Biology
Sylvia S. Mader
Michael Windelspecht
Chapter 1
A View of Life
Lecture Outline
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Outline
1.1 The Characteristics of Life
1.2 Evolution and the Classification of Life
1.3 The Process of Science
1.4 Challenges Facing Science
1-2
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1.1 The Characteristics of Life
Biology is the scientific study of life.
There is great diversity among living
things.
Living things
• are composed of the same chemical elements
as nonliving things.
• obey the same physical and chemical laws
that govern everything in the universe.
1-3
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Diversity of Life
Bacteria
Paramecium
Morel
Sunflower
Octopus
(bacteria): ©Eye of Science/Science Source; (Paramecium): ©Michael Abbey/Science Source; (morel): ©Carol Wolfe, photographer;
(sunflower): ©Mediolmages/Punchstock RF; (octopus): ©Erica S. Leeds
Despite diversity, all living things share the
same basic characteristics.
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Characteristics of Life (1)
Living things are organized.
• The levels of biological organization range from
atoms to the biosphere.
• The cell is the basic unit of structure and function
of all living things.
• Unicellular or multicellular
• Each level of organization is more complex than
the level preceding it.
• As biological complexity increases, each level acquires
new, emergent properties.
1-5
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Levels of Biological Organization
(1)
Atom
Smallest unit of an element composed
of electrons, protons, and neutrons
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Levels of Biological Organization (2)
Molecule
Union of two or more atoms of
the same or different elements

Atom
Smallest unit of an element composed
of electrons, protons, and neutrons
1-7
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Levels of Biological Organization (3)
Cell
The structural and functional
unit of all living things

Molecule
Union of two or more atoms of
the same or different elements

Atom
Smallest unit of an element composed
of electrons, protons, and neutrons
1-8
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Levels of Biological Organization (4)
Tissue
A group of cells with a common
structure and function

Cell
The structural and functional
unit of all living things

Molecule
Union of two or more atoms of
the same or different elements

Atom
Smallest unit of an element composed
of electrons, protons, and neutrons
1-9
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Levels of Biological Organization (5)
Organ
Composed of tissues functioning
together for a specific task

Tissue
A group of cells with a common
structure and function

Cell
The structural and functional
unit of all living things

Molecule
Union of two or more atoms of
the same or different elements

Atom
Smallest unit of an element composed
of electrons, protons, and neutrons
1-10
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Levels of Biological Organization (6)
Organ System
Composed of several organs
working together

Organ
Composed of tissues functioning
together for a specific task

Tissue
A group of cells with a common
structure and function

Cell
The structural and functional
unit of all living things

Molecule
Union of two or more atoms of
the same or different elements

Atom
Smallest unit of an element composed
of electrons, protons, and neutrons
1-11
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Levels of Biological Organization (7)
Organism
An individual; complex
individuals contain organ systems

Organ System
Composed of several organs
working together

Organ
Composed of tissues functioning
together for a specific task

Tissue
A group of cells with a common
structure and function

Cell
The structural and functional
unit of all living things

Molecule
Union of two or more atoms of
the same or different elements

Atom
Smallest unit of an element composed
of electrons, protons, and neutrons
1-12
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Levels of Biological Organization (8)
Species
A group of similar, interbreeding
organisms

Organism
An individual; complex individuals
contain organ systems

Organ system
Composed of several
organs working together

Organ
Composed of tissues functioning
together for a specific task

Tissue
A group of cells with a common
structure and function

Cell
The structural and functional
unit of all living organisms

Molecule
Union of two or more atoms of
the same or different elements

Atom
Smallest unit of an element composed of
electrons, protons, and neutrons
1-13
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Levels of Biological Organization (9)
Population
Organisms of the same species in a
particular area

Species
A group of similar, interbreeding
organisms

Organism
An individual; complex individuals
contain organ systems

Organ System
Composed of several organs
working together

Organ
Composed of tissues functioning
together for a specific task

Tissue
A group of cells with a common
structure and function

Cell
The structural and functional
unit of all living organisms

Molecule
Union of two or more atoms of
the same or different elements

Atom
Smallest unit of an element composed of
electrons, protons, and neutrons
1-14
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Levels of Biological Organization (10)
Community
Interacting populations in a particular area

Population
Organisms of the same species
in a particular area

Species
A group of similar, interbreeding
organisms

Organism
An individual; complex individuals
contain organ systems

Organ System
Composed of several organs
working together

Organ
Composed of tissues functioning
together for a specific task

Tissue
A group of cells with a common
structure and function

Cell
The structural and functional
unit of all living organisms

Molecule
Union of two or more atoms of
the same or different elements

Atom
Smallest unit of an element composed of
electrons, protons, and neutrons
1-15
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Levels of Biological Organization (11)
Ecosystem
A community plus the physical environment

Community
Interacting populations in a particular area

Population
Organisms of the same species
in a particular area

Species
A group of similar, interbreeding
organisms

Organism
An individual; complex individuals
contain organ systems

Organ System
Composed of several organs
working together

Organ
Composed of tissues functioning
together for a specific task

Tissue
A group of cells with a common
structure and function

Cell
The structural and functional
unit of all living organisms

Molecule
Union of two or more atoms of
the same or different elements

Atom
Smallest unit of an element composed of
electrons, protons, and neutrons
1-16
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Levels of Biological Organization (12)
Biosphere
Regions of the Earth’s crust,
waters, and atmosphere inhabited
by living organisms

Ecosystem
A community plus the physical environment

Community
Interacting populations in a particular area

Population
Organisms of the same species
in a particular area

Species
A group of similar, interbreeding
organisms

Organism
An individual; complex individuals
contain organ systems

Organ System
Composed of several organs
working together

Organ
Composed of tissues functioning
together for a specific task

Tissue
A group of cells with a common
structure and function

Cell
The structural and functional
unit of all living organisms

Molecule
Union of two or more atoms of
the same or different elements

Atom
Smallest unit of an element composed of
electrons, protons, and neutrons
1-17
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How the Biosphere Is Organized (1)
The biosphere is the zone of air, land, and
water where organisms exist.
An ecosystem is a community plus its physical
environment.
A community is a collection of interacting
populations within the same environment.
A population is all the members of a species
within an area.
A species is a group of similar, interbreeding
organisms.
1-18
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How the Biosphere Is Organized (2)
An organism is formed when organ systems are
joined together.
Organs work together to form organ systems.
Tissues make up organs.
Similar cells combine together to form tissues.
Molecules join to form larger molecules within a
cell.
Atoms combine to form molecules.
The organization of life begins with atoms.
1-19
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Characteristics of Life (2)
Life requires materials and energy.
• Energy is the capacity to do work.
• Energy is required to maintain organization and
conduct life-sustaining processes such as
chemical reactions.
• Metabolism is all the chemical reactions that occur in a
cell.
• The sun is the ultimate source of energy for nearly
all life on Earth.
• Plants, algae, and some other organisms capture solar
energy and perform photosynthesis.
• Photosynthesis is a process that converts solar energy
into the chemical energy of carbohydrates.
1-20
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Ecosystems (1)
Ecosystems are characterized by chemical cycling
and energy flow.
• Chemicals are not used up when organisms die.
• Chemicals move from one population to another in a food
chain.
• Example: Chemicals move from producers to consumers to
decomposers.
• As a result of death and decomposition, chemicals are
returned to living plants.
• Energy from the sun flows through plants and other
members of the food chain as one population feeds
on another.
• Therefore, there must be a constant input of solar energy.
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Ecosystems (2)
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Characteristics of Life (3)
Living things maintain homeostasis.
• Homeostasis is the maintenance of internal
conditions within certain boundaries.
• It is imperative than an organism maintain a state of
biological balance.
• Feedback systems monitor internal conditions and make
adjustments.
Living things respond to stimuli.
• Living things interact with the environment and
respond to changes in the environment.
• The ability to respond often produces movement.
1-23
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Characteristics of Life (4)
Living things reproduce and develop.
• All living organisms must reproduce to maintain a
population.
• The manner of reproduction varies among
different organisms.
• When organisms reproduce, they pass on copies
of their genetic information (genes) to the next
generation.
• Genes determine the characteristics of an organism.
• Genes are composed of DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid).
1-24
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Characteristics of Life (5)
Living things have adaptations.
• An adaptation is any modification that makes an
organism better able to function in a particular
environment.
• The diversity of life exists because over long
periods of time, organisms respond to changing
environments by developing new adaptations.
• Evolution is the change in a population of
organisms over time to become more suited to
the environment.
1-25
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Characteristics of Life (6)
©Photodisc/Getty RF
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1.2 Evolution and the
Classification of Life
The theory of evolution explains the
diversity and unity of life.
• The theory of evolution suggests how all living
things descended from a common ancestor.
• Common descent with modification
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Natural Selection (1)
Natural selection is the evolutionary mechanism
proposed by Charles Darwin.
Some aspect of the environment selects which traits
are more apt to be passed on to the next
generation.
• Individuals with the favorable traits produce the greater
number of offspring that survive and reproduce.
• This increases the frequency of those favorable traits in
population.
Mutations fuel natural selection.
• It introduces variations among members of a population.
1-28
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Natural Selection (2)
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Evolutionary Tree of Life (1)
An evolutionary
tree is like a
family tree. An
evolutionary tree
traces the
ancestry of life on
Earth to a
common
ancestor.
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Evolutionary Tree of Life (2)
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Evolutionary Tree of Life (3)
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Evolutionary Tree of Life (4)
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Evolutionary Tree of Life (5)
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Evolutionary Tree of Life (6)
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Evolutionary Tree of Life (7)
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Organizing Diversity
Taxonomy is the discipline of biology that
identifies, names, and classifies organisms
according to certain rules.
Systematics is the study of evolutionary
relationships between organisms.
Classification categories
• From least inclusive category (species) to most
inclusive category (domain):
• Species, genus, family, order, class, phylum, kingdom, and domain
• Each successive category above species includes more types of
organisms than the preceding one.
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Levels of Classification
Table 1.1 Levels of Classification
Category
Human
Corn
Domain
Eukarya
Eukarya
Kingdom
Animalia
Plantae
Phylum
Chordata
Anthophyta
Class
Mammalia
Monocotyledones
Order
Primates
Commelinales
Family
Hominidae
Poaceae
Genus
Homo
Zea
Species*
H. sapiens
Z. mays
*To specify an organism, you must use the full binomial name, such as Homo sapiens.
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Domains
Domain Archaea
• Contains unicellular prokaryotes that live in extreme
environments probably similar to the primitive earth
• Prokaryotes lack a membrane-bound nucleus.
Domain Bacteria
• Contains unicellular prokaryotes that live in all
environments including on our skin and in our mouths
and intestines
Domain Eukarya
• Contains unicellular and multicellular eukaryotes
• Eukaryotes contain a membrane-bound nucleus.
1-39
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Domains Archaea
Prokaryotic cells of various
shapes
Adaptations to extreme
environments
Absorb or chemosynthesize
food
Sulfolobus, an archaean
© Eye of Science/Science Source
Unique chemical
characteristics
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Domain Bacteria
Prokaryotic cells
of various shapes
Adaptations to
all environments
Absorb, photosynthesize,
or chemosynthesize food
Unique chemical
characteristics
Escherichia coli, a bacterium
© A.B. Dowsett/SPL/Science Source
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Domain Eukarya
Domain Eukarya: Kingdom Protista
Domain Eukarya: Kingdom Fungi
• Algae, protozoans,
slime molds, and
water molds
• Complex single cell
(sometimes filaments,
colonies, or even
multicellular)
• Absorb,
photosynthesize, or
ingest food
• Molds, mushrooms, yeasts,
and ringworms
• Mostly multicellular filaments
with specialized, complex cells
• Absorb food
Paramecium, a single-celled protozoan
Amanita, a mushroom
Domain Eukarya: Kingdom Plantae
Domain Eukarya: Kingdom Animalia
• Sponges, worms, insects,
fishes, frogs, turtles,
birds, and mammals
• Multicellular with
specialized tissues
containing complex cells
• lngest food
• Certain algae, mosses, ferns,
conifers, and flowering plants
• Multicellular, usually with
specialized tissues,
containing complex cells
• Photosynthesize food
Phalaenopsis, orchid, a flowering plant
Vulpes, a red fox
©M. I. Walker/Science Source; (mushroom): ©Tinke Hamming/Ingram Publishing RF; (orchid): ©Pixtal/age fotostock RF;
(fox): ©Fuse/Getty RF
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Kingdoms
Domain Archaea – kingdom designations are
being determined
Domain Bacteria – kingdom designations are
being determined
Domain Eukarya – kingdoms are designated,
but new taxonomic supergroups are being
determined
• Protists (composed of several kingdoms)
• Kingdom Fungi
• Kingdom Plantae
• Kingdom Animalia
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Scientific Names
Universal
Latin-based
Binomial nomenclature
• Two-part name
• First word is the genus.
• Always capitalized
• Second word is the species designation (or specific
epithet).
• Written in lowercase
• Both words are italicized.
• Examples: Homo sapiens (humans), Zea mays (corn)
1-44
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1.3 The Process of Science (1)
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1.3 The Process of Science (2)
The scientific method is a standard
series of steps used in gaining new
knowledge through research.
• The scientific method can be divided into five
steps:
• Observation
• Hypothesis
• Predictions and Experiments
• Data Collection with Statistical Analysis
• Conclusion
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The Scientific Method (1)
Observation
• Scientists use their senses to gather
information about a phenomenon or
natural event.
Hypothesis
• A hypothesis is a tentative explanation for
what was observed.
• An example is the discovery of the antibiotic penicillin.
• It is developed through inductive reasoning.
• It is testable.
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The Scientific Method (2)
Predictions and Experiments
• An experiment is a series of procedures
designed to test a hypothesis.
• It utilizes deductive reasoning to make a prediction
or expected outcome.
• The manner in which a scientist conducts an
experiment is called the experimental design.
• A good experimental design ensures that the
scientist is examining the contribution of a specific
factor, called the experimental (independent)
variable, to the observation.
• The experimental variable is the factor being tested.
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The Scientific Method (3)
Experiments
• A test group is exposed to the experimental
variable.
• A control group goes through all aspects of
the experiment but is not exposed to the
experimental variable.
• If the control and test groups show the same
results, the hypothesis is not supported
Data
• The data are the results of an experiment.
• Results should be observable and objective.
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The Scientific Method (4)
Data
• Tables and graphs are two possible
formats for data.
• Data are analyzed using statistics.
• Measures of variation
• Standard error: How far off the average of the data is
• Statistical significance
• Probability value (p)
•
Less than 5% is acceptable (p<0.05)
•
The lower the p value, the greater the confidence in the results
•
Not due to chance alone
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The Scientific Method (5)
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The Scientific Method (6)
Conclusion
• The data are interpreted to determine
whether the hypothesis is supported or not.
• If prediction happens, hypothesis is supported.
• If not, hypothesis is rejected.
• Findings are reported in scientific journals.
• Peers review the findings.
• Other scientists then attempt to duplicate or
dismiss the published findings.
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The Scientific Method (7)
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Scientific Theory
Scientific Theory:
• Concepts that join together two or more wellsupported and related hypotheses
• Supported by broad range of observations,
experiments, and data
Scientific Principle / Law:
• Widely accepted set of theories
• No serious challenges to validity
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Basic Theories of Biology (1)
Theory
Cell
Concept
All organisms are composed of cells, and
new cells come only from preexisting cells.
Homeostasis
The internal environment of an organism
stays relatively constant—within a range that
is protective of life.
Evolution
All living organisms have a common ancestor,
but each is adapted to a particular way of life.
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Basic Theories of Biology (2)
State Hypothesis:
Antibiotic B is a better treatment for
ulcers than antibiotic A.
Perform Experiment:
Groups were treated the same
except as noted.
Control group:
received
placebo
Test group 1:
received
antibiotic A
Test group 2:
received
antibiotic B
Collect Data:
Each subject was examined
for the presence of ulcers.
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Experimental Design (1)
Hypothesis:
Newly discovered antibiotic B is a better treatment for
ulcers than antibiotic A, in current use.
Experimental Design:
One control group includes subjects with ulcers who are
untreated by antibiotics.
Two test groups are subjects with ulcers who are
treated with either antibiotic A or B.
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Experimental Design (2)
Results and Conclusion:
An endoscopy (a procedure that allows doctors to
examine the linings of the throat, stomach, and upper
small intestine to check for ulcers) is performed on all
subjects.
The investigators then use statistics to determine the
effectiveness of the various treatments.
On the basis of the data, the investigators conclude that
their hypothesis has been supported.
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1.4 Challenges Facing Science
Science is a systematic way of acquiring
knowledge about the natural world.
Technology is the application of scientific
knowledge to the interests of humans.
Examples: cell phone, new drug, others?
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Biodiversity and Habitat Loss
Biodiversity is the total number and relative
abundance of species, the variability of their
genes, and the ecosystems in which they
live.
• Estimated to be as high as 8.7 million species
• Less than 2.3 million have been named and identified
Extinction is the death of the last member of
a species or larger classification category.
• Estimated to be losing hundreds of species every
year due to human activities
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Biologically Diverse Ecosystems Are
in Danger
Tropical rain forests and coral reef
ecosystems are home to many organisms.
Both ecosystems are threatened by
human activities.
The canopy of the tropical rain forest
supports orchids, insects, and monkeys,
among other organisms.
Coral reefs provide habitats for jellyfish,
sponges, crabs, lobsters, sea turtles,
moray eels, and fishes.
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Destruction of Healthy Ecosystems
Has Unintended Consequences
Humans depend upon healthy ecosystems for:
• Food
• Medicines
• Raw materials
Draining of wetlands of Mississippi and Ohio Rivers:
• Worsened flooding
• Ruined farmland
Destruction of South American rain forests:
• Killed species
• Decreased availability of lumber
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Emerging Diseases
Over the past decade several new diseases have
been in the news:
• H5N1
• H7N9
• SARS
• Ebola
Where do emerging diseases come from?
• New or increased exposure to insects or animals
• Changes in behavior
• Use of technology (Legionnaires’ disease)
• Globalization
• Pathogens mutating and changing hosts (avian flu)
1-63
Copyright ©2019 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
Climate Change
Changes in the normal cycles of the Earth’s
climate attributable to human activities
Due to imbalance in chemical cycling of carbon
• More carbon is being released than removed.
• Burning of fossil fuels
• Destruction of forests and replacement by farmland
• Increase in CO2 causes temperature increases, called
global warming.
• Produced by greenhouse effect
• Global warming is changing Earth’s ecosystems.
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Appendix of Image Long
Description
Diversity of Life Long Description
Microscopic rod-shaped bacteria are shown, which have a very simple structure. A microscopic
protist called Paramecium is shown, which is larger and more complex than a bacterial cell. The
other organisms shown are visible with the naked eye. A morel is an example of a fungus, a
sunflower is a type of plant, and an octopus exemplifies animals.
Jump back to Diversity of Life
Ecosystems (2) Long Description
Chemical cycling and energy flow in an ecosystem. Chemical cycling (aqua arrows) and energy
flow (red arrows) begin when plants use solar energy and inorganic nutrients to produce their
own food. Chemicals and energy are passed from one population to another in a food chain.
Eventually, energy dissipates as heat. With the death and decomposition of organisms,
chemicals are returned to living plants once more.
Jump back to Ecosystems (2)
Characteristics of Life (6) Long Description
Living organisms have adaptations. Penguins have evolved complex behaviors, such as sliding
across ice to conserve energy, to adapt to their environment.
Jump back to Characteristics of Life (6)
Natural Selection (2) Long Description
In the example depicted, some plants within a population exhibit variation in leaf structure (hairy
versus smooth leaves). Deer prefer a diet of smooth leaves over hairy leaves. Plants with hairy
leaves reproduce more than other plants in the population. Generations later, most plants within
the population have hairy leaves, as smooth leaves are selected against.
Jump back to Natural Selection (2)
Evolutionary Tree of Life (7)
Long Description
As existing organisms change over time, they give rise to new species. Evolutionary studies
show that all living organisms arose from a common ancestor about 4 billion years ago. Domain
Archaea and domain Bacteria include the prokaryotes. Domain Eukarya includes both singlecelled and multicellular organisms that possess a membrane-bound nucleus.
Jump back to Evolutionary Tree of Life (7)
1.3 The Process of Science (1)
Long Description
Flow diagram for the scientific method. On the basis of new and/or previous observations, a
scientist formulates a hypothesis. The hypothesis is used to develop predictions to be tested by
further experiments and/or observations, and new data either support or do not support the
hypothesis. Following an experiment, a scientist often chooses to retest the same hypothesis or
to test a related hypothesis. Conclusions from many different but related experiments may lead
to the development of a scientific theory. For example, studies pertaining to development,
anatomy, and fossil remains all support the theory of evolution.
Jump back to 1.3 The Process of Science (1)
The Scientific Method (5) Long Description
Presentation of scientific data. This line graph shows the variation in the concentration of blood
cholesterol over a four-week study. The bars above each data point represent the variation, or
standard error, in the results.
Jump back to The Scientific Method (5)
The Scientific Method (7) Long Description
Scientific publications. Scientific journals, such as Evolution, are scholarly journals in which
researchers share their findings with other scientists. Scientific magazines, such as Audobon
(shown here) and Scientific American, contain articles that are usually written by reporters for a
broader audience.
Jump back to The Scientific Method (7)
Basic Theories of Biology (2)
Long Description
The groups were treated the same except as follows: the control group received a placebo; test
group 1 received antibiotic A; and test group 2 received antibiotic B. Each subject was then
examined for the presence of ulcers. Effectiveness of treatment was highest for test group 2
when comparing percent of people in each group that no longer had ulcers. In test group 2, 80
percent of people no longer had ulcers, in test group 1, 60 percent of people no longer had
ulcers, and the control group, 10 percent of people no longer had ulcers.
Jump back to Basic Theories of Biology (2)