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What is the psychological definition of sensation?Sensation refers to the raw signal provided by the sensory receptors to the brain. This signal has not yet been refined and processed by the brain.
What is the psychological definition of perception?Perception refers to the processing of sensations in order to make sense of the sensation's meaning and significance.
What is the difference between distal and proximal stimuli?We pick up stimuli from objects outside ourself by using our sensory receptors. For an object outside of ourself, the distal stimuli is the object that we are seeing/thinking about. The proximal stimul will be the actual physical molecules/energy/etc. that are hitting our body and relaying the sensory information to us so we can think about it. As an example, consider a campfire. The campfire is what I see, and am thinking about. It is the distal stimuli. The photons of light that reach my eye from the campfire so that I can see are the actual physical entities that are interacting directly with my sensory receptors. The photons are the proximal stimuli.
What are the 7 most heavily tested sensory receptors and what do they sense?1. Photoreceptors: sense electromagnetic waves in the visible spectrum (sight). 2. Hair cells: respond to movement of fluid in inner ear structures (hearing, sense of acceleration). 3. Nociceptors: respond to painful or noxious stimuli (pain) 4. Thermoreceptors: respond to changes in temperature (thermosensation). 5. Osmoreceptors: respond to the osmolarity of the blood (water homeostasis) 6. Olfactory receptors: respond to gauseous compounds (smell) 7. Taste Receptros: respond to dissolved compounds (taste)
What are the 3 thresholds in the context of psychology?1. Absolute Threshold 2. Conscious Threshold 3. Differential Threshold
What is an absolute threshold?The absolute threshold is the minimum amount of energy that needs to be supplied in order for a neurochemical sensory system to register a change. This is the threshold associated with Sensation.
What is a conscious threshold?Sometimes, it takes a lot of a signal before we actually notice (perceive) it. The conscious threshold is minimum intensity a signal has to be before we perceive it. This is the threshold of perception.
What is a limina?A limina is just another word for threshold. Subliminal stimuli are stimuli that are falling below our threshold of perception, and so we don't notice them.
What is the difference threshold?The difference threshold is the smallest difference we can notice between two things. Note that this is also a form of a perception threshold. For example, if the temperature changes 1 degree and you do not notice, that is because 1 degree is below the difference threshold. It may take 3 or 4 degrees of temperature change before you can perceive how much hotter or colder it is.
What is Weber's Law?Weber's Law states that, as the magnitude of a stimulus rises, the magnitude of the noticable difference will rise according to a constant for that sense perception. This makes sense. For example, imagine a man with 1,000,000 dollars and a man with 100 dollars. How would the man with 100 dollars feel if he lost 50? He would feel bad. It is very noticable to lose 50% of your money. But the man with 1,000,000 dollars probably wouldn't even care if he lost 50 dollars. It is not very noticeable to lose .005% of your money. The differential threshold will always be equal to some percentage of the overall magnitude. This percentage changes for different stimuli.
What is signal detection theory?"Signal detection theory tries to answer the following question: ""Why is it that the same exact sensation can sometimes produce drastically different perceptions"". For example, depending on the context, the smell and taste of coffee can excite me and lift me up (in the morning) or bum me out (when I'm drinking it late to stay up and study.) Signal detection theory explains this discrepancy by stating that internal psychological and external environment can affect the way we perceive the same sensations."
What is response bias?Response bias refers to the tendency of subjects to respond to a stimulus in a habitual way due to nonsensory factors.
What are the two types of signal detection trials?1. Catch Trials 2. Noise Trials
What is a catch trial and what are its two possible outcomes?A catch trial is when a signal is present and the subject is asked whether or not the signal was present. If the Subject responds yes, he is correct. This is called a hit. If the Subject responds no, he is incorrect. This is called a miss.
What is a noise trail and what are its two possible outcomes?A noise trial is when the signal is absent and the Subject is asked whether or not the signal was present. If the Subject says yes, they are wrong because there was no signal. This is called a False Alarm. If the Subject says no, they are right, because there was no signal. This is called a Correct Negative.
How does our perception of stimulus change as the stimulus is repeatedly applied?As a stimulus continues to be applied, we adapt to it and start to perceive it less and less. Take for example the sound of the rain when you are in a building. You hear it start to rain, but as the rain pours it begins to just become background noise. Eventually, you stop noticing it all together.
What are the 14 important anatomical features of the eye?1. Sclera 2. Choroid 3. Retina 4. Cornea 5. Anterior Chamber 6. Posterior Chamber 7. Lens 8. Macula 9. Fovea 10. Optic disc 11. Pupillary muscles 12. Ciliary muscles 13. Suspensory Ligaments 14. Canal of Schlemm MNEMONIC: Some Cats Read Comics About Pussy Licking Mother Fuckers On Cars Sucking Cocks.
What is the sclera?The sclera is the outermost white thick layer of the eye. It serves the structural purpose of defining the boundaries of the eye and protecting the interior.
What is the choroid?The choroid is the middle layer of the eye. It contains connective tissues and blood vessels that supply the whole eye.
What is the Retina?The Retina is the innermost layer of the eye. It is comprised of both nervous tissue and vascular tissue. This is the functional layer of the eye that transmits entering light into neurochemical signals for our brain to interpret.
What is the cornea?The cornea is a clear dome-like window through which light must pass to enter our eye. It is not covered by the sclera. The cornea's shape and size help it capture and focus incoming light.
What is the anterior chamber?The anterior chamber is the outer chamber of the eye that is bound by the cornea.
What is the lens?The lens is a crystalline structure in the eye through which light passes. It's function is to bend incoming light rays and focus them on the retina for a clear signal and thus image.
What is the posterior chamber?The posterior chamber is the central/inner chamber of the eye.
What is vitreous humor?Viterous humor is the medium/liquid found in the posterior chamber. It is thick and jelly like.
What is aqueous humor?Aqueous humor is the medium/liquid found in the anterior chamber. It is thin and water like.
What are the 2 pupillary muscles and what do they do?1. Dilator Pupillae, dilates the pupil. 2. Constrictor Pupillae, constricts the pupil.
What is the fovea?The fovea is the center of the macula. The fovea is distinct in that it is 100% comprised of cones.
What is the Macula?The Macula is the center of the retina. This is where most of the light entering our eye is focused. The Macula is rich in cones.
What is the Optic Disk?The Optic Disk is the point of exit for the optic nerve. This is otherwise known as our blind spot.
What are ciliary muscles?The ciliary muscles are muscles in the eye that use suspensory ligaments to stretch or squish the lens. Changing the diameter of the lens in this way allows one to change the focal point of the lens.
What are the suspensory ligaments?The suspensory ligaments are the cables that the ciliary muscles tug on to stretch the lens.
What is the canal of Schlemm?The canal of Schlemm is a drain in the eye for aqueous humor.
What are the two types of photoreceptors in the retina?1. Rods 2. Cones
What is the ratio of Rods to Cones in our eye?20:1 We have a lot more Rods than cones
What are Cones?Cones are photoreceptors in our retina that are used for color vision and to sense fine details. They work better in bright light, and come in three different forms. These three forms absorb colors of different wavelengths and construct the visible spectrum.
What are Rods?Rods are photorceptors used for non-color vision and reduced illumination vision. These receptors allow us to distinguish basic shapes in the dark, but do not have the fine detail capability of cones. Rods all contain only a single pigment, Rhodopsin.
What are the types of neurons between the retina and the optic nerve?1. Bipolar cells 2. Ganglion cells 3. Horizontal cells 4. Amacrine cells
What are Bipolar Cells and what is their function?Bipolar cells connect between adjacent rods/cones. By sensing the relative amounts of light in diffferent parts of the eye simultaneously, the bipolar cells help us with highlighting gradients of color/brightness between objects.
What are Amacrine and Horizontal Cells?Amacrine and Horizontal Cells receive input from multiple retinal cells in the same area before passing information to the Ganglion Cells. By receiving info from cells in various locations in the eye (not rods/cones, but actual cells) the amacrine and horizontal increase our ability to perceive contrast and edges.
What are Ganglion cells?Ganglion cells are cells that receive info from the other retina cells and converge into the optic nerve.
Describe the path taken by the optic nerves in the eyes.The optic nerve of each eye will diverge into two different optic tracts, one of which crosses hemispheres.
When the right optic nerve separates into two optic tracts, the [...] optic tract enters the brain from the same side.When the right optic nerve separates into two optic tracts, the right optic tract enters the brain from the same side. Same pattern for the other eye.
When the right optic nerve separates into two optic tracts, the [...] optic tract enters the brain from the opposite side.When the right optic nerve separates into two optic tracts, the left optic tract enters the brain from the opposite side. Same pattern for the other eye.
In the right eye, the right optic tract receives input from the [nasal or temporal] field of view?In the right eye, the right optic tract receives input from the nasal field of view? Same pattern for the left eye.
In the right eye, the left optic tract receives input from the [nasal or temporal] field of view?In the right eye, the left optic tract receives input from the temporal field of view? Same pattern for the other eye.
What is the optic chiasm?The optic chiasm is where the optic tracts of the optic nerve cross hemispheres.
Where are the three places the majority of visual information goes after entering the brain?1. Lateral Geniculate Nucleus (LGN) of the Thalamus. 2. Visual Cortex in the Occipital Lobe 3. Superior Clliculus in the midbrain. This is in control of some reflexive eye movements.
What are the three key components of perceptual processing of vision?1. Color 2. Motion 3. Shape
What kinds of cells in the visual pathway allow us to process color?Cones
What kinds of cells in the visual pathways allow us to process shape?Parvocellular cells.
What kinds of cells in the visual pathways allow us to process motion?Magnocellular cells
What is meant by the vestibular sense?The vestibular sense is our ability to tell how quickly we are accelerating both linearly and rotationally. This sense is important for balance and fine movement
What are the three main divisions of the ear?1. Outer 2. Middle 3. Inner
What are the structures of the outer ear?1. Pinna 2. Ear Lobe 3. External Auditory Canal 4. Tympanic Membrane
What is the pinna (AKA Auricle)?The pinna is the cartilaginous funnel like exterior of the ear. It's function is to direct sound into the external auditory canal.
What is the external auditory canal?The external auditory canal is the canal through which sound travels to reach the tympanic membrane.
What is the tympanic membrane?The tympanic membrane (aka eardrum) is a structure in the outer ear that responds to sound waves by vibrating.
What are the two ways in which tympanic membranes detect sound?1. The tympanic membrane will detect the frequency of a sound by vibrating with a fequency of matching it. High frequency sounds cause high frequency vibrations of the tympanic membrane. 2. The tympanic membrane can also detect how loud a sound is by vibrating with an amplitude matching it. Loud sounds cause high amplitude waves in the Tympanic Membrane.
What are the structures in the middle ear?The 3 Ossicles 1. Malleus 2. Incus 3. Stapes And the Eustachian tube.
What is the function of the ossicles?The ossicles transmit the vibrations from the tympanic membrane to the inner ear.
What is the Malleus?The malleus is affixed to the tympanic membrane. It is the first structure to transmit the vibration from the tympanic membrane.
What is the incus?The incus receives vibrations from the malleus and sends them to the stapes. It is the second structure to transmit sound from the tympanic membrane.
What is the stapes?The stapes is a structure with a baseplate that rests on the oval window of the cochlea, which is the entrance to the innear ear. This is the third and last structure in the middle ear.
What is the Eustachian tube?The Esutachian tube is a canal that connects the middle ear and the nasal cavity. It's function is to help equalize pressure between the secluded middle ear and the outside environment.
What are the three main structures of the inner ear?1. Vestibule 2. Semicircular Ducts 3. Cochlea
What is the bony labyrinth?The bony labyrinth is a name for all of the winding structures in the inner ear.
What is the membraneous labyrinth?The membranous labyrinth refers to the thick membrane within the bony labyrinth.
What is endomylph?Endomylph is a potassium rich fluid inside the membraneous labyrinth.
What is perilymph?Perilymph is a thin layer of fluid in the bony labyrinth that suspends the membranous labyrinth.
What is the cochlea?The cochlea is a spiral-shaped organ divided into three layers called scalae
Describe the three scalae in the cochlea.The outer and inner scalae of the cochlea just house perilymph. The middle scalae of the cochlea houses the actual hearing apparatus.
What is the function of perilymph in the bony labyrinth?Perilymph receives the vibrations from the oval window and transmits those vibrations to the structures of the inner ear.
What are the 4 components of the hearing apparatus in the middle scalae of the cochlea?1. Basilar Membrane 2. Tectorial Membrane 3. Organ of Corti 4. Endolymph
What is the organ of corti?The organ of corti is comprised of thousands of hair cells bathed in endolymph and attached to a thin flexible membrane called the basilar membrane. These hair cells vibrate in response to the vibrations of the perilymph. They are specialized to convert the physical energy of the vibration into neurochemical signals for the brain to interpret. The organ of corti is the actual hearing apparatus, much like the rods and cones are the actual seeing apparatus.
What is the basilar membrane?The basilar membrane of the is the membrane through which the organ of corti conducts signals to the ganglion cells.
What is the tectorial membrane?The tectorial membrane is a relatively rigid structure that sits on top of the organ of corti.
What is the round window and what is its function?The round window is a flexible membrane covered hole in the cochlea that can stretch without breaking when the perilymph vibrates.
What is the auditory (vestibulocochlear) nerve?The auditory nerve receives input from the organ of corti in the cochlea and sends it to the brain.
What is the vestibule?The vestibule refers to the portion of the bony labyrinth between the semicircular canals and the cochlea. It is separated into the Utricle and the Saccule.
What is the utricle and the saccule?The utricle and saccule are both structures in the vestibule that contain modified hair cells called otoliths. These structures are sensitive to linear acceleration, and so are used for determining balance and orientation in three dimensional space.
What are otoliths?Otoliths are the specialized hair cells in the utricle and the saccule.
What are the semicircular canals and what is their function?The semicircular canals are three perpendicularly arranged loops in the bony labyrinth. Their function is to sense rotational acceleration. When we rotate hair cells in the semicircular canals bend and relay this info.
Where is auditory sent?1. Medial Geniculate Nucleus (MGN) of Thalamus - > Auditory cortex in the temporal lobe. 2. Superior olive, a structure that helps localize sound. 3. Inferior colliculus, which is involved in auditory and vestibul-ocular reflexes.
What is the place theory of hearing?The place theory states that location of a hair cell on the basilar membrane determines the pitch we perceive when that hair cell is vibrated.
What are olfactory receptors?Olfactory receptors are smell receptors. They respond to the presence of volatile or aerosiolized compounds.
What are pheromones?Pheromones are volatile molecules given off by animals to relay information or induce behavior. Pheromones seem to exist in humans as well, but their effect on human behavior is debatable.
Describe the olfactory pathway in the brain.Odors activate olfactory receptors in the nose. These signals are sent to the olfactory bulb, which are then sent to the brain via the olfactory tract.
What are gustatory receptors?Gustatory receptors are chemical receptors in the mouth that respond to dissolved compounds.
What are taste buds?Taste buds are groups of gustatory receptors found on our tonge in little bumps called papillae.
What is the path taken by gustatory information?Gustatory receptors -> Thalamus -> higher brain areas
What is proprioception?Proprioception is the ability to tell where one's body is in 3D space, even if you can't see where you are.
What is the bottom up theory of object recognition?The bottom up theory states that the brain tries to organize data from the sense organs into some kind of picture, and then tries to determine the object.
What is the top to bottom theory of object recognition?Top to bottom processing is when memories and expectations drive how we identify objects. We will have ideas of what the object could be first and then fit the data to that expectation.
Is object recognition bottom up or top down?It is both! These two types of object recognition are constantly interplaying in our minds and helping us determine what is around us.
What is perceptual organization?Perceptual organization is the way we use top down and bottom up processing to complete our perception of a thing or idea. This is done using pattern recognition, mostly in the form of Gestalt Principles.
What is depth perception?Depth Perception is the ability for the eyes to tell how far away something is. This is done through binocular clues (two eyes will see a distant object from different angles) and monocular clues (objects far away look smaller, even when viewed from one eye.)
What is Constancy?Constancy is an aspect of perceptual organization. It refers to the idea that we perceive certain characteristics of objects to be the same, despite differences in the environment.
What are the Gestalt principles?The Gestalt principles are a series of ways the brain tries to infer the missing parts of a picture when ever a picture is incomplete. They are: 1. Proximity 2. Similarity 3. Good Continuation 4. Closure 5. Contours
What is the law of proximity?The law of proximity states that elements close to one another tend to be perceived as a unit. For example, in (a), we do not see 10 individual dots. Instead, we see a triangle and a square of dots.
What is the law of similarity?The law of similarity states that objects that are similar tend to be grouped together. For example, in (b), we quickly notice the white dots and black dots as separate from one another instead of noticing the way the dots are all organized regardless of color.
What is the law of good continuation?The law of good continuation states that elements that appear to follow in the same pathway tend to be grouped together. For example, in (c), that wave form can be represented as the sum of either of those two wave combinations shown. Good continuation makes it so we default to thinking the wave is made from the combination of the two smooth continous wave forms instead of the combination of the two non continous wave forms.
What is subjective contour?Subjective contour is the brain's tendency to perceive shapes that are not actually represented in the image. For example, in (d), the only ink on the page are the black 3/4's circles and the black square halves. In theory, we should just see those 8 shapes. But instead, we see a white diamond on a black square that is poking the circles. Since we are seeing an object that is not actually there, this is subjective contour.
What is the law of closure?The law of closure states that when a space is enclosed by a contour, it tends to be perceived as a complete figure. Basically, this is our tendency to fill in small gaps in shapes we see. For example, in (e), we should see 4 separate quarter squares, but instead we perceive the object as one big square. We fill the contour in our minds.
What is the law of pragnanz?The law of pragnanz is a way to summarize and combine the common theme of the Gestalt principles. It states that perceptual organization will always be as regular, simple, and symmetric as possible.
What is somatosensation?Somatosensation refers to the 4 touch modalities of pressure, vibration, pain, and temperature.
What is a two-point threshold?A two-point threshold is the mimimum distance necessary between two points of stimulation on the skin such that the points will be felt as distinct from one another.
What is the gate theory of pain?The gate theory states that somatic sensations have to pass through a gate. This means that the strength of a pain signal is less when other touch signals like pressure and vibration are present.