OUSSAMA BENKHYE (Mhtrf Gamer)
Reading a Scientific Research Article
scientific article: a piece of writing that reports the findings of a scientific experiment.
Scientists use these types of articles to inform other scientists, as well as regular people, about their discoveries.
good scientific article does several things: It explains
why the experiment was done,
how it was performed,
what conclusion was reached,
how the results support that conclusion.
Why read a scientific paper?
• I'm having trouble getting my experiments to work, and I think I might have the wrong concentration of NaCl in my
solutions. I better check to see what other investigators have used.
• Those folks at Your State University have been working on the same question as me. I wonder whether their work
supports or contradicts mine?
• I can't believe those folks at Your State University are claiming their results contradict my work. I'm going to
scrutinize their data and analysis to see if they've made any mistakes.
• That work sounds interesting, I wonder if I might be able to incorporate any of the ideas or approaches into my
own work.
• That Albert Einstein is a pretty bright guy, it's probably a good idea if I keep up with his work.
• I'm trying to stay current with my field, I wonder what new work is out there.
The typical “anatomy” of a paper:
TITLE
- title will help you to determine if an article is interesting or relevant for your project
- Well-written titles: give a reasonably complete description of the study that was conducted, and sometimes even
foreshadow the finding. included in a title are the species studied, the kinds of experiments performed, and perhaps
a brief indication of the results obtained.
- What – Who - Where
Example :
- The Effect of Strategy Training on Moroccan University Students Word Knowledge in an EFL Context
- Knowledge Gaps on Paediatric Infections in Morocco, Norther Africa
ABSTRACT
- Abstracts provide you with a complete, but very succinct summary of the paper
- An abstract contains brief statements of the purpose, methods, results, and conclusions of a study.
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- Abstracts are often included in article databases, and are usually free to a large audience. Thus, they may be the
most widely read portions of scientific papers.
INTRODUCTION
- You will find background information and a statement of the author's hypothesis in the introduction
- An introduction usually describes the theoretical background, indicates why the work is important, states a specific
research question, and poses a specific hypothesis to be tested.
METHODS
The methods section will help you determine exactly how the authors performed the experiment
The methods describes both specific techniques and the overall experimental strategy used by the scientists.
• The subjects: the people ,the participant of the study ,animals
• The setting: time ,place, duration
• The instruments: tools or equipment that the researcher has done to perform the experiment (habits lifestyle of
subjects)
• The research design :
RESULTS
- The results section contains the data collected during experimentation
- The results section is the heart of a scientific paper. In this section, much of the important information may be in
the form of tables or graphs.
DISCUSSION
The discussion section will explain how the authors interpret their data and how they connect it to other work.
• What the work suggests : implication of the study
• How it relates to other studies
• Anticipate and address any possible objections to their work: limitations of the study
• Suggest areas of improvement for future research.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The acknowledgments tell you what people or institutions (in addition to the authors) contributed to the work.
• Sources that provided financial support for the study.
• The industry group or the federal government funded the study.
LITERATURE CITED (not bibliography)
- This section provides the sources cited throughout the paper
Information about the range of other studies cited:
• Does the author cite only his or her previous studies?
• Are both classic and modern sources influencing this work?
• Does the author look to the work of scientists in other disciplines?
The literature cited section is also helpful for generating a list of background reading on the topic under study.
How do expert readers approach a scientific paper?
- Expert readers of scientific literature approach a paper with a critical mindset.
- They do not automatically accept an author's conclusions.
OUSSAMA BENKHYE (Mhtrf Gamer)
- They examine whether an experiment and its data and analysis support the claims of the author.
- They are persuaded by the data and its analysis, not by an author's writing.
Types of graphs
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Research studies
Case control studies
- In a case control study, a group of people suffering from a disease (the cases) is compared with a group who do not
have the disease, but are similar in other ways (the controls). The two groups are compared to see if they were
exposed to a possible risk factor (i.e. something which may contribute to the cause of a disease.
- we search the comportment which causes the disease in the cases group
Cohort studies
- In a cohort study, a group (cohort) of people (subjects) who are similar is studied over a period of years (a
longitudinal study) to determine if there is a relationship between exposure to a risk factor and development of a
disease. At the beginning of a prospective study, none of the subjects has the disease. They are followed up for a
number of years, and at the end of the period, those who have developed the disease are compared with those who
have not.
 The subjects are only observed and there is no intervention.
 A cohort study is a more reliable method of identifying the cause of a disease than a case control study.
Trials
In a trial, a group of people who are suf fering from a dis ease ar e given a par ticular
t r e a t m e n t . To d e t e r m i n e t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f t h e t r e a t m e n t , a c o n t r o l l e d t r i a l i s
p e r f o r m e d . Tw o g r o u p s a r e s t u d i e d : o n e g r o u p ( t h e s t u d y g r o u p ) i s g i v e n t h e t r e a t m e n t
a n d t h e o t h e r ( t h e c o n t r o l g r o u p ) i s no t . T h e c o n t r o l s m a y b e g i v e n a p l a c e b o .
 Tr i a l s a r e u s e d t o te s t t r e a t m e n t s o r p r ev e n t i v e m e a s u r e s .
longitudinal study: collect data from the same sample over an extended period of time.
cross-sectional study: you collect data from a population at a specific point in time
cases: A study that compares patients who have a disease or outcome of interest
controls: patients who do not have the disease or outcome
Risk factor: Something that increases a person's chances of developing a disease
Cohort : is a group of people with similar characteristics
Confounding: Something that might cause confusion about the cause of a disease
meta-analysis is a statistical analysis that combines the results of multiple scientific studies.
OUSSAMA BENKHYE (Mhtrf Gamer)
Q.E
the architecture of a scientific article :
IMRAD introduction methods results and discussion
IMRAD format
The organization of a research report into four main sections: the Introduction, Method, Results, and Discussion
sections.
Methods
the specific ways that scholars collect and analyze data which they then use to prove or disprove their theories
Results
data and observations gathered from the experiment
Discussion
the portion of a research report that restates the hypothesis, summarizes the results, and presents a discussion of
the interpretation, implications, and possible applications of the results
Open access publishing
provides content online for readers for free but means that you can pay to be published
what is the A in IMRAD sometimes
abstract and includes an introduction and a brief summary
Longitudinal study
a study that observes the same participants on many occasions over a long period of time
Cross-sectional study
In medical research, social science and biology, a cross-sectional study is a type of observational study that analyzes
data from a population, or a representative subset, at a specific point in time—that is, cross-sectional data.
Clinical trials
experiments that study the effectiveness of medical treatments on actual patients
Case-control study
A type of epidemiologic study where a group of individuals with the diseases, referred to as cases, are compared to
individuals without the disease, referred to as controls
cohort study design
a study design that involves the examination of a large disease-free population over a period of several years
Risk factors
characteristics or behaviors that increase the likelihood of developing a medical disorder or disease
what is research design
a detailed plan or method for obtaining data scientifically
Ethnographic Case Study
Describes the activities of a specific group and the shared patterns of behavior the group develops over time
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Experimental method
a method of cause-and-effect relationships with a random assignment to experimental and control groups
Meta-analysis
combines the findings of multiple studies to determine the average impact of a similar intervention across studies
Exploratory research
Research conducted to gather more information about a problem or to make a tentative hypothesis more specific
When is exploratory research used
when the researcher sees additional information or desires more recent information about a problem
Descriptive research designs
describing patterns and finding connections
True experimental research
random assignment, active manipulation, Tx and control groups
Quasi-experimental design
Research method similar to an experimental design except that it makes use of naturally occurring groups rather
than randomly assigning subjects to groups.
Hypothesis
a supposition or proposed explanation made on the basis of limited evidence as a starting point for further
investigation.
null hypothesis
A prediction that there is no difference between groups or conditions, or a statement or an idea that can be falsified,
or proved wrong.
alternative hypothesis
the hypothesis that a proposed result is true for the population
Blinding
a technique where the subjects do not know whether they are receiving a treatment or a placebo
Double-blind procedure
A research strategy in which neither subjects nor experimenters know which subjects are in the experimental or
control groups.
Randomization (random assignment)
A sampling selection procedure in which each person or element in a population has an equal chance of being
selected to either the experimental group or the control group.
Setting
The time and place of the action/experiment/research
Funding
money provided, especially by an organization or government, for a particular purpose.
Capsule
Cylinder shaped enclosure for medication, either gelatin or time-released coating
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Drop
Sterile solution that contains medication intended to be delivered directly into the area to be treated, e.g.,
eyes, ears, nose, etc.
Inhalant
Medications delivered in fixed or nonfixed dose breathed in through the nose or the mouth. May be oxygen,
sprays or aeresols
Liquid
Medication suspended in liquid or alcohol to be administered through means of injection, intravenously,
intrathecal, nasogastric or orogastric. Other means may be through wounds by irrigation.
Powder
Fine particles intended to be dissolved in liquids or foods just prior to be ingested.
Suppository
A bullet-shaped, solid drug that is inserted into a body opening: rectal, vagina or urethra that melts at body
temperature.
Tablet
Medication that is bound together by substances that dissolve in stomach acids that are sometimes
flavored to make them more palatable. Can be divided into two.
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Transdermal Patch
Adhesive patch with time-released dose of medication to be worn for a specific amount of time.
Transdermal: Crossing through the skin
Intradermal: pertaining to within the skin
Ointment
a smooth substance that you rub on the skin to heal a wound or sore place
Lozenge (troche)
A flat, round, or oval preparation that dissolves and releases a drug when held in the mouth
Pill
Mixture of a powdered drug with a cohesive material; may be round or oval
IV injection
injection of a substance directly into a vein
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intramuscular injection
an injection into deep muscle tissue, usually of the buttock, thigh, or upper arm
Alimentary routes: Passes the GI organs and liver for drug metabolism
Oral route of administration: the administration of medication through swallowing for absorption along the
GI tract into systemic circulation
buccal route of administration: a transmucosal route of administration in which a drug is placed between
the gum and the inner lining of the cheek
Sublingual: Drugs placed under tongue
Rectal: Drugs inserted at anus
parenteral route: dispensation of medications via a needle into the skin layers/non-oral means of
administration
Intradermal: pertaining to within the skin
Subcutaneous: 45 deg Subq tissue
Intramuscular: 90 deg muscle
Intravenous: pertaining to within a vein
Intraarterial: Direct route to artery
Intraperitoneal: Direct route to peritoneal
Intracardial: Direct route to heart
Topical: Apply on skin or mucous membranes Eyes nose throat airways caging ears
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Analgesics: alleviate pain
Narcotics: decrease pain sensation in central nervous system
Anesthetics: reduce or eliminate sensation
Anticoagulants: prevent coagulation and formation of blood clots
Antidiabetics: prevent or alleviate diabetes
Antiemetics: relieve symptoms of nausea and prevent vomiting
Antihistamines: prevent responses mediated by histamine; allergic and inflammatory reactions
Antihypertensives: lower blood pressure by reducing cardiac output, dilating vessels, or promoting
excretion of water by the kidneys
anti-inflammatory drugs: counteract inflammation and swelling
corticosteroids, nonsteroidal: types of anti-inflammatory drugs
antibacterial, antibiotics, antifungals, antiparasitic, antivirals: types of anti-infective agents
diuretics: promote excretion of water, sodium, and other electrolytes by the kidneys
gastrointestinal drugs: act on the digestive tract
antidiarrheals, histamine H2 antagonists, laxatives, proton pump inhibitors: types of gastrointestinal
drugs
antidiarrheals: treat or prevent diarrhea by reducing intestinal motility or absorbing irritants and soothing
the intestinal lining
laxatives: promote elimination from the large intestines
muscle relaxants: depress nervous system stimulation of skeletal muscles
antidepressants: relieve depression by raising brain levels of neurotransmitters
respiratory drugs: act on the respiratory system
antitussives: suppress coughing
asthma maintenance drugs; bronchodilators: used for prevention of asthma attacks and chronic
treatment of asthma; prevent of eliminate spasm of the bronchi by relaxing bronchial smooth muscle; used
to treat asthma attacks and bronchitis
expectorants: induce productive coughing to eliminate respiratory secretions
sedatives/hypnotics: induce relaxation and sleep
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QOD: every other day
QD: daily
BID: twice a day
Q4h: every 4 hours
Tab : tablet
Cap: capsule
Syr: syrup
Gtt: drop
Ung: ointment
TID: three times a day
QID: four times a day
QAM: every morning
QPM: every evening
QHS: at bedtime
Q#H: every ___ hours
PO: by mouth
IV: intravenous
IM: intramuscular
SL: sublingually
OS: left eye
OD: right eye
OU: both eyes
AS: left ear
AD: right ear
AU: both ears
AC: before meals
PC: after meals
c food: with food
WM: with meals
qs: quantity sufficient
prn: as needed
1 tsp: 5 mL
1 tbsp: 15 mL
transcribe
means putting verbal information into written form
Pharmacokinetics
the study of the bodily absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion of drugs; looks at what the body
does to drugs in its system
Pharmacodynamics
the study of the reactions between drugs and living systems
Pharmacotherapeutics
the study of the therapeutic uses and effects of drugs
toxicology
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the study of poisonous chemicals, drugs, and other substances, and how a person or other living things
react to them. focuses on negative effects of drugs on the body
prescription
is a legal document that provides information regarding the medication to be dispensed to a patient
a prescription always includes:
the medication name, how to use the medication (frequency and route of administration) and the patient's
information
Medical Orders
provide the same information found on prescriptions; however, they are used for inpatient settings and
include the number of doses
generic Drug Name
the official drug name that's found in the US parmacopeia (USP) National Formulary
Trade Name (brand name)
the name given to a drug by its manufacturer; this info doesn't appear if the drug is generic
chemical name of drug
Describes the drug's chemical composition and molecular structure
Drugs facts labeling
Tells you what the medicine is supposed to do, who should or shouldn't take it, and how to use it. It
contains usage and safety information for consumers.
National Drug Code (NDC)
a drug's unique 10 or 11 digital identification number
Dosage Strength
the amount of active ingredient found in the medication
Drug Manufacturer
the name of the company that made the medication
Storage Instructions
instructions on how to store the medication, such as the temperature or humidity
Expiration Date
the date after which a medicine should not be sold because of an expected decline in quality or
effectiveness
Bioavailability
is the fraction of the unchanged drug that enters the circulation and is available to have a therapeutic effect
What are some factors that affect bioavailability?
what patient eats, if the patient's stomach is empty, quantity, ect
dose
is the amount of medication that is taken at one time
Dosage
is the total amount of a medication to complete the prescription order
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Scored Tablet
tablet with a linear indentation (scoring) that acts as a guide for splitting into equal parts
Unscored Tablet
tablet without linear indentation (scoring)
Parenteral
medications aren't administered or absorbed through the gastrointestinal tract
Tinctures
formulated by dissolving the active ingredient in alcohol
Elixirs
sweetened alcohol-based medications
Suspensions
mixtures of an insoluble active ingredient uniformly distributed in a liquid but not dissolved in it.
Syrups
saturated sugar solutions containing dissolved medical ingredients
Solutions
medications completely dissolved in a liquid
Infusion
medication is introduced into the body at a slow, continuous rate through a needle or catheter
Topical
medication is applied to the skin. generally, topical medications treat the area of skin with which they come
in contact. sometimes they're creams instead of true liquids
Ophthalmic
medication is introduced through the eye
Intranasal
medication is introduced through the nose
Ophthalmic
delivery system where medication is introduced through the eye
Infusion
delivery system where medication is introduced into the body at a slow, continuous rate through a needle or
catheter
International Unit (IU)
is a measurement of the amount of substance in a medication, but this type of measurement caries across
different types of medications
Anticoagulant
a type of drug that prevents blood from clotting, such as heparin
Insulin
a medication (a hormone) used to control type 1 & 2 diabetes.
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An anti-epileptic medication is one that prevents seizures :
2) An antihypertensive medication is used to prevent or control high blood pressure.
3) An anticancer medication is one that prevents the growth of cancer cells or prevents the spread of cancer in the body.
4) An antitoxin medication is one that reduces or eliminates the harmful effects of a toxin.
5) An anti-anginal medication is one that alleviates angina or chest pain.
6) An antiviral medication prevents the spread of a virus.
7) An antibacterial medication eliminates bacteria.
Compendium: a comprehensive list and collection of knowledge and information
Formulary: a list of drugs approved for prescription and their formulas
Therapeutic: able to treat, ameliorate, or cure
Potential: is capable of action but not yet doing so
Gross: large or coarse and visible to the eye
Poison: a substance that enters the body that is injurious to health or potentially fatal
Tremors: abnormal, repetitive, involuntary shaking movements
Medication order: identifies a drug the doctor wants the patient to take and gives instructions on how to take the drug
Transcribe: copy and interpret something spoken or written into a document
Obligation: duty and responsibility
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Safe practice: actions, knowledge, and competencies that will not harm patients or clients
Follow-up care: a phase of care that continues in the community after discharge from the hospital or a series of treatments
Best practice: procedures and treatments of high standards that have been proven to be effective in care delivery
Grave: very serious and possibly dangerous, harmful, or life threatening
Measures: steps in a procedure or process
Verifying: checking the truth, accuracy, or interpretation
Wristband: bracelet that wraps around the wrist that includes identifying data
Systematic: organized, methodical, step-wise
chest pain: angina
1) What is the main focus of this reading?
2) In what types of situations are these strategies occurring?
3) What is meant by the term the “7 Rights”?
5) The title of the reading mentions preventative action. What is being prevented?
6) Two preventative actions are discussed in this reading. Name them.