove (ii) we consider a and a . As ai ∈ H(ai ) for all i ∈ I, we
can find gi ∈ H(e) such that ai = ai gi . Define now the linear mapping
f : Va(M ) → Va (M ) as follows: For v ∈ M and i ∈ I let fi : M (i) → M (i)
be the linear mapping defined via fi (ηi (v)) = ηi (gi−1 · v), and set f = ⊕i∈I fi .
We consider f as a linear mapping from Va(M ) to Va (M ). As M is an H(e)module, H(e) is a group and gi ∈ H(e), we obtain that fi is an isomorphism.
This yields that f is an isomorphism. Now let s ∈ S, i ∈ I and v ∈ M . If
sai ∈ L(e), then s · f (ηi (v)) = f (s · ηi (v)) = 0 is obvious. So, we assume
sai = aj x for some j ∈ I and x ∈ H(e), in particular,
sai = sai gi = aj xgi = aj gj−1 xgi .
(11.2)
194
CHAPTER 11. LINEAR REPRESENTATIONS
To distinguish the actions on Va(M ) and Va (M ) we for the moment will use
the notation for the action on Va (M ). Using (11.2) we compute
s f (ηi (v)) = s fi (ηi (v))
= s ηi (gi−1 · v)
= ηj (gj−1 xgi · (gi−1 · v))
= ηj (gj−1 x · v)
= ηj (gj−1 · (x · v))
= fj (ηj (x · v))
= f (ηj (x · v))
= f (s · ηi (v)).
The statement (ii) follows and the proof is complete.
Because of Proposition 11.2.1(ii) in the isomorphism class we can remove
the index a in the notation Va(M ). We will use simply the notation V (M ) in
the sequel. The module V (M ) will be called an S-module L-induced from M .
Now we would also like to remove the dependence on the choice of e inside
a given D-class.
Proposition 11.2.2 Let e, ê ∈ E(S) be such that eDê and let M be an H(e)module. Then there exists an H(ê)-module M̂ such that V (M ) ∼
= V (M̂ ).
Proof. Using the above notation, we consider the module Va(M ) and assume
e ∈ a. Let l ∈ I be such that al Rê. Set u = al . By Green’s Lemma the
mapping x → ux is a bijection from R(e) to R(u), which preserves L-classes.
Hence there exists v ∈ R(e) ∩ L(ê) such that uv = ê.
For all i ∈ I define âi = ai v, and set â = {âi : i ∈ I}. In particular, ev =
v and uv = ê belong to â. We also have vu = e by the proof of Theorem 4.7.5.
Set further M̂ = M (l) . Let x ∈ H(ê) and x be the inverse to x in H(ê).
Then (xu)v = xê = x, implying xuRx by Proposition 4.4.2, in particular,
xuRu as uRx by our assumptions. At the same time x (xu) = êu = u. This
implies xuLu by Proposition 4.4.1 and thus xuHu. Hence xu = ux for some
x ∈ H(e), which by construction means that M̂ is stable under the action
of H(ê), in particular, is an H(ê)-module. For i ∈ I let M̂ (i) denote a copy of
M̂ , and η̂i : M̂ → M̂ (i) denote the canonical identification. We thus obtain
the module Vâ(M̂ ).
Define the linear mapping ϕ : Va(M ) → Vâ(M̂ ) as follows: ϕ(ηi (m)) =
η̂i (ηl (m)), i ∈ I, m ∈ M . By construction, ϕ is an isomorphism of vector
spaces.
To prove our statement for s ∈ S, i ∈ I and m ∈ M we have to check
the following:
s · ϕ(ηi (m)) = ϕ(s · ηi (m)).
(11.3)
11.3. SIMPLE MODULES OVER IS n AND PT n
195
Note that sai ∈ L(e) if and only if sai v = sâi ∈ L(ê), in which case both
sides of (11.3) are zero. Hence we may assume sai ∈ L(e). Let sai = aj x for
some j ∈ I and x ∈ H(e). Observe that x = ex = vux and hence
sâi = sai v = aj xv = aj vuxv = aj v(uxv) = âj (uxv).
We have uxv · u = uxe = u · x = al x and thus the left-hand side of (11.3)
equals (we again use the notation similarly to the one used in the proof of
Proposition 11.2.1)
s ϕ(ηi (m)) = s η̂i (ηl (m))
= η̂j (uxv · ηl (m))
= η̂j (ηl (x · m)).
On the other hand, the right-hand side of (11.3) equals
ϕ(s · ηi (m)) = ϕ(ηj (x · m))
= η̂j (ηl (x · m)).
This proves that ϕ is an isomorphism, and the statement of the proposition
follows.
Remark 11.2.3 From the construction used in Proposition 11.2.2 it follows
that under the identification of H(e) and H(ê), constructed in Theorem 4.7.5,
the modules M and M̂ are isomorphic.
11.3
Simple Modules over IS n and PT n
In this section, we describe all simple modules for the semigroups IS n and
PT n .
(k)
For k ∈ {0, 1, 2, . . . , n} let εn denote the idempotent of IS n with do(n)
(0)
main {1, 2, . . . , k}. In particular, εn = ε and εn = 0. Using Theorem 5.1.4
(k)
we identify H(εn ) with Sk in the natural way. Our main result in this
section is the following:
Theorem 11.3.1 Let S = IS n or S = PT n .
(i) For any k ∈ {0, 1, 2, . . . , n} and any simple Sk -module M the module
V (M ) is a simple S-module.
(ii) Let k, k̂ ∈ {0, 1, 2, . . . , n}, and M and M̂ be simple Sk - and Sk̂ -modules,
respectively. Then V (M ) ∼
= V (M̂ ) if and only if k = k̂ and M ∼
= M̂ .
(iii) Every simple S-module is isomorphic to the module V (M ) for some
k ∈ {0, 1, 2, . . . , n} and some simple Sk -module M .
196
CHAPTER 11. LINEAR REPRESENTATIONS
(k)
Proof. The H-classes inside L(εn ) are indexed by I = {A ⊂ N : |A| = k}
by Theorem 4.5.1. Set for simplicity A = {1, 2, . . . , k}.
Let
M be a simple Sk -module and v ∈ V (M ) be a nonzero element. Then
v = A∈I cA vA , where cA ∈ C and vA ∈ M (A) . We may assume vA = 0
for all A ∈ I. Let N be the linear span of s · v, s ∈ S. Obviously N is a
submodule of V (M ). As v = 0, there exists B ∈ I such that cB = 0. Assume
that a = {αA : A ∈ I} as in Sect. 10.5. Then εA αA = αA and εA · vA = vA
for every A ∈ I. If A ∈ I is such that A = B, then rank(εB εA ) < k and
hence
cA vA =
cA εB εA · vA = cB vB = 0.
εB ·
A∈I
A∈I
As cB = 0, we have vB ∈ N , in particular, vB = ηB (w) for some nonzero
(k)
−1
−1
−1
w ∈ M . As αB
αB = εn , we have αB
· vB = αB
· ηB (w) = w. Hence
w ∈ N . Since the Sk -module M is simple and w = 0, the minimal Sk invariants subspace of M (A) containing w must be the whole M (A) , implying
M (A) ⊂ N . By definition, αA · M (A) = M (A) , which means M (A) ⊂ N for all
A ∈ I. This finally implies N = V (M ). Now the fact that V (M ) is simple
follows from Exercise 11.1.6. This proves the statement (i).
If k = k̂ and M ∼
= M̂ , then V (M ) ∼
= V (M̂ ) is obvious. Hence we assume
that k, k̂ ∈ {0, 1, 2, . . . , n} and M and M̂ are such that there exists an
isomorphism ϕ : V (M ) ∼
= V (M̂ ).
Assume first that k = k̂. Without loss of generality we may assume
(k)
(k)
k < k̂. Then εn · V (M̂ ) = 0 by definition, whereas εn · M (A) = M (A) .
(k)
At the same time, the action of εn on V (M̂ ) is just a conjugate of the
corresponding action on V (M ) by the isomorphism ϕ, a contradiction. This
proves that k = k̂.
(k)
(k)
As V (M ) = ⊕A∈I M (A) and εn αA ∈ L(εn ) if A = A, we have the
(k)
(k)
equality εn · V (M ) = M (A) . Analogously εn · V (M̂ ) = M̂ (A) . As ϕ com(k)
mutes with the action of εn we obtain that ϕ(M (A) ) ⊂ M̂ (A) . Analogously,
−1
(A)
one shows that ϕ (M̂ ) ⊂ M (A) . As both mappings are injective, we
conclude that the restriction of ϕ to M (A) is an isomorphism with image
M̂ (A) . Since ϕ commutes with the action of S, it, in particular, commutes
with the action of Sk . This proves the statement (ii).
Let L be a simple S-module and k ∈ {0, 1, 2, . . . , n} be minimal such
that there exists an element α ∈ S of rank k, which acts on L in a nonzero
(k)
(k)
way. As α ∈ Sεn S by Theorem 4.2.8, it follows that εn acts on L in a
(k)
nonzero way. Set M = εn · L = 0.
Lemma 11.3.2 M is a simple Sk -module.
Proof. Obviously, M is an Sk -module. Assume that this is not the case and
let N be a proper Sk -submodule of M . For A ∈ I set
−1
LA = αA αA
· L = εA · L.
11.3. SIMPLE MODULES OVER IS n AND PT n
197
(k)
By the same arguments as above we have LA = 0. Further, as εA εB ∈ L(εn )
if A = B, it also follows that the sum of all LA ’s inside L is direct.
The minimal subspace of L, which is invariant with respect to the action
of S and contains N , is the linear span N̂ of s · v, s ∈ S and v ∈ N . For
(k)
(k)
(k)
any s ∈ S and any v ∈ N we have s · v = sεn · v. If sεn ∈ L(εn ),
(k)
then rank(sεn ) < k and we have s · v = 0 by our assumption on k. If
(k)
(k)
(k)
sεn ∈ L(εn ), then there exists A ∈ I and β ∈ Sk such that sεn = αA β.
As εA αA = αA , we obtain
#
LA = L,
N̂ ⊂ N ⊕
A=A
which contradicts the fact that L is a simple S-module. This completes the
proof.
Define a linear mapping ϕ : V (M ) → L as follows: ϕ(ηA (v)) = αA · v for
all v ∈ M and A ∈ I. Obviously, ϕ = 0 as ϕ(v) = v for any v ∈ M .
We claim that ϕ is a homomorphism of S-modules. To prove this we
have to check
(11.4)
s · ϕ(ηA (v)) = ϕ(s · ηA (v))
for all s ∈ S, A ∈ I, and v ∈ M . If rank(sαA ) < k, then s · ηA (v) = 0
by definition and s · ϕ(ηA (v)) = sαA · v = 0 by our assumption on k. If
(k)
rank(sαA ) = k, we can write sαA = αB β for some B ∈ I and β ∈ H(εn ).
We compute
s · ϕ(ηA (v)) = s · (αA · v)
= sαA · v
= αB β · v
= αB · (β · v)
= ϕ(ηB (β · v))
= ϕ(s · ηA (v)).
This proves (11.4). So, we have constructed a nonzero homomorphism ϕ
from V (M ) to L. The module V (M ) is simple by Lemma 11.3.2 and the
statement (i), the module L is simple by assumption. Now (iii) follows from
Proposition 11.1.7(iii).
Corollary 11.3.3 All simple IS n modules are obtained from simple PT n modules by restriction, in particular, the corresponding simple IS n - and
PT n -modules have the same dimension.
Proof. Follows from Theorem 11.3.1, construction of V (M ) and the fact that
(k)
the L-classes of εn in IS n and PT n coincide.
198
11.4
CHAPTER 11. LINEAR REPRESENTATIONS
Effective Representations
Let S be a semigroup and ϕ : S → EndC (V ) be a representation of S. The
representation ϕ is called effective provided that it is injective. The same
notion is used for the corresponding module.
Theorem 11.4.1 Let S denote one of the semigroups Tn , PT n , or IS n .
(i) If V is an effective S-module, then dim(V ) ≥ n.
(ii) The natural S-module is effective.
(iii) If V is an effective S-module of dimension n, then V is isomorphic to
the natural S-module.
Proof. The statement (ii) is obvious. To prove the statement (i) let us first
assume that S = PT n or S = IS n . Consider the element α = [1, 2, . . . , n].
We have αn = 0 and αk = 0 for any k < n. Note that 0 is an idempotent and
0αk = αk 0 = 0. If V is now an effective S-module, then α defines a linear
operator on V , whose Jordan decomposition contains either Jordan cells of
size 1 with eigenvalue 1 or nilpotent Jordan cells. Moreover, it must contain
at least one nilpotent Jordan cell of dimension n. Hence dim(V ) ≥ n.
For S = Tn we consider
1 2 3 4 ...
n
β=
.
1 1 2 3 ... n − 1
We have β n−1 = 01 and β k = 01 for all k < n − 1. Hence if now V is
an effective Tn -module, then, by the same arguments as above, β defines a
linear operator on V , whose Jordan decomposition must have at least one
nilpotent Jordan cell of dimension (n − 1). Furthermore, the element 01 acts
on V in a nonzero way, for otherwise all 0a ∈ Tn 01 Tn would act as zeros
and V could not be effective. This implies that β also contains at least one
Jordan cell with eigenvalue 1. Thus dim(V ) ≥ n again and the statement
(i) is proved.
To prove (iii) we again first consider the case S = PT n or S = IS n . Our
first observation is:
Lemma 11.4.2 Let S = PT n or S = IS n and V be an effective module of
dimension n. Then 0 · V = 0.
Proof. Let W = 0 · V and assume W = 0. As 0 is an idempotent, for any
s ∈ S and w ∈ W we have
s · w = s · (0 · w) = (s0) · w = 0 · w = w.
In particular, W is a submodule of V . As we have seen above, s · w = w for
all w ∈ W . As V is effective, we get that for any s = t ∈ S there should
11.4. EFFECTIVE REPRESENTATIONS
199
exist v ∈ V such that s · v = t · v. Assume s · v = t · v + w for some w ∈ W .
Applying 0 we obtain 0 · (s · v) = 0 · (t · v + w), which yields 0 · v = 0 · v + w.
Hence w = 0. However, w = 0 is impossible since s · v = t · v. This proves
that s · v + W = t · v + W . The latter implies that the module V /W is
an effective module of dimension strictly smaller than n, which contradicts
Theorem 11.4.1(i).
As V is effective and 0 · V = 0 by Lemma 11.4.2, we have ε{1} · V = 0.
Fix any nonzero element v ∈ ε{1} · V . Let M be the trivial H(ε{1} )-module
and m ∈ M be any nonzero element.
Lemma 11.4.3 The assignment s · m → s · v, s ∈ S, defines a nonzero
homomorphism f : V (M ) → V .
Proof. As ε{1} · m = m, for s ∈ S we have
s · m = s · (ε{1} · m) = (sε{1} ) · m.
We have Sε{1} = {0, α{i} : i ∈ N} in the notation of Sect. 10.5. We further
have 0 · v = 0 by Lemma 11.4.2 and 0 · m = 0 by definition. Observe that for
s, t ∈ S the equality s·m = t·m implies sε{1} = tε{1} and thus s·v = t·v. As
α{i} · m are linearly independent in V (M ), the mapping f is a well-defined
linear mapping. It commutes with the action of S by definition, and hence
it is a homomorphism of S-modules. Finally, f is obviously nonzero.
The homomorphism f is nonzero and hence injective since the module
V (M ) is simple by Theorem 11.3.1(i). As dim(V (M )) = dim(V ) = n, we
obtain that f is an isomorphism, implying that an effective module of dimension n is unique up to isomorphism. For S = PT n and S = IS n the
statement (iii) now follows from the statement (ii).
Consider now the case S = Tn . First we note that 01 · V = 0 as V is
effective. Indeed, as 0i ∈ Tn 01 , i ∈ N, the equality 01 · V = 0 would imply
0i · V = 0 for all i, a contradiction. Now we note that (1, 2)01 = 02 , in
particular, the idempotent linear transformations 01 and 02 of V have the
same rank and the same kernel. Since they must be different as V is effective,
we conclude that their images are different. As these images have the same
dimension, they cannot be included into each other and hence there exists
a nonzero v ∈ 01 · V such that v ∈ 02 · V .
Let M be the trivial representation of H(01 ) and m ∈ M be a nonzero
element. Analogously to Lemma 11.4.3 one shows that the assignment s·m →
s · v, s ∈ Tn , defines a nonzero homomorphism f : V (M ) → V . To proceed
we have to analyze the module V (M ). Let {v1 , . . . , vn } denote the standard
basis of Cn .
Lemma 11.4.4 (i) For i ∈ N the assignment 0i · m → vi defines an
isomorphism from V (M ) to the natural Tn -module Cn .
200
CHAPTER 11. LINEAR REPRESENTATIONS
(ii) The natural Tn -module Cn has exactly three submodules, namely, 0, Cn
and the submodule
n
$
n
N=
ai vi :
ai = 0 .
i=1
i=1
Proof. The statemet (i) follows from the relation α0i = 0α(i) in Tn . To prove
(ii) let W be a proper Tn -submodule of Cn , and w = (w1 , . . . , wn ) ∈ W be
a nonzero element.
Assume first that w1 + · · · + wn = 0. In this case, we have 01 · w =
(w1 + · · · + wn , 0, . . . , 0), implying that W contains v1 . Then W contains
(1, i) · v1 = vi for every i ∈ N and hence W = Cn , a contradiction.
Assume now that w1 + · · · + wn = 0. As the action of Sn simply permutes
the entries of w, without loss of generality we may assume w1 = 0. Then we
have
1 2 3 4 ... n
· w = (w1 , w2 + · · · + wn , 0, . . . , 0),
1 2 2 2 ... 2
which implies that W contains the element z = (1, −1, 0, . . . , 0). Applying the elements from Sn we get that W contains all elements of the form
(0, . . . , 0, 1, −1, 0, . . . , 0). As such elements form a basis in N , we obtain
N ⊂ W . As the codimension of N in Cn is 1 and W = Cn , it follows that
W = N . This completes the proof.
The mapping f is nonzero and hence from Lemma 11.4.4(ii) we have
that either Ker(f ) = 0 or Ker(f ) ∼
= N . Assume Ker(f ) ∼
= N . As im(f ) ∼
=
V (M )/Ker(f ), we have that im(f ) has dimension 1. At the same time,
it contains both v and the element 02 · v, which is linearly independent
with v because of our assumptions. This is a contradiction, which proves
Ker(f ) = 0. As both V (M ) and V have dimension n, it follows that f is an
isomorphism. Now the proof is completed by applying Lemma 11.4.4(i).
11.5
Arbitrary IS n -Modules
Let S be a semigroup and V and W be S-modules. Then the vector space
V ⊕ W = {(v, w) : v ∈ V, w ∈ W } carries the natural structure of an
S-module via s · (v, w) = (s · v, s · w), s ∈ S, v ∈ V , w ∈ W . The module
V ⊕ W is called the direct sum of the modules V and W . The direct sum is
called trivial if V = 0 or W = 0.
An S-module U is called indecomposable provided that U cannot be
decomposed into a nontrivial direct sum of two modules. In other words, U
is indecomposable if U ∼
= V ⊕ W implies V = 0 or W = 0. Every simple
module is obviously indecomposable. The converse is not true in general.
11.5. ARBITRARY IS n -MODULES
201
Exercise 11.5.1 Show that for n > 1 the natural Tn -module is indecomposable but not simple.
An S-module U is called semisimple provided that it is isomorphic to
a direct sum of simple modules. The corresponding representation is called
completely reducible. Obviously every simple module is semisimple. If U is a
semisimple module, then there exists essentially a unique way to write it as
a direct sum of simple modules as shown in the following statement.
Proposition 11.5.2 Let U be a semisimple S-module such that
U∼
= W1 ⊕ W2 ⊕ · · · ⊕ Wm ,
= V 1 ⊕ V2 ⊕ · · · ⊕ Vk ∼
where all Vi ’s and Wj ’s are simple modules. Then k = m and there exists
α ∈ Sk such that Vi ∼
= Wα(i) for all i.
Proof. Let L be some simple S-module. We have
HomS (L, U ) = HomS (L, V1 ⊕ · · · ⊕ Vn ) = HomS (L, V1 ) ⊕ · · · ⊕ Hom(L, Vn )
(see Exercise 11.7.2). As both L and Vi are simple, from Corollary 11.1.8 we
obtain that
|{i : Vi ∼
= L}| = dim Hom(L, U ).
Analogously one obtains
|{j : Wj ∼
= L}| = dim Hom(L, U ).
The statement of the proposition follows.
The main aim of the present section is to prove the following theorem,
which, together with Proposition 11.5.2, gives a complete description of all
IS n -modules:
Theorem 11.5.3 Every IS n -module is semisimple.
Proof. Let V be an IS n -module. We prove the statement by induction on
dim(V ). If dim(V ) = 1, the module V is simple (see Example 11.1.3) and
hence semisimple.
(k)
(i)
Let k be such that εn ·V = 0 while εn ·V = 0 for all i < k. In particular,
we have α · V = αα−1 α · V = α · (α−1 α · V ) = 0 for any α ∈ IS n such that
rank(α) < k. Let I = {A ⊂ N : |A| = k} and for A ∈ I set UA = εA · V .
Define
W =
{v ∈ V : εA · v = 0},
U=
UA .
A∈I
Lemma 11.5.4
(ii) V = U ⊕ W .
(i) U is a direct sum of UA ’s.
A∈I
202
CHAPTER 11. LINEAR REPRESENTATIONS
(iii) Both U and W are IS n -submodules.
Proof. Let vA ∈ UA be nonzero and cA ∈ C be such that A∈I cA vA = 0.
As for A = B ∈ I we have rank(εA εB ) < k, we compute
εB ·
cA vA =
cA εB · (εA · vA ) =
cA εB εA · v A = cB vB .
A∈I
A∈I
A∈I
This yields cB = 0 for any B ∈ I, and the statement (i) follows.
we have U ∩ W = 0 from the definition.
As all εA ’s are idempotents,
Let v ∈ V . Then u = A∈I εA · v ∈ U and for any B ∈ I, using the same
arguments as in the previous paragraph, we have
%
&
εA · v
εB · (v − u) = εB · v −
A∈I
= εB · v −
εB εA · v
A∈I
= εB · v − εB · v
= 0.
Hence v − u ∈ W , implying V = U + W . The statement (ii) follows.
Let A ∈ I, vA ∈ UA and α ∈ IS n . If rank(αεA ) < k, then
α · vA = αεA · vA = 0 ∈ U.
If rank(αεA ) = k, then
α · vA = αεA · vA = εα(A) αεA · vA = εα(A) · (α · vA ).
and hence α · vA ∈ Uα(A) . This implies that U is an IS n -submodule of V .
Let w ∈ W , α ∈ IS n , and A ∈ I. If rank(εA α) < k, then
εA · (α · w) = εA α · w = 0
by our assumption on k. If rank(εA α) = k, then εA α = αεB , where B =
α−1 (A). Hence
εA · (α · w) = εA α · w = αεB · w = α · (εB · w) = 0.
This shows that W is an IS n -submodule of V and completes the proof.
By our assumptions, we have U = 0. If W = 0, then dim(U ) < dim(V )
and dim(W ) < dim(V ) and hence applying the inductive assumption to
both U and W we obtain a decomposition of V into a direct sum of simple
modules, as required. Hence in what follows we may assume W = 0.
Let A = {1, 2, . . . , k} and for B ∈ I let αB denote the unique increasing
bijection from A to B.
11.5. ARBITRARY IS n -MODULES
203
Lemma 11.5.5 For B ∈ I the action of αB induces a bijection from UA
to UB .
−1
−1
αB = εA and αB αB
=
Proof. This follows from the obvious equalities αB
εB .
Let (·, ·)1 be any Hermitian scalar product on UA . For v, w ∈ UA set
(v, w) =
(g · v, g · w)1 .
(k)
g∈H(εn )
For v ∈ UC and w ∈ UB , C = B ∈ I we set
(v, w) = (w, v) = 0.
Finally, for v, w ∈ UA and B ∈ I we set
(αB · v, αB · w) = (v, w)
and extend the product (·, ·) to the whole V by skew-linearity.
Lemma 11.5.6
(i) (·, ·) is a Hermitian scalar product on V .
(ii) For all v, w ∈ V and α ∈ IS n we have (α · v, w) = (v, α−1 · w).
Proof. The product (·, ·) is bilinear and skew-symmetric by construction.
The restriction of (·, ·) to UA is positive definite since (·, ·)1 is positive definite. Now the fact that (·, ·) is positive definite follows from the construction
and Lemma 11.5.4(i). This proves (i).
To prove (ii) let v ∈ UC , w ∈ UB and β ∈ IS n be chosen such that
we have (β · v, w) = 0. This, in particular, means 0 = β · v ∈ UB and thus
rank(εB βεC ) = k. Hence rank(εC β −1 εB ) = k as well and thus εC β −1 εB ·w ∈
UC . By definition we have
−1
−1
−1
−1
−1
(β · v, w) = αB
· (β · v), αB
· w = (αB
βαC ) · (αC
· v), αB
· w (11.5)
and analogously
−1
−1 −1
−1
(v, β −1 · w) = αC
· v, (αC
β αB ) · (αB
· w) .
(11.6)
−1
−1 −1
The element γ = αB
βαC belongs to G = H(εA ), γ −1 = αC
β αB and
−1
−1
both αC · v and αB · w belong to UA . At the same time for any x, y ∈ UA ,
204
CHAPTER 11. LINEAR REPRESENTATIONS
using the fact that G is a group, we have
(γ · x, y) =
g · (γ · x), g · y 1
g∈G
=
gγ · x, g · y 1
g∈G
=
g · x, gγ −1 · y 1
g∈G
=
g · x, g · (γ −1 · y) 1
g∈G
= (x, γ −1 · y).
The latter together with (11.5) and (11.6) implies the statement (ii). The
proof is complete.
Let now X be some proper submodule of V . Then for the orthogonal
complement
X ⊥ = {y ∈ V : (y, x) = 0 for all x ∈ X}
using Lemma 11.5.6(ii) we have
(α · y, x) = (y, α−1 · x) = 0
for any y ∈ X ⊥ , x ∈ X and α ∈ IS n . Hence X ⊥ is a proper submodule of V
and we have V = X ⊕ X ⊥ . Applying now the inductive assumption to both
X and X ⊥ we produce a decomposition of V into a direct sum of simple
modules. This completes the proof.
11.6
Addenda and Comments
11.6.1 The results, presented in this chapter, mostly follow from more general results for representation of semigroups, obtained by Munn in [Mu1,
Mu2, Mu3, Mu4] and Ponizovskiy [Po3]. These more general results, which
also are more technically complicated and require more advanced knowledge
about algebras, can be found in [CP1, Chap. 5]. The only results which we
did not manage to find in the literature are those presented in Sect. 11.4.
There is also a well-developed theory of characters of semigroups. Characters of commutative semigroups were studied by Schwarz in [Sw1, Sw2,
Sw3] and Hewitt and Zuckerman in [HZ1]. This theory is also presented in
[CP1, Chap. 5].
Some recent developments in the character theory for modules, especially
over transformation semigroups, can be found in the works of Putcha [Pu1,
Pu2, Pu3]. For inverse semigroups some new approaches appear in [Ste2].
Character tables for IS n were studied in [So]. A modern point of view
11.6. ADDENDA AND COMMENTS
205
on classification of simple modules over finite semigroups is presented in
Exercises 11.7.19 and 11.7.20. It also recently appeared in [GMS].
11.6.2 All simple Tn -modules were explicitly constructed by Hewitt and
Zuckerman in [HZ2], and their characters were described in [Pu1, Section 2].
This description is more complicated than the corresponding description for
PT n and IS n presented in Theorem 11.3.1, and the proof is technically
much more complicated. To state the result we will need some new notation
for the symmetric group.
Let σ ∈ Sn be a permutation. A pair (i, j) ∈ N×N is called an inversion
for σ provided that i < j and σ(i) > σ(j). The number of inversions for σ
is denoted invσ . The permutation σ is called odd or even provided that invσ
is odd or even, respectively. For example, the identity permutation is even,
while any transposition is odd.
For c ∈ C the assignment σ · c = (−1)invσ c defines on C the structure
of an Sn -module, called the sign module. This module is simple as it is onedimensional. For n > 1 the trivial module and the sign module are the only
one-dimensional Sn -modules. They are obviously nonisomorphic. For n = 1
the definition is awkward, however, it is convenient to use the convention
that the trivial and the sign S1 -modules coincide. Now we can formulate the
statement describing all simple Tn -modules. We refer the reader to [HZ2]
and [Pu1] for the proofs.
Theorem 11.6.1 (i) The Tn -module V (M ) is simple if and only if k = n
or M is not isomorphic to the sign Sk -module.
(ii) If M is isomorphic to the sign Sk -module, then
the module V (M ) has
a unique simple quotient V (M ) of dimension n−1
k−1 .
(iii) Every simple Tn -module is isomorphic either to V (M ), where M is the
sign Sk -module, or to V (M ), where M is an Sk -module, which is not
isomorphic to the sign module.
The statement in Theorem 11.6.1(iii) is proved similarly to the corresponding statement in Theorem 11.3.1. The really hard part here is to prove
the first two statements of Theorem 11.6.1.
A naive straightforward generalization of the arguments from Sect. 11.3
leads to some interesting combinatorial questions. Let us follow the arguments from Sect. 11.3 and try to prove that the Tn -module V (M ) is simple
in the case when M is the trivial module and k > 1. To prove this we have
to show that for any nonzero vector v ∈ V (M ) the minimal submodule of
V (M ), containing v, coincides with V (M ). This is equivalent to showing
that for any nonzero vector v ∈ V (M ) there exists some idempotent e ∈ Tn
of rank k such that e · v = 0. The latter statement has the following combinatorial formulation: Let X denote the matrix whose rows are indexed by
206
CHAPTER 11. LINEAR REPRESENTATIONS
k-element subsets of N and columns are indexed by unordered partitions of
N into k disjoint nonempty blocks. Note that the same objects index the
L-classes and the R-classes of Tn for elements of rank k. In particular, the
elements of X correspond naturally to H-classes inside Dk . Let the element
of X be 1 if the corresponding H-class contains an idempotent and 0 otherwise. Then, following the above arguments, the irreducibility of V (M ) is
equivalent to the
statement that the rank of X equals the number of rows
in X, that is, nk . This result follows from Theorem 11.6.1(i). However, we
do not know any combinatorial proof.
The above matrix X contains a natural square submatrix defined using
the following natural injection from the set of all k-element subsets of N
to the set of all partitions of N into k-blocks. With each k-element subset
{i1 < i2 < · · · < ik } one associates the partition
{ik + 1, . . . , n, 1, . . . , i1 } ∪ {i1 + 1, . . . , i2 } ∪ · · · ∪ {ik−1 + 1, . . . , ik }.
We suspect that the determinant of the corresponding square submatrix of
X is always a power of 2 (up to sign), but we cannot prove that.
11.6.3 There is a beautiful combinatorial description of all simple Sn modules, see for example [Sa]. A partition of n is a vector λ = (λ1 , λ2 , . . . , λl )
with positive integer coefficients such that λ1 ≥ λ2 ≥ · · · ≥ λl and n =
λ1 + λ2 + · · · + λl . That λ is a partition of n is usually denoted λ n. The
Ferrers diagram or Young diagram of shape λ is an array of n boxes having
l left-justified rows with λi boxes in the i-th row for 1 ≤ i ≤ l. For example,
the Young diagram of shape λ = (4, 2, 2, 1) 9 is the following:
With every λ n one associates a simple Sn -module Sλ , called the Specht
module.
Let λ n and a1 < a2 < · · · < an be a sequence of integers. A standard λtableau of content {a1 , . . . , an } is obtained if we write the numbers a1 , . . . , an
in the boxes of the Young tableau so that the entries in all rows increase
left-to-right and entries in all columns increase top-to-bottom. Here is an
example of a standard (4, 2, 2, 1)-tableau of content N9 :
1 2 6 7
3 5
4 8
9
11.6. ADDENDA AND COMMENTS
Theorem 11.6.2
some λ n.
207
(i) Each simple Sn -module is isomorphic to Sλ for
(ii) For λ, μ n we have Sλ ∼
= Sμ if and only if λ = μ.
(iii) Let λ n. Then the Specht module Sλ has a natural basis, which is
indexed by standard λ-tableaux of content N.
The combinatorial description from Theorem 11.6.2(iii) was generalized
to IS n by Grood in [Grd]. As simple IS n -modules are obtained from simple
PT n -modules by restriction (Corollary 11.3.3), the same description applies
(k)
to PT n as well. As usually, for k ≤ n we identify Sk with the group H(εn )
in the natural way. Combining the results of Grood with the results from
Sect. 11.3 we have:
Theorem 11.6.3 Let S = IS n or S = PT n .
(i) Each simple S-module is isomorphic to M (Sλ ) for some λ k, k ≤ n.
(ii) For λ k1 and μ k2 , k1 , k2 ≤ n, we have M (Sλ ) ∼
= M (Sμ ) if and
only if λ = μ.
(iii) Let λ k, k ≤ n. Then the module M (Sλ ) has a natural basis, which is
indexed by standard λ-tableaux, whose contents is a k-element subset
of N.
Let k ≤ n and I denote the set of all k-element subsets of N. If λ k,
then we have a decomposition
#
εA · M (Sλ )
M (Sλ ) ∼
=
A∈I
into a direct sum of vector spaces. The space εA · M (Sλ ) is a simple H(εA )module, which is isomorphic to Sλ after an appropriate identification of
H(εA ) with Sk . The bases of Theorems 11.6.2(iii) and 11.6.3(iii) are naturally
compatible with this identification.
Tableaux combinatorics can also be used to describe the decomposition
of the restriction of simple IS n -modules to IS n−1 (the so-called Branching rule), see [MR]. It is very similar to the corresponding result for the
symmetric group, see for example [Sa] for the latter one.
11.6.4 Let S be a finite semigroup.
The semigroup algebra C[S] is the set of
all formal linear combinations s∈S cs s with complex coefficients, endowed
with the natural bilinear multiplication induced from the multiplication in
the semigroup S.
Each S-module naturally extends to a C[S]-module, and each C[S]module restricts to an S-module. This produces an isomorphism of categories
of all finite-dimensional S-modules and all finite-dimensional C[S]-modules.
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CHAPTER 11. LINEAR REPRESENTATIONS
Denote by Matn (C) the algebra of all complex n×n matrices. In the language
of algebras Theorem 11.5.3 says that the algebra C[IS n ] is semisimple, in
particular, it is isomorphic to a direct sum of some Matni (C).
One can also show that C[IS n ] is isomorphic to a direct sum of matrix
algebras over symmetric groups as follows: For k ≤ n the algebra
Ak = Mat(n) (C) ⊗C C[Sk ]
k
can be realized as the algebra of all
C[Sk ].
n
k
Theorem 11.6.4 ([Mu3]) C[IS n ] ∼
=
×
n
#
n
k
matrices with coefficients from
Ak .
k=0
The most beautiful part of the proof of this fact, presented for example
in [So, Section 2], is the construction of pairwise orthogonal idempotents,
which determine the components Ak ’s. This is done as follows: For A ⊂ N
define
(−1)|A\B| εB .
(11.7)
ηA =
B⊂A
By the inclusion–exclusion formula we have
εA =
ηB .
(11.8)
B⊂A
Lemma 11.6.5 For A, B ⊂ N we have
ηB ,
ηA ηB =
0,
A = B;
A = B.
Proof. We first claim that for A, B ⊂ N we have
B ⊂ A;
ηB ,
εA ηB =
0,
otherwise.
(11.9)
This is obvious if B ⊂ A. Assume now that B\A = ∅. Then
εA ηB =
(−1)|B\C| εA∩C .
C⊂B
The latter sum is a linear combination of the εY ’s, where Y ⊂ A ∩ B. Write
C = Y ∪ Z, where Z ⊂ B\A = ∅. Then the coefficient at εY is
Z⊂B\A
(−1)|B\(Y ∪Z)| = 0.
11.6. ADDENDA AND COMMENTS
209
This proves the formula (11.9). From (11.7) and (11.9) we have
&
%
ηA ηB =
(−1)|A\X| εX ηB =
(−1)|A\X| ηB
X⊂A
B⊂X⊂A
The coefficient on the right-hand side is zero unless A = B, when it is equal
to 1. This completes the proof.
For k ≤ n now set ηk = |A|=k ηA . Then Lemma 11.6.5 implies
ηk ,
ηk ηr =
0,
k = r;
k = r.
Moreover, (11.8) even says ε = nk=0 ηk , which gives us a decomposition of
the identity element in C[IS n ] into a sum of pairwise orthogonal idempotents.
Exercise 11.6.6 Show that ηn α = αηn for any α ∈ IS n .
From Exercise 11.6.6 it follows that
C[IS n ] ∼
=
n
#
k=0
C[IS n ]ηk =
n
#
ηk C[IS n ]ηk
k=0
is a decomposition into a direct sum of subalgebras. It is now not difficult
to check that ηk C[IS n ]ηk ∼
= Ak . Using Möbius function, these arguments
generalize to arbitrary finite inverse semigroups, see [Ste1].
11.6.5 Description of all finite-dimensional modules for semigroups Tn and
PT n is a very hard problem. It is for example known (see [Po4, Pu2, Ri]) that
the semigroup Tn has finitely many isomorphism classes of indecomposable
modules if and only if n < 5.
11.6.6 Let S be a semigroup and V and W be two S-modules. Then the
vector space V ⊗C W carries the natural structure of an S-module via
s · (v ⊗ w) = (s · v) ⊗ (s · w).
The module V ⊗C W is called the tensor product of the modules V and W .
Set V ⊗k = V ⊗C V ⊗C · · · ⊗C V , where the right-hand side contains exactly
k factors.
Let now V be the natural representation of IS n . Then the symmetric
group Sk acts on the space V ⊗k permuting components of the tensor product.
This action obviously commutes with the action of IS n . However, the linear
closure of this action of Sk does not give all linear operators which commute
with the IS n -action. The set of all operators, which commute with some
210
CHAPTER 11. LINEAR REPRESENTATIONS
action, is usually called the centralizer of the action. The centralizer of the
IS n -action on V ⊗k can be explicitly described in terms of the dual symmetric
inverse semigroup Ik∗ , see [KuMa5]. Furthermore, the original C[IS n ]-action
turns out to give the full centralizer of the C[Ik∗ ]-action, which gives rise
to a Schur-Weyl duality connecting IS n and Ik∗ . Moreover, one can also
show that the kernel of the action of C[IS n ] on V ⊗n coincides with C0. In
particular, the module V ⊗n contains as submodules, except for the trivial
module, representatives from all isomorphism classes of simple IS n -modules.
There is another version of the Schur-Weyl duality for IS n in which
IS n occurs on the other side. It was discovered in [So, Sect. 5]. Let V be the
natural n-dimensional representation of the group GLn of all nondegenerate
complex n × n matrices. Let C be the trivial representation of GLn . Set
U = V ⊕ C. Then IS k acts on U ⊗k in the following way: Let π : U → C be
the projection with kernel V . For α ∈ IS k and ui ∈ U , i = 1, . . . , k, set
α · (u1 ⊗ u2 ⊗ · · · ⊗ uk ) = v1 ⊗ v2 ⊗ · · · ⊗ vk ,
where
uα(j) ,
vj =
π(uj ),
j ∈ dom(α);
j ∈ dom(α).
It turns out that the action of C[IS k ] gives the full centralizer of the C[GLn ]action and vice versa.
11.6.7 Let S be a semigroup. An element w ∈ S is called an involution
provided that w ∈ Ge for some e ∈ E(S) and w2 = e. Let B denote the set
of all involutions in IS n and let CB denote the C-linear span of vw , w ∈ B.
For α ∈ IS n and an involution w ∈ H(e), e ∈ E(IS n ), such that αe ∈ D(e)
set
invw (α) = |{(i, j) : i, j ∈ dom(w), i < j, w(i) = jandα(i) > α(j)}|.
Theorem 11.6.7 ([KuMa6]) (i) For α ∈ IS n and an involution w ∈
H(e), e ∈ E(IS n ), the assignment
αe ∈ D(e);
(−1)invw (α) v(αe)w(αe)−1 ,
α · vw =
0,
otherwise.
defines on CB the structure of an IS n -module.
(ii) CB is a multiplicity-free direct sum of all simple IS n -modules.
Theorem 11.6.7(ii) says that CB is a Gelfand model for C[IS n ]. Theorem
11.6.7 is based on the corresponding result for Sn , proved in [APR].
11.7. ADDITIONAL EXERCISES
11.7
211
Additional Exercises
11.7.1 Let S be a finite monoid with the unit 1, V be any S-module and
v ∈V.
(a) Show that the assignment v1 → v extends to a homomorphism from the
regular S-module CS to V .
(b) Use (a) to show that V is a quotient of some CS ⊕ · · · ⊕ CS.
11.7.2 Let S be a semigroup and U, V, W be S-modules. Show that
(a) HomS (U ⊕ V, W ) ∼
= HomS (U, W ) ⊕ HomS (V, W ).
(b) HomS (U, V ⊕ W ) ∼
= HomS (U, V ) ⊕ HomS (U, W ).
11.7.3 Describe all modules, in particular, all simple modules for the semigroup B(N) with respect to the operation ∩.
11.7.4 Determine the minimal dimension of an effective representation of
the semigroup B(N) with respect to the operation ∩.
11.7.5 Construct examples of indecomposable but not simple PT n -modules.
11.7.6 Generalize the arguments from Sect. 11.5 and prove an analogue of
Theorem 11.5.3 for arbitrary finite inverse semigroup.
11.7.7 Let S be a finite semigroup. Show that for every s ∈ S there exists
some simple S-module V such that s · V = 0, while t · V = 0 for any t ∈ S
such that s ∈ StS.
11.7.8 Let k ≤ n. Show that the subalgebra of C[IS n ], generated by the
k
#
ideal Ik , is isomorphic to
Ai in the notation of 11.6.4.
i=0
11.7.9 (a) Show that every semigroup has at least two nonisomorphic simple modules: the trivial module, and the one-dimensional module with
the zero action of S.
(b) Show that every finite nilpotent semigroup has exactly two nonisomorphic simple modules.
11.7.10 By Theorem 11.5.3, the regular module CIS n is semisimple. Prove
that for every simple IS n -module V we have
dim HomIS n (V, CIS n ) = dim(V ).
11.7.11 Let S be a finite monoid and G its maximal subgroup of invertible
elements. Let V denote the one-dimensional S-module on which the elements
from G act trivially, and all other elements act as zero. Let now M be any
simple S-module. Show that the module M ⊗C V is semisimple.
212
CHAPTER 11. LINEAR REPRESENTATIONS
11.7.12 Let S be a semigroup acting on some set M . Let CM denote the
vector space with the basis vm , m ∈ M . Show that CM becomes an Smodule via s · vm = vs·m , s ∈ S, m ∈ M .
11.7.13 ([Ste2]) Let S be a finite inverse semigroup. Show that the regular
S-module is isomorphic to the module, obtained from the Preston–Wagner
representation of S via the procedure described in Exercise 11.7.12.
11.7.14 ([KuMa5]) Let V denote the natural IS n -module. Show that the
module V ⊗k is effective for any k.
11.7.15 ([So]) Let V denote the natural IS n -module with the standard
basis v1 , . . . , vn . For 0 ≤ k ≤ n consider the exterior power Λk (V ).
(a) Show that for α ∈ IS n the assignment
vα(i1 ) ∧ · · · ∧ vα(ik ) ,
α · (vi1 ∧ · · · ∧ vik ) =
0,
{i1 , . . . , ik } ⊂ dom(α);
otherwise,
where i1 , . . . , ik ∈ N (and α · 1 = 1 for k = 0) defines on Λk (V ) the
structure of an IS n -module.
(b) Show that the module Λk (V ) is simple for every k.
(c) Show that the module Λk (V ) is isomorphic to V (M ), where M is the
sign Sk -module.
11.7.16 ([KuMa4]) Let S denote one of the semigroups Tn , PT n , or IS n ,
and let α, β ∈ S. Show that α ∼S β if and only if for every representation ϕ
of S the traces of the linear operators ϕ(α) and ϕ(β) coincide.
11.7.17 ([KuMa4]) Show that the statement of Exercise 11.7.16 is false for
finite semigroups in general.
11.7.18 Classify all simple modules over a finite rectangular band.
11.7.19 ([GMS]) Let S be a finite semigroup, e ∈ E(S), and M be a simple
H(e)-module.
(a) Show that the set
N (M ) = {v ∈ V (M ) : s · v = 0for alls ∈ D(e)}
is a submodule of V (M ).
(b) Prove that any submodule X V (M ) is contained in N (M ).
(c) Use (b) to show that V (M ) has the unique simple quotient V (M ) =
V (M )/N (M ).
11.7. ADDITIONAL EXERCISES
213
11.7.20 ([GMS]) Let S be a finite monoid.
(a) Prove that every simple S-module is isomorphic to V (M ) for appropriate
e and M as defined in Exercise 11.7.19.
(b) Use (a) to classify all simple S-modules.
Chapter 12
Cross-Sections
12.1
Cross-Sections
Let X be a set and ρ an equivalence relation on X. A subset Y of X is called
a ρ-cross-section provided that Y contains exactly one representative from
each equivalence class.
In the study of semigroups, it is natural to expect that prospective
cross-sections capture some semigroup theoretical properties. This can be
understood in several different ways: one may expect semigroup-theoretical
properties of either the equivalence relation or the cross-section or both.
We will concentrate on the most restrictive case, and require that both the
equivalence relation and its cross-section have some semigroup theoretical
meaning.
Let S be a semigroup. We basically know the following natural equivalence relations on S: Green’s relations, conjugacy, and congruences. By a
cross-section with respect to any of these equivalence relations we will mean
a subsemigroup of S which contains exactly one representative from every
equivalence class. The main problem of course is that there is absolutely
no guarantee that given some of these equivalence relations one can find
in S some cross-section for this relation. We will see that in some cases
cross-sections do not exist. The first negative result is the following:
Theorem 12.1.1 Let S denote one of the semigroups Tn , PT n or IS n , and
ρ be either the relation of Sn -conjugation or the relation of S-conjugation.
(i) If n = 1, then S contains exactly one cross-section with respect to ρ,
namely, S itself.
(ii) If n > 1, then S does not contain any cross-section with respect to ρ.
Proof. The statement (i) is obvious. To prove (ii) we will consider two cases.
First we assume n ≥ 3. In this case we observe that conjugacy classes
of Sn form separate ρ-classes regardless whether ρ is the Sn -conjugation or
O. Ganyushkin, V. Mazorchuk, Classical Finite Transformation Semigroups, Algebra
and Applications 9, DOI: 10.1007/978-1-84800-281-4 12,
c Springer-Verlag London Limited 2009
215
216
CHAPTER 12. CROSS-SECTIONS
the S-conjugation, see Sect. 6.4. Assume that T is a ρ-cross-section. Then T
must contain some cycle α = (a, b, c) of length three. As T is a subsemigroup,
α2 = (a, c, b) belongs to T as well. However, α2 = (b, c)α(b, c), implying that
α and α2 are Sn -conjugate (and thus also S-conjugate). This contradicts our
assumption that T is a ρ-cross-section.
For n = 2 consider first the case S = IS 2 or S = T2 . In this case S2
is commutative and thus must be contained in any ρ-cross-section T . From
Proposition 6.4.3 and Theorem 6.4.13 we obtain that T must also contain
one of the two idempotents of rank one. Hence T = S by Theorem 3.1.4
or Theorem 3.1.3, respectively. However, S is not a ρ-cross-section since all
idempotents of rank one are Sn -conjugate (and hence S-conjugate as well).
Finally, let S = PT 2 and T be a ρ-cross-section. As above, T contains S2
and at least one idempotent e of rank 1. But then T must also contain the
S2 -conjugated (and hence also S-conjugated) idempotent (1, 2)e(1, 2), which
contradicts our assumption that T is a ρ-cross-section. This completes the
proof.
12.2
Retracts
Let S be a semigroup and ρ be a congruence on S. A cross-section with
respect to ρ is called a retract or ρ-retract. Description of retracts for S
being one of the semigroups Tn , PT n , or IS n is an easy application of
Theorem 6.3.10, where all congruences on S were described.
Lemma 12.2.1 Let S be one of the semigroups Tn , PT n , or IS n and ρ
be a congruence on S. Then a ρ-retract exists if and only if ρ is one of the
following:
(i) The identity congruence
(ii) The uniform congruence
(iii) The congruence ≡R from Sect. 6.3, where R is a subgroup of Sn , moreover, if S = Tn , then, additionally, R = {e}
Proof. Let 1 < k < n and R be a normal subgroup of Sk . Let further ≡R
be the corresponding congruence from Sect. 6.3 and T be an ≡R -retract.
Then, by the construction of ≡R , T contains Sn and all idempotents of rank
(n − 1). Hence T = S by Theorems 3.1.3–3.1.5, respectively. Since for k > 1
the relation ≡R is not the identity congruence by construction, we get a
contradiction with the assumption that T is a cross-section for ≡R .
Assume that S = Tn , k = n, R = {e} and T is an ≡R -retract. Then,
by construction, T contains Sn and, apart from that, T must contain a
unique noninvertible element e. Let x, y ∈ N be such that x ∈ im(e) while
y ∈ im(e). Then (x, y)e = e, which means that such T is not closed under
the multiplication, a contradiction.
12.2. RETRACTS
217
Now the statement of the lemma follows from Theorem 6.3.10, which
says that any ρ which is not of the form (i)–(iii), is equal to ρ =≡R for k
and R as in the previous paragraphs.
Using Lemma 12.2.1 we just describe the retracts for each of the semigroups Tn , PT n , and IS n on a case-by-case basis. Recall from 6.5.5 that
normal subgroups of Sn are: the Sn itself, the subgroup An of even permutations and the identity subgroup {ε} (for n = 4). The group S4 has an
additional normal subgroup V4 .
Proposition 12.2.2 (i) The identity congruence on IS n has the unique
retract, namely, IS n itself.
(ii) If ρ is the uniform congruence on IS n , then there exist 2n retracts
for ρ, all of the form {e}, where e ∈ E(IS n ).
(iii) If ρ =≡Sn , then IS n contains 2n − 1 retracts ρ, all of the form {ε, e},
where e ∈ E(IS n )\{ε}.
(iv) If ρ =≡An , then IS n contains
k+2
n 4 n
k=2
k
s=1
k!
(k − 2(2s − 1))! · (2s − 1)! · 22s−1
ρ-retracts, all of the form {ε, α, e}, where e ∈ E(IS n )\{ε} and the
element α ∈ Sn \An has order two and is such that α(x) = x for any
x ∈ im(e).
(v) If ρ =≡{ε} , then IS n contains the unique ρ-retract Sn ∪ {0}.
(vi) If ρ =≡V4 , then IS 4 contains eight ρ-retracts of the form
{a,b,c}
Q0
{a,b,c}
Q1
= {ε, (a, b), (a, c), (b, c), (a, b, c), (a, c, b), 0};
= {ε, (a, b), (a, c), (b, c), (a, b, c), (a, c, b), ε{d} },
where {a, b, c} ⊂ N4 , and {d} = N4 \{a, b, c}.
Proof. The statement (i) is obvious. If ρ is the uniform congruence, then T
must contain exactly one element, which is automatically idempotent. Any
idempotent is a retract for the uniform congruence. Hence (ii) follows from
Corollary 2.7.3.
If ρ =≡Sn , then ρ has two equivalence classes: Sn and IS n \Sn . Each of
them is a subsemigroup of IS n , and hence any retract of ρ must consist of
idempotents. There is a unique idempotent ε in Sn . On the other hand, for
any e ∈ E(IS n )\{ε}, the set {ε, e} is a retract for ρ. Hence (iii) follows again
from Corollary 2.7.3.
218
CHAPTER 12. CROSS-SECTIONS
If ρ =≡Sn , then ρ has three equivalence classes: An , Sn \An , and IS n \Sn .
As both An and IS n \Sn are subsemigroups, any retract T must contain an
idempotent from each of these two classes. Hence An must be represented
in T by ε and IS n \Sn by some e ∈ E(IS n )\{ε}. As α2 ∈ An for any
α ∈ Sn \An , the latter class must be represented by some α of order two. As
α ∈ Sn \An , α must be a product of an odd number r = 2s − 1 of pairwise
commuting transpositions. The condition which would guarantee that T is
closed under multiplication is αe = eα = e. This is obviously equivalent to
α(x) = x for any x ∈ dom(e). Now if we let k be the cardinality of dom(e),
the statement (iv) follows easily from the formula (7.7).
If ρ =≡{ε} , then any retract T must contain Sn and one additional
noninvertible element x. To be closed under multiplication, such x must
satisfy πx = xπ = x for all π ∈ Sn . The only element of IS n which satisfies
this condition is the element 0. Indeed, if α ∈ IS n is noninvertible and such
that α = 0, then n > 1, im(α) = ∅ and taking a ∈ im(α) and b ∈ N\{a}
we obtain (a, b)α = α. The statement (v) follows. The statement (vi) is left
as an exercise to the reader.
Proposition 12.2.3 (i) The identity congruence on Tn has the unique
retract, namely, Tn itself.
(ii) If ρ is the uniform congruence on Tn , then there exist nk=1 nk k n−k
retracts for ρ, all of the form {e}, where e ∈ E(Tn ).
n n−k
(iii) If ρ =≡Sn , then Tn contains n−1
retracts for ρ, all of the
k=1 k k
form {ε, e}, where e ∈ E(Tn )\{ε}.
(iv) If ρ =≡An , then Tn contains
k+2
n 4 n
k=2
k
s=1
k!(n − k)k−(2s−1)
(k − 2(2s − 1))! · (2s − 1)! · 22s−1
ρ-retracts, all of the form {ε, α, e}, where e ∈ E(Tn )\{ε} and α ∈
Sn \An is an element of order two, which preserves the blocks of ρe
and satisfies α(x) = x for any x ∈ im(e).
(v) If ρ =≡V4 , then T4 contains four ρ-retracts of the form
Q{a,b,c} = {ε, (a, b), (a, c), (b, c), (a, b, c), (a, c, b), 0d };
where {a, b, c} ⊂ N4 and {d} = N4 \{a, b, c}.
Proof. Analogous to that of Proposition 12.2.2 and is left to the reader.
Proposition 12.2.4 (i) The identity congruence on PT n has the unique
retract, namely, PT n itself.
12.3. H-CROSS-SECTIONS IN Tn , PT n , AND IS n
219
(ii) If ρ is the uniform congruence on PT n , then there exist nk=0 nk (k +
1)n−k retracts for ρ, all of the form {e}, where e ∈ E(PT n ).
n
n−k retracts ρ, all of
(iii) If ρ =≡Sn , then PT n contains n−1
k=0 k (k + 1)
the form {ε, e}, where e ∈ E(PT n )\{ε}.
(iv) If ρ =≡An , then PT n contains
k+2
n 4 n
k=2
k
s=1
k!(n − k + 1)k−(2s−1)
(k − 2(2s − 1))! · (2s − 1)! · 22s−1
ρ-retracts, all of the form {ε, α, e}, where e ∈ E(IS n )\{ε} and α ∈
Sn \An is an element of order two, which preserves the blocks of ρe
and satisfies α(x) = x for any x ∈ dom(e).
(v) If ρ =≡{ε} , then PT n contains the unique ρ-retract Sn ∪ {0}.
{a,b,c}
,
(vi) If ρ =≡V4 , then PT 4 contains twelve ρ-retracts of the form Q0
{a,b,c}
, Q{a,b,c} , as defined in Propositions 12.2.2(vi) and 12.2.3(v).
Q1
Proof. Analogous to that of Proposition 12.2.2 and is left to the reader.
12.3
H-Cross-Sections in T n , PT n , and IS n
In this section, we describe cross-sections in Tn , PT n , and IS n with respect
to the relation H. We will call such cross-sections simply H-cross-sections.
We start with the following negative result:
Theorem 12.3.1 Let S = Tn or S = PT n .
(i) If n = 1, then S contains the unique H-cross-section, namely, S itself.
(ii) If n = 2, then S contains the unique H-cross-section, namely, the
subsemigroup S\{(1, 2)}.
(iii) If n > 2, then S does not contain any H-cross-sections.
Proof. The statement (i) is obvious. To prove the statement (ii) one just
observes that in this case the only H-class of S containing more than one
element is S2 . As S2 is a subsemigroup of S, any H-cross-section must contain
an idempotent from S2 , which is the identity transformation ε. We have
S2 \{ε} = {(1, 2)}. As S\{(1, 2)} is a subsemigroup, it is an H-cross-section.
This proves the statement (ii).
To prove (iii) we consider the following elements from S:
1 2 3 ··· n
1 2 3 ··· n
α1 =
, α2 =
.
1 3 3 ··· 3
3 1 1 ··· 1
220
CHAPTER 12. CROSS-SECTIONS
1
β1 =
2
1 2
γ1 =
1 2
2
2
3
1
3
3
4
2
···
···
···
···
n
,
3
n
,
2
1
β2 =
3
1
γ2 =
2
2
3
2
1
3
2
3
2
··· n
.
··· 2
4 ··· n
.
1 ··· 1
From Theorem 4.5.1 we have H(α1 ) = {α1 , α2 }, H(β1 ) = {β1 , β2 } and
H(γ1 ) = {γ1 , γ2 }. Assume that T is an H-cross-section of S. Then the intersection of T with each of H(α1 ), H(β1 ) and H(γ1 ) consists of exactly one
element. Since all these H-classes are subgroups of S, the intersection of T
with each of them must contain the identity elements of the corresponding
subgroup; namely, α1 , β1 , and γ1 respectively. Then T contains the element
1 2 3 ··· n
π = γ1 β1 α1 =
.
2 1 1 ··· 1
As π = π 2 and π 2 ∈ H(π), we obtain that T must contain two elements
from H(π). This contradicts our assumption that T is an H-cross-section,
which completes the proof.
Let ≺ be a linear order on N. A partial permutation α ∈ IS n is said
to be ≺-order-preserving provided that α(i) ≺ α(j) for all i, j ∈ dom(α)
such that i ≺ j. Denote by IO≺
n the set of all ≺-order-preserving partial
permutations from IS n . If ≺ is the natural order, then one simply says
order-preserving instead of ≺-order-preserving, and uses the notation IOn
←
for the corresponding set IO≺
n . We denote by ≺ the linear order opposite to
≺. We will also denote by < the natural order on N.
Exercise 12.3.2 Check that IO≺
n is a subsemigroup of IS n .
Theorem 12.3.3 (i) For every linear order ≺ on N the subsemigroup
IO≺
n is an H-cross-section of IS n .
≺2
1
(ii) For two linear orders ≺1 and ≺2 we have IO≺
n = IO n if and only if
←
≺1 =≺2 or ≺1 =≺2 .
(iii) If n = 3, then every H-cross-section of IS n has the form IO≺
n for
some linear order ≺ on N.
Proof. From Exercise 12.3.2 we know that IO≺
n is a subsemigroup of IS n . By
Theorem 4.5.1(iii), each H-class of IS n is determined by some k, 0 ≤ k ≤ n,
and a pair A and B of k-element subsets of N, and consists of all bijections
α : A → B. Write A = {a1 ≺ a2 ≺ · · · ≺ ak } and B = {b1 ≺ b2 ≺ · · · ≺ bk }.
Then the element
a1 a2 · · · ak
b1 b2 · · · bk
≺
is the only representative of the corresponding H-class in IO≺
n . Hence IO n
is an H-cross-section, which proves the statement (i).
12.3. H-CROSS-SECTIONS IN Tn , PT n , AND IS n
221
≺2
1
It follows directly from the definitions that IO≺
n = IO n provided that
←
←
≺1 =≺2 or ≺1 =≺2 . Assume now that ≺1 =≺2 and ≺1 =≺2 . Without loss of
generality we may even assume that ≺1 is the natural order < and set ≺=≺2 .
Since ≺ is neither the natural order nor the opposite to it, there exists i ∈ N
such that either i ± 1 ≺ i or i ≺ i ± 1. Then for the element
i−1
i
α=
∈ IO<
n
i
i+1
of rank 2 we have α ∈ IO≺
n . The statement (ii) follows.
The really interesting part here is to prove the statement (iii). Note that
for n = 1 the statement is obvious. If n = 2, then we have a unique H-class,
containing more than one element, namely, S2 . As in Theorem 12.3.1(ii) we
obtain that IS 2 \{(1, 2)} is the unique H-cross-section, which obviously has
the necessary form. Hence from now on we may assume n ≥ 4.
Let T be an H-cross-section of IS n , n ≥ 4. Define the binary relation
≺=≺T on N as follows: a ≺ b if and only if there exists an element α ∈ T
of rank two such that α(1) = a and α(2) = b. Note that for a = b we always
have that exactly one of the inequalities a ≺ b or b ≺ a holds as there
always exists a unique α ∈ T of rank two such that α({1, 2}) = {a, b}. In
other words, ≺ is antisymmetric.
Lemma 12.3.4 T preserves ≺ in the sense that for any a ≺ b and any
β ∈ T such that {a, b} ⊂ dom(β) we have β(a) ≺ β(b).
Proof. Let α ∈ T be an element of rank two such that α(1) = a and α(2) = b.
Then im(α) ⊂ dom(β), which implies that βα has rank two as well. We
have βα(1) = β(α(1)) = β(a) and βα(2) = β(α(2)) = β(b). This implies
β(a) ≺ β(b) by definition.
Lemma 12.3.5 The relation ≺ is transitive in the sense that a ≺ b and
b ≺ c implies a ≺ c.
Proof. Let a, b, c ∈ N be such that a ≺ b and b ≺ c. Assume that c ≺ a.
As n ≥ 4, we can take some d ∈ N\{a, b, c}. Let α ∈ T be such that
α({a, b, c}) = {b, c, d}.
If α(a) = d, then α({b, c}) = {b, c} and as α preserves ≺ by Lemma 12.3.5,
we have α(b) = b and α(c) = c. This implies c ≺ d.
If α(a) = c, then α(b) = b is impossible as α must preserve ≺. Hence
α(c) = b and α(b) = d. As α preserves ≺, we again obtain c ≺ d. Analogously
one shows that c ≺ d in the last case α(a) = b.
On the other hand, let β ∈ T be such that β({a, b, c}) = {a, c, d}. If
β(a) = d, then β(b) = c and β(c) = a as α preserves ≺. This implies d ≺ c.
Analogous arguments lead to the same conclusion in the case β(a) = a and
β(a) = c. Thus d ≺ c, a contradiction.
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CHAPTER 12. CROSS-SECTIONS
Therefore, c ≺ a is not possible. As we already know that either c ≺ a
or a ≺ c, we conclude that a ≺ c, which completes our proof.
The relation ≺ is antireflexive by definition. We already observed that
≺ is also antisymmetric. By Lemma 12.3.5, it is transitive. Hence ≺ is a
partial order. As we already saw, any two elements of N are comparable
with respect to ≺. This implies that ≺ is a linear order. Thus we have
≺
T ⊂ IO≺
n by Lemma 12.3.4. On the other hand, IO n is an H-cross-section
≺
of IS n by (i). Hence T and IOn have the same cardinalities (the total
number of H-classes in IS n ) and we obtain T = IO≺
n . This proves (iii) and
completes the proof of the theorem.
Corollary 12.3.6 (i) For n = 1, 3 the semigroup IS n contains exactly
cross-sections with respect to the relation H.
n!
2
(ii) An element α ∈ IS n belongs to some H-cross-section if and only if α
does not have cycles of length greater than one.
Proof. By Theorem 12.3.3(iii), each H-cross-section of IS n , n = 3, is of the
form IO≺
n . For n = 1, the n! linear orders ≺ on N are divided into n!/2 pairs
←
of the type {≺, ≺}. Now the statement (i) follows from Theorem 12.3.3(ii).
If α ∈ IS n has a cycle of length greater than one, then it is obvious that
α cannot preserve any linear order on N. On the other hand, if α does not
have such cycles, we can write
α = (a1 ) · · · (ak )[b1 , b2 , . . . , bl ] · · ·
and α preserves the order a1 ≺ · · · ≺ ak ≺ b1 ≺ b2 ≺ · · · ≺ bl ≺ · · · . This
completes the proof.
Exercise 12.3.7 Prove that for n = 3 all H-cross-sections of IS n are isomorphic.
12.4
L-Cross-Sections in T n and PT n
Let S denote one of the semigroups Tn or PT n . Fix a linear order ≺ on N.
Let
N = {u1 ≺ u2 ≺ · · · ≺ un }.
(12.1)
For a nonempty A ⊂ N denote by min(A, ≺) the minimal element of A with
respect to the order ≺. If A, B ⊂ N are nonempty and disjoint, we will write
A ≺ B provided that min(A, ≺) ≺ min(B, ≺). Let L(≺) denote the set of
all elements of S, which have the form
A1 A2 · · · Ak
,
(12.2)
α=
u1 u2 · · · uk
where A1 ≺ A2 ≺ · · · ≺ Ak .
12.4. L-CROSS-SECTIONS IN Tn AND PT n
223
Theorem 12.4.1 (i) For every linear order ≺ on N the set L(≺) is an
L-cross-section of S.
(ii) For two orders ≺1 and ≺2 we have L(≺1 ) = L(≺2 ) if and only if
≺1 =≺2 .
(iii) Every L-cross-section of S has the form L(≺) for some linear order ≺
on N.
To prove this theorem we will need several lemmas.
Lemma 12.4.2 For every linear order ≺ on N the set L(≺) is a subsemigroup of S.
Proof. Let α, β ∈ L(≺) be such that the element α is given by (12.2), while
β=
B1 B2 · · ·
u1 u2 · · ·
Bm
um
,
where B1 ≺ B2 ≺ · · · ≺ Bm . We have to prove that αβ ∈ L(≺).
Let Ai ≺ Aj and assume that uj ∈ im(αβ). This yields that for some
a ∈ Aj we have a ∈ im(β). As min(Ai , ≺) ≺ min(Aj , ≺) ≺ a, we conclude
that min(Ai , ≺) ∈ im(β) as well. Thus ui ∈ im(αβ). Therefore, im(αβ) =
{u1 , . . . , ul } for some l ≤ k.
Let ui ≺ uj be elements from im(αβ) and us = min(Ai , ≺). Then by the
definition we have
Bz
(12.3)
{x ∈ N : αβ(x) = ui } =
uz ∈Ai
and
{x ∈ N : αβ(x) = uj } =
Bz ,
uz ∈Aj
where we assume that Bz = ∅ if z > m. Note that us ≺ v for any v ∈ Aj
because Ai ≺ Ai and α ∈ L(≺). Hence for any uz ∈ Aj we have the inequality
min(Bs , ≺) ≺ min(Bz , ≺) because β ∈ L(≺). As the set from (12.3) contains
Bs , we get
{x ∈ N : αβ(x) = ui } ≺ {x ∈ N : αβ(x) = uj },
which finally yields αβ ∈ L(≺).
Lemma 12.4.3 For every linear order ≺ on N the set L(≺) contains exactly
one element from every L-class of S.
224
CHAPTER 12. CROSS-SECTIONS
Proof. Let X ⊂ N if S = PT n or X = N if S = Tn . Let further X =
X1 ∪ X2 ∪ · · · ∪ Xk be an unordered partition of X into a disjoint union
of nonempty subsets. Without loss of generality we may assume that we
have X1 ≺ X2 ≺ · · · ≺ Xk . By Theorem 4.5.1(ii), such partitions bijectively
correspond to L-classes of the semigroup S inside the D-class Dk . Then the
element
X1 X2 · · · Xk
u1 u2 · · · uk
is the unique representative of L(≺) in the L-class, defined by the partition
X1 ∪ X2 ∪ · · · ∪ Xk . This completes the proof.
Lemma 12.4.4 Let T be an L-cross-section of S and α, β ∈ Dk ∩ T . Then
im(α) = im(β).
Proof. Assume that this is not the case. Set
C = im(α) ∩ im(β),
A = im(α)\C,
B = im(β)\C.
As |im(α)| = |im(β)| = k, we have |A| = |B| = m. Let us write
A = {a1 , . . . , am },
B = {b1 , . . . , bm },
C = {c1 , . . . , ck−m }.
Let γ ∈ T be the element which belongs to the L-class given by the following
partition of N:
{a1 , b1 }∪· · ·∪{am , bm }∪{c1 }∪· · ·∪{ck−m−1 }∪ {ck−m }∪(N\(A∪B ∪C)) .
We have that all the elements α, β, γ, γα and γβ have rank k. This yields
im(γα) = im(γ) = im(γβ).
(12.4)
Moreover, we also have ρα = ργα , implying α = γα as T is an L-crosssection. Analogously one shows that β = γβ. The statement of the lemma
now follows from (12.4).
Lemma 12.4.5 Let T be some L-cross-section of S, α ∈ Dk ∩ T and β ∈
Dk+1 ∩ T . Then im(α) ⊂ im(β).
Proof. Let A = im(α) = {a1 , . . . , ak } and γ denote the representative of T
in the L-class, which corresponds to the partition
{a1 } ∪ · · · ∪ {ak } ∪ (N\A).
Then we have ρα = ργα and thus γα = α since T is an L-cross-section. At
the same time im(γα) ⊂ im(γ), which yields im(α) ⊂ im(γ). As γ ∈ Dk+1 ,
we have im(γ) = im(β) by Lemma 12.4.4. This completes the proof.
12.4. L-CROSS-SECTIONS IN Tn AND PT n
225
Proof of Theorem 12.4.1. The statement (i) follows from Lemmas 12.4.2
and 12.4.3.
To prove (ii) let ≺1 and ≺2 be two different linear orders on N. Assume
that
N = {a1 ≺1 a2 ≺1 · · · ≺1 an },
(12.5)
N = {b1 ≺2 b2 ≺2 · · · ≺2 bn },
and that k is minimal such that ak = bk . Consider some fixed L-class inside
Dk . Let α and β be the representatives from L(≺1 ) and L(≺2 ) inside this
L-class, respectively. Then by the definition we have
im(α) = {a1 , . . . , ak } = {b1 , . . . , bk } = im(β).
Hence α = β and thus L(≺1 ) = L(≺2 ). The statement (ii) is proved.
It remains to prove the statement (iii). Let T be an L-cross-section of S.
From Lemma 12.4.5 it follows that there exists a linear order ≺ on N given
by (12.1), such that for any α ∈ T of rank k we have im(α) = {u1 , . . . , uk }.
We claim that T ⊂ L(≺).
Let α ∈ T be an element of rank k such that
A1 A2 · · · Ak
α=
,
v1 v2 · · · vk
where A1 ≺ A2 ≺ · · · ≺ Ak and {v1 , . . . , vk } = {u1 , . . . , uk }. Assume that
α ∈ L(≺) and let m be the minimal possible index such that vm = um , in
particular um ≺ vm . Let ul = min(Am , ≺). Then
ul ≺ x for any x ∈ Aj such that j > m.
(12.6)
Let β ∈ T be an element of rank l. Then im(β) = {u1 , . . . , ul } by our
assumptions. Consider the element αβ ∈ T . The image of αβ is the union of
all the α(Ai )’s such that there exists 1 ≤ j ≤ l for which uj ∈ Ai . If j < l,
we have uj ≺ ul and thus uj ∈ Ai for some i < m by (12.6) and our choice
of ul . At the same time α(Am ) = vm ∈ im(αβ). Hence im(αβ) has the form
{vm } ∪ N for some subset N ⊂ {u1 , . . . , um−1 }. As vm = um , the latter set
is not of the form {u1 , . . . , ui } for any i. Hence αβ ∈ T by our assumptions,
a contradiction. This shows that α ∈ L(≺) and hence T ⊂ L(≺).
As both T and L(≺) are L-cross-sections, they have the same cardinality.
Hence T ⊂ L(≺) implies T = L(≺). This completes the proof of (iii) and of
the theorem.
Corollary 12.4.6
(i) S contains exactly n! different L-cross-sections.
(ii) All L-cross-sections of S are isomorphic.
Proof. The statement (i) follows immediately from Theorem 12.4.1 as there
are exactly n! different linear orders on N.
226
CHAPTER 12. CROSS-SECTIONS
To prove the statement (ii) assume that ≺1 and ≺2 are two different
linear orders on N given by (12.5). Let π ∈ Sn be such that π(ai ) = bi ,
i = 1, . . . , n. Then from the definition we have L(≺1 ) = π −1 L(≺2 )π. This
implies that L(≺2 ) is mapped to L(≺1 ) by an inner automorphism of S.
Hence these two semigroups are isomorphic and the proof is complete.
12.5
L-Cross-Sections in IS n
In this section we classify all L-cross-sections in IS n . This description turns
out to be more complicated than the descriptions presented in the previous
sections. Hence we will start with some preparation and some auxiliary
lemmas.
We first note that, by Theorem 4.5.1(ii), for α, β ∈ IS n the condition
αLβ is equivalent to the condition dom(α) = dom(β). Hence the equalities
α = β and dom(α) = dom(β) are equivalent for elements α, β from an
arbitrary L-cross-section T of IS n . We will frequently use this fact in this
section.
Lemma 12.5.1 Let T be an L-cross-section of IS n . Then α ∈ T \{α} for
every α ∈ T ∩ Dn−1 .
Proof. Let α ∈ T ∩ Dn−1 and β, γ ∈ T be such that α = βγ. Assume that
β = α and γ = α. Then, in particular, β, γ = ε. As T is an L-cross-section,
we thus get β, γ ∈ In−1 . The equality α = βγ then implies that both β and γ
have rank (n − 1). Thus dom(α) = dom(βγ) = dom(γ), which yields α = γ,
a contradiction. Thus we either have β = α or γ = α, and the statement of
the lemma follows.
From Lemma 12.5.1 it follows that every generating system of each
L–cross-section T of IS n must contain the set T ∩ Dn−1 . Now we would
like to study the latter set in more details.
Lemma 12.5.2 Let T be an L-cross-section of IS n and α ∈ T ∩ Dn−1 .
Then the chain decomposition of α contains exactly one chain, [a1 , . . . , ak ]
say, and α(x) = x for all x ∈ N\{a1 , . . . , ak }.
Proof. The element α contains exactly one chain as def(α) = 1. If this chain
is [a1 , . . . , ak ], then dom(αk ) = dom(αk+1 ), and hence αk = αk+1 as T is an
L-cross-section. By our assumptions, the element α induces a bijection on
the set N\{a1 , . . . , ak }, hence αk induces a bijection on this set as well. Let
x, y ∈ N\{a1 , . . . , ak } be such that αk (y) = x. Then, using αk = αk+1 , we
have
α(x) = α(αk (y)) = αk+1 (y) = αk (y) = x,
which completes the proof.
12.5. L-CROSS-SECTIONS IN IS n
227
For k = 1, . . . , n set αk = [1, 2, . . . , k](k + 1) · · · (n) and denote by K n
the subsemigroup of IS n , generated by α1 , . . . , αn .
Exercise 12.5.3 ([GM3]) (a) Show that αk · αl = αl · αk−1 for every l and
k such that k ≤ l.
(b) Show that αkm = αkm−1 · αk−1 for all m > 1 and k > 1.
Corollary 12.5.4 Every element α ∈ K n can be written in the form
a
n−1
α = αnan αn−1
· · · α1a1 ,
where ai ∈ {0, 1} for all i = 1, 2, . . . , n, and a1 + · · · + an > 0.
Proof. From Exercise 12.5.3(a) it follows easily that every element α ∈ K n
an−1
can be written in the form α = αnan αn−1
· · · α1a1 , where a1 , a2 , . . . , an ∈
{0, 1, 2, . . . }. Taking this into account, the statement of the corollary follows
from Exercise 12.5.3(b) and the observation that α12 = α1 .
Exercise 12.5.5 ([GM3]) Let 1 ≤ i1 < i2 < · · · < ik ≤ n and define
α = αik αik−1 · · · αi1 . Show that
(a) dom(α) = N\{i1 , . . . , ik }.
(b) im(α) = N\{1, . . . , k}.
(c) α coincides with the unique increasing bijection from N\{i1 , . . . , ik } to
N\{1, . . . , k}.
Corollary 12.5.6 The semigroup Kn = K n ∪ {ε} is an L-cross-section of
the semigroup IS n .
Proof. From Exercise 12.5.5(a) and Corollary 12.5.4 it follows that for every A ⊂ N the semigroup Kn contains exactly one element α with domain A.
Hence Kn contains exactly one element from every L-class of IS n by Theorem 4.5.1.
Lemma 12.5.7 (i) In the semigroup Kn the inequality xn−1 = xn has the
unique solution αn .
(ii) The element αn satisfies αnn = αnn+1 .
Proof. The statement (ii) is proved by a direct calculation.
We prove the statement (i) by induction on n. If n = 1, then the statement (i) is obvious. Let A ⊂ N be such that |A| = k and assume that
α : A → {n − k + 1, . . . , n} be an increasing bijection. Note that, by Exercise 12.5.5, in this way we get all elements from Kn . If n ∈ A, then, obviously,
α(n) = n. Applying the inductive assumption and the statement (ii) to the
restriction of α to the invariant subset Nn−1 ⊂ N, we obtain αn−1 = αn .
228
CHAPTER 12. CROSS-SECTIONS
Assume now that n ∈ A and rank(α) < n−1. Then im(α) = {i, . . . , n} ⊂
{3, . . . , n} by Exercise 12.5.5(b). As α is an increasing function, im(α) is
invariant with respect to α. Let β be the restriction of α to its image.
Because of Exercise 12.5.5, we can apply the inductive assumption and the
statement (ii) to β and get β n−2 = β n−1 . Multiplying with α from the right
yields αn−1 = αn .
If n ∈ A and rank(α) = n − 1, then dom(α) = Nn−1 and α = αn follows
from Corollary 12.5.6. The inequality αnn−1 = αnn is checked by a direct
calculation. This completes the proof.
Lemma 12.5.8 Let T be an L-cross-section of IS n . Assume that T contains
the element α = αk . Let β ∈ T ∩ Dn−1 be such that β(x) = x for some
x ∈ {1, . . . , k}. Then β(y) = y for all y, x ≤ y ≤ k.
Proof. Without loss of generality we may assume that x is the minimal
element such that β(x) = x. Consider the set
M = {y : x ≤ y ≤ kandβ(y) = y}
and assume that it is not empty. Let p be the maximal element in this set.
Assume first that p ∈ dom(β). Then dom(β) = N\{p}, and, taking into
account β(z) = z for all p < z ≤ k, we obtain
dom(αk−p β) = dom(αk−p+1 ) = N \{p, p + 1, . . . , k}.
Thus αk−p β = αk−p+1 . At the same time
αk−p β(x) = x + k − p = x + k − p + 1 = αk−p+1 (x).
Therefore, p ∈ dom(β) is not possible.
Assume now that p ∈ dom(β). Set β(p) = q = p and assume that
the length of the unique chain in the chain decomposition of β equals m.
Since β(p) = p, from Lemma 12.5.2 we deduce that p belongs to the chain
of β. This implies that for the idempotent β m we have p, q ∈ dom(β m ). Set
A = {k + 1, . . . , n}, B = dom(β m ), C = A ∩ B and A1 = A\C.
All elements from the set A1 occur in the chain of β and hence we have
im(β m ) ∩ A1 = ∅. Moreover, because of our choice of x we have that all
elements from {1, 2, . . . , x − 1} belong to the chain of the element β as well.
Thus im(β m ) ⊂ {x, x + 1, . . . , k} ∪ C. This implies that
im(αp−x β m ) ⊂ {p, p + 1, . . . , k} ∪ C ⊂ dom(β).
The latter yields dom(αp−x β m ) = dom(βαp−x β m ) and hence αp−x β m =
βαp−x β m as T is an L-cross-section. But
(αp−x β m )(x) = αp−x (β m (x)) = αp−x (x) = p = q = β(p) = (βαp−x β m )(x).
Hence p ∈ dom(β) is not possible either. Thus, we obtain a contradiction
with our assumption that M is not empty, and the statement of the lemma
follows.
12.5. L-CROSS-SECTIONS IN IS n
229
Let [a1 , a2 , . . . , ak ] be some chain. For every l ∈ {1, 2, . . . , k} the chain
[a1 , a2 , . . . , al ] will be called a prefix of [a1 , a2 , . . . , ak ].
Lemma 12.5.9 Let T be an L-cross-section of IS n and α, β ∈ T ∩ Dn−1 .
Assume that the chains of α and β have at least one common element. Then
one of these chains is a prefix of the other one.
Proof. Without loss of generality we can assume that α = αk . Let A =
{1, 2, . . . , k}, B be the set of all elements from the chain of the element β
and C = A∩B. From Lemma 12.5.8 it follows that C = {1, 2, . . . , m}, where
m ≤ k.
Assume that x ∈ N\A is such that x = β a (x) = y ∈ C for some a. Then
from α(x) = x and Lemma 12.5.8 we obtain that α(y) = y, which contradicts
the fact that y ∈ C. Hence β = [i1 , i2 , . . . , im , j1 , . . . , jl ](f ) · · · (g), where
i1 , i2 , . . . , im is a permutation of 1, 2, . . . , m.
Suppose that (i1 , i2 , . . . , im ) = (1, 2, . . . , m) (this is an inequality of vectors, not cycles). Then there exist elements u, v, p, q ∈ {1, 2, . . . , m} such
that ip = u, iq = v, u < v, p > q. This implies αv−u (u) = v, β p−q (v) = u
and (β p−q αv−u )(u) = u. For the element γ = β p−q αv−u there exists t such
that γ t is an idempotent. Clearly, u ∈ dom(γ t ) and γ t (u) = u. Moreover,
dom(γ t ) ⊂ dom(γ) ⊂ dom(α). Now γ 2t = γ t implies that dom(γ t ) = im(γ t ).
Hence dom(γ t ) = dom(αγ t ) and thus γ t = αγ t . But the last equality is
impossible for γ t (u) = u = u + 1 = (αγ t )(u).
From the previous paragraph we have (i1 , i2 , . . . , im ) = (1, 2, . . . , m) and
thus β = [1, 2, . . . , m, j1 , . . . , jl ](f ) · · · (g). To complete the proof it is now
enough to show that either k = m or l = 0. Assume that this is not the
case, that is, k > m and l > 0. Note that {m + 1, . . . , k} ∩ {j1 , . . . , jl } = ∅,
α acts as the identity on all elements from B\C = {j1 , . . . , jl } and β acts as
the identity on all elements from A\C = {m + 1, . . . , k}. This implies that
k, jl ∈ dom(βα) and k, jl ∈ dom(αβ). Since def(βα) ≤ 2 and def(αβ) ≤ 2,
we have that dom(βα) = dom(αβ) = N \{k, jl } and αβ = βα as T is an
L-cross-section. But (βα)(m) = m + 1 = j1 = (αβ)(m). This contradiction
completes the proof of the lemma.
Let now N = M1 ∪ M2 ∪ · · · ∪ Mk be an arbitrary partition of N into an
unordered disjoint union of nonempty blocks. For i = 1, 2, . . . , k we set mi =
|Mi | and choose some linear order ≺i on Mi . The collection {≺1 , . . . , ≺k }
uniquely determines the partition M1 ∪ M2 ∪ · · · ∪ Mk . Assume that
Mi = {ui1 ≺i ui2 ≺i · · · ≺i uimi }.
For every i ∈ {1, . . . , k} and every j ∈ {1, . . . , mi } let αji denote the unique
element of rank (n − 1), which can be written as follows:
αji = [ui1 , ui2 , . . . , uij ](a)(b) · · · (c).
230
CHAPTER 12. CROSS-SECTIONS
Let L(≺1 , . . . , ≺k ) denote the subsemigroup of IS n , which is generated by
ε and all αji , i ∈ {1, . . . , k}, j ∈ {1, . . . , mi }.
Theorem 12.5.10 (i) For any partition N = M1 ∪M2 ∪· · ·∪Mk and any
choice of a linear order ≺i for each block of the partition the semigroup
L(≺1 , . . . , ≺k ) is an L-cross-section of IS n .
(ii) L(≺1 , . . . , ≺k ) = L(≺1 , . . . , ≺m ) if and only if we have the equality
{≺1 , . . . , ≺k } = {≺1 , . . . , ≺m }.
(iii) Every L-cross-section of IS n has the form L(≺1 , . . . , ≺k ) for appropriate partition N = M1 ∪M2 ∪· · ·∪Mk and some choice ≺i of a linear
order for every block of the partition.
Proof. Set L = L(≺1 , . . . , ≺k ). For X ⊂ N and i = 1, 2, . . . , k set Xi =
X ∩ Mi and denote by Li the subsemigroup of L, generated by ε and all the
αji , j ∈ {1, . . . , mi }. Then for all α ∈ Li and x ∈ Mi we have α(x) = x, so we
can consider Li as a subsemigroup of IS(Mi ). Let us identify Mi with Nmi
such that the order ≺i corresponds to the natural order on Nmi . Then the
semigroup Li is identified with the semigroup Kmi from Corollary 12.5.6.
The latter corollary also says that Li is an L-cross-section of Nmi . This
means that there exists a unique element βi ∈ Li such that dom(βi ) = N\Xi .
From the definition we have that every element from Li commutes with
every element from Lj if i = j. As every βi acts as the identity outside Xi ,
we conclude that
dom(β1 β2 · · · βk ) =
k
(N\Xi ) = N\X.
i=1
Hence L contains a representative in every L-class of IS n .
From Corollary 12.5.6 we have |Li | = 2mi . As every element from Li
commutes with every element from Lj if i = j, from the definition we have
that every β ∈ L can be written as the product β = β1 β2 · · · βk , where
βi ∈ Li for every i. Hence
|L| ≤ |L1 | · |L2 | · · · |Lk | = 2m1 · 2m2 · · · · · 2mk = 2m1 +m2 +···+mk = 2n .
As L contains a representative in every L-class of IS n , we have |L| ≥ 2n .
This yields |L| = 2n and thus L must contain a unique representative in
every L-class of IS n . This proves the statement (i).
To prove the statement (ii) we consider two collections ≺= {≺1 , . . . , ≺k }
and ≺ = {≺1 , . . . , ≺k }. Set L = L(≺1 , . . . , ≺k ) and L = L(≺1 , . . . , ≺m ). For
every x ∈ N consider the orbit of x with respect to L:
o≺ (x) = {α(x) : α ∈ Landx ∈ dom(α)}.
12.6. R-CROSS-SECTIONS IN IS n
231
It is easy to see that the blocks Mi ’s are maximal orbits with respect to inclusions. Hence the equality L = L implies k = m and uniquely determines
the partition N = M1 ∪ · · · ∪ Mk . Let Li and Li denote the subsemigroups of
L and L , defined as in the first part of the proof. By Lemma 12.5.7(i), the inequality xmi −1 = xmi has unique solutions in both L and L , which must coincide provided that L = L . The solution has the form [ui1 , . . . , uimi ](a) · · · (b)
and uniquely determines the order ≺i . Hence ≺i =≺i and the statement (ii)
follows.
It remains to prove the statement (iii). Let L be an L-cross-section of
IS n . By Lemma 12.5.9 the chains of two arbitrarily chosen elements from
L∩Dn−1 are either disjoint or one of these chains is a prefix of the other one.
The chains of the elements from L ∩ Dn−1 , which are not proper prefixes
for chains of any other element from L ∩ Dn−1 , define a disjoint family
M1 , . . . , Mk of subsets of N. Moreover, each such maximal chain defines a
natural linear order on the corresponding Mi in the following way: the chain
[x1 , . . . , xm ] defines Mi = {x1 , . . . , xm } with the order x1 ≺i x2 ≺i · · · ≺i xm .
For every x ∈ N there exists α ∈ L ∩ Dn−1 such that dom(α) = N\{x}.
This means that x belongs to the unique chain of α and hence x belongs to
some Mi . Therefore L defines a partition N = M1 ∪ · · · ∪ Mk .
From the construction of this partition and Lemma 12.5.9 it follows that
L ∩ Dn−1 = L(≺1 , . . . , ≺k ) ∩ Dn−1
and hence L contains the subsemigroup of L(≺1 , . . . , ≺k ), generated by all
elements of rank n and (n − 1). However, L(≺1 , . . . , ≺k ) is generated by
elements of rank n and (n − 1) by definition. Hence L(≺1 , . . . , ≺k ) ⊂ L.
Recall that L(≺1 , . . . , ≺k ) is an L-cross-section of IS n by (i), while L is
an L-cross-section of IS n by our assumption. Hence |L(≺1 , . . . , ≺k )| = |L|,
implying L(≺1 , . . . , ≺k ) = L. This completes the proof of the theorem.
12.6
R-Cross-Sections in IS n
Let N = M1 ∪M2 ∪· · ·∪Mk be an arbitrary partition of N into an unordered
disjoint union of nonempty blocks. For i = 1, . . . , k set mi = |Mi | and choose
some linear order ≺i on Mi . Assume that
Mi = {ui1 ≺i ui2 ≺i · · · ≺i uimi }.
For every i ∈ {1, . . . , k} and every j ∈ {1, . . . , mi } let βji denote the unique
element of rank (n − 1), which can be written as follows:
βji = [uij , uij+1 , . . . , uimi ](a)(b) · · · (c).
Let R(≺1 , . . . , ≺k ) denote the subsemigroup of IS n , which is generated by
ε and all βji , i ∈ {1, . . . , k}, j ∈ {1, . . . , mi }.
232
CHAPTER 12. CROSS-SECTIONS
Theorem 12.6.1 (i) For any partition N = M1 ∪ M2 ∪ · · · ∪ Mk and any
choice of a linear order ≺i for each block of the partition the semigroup
R(≺1 , . . . , ≺k ) is an R-cross-section of IS n .
(ii) R(≺1 , . . . , ≺k ) = R(≺1 , . . . , ≺m ) if and only if we have the equality
{≺1 , . . . , ≺k } = {≺1 , . . . , ≺m }.
(iii) Every R-cross-section of IS n has the form R(≺1 , . . . , ≺k ) for appropriate partition N = M1 ∪M2 ∪· · ·∪Mk and some choice ≺i of a linear
order for every block of the partition.
Proof. The mapping α → α−1 is an antiinvolution on IS n . It swaps L- and
R-classes of IS n . It also swaps formulations of Theorems 12.5.10 and 12.6.1.
Hence Theorem 12.6.1 follows from Theorem 12.5.10.
n
n! n − 1
difCorollary 12.6.2 The semigroup IS n contains exactly
k! k − 1
k=1
ferent L-cross-sections, and the same number of different R-cross-sections.
Proof. It is enough to prove the statement for L-cross-sections. Let us count
the number of L-cross-sections, which correspond to partitions of N into k
blocks.
For this fixed k consider an arbitrary permutation i1 , . . . , in of 1, 2, . . . , n,
and a (k −1)-element subset, {j1 , . . . , jk−1 }, of {1, 2, . . . , n−1}. Assume that
j1 < j2 < · · · < jk−1 . This defines a decomposition of N into k blocks M1 =
{i1 , . . . , ij1 }, M2 = {ij1 +1 , . . . , ij2 },. . . , Mk = {ijk−1 +1 , . . . , in } together with
linear orders on these blocks. Since the order of the blocks is not important
is counted exactly k!
for L(≺1 , . . . , ≺k ) we get that each
L-cross-section
1
times. Therefore we have exactly n! n−1
different
L-cross-sections
for our
k−1 k!
fixed k. Summing this over all k we get the necessary statement.
Corollary 12.6.3 The only L-cross-section of IS n , which is an R-crosssection at the same time, is the semigroup E(IS n ) of all idempotents of
IS n .
Proof. Let L = L(≺1 , . . . , ≺k ) be an L-cross-section and N = M1 ∪ · · · ∪ Mk
be the corresponding partition of N.
Assume that mi > 1 for some i. Let X and Y be two different subsets
of Mi of the same cardinality. Set X = N\X and Y = N\Y . Let α, β ∈ L
be such that dom(α) = X and dom(β) = Y . From |Mi \X| = |Mi \Y |
and Exercise 12.5.5 we obtain im(α) = im(β). This means that L contains
two different elements from the same R-class and hence L cannot be an
R-cross-section.
On the other hand, if mi = 1 for all i, we obtain that k = n, all ≺i ’s are
trivial and α1i = εN\Mi . Hence L = E(IS n ). As E(IS n ) is stable under the
mapping α → α−1 , E(IS n ) is an R-cross-section as well. This completes the
proof.
12.7. ADDENDA AND COMMENTS
12.7
233
Addenda and Comments
12.7.1 Propositions 12.2.2–12.2.4 are proved in [ST1], [ST2], and [ST3],
respectively. Proposition 12.2.3 can also be found in [Pek1]. Theorems 12.3.1
and 12.4.1 are taken from [Pek2]. Theorem 12.3.3 is proved in [CR]. The
results of Sects. 12.5 and 12.6 are obtained in [GM3]. These results were also
independently obtained in [YY] by completely different methods.
12.7.2 Cross-sections of other semigroups, in particular some infinite transformation semigroups, were studied in [Pek3, Pek4, KMM].
12.7.3 If G is an abelian group and ρ is the conjugacy relation on G, then G
contains a unique ρ-cross-section, namely, G itself. In the non-abelian case
we have the following:
Proposition 12.7.1 Let G be a finite non-abelian group and ρ be the conjugacy relation on G. Then G does not contain any ρ-cross-section.
Proof. Assume that T is a ρ-cross-section. Let H be a conjugacy class in G
of maximal cardinality k. Note that k > 1 as G is not abelian. At the same
time G contains a one-element conjugacy class consisting of the identity
element. Since T is a ρ-cross-section, we get
|T | >
|G|
.
|H|
(12.7)
The group G acts on H by conjugation. Let a ∈ H ∩ T . As the action of
G on H is transitive, from Theorem 10.2.4(i) we have |G| = |H| · |StG (a)|.
In particular, |StG (a)| = |G|/|H|. Now we claim that T ⊂ StG (a). Indeed,
if g ∈ T , then g −1 ag ∈ H ∩ T and thus g −1 ag = a as T is a ρ-cross-section.
This yields g ∈ StG (a). Hence
|T | ≤ |StG (a)| =
|G|
.
|H|
(12.8)
Comparing (12.7) and (12.8) we get a contradiction. This proves the statement of our proposition.
After Proposition 12.7.1 a natural question is: Does Proposition 12.7.1
generalize to infinite groups?
12.7.4 Description of D-cross-section for semigroups Tn , PT n and IS n
seems to be a very difficult problem, even if one considers some special
classes of cross-sections.
For example, consider the easiest case of the semigroup IS n . A natural problem is to try to classify all D-cross-sections of IS n , consisting of
idempotents. As E(IS n ) ∼
= (B(N), ∩), the problem can be reformulated as
234
CHAPTER 12. CROSS-SECTIONS
follows: Classify all collections (X0 , X1 , . . . , Xn ) of subsets of N such that
the following two conditions are satisfied:
• |Xi | = i for every i = 0, 1, . . . , n.
• For any i, j ∈ {0, 1, . . . , n} there exists l ∈ {0, 1, . . . , n} such that
X i ∩ Xj = Xl .
We do not know how to solve this problem (which appears already in [GM3]).
We even do not know how to count the number of such collections. Classification of D-cross-section for both Tn and PT n contains this problem as a
subproblem. For PT n the latter statement is obvious as IS n ⊂ PT n and
this inclusion induces a bijection on D-classes. For Tn it follows from the
embedding of IS n into Tn+1 via
a1 a2 · · ·
b1 b2 · · ·
ak
bk
→
a1 a2 · · ·
b1 b2 · · ·
ak Nn+1 \{a1 , . . . , ak }
bk
n+1
.
12.7.5 At the moment there is no description/classification of R-crosssections for semigroups Tn and PT n . As the inclusion Tn ⊂ PT n induces a
bijection on R-classes, the problem of description of R-cross-sections for Tn
is a subproblem of the corresponding problem for PT n . From the inclusion
IS n ⊂ PT n we have that every R-cross-section of IS n is an R-cross-section
of PT n as well.
A natural family of R-cross-sections for Tn is the following: For a
nonempty subset X ⊂ N such that X = {i1 < i2 < · · · < ik } define the
element
1 2 ··· k − 2 k − 1 k k + 1 ··· n
γX =
.
ik
· · · ik
i1 i2 · · · ik−2 ik−1 ik
Let R = {γX : ∅ = X ⊂ N}.
Lemma 12.7.2 R is an R-cross-section for Tn .
Proof. As im(γX ) = X, the set R contains exactly one representative from
each R-class of Tn . A direct calculation shows that R is closed under the
multiplication. Hence R is an R-cross-section for Tn .
Conjugating R with elements from Sn one obtains n! different R-crosssections for Tn . However, Tn contains many other R-cross-sections, see for
example Exercise 12.8.10. We suspect that R is the only R-cross-section
for Tn , which contains the element γ{2,3,...,n} , and that this fact could be
used to classify R-cross-sections for Tn along the arguments, dual to those
of Sect. 12.5.
12.8. ADDITIONAL EXERCISES
12.8
235
Additional Exercises
12.8.1 Prove that the only element x ∈ PT n which satisfies πx = xπ = x
for all π ∈ Sn is the element 0.
12.8.2 Prove the statement of Proposition 12.2.2(vi).
12.8.3 Prove Proposition 12.2.3.
12.8.4 Prove Proposition 12.2.4.
12.8.5 ([CR]) Show that the set
I1 ∪ {ε, ε{1,2} , ε{1,3} , ε{2,3} , [2, 1, 3], [1, 2, 3], [3, 1, 2], [1, 3, 2], [3, 2, 1], [2, 3, 1]}
is an H-cross-section of IS 3 , which is not equal to πIO3 π −1 for any π ∈ S3 .
12.8.6 Describe all H-cross-sections of IS 3 .
12.8.7 ([GM3]) Show that the semigroup K n has the following presentation:
K n = α1 , . . . , αn |α12 = α1 ; αk2 = αk αk−1 , k = 2, . . . , n;
αk αl = αl αk−1 , 1 ≤ k < l ≤ n.
12.8.8 Let S be a semigroup and T be an L-cross-section of S. Assume that
T contains some element b. Show that T contains all idempotents e ∈ E(S)
such that bRe.
12.8.9 Classify all L-cross-sections of a rectangular band.
12.8.10 Show that the following set is an R-cross-section of T4 , which is
not conjugate to the R-cross-section R from Lemma 12.7.2:
{ε, ε1,2 , ε2,1 , ε3,4 , ε4,3 , ε1,2 ε3,4 , ε1,2 ε4,3 , ε2,1 ε3,4 , ε2,1 ε4,3 ,
(2, 3)ε1,2 ε3,4 , (2, 3)ε2,1 ε4,3 , 01 , 02 , 03 , 04 , }.
12.8.11 ([GM3]) Let n > 3 and assume that the unordered partition N =
M1 ∪ · · · ∪ Mk contains exactly m blocks of cardinality at least two. Show
that for arbitrary linear orders ≺i on Mi , i = 1, . . . , k, the L-cross-section
L(≺1 , . . . , ≺k ) of IS n is contained in exactly k! · 2m−1 different H-crosssections.
12.8.12 ([GM3]) Show that for n > 3 every H-cross-section of IS n contains
exactly
n %
&
n−2l
2
m + ln − m − l − 1
2l ·
1+
l
l−1
l=1
m=0
different L-cross-sections (or R-cross-sections).
236
CHAPTER 12. CROSS-SECTIONS
12.8.13 ([GM3]) Show that the L-cross-sections
L(≺1 , . . . , ≺k ) and L(≺1 , . . . , ≺k ),
corresponding to some choices of linear orders on blocks of the partitions
N = M1 ∪ · · · ∪ Mk and N = M1 ∪ · · · ∪ Mk , respectively, are isomorphic if
|.
there exists a bijection α ∈ Sk such that |Mi | = |Mα(i)
12.8.14 ([CR]) Let n > 3. Show that an element α ∈ IS n is contained in a
unique H-cross-section if and only if α is a nilpotent element of nilpotency
degree n.
12.8.15 Construct a natural bijection between the set of all nilpotent elements of IS n and the set of all L-cross-sections of IS n .
Chapter 13
Variants
13.1
Variants of Semigroups
Let S = (S, ·) be a semigroup and a ∈ S. For x, y ∈ S set x◦a y = x·a·y. Then
◦a is an associative binary operation on S and hence (S, ◦a ) is a semigroup.
The semigroup (S, ◦a ) is called a variant of S, or, alternatively, the sandwich
semigroup of S with respect to the sandwich element a. The operation ◦a is
usually called the sandwich operation. To simplify notation we will denote
(S, ◦a ) simply by S a . If a is the identity element of S, then we obviously
have ◦a = ·. However, for other a the sandwich operations normally give rise
to new semigroups:
Proposition 13.1.1
(i) We have S a ∼
= S provided that a ∈ S ∗ .
(ii) If S is a monoid, then S a ∼
= S if and only if a ∈ S ∗ .
Proof. To prove the statement (i) we consider the mapping ϕ : S → S,
defined as follows: x → xa−1 . For x, y ∈ S we have
ϕ(xy) = (xy)a−1
= xa−1 axa−1
= ϕ(x)aϕ(y)
= ϕ(x) ◦a ϕ(y).
Hence ϕ : S → S a is a homomorphism. Since a is invertible, the mapping
y → ya is inverse to ϕ. Therefore, ϕ is bijective and hence an isomorphism.
This proves the statement (i).
To prove (ii) we assume that S a ∼
= S. In particular, S a is a monoid as
a
well. Let b ∈ S be the unit element of this monoid. Then for any s ∈ S a we
have s ◦a b = b ◦a s = s, which is equivalent to s(ab) = s and (ba)s = s. The
first equality means that ab is a right identity in S, and the second equality
means that ba is a left identity in S. As S is a monoid with the identity
O. Ganyushkin, V. Mazorchuk, Classical Finite Transformation Semigroups, Algebra
and Applications 9, DOI: 10.1007/978-1-84800-281-4 13,
c Springer-Verlag London Limited 2009
237
238
CHAPTER 13. VARIANTS
element 1, we have that ab = ba = 1. This implies that a ∈ S ∗ and proves
the statement (ii).
Corollary 13.1.2 Let G be a group. Then every variant of G is isomorphic
to G.
Corollary 13.1.2 says that study of variants is a purely semigroup theoretic phenomenon, which simply does not appear in group theory. The next
natural question to ask would be: How many nonisomorphic semigroups can
one obtain as variants of a given semigroup? Later on we will answer this
question for the semigroups Tn , PT n , and IS n completely. For now we just
give the following general sufficient condition:
Proposition 13.1.3 Let S be a monoid, a ∈ S and u, v ∈ S ∗ . Then S a ∼
=
S uav .
Proof. Consider the mapping ϕ : S → S, x → v −1 xu−1 . As u, v ∈ S ∗ , the
mapping ϕ is bijective (with the inverse y → vyu). For x, y ∈ S we have
ϕ(x ◦a y) = ϕ(xay)
= v −1 xayu−1
= (v −1 xu−1 )(uav)(v −1 yu−1 )
= ϕ(x) ◦uav ϕ(y).
This shows that ϕ is a homomorphism, and hence an isomorphism. The
statement of the proposition follows.
Proposition 13.1.4 Let S be a semigroup and a ∈ S. Then (S a )2 = SaS.
Proof. For x, y ∈ S a we have x ◦a y = xay ∈ SaS. Conversely, for any
xay ∈ SaS we have xay = x ◦a y. The statement follows.
A variant of a semigroup is usually a special construction over some
subsemigroup, called inflation. This point of view gives some feeling about
the structure of a variant. To introduce it we need some preparation.
Proposition 13.1.5 Let S be a semigroup and a ∈ S.
(i) The mapping ϕl : S → aS, x → ax, is an epimorphism from S a to aS.
(ii) The mapping ϕr : S → Sa, x → xa, is an epimorphism from S a to Sa.
(iii) Assume that a ∈ E(S), then (aS, ◦a ) = aS (note the equality and not
the isomorphism sign!).
(iv) Assume that a ∈ E(S), then (Sa, ◦a ) = Sa (note the equality and not
the isomorphism sign!).
13.1. VARIANTS OF SEMIGROUPS
239
Proof. The mapping ϕl is surjective by definition. For x, y ∈ S we have
ϕl (x ◦a y) = ϕl (xay)
= axay
= ϕl (x)ϕl (y)
and the statement (i) follows. The statement (ii) is proved similarly.
If a ∈ E(S), then for any x = ay ∈ aS we have
ax = a(ay) = a2 y = ay = x
and hence the restriction of the mapping ϕl from (i) to aS is the identity
mapping. Now the statement (iii) follows from the statement (i). Analogously, the statement (iv) follows from the statement (ii).
A semigroup S is called an inflation of its subsemigroup T provided
that there exists an epimorphism θ : S → T such that the following two
conditions are satisfied:
• θ2 = θ
• θ(x)θ(y) = xy for all x, y ∈ S
Example 13.1.6 A semigroup with zero multiplication is an inflation of
its subsemigroup containing the zero element via the obvious projection
mapping.
Using Proposition 13.1.5 we define the equivalence relation h on S as
follows:
h = Ker(ϕl ) ∩ Ker(ϕr ) ∩ (S a \(S a )2 ) × (S a \(S a )2 ) ∪
∪ {(a, a) : a ∈ (S a )2 }.
Proposition 13.1.7 Let S be a semigroup and a ∈ S.
(i) h is a congruence on S a .
(ii) Any cross-section T of h is a subsemigroup of S a , moreover, S a is an
inflation of T via the projection mapping πT , defined as follows:
πT (x) = t ∈ T if and only if(x, t) ∈ h.
240
CHAPTER 13. VARIANTS
Proof. Let x, y ∈ S a \(S a )2 be such that (x, y) ∈ h and s ∈ S a . Then (x, y) ∈
Ker(ϕl ) by definition and hence
s ◦a x = sax = say = s ◦a y.
Thus (s ◦a x, s ◦a y) ∈ h. Analogously, one shows that (x ◦a s, x ◦a s) ∈ h.
The statement (i) follows.
To prove (ii) we first observe that, by definition, (S a )2 ⊂ T . If x, y ∈ T ,
then x ◦a y ∈ (S a )2 and hence x ◦a y ∈ T , in particular, T is a subsemigroup
of S a . If x, y ∈ S a , we have
πT (x) ◦a πT (y) = πT (x)aπT (y)
(as (x, πT (x)) ∈ Ker(ϕr )) = xaπT (y)
(as (y, πT (y)) ∈ Ker(ϕl )) = xay
= x ◦a y.
At the same time πT (x ◦a y) = x ◦a y as x ◦a y ∈ (S a )2 . Hence πT is an
idempotent epimorphism. This proves the statement (ii).
13.2
Classification of Variants for IS n , T n ,
and PT n
In this section, we classify variants of IS n , Tn , and PT n up to isomorphism.
Our main result in this section is the following theorem:
Theorem 13.2.1 Let S denote one of the semigroups IS n , Tn , or PT n ,
and α, β ∈ S. Then the following statements are equivalent:
(a) S α ∼
= Sβ .
(b) There exist τ, σ ∈ Sn such that τ ασ = β.
(c) t(α) = t(β).
Proof. We first observe that the equivalence (b)⇔(c) is just Exercises 2.10.24
and 2.10.25. The implication (b)⇒(a) follows immediately from Proposition
13.1.3. Hence we are left to prove either the implication (a)⇒(b) or the
implication (a)⇒(c). We will do this for each of the semigroups separately.
We start with the easiest case S = IS n .
Let S = IS n and α, β ∈ IS n be such that IS αn ∼
= IS βn . Then the sets
(IS αn )2 and (IS βn )2 must have the same cardinality. As IS n is a monoid, from
Proposition 13.1.4 we obtain that the principal two-sided ideals, generated
by α and β, respectively, must have the same cardinality. From Theorem
4.2.8 we therefore obtain rank(α) = rank(β). Further, Theorem 4.5.1(iv)
implies αDβ. Finally, Proposition 4.5.4(ii) implies that the condition (b) is
satisfied and we obtain (a)⇒(b). This completes the proof.
13.2. CLASSIFICATION OF VARIANTS FOR IS n , Tn , AND PT n
241
We proceed now with the case S = Tn . Let α ∈ Tn . We will need some
more detailed information about Tnα .
Lemma 13.2.2 The set I1 is the minimum two-sided ideal of Tnα in the
sense that every two-sided ideal of Tnα contains I1 .
Proof. The fact that I1 is an ideal is obvious. Let I be an ideal of Tnα and
β ∈ I. Then 0i = 0i ◦α β ∈ I for any i ∈ N and the statement follows.
Lemma 13.2.2 says that Tnα contains the unique minimum two-sided
ideal. Define the relation ∼α on I1 as follows: for i, j ∈ N set 0i ∼α 0j if
and only if β ◦α 0i = β ◦α 0j for any β ∈ Tnα . Assume that
α=
A1 A2 · · ·
a1 a2 · · ·
Ak
ak
is an element of rank k.
Lemma 13.2.3 For i, j ∈ N we have 0i ∼α 0j if and only if there exists
l ∈ {1, . . . , k} such that i, j ∈ Al .
Proof. If i, j ∈ Al , then α0i = α0j = 0al and thus β ◦α 0i = β ◦α 0j = β(al ).
On the other hand, if i ∈ Al and j ∈ Am for some l = m, then
ε ◦α 0i = 0al = 0am = ε ◦α 0j .
Now let α, β ∈ Tn and assume that ψ : Tnα → Tnβ is an isomorphism.
From Lemma 13.2.2 it follows that ψ induces a bijection from I1 ⊂ Tnα to
I1 ⊂ Tnβ .
Lemma 13.2.4 For γ1 , γ2 ∈ I1 ⊂ Tnα we have
γ1 ∼α γ2
if and only if
ψ(γ1 ) ∼β ψ(γ2 ).
Proof. If γ1 ∼α γ2 and σ ∈ Tnα is arbitrary, then
ψ(σ) ◦β ψ(γ1 ) = ψ(σ ◦α γ1 )
= ψ(σ ◦α γ2 )
= ψ(σ) ◦β ψ(γ2 ).
As ψ(σ) is then an arbitrary element of Tnβ , we get ψ(γ1 ) ∼β ψ(γ2 ). The
statement of the lemma now follows for the same argument applies to the
isomorphism ψ −1 .
242
CHAPTER 13. VARIANTS
By Lemma 13.2.4 the restriction of ψ to I1 induces an isomorphism between the equivalence relations ∼α and ∼β . In particular, for every i ∈ N
these relations have the same number of equivalence classes of cardinality i.
By Lemma 13.2.3 and the definition, we obtain that t(α) = t(β). This completes the proof.
Finally, in the case S = PT n the proof is rather similar to that from the
case S = Tn . First, we observe that the semigroup PT 0n is the semigroup with
zero multiplication. At the same time for any element α = 0 let i ∈ dom(α).
Then
0i ◦α 0i = 0i α0i = 0i = 0
PT 0n . So, it is enough to consider the case when α, β = 0.
and hence PT αn ∼
=
For α = 0 in the same way as in Lemma 13.2.2 one shows that I1 is the
unique
2minimum element in the set of all nonzero ideals contained in the set
PT αn . As the zero element is obviously preserved by any isomorphism, we
derive that any isomorphism from PT αn to PT βn (where both α and β are
nonzero) must leave the set I1 invariant. The rest is absolutely analogous to
the case of Tn . On I1 we consider the relations ∼α and ∼β and it follows that
any isomorphism induces an isomorphism of these relations. A computation
of the sizes of the equivalence classes implies t(α) = t(β). This completes
the proof of the whole theorem.
Let p(n) denote the partition function, that is, the number of nonnegative
integer solutions to the equation
x1 + 2x2 + 3x3 + · · · + nxn = n.
(13.1)
We also set p(0) = 1.
Corollary 13.2.5 (i) The semigroup IS n has n + 1 pairwise nonisomorphic variants.
(ii) The semigroup Tn has p(n) pairwise nonisomorphic variants.
(iii) The semigroup PT n has
n
p(k) pairwise nonisomorphic variants.
k=0
Proof. From Theorem 13.2.1 we have that the isomorphism classes of variants of IS n are classified by ranks of elements in IS n . These ranks are
numbers from {0, 1, . . . , n} and the statement (i) follows.
Analogously, from Theorem 13.2.1 and Exercises 2.10.24 and 1.5.12 it
follows that variants of Tn are classified by solutions to (13.1). The statement
(ii) follows. To prove the statement (iii) is left as an exercise to the reader.
13.3. IDEMPOTENTS AND MAXIMAL SUBGROUPS
243
Let Δ = (t0 , t1 , . . . , tn ) be a vector with nonnegative integer coefficients
such that
n
n
ti = n and
iti = k ≤ n.
(13.2)
i=0
i=0
Exercise 13.2.6 Show that for α ∈ PT n the vector t(α) satisfies (13.2) for
k = |dom(α)|.
Let πΔ ∈ PT n be the idempotent, given by (9.9) (with the convention
n
iti = n;
πΔ (x) = ∅ for all x > k). In particular, πΔ ∈ Tn if and only if
i=0
and πΔ ∈ IS n if and only if ti = 0 for all i > 1.
Let S denote one of the semigroups Tn , PT n , or IS n . For α ∈ S from
Exercise 13.2.6 we have that Δ = t(α) satisfies (13.2). From the proof of
Lemma 9.3.5 we obtain t(πΔ ) = Δ and hence by Theorem 13.2.1 we have
Sα ∼
= S πΔ . This means that, up to isomorphism, we may always assume that
the sandwich element α is an idempotent.
13.3
Idempotents and Maximal Subgroups
Let S denote one of the semigroups Tn , PT n , or IS n . As we have already
noted, in the case α = 0, the semigroup S 0 is the semigroup with zero
multiplication and hence is not really interesting. So, from now on we assume
that the sandwich element α is given by
α=
A1 A2 · · ·
a1 a2 · · ·
Ak
ak
,
(13.3)
has rank k > 0 and is an idempotent, that is, ai ∈ Ai for all i = 1, . . . , k.
We also set |Ai | = li .
Lemma 13.3.1 Let
β=
B1 B2 · · ·
b1 b2 · · ·
Bm
bm
∈S
(13.4)
be an element of rank m. Then β is an idempotent of S α if and only if there
exists an injection f : {1, . . . , m} → {1, . . . , k} such that bi ∈ Af (i) and
af (i) ∈ Bi for all i = 1, . . . , m.
Proof. Direct computation.
Proposition 13.3.2
idempotents.
(i) If α ∈ IS n , then the semigroup IS αn has 2k
244
CHAPTER 13. VARIANTS
(ii) If α ∈ Tn , then the number of idempotents in the semigroup Tnα equals
|X|n−|X| ·
li .
∅=X⊂{1,...,k}
i∈X
(iii) If α ∈ PT n , then the number of idempotents in the semigroup PT αn
equals
1+
(|X| + 1)n−|X| ·
li .
∅=X⊂{1,...,k}
i∈X
Proof. If β ∈ IS n is given by (13.4), then |Bi | = 1 for all i and we also have
Ai = {ai } for all i. Hence the assertion of Lemma 13.3.1 reads as follows:
{b1 , . . . , bm } ⊂ {a1 , . . . , ak } and Bi = {bi } for all i. The statement (i) follows.
To prove (ii) we count the number of idempotents β of Tnα , whose image intersects exactly the Ai ’s for which i ∈ X ⊂ {1, . . . , k}, X = ∅. By
Lemma 13.3.1, to determine such β we should choose an image for each ai ,
i ∈ X, in the corresponding block Ai , which can be done in li different ways;
this determines im(β) and after that we should arbitrarily choose the image
of all elements from N\{ai : i ∈ X} inside im(β). Since all our choices are
independent, the statement (ii) now follows applying the product rule.
The statement (iii) is proved similarly to the proof of the statement
(ii) with two differences: we should take the zero idempotent into account;
and when mapping the elements which are left arbitrarily to im(β), we
should leave for all of them the option to be mapped to ∅. The statement
follows.
Corollary 13.3.3 Let β ∈ S α be an idempotent given by (13.4). Then
the corresponding maximal subgroup Gβ of S α is isomorphic to Sm and
coincides, as a set, with the H-class H(β) of the element β, considered as
an element from S.
Proof. By Lemma 5.1.2, Gβ coincides with the group of units in β ◦α S α ◦α β.
In particular, every γ ∈ Gβ has the form
γ = β ◦α γ ◦α β = βαγ αβ
(13.5)
for some γ ∈ S. As S is finite, we also have that β must belong to the cyclic
subgroup of S α , generated by γ. This implies rank(β) = rank(γ), which,
together with (13.5), yields ρβ = ργ and im(β) = im(γ), that is, γ ∈ H(β)
by Theorem 4.5.1.
On the other hand, without loss of generality we may assume that the
mapping f from Lemma 13.3.1 is the natural inclusion f (i) = i. For γ ∈
H(β), because of the previous paragraph, we have γ(Bi ) = bτ (i) for some
τ ∈ Sk . Then a direct calculation shows that the mapping γ → τ is an
isomorphism from H(β) ⊂ S α to Sk . This completes the proof.
13.4. PRINCIPAL IDEALS AND GREEN’S RELATIONS
13.4
245
Principal Ideals and Green’s Relations
For the study of ideals in variants, it is worth mentioning one more time
that a variant of a semigroup is not a monoid in general. In this section, S
denotes one of the semigroups Tn , PT n , or IS n , and α is given by (13.3).
The proposition that follows reduces the study of principal ideals in S α to
that of principal ideals in S, see Sect. 4.2.
Proposition 13.4.1 Assume that β ∈ S is given by (13.4). We have
(i) The principal left ideal of S, generated by β, equals {β} ∪ Sαβ.
(ii) The principal right ideal of S, generated by β, equals {β} ∪ βαS.
(iii) The principal two-sided ideal of S, generated by β, equals
{β} ∪ Sαβ ∪ βαS ∪ SαβαS.
Proof. This follows directly from the definitions.
Theorem 13.4.2 Let β ∈ S be given by (13.4) and γ ∈ S be the following
element of rank p:
C1 C2 · · · Cp
.
(13.6)
γ=
c1 c2 · · · c p
(i) βLγ if and only if β = γ or the following conditions are satisfied:
(a) ρβ = ργ (in particular p = m).
(b) There exists an injective function f : {1, . . . , m} → {1, . . . , k} such
that bi ∈ Af (i) , i = 1, . . . , m.
(c) There exists an injective function g : {1, . . . , p} → {1, . . . , k} such
that ci ∈ Ag(i) , i = 1, . . . , p.
(ii) βRγ if and only if β = γ or the following conditions are satisfied:
(a) im(β) = im(γ) (in particular p = m).
(b) There exists an injective function f : {1, . . . , m} → {1, . . . , k}
such that af (i) ∈ Bi for all i = 1, . . . , m.
(c) There exists an injective function g : {1, . . . , p} → {1, . . . , k} such
that ag(i) ∈ Ci for all i = 1, . . . , p.
(iii) βHγ if and only if β = γ or all conditions (ia)–(ic) and (iia)–(iic) are
satisfied.
(iv) βDγ if and only if one of the following mutually exclusive conditions
is satisfied:
246
CHAPTER 13. VARIANTS
(a) rank(β) = rank(γ) and the conditions (ib), (ic), (iib), (iic) are
satisfied.
(b) Conditions (ia)–(ic) are satisfied while at least one of the conditions (iib) or (iic) is not satisfied.
(c) Conditions (iia)–(iic) are satisfied while at least one of the conditions (ib) or (ic) is not satisfied.
(d) β = γ, at least one of the conditions (iib) or (iic) is not satisfied,
and at least one of the conditions (ib) or (ic) is not satisfied.
(v) D = J .
Proof. Assume that β = γ and βLγ. Then from Proposition 13.4.1(i) we
have γ ∈ S α ◦α β, which yields the condition (ib). Similarly we get (ic).
From Proposition 4.4.1 we have β = δαγ and γ = δ αβ for some δ, δ ∈ S. In
particular, β and γ must be L-connected in the original semigroup S. Hence
the condition (ia) follows from Theorem 4.5.1.
Conversely, if all conditions (ia)-(ic) are satisfied, then S α ◦α β = S α ◦α γ
follows from Theorem 4.5.1. This proves (i). The proof of the statements (ii)
is similar. The statement (v) follows from Theorem 5.4.1. The statements
(iii) and (iv) follow from the statements (i) and (ii) and the definitions.
13.5
Addenda and Comments
13.5.1 The problem to study variants of semigroups seems to go back at
least to Lyapin’s monograph [Ly]. Various sandwich semigroups were studied
by several authors, see for example some older paper [Sy1, Sy2, Hic1, Hic2,
Ch1, Ch2, MS1, MS2, MMT] or some more recent papers [KL, Ji, Ts1, Ts2,
Ts3, Ts4, Ku1, KT, MT].
The results of Sect. 13.2 are proved in [Sy1, Ts1, Ts3]. The results of
Sect. 13.4 are partially proved in [Ts2]. Proposition 13.1.7 is taken from
[Ku1]. The results of Sect. 13.3 are partially taken from [MT].
13.5.2 Theorem 13.2.1 roughly speaking says that the semigroups Tn , PT n ,
and IS n have lots of isomorphic variants. There exist semigroups, all variants of which are not isomorphic. For example, we think that the following
statement is noteworthy:
Theorem 13.5.1 ([Ts1]) Let B denote the monoid given by the following
presentation: B = a, b|ab = 1. Then for x, y ∈ B we have Bx ∼
= By if and
only if x = y.
The monoid B defined above is called the bicyclic semigroup. The semigroup B is an infinite inverse semigroup, hence the statement of Theorem
13.5.1 is rather remarkable, especially because of Exercise 13.6.8.
13.5. ADDENDA AND COMMENTS
247
Proof. From the definition we have that every element of B can be uniquely
written in the form αi,j = bi aj , i, j ≥ 0. We further have
αi,j αk,l
αi,l+j−k ,
=
αi+k−j,l ,
j ≥ k;
j < k,
in particular, αi,j is an idempotent if and only if i = j.
Fix now k, m ≥ 0, let α = αk,m and consider the semigroup Bα .
Lemma 13.5.2
(i) E(Bα ) = {αm+l,k+l : l ≥ 0}.
(ii) If for i ≥ 0 we set ek,m
= αm+i,k+i , then ek,m
◦α ek,m
= ek,m
i
i
j
max(i,j) .
Proof. For i, j ≥ 0 we have that αi,j ∈ E(Bα ) if and only if
bi aj · bk am · bi aj = bi aj .
(13.7)
If j < k and i < m, then a direct calculation reduces (13.7) to the equation
bi+k−j aj+m−i = bi aj and hence k = j, m = i, a contradiction.
If j < k and i ≥ m, then a direct calculation reduces (13.7) to the
equation bi+k−j+i−m aj = bi aj . Thus, 0 > k − j = m − i ≤ 0, which is again
a contradiction. Analogously, one gets a contradiction in the case j ≥ k and
i < m.
In the remaining case j ≥ k and i ≥ m a direct calculation reduces (13.7)
to the equation i − m = j − k ≥ 0. The statement (i) follows.
The statement (ii) is now proved by a direct calculation.
For i ≥ 0 consider the sets
◦α γ = γ},
Pik,m = {γ ∈ Bα : ek,m
i
= {γ ∈ Bα : γ ◦α ek,m
= γ}.
Qk,m
i
i
Lemma 13.5.3 |Pik,m ∩ Qk,m
j | = (k + j)(m + i) for all i, j ≥ 0.
Proof. For x, y ≥ 0 we have αx,y ∈ Pik,m if and only if ek,m
◦α αx,y = αx,y ,
i
that is,
bm+i ak+i · bk am · bx ay = bm+i am+i · bx ay = bx ay .
If m + i > x, then the latter equality is equivalent to m + i = x and
m + i − x + y = y. Hence m + i = x, a contradiction. If m + i ≤ x, then
the equality becomes an identity. This means αx,y ∈ Pik,m if and only if
m + i ≤ x, and hence αx,y ∈ Pik,m if and only if x < m + i.
Analogously, one shows that αx,y ∈ Qk,m
if and only if y < k + j. The
j
statement of the lemma follows.
248
CHAPTER 13. VARIANTS
Assume now that k, m, u, v ≥ 0, α = αk,m , β = αu,v and ϕ : Bα → Bβ
is an isomorphism. Then ϕ maps idempotents to idempotents and preserves
the multiplication of idempotents. Hence from Lemma 13.5.2 it follows that
) = eu,v
for all i ≥ 0. This, in particular, yields that ϕ(Pik,m ) = Piu,v
ϕ(ek,m
i
i
and ϕ(Qk,m
) = Qu,v
for all i ≥ 0. Thus we have
i
i
u,v
u,v
ϕ(P1k,m ∩ Qk,m
1 ) = P1 ∩ Q1 ;
u,v
u,v
ϕ(P1k,m ∩ Qk,m
0 ) = P1 ∩ Q0 ;
u,v
u,v
ϕ(P0k,m ∩ Qk,m
1 ) = P0 ∩ Q1 .
However, from Lemma 13.5.3 we have
k,m
∩ Qk,m
|P1k,m ∩ Qk,m
1 | − |P1
0 | = m + 1;
u,v
u,v
|P1u,v ∩ Qu,v
1 | − |P1 ∩ Q0 | = v + 1;
k,m
∩ Qk,m
|P1k,m ∩ Qk,m
1 | − |P0
1 | = k + 1;
u,v
u,v
|P1u,v ∩ Qu,v
1 | − |P0 ∩ Q1 | = u + 1.
Thus m = v and k = u. This completes the proof.
13.5.3 Proposition 13.1.7 says that a typical variant of a semigroup is an
inflation of a certain subsemigroup. Automorphism groups of semigroup inflations have rather special structure, described in [Ku1]: Assume that we
are in the situation of Proposition 13.1.7. Then Aut(S) is a semidirect product of two subgroups A1 and A2 . The normal subgroup A1 of Aut(S) is
just the direct product of symmetric groups on equivalence classes of the
relation h. The group A1 acts on S in the natural way. The subgroup A2
consists of all automorphisms of T , which are extendable to S, that is, which
are obtained from an automorphism of S by restriction. For variants of
IS n this was proved in [KT]. The approach of [Ku1] unifies the results of
[GTS, KT, Sy1, St2].
13.5.4 Variants of transformation semigroups are just a special case of the
following more general and rather remarkable construction: If X and Y are
two nonempty sets and α : Y → X is a fixed mapping, then the set F (X, Y )
of all mappings from X to Y (note the direction!) becomes a semigroup with
respect to the operation ◦α defined as follows: For f, g ∈ F (X, Y ) we set
f ◦α g = f αg. The definition of this semigroup goes back at least to Lyapin,
see [Ly]. Several properties of this semigroup were studied in [Sy1, Sy2].
13.6. ADDITIONAL EXERCISES
13.6
249
Additional Exercises
13.6.1 Let S be a finite monoid. Show that all variants of S are isomorphic
if and only if S is a group.
13.6.2 Let S be a finite semigroup with zero. Show that all variants of S
are isomorphic if and only if S 3 = 0.
13.6.3 Let S be a semigroup. Assume that the group Aut(S) acts transitively on S (i.e., for any x, y ∈ S there exists ϕ ∈ Aut(S) such that
ϕ(x) = y). Show that all variants of S are isomorphic.
13.6.4 Show that for every S from the following list all variants of S are
isomorphic:
(a) Semigroup with zero multiplication
(b) Left zero semigroup
(c) Right zero semigroup
(d) Rectangular band
(e) The semigroup of positive rational (or real) numbers with respect to the
addition
13.6.5 For a, b ∈ N define a b = min(a, b). Show that any two variants of
(N, ) with respect to two different elements are not isomorphic.
13.6.6 For a, b ∈ N define a b = max(a, b). Show that any two variants of
(N, ) with respect to two different elements are not isomorphic.
13.6.7 Let S = (N, +). Show that S a ∼
= S b if a = b.
13.6.8 Let S be a finite inverse semigroup, which is not a group. Show that
there exist a, b ∈ S such that (S, ◦a ) ∼
(S, ◦b ).
=
13.6.9 Let S be a semigroup and T be a variant of S. Show that every
variant of T is isomorphic to some variant of S.
13.6.10 (a) For a, b ∈ Z define a b = min(a, b). Show that all variants of
(Z, ) are isomorphic.
(b) Let S be some variant of (Z, ) from (a). Show that all variants of S are
isomorphic to S.
13.6.11 An element x of a semigroup S is called a mididentity provided
that uxv = uv for any u, v ∈ S. Let S be a monoid and a ∈ S. Show that
x ∈ S a is a mididentity if and only if axa = a.
250
CHAPTER 13. VARIANTS
13.6.12 ([Ts2]) Compute the number of one-element R-classes and the number of one-element L-classes in IS αn .
13.6.13 ([Ts2]) Compute the number of one-element R-classes and the number of one-element L-classes in Tnα .
←
13.6.14 ([Ts2]) Show that IS αn ∼
= IS αn for any α ∈ IS n .
←
13.6.15 ([Ts1]) Show that for α, β ∈ Bn the semigroups Bαn and Bβn are
isomorphic if and only if β = α−1 .
13.6.16 ([Ts4]) Let α ∈ IS n , and Tα denote the set of all β ∈ IS n such
that β(im(α)) = dom(α).
(a) Show that Tα is a subsemigroup of IS αn .
(b) Prove that the only completely isolated subsemigroups of IS αn are: IS αn ,
Tα and IS αn \Tα .
13.6.17 ([Ts4]) Let α ∈ IS n , and Tα be as in Exercise 13.6.16. For x ∈
im(α) let G(x) denote the set of all β ∈ IS n such that β(x) ∈ dom(α) and
β(y) ∈ dom(α)\α−1 (x) for all y ∈ im(α)\{x}.
(a) Show that G(x) is an isolated subsemigroup of IS αn .
(b) Prove that every isolated subsemigroup of IS αn coincides with one of the
following semigroups: IS αn , Tα , IS αn \Tα or G(x), x ∈ im(α).
13.6.18 ([Ts4]) Let α ∈ IS n . Classify all maximal nilpotent subsemigroups
in IS αn .
13.6.19 ([Ch1]) Let S be a semigroup and a ∈ S. Show that for any Green’s
relation X the fact that elements x, y ∈ S a are X -related in S a implies that
x, y are X -related already in S.
Chapter 14
Order-Related
Subsemigroups
14.1
Subsemigroups, Related to the Natural
Order
In this chapter, we will study certain subsemigroups of Tn , PT n , and IS n ,
related to the natural order 1 < 2 < · · · < n on the set N. One of these
subsemigroups, namely, IO<
n (which we simply denote by IO n in the sequel),
already appeared in Sect. 12.3 in the study of H-cross-sections of IS n . In
this chapter, we will study IOn and some other similarly defined semigroups
in more detail.
A partial transformation α ∈ PT n is called order-preserving provided
that x ≤ y implies α(x) ≤ α(x) for all x, y ∈ dom(α). The set of all orderpreserving partial transformations from PT n is denoted by POn .
Exercise 14.1.1 Check that POn is a subsemigroup of PT n .
The semigroup POn is called the semigroup of all order-preserving partial transformations of the set N. The subsemigroups On = POn ∩ Tn and
IOn = POn ∩IS n of POn are called the subsemigroup of all order-preserving
(total) transformations and the subsemigroup of all order-preserving partial
permutations of N, respectively.
Example 14.1.2 The semigroup PO2 contains the following eight elements:
1 2
1 2
1 2
1 2
,
,
,
,
2 ∅
∅ 1
1 ∅
∅ ∅
1 2
1 2
1 2
1 2
,
,
,
.
∅ 2
1 1
1 2
2 2
The semigroup O2 contains the following three elements:
1 2
1 2
1 2
,
,
.
1 1
1 2
2 2
O. Ganyushkin, V. Mazorchuk, Classical Finite Transformation Semigroups, Algebra
and Applications 9, DOI: 10.1007/978-1-84800-281-4 14,
c Springer-Verlag London Limited 2009
251
252
CHAPTER 14. ORDER-RELATED SUBSEMIGROUPS
The semigroup IO2 contains the following six elements:
1 2
1 2
1 2
1 2
1 2
1 2
,
,
,
,
,
.
∅ ∅
1 ∅
∅ 1
2 ∅
∅ 2
1 2
A partial transformation α ∈ PT n is called order-decreasing provided
that α(x) ≤ x for all x ∈ dom(α). The set of all order-decreasing partial
transformations from PT n is denoted by PF n .
Exercise 14.1.3 Check that PF n is a subsemigroup of PT n .
The semigroup PF n is called the semigroup of all order-decreasing partial transformations of the set N. The subsemigroups Fn = PF n ∩ Tn and
IF n = PF n ∩IS n of PF n are called the subsemigroup of all order-decreasing
(total) transformations and the subsemigroup of all order-decreasing partial
permutations of N, respectively.
Example 14.1.4 The semigroup PF 2 contains the following six elements:
1 2
1 2
1 2
1 2
1 2
1 2
,
,
,
,
,
.
∅ ∅
1 ∅
∅ 1
∅ 2
1 1
1 2
The semigroup F2 contains the following two elements:
1 2
1 2
,
.
1 1
1 2
The semigroup IF 2 contains the following five elements:
1 2
1 2
1 2
1 2
1 2
,
,
,
,
.
∅ ∅
1 ∅
∅ 1
∅ 2
1 2
We also define the following three subsemigroups, which consist of all
transformations, which are both order-preserving and order-decreasing:
PC n = POn ∩ PF n ,
Cn = On ∩ Fn ,
IC n = IOn ∩ IF n .
From Examples 14.1.2 and 14.1.4 we see that PC 2 = PF 2 , C2 = F2 , and
IC 2 = IF 2 . However, in the general case analogous equalities are no longer
true.
Exercise 14.1.5 Prove that for n ≥ 3 all nine semigroups PC n , POn , PF n ,
Cn , On , Fn , IC n , IOn , and IF n are different.
We complete this section describing some properties of elements in the
introduced semigroups. Every element α ∈ POn can be written in the form
A1 A2 · · · Ak
α=
,
a1 a2 · · · ak
14.2. CARDINALITIES
253
where a1 < a2 < · · · < ak . Then for every i < j and every a ∈ Ai and b ∈ Aj
we have a < b. In particular, in the case α ∈ On this means that the sets
A1 , . . . , Ak form a partition of N into intervals (i.e., if x, y ∈ Ai and x < y,
then Ai contains all z such that x < z < y).
For α ∈ IOn all sets Ai contain exactly one element, that is, A1 = {b1 },
A2 = {b2 },. . . , Ak = {bk }. Hence b1 < b2 < · · · < bk , and α coincides with
the unique increasing bijection from {b1 , . . . , bk } to {a1 , . . . , ak }. In particular, α is uniquely determined by dom(α) and im(α) (see also Theorem 12.3.3
and its proof).
Proposition 14.1.6 If α ∈ PT n is either order-preserving or order-decreasing,
then the permutational part of α is the identity transformation.
Proof. Assume that the permutational part of the element α contains some
cycle (a1 , a2 , . . . , ak ). If α is order-decreasing, we have the inequalities a1 ≥
a2 ≥ · · · ≥ ak ≥ a1 and hence a1 = a2 = · · · = ak = a1 and k = 1.
Suppose now that α is order-preserving and k > 1. Consider first the
case a1 < a2 . Then a2 < a3 , a3 < a4 , . . . , ak−1 < ak , which yields a1 < ak .
At the same time, as α is order-preserving, ak−1 < ak implies ak < a1 , a
contradiction. The case a1 > a2 is analogous.
Corollary 14.1.7 Let α be a group element of any of the nine semigroups,
defined in this section. Then α is an idempotent.
Proof. It follows from Propositions 14.1.6 and 5.2.8.
A semigroup S is called aperiodic or combinatorial provided that all
maximal subgroups of S have order one. From Corollary 14.1.7 it follows
that all our nine semigroups are aperiodic.
14.2
Cardinalities
In this section, we compute the cardinalities of the semigroups defined in
the previous section. The easiest computation is for the semigroup Fn .
Proposition 14.2.1 |Fn | = n!.
Proof. From the definition of Fn it follows that for an element α ∈ Fn the
image α(x) of some x ∈ N can be chosen in x different ways. Moreover, the
images of different elements from N can be chosen independently. Hence
|Fn | = 1 · 2 · · · · · n = n!.
The computation of |PF n | is completely similar. The only difference
is that for every x ∈ PF n there appears a new possibility for the image,
namely, ∅.
Proposition 14.2.2 |PF n | = 2 · 3 · · · · · (n + 1) = (n + 1)!.
254
CHAPTER 14. ORDER-RELATED SUBSEMIGROUPS
Proposition 14.2.3 |On | =
2n−1
.
n
Proof. An element
α=
1 2 ···
a1 a2 · · ·
n
an
∈ On
is uniquely determined by the second row (a1 , . . . , an ). For i = 1, . . . , n set
bi = ai + i − 1. Then the mapping
(a1 , . . . , an ) → (b1 , . . . , bn )
is an obvious bijection between the set of all vectors (a1 , . . . , an ) such that
1 ≤ a1 ≤ a2 ≤ · · · ≤ an ≤ n and the set of all vectors (b1 , . . . , bn ) such
that 1 ≤ b1 < b2 < · · · < bn ≤ 2n − 1. The vector (b1 , . . . , bn ) uniquely
determines
the
n-element subset {b1 , . . . , bn } of {1, 2, . . . , 2n − 1}. Hence
|On | = 2n−1
.
n
Proposition 14.2.4 |IOn | = 2n
n .
Proof. As we have already seen in the previous section, an element α ∈
IOn is a unique increasing bijection from dom(α) to im(α), the latter being
subsets of N of the same cardinality. Hence
n 2
n
2n
=
.
|IOn | =
k
n
k=0
Corollary 14.2.5 |IOn | = 2|On |.
Proposition 14.2.6 |IF n | = Bn+1 .
Proof. The chain-cycle notation for an element from IF n contains only
cycles of length 1 and chains. With every partition ρ of the set N∗ =
{∗, 1, 2, . . . , n} we associate an element αρ ∈ IF n by the following rule:
each x ∈ N such that xρ∗ corresponds to the cycle (x) of α; each block
A = {a1 , . . . , ak }, 1 ≤ a1 ≤ · · · ≤ ak ≤ n, corresponds to the chain
[ak , ak−1 , . . . , a1 ]. Obviously, the mapping ρ → αρ is a bijection between
the set of all partitions of N∗ and IF n . Hence |IF n | = Bn+1 .
2n
1
The number Cn = n+1
n is called the n-th Catalan number. Set also
C0 = 1.
Exercise 14.2.7 Show that Catalan numbers are uniquely determined by
the following recursive relation:
C0 = 1,
Cn+1 =
n
i=0
Ci Cn−i , n ≥ 0.
14.2. CARDINALITIES
Theorem 14.2.8
255
(i) |Cn | = Cn .
(ii) |IC n | = Cn+1 .
Proof. We start with the statement (i). Let |Cn | = tn and set t0 = 1. With
every element
1
2
···
n
α=
∈ Cn
1 α(2) · · · α(n)
we associate the element
1
2
···
α̂ =
1 α(2) · · ·
n
n+1
α(n) n + 1
(2)
∈ Cn+1 .
(n+1)
depending on the minimal
Now we partition Cn into n classes Cn ,. . . , Cn
(k)
k > 1 such that α̂(k) = k. Then for any element α ∈ Cn we have
1
2
···
k−1
k
k+1
···
n
n+1
α̂ =
1 α(2) · · · α(k − 1) k α(k + 1) · · · α(n) n + 1
and for all i, 1 < i < k, we have α(i) < i. At the same time for all j > k we
have α(j) ≥ k. We separate the following two parts in α̂:
2
···
k−1
k
k+1
···
n
α̂+ =
.
α̂− =
α(2) · · · α(k − 1)
k α(k + 1) · · · α(n)
With α̂− we associate the following element:
1
···
k−2
=
α̂−
∈ Ck−2
α(2) · · · α(k − 1)
and with α̂− we associate the following element:
1
2
···
n−k+1
∈ Cn−k+1 .
α̂+ =
1 α(k + 1) − k + 1 · · · α(n) − k + 1
It is easy to see that the correspondence
Cn(k) α ↔ (α̂− , α̂+ ) ↔ (α̂−
, α̂+
) ∈ Ck−2 × Cn−k+1
is a bijection. Hence
tn = |Cn | =
n+1
k=2
|Cn(k) | =
n+1
|Ck−2 | · |Cn−k+1 | =
k=2
=
n+1
k=2
tk−2 · tn−k+1 =
n−1
ti · tn−1−i .
i=0
As t0 = 1 = C0 , the statement (i) follows now from Exercise 14.2.7.
256
CHAPTER 14. ORDER-RELATED SUBSEMIGROUPS
The proof of the statement (ii) is quite similar. Let |IC n | = fn+1 and set
f0 = f1 = 1. With every element
1
2
···
n
α=
∈ IC n
α(1) α(2) · · · α(n)
we associate the element
1
2
···
α̂ =
α(1) α(2) · · ·
n
n+1
α(n) n + 1
(1)
∈ IC n+1 .
(n+1)
depending on
Now we partition IC n into n + 1 classes IC n ,. . . , IC n
(k)
the minimal k such that α̂(k) = k. Then for any element α ∈ IC n and
for all i ∈ dom(α), 1 < i < k, we have α(i) < i. At the same time for all
j ∈ dom(α) such that j > k we have α(j) > k. In particular, α(1) = ∅ for
(k)
all k > 1. Hence we can consider the mapping IC n → IC k−2 × IC n−k such
that α → (α− , α+ ), where
1
2
···
k−2
α− =
α(2) α(3) · · · α(k − 1)
and
α+ =
1
2
···
α(k + 1) − k α(k + 2) − k · · ·
n−k
α(n) − k
(in the case α(j) = ∅ we use the convention α(j) − k = ∅). It is easy to see
that the above correspondence is in fact a bijection (in the degenerate cases
(k)
k = 1, 2, n, n + 1 we obtain a bijection from IC n to one of the factors in
IC k−2 × IC n−k ). Hence
fn+1 = |IC n | =
n+1
|IC (k)
n |=
k=1
n+1
|IC k−2 | · |IC n−k | =
k=1
n
fk · fn−k .
k=0
The statement (ii) now also follows from Exercise 14.2.7.
n n
n+m−1
.
Theorem 14.2.9 |POn | =
m
m
m=0
α ∈ POn .
Proof. We partition POn into blocks depending on |dom(α)|,
n
If |dom(α)| = m, the set dom(α) can be chosen in m
different ways. If
dom(α) = {a1 , . . . , am } is fixed and a1 < a2 < · · · < am , there is an obvious
bijection between the elements
a1 a2 · · · am
∈ POn
α=
b1 b2 · · · bm
and vectors (b1 , . . . , bm ) such that b1 ≤ b2 ≤ · · · ≤ bm . At the same time,
there is a bijection between the latter vectors and m-element subsets in
14.3. IDEMPOTENTS
257
{1, . . . , n + m − 1} of the form {b1 , b2 + 1, . . . , bm + m − 1}. Hence the
number
n+m−1 of elements α ∈ POn such that dom(α) = {a1 , . . . , am } equals
. Therefore,
m
|POn | = 1 +
n n
n+m−1
m=1
m
m
Exercise 14.2.10 Show that
−n
(1 − x)
=
n n
n+m−1
m=0
m
m
.
n + m − 1
xm .
=
m
m≥0
Corollary 14.2.11 |POn | coincides with the coefficient of xn in the series
(1 + x)n (1 − x)−n .
Proof. This follows directly from Theorem 14.2.9, Exercise 14.2.10 and the
binomial formula.
14.3
Idempotents
Recall from Sect. 2.7 that an element α ∈ IS n is an idempotent if and only
if α is the identity transformation of some subset A ⊂ N. In particular,
every idempotent from IS n is both order-preserving and order-decreasing,
by definition. This means the following:
Proposition 14.3.1 We have E(IS n ) = E(IOn ) = E(IF n ) = E(IC n ), in
particular, each of these sets contains 2n elements.
Proposition 14.3.2 Every idempotent δ ∈ Cn is uniquely determined by
its image im(δ) = {1, a2 , . . . , ak }, moreover, the set {a2 , . . . , ak } can be an
arbitrary subset of {2, . . . , n}. In particular, |E(Cn )| = 2n−1 .
Proof. We have δ(1) = 1 for all δ ∈ Cn . Let now δ ∈ E(Cn ) and im(δ) =
{1, a2 , . . . , ak } be such that 1 = a1 < a2 < · · · < ak . As any idempotent
acts as the identity on its image, for any x ∈ {ai , ai + 1, . . . , ai+1 − 1} from
ai ≤ x < ai+1 we obtain
ai = δ(ai ) ≤ δ(x) ≤ x < ai+1 .
This yields δ(x) = ai . Hence the element δ is uniquely determined by its image. Obviously, the set {a2 , . . . , ak } can be an arbitrary subset of {2, . . . , n}.
The statement of the proposition follows.
Exercise 14.3.3 Prove that Cn contains n−1
k−1 idempotents of rank k.
258
CHAPTER 14. ORDER-RELATED SUBSEMIGROUPS
Theorem 14.3.4 The semigroup PC n contains
3n +1
2
idempotents.
Proof. We count the number of nonzero idempotents δ ∈ PC n for which
the minimum element in im(δ) equals k. Let rank(δ) = i + 1 and im(δ) =
{k, b1 , . . . , bi }, where k < b1 < · · · < bi . The subset {b1 , . . . , bi } of the set
{k + 1, . . . , n} can be chosen in n−k
different ways.
i
Every x < k does not belong to dom(δ); every x, k ≤ x < b1 , which
belongs to dom(δ) must be mapped to k; every x, b1 ≤ x < b2 , which belongs
to dom(δ) must be mapped to b1 and so on. Hence there are 2n−k−i ways to
define the transformation δ on the set {k + 1, . . . , n}\im(δ). Therefore,
%n−k &
n
n − k
2n−k−i =
|E(PC n )| = 1 +
i
k=1
i=0
=1+
n
(1 + 2)n−k = 1 +
k=1
Proposition 14.3.5
3n − 1
3n + 1
=
.
2
2
(i) |E(Fn )| = Bn .
(ii) |E(PF n )| = Bn+1 .
Proof. Let ρ be a partition of N. Define the transformation αρ as follows: If
X is some block of ρ, the transformation αρ maps all elements from X to the
minimum element in X. Obviously, this transformation is idempotent. On
the other hand, every idempotent δ ∈ E(Fn ) has this form as, by definition,
every block of ρδ must be mapped to the minimum element of this block.
This gives us a bijection between E(Fn ) and partitions of N. The statement
(i) follows.
Let ρ be a partition of N∗ = N ∪ {∗}. Define the transformation αρ ∈
PT n as follows: α is not defined on all elements which belong to the block
of ρ containing ∗; if X is some block of ρ which does not contain ∗, the
transformation αρ maps all elements from X to the minimum element in
X. As in the previous paragraph one easily verifies that this correspondence
defines a bijection between E(PF n ) and partitions of N∗ . The statement (ii)
follows and the proof is complete.
To count idempotents in the remaining semigroups we recall that Fibonacci numbers fn , n ≥ 1, are defined recursively as follows: f1 = f2 = 1
and fn = fn−1 + fn−2 , n ≥ 3.
Theorem 14.3.6 |E(On )| = f2n .
14.3. IDEMPOTENTS
259
Proof. Let qn = |E(On )|. Partition the set E(On ) into the following three
disjoint subsets:
E1 (On ) = {δ ∈ E(On ) : δ(n) < n};
E2 (On ) = {δ ∈ E(On ) : δ(n − 1) < n, δ(n) = n};
E3 (On ) = {δ ∈ E(On ) : δ(n − 1) = n}.
For every idempotent δ ∈ E1 (On ) we have δ(n) = δ(n − 1) as δ is orderpreserving, and hence |E1 (On )| = qn−1 . We also obviously have |E2 (On )| =
qn−1 .
Let us now compute |E3 (On )|. If δ ∈ E3 (On ), then the fact that δ is
an idempotent implies n − 1 ∈ im(δ). Consider the transformation δ :
{1, . . . , n − 1} → {1, . . . , n − 1} defined as follows:
δ(x),
δ(x) = n;
δ (x) =
n − 1,
δ(x) = n.
Obviously, δ ∈ E(On−1 ). In this way we obtain exactly those idempotents
from E(On−1 ), which fix the element (n − 1), that is, exactly the elements
from E(On−1 )\E1 (On−1 ). This implies |E3 (On )| = qn−1 − qn−2 and thus
qn = qn−1 + qn−1 + (qn−1 − qn−2 ) = 3qn−1 − qn−2 .
On the other hand, we obviously have q1 = 1 = f2 and q2 = 3 = f4 (see
Example 14.1.2). For Fibonacci numbers we have
f2n = f2n−1 + f2(n−1) = 2f2(n−1) + f2n−3 = 3f2(n−1) − f2(n−2) .
Hence qn satisfies the same recursive relation as the sequence f2n . The statement of the theorem follows.
n n
f2k .
Theorem 14.3.7 |E(POn )| = 1 +
k
k=1
Proof. If δ is an idempotent, we have im(δ) ⊂ dom(δ). Consider all idempotents from POn whose domain is the set {a1 , . . . , ak }, where a1 < · · · < ak .
Then each such idempotent has the form
a1 a2 · · · ak
δ=
.
ai1 ai2 · · · aik
With this element δ we associate the idempotent
1 2 ··· k
δ =
∈ Ok .
i1 i2 · · · ik
It is obvious that the mapping δ → δ is a bijection from the set of all
idempotents from POn with domain {a1 , . . . , ak } and E(Ok ). As the domain
260
CHAPTER 14. ORDER-RELATED SUBSEMIGROUPS
of a nonzero idempotent from POn may be an arbitrary nonempty subset
of N, using Theorem 14.3.6 we have
|E(POn )| = 1 +
n n
k=1
14.4
n n
|E(Ok )| = 1 +
f2k .
k
k
k=1
Generating Systems
Each semigroup S from the nine semigroups defined in Sect. 14.1 contains
the identity transformation ε. Since the set S\{ε} is a subsemigroup in S,
every generating system of S contains ε. The main result of the present
section is the following:
Theorem 14.4.1 Each of the semigroups On , Fn , Cn , POn , PF n , PC n ,
IOn , IF n and IC n is generated by ε and elements of rank (n − 1).
Proof. It is certainly enough to show that in each of these semigroups every
element of rank r, r < n − 1, can be decomposed into a product of elements
of rank strictly greater than r.
Consider first the semigroup PF n . Let α ∈ PF n be such that rank(α) =
r < n − 1. We consider the partition ρα of N ∪ {n + 1}, associated to α, as
in Sect. 4.3. For x ∈ N ∪ {n + 1} we denote by x the block of ρα , containing
x. The block n + 1 will be called the trivial block.
Consider the case in which there exist nontrivial blocks of ρα , containing
more than one element. Let aα ∈ N be the maximum element occurring in
such blocks. Then there exists b ∈ aα such that b < aα , and as α(aα ) =
α(b) ≤ b, we have α(aα ) = aα . Consider the following two transformations:
and
⎧
⎪
⎨α(x),
β1 (x) = x,
⎪
⎩
∅,
x < aα ;
x ≥ aα andx ∈ dom(α);
x ≥ aα andx ∈ dom(α);
⎧
⎪
⎨x,
γ1 (x) = α(x),
⎪
⎩
x,
x < aα ;
x ≥ aα andx ∈ dom(α);
x ≥ aα andx ∈ dom(α).
Then α = γ1 β1 , moreover, both β1 and γ1 belong to PF n .
From the definition, we see that ρα and ρβ1 share almost all blocks, the
only exceptions the block aα of ρα , which in ρβ1 decomposes into two blocks:
{aα } and aα \{aα }. As the rank of an element equals the number of nontrivial
blocks, we obtain that rank(β1 ) = rank(α) + 1 > rank(α).
14.4. GENERATING SYSTEMS
261
We have rank(γ1 ) ≥ rank(α) by Exercise 2.1.4(c). Consider the sets
A1 = {1, 2, . . . , aα − 1} and A2 = N\A1 . Note that the restrictions γ1 |A1
and γ1 |A2 are injective. Hence nontrivial blocks of ργ1 contain at most two
elements, moreover, each two-element block contains one element from A1
and one from A2 . Furthermore, dom(γ1 ) = N by definition. Hence the equality rank(γ1 ) = r implies that γ1 contains at least two two-element blocks.
This yields aγ1 > aα .
Now we repeat the same arguments for γ1 , which allows us to write
γ1 = γ2 β2 , where rank(β2 ) > r and aγ2 > aγ1 in the case rank(γ2 ) = r. In
the latter case, we apply the same arguments to γ2 and so on. The sequence
aα < aγ1 < aγ2 < · · · is finite, so in a finite number of steps, say k steps,
we will get that γk−1 = γk βk , where both rank(βk ) and rank(γk ) are strictly
greater than r. Thus α = γk βk · · · β1 is a decomposition of α into a product
of elements of rank strictly greater than r.
Now we consider the case for which all nontrivial blocks of ρα contain
exactly one element. Then α ∈ IS n and we can write α in the following
form:
α = [a1 , . . . , ak ][b1 , · · · , bl ] · · · [c1 , · · · , cm ](d1 ) · · · (dq ),
where a1 > · · · > ak ,. . . , c1 > · · · > cm . As rank(α) < n − 1, the element α
contains at least two chains. Then α = βγ, where
β = [a1 , · · · , ak ](b1 ) · · · (bl ) · · · (c1 ) · · · (cm )(d1 ) · · · (dq ),
γ = (a1 ) · · · (ak )[b1 , . . . , bl ] · · · [c1 , . . . , cm ](d1 ) · · · (dq ).
(14.1)
Obviously, rank(β) = n − 1 > r, rank(γ) = r + 1 and β, γ ∈ PF n . This
completes the proof of our theorem for the semigroup PF n .
Note that the first part of our proof for PF n (where we considered the
case in which ρα has a nontrivial block consisting of at least two elements)
proves the statement of the theorem for the semigroup Fn . Moreover, the
second part of the proof for PF n proves the statement of the theorem for
the semigroup IF n .
Let us now consider the case of the semigroup POn . Let α ∈ POn be
such that
A1 · · · Ar
,
α=
b1 · · · br
where b1 < · · · < br and r < n − 1. Assume that there exists k such that
|Ak | > 1 and let Ak = {a1 , . . . , am }, where a1 < · · · < am . Consider the
set B = {b1 , . . . , br+2 }, b1 < · · · < br+2 , which is obtained from the set
B = {b1 , . . . , br } by adding two new elements bp and bq , p < q. Then b1 =
b1 ,. . . , bp−1 = bp−1 , bp+1 = bp ,. . . , bq−1 = bq−2 , bq+1 = bq−1 , . . . , br+2 = br .
If q > k + 1, then α decomposes into the product α = γβ, where the element
β equals
A1
b1
···
···
Ak−1
bk−1
Ak \{am }
bk
am
bk+1
Ak+1
bk+2
···
···
Aq−2
bq−1
Aq−1
bq+1
···
···
Ar
br+2
262
CHAPTER 14. ORDER-RELATED SUBSEMIGROUPS
and the element γ equals
C1
b1
C2
b2
···
···
Ck−1
bk−1
Ck
bk
where
C1
C2
...
Ck−1
Ck
Ck+1
...
Cr+1
···
···
Ck+1
bk+1
Cq−2
bq−2
Cq−1
bq
Cq
bq−1
···
···
Cr+1
br
,
= {1, . . . , b1 },
= {b1 + 1, . . . b2 },
= {bk−2 + 1, . . . , bk−1 },
= {bk−1 + 1, . . . , bk+1 },
= {bk+1 + 1, . . . , bk+2 },
= {br+1 + 1, . . . , n}.
If q ≤ k+1, then p < k+1 and the elements β and γ are constructed playing a similar game with the element bp instead of the element bq . Obviously,
both β and γ are elements of POn of rank r + 1.
Assume now that all blocks A1 ,. . . , Ar consist of oneelement and we
have Ai = {ai } for all i. Extend the set {a1 , . . . , ar } in any way to the set
A = {a1 , . . . , ar+1 }, a1 < · · · < ar+1 and the set {b1 , . . . , br } to the set B =
{b1 , . . . , br+1 }, b1 < · · · < br+1 , by adding one more new element, ak and bm
say, to each set, respectively. Consider also the set C = {1, 2, . . . , r + 2}. If
k ≤ m, we let β be the unique increasing bijection from A to C\{m + 1},
and γ be the unique increasing bijection from C\{k} to B . If k > m, we let
β be the unique increasing bijection from A to C\{m}, and γ be the unique
increasing bijection from C\{k + 1} to B . A direct calculation shows that
α = γβ. This proves our theorem for the semigroup POn . At the same time,
the first part of the above proof proves the statement of the theorem for the
semigroup On , and the second part of the proof proves the statement of our
theorem for the semigroup IOn .
To proceed we will need the following statement:
Lemma 14.4.2 Each transformation α ∈ IC n of rank k can be decomposed
into a product αm · · · α1 of transformations αi ∈ IC n of rank k such that
x − 1 ≤ αi (x) ≤ x for all x ∈ dom(αi ).
Proof. Let
α=
a1 · · ·
b1 · · ·
where a1 < · · · < ak . Then
b1 · · ·
α=
b1 · · ·
where
bj
bk
bk
ak
bk
aj ,
=
aj − 1,
∈ IC n ,
a1 · · ·
b1 · · ·
aj = bj ;
aj > bj .
ak
bk
,
(14.2)
14.4. GENERATING SYSTEMS
263
We claim that both factors from (14.2) belong to IC n . Indeed, since
bj ≤ bj ≤ aj , it is enough to check that b1 < · · · < bk . Assume that this is
not the case and bj ≥ bj+1 for some j. Then bj = aj , bj+1 = aj+1 − 1, which
implies bj = aj and
bj+1 ≤ bj+1 = aj+1 − 1 ≤ bj = aj = bj ,
a contradiction.
Both factors in (14.2) have rank k and the second factor obviously satisfies the inequality from the formulation. So, the second factor in (14.2)
satisfies the condition from the formulation. For the first factor, which is an
element of IC n , we obtain the following: For every j such that aj > bj we
have
bj − bj = (aj − bj ) − 1 < aj − bj .
Now we proceed by induction on N =
k
(aj − bj ). If the first factor in
j=1
(14.2) does not satisfy the condition from the formulation, we apply to it the
inductive assumption and find its decomposition into a product of elements
from IC n , which satisfy the necessary condition. This completes the proof.
Now the statement of our theorem is easy to prove for the semigroup
IC n . Indeed, let α ∈ IC n be an element of rank r < n − 1. Consider some
decomposition α = αm · · · α1 given by Lemma 14.4.2. Every element αi has
the form
αi = [u + v, u + v − 1, . . . , u] · · · [t + s, t + s − 1, . . . , t](d1 ) · · · (dq ).
Now, taking βi and γi as given by (14.1), we obtain the decomposition
αi = βi γi , where both βi and γi belong to IC n and have rank ≥ r + 1.
Consider now the semigroup PC n . Let
A1 · · · Ar
∈ PC n ,
α=
b1 · · · br
where b1 < · · · < br and r < n − 1. Let ai denote the minimum element in
Ai . From the definition of PC n we have that bi ≤ ai for all i, and a < aj for
all a ∈ Ai as soon as i < j. Hence for the elements
a1 · · · ar
A1 · · · Ar
α∗ =
,
α̂ =
a1 · · · ar
b1 · · · br
we have α∗ ∈ PC n , α̂ ∈ IC n , and α = α̂α∗ .
Since we have already proved the theorem for the semigroup IC n , it is
now enough to show that every α∗ as above decomposes into a product of
elements of rank > r. If α∗ ∈ IC n , this is already proved. If α∗ ∈ IC n , we
have the following three possibilities:
264
CHAPTER 14. ORDER-RELATED SUBSEMIGROUPS
(i) There exists k such that |Ak | ≥ 3.
(ii) There exists i < j such that |Ai | = |Aj | = 2.
(iii) |Ai | = 1 for all i = k, Ak = {ak , a } and dom(α) = dom(α∗ ) = N.
In the case (i) let Ak = Ak ∪ {a , a }, where ak < a < a . Then we have
Ak a a
ak ak ak
=
Ak a a
ak ak a
Ak a a
ak a a
,
which implies the existence of the necessary decomposition for α∗ .
In the case (ii) let Ai = {ai , a } and Aj = {aj , a }. Then we have
ai a aj
ai ai aj
a
aj
=
ai a aj
ai a aj
a
aj
ai a aj
ai ai aj
a
a
,
which implies the existence of the necessary decomposition for α∗ .
In the case (iii) let Ak = {ak , a } and a ∈ N\dom(α). If we have a ∈
{ak + 1, . . . , a − 1}, then the necessary decomposition for α∗ follows from
ak a a
ak ak ∅
=
ak a a
ak a ∅
ak a a
ak ak a
.
If a ∈ {ak + 1, . . . , a − 1}, then the necessary decomposition for α∗ follows
from
ak a a
ak a a
ak a a
.
=
ak ∅ ak
ak ak a
ak ∅ a
This completes the proof of our theorem for the semigroup PC n .
Finally, let us prove the statement of the theorem for the semigroup Cn .
Let α ∈ Cn . As Cn ⊂ PC n , we again may write α = α̂α∗ as above. Note
that α∗ ∈ Cn , and hence the constructed above decomposition for α∗ will
contain only factors from Cn . Hence from the above arguments we have a
decomposition
α = γk · · · γ1 βm · · · β1 ,
where all factors have rank > r, all γi ’s belong to IC n and all βj ’s belong
to Cn .
Every element
a1 · · · ak
∈ IC n ,
γ=
b1 · · · bk
where a1 < · · · < ak , can be extended to an element γ̃ from Cn as follows:
{1, . . . , a1 − 1} {a1 , . . . , a2 − 1} . . . {ak , . . . , n}
γ̃ =
···
bk
1
b1
14.4. GENERATING SYSTEMS
265
in the case 1 < b1 , or
{1, . . . , a2 − 1} {a2 , . . . , a3 − 1} · · ·
γ̃ =
b1
b2
···
{ak , . . . , n}
bk
in the case 1 = b1 . Note that rank(γ̃) ≥ rank(γ). A direct calculation shows
that
α = γk · · · γ1 βm · · · β1 = γ˜k · · · γ˜1 βm · · · β1 ,
which completes the proof of the theorem.
For six of our semigroups, the statement of Theorem 14.4.1 can be
strengthened.
Theorem 14.4.3 The semigroups Fn and PF n are generated by ε and all
idempotents of rank (n − 1).
Proof. Taking Theorem 14.4.1 into account, it is enough to show that every
element of rank (n − 1) decomposes into a product of idempotents of rank
(n − 1).
For the semigroup Fn we use induction on the number of fixed points.
Obviously, an element α ∈ Fn is an idempotent if and only if it has (n − 1)
fixed points. Let α ∈ Fn be an element of rank (n − 1). Then we can write
1 ··· k ··· m − 1 m m + 1 ··· n
α=
a1 · · · ak · · · am−1 ak am+1 · · · an
for some k < m. Consider the element
1 ··· k ··· m − 1 m m + 1 ···
β=
a1 · · · ak · · · am−1 m am+1 · · ·
n
an
.
Then α = βεk,m . If rank(β) = n, then β = ε and α = εk,m . If rank(β) = n−1,
then β has more fixed points than α and hence decomposes into a product
of idempotents by the inductive assumption. This proves the statement of
our theorem for the semigroup Fn .
Let now α be an element of rank (n − 1) from PF n \Fn and assume that
N\dom(α) = {k}. If k ∈ im(α), then α acts on N\{k} injectively and orderdecreasing, and hence is the identity transformation. This implies that α is
an idempotent. If k ∈ im(α), the element α can be written in the following
form:
1
1
···
···
k − 1 k k + 1 ···
k − 1 ∅ k + 1 ···
k+m−1
k+m−1
k+m
k
k + m + 1 ···
···
bk+m+1
for some m > 0. Consider the element β defined as follows:
x,
x < k + m;
β(x) =
α(x),
x ≥ k + m.
n
bn
266
CHAPTER 14. ORDER-RELATED SUBSEMIGROUPS
Then α = βε(k) and β ∈ Fn is an element of rank (n − 1). As we have
already proved the statement of the theorem for the semigroup Fn , β decomposes into a product of idempotents. Hence α decomposes into a product
of idempotents as well. This completes the proof.
The next statement follows immediately from the definitions:
Lemma 14.4.4 (i) Every element of rank (n − 1) from the semigroup Cn
has the form
1 ··· k k + 1 ···
m
m + 1 ··· n
,
1 ··· k
k
··· m − 1 m + 1 ··· n
where 1 ≤ k < m ≤ n.
(ii) Every element of rank (n − 1) from the semigroup On either belongs to
Cn or has the form
1 ··· m m + 1 ···
k
k + 1 ··· n
,
1 ··· m m + 2 ··· k + 1 k + 1 ··· n
where 1 ≤ m < k ≤ n.
(iii) Every element of rank (n − 1) from the semigroup IOn has the form
1 ···
···
···
··· k − 1 k + 1 ··· n
,
1 ··· m − 1 m + 1 ···
···
···
··· n
where 1 ≤ m ≤ n and 1 ≤ k ≤ n.
(iv) Every element of rank (n − 1) from the semigroup IC n has the form
1 ··· k − 1 k + 1 ···
m
m + 1 ··· n
,
1 ··· k − 1
k
··· m − 1 m + 1 ··· n
where 1 ≤ k ≤ m ≤ n.
Theorem 14.4.5 The semigroups On , Cn , POn , and PC n are generated by
ε and all idempotents of rank (n − 1).
Proof. It is again enough to show that every element of rank (n − 1) decomposes into a product of idempotents. Let α be an element of rank (n − 1)
from one of our semigroups. For the semigroup Cn the statement follows from
the observation that the element α as in Lemma 14.4.4(i) has the following
decomposition:
α = εm−1,m · · · εk+1,k+2 εk,k+1 .
For all elements from the semigroup On as in Lemma 14.4.4(ii) one constructs a decomposition similarly.
14.5. ADDENDA AND COMMENTS
267
If α ∈ POn \On , then α ∈ IOn and has the form as in Lemma 14.4.4(iii).
In the case k ≥ m we have
α = εm+1,m · · · εk,k−1 ε(k) .
The case k ≤ m is similar. This proves our statement for the semigroups
POn and PC n simultaneously.
Remark 14.4.6 In the semigroups IOn , IC n , and IF n all idempotents
form a commutative subsemigroup. In Examples 14.1.2 and 14.1.4 we saw
that already IO2 , IC 2 , and IF 2 are not commutative. Hence none of the
semigroups IOn , IC n , and IF n is generated by idempotents for n > 1.
14.5
Addenda and Comments
14.5.1 The semigroup On , disguised as the semigroup of all endomorphisms
of a finite linearly ordered set, appears in the works [Ai2, Ai3, Ai4] of Aizenshtat. It was further studied by Howie in [Ho2] (some results of the latter paper overlap with [Ai2]). However, a really intensive study of order-preserving
transformations started in the 1990s.
The semigroup Fn appears already in [Pi] in connection with the study
of formal languages. In 1990–1992, Howie commented on the importance of
the study of order-decreasing transformations in [Ho5]. A deeper study of
Fn seems to start with the works [Um2, Um3] of Umar.
14.5.2 Instead of order-decreasing transformations one can of course study
the dual notion of order-increasing transformation (that is, α(x) ≥ x for all
x ∈ N). In this case instead of the semigroups PF n , Fn , IF n , PC n , Cn and
+
+
+
+
IC n we obtain the corresponding semigroups PF +
n , Fn , IF n , PC n , Cn and
+
+
IC n . Obviously, the semigroups S and S (where S is from the above list)
are isomorphic.
14.5.3 The semigroups defined in Sect. 14.1 admit many variations. The
most obvious one is to substitute the natural linear order on N by some
other linear order. The obtained subsemigroups will be obviously isomorphic
(Sn -conjugate) to the corresponding original semigroups.
Another natural generalization is to take some partial order on N instead of a linear order. Additionally, one may assume that the partial order
contains a minimal element. This leads to the definition of a huge variety of
finite transformation semigroups. Not much is known about them.
Instead of POn , On , and IOn one could consider slightly bigger “superversions” of these subsemigroups, consisting of all transformations, which are
either order-preserving or order-reversing (i.e., x ≤ y implies α(x) ≥ α(y)
for all x, y ∈ dom(α)). This idea appears, in particular, in [CH].
268
CHAPTER 14. ORDER-RELATED SUBSEMIGROUPS
Another variation is connected with those transformations which preserve the cyclic orientation rather than the natural order (see for example
[Cat, CH, Fe2]). A (partial) transformation α is called orientation-preserving
provided that we have dom(α) = {a1 < a2 < · · · < am } and there exists k
such that
α(ak ) ≤ α(ak+1 ) ≤ · · · ≤ α(am ) ≤ α(a1 ) ≤ α(a2 ) ≤ · · · ≤ α(ak−1 ).
14.5.4 Catalan numbers, their properties, and various algebraic and combinatorial interpretations are studied in many papers and even monographs,
see for example [Sta1, Chap. 6] and [Sta2].
14.5.5 In the coordinate plane consider the piecewise linear paths from
(0, 0) to (n, n), which satisfy the following two conditions:
• From the point (a, b) it is allowed to go directly either to the point
(a + 1, b) or to the point (a, b + 1) or to the point (a + 1, b + 1).
• It is not allowed to go over the diagonal y = x.
Such a path is called a Schröder path of order n. The number rn of such
paths equals
n 1 n+1 n+k
.
rn =
n−k
k
n+1
k=0
The sequence {rn : n ≥ 0} satisfies the following recursion:
r0 = 1;
r1 = 2;
(n + 2)rn+1 = 3(2n + 1)rn − (n − 1)rn−1 , n > 0.
Theorem 14.5.1 ([LU2]) |PC n | = rn .
Proof. Each Schröder path contains equal numbers of horizontal and vertical
steps. Let l be some Schröder path of order n and k be the number of
horizontal (vertical) steps in l. For every vertical step (i, j) → (i, j + 1)
we write down the number a = j + 1. The k numbers, which we obtain,
are pairwise different and we write them in the natural order as follows:
a1 < a2 < · · · < ak . After that for every horizontal step (i, j) → (i + 1, j) we
write down the number b = j + 1. Some of the k numbers, which we obtain,
may coincide; however, we write them (with multiplicities) in the natural
order b1 ≤ b2 ≤ · · · ≤ bk . Then
a1 a2 . . . ak
αl =
b1 b2 . . . bk
is an element from PC n . One checks that the mapping l → αl is a bijection
from the set of all Schröder paths to PC n . The statement follows.
14.5. ADDENDA AND COMMENTS
269
14.5.6 The results about cardinalities of semigroups described in the present chapter are taken from the following papers: Propositions 14.2.1 and
14.2.2 are taken from [Ho6]; Proposition 14.2.3 is taken from [Ho2]; Proposition 14.2.4 is taken from [Ga1]; Proposition 14.2.6 is taken from [BRR];
Theorem 14.2.8(i) is taken from [Hi2]; Theorem 14.2.9 and Corollary 14.2.11
are taken from [GH2].
14.5.7 The paper [LU3] contains the following more compact formula for
|E(OP n )|:
%% √
&n % √
&n &
n−1
5+1
5−1
+ 1.
−
|E(OP n )| = 5 2
2
2
14.5.8 The results about idempotents described in Sect. 14.3 are taken
from the following papers: Proposition 14.3.2 is taken from [Hi2]; Theorem 14.3.4 is taken from [LU2]; Proposition 14.3.5(i) is taken from [Um2];
Theorem 14.3.6 is taken from [Ho6]; Theorem 14.3.7 is taken from [LU3].
14.5.9 Theorem 14.4.1 for the semigroup IOn was proved in [Fe3]; Theorem
14.4.3 for the semigroup Fn was proved in [Um2]; Theorem 14.4.5 for the
semigroup On was proved in [Ai2, Ho2]; Theorem 14.4.5 for the semigroup
POn was proved in [GH2].
14.5.10 Let S be a semigroup. The minimum cardinality of a generating
system of S is usually called the rank of S and denoted by rank(S). If
one restricts attention to generating systems of special kind, for example
consisting of idempotent or nilpotent elements, one speaks of the idempotent
rank idrank(S) of S and the nilpotent rank nilrank(S) of S etc.
Several papers are dedicated to the study of various ranks for some of
the semigroups considered in this chapter. For example, Aizenshtat proved
in [Ai2] that On has a unique irreducible generating system, consisting of
idempotents, namely, the set of all idempotents of rank n and (n−1). In particular, this implies that idrank(On ) = 2n − 1. Later on (and independently)
this was rediscovered by Howie in [Ho2]. Analogous result about irreducible
generating systems for Cn is obtained by Higgins in [Hi2]. In particular,
idrank(Cn ) = n. In [GH2] it is shown that rank(On ) = n + 1, rank(POn ) =
2n, idrank(POn ) = 3n − 1. In [Fe3] it is shown that rank(IOn ) = n + 1.
We would like to note that for a monoid S one usually leaves the identity
element out of all generating systems, which explains the difference between
the above formulations and the original formulations, which can be found
in the cited papers.
14.5.11 If M is a generating system of the semigroup S, then for every a ∈ S
there exists a decomposition of a into a product of generating element, which
has the minimal possible length. The maximum of all such minimal lengths
over all a ∈ S is called the depth of M .
270
CHAPTER 14. ORDER-RELATED SUBSEMIGROUPS
For the semigroups On and Cn the depths of certain generating systems
were studied by Higgins in [Hi3]. In particular, Higgins showed that for
both these semigroups the depth of the generating system consisting of all
idempotents equals (n−1); and the depth of the generating system consisting
of all idempotents of rank at least (n − 1) equals n2 /4.
14.5.12 Set
IOn (n − 1) = {α ∈ IOn : rank(α) = n − 1}.
Let KN denote the full directed graph with the set N of vertices (i.e., for
every x, y ∈ N the graph KN contains a unique oriented edge from x to y).
With every α ∈ IOn (n − 1) we associate the arrow a → b of the graph KN ,
where a = N\dom(α) and b = N\im(α). Then every subset M ⊂ IOn (n−1)
is uniquely determined by some subgraph ΓM of KN (on the same set of
vertices) and vice versa. Recall that a directed graph Γ is called strongly
connected provided that for any two vertices a, b in Γ there exists an oriented
path in Γ going from a to b.
Theorem 14.5.2 ([GM2]) A generating system of IOn is irreducible if and
only if it has the form M ∪ {ε}, where M ⊂ IOn (n − 1) is such that the
graph ΓM is a minimal strongly connected directed subgraph of KN .
Theorem 14.5.3 ([GM2]) Every irreducible generating system of IOn contains at least n + 1 elements. In particular, rank(IOn ) = n + 1 and IOn
contains exactly (n − 1)! irreducible generating systems of cardinality n + 1.
14.5.13 Let S denote one of the semigroups Fn , PF n , IF n , Cn , PC n , IC n .
Each of these semigroups contains a zero element (for Fn and Cn this zero
element is the transformation 01 , for all other semigroups, this zero element
is the transformation 0). The following statement follows directly from definitions:
Proposition 14.5.4
(i) An element α ∈ S is nilpotent if and only if
(a) α(x) < xfor allx = 1 (forS = Fn , Cn ), or
(b) α(x) < xfor allx ∈ dom(α) (forS = PF n , IF n , PC n , IC n ).
(ii) The set Nil(S) of all nilpotent elements of S forms an ideal.
Proposition 14.5.5 ([Um2, LU5])
(i) |Nil(Fn )| = (n − 1)!.
(ii) |Nil(Cn )| = Cn−1 .
Proof. Taking Proposition 14.5.4 into account, the statement (i) is obvious.
To prove the statement (ii) we observe that there is a natural bijection
between Cn−1 and Nil(Cn ), constructed in the following way:
Cn−1 1
1
2
a2
...
...
n−1
an−1
↔
1 2
1 1
3
a2
...
...
n−1
n
an−2 an−1
The statement (ii) now follows directly from Theorem 14.2.8(i).
∈ Nil(Cn ).
14.5. ADDENDA AND COMMENTS
271
14.5.14 Let S denote one of the semigroups POn or IOn . The semigroup
S contains the zero element 0. An element α ∈ S is nilpotent if and only
if α(x) = x for all x ∈ dom(α). However, in this case nilpotent elements
do not form an ideal, they do not even form a subsemigroup. For each of
these semigroups, the subsemigroup, generated by all nilpotent elements,
was studied by Garba in [Ga1, Ga2]. In particular, every element of each of
these semigroups is a product of at most three nilpotent elements.
14.5.15 Nilpotent subsemigroups of IOn are studied in detail in [GM2].
Theorem 14.5.6 ([GM2]) Let ≺ be an arbitrary linear order on N. Then
the set
T (≺) = {α ∈ IOn : α(x) ≺ xfor allx ∈ dom(α)}
is a maximal nilpotent subsemigroup of IOn and every maximal nilpotent
subsemigroup of IOn coincides with T (≺) for some linear order ≺ on N. In
particular, IOn contains exactly n! maximal nilpotent subsemigroups.
Theorem 14.5.7 ([GM2]) If < is the natural order on N, then we have
|T (<)| ≥ |T (≺)| for any linear order ≺ on N. Moreover, |T (<)| = Cn .
In connection with the latter theorem, we also refer the reader to
Exercise 8.6.14.
14.5.16 In the following theorem another order-related subsemigroup appears:
Theorem 14.5.8 ([Ho4]) (i) The semigroup SPOn = POn \On of all
strictly partial order-preserving transformations of N is not generated
by idempotents.
(ii) rank(SPOn ) = 2n − 2.
14.5.17 A description of all maximal and maximal inverse subsemigroups
of IOn is given in [GM2]. The semigroup IOn contains 2n − 1 maximal
subsemigroups and 2n−1 maximal inverse subsemigroups. All maximal subsemigroups in On are described in [X.Ya2]. It turns out that On contains
n2 −2n+2 maximal subsemigroups. The paper [LY] contains a description of
maximal subsemigroups of On among the semigroups with some additional
properties, for example regular subsemigroups (there are 2n − 2 maximal
semigroups among all regular subsemigroups) or subsemigroups generated
by idempotents (there are 2n − 3 maximal subsemigroups among all subsemigroups which are generated by idempotents).
14.5.18 Presentations are known only for some of the semigroups which
were studied in this chapter. A presentation for On with respect to the
irreducible system of generators, consisting of idempotents of rank at least
272
CHAPTER 14. ORDER-RELATED SUBSEMIGROUPS
(n−1), was given already by Aizenshtat in [Ai2]. A presentation for POn was
found by Solomon in [Sol]. In [Fe3] Fernandes constructs a system of defining
relations for IOn with respect to the n+1-element generating system, which
corresponds to the oriented cycle n → n − 1 → . . . → 2 → 1 → n in terms
of 14.5.12.
14.5.19 Not much seems to be known about congruences on the semigroups
studied in this chapter. Recall that a semigroup S is said to be semisimple
provided that all congruences on S are Rees congruences. In [Ai3] Aizenshtat
shows that the semigroup On is semisimple. In [Fe3] Fernandes proves the
same result for IOn . Thus there are exactly n congruences on On and n + 1
congruences on IOn .
14.5.20 Description of both one-sided and two-sided ideals for the semigroups On , POn and IOn is the same as the corresponding description for
the semigroups Tn , PT n and IS n , respectively (the latter one is given in
Theorems 4.2.1, 4.2.4 and 4.2.8). In particular, all Green’s relations on the
semigroups On , POn and IOn are just restrictions of the corresponding
Green’s relations on the semigroups Tn , PT n and IS n , respectively. For details, we refer the reader to [Ai4] for the case On , to [LU3] for the case POn
and to [Fe1, GM2] for the case IOn .
The structure of Green’s relations in Fn is more interesting:
Theorem 14.5.9 ([Pi, Um2]) Let α, β ∈ Fn .
(i) αLβ if and only if α = β.
(ii) αRβ if and only if im(α) = im(β) and for every a ∈ N we have
min{x : α(x) = a} = min{y : β(y) = a}.
Corollary 14.5.10 ([Um2]) In the semigroup Fn we have the equalities
H = L and R = D = J .
14.5.21 Finally, we present some asymptotic results.
Theorem 14.5.11 ([Hi2])
Theorem 14.5.12 ([LU6])
(ii) |POn | =
1
π
)π
0
(2 +
√
|E(Cn )|
|Cn |
∼
√
(n+1) πn
.
2n+1
(i) |E(POn )| ∼
√1
5
'
√ (n
5+ 5
.
2
√
2 cos t)(3 + 2 2 cos t)n−1 dt ∼
√
( 2+1)2n
√
.
23/4 πn
Theorem 14.5.13 ([LU6])
|PC n | =
1
π(n + 1)
*
0
π
√
√
√
( 2 + 1)2n+1
√
(4 + 3 2 cos t)(3 + 2 2 cos t)n−1 dt ∼
.
23/4 n πn
14.6. ADDITIONAL EXERCISES
14.6
273
Additional Exercises
14.6.1 Prove the formula from 14.5.7 using Theorem 14.3.7.
14.6.2 Prove Lemma 14.4.4.
14.6.3 Compute the number of elements of rank (n − 1) in the semigroups
(a) On
(b) Cn
(c) POn
(d) PC n
14.6.4 ([LU5]) Prove that the number of those elements from On , the set
of fixed points for which coincides with {1, n}, equals Cn−1 .
14.6.5 ([LU5]) Let
f (n, r, k) = |{α ∈ On : α(n) = kandαhas exactly rfixed points}|.
Show that f (n, r, k) =
n+k−2
k−r
−
n+k−2
k−r−1
.
14.6.6 ([Hi2]) Let
F (n, r) = |{α ∈ On : αhas exactly rfixed points}|.
Show that F (n, r) =
r 2n
n n+r
.
14.6.7 ([LU5]) Prove that
|{α ∈ On : α(n) = k}| =
n+k−2
.
k−1
14.6.8 ([LU5]) Prove that
|{α ∈ On : rank(α) = r}| =
n n−1
.
r
r−1
14.6.9 ([LU5]) Prove that
|{α ∈ On : rank(α) = r and α(n) = k}| =
k−1 n−1
.
r−1
r−1
14.6.10 ([LU2]) Prove that the number of those idempotents δ ∈ PC n , in
which the maximum element from im(δ) is k, equals 2n−k−1 (3k−1 + 1).
274
CHAPTER 14. ORDER-RELATED SUBSEMIGROUPS
14.6.11 ([LU3]) Prove that
n k+r−2
|{α ∈ POn : |dom(α)| = r and max(im(α)) = k}| =
.
r
k−1
14.6.12 ([LU3]) Prove that
n n+r−1
.
|{α ∈ POn : |dom(α)| = r}| =
r
n−1
14.6.13 ([LU3]) Prove that the numbers an = |E(PF n )| satisfy the following
recursion: an+1 = 1 + 5(an − an−1 ).
14.6.14 ([Um1]) Let F (α) denote the set of all fixed points of an element
α ∈ PF n . Prove that F (αβ) = F (βα) = F (α) ∩ F (β).
14.6.15 For 1 < k ≤ n set Ik = {α ∈ PF n : rank(α) ≤ k} and let
Sk = Ik /Ik−1 be the corresponding Rees quotient. Prove that every element
of Sk is either an idempotent or a nilpotent.
14.6.16 ([LU4]) Let
J(n, r, k) = |{α ∈ Cn : rank(α) = r and α(n) = k}|.
Prove that
(a) J(n, k, k) =
(b) J(n, r, k) =
n−1
.
n−k+1 n−1 k−2
k−1
n−r+1 r−1
r−2
.
14.6.17 ([LU4]) Prove that
n
r .
n+k−2
(b) |{α ∈ Cn : α(n) = k}| = n−k+1
n−1 .
n
(a) |{α ∈ Cn : rank(α) = r}| =
n−1
1
n−r+1 r−1
14.6.18 ([Hi2]) Let N (n, k) denote the number of those elements from Cn
which have exactly k fixed points. Prove that
2n−k
k
(a) N (n, k) = 2n−k
.
n
(b) N (n + 1, k) = N (n, k − 1) + 2N (n, k) + N (n, k + 1).
14.6.19 ([HMR]) Show that there exist two elements α, β ∈ Tn such that
Tn = On ∪ {α, β}.
14.6.20 Prove that the semigroups On , POn and IOn are regular.
14.6.21 Prove that for n > 2 the semigroups Fn , PF n , IF n , Cn , PC n , and
IC n are not regular.
14.6. ADDITIONAL EXERCISES
275
14.6.22 ([Ai2, GM2]) Prove that for n > 1 we have
|Aut(On )| = |Aut(IOn )| = |Aut(POn )| = 2.
14.6.23 Prove Theorem 14.5.11.
14.6.24 Let t(n, r) = |{α ∈ Fn : rank(α) = r}|. Prove that
t(n, r) = r · t(n − 1, r) + (n − r + 1)t(n − 1, r − 1).
14.6.25 ([Um1]) Prove that
|{α ∈ Fn : rank(α) = r}| =
r−1
k=0
n+1
(r − k)n .
(−1)
k
k
14.6.26 ([Um1]) Recall that Stirling numbers of the first kind s(n, k) are
defined as coefficients
x(x − 1)(x − 2) · · · (x − n + 1) =
n
s(n, k)xk .
k=1
Prove that
|{α ∈ Fn : αhas exactlykfixed points}| = (−1)n−k s(n, k).
14.6.27 ([LU3]) Let α ∈ POn and rank(α) = k. Prove that in the semigroup
POn we have:
(a) |L(α)| = nk .
(b) |R(α)| =
n n
i−1
.
i
k−1
i=k
(c) |R(α)| =
n−k+1
i=1
n − i n−k−i−1
2
.
k−i
14.6.28 ([GH2]) Prove that the D-class
Dn−1 = {α ∈ On : rank(α) = n − 1}
of the semigroup On contains exactly (n − 1) different L-classes and exactly
n different R-classes.
14.6.29 Prove Theorem 14.5.9.
Answers and Hints
to Exercises
1.5.3 (a): 7, (b): 19, (c): 6, (d): 16, (e): 45.
1.5.4 8!.
n
k)n for PT n,
1.5.6
(a): (n − k)
k for Tn nand (n + 1 −
k
i
(b): i=0 (−1) i (n − i) for Tn and ki=0 (−1)i ki (n + 1 − i)n for PT n ,
(c): ki=0 (−1)i ki (k − i)n for Tn and ki=0 (−1)i ki (k + 1 − i)n for PT n .
Hint: For (b) and (c) use the inclusion–exclusion formula.
1.5.7 Hint: Use Cayley’s theorem on the number of labeled trees.
1.5.8 Hint: See [Hi1, 6.1.1(b)]
1.5.9 (a): nn − (n − 1)n for at least one fixed element and n · (n − 1)n−1 for
exactly one fixed element,
(b): (n + 1)n − nn for at least one fixed element and nn for exactly one fixed
element.
2.10.3 Hint: To each α ∈ PT n associate α ∈ Tn+1 as follows:
α(i),
i ∈ dom(α);
α(i) =
n + 1,
otherwise.
2.10.9 Hint: Use Corollary 2.7.4.
2.10.10 Hint: Use Corollary 2.7.4.
2.10.18 Hint: Rewrite
nn−1the signless Lah number L (n, n − k) in the form
L (n, n − k) = k k k! and use Theorem 2.5.1 and Corollary 2.8.6.
2.10.20 Hint: Use Theorem 2.5.1.
2.10.23 Hint: If α = 0, the equation α · x = 0 may have at most nn solutions,
whereas the equation x · α = 0 may have at most (n + 1)n−1 solutions. But
nn > (n + 1)n−1 .
3.3.2 (a) Hint: Use Cayley’s theorem on the number of labeled trees.
3.3.3 (a) Hint: Sn is not commutative. (c) Hint: Show that one can write
(i, i + 1), i < n, as a product of (1, 2) and powers of (1, 2, . . . , n).
277
278
ANSWERS AND HINTS TO EXERCISES
(l)
4.4.10 Hint: For each a ∈ S the condition of the exercise gives elements ea
(r)
(l)
(r)
(l)
(r)
and ea such that ea a = aea = a. Show first that ea b = b and bea = b
(l)
(r)
for all a, b and then that ea = ea = e is the identity element of S.
4.8.1 Hint: To prove the first equality count how many different partitions of
N ∪ {n + 1} generate the same partition of N. To prove the second equality
count the number of those partitions of N ∪ {n + 1} for which the block
containing the element n + 1 has cardinality k + 1.
4.8.3 Hint: The number of anti-chains in B(N) is smaller than the cardinality
of B(N). On the other hand, each collection of elements from B(N) having
the same cardinality is an anti-chain.
4.8.4 (a): 5; (b): 19; (c): 167.
4.8.7 For n > 4 the function f (x) = xn /nx satisfies the condition f (2) > 1
and f (n) = 1 and has on [2, n] the unique local extremal point, namely,
some local maximum.
4.8.8 (a): 1, 25, 200, 600, 600, 120; (b): 5, 300, 1, 500, 1, 200, 120; (c): 1, 155,
1, 800, 3, 900, 1, 800, 120.
4.8.9 Hint: If S is inverse, e, f ∈ S are idempotents and eS = f S, then
f e = e, ef = f and thus e = f . If every principal one-sided ideal is generated
by a unique idempotent and b, c are inverse to a, then for the idempotents
ab, ac, ba and ca we have abS = aS = acS, Sba = Sa = Sca, which implies
ab = ac, ba = ca and b = bac = c.
4.8.10 In and In−1 .
4.8.11 In and In−1 .
4.8.12 In .
4.8.13 (a): k n−k ; (b): (k + 1)n−k .
4.8.14 (a): n1 n2 · · · nk ; (b): n1 n2 · · · nk .
4.8.18 (a): (n + 1)n−rank(α) ; (b): (|dom(α)| + 1)n .
4.8.19 Hint: Each such ideal contains all idempotents of rank one. If α = 0
(α = 0) for every idempotent of rank one, then α = 0.
5.1.5 Hint: Use the proof of Theorem 4.7.4.
5.5.1 Hint: Each maximal subgroup is an H-class, but each H-class of both
Tn and IS n is at the same time an H-class of PT n .
5.5.2 (d) Hint: If b is an inverse to a and ab = ba, then e = ab is an
idempotent and a is invertible in eSe.
5.5.8 (a) Hint: Every generating system of a must contain a. (b) Hint:
If p1 , p2 , . . . , pk are pairwise different primes and m = p1 p2 · · · pk , then
{m/p1 , m/p2 , . . . , m/pk } is an irreducible generating system of Zm .
5.5.9 (a) Hint: An element of type (k, m) in Tn is uniquely determined by
an ordered partition N = N1 ∪ N2 ∪ · · · ∪ Nk+1 , a collection of mappings
Ni → Ni+1 , i = 1, . . . , k, and a permutation of order m on Nk+1 . (b) Hint:
Additionally to (a) we have a (possibly empty) block N0 = dom(α). (c) An
element of type (k, m) in IS n is uniquely determined by an ordered partition
ANSWERS AND HINTS TO EXERCISES
279
N = N1 ∪ N2 ∪ · · · ∪ Nk+1 , a collection of injective mappings Ni → Ni+1 ,
i = 1, . . . , k, and a permutation of order m on Nk+1 .
5.5.11 Hint: S = (Z3 , +), T = {0}.
5.5.12 n · 2n−1 + n(n−1)
+ 3.
2
5.5.13 (b) Hint: No. Consider the semigroup (N, ·) and its subsemigroups pN
and pqN, where p and q are different primes.
5.5.14 Hint: Consider an R-class and an L-class of a rectangular band.
6.6.3 These are all decompositions into left resp. right cosets with respect
to some subgroup.
6.6.4 No.
6.6.8 Hint: We have to count the number of collections k1 < k2 < · · · <
l2 < l1 from Theorems 6.5.3 and 6.5.4. Use the fact that the number of
ways to write n as a sum n = n1 + · · · + nt of positive integers (here t can
vary), equals 2n−1 . For IS n all necessary collections can be obtained in the
following way: write n + 1 as the sum n + 1 = n1 + · · · + nt , t > 1, if t
is odd, delete the last summand, and then consider the collection n1 − 1,
n1 + n2 − 1, n1 + n2 + n3 − 1,. . . . For PT n all necessary collections can be
obtained in the following way: write n + 1 as the sum n + 1 = n1 + · · · + nt ,
t > 1, and consider the collection n1 − 1, n1 + n2 − 1, n1 + n2 + n3 − 1,. . . .
If t is odd we can either delete the last summand or double the middle one.
If t is even, we can either take this collection, or delete the last summand
and double the middle one of those which are left. One has also to take into
account that Δ coincides with its own transpose.
7.4.11 Hint: Follow the proof of Theorems 7.4.1 and 7.4.7.
7.5.7 Hint: Follow the proof of Corollaries 7.5.1 and 7.5.6.
7.7.2 0 and 0a , a ∈ N.
7.7.4 14.
7.7.5 {ε, 0} for IS n and PT n and {ε} for Tn .
7.7.6 Hint: Determine first all automorphism which induce the identity mapping on the set of all idempotents of I1 .
7.7.7 Hint: Go through the lists given by Theorems 7.4.1, 7.4.7, and 7.4.10.
7.7.9 Hint: Each finite semigroup has an idempotent. At the same time
mapping the whole semigroup to an idempotent is always an endomorphism.
7.7.11 Each endomorphism of (N, +) has the form x → k · x for some fixed
k ∈ N.
8.2.9 Hint: Show that Nτm can be mapped to Nτn using an inner automorphism of PT n . Analogously for IS n .
8.6.1 Hint: Consider the cyclic semigroup of type (k, 1).
280
ANSWERS AND HINTS TO EXERCISES
8.6.4 (b): For example, S is a nontrivial group, T consists of one element
and ϕ is the unique mapping from S to T .
8.6.5 Hint: Take the product a1 · · · alk and consider the factors a1 · · · ak ,
ak+1 · · · a2k ,. . . , a(l−1)k+1 · · · akl of this product. Show that they all belong
to X.
8.6.6 Hint: Consider all possible linear combinations of the elements of T
and show that they form a nilpotent subalgebra of Matn (C).
8.6.7 Hint: Prove that each maximal subsemigroup of Matn (C) is a subalgebra and use flags of subspaces in Cn instead of partial orders.
8.6.9 Hint: Consider the subsemigroup T = In ∪ {[1, 2, 3][4] . . . [n]} of IS n .
The maximal nilpotent subsemigroups of T , corresponding to the natural
linear order and the linear order 3 < 2 < 1 < 4 < · · · < n, have different
cardinalities.
8.6.10 1 + nk=2 (m1 + m2 + · · · + mi−1 ) · mi , where mi = |Mi | for all i.
8.6.11 Hint: Use Theorem 8.4.12.
9.6.2 {(at , at+lm ) : t ≥ k, l ≥ 1} ∪ {(an , an ) : n ≥ 1}.
9.6.9 Write α as a product α= μν, where μ is a permutation and ν =
{i1 , . . . , im } B1 · · · Bk
is an idempotent in Tn .
im
b1 · · · bk
10.1.1 Hint: For every a ∈ M the set {ϕ(s)(a) : s ∈ S} is invariant.
10.1.2 For example, the natural action of the subsemigroup S of IS n , generated by the element [1, 2, . . . , n], on N.
10.7.1 This action is always faithful but never transitive. It is quasi-transitive
unless S = Sn , or S = Tn .
10.7.2 Yes.
10.7.3 The action is faithful. It is neither transitive nor quasi-transitive unless S = S1 = T1 .
10.7.4 The action is faithful. It is not transitive unless S = S1 = T1 . It is
not quasi-transitive unless S = S1 = T1 , or S = IS 1 = PT 1 .
10.7.5 The action is faithful and quasi-transitive but never transitive.
10.7.7 Only the trivial action.
10.7.12 Only the trivial action and the actions trivially induced from Sn (i.e.,
where only the action of invertible elements is different from 0). Hint: If n >
1 and ϕ : Tn → IS m is a homomorphism, different from the ones listed above,
then by Theorem 6.3.10 the homomorphism ϕ is injective on idempotents of
rank (n − 1). However, such idempotents of Tn do not commute in general.
10.7.13 Only the trivial action and the actions trivially induced from Sn
(i.e., where only the action of invertible elements is different from 0). Hint:
See the hint to 10.7.12.
10.7.14 Hint: It is enough to consider the actions of the form ξe,H and show
that for any π ∈ Sn and α ∈ IS n such that π|dom(α) = α we have α·x = π ·x.
10.7.15 (b) Hint: Consider the action a · x = ax.
ANSWERS AND HINTS TO EXERCISES
281
11.1.5 Hint: for S = Sn and S = Tn the subspace {(c1 , . . . , cn ) ∈ Cn :
c1 + · · · + cn = 0} is a submodule of the natural module.
11.5.1 Hint: Use 11.4.4(ii).
11.7.3 If A ⊂ N, then the simple module corresponding to A is CA = C with
the action B · c = c, c ∈ C, B ⊂ N, if A ⊂ B and B · C = 0 otherwise. Every
module is a direct sum of simple modules.
11.7.4 n.
11.7.5 For example, the module V (M ), where M is the trivial H(01 )-module.
11.7.9 (b) Hint: A finite semigroup is nilpotent if and only if it has a zero
element and this zero element is the only idempotent.
11.7.11 Hint: All elements s ∈ S\G annihilate M ⊗C V .
11.7.17 Hint: Consider for example the semigroup S = x : x2 = x3 .
11.7.18 A rectangular band has two simple modules: the trivial module,
and the one-dimensional module with the zero multiplication. A rectangular
band is a monoid if and only if it has only one element. Hence in the case,
when a rectangular band has exactly one element, and we consider it as a
monoid, there is only one simple module: the trivial one.
11.7.19 (b) Hint: Let X be a submodule of V (M ), which is not contained in
N (M ). Show first that there exists v ∈ X such that e·v = 0. Show then that
e · v ∈ X is a nonzero vector in the H(e)-submodule M of V (M ). Finally,
use the construction of V (M ) to show that such X contains V (M ).
11.7.20 (a) Hint: Let X be a simple S-module. Show first that there exists
e ∈ E(S) such that e · X = 0, while f · X = 0 for all idempotents f ∈ SeS
such that f ∈ D(e). Let M = e · X and M be a simple submodule of M .
Similarly to Lemma 11.4.3 show that there is a nonzero homomorphism from
V (M ) to X. Finally, use Exercise 11.7.19 to conclude that X ∼
= V (M ).
12.3.7 Hint: Show that any two H-cross-sections can be transferred into each
other by conjugation.
12.8.6 There are theree cross-sections of the form IO≺
3 , and an additional
cross-section from Exercise 12.8.5.
12.8.8 Hint: Use the Miller-Clifford Lemma ([Hi1, Theorem 1.2.5]), which
states that for any a, b ∈ S we have ab ∈ R(a)∩L(b) if and only if R(b)∩L(a)
contains an idempotent.
12.8.9 The R-classes. Hint: Use Exercise 12.8.8.
13.6.3 Hint: Show that ϕ : (S, ◦a ) → (S, ◦b ) is an isomorphism.
13.6.4 Hint: Use Exercise 13.6.3.
13.6.5 Hint: Count the number of idempotents.
13.6.6 Hint: Count the number of those elements which cannot be written
as a product of other elements.
13.6.10 Hint: Use Exercise 13.6.9.
282
ANSWERS AND HINTS TO EXERCISES
p n n−k
k
n
13.6.12 Answer:
p!.
m
p−m
p
p=0 m=1
k m
m
n
S(n − k, j)
13.6.13 Answer: nn if k = 1, nn −
j! if
S(k, m)
j
m
m=1
j=1
k > 1.
13.6.15 Hint: Use the fact that (·)−1 : B → B is an involution.
14.2.7 Reference: See for example [Grm, 10.5].
14.2.10 Hint: Use induction on n.
14.6.1 Hint: From the recursive relation f2k = 3f2(k−1) − f2(k−2) deduce
√
√
f2k = √15 ((3 + 5)/2)k + ((3 − 5)/2)k , insert this formula into the sum
from Theorem 14.3.7 and use the binomial formula.
14.6.3 (a) n(n − 1). (b) n(n − 1)/2. (c) n(2n − 1). (d) n(n + 1)/2.
14.6.4 The graph of such transformation has two connected components
with m and n − m vertices, respectively. Such components are in bijection
with nilpotent elements from Cn and Cn−m , respectively. Using Proposition 14.5.5(ii), one obtains a recursive relation for the number of elements
in question, and it remains to use Exercise 14.2.7.
14.6.6 Hint: Use Exercise 14.6.5.
14.6.7 Hint: Use Exercise 14.6.5.
14.6.9 Hint: The first factor gives the number of ways to choose im(α), the
second factor gives the number of partitions of N into r intervals.
14.6.15 If α ∈ PF n is not an idempotent (that is, not all x ∈ im(α) are fixed
points), then rank(α2 ) < rank(α).
14.6.16 (a) Hint: Choose maximal elements in α−1 (1),. . . , α−1 (k − 1).
14.6.23 Hint: Use Theorem 14.2.8(i), Proposition 14.3.1 and Stirling’s formula for n!.
14.6.25 Hint: Use Exercise 14.6.24.
14.6.27 Hint: (b) R(α) = {β : im(β) = im(α)}. Let im(α) = {a1 , . . . , ak },
a1 < · · · < ak . To determine all β we first choose the cardinality i such
that |dom(β)| = i, then dom(β), and, finally, the minimum elements from
the inverse images β −1 (a1 ),. . . , β −1 (ak ). (c) To determine all β we first consequently choose the minimum elements in the inverse images β −1 (a1 ),. . . ,
β −1 (ak ). Then every element x ∈ {i + 1, . . . , n}, which is not yet chosen, is
either included to dom(β) (in which case the value of β on it is uniquely
determined) or not.
14.6.29 Hint: To prove (i) use Proposition 4.4.1. To prove (ii) use Proposition 4.4.2.
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List of Notation
(Γ̃1 , Γ̃2 , . . . , Γ̃k ) Linear notation for a connected element with a cycle
(x0 , x1 , . . . , xk−1 ) Oriented cycle
[Γ̃1 , Γ̃2 , . . . , Γ̃k ; a] Linear notation for a tree with a sink
[x]m
The polynomial x(x − 1)(x − 2) . . . (x − m + 1)
α
A transformation
α(x)
The value of α at x
α(x) = ∅ α is not defined at x
α : M → M α is a transformation of M
α|B
The restriction of α to B
α(K)
Restriction of α to the orbit K
αji
An element of the form [ui1 , ui2 , . . . , uij ](a)(b) · · · (c)
αk
The element [1, 2, . . . , k](k + 1) · · · (n)
βji
An element of the form [uij , uij+1 , . . . , uimi ](a)(b) · · · (c)
ηi
The canonical identification of M and M (i)
Γα
The graph of α
ιS
The identity congruence on S
λ n λ is a partition of n
λu
The mapping x → xu
A
The set of all elements generated by A
a
A cyclic semigroup, generated by a
A|Σ Semigroup generated by A with defining relations Σ
297
298
LIST OF NOTATION
C[S]
The semigroup algebra of S over C
Ctriv
The trivial S-module
N
The set of all positive integers
Zy
The set of all residue classes modulo y
0
The nowhere defined partial transformation
0n
The nowhere defined partial transformation of N
GLn
The group of invertible n × n matrices
KN
The full directed graph on N
m
A partition of N into a disjoint union of nonempty subsets
N
The set {1, 2, . . . , n}
Nn
The set {1, 2, . . . , n}
Z(S) The center of the semigroup S
Ak
The alternating group
B(X) The Boolean of X
CSn (α) The centralizer of α in Sn
D
Green’s relation D
D(a) The D-class of a
Dk
The set of all elements of rank k in Tn , PT n , or IS n
E(S)
The set of idempotents of S
Ek
The trivial subgroup of Sk
Fn
The set of all order-decreasing total transformations
H
Green’s relation H
H(a) The H-class of a
IF n
The set of all order-decreasing partial permutations
IOn
The set of all order-preserving partial permutations
IOn
The set of all order-preserving partial permutations
IO≺
n
The set of all ≺-order-preserving partial permutations
LIST OF NOTATION
IS n
The symmetric inverse semigroup on N
Ik
The set of all elements of rank at most k
Ik∗
The dual symmetric inverse semigroup
Iρ
The unique ideal of the congruence ρ
J
Green’s relation J
299
J (a) The J -class of a
L
Green’s relation L
L(a)
The L-class of a
M(e, H, a) The set used to construct transitive actions by partial transformations
Nn
The set of all nilpotent elements of IS n
On
The set of all order-preserving total transformations
PF n
The set of all order-decreasing partial transformations
POn
The set of all order-preserving partial transformations
PT (M ) The set of all partial transformations of M
PT n
The set of all partial transformations of N
R
Green’s relation R
R(a) The R-class of a
SPOn Semigroup of strictly partial order-preserving transformations of N
Sn
The symmetric group on N
T (M ) The set of all total transformations of M
Tn
The set of all total transformations of N
V4
The Klein 4-group as a subgroup of S4
B
The bicyclic semigroup
h
Congruence associated with variants
in
The canonical inclusion of PT n to Tn+1
On
The set of all partial orders on N
300
LIST OF NOTATION
oα (x) The orbit of x in Γα
p(n)
The partition function
rn
The number of Schröder paths of order n
t(α)
The type of α
tk (α) The number of x ∈ N for which |{y ∈ N : α(y) = x}| = k
0a
The constant transformation with the image {a}
Annl (A) The left annihilator of the set A
Annl (a) The left annihilator of the element a
Annr (a) The right annihilator of the element a
Annr (A) The right annihilator of the set A
Aut(S) The set of all automorphisms of S
ct(π) The cyclic type of the permutation π
def(α) The defect of α
dom(α) The domain of α
End(S) The set of all endomorphisms of S
fi(g)
The number of fixed points of g
HomS (V, W ) The set of all S-homomorphisms from V to W
idrank(S) Idempotent rank of the semigroup S
im(α) The image of α
Inn(S) The set of all inner automorphisms of S
invσ
The number of inversions for σ
Ker(ϕ) The kernel of the homomorphism ϕ
lcm
The least common multiple
Matn (C) The algebra of all complex n × n matrices
min(A, ≺) The minimal element of A with respect to ≺
nd(a) The nilpotency degree of a
nd(S) The nilpotency degree of a nilpotent semigroup S
LIST OF NOTATION
301
nilrank(S) Nilpotent rank of the semigroup S
Nil(S) The set of all nilpotent subsemigroups of S
Nilk (S) The set of all nilpotent subsemigroups of S of nilpotency degree k
rank(α) The rank of α
rank(S) Rank of the semigroup S
stim(α) The stable image of α
strank(α) The stable rank of α
StG (m) stabilizer of the point m with respect to the action of G
trivS
trivial action of a semigroup S
trα (x) The trajectory of x in Γα
Bn
The nth Bell number
Cn
The n-th Catalan number
Cn
The n-th Catalan number
In
The cardinality of IS n
Ln
The total number of chains in the chain decompositions of all elements of IS n
Mn
The total number of chains in the chain decompositions of all nilpotent elements of IS n
n(PT n ) The total number of nilpotent elements in PT n
Nn
The total number of nilpotent elements in IS n
Nn
The total number of nilpotent elements in IS n
OG
The number of G-orbits
Pn
The total number of fixed points of all elements of IS n
S(n, k) Stirling numbers of the second kind
s(n, k) Stirling numbers of the first kind
ωS
The uniform congruence on S
ωα
Binary relation describing orbits of α
+
The addition of residue classes
302
LIST OF NOTATION
dom(α) The codomain of α
a
The equivalence class of a
aρ
The equivalence class of a with respect to the equivalence relation ρ
Kn
The semigroup, generated by α1 , . . . , αn in Section 12.5
x
The residue class of x
←
≺
←
The linear order opposite to ≺
S
The dual of S
πα
A special binary relation on N ∪ {n + 1}
πk
The transposition (1, k)
πα
A special binary relation on N
πρ
The canonical projection S S/ρ
Partial order on the set of all partitions of N
ρ(S, A) Kernel of the natural epimorphism A+ S
ρI
The Rees congruence with respect to the ideal I
ρα
A partition of N, associated to α
ρΣ
The minimal congruence containing all relations from Σ
ΣB
A
System of relations for B induced from that for A
∼pS
Relation of primary S-conjugation
∼S
√
e
Relation of S-conjugation
The set of all x such that xm = e for some m
τT
A binary relation on N associated with a nilpotent subsemigroup T
of PT n
Υi
exceptional endomorphisms
Δ
The equality relation
ε
The identity transformation
εA
The unique idempotent of IS n with domain A
εn
The identity transformation on N
LIST OF NOTATION
303
ε(k)
The idempotent ε{1,...,k−1,k,...,n}
εi,J
The product εi,j1 εi,j2 · εi,jk , where J = {j1 , . . . , jk }
εm,k
The idempotent of rank (n − 1) satisfying εm,k (m) = εm,k (k) = m
Λa
The inner automorphisms corresponding to a ∈ S ∗
Ωϕ
An exceptional endomorphism
Φα
The binary relation associated with α
Φ
An endomorphism of rank one
Ψ
,δ
An endomorphism of rank two
Θτ,δ
An endomorphism of rank three
|a|
The order of the element a
|S|
The cardinality of S
Ξ
An exceptional endomorphism
ξ◦η
Product of binary relations ξ and η
aρb
The pair (a, b) belongs to the binary relation ρ
a·b
The product of a and b
a ≡ b a is equivalent to b
a ≡ b(ρ) a is equivalent to b with respect to the equivalence relation ρ
aDb
a and b are D-equivalent
aHb
a and b are H-equivalent
aJ b
a and b are J -equivalent
aLb
a and b are L-equivalent
aRb
a and b are R-equivalent
a ∼pS b a and b are primarily S-conjugate
a ∼S b a and b are S-conjugate
A+
The set of all (finite) words over the alphabet A
a−1
The inverse of a in an inverse semigroup
a−1
The inverse of a
304
LIST OF NOTATION
AB
The product of the sets A and B
ab
The product of a and b
Eα
Arrows of Γα
F (X, Y ) The set of all mappings from X to Y
f : X → Y A mapping from X to Y
G/H The set of all left cosets of G modulo H
g · m The element ϕ(g)(m) for the action ϕ of G on M
Ge
The maximal subgroup corresponding to the idempotent e
H G H is a normal subgroup of G
Kn
The semigroup K n ∪ {ε}
L(≺1 , . . . , ≺k ) An L-cross-section of IS n
n
A nonnegative integer
Nτ
The nilpotent subsemigroup of IS n associated to the partial order τ
on N
Nτ
The nilpotent subsemigroup of PT n associated to the partial order
τ on N
R(≺1 , . . . , ≺k ) An R-cross-section of IS n
S/ρ
The quotient of the semigroup S modulo the congruence ρ
S/I
The quotient of the semigroup S modulo the Rees congruence ρI
S∼
= T S is isomorphic to T
S∗
The group of units of the semigroup S
S0
S if 0 ∈ S, and S ∪ {0} otherwise
S1
S if 1 ∈ S, and S ∪ {1} otherwise
Sa
The variant of S with respect to the sandwich element a
Sk
{a1 a2 · · · ak : ai ∈ S,
i = 1, . . . , k}, k > 1
T < S T is a subsemigroup of S
V (M ) S-module L-induced from M
V ∼
= W V is isomorphic to W
LIST OF NOTATION
VS (a) The set of elements, inverse to a ∈ S
Vα
Vertices of Γα
x mod y The residue of x modulo y
305
Index
G-conjugate elements, 103
G-orbit, 151
S-conjugate elements, 104
primarily, 104
S-homomorphism, 191
S-module, 189
Σ-pair, 154
λ-tableau, 206
standard, 206
H-cross-section, 219
ρ-cross-section, 215
action
centralizer of, 210
action of group, 175
kernel of, 177
stabilizer, 177
action of semigroup, 175
by partial permutations, 175
by partial transformations, 175
by transformations, 175
equivalent, 175
faithful, 176
invariant subset, 176
left, 186
natural, 176
quasi-transitive, 176
right, 186
semitransitive, 187
similar, 175
transitive, 176
trivial, 176
alphabet, 153
word over, 153
alternating group, 108
annihilator
left, 65
right, 65
anti-chain, 51
arrow, 3
head of, 3
tail of, 3
automorphism, 93, 111
extendable, 248
inner, 111
band
rectangular, 36
Bell number, 48, 138
bicyclic semigroup, 246
binary operation, 16
associative, 16
Boolean, 35
braid relations, 172
Branching rule, 207
canonical epimorphism, 93
canonical form, 154
canonical projection, 93
Catalan number, 152, 254
Cayley table, 20
Cayley’s Theorem, 21
center, 129
centralizer, 121, 210
chain, 23
prefix of, 229
chain-cycle notation, 23
closure
transitive, 104
concatenation, 153
307
308
congruence, 91
identity, 91
left, 91
Rees, 92
right, 91
uniform, 91
conjugate elements, 103
connected component, 4
coset
left, 95
Coxeter group, 172
cross-section, 215
cycle, 4, 6
oriented, 4
cyclic semigroup, 70
diagram
egg-box, 56
digraph, 3
direct sum of modules, 200
trivial, 200
directed edge, 3
directed graph, 3
arrow of, 3
head of, 3
tail of, 3
connected, 4
directed edge of, 3
isomorphic, 13
oriented path of, 4
subgraph of, 4
union of, 7
vertex of, 3
dual, 33
duality
Schur-Weyl, 210
effective representation, 198
egg-box diagram, 56
element
G-conjugate, 103
S-conjugate, 104
primarily, 104
D-equivalent, 54
INDEX
H-equivalent, 55
J -equivalent, 55
L-equivalent, 53
R-equivalent, 54
conjugate, 103
generated by a set, 39
group, 70
index of, 71
inverse, 23
pair, 23
inverse of, 18
invertible, 18
mididentity, 249
nil-, 28
nilpotency class, 28
nilpotency degree, 28
nilpotent, 28
order of, 71
period of, 71
regular, 23
sandwich, 237
singular, 75
type of, 71
unit, 18
endomorphism, 93, 114
rank of, 114
epimorphism, 93
canonical, 93
equivalent
D-, 54
H-, 55
J -, 55
L-, 53
R-, 54
Ferrers diagram, 206
shape of, 206
Fibonacci number, 258
forest, 6
free semigroup, 153
base of, 153
full transformation semigroup, 16
INDEX
function
partition, 242
Gelfand model, 210
generating set, 39
generating system, 39
Coxeter, 42
depth of, 269
irreducible, 39
generator
Coxeter, 172
global semigroup, 83
graph
empty, 70
isomorphic, 103
strongly connected, 270
Green’s lemma, 56
Green’s relations, 55
group, 18
action of, 175
kernel of, 177
stabilizer, 177
alternating, 108
element of
conjugate, 103
subnormal, 95
symmetric, 19
group element, 70
309
constant on a set, 76
singular on a set, 76
identity, 17
left, 17
mid-, 249
right, 17
two-sided, 17
image
homomorphic, 94
stable, 33
inclusion
canonical, 149
induced module, 194
inflation, 239
interval, 253
invariant, 26, 31
inverse element, 23
inverse semigroup, 25
involution, 210
irreducible representation, 189
isomorphic graphs, 103
isomorphism, 20, 93
juxtaposition, 153
kernel, 32, 94
homomorphic image, 94
homomorphism, 92, 191
kernel of, 94
lemma
Burnside’s, 151
Cauchy-Frobenius, 151
Green, 56
letter, 153
linear notation, 9
ideal, 45
generator of, 45
left, 45
one-sided, 45
prime, 66
principal, 45
reflexive, 66
right, 45
semiprime, 66
two-sided, 45
idempotent, 26
mapping, 15
composition of, 15
partial, 15
composition of, 15
defined on, 15
product of, 15
product of, 15
value of, 15
maximal nilpotent subsemigroup,
132
mididentity, 249
310
module
equivalent, 191
induced, 194
isomorphic, 191
regular, 192
Specht, 206
tensor product of, 209
module over a semigroup, 189
L-induced, 194
direct sum, 200
equivalent, 191
homomorphism, 191
indecomposable, 200
induced, 194
isomorphic, 191
quotient, 190
regular, 192
semisimple, 201
simple, 189
sub-, 189
trivial, 190
modules
indecomposable, 200
semisimple, 201
monoid, 17
rook, 190
monomorphism, 93
morphism
auto-, 93
endo-, 93
epi-, 93
homo-, 92
iso-, 93
mono-, 93
natural module, 190
nil-semigroup, 148
nilpotency class, 131
nilpotency degree, 131
nilpotent semigroup, 131
normal subgroup, 95
notation
chain-cycle, 23
cyclic, 8
INDEX
linear, 9
number
Bell, 48, 138
Catalan, 152, 254
Fibonacci, 258
Lah
signless, 30
Stirling
first kind, 275
second kind, 29
operation
sandwich, 237
orbit
kernel, 32
order
partial
natural, 109
oriented path, 4
pair of inverse elements, 23
partial order
height of, 134
natural, 109
partial transformation
type of, 38
partition, 206
partition function, 242
path
break of, 4
head of, 4
oriented, 4
Schröder, 268
tail of, 4
permutation, 3
≺-order-preserving, 220
cyclic type of, 105
even, 205
inversion for, 205
odd, 205
order-preserving, 220
partial, 22
permutational part, 33
power semigroup, 83
INDEX
prefix, 229
presentation, 154
irreducible, 173
presentation of semigroup, 154
irreducible, 173
Preston-Wagner Theorem, 33
projection
canonical, 93
quotient module, 190
rank
stable, 33
rank of semigroup, 269
idempotent, 269
nilpotent, 269
rectangular band, 36
regular D-class, 63
regular element, 23
regular module, 192
relation
binary
product of, 54
relations
braid, 172
representation, 189
completely reducible, 201
representation of a semigroup
completely reducible, 201
representation of semigroup, 189
effective, 198
irreducible, 189
residue, 71
residue classes, 71
group of, 71
restriction, 26
retraction, 129
rook monoid, 190
sandwich
element, 237
operation, 237
semigroup, 237
Schröder path, 268
Schur-Weyl duality, 210
311
semigroup, 16
D-class, 54
regular, 63
H-class, 55
H-cross-section of, 219
J -class, 55
L-class, 53
R-class, 54
ρ-retract, 216
abelian, 28
action of, 175
equivalent, 175
faithful, 176
invariant subset, 176
left, 186
natural, 176
quasi-transitive, 176
right, 186
semitransitive, 187
similar, 175
transitive, 176
trivial, 176
algebra, 207
aperiodic, 253
automorphism of, 93, 111
inner, 111
bicyclic, 246
cardinality, 16
Cayley table, 20
center of, 129
combinatorial, 253
commutative, 28
congruence on, 91
identity, 91
left, 91
quotient modulo, 92
Rees, 92
right, 91
uniform, 91
cross-section
H-, 219
cross-section of, 215
cyclic, 70
defining relation, 154
312
INDEX
dual, 33
element
canonical form, 154
element of
G-conjugate, 103
S-conjugate, 104
D-equivalent, 54
H-equivalent, 55
J -equivalent, 55
L-equivalent, 53
R-equivalent, 54
group, 70
index of, 71
order of, 71
period of, 71
regular, 23
singular, 75
type of, 71
endomorphism of, 93, 114
rank of, 114
retraction, 129
epimorphism of, 93
canonical, 93
factor, 92
free, 153
base of, 153
full transformation, 16
global, 83
Green’s relations, 55
homomorphism of, 92
kernel of, 94
ideal of, 45
generator of, 45
left, 45
one-sided, 45
prime, 66
principal, 45
reflexive, 66
right, 45
semiprime, 66
two-sided, 45
idempotent of, 26
inflation, 239
inverse, 25
involution of, 210
isomorphism of, 20
left zero, 35
module over, 189
L-induced, 194
direct sum, 200
equivalent, 191
homomorphism of, 191
indecomposable, 200
induced, 194
isomorphic, 191
quotient, 190
regular, 192
semisimple, 201
simple, 189
sub-, 189
trivial, 190
monomorphism of, 93
morphism of
auto-, 93, 111
endo-, 93, 114
epi-, 93
iso-, 20
mono-, 93
multiplication table, 20
nil-, 148
nilpotency class, 131
nilpotency degree, 131
nilpotent, 131
class of, 131
degree of, 131
null, 35
of all partial transformations, 16
of all transformations, 16
of left identities, 35
of right identities, 35
opposite, 33
order-decreasing, 252
order-preserving, 251
power, 83
presentation, 154
irreducible, 173
quotient, 92
Rees, 92
INDEX
rank of, 269
idempotent, 269
nilpotent, 269
Rees quotient, 92
regular, 24
relation, 153
contained in congruence, 154
defining, 154
follows, 154
trivial, 155
relation on
compatible, 54, 91
Green’s, 55
left compatible, 54, 91
right compatible, 54, 91
representation of, 189
completely reducible, 201
effective, 198
irreducible, 189
retract of, 216
right zero, 35
sandwich, 237
self-dual, 33
semisimple, 272
singular part of, 42
sub-, 17
Sn -normal, 108
closed, 186
completely isolated, 74
isolated, 74
maximal, 84
subgroup of
maximal, 69
submodule, 189
symmetric, 16
symmetric inverse, 22
dual, 210
variant of, 237
with zero multiplication, 35
semigroup algebra, 207
semisimple semigroup, 272
set
generating, 39
sign module, 205
313
signless Lah number, 30
simple module, 189
singular part, 42
Specht module, 206
stable image, 33
stable rank, 33
subgraph, 4
maximal connected, 4
subgroup
coset modulo
left, 95
maximal, 69
normal, 95
subsemigroup, 17
Sn -normal, 108
closed, 186
completely isolated, 74
isolated, 74
completely, 74
maximal, 84
maximal nilpotent, 132
nilpotent
maximal, 132
symmetric group, 19
sign module, 205
symmetric inverse semigroup, 22
system
generating, 39
depth of, 269
irreducible, 39
tensor product, 209
theorem
Cayley, 21
orbit-counting, 151
Preston-Wagner, 33
trajectory, 4
terminates, 5
transformation, 1
Sn -centralizer of, 121
≺-order-preserving, 220
bijective, 3
chain, 23
prefix of, 229
314
INDEX
codomain of, 2
constant, 20
cycle of length k, 10
defect of, 2
domain of, 1
fixed point of, 10
full, 2
graph of, 3
identity, 18
image
stable, 33
image of, 2
injective, 3
invariant set w.r.t., 26
orbit of, 6
order-decreasing, 252
order-increasing, 267
order-preserving, 220, 251
order-reversing, 267
order-turning, 268
partial, 1
permutational part of, 33
preserves relation, 56
range of, 2
rank
stable, 33
rank of, 2
restriction of, 26
stable image, 33
stable rank, 33
surjective, 3
tabular form of, 1
total, 2
type of, 38
value of, 1
transitive closure, 104
transposition, 10
tree, 6
forest of, 6
sink of, 6
trivial, 7
trivial block, 260
trivial module, 190
unit, 18
variant of semigroup, 237
word, 153
concatenation of, 153
juxtaposition, 153
Young diagram, 206
shape of, 206
zero, 19
left, 19
right, 19
two-sided, 19