C ONTENTS What Is Philosophy ? S ources Of Philosophy The Comprehensiv e The Idea of G od The Unconditional Imperative M an The World Faith and E nlightenment The History of Man The Independent Philosopher The Philosophical L ife The History of Philosophy APPENDI C ES Philosophy and S cience O n R eading P hilosophy Bibliograp hy Index WAY T O WISD OM doubt we are far more advanced than Hip p ocrat the Greek physician But we are scarcely entitled say that we hav e progressed only adv anced beyond his m aterials beyond scientific findings of which he made use In p hilo so itself we have scarcely regained his level It lies in the very nature Of philosophy as t in gu ish e d from the sciences that in any Of its for must dispense with the unanimous recognition The certainty to which it a spires is not Of the Obj scientific sort which is the same for every mind ; inner certainty in which a man s whole bei pates Whereas science always pertains to Objects the knowledge Of which is by no means pe ns able to all men philosophy deals with the of being which concerns man as man with a which wherever it is manifested moves us mor deeply than any scientific knowledge S yste m atic philosophy is indeed bound up with t h sciences It always reckons with the m ost adv an ce c scientific findings O f its time But essentially philosop h Springs from a di ff erent source It emerges before an science wherev er m e n achiev e awareness , . , . . , , , ’ . , , , , , , . ' . . “ . . , The existence of such a philosophy without science i revealed in several striking ways : First : In p hilosophical matters almost e v ery o n believes hi m self capable of judgm ent Whereas it i recognized that in the sciences study training metho c are indispensable to understanding in philosophy me! generally assu m e that they are competent to form a ! Opinion without preli m inary study O ur O W! ' . , , , . 8 WHAT IS P HILOSOPHY ? manity o ur own destiny o ur o w n experience strike as a su fficient basis fo r philosophical opinions notion that philoso p hy m ust be accessible to all u st ifi e d The circuitous paths travelled by specialists phi losophy have meaning only if they lead man to awareness o f being and O f his place in it S econd : Philosophical thought m ust always spring Om free creation E very man must accomplish it fo r , , . . . ‘ . im se lf A marvellous . ’ indication o f man s innate disposition 3 philosophy is to be found in the questions asked by hildre n It is not uncommon to hear from the mouths f children words which penetrate t o the very depths f philosophy A few examples : A child cries o u t in wonderment I keep trying to ” hink that I am somebody else but I m always mysel f his boy has touched o n one o f the universal sources O f ert ain t y awareness of being through awareness o f elf He is perplexed at t h e mystery of his I this oystery that can be apprehended through nothing lse ! uestioningly he stands before this ultimate . . , ’ , . , T , . , , . e alit y . Another boy hears the story Of the C reation : In the beginnin God made heaven and earth and g ” ? mm e diat ely asks What was before the beginning ( his child has sensed that there is no end t o question ng that there is no stopping place for the mind that [0 conclusive answer is possible A little girl o u t walki ng in the woods wi th her father ist e ns to his stories about the elv es that dance in the l e arin gs at night But there are no elves Ier father shifts over to realities describes the motion , ” , , . “ , 9 WAY T O WISD OM doubt we are far more advanced than Hip p ocrat the Greek physician But we are scarcely entitled say that we have progressed beyond Plato We ha only adv anced beyond his materials beyond t scientific findings of which he m ade use In p hilo so p itself we have scarcely regained his level It lies in the very nature Of philosophy as di t ingu ish e d from the sciences that in any of its forms m ust dispense with the unanimous recognition Of a The certainty to which it aspires is not o f the o bj e ct iv scientific sort which is the same for ev ery mind ; it is inner certainty in which a man s whole being partie pates Whereas science always pertains to p articul objects the knowledge o f which is by no means indi pensable to all men philosophy deals with the w h o l Of being which concerns man as man with a trut which wherever it is m anifested moves us mor deeply than any scientific knowledge Sys te m atic philosophy is indeed bound up with t h sciences It always reckons with the m ost adv ance : scientific findings Ofits time But essentially philosop h springs from a di ff erent source It emerges before an science wherev er men achieve awareness , . . , . . , , , ’ . , , , , ‘ , , . ' . . ‘ . , . The existence o f such a philosophy without science i rev ealed in several striking ways : First : In philoso p hical m atters almost e v ery o n believes hi m self capable O f judgment Whereas it i recognized that in the sciences study training metho ( are indispensable to understanding in philosophy m e ! generally assu m e that they are co m petent to form a ! Opinion without preli m inary study O ur O W! . . , , , . 8 WHAT IS P HILOSOP HY ? manity o ur own destiny o ur own experience strike as a su fficient basis for philosophical Opinions notion that philosophy m ust be accessibl e to all u st ifi e d The circuitous paths travelled by specialists p hi losophy have meaning only if they lead man to awareness o f being and o f his place in it d : Philosophical thought must always spring free creation E very man must accomplish it for , , . . . . m se lf A marvellous . ’ indication Of man s innate disposition philosophy is to be found in the questions asked by ildre n I t is not uncommon to hear from the mouths children words which penetrate to the very depths philosophy A few examples : I keep trying to o u t in wonderment ” somebody else but I m always mysel f boy has touched o n o ne o f the u ni versal sources o f int y awareness Of being through awareness Of He is perplexed at t h e mystery Of his I this ery that can be apprehended through nothing uestioningly he stands before this ultimate ! . . , ’ . , , , , , Another b o y hears the story O f the Cr eation : In the and b egin ni ng God made heav en and earth immediat e ly asks Wh at was before the beginni ng ? This child has sensed that there is no end to question ing that there is no stopping place for the m ind that no conclusive answer is possible A little girl out walking in the woods wi th her father listens to hi s stories about the elves that dance in the clearings at night But there are no elves Her father s hi fts over to realities describes the motion , , , . “ , 9 WAY TO WI SD O M _ of the sun discusses the question o f whether it is sun or the earth that revol ves and explains the reas for supposing that the earth is round ” axis O h that isn t so says the little girl stamps her foot The earth stands still I o nl y be! ” ” what I see Then says her father o u d y believ e in G o d you can t see Him either The 1 girl is puzzled for a m o m ent but then says with g assurance If there weren t any God we wouldn t here at all This child was seized with the won der existence : things do not exist through themselves A n she understood that there is a di ff erence b et w e e uestions bearing o n particular Obj ects in the worl q and those bearing on o u r existence as a whole A nother little girl is climbing the stairs o n her v isit her aunt S he begins to reflect o n how changes flows passes as though it had n But there must be something that I m climbing these stairs o n my sa m e — my aunt that s so m ething I ll never forget ment and terror at the universal transience Of t hi ng here seek a forlorn evasion Anyone who chose to collect these stories m igh co m pile a rich store Of children s philosophy It i so m etim es said that the children m ust have heard this fro m their parents or so m eone else but such objection Obviously does not apply to the child s re serious questions To argue that the se children do continue to philosophize and that consequently s utterances must be accidental is to overlook the that children Often possess gifts which they lose as grow up With the years we seem to IO , , ’ “ , , . . “ “ , , . ’ . , , ’ ’ , , . . . . , , , “ ’ ’ ’ . . ’ . , ’ . . WHA T rs E HIL OSOP HY ? conve ntions and opinions concealments an d u n est io n e d acceptance and there we lose the candour of The child still reacts spontaneously t o the es and inquires O f life ; the child feels and s e which soon disappear from his vision He t for a moment was revealed to him and is when grownups later tell him what he said questions he asked S pontaneous philosophy is found not only in dren but also in the insane S ometimes — rarely v eils o f universal occlusion seem t o part and The begin ni ng of e t rat in g truths are ma ni fested rt ain mental disorders is Often distinguished by though they are at t e rin g metaphys ical re v elations u ally formulated in terms that cannot achieve fi can c e : exceptions are such cases as HOlderli n and Gogh But anyone witnessing these revelations o t help feeling that the mists in which we ordin live o ur lives hav e been torn asunder A nd many people have in awaking from sleep experienced gely revealing insights which vanish with ful l leaving behind them only the im wakefulness ression that they can nev e r be recaptured There i s p ro ound mea n i ng in the saying that children and fools f p tell the truth But the creative originality to which we ow e great philosophical ideas is not to be sought here bu t among those great m inds — and in all history there have been only a few Of them—who preserve their candour and independence Fourth : S ince man canno t av o id philosophy it is always present : in the prov erbs handed down by tradition in popular philosophical phrases in do m inant , , . . . . , . . , , , . . . ‘ ‘ , , , I I WAY T O WISD OM convictions such as are embodied in the idiom Of e m ancipated in political Opinions but most o f since the very beginnings of history in myths T here no escape from philosophy The question is o n whether a philosophy is conscious or not whether it good or bad muddled or clear A nyone who rej e c philosophy is him self unconsciously practising philosophy “ , , . , . , . , . What then is this philosophy which manifests itse so univ ersally and in such strange forms ? The Greek word for philosopher (philosophas) con notes a distinction fro m sophos I t signifies the lover O wisdom ( knowledge ) as distinguished from him considers himself wise in the possession of k This meaning O f the word still endures : the essence hiloso hy is not the pos s ession o f truth but the sear p p for truth regardless of how many philosophers m belie it with their dogmatis m that is with a body didactic principles purporting to be definitiv e a co m p lete Philo sophy means to be on the way questions are m ore essential than its answers and cv answer becomes a new question But this o n the w ay n es s— m an s destiny in contains within it the possibility o f deep s atis and indeed in exalted moments Of perfection This perfection nev er re sides in formulable knowledge in dogmas and articles of faith but in a historical con summation O f m an s essence in which being itself is rev e aled To app rehend this reality in m an s actual situation is the aim Of philosophical endeavour TO be searchingly on the way o r to find peace and , . , , , . . , . ’ - - , , . , , ’ ’ . . , 12 WAY T O WI SD OM ofreason in the presence of failure and in the prese o f that which seems alien to it Philosophy is the principle Of concentration thro ng whi ch man becomes himsel f by partaking o f reality . . , Although philosophy in the form of simple st irri ide as can move every man and even ch ildren scious elaboration is never compl e te must for undertaken anew and must at all times be as a living whole —it is manifested great philosophers and echoed in the sophers It is a task which man will face in one form another as long as he remains m an Today and not for the first time philosophy i radically attacked and totally rejected as sup e rfi u o u o r harmful What is the good o f it ? It does not help u in a ffliction Authoritarian church thought has c o n de m n e independent phil osophy on the ground that it is worldly temptation which leads man away from destroys his soul with v ain preoccupations Pol totalitarianism has attacked it o n the ground philosophers hav e merely interpreted the worl various ways when the i m portant thing was to ch it Both these schools Of thought regard as dangerous for it undermined order prom spirit of independence hence o f rev olt delude and dis tracted him from his practical tasks Tho uphold another world illumined by a revealed those who stand for the exclusive power of a here and n o w would equally wish t o ext philosophy , , , , , . . , , . . . , . , , , , . . 14 WHAT IS P HILOSOP H Y ? d everyday common sense clamours for the simple tick of utility measured by which philosophy T hales who is regarded as the first of Greek o so p h ers was ridiculed by a slav e girl who saw him into a well while observing the sky Why does he ch the remote heavens when he is so awkward in ? ngs with the things Of this worl d philosophy then justify itself? That is im I t cannot j ustify itself o n the basis o f a some e for which it is useful I t can only appeal to th e every man which drive him toward philo h o u gh t I t is a disinterested pursuit to which Of utility or inj uriousness have no relevance endeavour proper t o man as man and it will con u e to fulfil this striving as long as there are men alive en those groups which are hostile to it cannot help their own peculiar ideas and b ringing forth p ragmatic systems which are a substi t ute fo r philo — though subservient to a desired end such as ;op h y Marxis m or fascism The existence of even these iy st e m s shows how indispensable p hilosophy is to man Philosophy is always with us P hilosophy cannot fight it cannot prove its truth bu t it can comm unicate itself I t o ff ers n o resistance where it is rej ected it does not triumph where it gains a hearing It Is a living exp ression o f the basic univ er sali t y of man o f t h e bond between all men Great systematic philosophies have existed for t w o an d o n e half millennia in the West in C hina and in India A great tradition beckons to us Despite the w ide variety o f philosophical thought despite all the contradictions and mutually exclusiv e claims to truth , , , . . , . , , . , . . . , , . , . , . - , , . . , , 15 WAY T O WISD OM re is in all philosophy a O ne which no m sse sse s but about which all serious e ff orts have at es gravitated : the o n e eternal phi losophy losophia p erennis We must seek this historical fou n Of o u r think ing if we would think cl e arly , , . an ingfully . WAY T O WI SD OM about the greater matters e g about o f the moon and those Of the sun and o f t h e stars ” about the genesis o f the universe Wonder impels man to seek knowledge In wonderment I become aware o f my lack O f k n o w le d I seek knowled ge but for its o w n sake and n o t ” satisfy any common need In philosophical thought man awakens from bondage to practical needs Without ulterior purp he contemplates things the heav ens asks what is all this ? Where does it co m e the answers to his questions he expects no profit but intrinsic satisfaction S econd : O nce I have satisfied my wonderment an admiration by knowledge of what is doubt arises have heaped up insights but upon critical ex a m in at io nothing is certain S ensory perceptions are conditione by o ur sense organs and hence deceptive ; in any event they do not coincide with what exists in itself outside me independently o f my perception O ur categories are those o f our hum an understanding T hey become entangled in hopeless contradictions Everywhere proposition stands against proposition In my p h ilo so hi a l progress I Seize upon doubt and attempt c t o p apply it radically to ev erything either taking pleasure in the sceptical negation which recognizes nothing but by itselfcannot take a single step forward or inquiring Where then is there a certainty that rises above all doubt and withstands all critique ? Descartes famous proposition I think th erefore ” I am was for him a solid certainty though he doubted every thing else For even a total fallacy in m y , . . , , , , . . , . . , , , . . , , . . , . . . , , ’ “ , , , , . 18 SOURCES OF PHILOSOPHY nk ing, a fallacy which may be beyond my under nding cannot blind me t o the realization that in be deluded in my thinking I must be al doubt gives rise to a critical examina knowledge and without radical doubt e no true philosophical thought But th e question is : Ho w and where has a foundation tainty been gained through doubt itself? third : While I concentrate my energies upon while I am o w le dge o f t hings in the world d in doubt as a road to certainty I am im sed in things ; I do not think o f myself of my aims happiness my sal v ation In forgetfulness o f my elf I am content with the attainment o f this know edge This changes when I become aware o f mys e lf in my , . , . , , , , . , . it uat io n . The S toic E pictetus said Philosophy arises when ” we become aware of our own weakness and help lessness ? Shall I help myself in my weakness His ans w er Ho w was : By looki ng upon every thing that is n o t within my power as ne cessary and indifferent to me but by namely the mode raising what does depend o n me and content Of my ideas t o clarity and freedom by thought , . , , , . A nd now let us take a l ook at o ur human state We are always in situations S ituations change opportuni ties arise If they are m issed they nev er return I myself can work t o change the Situation But there are situations which remain essentially the same even if their momentary aspect changes and their shattering . . , . . . 19 WAY T O WI SD OM obscured : I must die I must su ffer struggle I am subject to chance I involve inexorably in guilt We call the se fundamenta ! ti ons o f o ur existence ultimate situations That is they are situations which we cannot evade say change Along with wonder and doubt awaren o f these ultimate situations is the most sourc e o f philosophy In our day t o day live evade them by closing o u r eyes and living did no t exist We forget that we must die guilt and forget that we are at the mercy o f chance We face only concrete situations and m aster the m to o ur profit we react t o the m by planning and acting in the world under the impulsion Of o ur practical interests But t o ultimate sit uations we react either by Obfuscation o r if we really apprehend them by despair and rebirth : we become ourselves by a change in o ur consciousne ss o f being force is , , , , . . , . , - - . , , . . , , , . , , . O r we may define o ur human situation by saying th at no reliance can be p laced in worldly ex istence Ingenuously we mistake the world for being as such In happy situations we rej oice at o u r strength we are thoughtlessly confident we know nothing but o ur actuality In pain and weakness we despair But if we come o u t Of this situation alive we let ourselves slip back into forgetfulness of self and a life Of hap . . , , . e ss m p . . t m h t nl t d ltim t it tio i G mz it ti Thi f th o pt of t l im po t d t di g of j p tho ght i th d t ding f E i t ti li m A th o t t bov how th f it ti o th i p bl liti in l tio to whi h lo ul tim t hum lif n b m d g i ly m i gf l U ltim t it tio nnot b o ly b knowl dg d u m o n t d ; th y h ng d Th e er e un or a e s an c a e ra s a e cen ra s a c nce as e re ua e ca or s r r an ce ers an ns are e u a e as e u e un or o x s en a s e n esca a e e nu n e e can re a e an n n e ac 20 a e s e e s as re a . r n e c n ex es u s ers an s . n ua a e s . a n ua ua e rs on s . ’ u e s c ns ca , s, e a ne e WAY T O WISD OM unreliabili ty of the world : there are in the world thin worthy o f faith things that arouse confidence ; the is a foundation which sustains us : home and co parents and ancestors brothers and sisters an friends husbands and wives There is a fo u n dat io o f historical tradition in native language in faith i the work of thinkers poets and artists tradition also gives no security it is reliable For we encounter it always man ; God is nowhere in th e world Traditi imp l ies a question Keeping sight o f the tradition man must always derive what for him is certainty being the reliable from his own primal source But the precariousness Of all worldly existence is warning to us it forbids us t o content ourselves w i the world ; it points to someth ing else , , , . , , , . , , , . . . , , , . The ultimate situations—death chance guilt and the uncertainty o f the world —confront me wit h the reality o f failure What do I do in the face of this absolute failure which if I am honest I canno t ? fail t o recognize The advice O f the S toic to withdraw to our o w n freedom in the independence of the mind is no t adequate The S toic s perception of man s weaknes s was not radical enough He failed t o see that the min d in itself is e m pty dependent on what is put into it and he failed to consider the possibility o f madness The S toic le aves us without consolation ; the indep en dent mind is barren lacking all content He leaves u s without hope because his doctrine a ff ords us n c opportunity of inner transformation no fulfilmen t , , , . , , , ’ ’ . . , . . , . , , 22 S OURCES OF PHILOSOPHY self conquest in love no hopeful exp e ctation - , o ssib le . ’ A nd yet the S toics striving is toward true phil o p hy Their thought because its source is in tim ate situations expresses t he basic drive find a revelation o f true being in human . , , al for man is his attitude toward failure it remains hidden from him and Over him only obj ectively at the end o r whether erce iv e s it unobscured as the constant limit o f his ence ; whether he snatches at fantastic solutions consolations o r faces it honestly in silence unfathomable The way in which man hes h is fail ure determines what h e wil l b e , . ultimate situations man either perceives nothing ness or s enses true bein g in spite o f and above all e m e ral worldly existence Even despair by the very h p fact that it is possible in the world points beyond the world O r diff erently formulated man seeks redemption Redemption is O ffered by t h e great universal religions of rede m ption They are characterized by an obj ective uarantee o f the truth and reality o f redemption g Their road leads to an act Of individual conversion This philosophy cannot provide And yet all phil analogous to osophy is a transc e nding of the world redemption In . , , . , , . , . . . ' . , . To sum up : The source o f philosophy is to be sought in wonder in doubt in a sense o f forsakenness In , , . 23 WAY T O WI SD O M any case it begins with an inner uphe aval w hi determi nes I t s goal Plato and Ar istotle wer e moved by wonder to se the n atur e o f being A mid infinite uncertainty Descartes sought co pelling certainty Amid the su ff erings o f life the S toics sought t repose o f the mind E ach o f these experiences has i ts o w n truth clothe always in historical conceptions and language I making these philosophies o ur o w n we penetrate historical husk to the primal sources that are a within us The inner drive is toward firm foundations depth being eternity But for us perhaps none o f these is the most fund mental absolute source The discov ery that can be rev ealed t o wonder is a source o f inspiration but beguiles us i nto withdrawing from the world an d succumbing to a pure m agical metaphysic Compel ling certainty is lim ited t o the scientific kn owledge by which we orient ourselv es in the world S toic imperturbability serve s us only as a makesh ift ir distress as a r efuge fro m total ruin but in itse l r e mains without content and life These three motives wonder leading to know ledge doubt leading to certainty forsakenness leading to t h e se lf—cannot by themselves account fo r o uJ present philosophical thought In this crucial turning point in history in this agt o f unprecedented ruin and of potentialities that c ar only be darkly surmised the tlu ee motives we hav a , . . . . , . . , , . . , , . . , , . - , , . , , 24 WAY ' T O WI SD O M to existence is only a medium for impersonal ings and values Defence and attack then b means not by which m e n gain power but by they approach one another T he contest is a contest in which each man surrenders his wea to the other T he certainty of authentic being re only in unreserved communication between men live together and vie with one another in a co m m unity who regard their association with another as but a preliminary stage who take n o t for granted and question everything O nly m u n ic at io n is all other truth fulfilled only m u n ic a t io n am I myself not merely living but life God manifests Him self only indirectly through man s love Of m an ; co m pelling certainty particular and relative subordinated to the Wh o l T he S toical attitude is in fact e m pty and rigid T he basic philosophic al attitude of which I an speaking is rooted in distress at the absence o f co m m u nic at io n in the drive to authentic comm unication and in the possibility of the loving contest w h icl profoundly uni tes self and self A nd this philosophical endeav our is at the same tim e rooted in the three philosophical experience we have m entioned which m ust all be considered it the light of their meaning whether favourable O J hostile for comm unication fro m man to m an A nd so we may say that wonder doubt the ex erie n c e O f ultimate situations are indeed sources 0 p philosophy but the ultim ate source is the will t < authentic co m m unication which e m braces all t h c rest T his beco m es apparent at the v ery outset fO , . . . , , . , . , ’ , . , . , , , . , . , , , , . , 26 SO URCES OF P HILOSOPHY not all philosophy strive for communication I re ss itself de m and a hearing ? A nd is n o t its v e ry communicability which is in turn inseparable uth ? (Communication then i s the aim o f phi l osophy and communication a ll its other aims are ultimately ot e d : awarenes s o f being illumination through a t tainme nt o f peace s , , , , , . THE CO MPREHENS IVE HE R E S H O U L D like to speak of o ne o f t h difficult philosophical ideas It is an in disp idea because it forms the foundation thinking It must be intelligible form though its elaboration is a comp I shall atte m pt to give an intimation o f this id Philosophy bega n with the question : What first sight there are m any kinds of being the world the forms o f the animate and all the infinitely many things that come and go what is true being that is the being which h everything together lies at the base of ev erything being from which everything that is issues ? TO thi s there are curiously many answers T he first v enerable answer of the first philosopher is : Every thing is water and co m es fro m water L ater thinkers said that everything is funda m entally fire or air o r the indeterminate or matter or ato m s ; o r that life is primal being from which inanimate things have merely degenerated ; or that the mind is true being and tha t things are mere appearance s its ideas which it produces as thou gh in a drea m T hus we find a great nu m ber of m etaphysical attitudes which hav e been known as m aterialis m ( everything is m atter and spiritualism ( ev erything is m echanical p roces s) spirit) hylozois m ( the cos m o s is a living s p iritual I . , . , , , , . , , , , . . , , , , . , , , 28 THE C OMPREHENSIVE and In e v er case being w as so o n y ) as something existing in the world from all other things sprang ? which then is the correct view Tlu o ugh nds o f years the warring schools have been t o demonstrate the truth of any o n e o f them each view some truth is manifested na m ely an tude and a method o f inquiry which teach men to something in th e worl d But each o ne becomes lse when it lays claim to exclusiveness and strives explain all exist e nce Why is this so ? All these views have o n e thing in o m m o n : they apprehend being as something whi ch o nfro n t s me as an Obj ect which stands apart from I t hi nk it This b as ic phenomenon o f o ur u sne ss is to u s so se l f evident that we barely suspect the riddle it presents because we do not inquire into it T he thing that we think o f which we speak is always something other than ourselves it is the Object toward which we as subject are oriented If we make ourselves into the obj ect o f o u r thinking we ourselves become as it were the O ther and yet at the same time we remain a thinking I which thinks about itself but cannot aptly be thought as an Obj ect because it determines the o bj e ct n e ss o f all objects We call this basic condition Of o ur thinking the subj ect object dichotomy A s long as we are awake and conscious we are always involved in it Twist and t u rn as we will we are always in this dichotomy always oriented toward an obj ect whether the Object be the reality o f o ur sense perception whether it be the con cept o f ideal Obje cts such as numbers o r geometrical ce . , , . . , . . , . - - , . , , , . , , , . . . , , , , 29 WAY TO WISD OM figures o r whether it be a fantasy o r ev en an imp ossib imagining We are always confronted outwardly inwardly by obj ects which are the content o f consciousness A s S chopenhauer said there is obj ect without a subject and no subject without a obj ect , . , , . . What is the meaning o f this ever present subj e c Obj e ct dichotomy ? I t can only mean that being as whole is neither subject nor Object but must Com prehensive which is manifested in this dich Cl early being as such cannot be an Object thing that becomes an Obj ect for me from the Co m prehensive in confronting me break away from it as subj ect Fo r the I t h is a determinate being The Comprehensive obscure to m y consciousness It becomes clear only through Objects and takes o n greater clarity as the Obj ects beco m e m ore conscious and more clear The Comprehe n siv e does n o t itself become an object but is m anifested in t he dichotomy o f I and Obj ect It remains itself a background it boundlessly illumines the pheno m enon but it is always the Compre - , . , . , . . , . . , , h e n siv e . But there is in all thinking a second dichoto m y Every determinate Object is thought in reference to other obj ects Determ inacy i m plies differentiation of the o n e from the other A nd ev en when I think Of being as such I have in mind nothingness as its antithesis T hus ev ery Object every thought content stands in a twofold dichotomy first in reference t o me the . . . , . , , , 30 a u thentica llysi ' C OMP REHENSIVE TH E ing subject an d secondly in reference to other ts A s thought content it can never be every never being itself r the whole of being u gh t must break out O f the Co m pre It is a particular j uxtaposed both to the I to other Obj ects hus in o u r thinking we gain only an intimation Of Co m prehensiv e It is not manifest e d to us but r t h in g else is manifested in it y , . , . , . . , . What are the implicatio ns O f this idea ? Measured by o ur custo m ary understanding in elation t o things i t seems unnatural O ur under g attuned to the practical resists it basic operation by which we raise ourselves eve rything that is thought is perhaps not It but it seems strange because it does not bring knowledge Of a new Object which we then apprehe n d but aspires with the help of the idea to transform o ur consciousness o f being Because it shows us no new Obj ect the idea meas ured by o u r customary worldly knowledge is empty But by its form it opens up to us infinite possibilities in which being may manifes t itself to us and at the same tim e lends transparency to e v erything that is It transforms the meaning o f the world of Obj ects by awakening in us a faculty o f sensing what authentically is in the phenomenon . , , , . , , . , , , . , . , . L et us attempt a further step toward the elucidation of the Co m prehensiv e To philosop hi ze concerning the Comprehens ive . ‘ 1 3 WAY T O WISD OM would mean to pe netrate into being itself This only be done indirectly Fo r even as we speak we engaged in Object thinki ng Through Object t h we must gain indices to t h e n o n o bj e c t t hat is t o Co m prehensiv e An example is the thou ght operation we have j performed T he moment we state the subject Obj dichotomy in which we always find ourselves which we cannot see from outside we make it an Obj ect But this is basically incongruous dichotomy is a relation between things in the w which confront m e as Obj ects This relation beco an i m ag e by which to express what is not visible can itself never become Obj ect S till thinking in i m ages we ascertain through the source that is present within us a polyvalence in this subject Object d ichotomy It is fundamentally dif fe re n t depending o n wheth er I as understanding am oriented toward objects ; as Dasein being there toward my env ironment ; or as existence toward G o d A s understanding we confront tangible t hings and t o a certain measure we succeed in Obtaining c o m pelling and uni versally valid knowledge but always O f determ inate Objects A s being there as men liv ing in o ur environment we experience in it what we perceiv e with o ur senses what achieves reality for us as the presence which cannot be reduced to univ ersal knowledge As existence we are oriented toward G o d—trans c e n d e n c e —and this through the language o f things which existence uses as hieroglyphics o r symbols Neither our understanding n o r o u r vital se ns ualism . . . , . - . , . . . . , ” - . , - , , . , , . - , , , . , . 32 WAY T O WI SD O M consciousness o f profound and inexhaustible meaning Fo r him who has experienced it this becoming o n e is the true awakening and the awakening to conscious ness in the subject Obj ect dichotomy is mor e in the nature o f s l eep P lotinus the greatest mystical phil o so p h er o f the West writes O ften when I awaken t o myself from the slu m ber I behold a wondrous beauty : I then o f the body believe firmly that I belong to a better and higher world I call forth the most glorious life within me I have becom e o ne with the godhead We cannot doubt the existence o f mys tical experience nor can we doubt that mystics have always been unable to co m m unicate what is most essential in the n experience The mystic is immersed in the Comprehensiv e The co m m unicable partakes of the subj ect Obj ect dichotomy and a clear consciousness seeking to penetrate the infinite can never attain the fullness Of that source We can speak only of that which takes o n Object form A ll else is incommunicable But its presence in the background o f those philosophical ideas which we call speculative constitutes their cont e nt and meaning . , , - . , , “ , , , . , . . - , . . . . O n the basis of o ur philosophical inquiry into the Comprehensive we Shall be better able to understand the great m etaphysical theories o f history the theori e s o f fire matter the m ind the world process etc Fo r in reality they were n o t solely the Object knowledge as which they are Often interpreted and considered as which they are co m pletely false ; they were h iero gly phie s o f being devised by the philosophers o ut o f the , , , , , , , , 34 . THE C OMP RE HENSIVE o f resence the Comprehensive for the elucidation o f p th e self and O f being— and then at once m istaken for ositi v e objectivizations authentic being o f p When we move a m id the phenomena o f the world we come to realize that we possess being itself neither in the Object which becomes continuously more restricted nor in th e horizon Of our always lim ited w orld taken as the sum o f phenomena but only in th e Comprehensive which transcends all Obj ects and horizons which transcends the subj ect Obj ect dichotomy O nce we have ascertained the Co m prehensive through o ur basic philosophical operation we realize that all the metaphysics we have listed all those supposed insights into being are in error as soon as they interpret anything that is in the world however i m portant and significant as being itself But they are the only language in which we can speak when we transcend all obj ects ideas world horizons phe n o m e n a t o perceive being it self For w e do n o t attain this goal by leaving the world except in incommunicable m ysticism O nly in art icu late obj ect knowledge can o ur consciousness remain clear O nly in Obj ect knowledge experiencing its limits through what it surmises at the limit can o u r consciousness achieve content Even in the thinking which transcends Object knowledge we remain in it Even when we see through the phenomenon it holds us fast Through metaphysics we Obtain an intimation o f the Comprehensive in transcendence We understand t hi s metaphysics as a symbol , . , , , , - , . , , , , . , , , , , . , . , . , . . . . . 35 WAY T O WI SD O M But we lose it s meaning if we succu m b to irresp o sible aesthetic enj oyment o f its ideas For its content manifested to us only if we perceiv e the reality symbol A nd we perceive it only o ut of the rea o u r existence and n o t out o f mere wh ich in this sphere declines to see any meaning at But above all we must not look on the sym bol reality as a physical reality like the things which grasp live with and consume T o regard the Obj as being is the essence Of all dogmatis m and mistake the materiality o f symbols for reality specifically the essence Of superstition For sup st it io n is chained to the Obj ect faith is rooted in t h Comprehensive . . , . , , . , . A nd now the last methodological consequence 0 our experience o f the Co m prehensive : the conscious ness of the discontinuity of o ur philosophical thinking When we think Of the Comprehensive in phil oso p h ic al terms we are making an Obj ect o f what is essentially not an Object Hence we must always make a reservation : we must retract the obj ect content o f what has been said if we would arrive at that experience o f the Comprehensive which is not a co m municable content resulting from inquiry but an attitude Of o ur consciousness I t is not m y knowledge but my consciousness o f being that changes But this is a basic trait o f all true philosophical thought Man soars to the Co m prehensiv e in the medium Of determ inate object thinking and only in that mediu m He actualizes in consciousness the foundation o f o ur life in being the guidance from that . , . , . . . , . , 36 THE C OMP RE HE NSIVE sphere the basic mood and meaning o f our life and ac t iv it y ; h e frees us fro m the fetters o f determinate thinking not by relinquishing i t but by carrying it to the extreme In the general philosophical idea he leav es roo m fo r its realization in the present Being can only be fo r us o n condition that it b e come present t o the mind in the dichotomy Of subject and Object Hence o ur drive toward clarity That which is present only obscurely must be apprehended in object form o u t of the essence o f the I fulfilling itself Being itself the foundation Of all things the absolute presses upon o ur consciousness in Obj ect form which because as Object i t is inadequate dis integrates leaving behind the pure c l ari ty o f the presence o f the Comprehens ive , ~ , . . . . , , . , , , , , . A wareness Of the subject Obj ect dichotomy as the fundamental fact Of o u r thinking existence and o f the Comprehensive that becomes present in it gives us the freedom needed for philosophy I t is an idea that frees u s from every existent It co m pels us to turn back from the i m passe of ab so lutiz a tion It is as it were an idea that turns us about For those who found support in t h e absoluteness o f things and in a theory o f knowledge confined to Objects the loss o f the m is nihilism Exclusiv e reality and truth cannot be i m puted to that which dis course and Object thinking have made determinate and hence finite O ur philosophical thinking passes through this n ihilis m which is in truth a liberation fo r authentic being By o ur rebirth in philosophy the m e aning and - . . . . . , . , . 37 WAY T O WI SD OM va lue o f all finite things though always limited enhanced ; we are made fully aware that o u r rO must lead through them but at the same time achieve the onl y possible basis fo r freedom in dealings with these things The fall from absolutes which were after a illusory becomes an ability to soar ; what seemed a aby ss becom es space for freedom ; apparent N othi ness is transform ed in to that which au t h e n t i being speaks to us , , , . . T H E I DE A O F GOD W E S T E R N I D E A Of God spring s from two t oric al roots : the Bible and Greek philosophy When Jeremiah saw the ruin Of ev erything for which he had worked all his life when his country and h is people were lost when in E gypt the last remnants o f his people turned aside from their faith in Yahweh and O ff ered sacrifices to Isis and when his disciple Baruch despaired I fainted in my sighing and I ” find no rest Jeremiah answered Behold that which I hav e built will I break down and that which I have planted I will pluck up even this whole land ? A nd seekest thou great things fo r thyself s e ek them ” not In such a situation th ese words mean : I t is e nough that God is DO no t ask whether there is immortality ; the question of whether God forgives is no longer important Man no longer matters his defiance as well as his concern for his o w n beatitude and eternity is extinguished It is also impossib l e that the worl d should have a purpose susceptible o f fulfilment that it should endure in any for m ; for everything has been created o u t o f nothing by God and is in His hand When everything is lost but o n e thing remains : God is If a life in this wo rld even with faith in G od s guidance has failed this overpowering reality still remains : God is If man fully renounc e s himself and UR . , , , “ , , “ , , , , . , . . , . . , . , ’ . , , , . 39 WAY T O WISD OM his aims this reality can be manifested to him only reality But it does not m anifest itself in a dv a it does not m anifest itself abs t ractly but descends the existence O f the world and only here mani itself at the limit Jeremiah s words are hard w o T hey are no longer bound up with any will to his ical effi cacy in the world though such a will preceded them throughout a lifeti m e and u lt im a t through total failure m ade them possible T hey simple words free from i m aginativ e flight and they contain unfathomable truth precisely because they are without finite content or any fixation in the world The Greek philosophers expressed a similar thought in di ff erent terms ! enophanes proclaimed : There A t about 500 is only one God resembling m ortals neither in h is aspect nor in his thoughts Plato conceiv ed o f the god head—h e called it the Good—as the source o f all knowledge N ot only is the knowable known in the light Of the godhead ; it also deriv es its being from the godhead which excels being both in rank and power The Greek philosophers understood that the many go ds were decreed merely by custom whereas in nature there was only o n e G o d ; that God is not seen with our eyes that he rese m bles no o n e and can be recognized in no i m age God is conceiv ed as cosmic reason or cosmic law o r as fate and providence o r as de m iurge But this God O f the Greek thinkers is a God o rigin at ing in thought not the living G o d Of Jere m iah In essence the two coincide From this twofold root , . , , ’ . , . , , , , . . , . . . , , . , , . , . . 40 WAY T O WI SD OM But if the proofs for the exi stence o f G o d a construed as scientifically co m pelling proofs such we find in mathematics o r the empirical sciences are false In this light Kant r Then came the reverse proposition : S ince proofs o f the existence o f God can be refut e d the no G o d Thi s inference is false Fo r the nonexistence o f can be prov ed no more than his existence T proofs and their confu t ations show us only that a proved God would be no God but merely a t hi ng in the world The truth as agai nst all supposed proofs and refuta tions o f the existence o f God seems to be this : T he so called proofs of the existence o f God are funda mentally no proo fs at all but methods of achieving certainty through thought All the proofs o f the exist ence o f God and their v ariants that hav e been devised through the centuries diff er essentially from scienti fic proofs They are attempts t o express the experience o f man s ascent to God in terms O f tho ug ht There are roads o f thought by which we come to limits at which the consciousness o f G o d suddenly b ecomes a natural presence , . , . . . . , , , . ' . ’ . . L et us consider a few examples The oldest of proofs is the cosmological proof From the existence o f the cosmos ( the Greek name for u ni verse ) we infer that G o d ex ists ; from the world process in which ev erything is e ff ect we infer a last cause ; from motion the source of all motion ; from the accident o f the particular the necessity o f the whole . , , . 42 THE IDEA OF G OD If by this syllogism we mean to infer the existence f one t hi ng from the existence Of anoth e r thi ng as we for example in inferring from the existence o f the o f the moon which faces us the existence o f the r side whi ch we never see it is inapplicable In manner we can only infer the existence of things world from the existence o f other thi ngs The as a whole is not an obj ect because we are s in it and we never confront the world as a Hence we cannot from the existence Of the as a whole infer the existe nce Of something than the world t his notion takes o n a new meaning when it is no proo f Then metaphorically in it expresses awareness Of the inherent in the existence o f the world and selves in it If we venture the thought that there might be nothing and ask with S chelling : Why is ? there something and n o t nothing we find that o ur certainty o f existence is such that though we cannot determine the reason for it we are led by it to the C o m prehensive which by this v ery essence is and cannot not be and th rough which ev erything else is True men hav e looked on the world as eternal and said that it existed out of itself and hence was identical w ith God But t his is not poss i ble : E verything in the world which is beautiful appro ordered and embodies a certain perfection a i t e r p th e vast abundance O f things that fill us with emotion — m in o ur immediate conte plation Of nature all this cannot be apprehended through any fully knowable w orldly thing through matter for example The design , , . . , , , . . , . , , . , , . , , , , , 43 . WAY T O WISD OM Of organic life the beauty of nature in all it s forms order o f the universe in general become incre asi mysterious as o ur knowledge advances But iffrom all this we infer that G o d th e b e nev creator exists we must call to m ind all that is disordered base in the world A nd this gives r fundamental attitudes fo r which the world is frightening terrible and it seems as plausible t the existence of the devil as o f God The mystery transcendence is not thereby solved but merely grows deeper But what clinches the matter is the imperfectibility o f the world The world is not finished but in co n t inu o u s change ; our knowledg e o f the world cannot be completed the world cannot be apprehended through itself Far from proving the existence o f G od these so called proofs mislead us into placing God Wi thin the real world or second cosmos which is as it were ascertained at the limits o f the cosmos Thus they Obscure the idea Of God But they mov e us deeply when leading t hr ough th e concrete phenomena o f the cosmos they confront N othingness and imperfectibility For then they seem to admonish us not to content ourselves with the world as the sole meaning o f our life in the world A gain and again it is brought ho m e to us that God is n o t an object ofknowledge of compelling evidence He cannot be experienced by the senses He is invisible He cannot be seen bu t only believed in But whence com es this faith ? I ts source is not in the limits o f worldly experience but in the freedom Of man , . , , , . , , , . . . , , . , , , . . , , . . . , , . . . 44 THE IDEA OF GOD e man who attains true awareness o f his freedom Freedom and G od are in n s certainty Of God parable Why ? This I know : in my freedom I am n o t through m y s elf but am given to myself for I can fail myself and f cannot force my freedom Where I am authentically myself I am certain that I am not through myself The highest freedom is experienced in freedom from the world and this freedom is a profound bond with transcendence We also call man s freedom his existence My certainty of God has the force o f my existence I can have certa inty O f Him not as a content O f science but as presence for existence If certainty o f freedom encompasses certainty Of God s existence there must be a connection between th e ne g atio n o f fre edom and the negation of God If I do no t experience the miracle o f se lf h o o d I need no relation to G o d I am content with the empirical exist e nce o f natur e many gods demons There is o n the other hand a connection b e tween the belief that there can be freedom without God and the deifi c at io n Of man This is an illusory arbitrary freedom in which man s will is taken to be absolute and independent I rely in the force O f my will and in a defiant acceptance o f death But t his delusion that I am through myself alone turns freedom into perplexity and emptiness A savage drive for self assertion turns desperate will to t o a despair in which Kierkegaard s ” ” be oneself and desperate will not t o be oneself b e come one G od exists for me i n th e degree to which I in freedom . . , , . . , , . ’ . . . ’ , . , , , , , . , , . , ’ , . . - . ’ , . 45 WAY T O WISD O M authentically become mysel f He does not exist as a scientific content but only as openness to existence But t h e illumination o f our existence as freedo m does not prove the existence o f G o d ; it merely points one m ight say to the area in which certainty Of his ex ist e n c e is possible The thought that striv es for compelling certainty cannot realize its aim in any proof of God s existenc e But the failure o f thought does not result in nothing ness It points to tha t which resolves into an in exhaustible forever questioning Co m prehensive con scio u sn e ss o f God . . , , . ’ . . - , , . God never becomes a t angible object in the world and this means that man must not abandon his free do m to the tangibil ities authorities powers o f the world ; that he bears responsibility for himself and must not evade this responsibility by r en o un cing freedom ostensibly for the sake o f freedo m H e must owe his decision and the road he chooses to himself Kant has said that God s unfathomable wisdom is as admirable in what it gives us as in what it denies us For if God s wisdom in its majesty were always before o ur eyes if it were an absolute authority speaking unequivocally in the world we should be puppets o f its will But G o d in his wisdom wanted us t o be free , , , . ’ . ’ . , , , . . Instead o f the knowledge o f G o d which is un at t ain able we gain through philosophy a Comprehensive consciousness o f G o d ” God is The e ssential in this proposition is th e , , . “ . 46 THE IDEA OF GOD reality t o which it points We d o n o t encompass this reality In thinking the proposition ; merely to think it le av es us empty Fo r it means nothing to the under standing and to sensory experience We apprehend its meaning only as we transcend as we pass beyond the world o f Objects and through it discover authentic reality Hence the climax and goal o f o ur life is the point at which we ascertain authentic reality that is . . . , . , God , . This reality is accessible to existence through th e orientation toward God that lies at its source Hence faith in G o d springing as it does from the source resists any mediation This faith is no t laid down in any definite articles of faith app l icable t o all men o r in any historical reality which mediates between man and God and is the same fo r all men The individual always in hi s own historicity stands rather in an i mmediate independent relation to G o d that re quires no interm ed iary This historicity which can be communicated and described is in this form n o t absolute truth for all and yet in its source it is absolutely true God is reality absolute and cannot be encompassed by any of the historical manifestations through which H e speaks t o men If He is man as an individual mu st be able t o apprehend Him directly The reality o f God and the immediacy o f o ur his t o ric al relation t o G o d exclude any un iversally c o m pelling knowledge of God ; therefore what matters is n o t our knowledge Of God but o u r attitude towards God From time immemorial G o d h as been co nc el v e d in e mpirical forms including a personification aft e r . , , . . , , , . , , , . , , , . . . , 47 WAY WISD OM TO image of man A nd yet every such conception is the sa m e time in the nature Of a veil G od is not w h we may se e with o ur eyes O ur true attitude toward G o d has found its p ro foundest expression in a few bibli cal injunctions t he . . . Thou shalt not make unto thee any graven image or 127: This m eant, to be gin with , that invisible man must not worship Him in statues i e ffi gie s Gaining in depth this tangible p ro h ib developed into the idea that G o d is not only invisible but also inconceivable unthinkable NO symbol o r metaphor can describe Him and none may take His place A ll metaphorical representations of G o d without exception are myt hs meaningful as such when under stood to b e mere hints and parallels but they beco m e superstitions when mistaken fo r the reality OfGod Him self S ince every image conceals as much as it discloses we co m e closest to God in the negation O f i m ages But even in the Bible this O ld Testament command m ent was not fulfilled : the image O f God s personality remai ned — His wrath and His love His justice and His mercy It is a command m ent that cannot be fulfilled P armenides and Plato with their speculative doctrines o f being the Indian Brahman philosophers the Chinese T aoists attempted to apprehend without images the — l s up ra erso n a pure intangible reality God but in O f p this they did n o t succeed Human thought and human vision cannot dispense with the i m age A nd though in philosophical thinking sensation and Obj ect almost vanished perhaps ulti m ately some wisp o f God s presence remains with power to engender life , . , . , . , , . , . ’ ’ , . . , , , , , . . ’ , . , 8 4 WAY T O WI SD OM enduring problem fo r man as actual as it w thousands o f years ago A third biblical saying : Thy will be done fundamental attitude toward G o d means : B o w before that which defies understanding co nfi de n it is situated above and not below the u n derst an da Thy thoughts are not o ur thoughts thy ways are no ” o ur ways Trust in thi s basic attitude makes possible an all encompassing sense o f thankfulness a w ordle s impersonal love Man stands before the godhead as the hid and can accept what is most terrible as His decision fully aware that in whatever finite form he expresses this God it is spoken in human terms an d hence false To sum up : O ur attitude toward the godhead is defined by the command m ents N o image and no ” ” likeness N o other god and by the attitude O ” acceptanc e expressed in the words Thy will be done , . . , , . , . , . “ “ , , . Reflection on G o d clarifies o u r faith But to believe is no t to see G o d remains in the distance and remains question TO liv e by God does not m ean to base o ne self o n calculable knowledge but to live as though we staked o ur existence o n the assumption that God is To believe in G o d m eans to live by something which is not in the world except in the polyv alent language o f phenomena which we call the hieroglyphs o r symbols o f transcendence The G o d Offaith is the distant G o d the hidd e n G o d the indemonstrable G o d Hence I must recognize no t only that I do no t know . . . . , , . , . , THE IDEA OF GOD t even that I do not know whether I believe no possession It confers n o secure knowledge ives certainty in the practice Of life Thus the believer lives in the enduring ambiguity of e Obj ective in enduring willingness to hear He tens patiently and yet he is unswerving in his resolve fweakness he is strong he is open though he is resolute God is typical Of all significant on thought : it does n o t bring secure know self hood it gives a free area fo r the whole emphasis is o n love in the world adin g o f the symbols Of transcendence o n the d breadth O f that which is illumined by reason why all philosophical discourse is so in I t calls for completion out o f the being o f m who hears it P hilosophy does not give it can only a wak e n—i t can remind and help t o secure and preserve In it each o f us understands what he actually kn e w before . , . . , . . , , . - , , . . , . , “ . 1 5 T H E U N C O NDI T I O NA L I M P E RAT I VE IN L o v E I N battle in pursuing lofty tasks m act without regard fo r consequences u n co n dit io n a When a man acts unconditionally his life is n o t ultimate he subordinates it to something else When we Obey the unconditional imperative empirical existence becomes in a se nse the raw mate Ofthe idea oflove o f a loyalty It is e n co m p as eternal aim it is as it were consumed and it is allowed drift at random in the stream o f life O nly the limit in extreme situations can the call Of t unconditional lead to loss o f life to acceptance inevitable death while in bondage to the conditional we wish first last and at any price to preserve o ur physical existence Men have for example risked their lives in a com m on struggle fo r a comm on life in the world S olidarity was then the ultimate condition O riginally such communities were built upon trust but later they came to be based o n the inspiring com mand of an authority in which men believed so that faith in this authori t y became a source o f the absolute This faith freed men from uncertainty spared the m the need to inquire for themselves However the u n co n dit io n al in this form was subject to a tacit condition namely the success Of the authority The believer desired t o live th rough his Obed ience If th e au t hori ty , , , , . , , . , , , , . , , , , , , . , , . . , . , . , , . . 52 THE UNC OND ITIONAL IMPE RATIVE d t o b e successful as a power and m en lost th e ir in it a ruinou s emptiness arose the only escape from this empti ness Is for man to wi n authentic being as the !AT IV Efoundation o f his decisions This h as happened in history when individuals staked their lives through obedience t o an absolute imperative : they remained loyal where disloyalty would have destroy ed everything where a life saved through disloyalty would have been poisoned where a betrayal o f absolute being would have made a save d life wretched The purest examp l e is perhaps S ocrates L iving in the lucidity o f h is reason out Of the Comprehensive Of nonknowledge he went his way unswervingly nu deterr e d by the passions Of anger hatred selfrigh t e o u sn e ss ; he made no concession refused t o avail him self o f the Opportunity for flight and died happy staking everything o n his faith Certain martyr s like Thomas M ore have displayed ives in th e purest moral energy in their faith The martyr dom he worl o f some others is subj ect to question To die for some thing in order t o bear witness to it is to give an aim to t or one s death hence t o make it impure Where martyrs p ing have actually been inspired by a longing t o die i so perhaps in imitation o f Christ by a death urge which not infrequently darkens the soul with symptoms o f hysteria the impurity is still greater II CO 6 UH R are are the phil osophers w h o without firm alle fl lflO J nd i a ce n to a community o f faith standing alone before g believer God have realized the maxi m : To philosophize Is to UtllOlli) L learn how t o die S eneca for ye ars awaiti ng his death , , . . , , . . , , , , , , , , . , , . . ’ , . , , , , . , , , , ’ . , 53 WAY T O WISD OM sentence overcame the dea n t o escape d i ctated by understanding ; in t he end he did not betray h im unworthy actions and he preserved his co when N ero demanded his death Boethius nocently sentenced by a barbarian : he died full lucidity turned toward h i z in g in p being Bruno overca m e his doubts and what concessions h e had made in the high resolve stand fast fo r no purpose ev en if it meant death at the stake S en e ca Boethius Bruno were m e n with their weaknesses their failures men such as ourselves They had to conquer themselves A nd this is why they can point the way for us For saints after all are fi gures who for us can live only in the twilight o r in the unreal light O f myth but cannot stand up under realistic scrutiny T he unconditional acts Of which men as m e n were capable giv e us true encouragement while the I magi nary provide s only empty e difi ca t io n , , . , , . o i t s e 1 1 (1 e h t e s u a ec b ’ r o [ t a h W d n a f m i e t h p e l s e Or hm ” “ t l e s “ W ’ if mo n u ’ ’ m ’ m m E a r e m h llsuc P A n o t n e d epen ned ‘ , , . , , , . , . . , , . , . dofm n a om c m y e xisten ce . l beco m eca u b m s l e f a , y n rea e ssisobscu m O We have recalled historical exa m ples o f men who O f h c“ ilaf“ know h o w to die Let us n o w attempt t o elucidate the i P f i O f unconditional im perative m bung n tern ? When I ask m yself: What shall I do I arrive at an i ewbegn Situ a t o i m m answer by adducing finite aims and m eans by which to ff T h l s lmera atta i n them I must obtain food and for this work is p fi d e n n esa lla needed I m ust liv e with m en in a comm unity : here I ttrn o u rW 1 1 1 hiltits9 m helped by certain rules o f conduct In every case an a T he uncondn a im determines the means appropriate t o it h en But my basis for recognizing these aims lies either I n ce110i an01 some unquestioned practical interest or in utility a C t “infla E mpirical existence however is no ultimate end min . . ’ ‘ . ' . . . . , , 54 , THE UNC OND ITIONAL IMP ERATIVE questions remain : What k i nd Of exist e nce What for ? th e imperative is grounded in an authority Obey because someone else has willed it ” It is written But such authority mains unquestioned and hence unex am ined A ll such imperatives are conditional For they make e dependent on something outside me On practical n c o n dit io n al i m peratives o n the 4 have their source in m yself Conditional confront me as fixed but transient prin which I can outwardly sustain myself Unconditional imperatives come fro m wi thin m e susta i ning me inwardly by that which in myself is no t only myself The unconditional i m perative co m es t o me as t h e command o f my authentic self to my mere empirical existence I beco m e aware of myself as Of that which I myselfam because it is what I ought to be This aware ness is obscure at the beginning and lucid at the end Of m y un c o n dit io n al action When we become aware o f the i m perat ive o u r questioning ceases in the c e r tainty of being—though in temporal life there is at once a new beginning O f questioning and in a changed s i tuation certainty must forever be gained anew This imperative precedes ev ery aim it is that which determ ines all aims Accordingly it is not an Obj ect Of o u r will but its source The unconditional is a foundation Of action and hence not an Object of knowledge but an element Of faith In so far as I know the reasons and aims o f my action I am in the finite I am subject to cond itions e cau se th e ? . ‘ . . , “ . . , . . . , _ . , . , . . . , . , 55 WAY T O WISD OM O nly when I liv e by something that can no longe explained by Object knowledge do I live by the conditional . A few propositions may suggest th e meaning of t un conditional imperative First : as opposed to passive acceptance Of things they are the unconditional attitude implies a de c isio lucidly taken o ut o f an unfathomable depth a deci sion with which I myse l f am identical What does thi mean ? It means to partake in the eternal in being A ccordingly it implies absolute reliability and loyalty which deriv e not from nature but from o ur decision The decision is arrived at only through lucidity which is the product Of reflect i on Expressed in psychological terms the unconditional attitude does n o t lie in the momentary state o f any man E ven though he may reveal ov erpowering energy in his momentary act iv ity it suddenly slackens he grows forgetful and unreliable N or does the unconditional decision reside in the innate character for the character can be transformed in reb ir th N or does it reside in what we call in m y t h o lo l m i m ter s a man s de on for this demon is without ca g loyalty O verpowering as it may be n o mode Of passion o f v ital will o f self assertion is un c o n dit io n al in the moment ; all are relative and hence perishable T hus the unconditional demands an existential d e cision that has passed through reflection This means that it does not arise fro m any natural state but o u t Of freedom which cannot help being what it is . , , , . , , . . , . , I , , . ’ , . , - , , , . . , , 6 5 WAY T O WISD OM passion habit and fidelity to a promise Th e p o ssib il o f authentic co m m unication in lo v ing contest can denied That which is demonstrable is by that sa token not unconditional Third : T he unconditional i s timeless in time The unconditional impe rativ e is no t given lik e m pirical existence It grows within man in time when man conquers himself and goes decision unerringly leads h im does the u n come into its o w n S t e adfastn e s Singlemindednes s mere persev erance in man are convincing signs that he lives by the u nco ndit i imperativ e In o ur temporal existence the unconditional is manifested in the experience O f extreme S i and in situations wh en we are in danger Of becoming untrue to ourselves But the unconditional itse l f is never entirely tem poral Whenev er it may be it also cuts across time R egardles s Of when it is conquered it is eternal existing in ev ery new moment through recurrent rebirth fro m the source Hence : Where a dev elop m ent in ti m e seems to hav e giv en us possession O f it all can still be betrayed in a moment Conversely where a man s past seems to be mere factuality weighing him down under endless contingencies to the point Of annihila tion he can nev ertheless at any mo m ent begin as it were from the beginning through sudden awareness o f the unconditional . , , . . . . . . ' , . . . . , , , . , ’ . , , , . These propositions it is true suggest the m eaning o f the unconditional i m perative but do n o t elucidate its , , 58 E U N C O ND ITI ONA L IM PE RATIV E Which becomes clear only through the s Of good and evil heeding the command Of the unconditional we a choice A decision becomes the substance of the an He has chosen what he understands as the good the decision between good and e v il Good and evil are diff erentiated o n three levels I We regard as evil the i m mediate and u n strained surrender to passions and sensual impulses the pl e asure and happiness Of this world t o em ric al existence as such ; in short evil is the life o f the h o remains in the sphere Of the contingent who lives from day to day like an animal well o r adly in the unrest Of change — a life in which there is O decision Good in contradistinction is t h e l ife Of the man who n o t rej ect the happiness o f this world but sub ates it to the morally admissible seen as the This morally admissible rsal law Of just action Olute as distinguished from mere weakness rs to the natural bent consists in what perversion : I do good only if it does me no harm o r does no t cost m e too much ; o r stated abstractly : although I will the unconditiona l embodied in the moral imperativ e I follow the law Ofthe good only in so far as it is co m patible with undisturbed sensual pleasure only o n this condition and in no unconditional sense do I w ish t o be good This pseudo v irtue might be called a luxury Of fortunate circu m stances in which I can a ff ord to be good In the case of conflic t be t w een moral imperative and my v ital interest I may . . . . . , , , , , , . , . . , , , , - . . , 59 , WAY T O WI SD O M according to the magnitude O f this interest be sec capable o f any v illainy In order to avert my death I may Obey orders t o commit murder O r I allow my fav oured position which saves me from co fl ict to blind me to my ev il It is good in contradistinction to lift oneself o ut this condition o f contingency wherein the un t io n al is subordinated to the requirements Of v happiness and return to an authentic life In unconditional T his is a conversion from continu selfbetrayal and impurity Of motives to the serious o f the unconditional — 3 O n this level ev il is only the will to evil the to destruction as such the urge to inflict tort cruelty annihilation the nihilistic will to ruin cv thing that is and has value Good in contradistinction is the un co ndit io na which is love and hence the will to reality L et us compare these three level s O n the first lev el the relation between good and evi is m oral : the question is whether o u r natural incl tions are governed by a will subservient to m oral laws In Kant s words duty is opposed to inc l ination O n the se cond lev el the relation is ethical : the essential is the authenticity O f our motives The purity ! o f the unconditional is O posed to an impurity which ; p consists in the reversal of the relation o f contingency in which the unconditional is made contingent o n practical conditions O n the third lev el the re l ation becomes meta physical : here the essential lies in the m otives the m selv es L ov e is opposed to hate L ov e impels to being , . . , . , , , , . . . , , , , . , , . . , . ’ , . , . . , . , . . 60 , . THE UN C OND ITI O NA L IMP E RATIVE to nonbeing L ove grows in bond w ith trans ence ; hate severed from transcendence dwindles abstract punctuality of the ego L ov e works as building in the world ; hate as a loud catas submerging being i n empirical existenc e and n g empirical existence itself each level an alternative is revealed a decis i on ed for A man can only want o n e thing o r th e if he is authentic He follows inclination or duty iv es in perversion o r in purity o f motive he lives Of hate o r out o f love But he can fail to decide tead of deciding we vacillate and stu m ble through combine the one with the other and even accept h a state o f things as a necessary contradiction indecision is in itse l f evil M an awakens only he distinguishes between good and evil He becomes himself when he decides which way he is going and acts accordingly We must all continuously recapture ourselves from indecision We are so little capable Of fulfilling ourselves in goodness that th e very force O f the passions that drive us headlong through life is indispensable to the lucidity o f duty ; when we really l ove we cannot help hating whatever threatens o ur lo v e ; and it is precisely when we feel certain that o u r motiv es are pure that we succumb to the per v er sion o f impurity The decision has its special character o n each o f the three lev els M orally man seeks to base his decision on thought E thically he rehabilitates himself from perversion throu gh a rebirth o f his good will M eta phys ically he achieves awareness o f being given to hi mself in his ability to l ove He chooses the right his . , , . . , . , . , . . , . . . . . _ . , . , . . , . 61 , WAY T O WISD OM motives become authentic he lives o u t o f love when the three lev els become o n e is the un co n dit realized To live out o f love seems to include all the rest lov e giv es certainty regarding the ethical truth acts S t Augustine says : L ove and do what thou But it is i m possible for us men to live solely by this force o f the highest level fo r we fall const into errors and m isunderstandings Hence we not rely blindly in o u r love at every moment but elucidate it A nd for the same reason we finite b need the discipline by which we conquer o ur and because o f the impurity o f our motiv es w distrust o f ourselv es When we feel sure Of o urselv e that is precisely when we are going astray O nly the unconditional character Of the good fi l mere duties with content purifies o u r ethical motive dis solves the destructiv e will of hatred But the foundation Of love in which the unco ndl t io n al is grounded is identical with the will to authentic reality I want what I love to be A nd I! cannot perceive what authentically is without loving it . , . . . . , . . . . , . e , t ’ , . . . MAN ? N A M Physiology st udies him as body as soul sociology as a social being We gy man as nature which we investigate as we do o f other liv ing creatu r es and as history critical sifting O f tradition by an g Of the purpose pursued by man in his hts and actions and by the elucidation o f ev ents e basis o f motives situations natural realities study o f man has brought us many kinds w le dge but not the knowledge o f man as a Is , , . , , , , , , , , . question rises : C an man be fully apprehended which is knowable concerning him ? O r is there ing above this na m ely freedom which ev ades o w le dge but is always pres e nt in him as , , , T he truth is that man is accessible to himself in two ways : a s object o f inquiry and as existence endowed with a freedom that is inaccessible to inquiry In the o n e case man is conceiv ed as Object in the other as the n o n o bj ec t which m an is and o f which he becomes aware when he achieves authe n tic awareness Ofhimself We cannot exhaust m an s being in knowl edge O f him we can experience it only in the pri m al source o f our thought and action M an is fundamentally more than he can know about himself , . , . ’ , . . 63 WAY TO WISD OM We are conscious Of o u r freedom when we cognize imperativ es addressed to us It is up to whether we carry them out or evade them We can seriously deny that we m ake a decision by which decide concerning ourselves and that we are sponsible N0 on e who attempts t o deny this can logica confront other men with an i m perative O nce accused man in court said he was not to blame beca he was born that way an d could not help doing as did and could accordingly not be held re sp o nsib and the good humoured j udge replied that it might just as reasonable to say that the judge who t e n ce d h im could do no di ff erently since that was he was and he could n o t help acting in accordance wit the laws . . , , . . - . O nce we have achieve d awareness of o ur fre e dom w may take a second step toward the apprehension ourselves : M an is a being who exists in re l ation to God What does this mean ? We did not create ourselves E ach man can think that he m ight possibly not have been This we have in co m m on with the anim als But at the sam e tim e where in o ur freedo m we decide through ourselves and are not automatically subordinated to a natural law we are n o t through ourselves but by v irtue O f being given to ourselves in o ur freedom If we do not lov e we do not know what we should do we cannot force o u r freedo m When we decide freely and conceive o f o ur lives as meaningful we know that we do not owe ourselves to ourselves At the summit Of freedom upon . . . . , , , . , . , . , 64 WAY T O WI SD O M never man as a whole When these methods o f lay clai m to absolute knowledge O f the whole and this they have all done— they lose sight m an and go far toward extinguishing their proponents consciousness o f man and even their o w n hu m anity the humanity which is freedom and relation to God The study o f man is of supreme interest and i pursued in a spirit of scientific criticis m rewarding I this is done we know methodically what within what limi ts we know a thing and know in terms of what is possible and how radically inaccessible t o this knowledge authentic hu m anity r e mains And we avert the danger of obscuring man by pseudo knowledge o f him . , . , , . , , , . - . O nce we know the limits o f knowledge we Shall entrust ourselves all the more clearly to the guidance which freedom itself O ffers to our freedom if it is oriented toward God Thi s is the great question Of humanity : Whence does m an obtain guidance ? Fo r it is certain that his life does not flow along like that Of the animals from generation to generation constantly repeating itself in accordance with natural law ; man s freedom Opens up to him along with the uncertainty o f hi s being an opportunity to become that whi ch he can authentically be It is given to man to work in freedom upon his e m pirical existence as u pon a material Hence man alone has a hi story that is he does not live only by hi s biological heritage but also by tradition M an s li fe is not merely a natural process A nd hi s freedom calls for guidan ce , , . , ’ , , . . , , ’ . . . MAN We shall n o t discuss h ere the cases in whi ch the power o f man over man becom es a substitute fo r this guidance What we have i n mind is the ultimate guidance o f man Th e thesis Of philosophical faith is : M an can live by God s guidance What does thi s mean ? We beli ev e that we have in th e unconditi onal imp e rative an intimation o f God s guidance But how is this poss i bl e when G o d is n o t corporeal when there is no unmistakable form in which he exists as G od ? If God lends guidance how does man know what G o d wills ? Is there an encounter betwe en m an and G od ? And if so how does it occur ? We have autobiograp hi cal records telling us how in men faced by critical problems long doubt h as sudd enly giv e n way to certainty Thi s c e rtainty is the freedom to act after perplexity and vacillation But the freer man knows himself to be in this lucid certain t y the more aware he b e comes Of the trans ce n de n c e through which he is Kierkegaard reflected each day upon God s g uid ance and in such a way that he knew himself t o be always in God s hand : through that which he did and that which happened to him in the world he heard G o d and yet in e v erything he heard he found many meanings The guidance he receiv ed was n o t tangible it provided no clear command ; it was guidance through freedom itself which knows decision because it knows itself rooted in the transcendent foundation Guidance through transcendence is diff er e nt from any guidanc e in the world for God s gui dance is o f only o n e ki nd I t is given through fre e dom its elf . . ’ . ’ . , , , , , . . , . ’ , ’ . , , . ’ , . . 67 WAY T O WISD O M The voice o f G o d lies in the self awareness that daw nSiz in th e individual when he is open to ev erything tha t i comes t o him from his tradition and environment The medium in which man is guided is his judg ment regarding his o w n actions T hi s judgmen t restrains or i m pels corrects or confirms T he v oice O f God as j udg m ent regarding man s actions has n ot other expression in ti m e than in this j udgment O f man himself with regard to his emotions motiv es actions In the free and forthright self awareness Of j udgment in self accusation in self a ff irmation m an indirectly finds God s judgment which I s never definitiv e and always equivocal Consequently human judgment is in error from the outset wh en m an expects to find in it God s final word upon which he can absolutely rely We must mercilessly unmask the self will that lies in our moral self satisfaction and self righteousness A ctually no man can ever be fully and definitiv ely satisfied with himself; he cannot be entirely self contained in his judgm ent Of himself He requires the judgment Of his fellow m e n concerning his actions He is particularly sensitiv e to the j udgment Of those he respects He is less mov ed by that o f the av erage man and the crowd of inert individualized institutions but ev en here he is not indi fferent Yet the judgment that is ultimately decisiv e for him is n o t ev en that Of the men he respects although this is the only judgment accessible in the world ; only the judgment o f God can be decisiv e The individual is neve r entirely independent in his j udgm ent o f hims elf He always attach es importance - , . -w . . , ’ , , . - - , ’ , . , ’ , . - - - . . . . , , . , . . 68 MAN j udgment Of another Ev en the primi tiv e hero to hi s death in unswerving for titude has in the judgment o f other men : undying fame is the n Of the dying h e ro e s o f the E ddas re is also a truly soli tary h eroism which is based on the community and has n o eye to fame S authentic independence is sustained perhaps by inner harmony o f a w ell favoured nature it unconsciously from the historical e rh ap s Of a remembered community yet i t s ness finds nothing in the present world to can hold But if this heroism does not sink nothingness it may be presumed to hav e deep in authentic being and this stated explicitly d be the judgment o f God rather than Of men . , , . , . - , , . , , , , . the truth Of the judgment by which man is is ma ni fested only through self conviction takes two forms : the universal imperative and the is torical inj unction The uni v ersal ethi cal imperativ es carry intuitive Ev er since the ten commandments they o nv ic tio n been a form Of God s presence These imperati v es indeed be recognized and followed without t h in God by a drastic li mi tation Of their meaning what man can do out Of himself But whole Obedience to th e ethical commandment a rt e d le arly heard in freedom is usually bound the perception of transcendence precisely in h g - , . . ’ . , . Howev er de q u at ely action in concrete situations cannot be deriv ed from universal commandm e nts , 69 WAY TO WI SD OM and prohibiti ons In ev ery historically actual situati guidance lies in an immediate necessity o f doing which cannot be deriv ed But what the individual this case perceiv es as his duty remains q u estio n ab howev er certain he may be o f it in his o w n mind T very nature Of this hearkening to imp lies the risk Of error hence humil reliance o n o u r certainty forbids us o w n acts as an i m perativ e for all fanaticism Even the purest clarity as t o t h hav e seen under God s guidance must n o t ther giv e rise to a certainty that this is the only tru e roa d fo r all For it is always possible that ev erything will lo o ki entirely di ff erent later In all lucidity we can choose ai false road Ev en th e certainty Of decision in so far as it is manifested in the world must retain a certain element Of suspension For the most dev astating t h re atq to truth in the world is the ov erweening claim t o the absolutely true In the certainty o f the moment the humility Of the enduring question is indispensable O nly in retrospect are we filled with the wonder o f an unfatho m able gui dance But even here it carries no certainty God s guidance cannot be made into a possession Psychologically speaking the v oice o f God can be heard only in sublime moments It is o u t Of such moments and toward such moments that we live . - - . . , , , . ’ . . . , , . . . . ’ , . , . . I fman experiences guidance through transcendence transcendence rea l fo r him ? What is hi s relation t o , is it ? MA N bareness o f abstraction o ur r el ation t o can take on a crucial seriousness But as en in o u r world we seek support for o ur certai nty in e concrete M an s supreme achievement i n this o rld is commu ni cation from persona li ty t o p e rson li ty A ccordingly o ur r elation to transcend e nce if e may speak in paradox b e comes sensibly present o u r encounter with the personal God The godhead drawn to u s in it s aspect Of p e rsonality while at th e ame time we rai se ourselv es to th e level o f beings ap ab le o f speaking wi th thi s G o d I n the world thos e powers which have flung u s to he ground strive to dominate u s : fear o f the future n x io u s attachment to present possessions care in the ace Of dire possib ilities O ppos in g the m man can e rh a p s i n the face o f death gain a confidence whi ch ill enable him even in the most extrem e inexplicable meaningless situation to die in peace Trust in the foundation o f being can mani fest itself as disinterested grati tude as peac e in the beli e f in God s being In life freedom giv es us a sens e Of r e ceivi ng help from transcendence For polytheism helpers and adversaries become ” gods and demons A god did it expresses the poly theist s consciousness Of ev e nts and h is own ac t ions which are thereby hallowed and endowed with significance but at the same time dispersed into innumerable vital and spiritual pow e rs conceived as exi stents As against this God s help i n the authentic self hood that knows itself t o be radically dependent in the an sce n de n ce Even , . ’ . , . , , . , . , , , . , , , . , , ’ . , . , . ’ , , . ’ , , , 7 1 WAY T O WISD OM is the help o f th e O n e I f God is th ere are n demons O ften God s help is narrowed to a finite cont ent a thus lost A s for exam p le when prayer—as enco n — with the invisible God degenerates from conte m plation tending towards silence su ccu m the passion of seeking the hand o f the personal God and beco m es an inv ocation Of this God for practica ends To the m an who sees through the opaqueness 0 life God sends all possibilities including the situations Then ev ery situati on b e O f hopeless annihilation co m es a task for man s freedom and in this task he stands grows and falls T he task howev er cannot be adequately defined as pursuit Of earthly happiness but can only be understood clearly through tran this sole reality and the unconditional sc en de n c e comm andment O f lov e that is manifested in it which infinitely Open by virtue Of its reason sees what is and reads the symbols Of transcendence in the realities of the world , . . ’ . , . , . ’ , . , , , , , , , , , . P riests it is true accuse the individual who orients hi m self to God through philosophy Of arrogance and self will They demand Obedience to the rev ealed God I n reply to them this may be said : the individual engaged in p hilosophical thought if he has drawn a decision from the primal source believ es that he is obeying God not with any Objectiv e guarantee that he knows God s will but rather as a continuous v enture God works through the free decisions o f the individual , , - . . , , , ’ . . 72 T H E WO R L D W C A L L R E A L I T Y that which is present t o us in practice that which in o ur dealings with t hi ngs with living creatures and with men is resistance or becomes matter We learn t o know reality through our daily association with people, through the handling Of tools through techni cal kn owledge through contact with organized bodies o f men That which is encountered in practice is clarified by scientific knowledge and as knowledge o f r e ality made av ailable for ne w practice But by its very nature the knowledge o f r e a lity transc ends the immediate interests of practical life Practi ce which is always at the same time struggle mastery of resistance is only o n e o f its sources M an wants to know what is real regardless o f any practical interest A profounder source Of the sciences is pu re dev oted contemplation lucid passion a listening fo r the world s answers Knowledge becomes scientific through method a systematic u ni ty is ascertained in what is known ; the scientist looks beyond the multiple and disparate t o unifying principles This knowledge o f reality seem s t o find completion in the world system The world system purports to disclose reali ty as a whole in o ne world a cosmos E , , , . , , . , . . , , , . , . , , , ’ . , . . , 74 , THE WORLD part of which is related t o ev ery other part n recognized that such a it has always bee h g st be imperfect and will require constant ne v ertheless the world system h as been ed as a product O f knowledge and in principle form in which being as total reality becomes ble to us The world system is expected to pass the whole Of coherent knowledge World are as Old as human knowledge ; and at all times have stri v en for world systems eans Of attaining a u ni fied awareness O f the . , . . it is significant that the search for an all ing world system in which the u ni verse this so self evident 3 a self contained w hole g for a total world view is based o n a funda ental fallacy which h as only been understood in e c e n t times For scientific critique teaches us not only that ev ery wo rl d system up to now has collapsed under the weight > f its o w n contradictions but that the systematic I ni ties o f knowledge w hi ch are indeed the goal O f :ci e n c e have been div erse and sprung from essen tially l iff e re n t roots T hi s beco m es increasingly evident Ev en as the u ni ties Nlt h the advance of science — m e more univ ersal particularly in physics—the J e co n ore marked become the cleav ages between the J h y si c al world the world o f life the world of the soul :h e world o f the mind These worlds are indeed con l CCt They are arranged in an order of dev elop n ent ; the reali t y of the later stage presu poses that o f p h e e arlier while the reality of the earlier seems able z , - - , , ' . . . , , . . ‘ , 75 , WAY T O WISD OM to stand wi thout that o f th e later ; for can be n o life wi thout matter but ther without life Vain attempts hav e been the later stage from the earlier but becomes more evident The one totality in the world to whi ch all the unities susceptible o f exploration by knowledge belong is itself no unity such as might b e subsumed in an all e m bracing theory o r whi ch as idea might serve as a beacon for scientific inquiry Ther e is no world system but only a systematization o f the sciences World systems are always a particular sphere o f knowledge erroneously absolutized and univ ersalized Di fferent scientific ideas gi v e rise to special per sp e c t iv es Ev ery world system i s a segment taken o u t o f the world T he world itself cannot become a system ” A ll scientific cosmologies hav e been mythi cal cosmologies built on scientific methods and scant remnants Of myth The world is no Object we are always in the world we confront Objects in it but nev er have the world itself as an Object Far as our horizons o f methodical inquiry extend particularly in o u r astronomical conceptions Of the nebulae o f whi ch our Galaxy with its billions o f suns is only one among mi llions and in the mathematical conception o f univ ersal matter all that we see here is aspects o f phenomena and not the foundation o f things not the univ erse as a whole The univ erse is not self contained I t cannot be explained out o f itself but in it one thing can be explained by another ad in fi nit u m N0 one knows to . , . , , - , . . , . . . . “ , . , , . , , , , , , , . - . , . 6 7 THE WORLD li mi ts future res e arch may y e t atta i n what ses will still open b e fore it , . A criti cal approach to science calls for the abandon ent Of world systems which is also a prerequisite to phi losophi cal apperception Of being True the t Of being demands a familiarity t h every branch of scientific inquiry But it seems to the hi dden aim Of science t o attain through inquiry a limit at which the area Of nonknowl e dge is opened the most lucid knowledge Fo r only fulfilled o w le dge can lead to authentic nonknowledge tic being is r evealed n o t in any world on knowledge but in fulfilled n o n uilt o w le dge which can be achiev ed only through e n tifi c cognition not without it and n o t before it is the supreme striving Of knowledge t o reach the oint where cognition fails F o r u r consciousness Of o p being finds an indispensable source in nonknowledge bu t only in fulfilled conquered nonknowledge , . , . . . , . , . , , . We approach the reality o f the world from a dif fe re n t angle S cientific knowledge can be included in th e general proposition : A ll knowledge is interpreta tion T he method we apply to the study o f texts may be taken as a parallel to our study O f being A nd th e analogy i s n o t accidental For we possess being only in its interpretations To and only that whi ch is speak Of it is to interpret it apprehended in speech falls under the head O f the knowable But even in the p rep h ilo so p hi c stage the language o f men s practical dealings with things . . . . . , . ’ 77 WAY T O WISD OM contains an interpretation of being ; being is always defined in reference to something els e Being is for us only in an interpreti v e context Being and the know ledge O f being the ex istent and what we say Of it are accordingly a texture of div erse interpretations A ll being is for us an interpretation Interpretation diff erentiates b e tween somethi ng that is and something whi ch it means for example betwe e n th e Sign and what it stands for If being is taken as that whi ch is to be interpreted it would seem that we must di fferentiat e in the same way : i nterpretati on concerns something other than itself; what confronts us in interpretation is being itself But o ur atte m pted diff erentiation is n o t success ful Fo r nothi ng enduring remains nothing purely knowable whi ch n eed only be interpreted and is not itself interpretation Whatever we know is only a beam Of light cast by our interpretation into being o r we might say the capture of an opportunity for interpretation The power to make possible all these interpretations must lie in the v ery nature Of being as a whole But the interpretation is not arbitrary If it is sound it has an objectiv e character Being compels these interpretations True all modes O f being are for us modes Of interpretation but they are also modes of necessary interpretation Consequently the doctrine Of the categories as structures Of being sees the modes o f being as modes Of interpretation thus fo r ” example breaking down the Objectiv e categories into identity relation cause and e ff ect freedom or expressi on etc . . , , . . , , . , . . , , . , , , . . . . , . , , , . , “ , , , , . 78 WAY T O WISD OM remain unfulfilled and henc e fundam e ntally n o t understood It is not only the absolute world systems that are gone The world is not self contained and fo r o ur knowledge it breaks down into div erse perspecti v es because it cannot be reduced to a single principle The reali ty o f the world as a whole is n o obj ect o f knowledge . - . , . . In the light o f what we hav e said o f God and exist ence we may sum up o ur experience Of the world in th e proposition : The reality o f the world subsis t s ephemerally between God and existence Ev eryday life seems to teach us the contrary : that we men take the world o r something in the world as an absolute A nd Of the man who has made so many things the ulti m ate content Of his existence we may say with Luther : that whi ch you hold t o upon whi ch you stake your existence that is truly your G o d M an cannot help taking something as an absolute whether willi ngly and knowingly whether accidentally and fi t fu lly or resolutely and steadfastly M an has a kind Of home in the absolute He cannot ev ade it In that home he m ust liv e History down through the c e nturies reveals awe inspiring figures Of men who hav e transcended the world Indian ascetics certain monk s in China and the West left the world in order to partake Of the absolute in worldless meditation It was as though the world had — vanished ; being fro m the viewpoint Of the world nothingness—was ev erythi ng Chinese mystics freed the m selves from th e toils Of , . . , . , , , . . . . . , , . , . 80 WAY T O WISD OM in the temporal course o f his life Thi s w illingn i m plies two fundamental experiences : First the experience Of God s absolute transcend ov er the world : the hidden G o d recedes farther farther into the distance if I atte m pt to seize apprehend Him univ ersally and forever ; He is calculably near through the absolutely hi form o f His speech in a situation whi ch is unique S econd the experi ence o f God s speech in world : the world is not in itself but in it G o d spe always with many meanings and this speech can become clear historically in the existential mom ent an cannot be g eneralized . ’ . ’ , , , . Freedom for being does not see the ultimate i n th e world as such In the world eternal being and temporal manifestation meet Y et we do not experience eternal being outside 0 that which is empirically m an ifested t o us in time S ince that which is for us must be manifested in the temporality o f the wo rld there can be n o direct knowledge Of G o d and existence T here can only be faith The principles Of faith—G o d is ; there is an un co n ditio n al i m perati v e ; m an is finite and imperfectible ; man can liv e in God s guidance— enable us t o sense the truth only in SO far as they embody their fulfilment in the world as speech o f God If as though passing the world by God should directly approach existence the ev ent would be incomm unicable T he truth o f all universal principles speaks in the form o f a tradition . . . , . . ’ . , , , . 82 THE WORLD a p articularity acquired in life ; these are th e s in which the individual consciousn ess h as ened t o the truth : o ur parents told u s so Ther e is vast hi storical depth in such formulas as for Thy ” ” ” immortality love O ly name s sake As principles o f faith become more universal they their historicity They rise to the level o f pure rac t io n But with such abstractions alone no man live ; wher e concret e fulfilment is lacking th ey only a minimal v alue as guides t o memory and They have at th e same time a cleansing power : free us from the fetters Of pur e mat eriality and superstiti ous narrowness h e lping u s to adapt th e reat tradition to present r e alization of . ’ “ “ . , , . . , . Unlimit e d devotion to God is the authenti c mod e o f ist e n ce That to which I devot e myself in the world to the point ofstaking my life must be constantly tested in relation to God under the condition o f God s will in whi ch we believe For in blind de v otion man heedlessly serves the power which is o v er him only factually and which h e does not elucidate and he may even serve ” th e devil through hi s failure to see question think — In devotion to reality in the world the in disp en s able mediu m o f devotion to God —grows selfhood which at the same time asserts itselfin that t o which it is :l e v o t e d But if all empirical existence h as been reduced :0 reality family people profession state world and f this reality fails then we can conquer the despair o f 10thingness only through the self assertion which :ran sce n ds the reality o f the world which s tands alon e J e fo re God and exi sts o u t o f God O nly in dev otion t o . , , ’ , . — , , . , , . , , , , , , - , . 83 , WAY TO WISD OM 0d the world is thi s selfhood granted a eceiv e d as th e freedom t o ass e rt it in the world and not to . Th e e phemeral subsistence o f the world between G n d existence is the burden o f a myth ib lical categories—conceiv es the world as the m e st a tio n o f a transcendent history : from the crea h ro u gh the fall o f man and the redemption t o the f the world and the resurrection o f all things In t h the world does not exist o u t Of itself but y assing stage in a transcendent process ran sie n t but the rea lity in this transience x istence T he eternal is manifested in the o rld It is thus that man as an indiv idua edge o f hi mself A nd in this m anifestation o f t ternal there lies a paradox : for in it that whi ch ternal as such is once again decided ! . . , . . . . FA I TH A ND E N L I GHTEN MENT H A V E S T A T E D th e principles o f philosophi cal God i s ; there is an unconditional imperative ; is fi ni t e and imperfec t i ble ; man can liv e in God s reality o f th e world subsists ephemerally 11 G o d and existence These five propositions re n fo rc e and l e nd imp e tus t o o n e another But each h as t s o w n source in a fundamental experience O f exist e nce N one Of these five principles is d e monstrable in th e ense o f a limited insight into Obj e cts in the world ” ” only be pointed o u t elucidat e d ” r e asoning recalled to mi nd They do n st it u t e a cr e ed fo r despite th e force o f the fai th placed i n them they remain in the susp e nsion o f o w le dge I follow them not b e cause I accept a die n ce to an authority but b e cause by my cannot e lud e their truth b statem e nts Of principles fill us wi th misgivi n g are t o o readily treated like a body o f knowledge his vitiates their purpos e They are t oo readily into a dogma which is subs tituted for r e ality should b e commu nicated in order that m e n may rst a n d o n e another through th e m in order that may be confirmed by communicati on i n order they may awaken men wh e n cond i ti ons are e But by the defi nit eness o f their statement ris e to ps e udo kn owledge ’ . . . . “ , , . , . . . , . . , , , . - . 85 WAY TO WISD OM S tatement demands discussion For when we think there are always tw o possibilities : we may arriv e at th truth o r we may miss it Thus ev ery positive st at e m en demands safeguards against error and side by sid with the ordered building up Of thought we find per version Consequently all positive exposition must b permeated by negative j udgments limitation an critique But in philosophical thought this battle 0 discussion is not a struggle for power ; it is a struggle fO lucidity through questioning a struggle for clarity an truth in which we allow our adv ersary all thos weapons of the intellect with which we defend o ur o w faith In philosophizing I hav e recourse to direct state ment where a direct question is asked Is there a G o d Is there an unconditional imperativ e in our life ? I man i m perfectible ? Is there guidance by God ? Is th reality o f the world suspended and ephemeral ? I an compelled to answer whe n I am confronted by t h t principles characterizing lack of faith which are mor < or less as follows : First : There is no G o d for there is only the w o rlc and the laws gov erning its process ; the world is God S econd : There is no unconditional imperativ e ID! the imperatives which I Obey originated in time an t are in process of change They are determ ined b custom habit tradition Obedience ; ev erything contingent upon somethi ng else ad in fi nit um T hird : M an is perfectible for man can be just a perfect in his way as the animal ; it w ilf b e possible t< breed a perfect man There is no inherent funda m ent al i mperfecti on o r frailty in man Man is n( . . , , . , , . , , . . , , , . , x . , , , . , ' . , . 86 F AITH AND E NLIGHTENMENT m e diat e being but complet e and whole True ev erything else in the world he is transient but he ed in himself independent adequate t o his world There is no guidance by God This guid e is an illusion and a self deception M an has the n gt h t o follow himself and can rely o n h is o w n r , . , , , . . - . n gt h . The world is ev erything its reality is the sole enti e reality S ince there is no transcendence in the world is indeed transient but the elfis absolute it is eternal and not ephemeral transition and suspension dealing with such statements Of lack Of faith osophy has a twofold task : to apprehend their igin and to elucidate the truth o f faith , . , , , , . . L ack o f faith is generally regarded as a product Of ! ? e Enlightenment But what is enlightenment T he teachings Of enlightenment are directed against e blindness which accepts ideas as true without them ; against actions—c g magical sti o h in g o n s—which cannot accomplish what they are to accomplish since belief in their e fficacy o n assumptions whi ch can be pro v ed false ; gainst restrictions on questioning and inquiry ; gainst traditional prejudices E nlightenment de m ands n unlimited striving for insight and a critical aware . , , . p im ily E li ght m t A i g ifi t philo ophi l ttit d li ght m t i oppo d to d p j di yt hi g l th t ob t t th d p t p p h po to lity not n n s rsti t io n, n of can re u and res ns e s c e , an rea an . ca n a e se u e, a en en s ru c s en en e ee r en s es ar . s a se a re en WAY T O WISD OM Ma n striv es understand what he bel desires and does He wants to think for hims wishes to grasp with his understanding and possible to hav e proof of what is true He wants knowledge t o be based o n experience which is fun mentally accessible to ev eryone He seeks paths t o source o f insight instead o f permitting it t o be s before him as a finished product whi ch he need on accept He wishes to understand to what degree proof is v alid and at what limits the understanding frustrated A nd he would like also to hav e a re basis for the indemonstrable premise which h ultimately take as the foundation Of his life authority he follows of the v eneration he respect in w h ich he holds the thoughts an great men of the trust which he which whether only at this p artic particular situation o r in unfathomable why he obeys true and ev ery t right to this condition ; he it inwardly A nd such participation must be self conviction In short : enlightenment i words Of Kant man s departure from the conditio ” Of immaturity for which he himself is responsible I t ruth it is the path by which man comes to himself to . , , . . . . , , , ‘ , , . . . - . ’ . . But the demands Of enlightenment are so eas misunderstood that the ve ry term is ambiv alent T can be true and there can be false enlightenment A n accordingly the fight agains t enlightenment is itsel . . 88 T r u een lightening, n otfrom ou tsid e by , WAY T O WISD OM limit upon questioning is aware Of the factua l li mi Fo r it n o t only elucidates prejudices and beliefs which were hitherto unquestioned elucidates itsel f It does not confound the m the understanding with the contents o f h In it s view these contents can be elucidated b rational understandi ng but they cannot b e base upon the understanding , . . L et us now discuss som e ofthe attacks that hav e be made on enlightenment I t has been called the e ro ga t io n o f man who wishes t o o w e only what has been besto wed upon him by grace Those who make t hi s accusation fail to reco g that God does not speak through the commands rev elations of other men but in man s selfhood through his freedom not from without within A ny restriction o n man s freedom i l l n W h m a u l a e r s v G o d and oriented toward God is a rest rict io theyreject our(on v e ry thing through which G o d a t t ainlm W t o O enemies Of enlightenment rebel against God P h i l seh i a l u i o c s c i é fav our Of supposedly divi ne but actually p p lnoppositiontot cont e nts o f faith i njunctions prohi bitions i therecanbelt and rules Of conduct wherein as in all thi n W iflw u tatrucsdc folly and wisdom are inextricably cease questioning these things is to renounce the hum situationmakethis; mission The rejection Of enlightenment is a kind 0 manfallsintothem O ffanaticaldecisim treason against man O ne O f the m ain ele m ents of enlightenment i Barriersareerette a science free from preconceiv ed n o tio science W hytheseam whose searching and questioning are not limited ot in ai m s and truths set forth in adv ance ( apart from such N frequent! . , . ’ , ’ , . , , , , . . , , , F AITH AND ENLIGHTENMENT cal humanitarian restrictions as those forbi ddi ng use O f m e n as objects Of experiment ) We hav e heard the outcry : S cience d estroys faith reek science could be built into faith and was useful r its elucidation but modern science is utterly s I t is a pur ely historical phenomenon resulting catastrophic world crisis We may expect i ts end d should do o u r utmost t o hasten it These critics u b t the eternal truth which shines forth i n modern enc e They deny the dignity Of man which is today lo n ge r p o ssib le without a scientific attitude They philosophical enlightenm e nt which they as ate only with the flatness o f the und e rstanding and with the breadth o f reason They turn against seeing only the congealed liberalism Of ralism and superficial faith in progress n o t the force o f liberality They attack toleranc e as indi fference and fail to recognize the uni man readiness fo r communication In short r foundati on in human dignity in the power to attain knowledg e in freedom and adv ocate hil sOp hi c al suicide o p In opposition t o thes e beliefs we are certain that today there can be no integrity reason o r human dignity without a true scientific attitude where tradition and situation make this attitude possible Where science is lost man falls into the twilight o f v agu ely edifying sentiments Of fanatical decisions arriv ed at in self willed blindness Barriers are erected man is led into new prisons , ’ . . , . . . . ‘ . , . , , . , . , , , . , , , . , - . , . Why these attacks o n enlightenment ? No t infrequently they grow o u t o f an urge to 1 9 WAY TO WISD OM absurdity a driv e to set men up as m o u th p ie and Obey them They arise out of passion fo r whi ch no longer follows the laws Of the day the experience O f the botto m le ss builds a s saving pseudo order without foundation A nd grow out of the unfaith of those who in their desir faith persuade themselv es that they hav e a faith o u t of a will to power which fosters the belief that are more compliant when they are blindly su to an authority which is an instrument Of thi s power O ften the enemies o f enlightenment hav e invoke Christ and the N ew T esta m ent—rightly SO if they ha in mind certain churches and theologies down thron g the centuries but u nj ust ifi ab ly if they were thi nki of the source and tr uth of the biblical religion as such for these are aliv e in true enlightenment they are elucidated by p hilosophy which helps perhaps to pre serv e the m fo r humanity in the new technological world If the attacks on enlightenm ent Often seem meaning ful it is because O f the perv ersions O f enlightenment which are indeed Open to attack What makes the ff er v ersions possible is the di iculty Of the task It is p true that the enthusiasm with which ev ery newly awakening man attains freedom an d through it a greater sense o f Openness t o the godhead goes hand in h and with enlighten m ent But soon enlightenment may become an unwarranted aspiration For God is not heard unequiv ocally o u t O f freedo m but only in the course Of lifelong e ff ort through m oments when man is granted what he could nev er attain by thought M en cannot always bear the burden Of critical non knowledge in mere readiness to listen at the proper , . - . , . , , , , , . , , . . . . . FAITH AND ENLIGH TENMENT ment He desires defini te knowledge Of the ulti . h e h as rejected faith he abandons himself to lect as such and from it falsely expects c er But since e decisiv e questions o f life t provide such certainty his expecta by deceptions the finite and : y te so m etimes this sometimes that and 8 0 o n variations is absolutized into the whole A category is taken fo r cognition as such The O f persevering self examination gives way ov erweening trust in a definitiv e pseudo certainty en claim absolute truth for opi ni ons based o n acci and situation and in their pseudo lucidity nt m b to a new blindness In its assertion that man now and think everything o n the basis of his o w n such enlightenment is indeed arbitrary I t rts this impossible claim by undisciplined half , , . , , , , , . . - - . - , . . . cannot combat all these perv e rsions o f e nligh t en by abolishing thought but only by a realization u gh t with its full potentialities with its critical ness Of limi ts and its v alid accomplishments sustain the test Of knowledge O nly a develop Of thought ac hi ev ed through the self education whole man can prev ent any body Of thought whatsoever from becoming a poison ; can prevent enlightenment from becoming an agent o f death , . - . The purest enlightenment recognizes that it cannot dispense with faith T he five propositions of p hi lo so fa i th cannot be demonstrat e d l ke scient i fic a l i hi c p . 93 WAY T O WISD OM theses It is not possible to impose faith by ration means by any science o r philosophy It is a fallacy o f false enlightenment to suppose the understanding by itself alone can know truth being T he understanding is dependent o n somet else A s sci e ntific cognition it is dependent o n experience A s philosophy it is dependent o n c o f faith The understanding can inde e d clarify dev elop thought but that which lends its Opinion O bj ectiv e significance its thought fulfilment it action purpose its philosophy authentic content m us be giv en t o it The s ource Of these premises upon which t ho ugh t t must depend is ultimately unknowable They are; rooted in the Comprehensive out o f which w e live If f the force o f the Comprehensive fails us we incline to ; the fiv e negativ e propositions Of unfaith The pre m ises Of sensory experience com e from th e : world the premises Offaith hav e their source in histo ri cal tradition In this outward form the premises are merely guides by which we find o ur way to the authentic premises Fo r the outward premises are subject to constant testing not only by the under standing as a judge who Of himself knows what is true but by the understanding as an instrument : the understanding tests experience by other experience ; it also tests traditional faith by traditional faith and in so doing tests all tradition by the original awakening Of its contents out Of the primal source Of o u r o w n self hood T he sciences provide those necessary insights into experience which no o n e following the pr escribed . . , . , . , . . , , , , , . . . , . , . . , , . 94 FAITH AND EN LIGHTENMENT 1 b’ r l ati e t h o ds aso n e d can elude ; while philosophy through its ro ac h to tradition makes possible our a pp , ‘ , cannot combat unfaith directly but we can t the demonstrably false claims of rationalistic se u dO knowledge and the claims o f faith that ass um e falsely rational form The principles o f p hi losophical faith become false when they are taken as communication o f a content For none of these principles implies an absolute O bj ect ; they are to be taken as the symbol o f an infinity b eco m i ng concrete Where th i s infini ty is present in faith the endl ess reality Of the world takes on meaning as its ma ni festation But thi s meani ng must sti ll be inter - . . , . . r e d e t p . When the philosopher utters these principles Of faith they assume an analogy t o a creed The p hi lo sopher should n o t exploit his nonknowledge in order to ev ade all answers He must be circumspect in his philosophizing and repeat : I do not know ; I do not ev en know whether I believe ; however such faith expressed in such propositions strikes me as meani ng ful ; I will venture to believ e in this way and I hope I shall have the strength to live by my faith In philo Sophy there wi ll always be a tension between the seemi ng indecision Of the susp ended utterance and the reality of resolute conduct . , . , , , , . . 95 T HE H I S T O RY O F MAN ! NO R E A L I T Y I s more essential to our s elf aw aren e - than history It shows u s the b ro ade ki nd brings us the contents Of tr shows us standards by which o u r life is built measure the present frees us from u n co nscio u bondage to o u r o w n age teaches us to see man in hi highest potentialities and hi s imperishable creations We can make no better use of leisure tha familiarize ourselv es and keep ourselv es familiar the glories o f the past and the catastrophes in everything has be en shattered We gain a understanding Of o ur present experience if we see it in the m irror o f history A nd hi story becomes aliv e for us when we regard it in the light of our own age O ur life becomes richer when past and present illumine on e i another It is only the concrete parti cular history which is ; close to us that truly concerns us Yet in our p hilo so hi al approach t o history we inevitably deal in c p certain ab st ractio n S u . , , , , . . . . . , . History sometimes appears t o be a chaos o f acci dental happeni ngs an eddying flood It passes o n fro m o n e turm oil from one catastrophe to the next with brief intervals of happiness little islands which it I thi h pt t in p g f om my book V m U p g d Zi l d G hi ht h b p od d b tim , . , , , , n esc c s c e a av e er cer a ee n re r assa es uce v er r a 6 9 o . rs run an e ef WAY T O WISD OM as is shown by painting s and remains of tools Bu only for the last fiv e to six thousand years that we h had a documented coherent hi story History breaks down into four basic s egm e nts : First : We can only infer the first great steps towar the use of language the invention o f tools the kin and use o f fir e This is the P romethean tion Of all hi story through which man became distinction to a purely biologically defined speci es o f which we can scarcely conceive this was over what v ast periods of time the p ro tended we do not know But this age in the v ery remote past and it must have been many times longer than the comparatively insignificant span o f time cov ered by o ur documented historica l era S econd : The ancient high civilizations grew up between 5000 and 3000 in E gypt M esopotamia and o n the Indus somewhat later o n the Hwang River in China These are little islands o f light amid the broad mass of mankind which already populated the whole planet Third : In the years centring around 500 B C from 8 00 to 2 00—the spiritual foundations o f huma nity were laid Simultaneously and independently in China India P ersia P alestine and Greece A nd these are the foundations upon which hu m anity still subsis t s today Fourth : S ince then there h as been only o n e entirely new spiritually and materi ally incisiv e ev ent equal t o the others in historical significance : the age o f science a n d tec h nology I t was foreshadowed in E urope at the . . , , , . , . , , , . . , , , . . . , , , . , , . . , , . 8 9 THE HISTORY OF MAN of the M iddle A ges ; its theoretical groundwork laid in the se v enteenth century ; at the end o f the t e e n th century it entered on a period Of broad rowth and in the last few decades it has advanced at headlong pac e , . L et us cast a glance at the third s egm e nt that o f the ears around 500 Hegel h as said A ll hi story 5 toward Christ and from Christ T he appear o f the S o n of God is the axis o f hi story O ur re m inds us every day o f thi s Christian of history The flaw in this view Of history is can have meaning only for belie v ing Christians ev en Western Christians hav e n o t built their em cal view Of history o n their faith but have drawn essenti al distinction between sacred and profane story If there is an axis in history we must find it em i ric all p y in profane history as a set o f circumstances significant for all men including Christians I t must carry conviction for Westerners A siatics and all men without the support o f any particular content of faith a n d thus provide all men with a common his t o rical fra m e o f reference The spiritual process which took place between 8 00 and 2 00 seems to constitute such an axis I t was then that the man with whom we liv e today came into ” being L et us designate this period as the axial age E xtraordinary ev ents are crowded into this period In China li ved Confucius and Lao T se all the trends in Chinese philosophy arose it was the era o f M O Tse Chuang Tse and countless others In India it was the , “ , . . . . . , , . , , , , , . . “ . . . , , , . WAY WISD OM TO age of th e Upanishads and o f Buddha ; as i philosophical trends including skepticism a lism sophistry and nihilism were de v eloped In Ira Z arathustra put forward his challengi ng c o n cep tio o f the cosmic process as a struggle between good an evil ; in P ales t in e prophets arose : E lij ah Jeremiah Deutero Isaiah ; Gr e ece produced th e philosophers P arm e nides Heraclitus P l tra gi c po e ts Thucydides and A rchimedes A ll d eve l opment o f which these names are a mere inti tion took plac e in these few centuries independe and almost s i multaneously in China India and t h West The n ew el e ment i n thi s a ge is that man ev ery w h ered became aware o f bein g as a whole of himself and his ! limits He experi e nced the horror Of the world and his o w n helplessn e ss He raised radical questions ap ro ac h e d th e abyss in his dri v e for liberation and p redemption A nd in consciously apprehending his li mi ts h e set hi mself the highest aims He experienced the absolute in the depth of s elfhood and in the clarity Of transcendence Conflicting poss i bi lities were explored Discussion partisans hi p intell e ctual schi sms ( though wi thin a common frame of refer e nce ) gave rise t o mov e ment and unrest borderi ng o n spiritual chaos This era produced the basic categories in which we still thi nk and created th e world r eligions o u t of which men still live The opinions customs conditions whi ch had hi therto enjoyed unconscious acceptance came to be questi oned The world w as thrown into turmoil I OO , , , . , - , , , , , . , , , . , . , . . . . , . , . . , . , . WAY T O WISD OM And the sociological conditi ons o f all three re gi rev eal analogies : innumerable pet ty states and cities struggle of all against all and yet at first an ast o ni shi prosperity But these centuries in which so much h were not characterized by a simple asc ending ment There was destruction and creation at 0 there was no fulfilment The supreme reali zed in individuals did not become heritage What started o u t as freedom 0 became anarchy in the end O nce t h e creative impetus ideas congealed into levelling occurred in all three spheres A s the diso grew intolerable men sought new bonds and stability T he end w as first characterized by political dev ments Vast despotic empires arose almost si t h T sin S hi Huangti in India o u sly in C hi na ( ( ) M aurya dynasty) in the West ( the He llenist i empires and the Imperium R omanum) Ev e ry w h er systematic order and technical organization emerge from the collapse , . . . . . , . , . . , , , , . . T he spiritual life of men is still oriented toward the axial age China India and the West hav e all wit n e sse d conscious attempts to restore it renaissances True there hav e been great new spiritual creations but they have been inspired by ideas acquired in the axial age Thus the main line o f history runs fro m the birth Of humanity through the civilizations of high anti u i q t y to the axial age and its o ffshoots which ‘ . , , . , , . , 10 2 THE HISTO RY ayed a cr e ativ e role up to O F MAN of th e dawn our ow n S ince then a new li ne would se e m to hav e be gun ag e Of science and technolo gy is a kind o f second able t o the first i nventi on o f tools . If we may venture a pr e sumption by analogy we hall pass through vast planned organizations analogous 0 those of E gypt and the other ancient high civi liza from whi ch the ancient Jews emigrated and o n when they laid a new foundation they look e d hatred as a place Of forc e d labour P erhaps kind will pass through these giant organizations new axial age still remote invisible and in eiv ab le an axial age Of auth e ntic human upsurge ay we are livi ng in an era o f the most It seems as though everything at ast ro p h e s ad been transmitted t o u s were being melted and yet there is no convinci ng s i gn that a new is in the making is new is that in o ur day history is for the becoming world wide in Scope M easured by which modern communications hav e given be all previous history is a mere a ggreg ate o f cal histories — What we formerly called history is ended an t e rm e diary m oment o f five thousand years between prehistoric centuries in which the globe was p o p u d and the world history which is now be ginning millennia measur e d by the preceding era o f an s existence and by future possibilities ar e a in u t e i n terval In t hi s inte rval m e n may be said t o , , . , , , . , . . - . , . . , ’ , . 103 WAY TO WISD OM have gathered together t o hav e mustered t forces for the ac ti on o f world history to hav e acquire the intellectual and technical equipment they neede for the journey which is just be ginning We must look to horizons such as these when incline to take a dark view o f the realities of o u r and to regard all hum an history as lost We j ustified in believing in the future pote humani ty In the short view al l is gloom in the 1 view it is not But this becomes evident only in light o f history as a whole T he more fully we realize ourselv es in the pres seeki ng the truth and ascertaining the criteria humanity the more confidently we may look to t h future , , . . , . . . , . A nd now as to the meaning of history Those w h o 1 believ e that the historical process h as an aim Often striv e to reali ze it by planning But we become aware o f o ur helplessness when we seek t o p lan and organize history as a whole T he: overweening plans of rulers based upon a supposed total knowledge o f history hav e always ended in catastrophe The plans devised by indivi duals in their restricted circles fail o r else contribute to unleashing quite di ff erent unplanned complexes of ev ents T he historical process can be seen either as an irresistible mechanism or as an infinitely interpretable meaning which manifests itself by unexpected n ew ev ents which remains always equivocal a meaning which ev en when we entrust ourselves to it is never known to us , . , . ‘ . , , . . , , , , , . 104 WAY WISD OM T O ev erything if partaking o f the primal sourc e entrust myself t o transcendence , , . We cannot define the ultimate aim o f his t ory but can posit an aim which is itself a p re m ise fo r realization of the highest human potentiali ties A n that is the unity of mankind Unity cannot be achieved t h rough any ratio n a scientific univ ersal T his would produce a unity understanding but not o f mankind No r does reside in a univ ersal religion such as might be arriv e at through discussion at religious congresses N or ca it be realized through a conv entional language base o n reason and common sense Unity can be gained 0 from the depth of historicity n o t as a comm knowable content but in boundless c o m m unic at o f the historically di ff erent in never ending dia log rising to heights of noble e m ulation A dial ogue Of thi s sort which will be worthy man requires an area o f freedom from violenc e practical unity o f men striving for such an area nonviolence seems conceiv able and many already taken it as their goal This goal o f uni manki nd at least o n the basic lev els of life which does not imply a common and univ ersal faith does no ti seem entirely utopian Its reali zation will require a stubborn political struggle against the powers that be — and o ur v ery situation may well drive us into such a struggle P rerequisite for such a uni ty is a political form upon which all can agree since it provides the best possibl e basis of freedom fo r all This form which only in the . . . . , . . , - . , , . , . , , ' . . , . , 106 THE HISTORY OF MAN st h as been developed in theory and ed , is the constitutional state built on in part elections law s which are subject t o modifica tion solely means In such a state men battle to gain on for the just cause to win public opinion widespread and enlightened education and served dissemination o f news would be no wars in a constituti onal world r where no state would possess absolute sovereignty mankind itself acting through it s constituti onal n s would be sovereign desires communication and aspires through a constitutional order ust is moving toward justice we not be helped by an optimism born o f e n t h u for such ideas which sees the future as all t For we hav e every reason to take the opposite . , . , . , , , , . We see each o f us in ourself th e self will the sist a n c e to self elucidation the sophistry with which is used as an instrument o f o b fusc a we see rej ection of the unfamiliar in the place o f m u n ic atio n We see the pleasure men take in er and violence ; we see how the masses are swept war ; stricken with blind lust for gain and ad ure willing to sacrifice e v erything even their O n the other hand we see the unwillingness o f masses to depriv e themselves to save to work and quietly toward the building o f stable and we see the passions which force their ost unobstructed into the background o f the - , , - , , . , , , 10 7 , , WAY T O WI SD O M A nd quite apart from the charact e r of men we the irremediable inj usti ce o f all insti tutions w e situations which cannot be solv ed by j usti ce situations arising for example from the increase r e distrib u tl o n o f the population or from t h possession by o n e group o f somethi ng desire and which cannot be divided Hence there seems almost to be an limi t at which vi olence in some form must a through O nce again we are faced with the qu es is it God or the devil who governs the world ? A n though we may believ e that ultimately the d evil is i th e s e rvi ce o f G od th ere is no proof o f i t , , , . . . , Wh e n in o ur isolati on we se e our li ves s eeping a s a mere succession o f moments tossed about by accidents and overwhelming events ; we contemplate a history that seems to be at an leav i ng only chaos behi nd it then w e ar e imp elle raise ourselv es abov e hi story Y et we must remain aware Of o u r e poch and situation A modern p hi losophy cannot d ev without elucidati ng its roots in time and in a p , , . . t i ons o f o u r epoch it is not from thes we draw o ur p hi losophy but now as at al l the C omprehensiv e We must n o t adjust t i aliti es to the low level of o u r age not 5 Ourselves t o o ur epoch but attempt by elu ci the age to arriv e at the poi nt wh e re w e can live o u o u r primal source N or must we deify hi story We need not acc ept , , . , , , , . . 108 THE I N DE P E N DE N T P H I L O S O P H E R TH E I N D E P E N D E N C E O F man is rejected by al totali tarianism by the totalitarian religion w h icl claims exclusiv e truth as well as by the t o t alit ariar state which melting down all humanity into materia for its edifice o f power leav es no room for individuality and ev en controls leisure activities in acco rdan c r with an ideological line Today independence seem to be silently disappearing beneath the inundation 0 all life by the typical the habit ual the u n q u est io n e c commonplace But to philosophize is to fight for our inner n d n e e ce under all conditions What is inne p ind ependence ? , , , . , , . , . S ince late antiquity the philosopher h as bee represented as an independent man Th e p o has certain salient features : This philosoph independent first because he is without needs fro m the world of possessions and the rule Of pass he is an ascetic ; second because he is without for he has seen through the illusory terrors religions ; third because he takes no part in ment and politics and liv es without ties in p e ac retirement a citizen o f the world In any case I IO . , , , , , , . THE INDEPENDENT PHILOSOPHER phi losopher believes that he has attain e d to a posi t ion o f absolute independence a vantage point o u t sid e o f things in which he cannot be mov ed o r shaken This philosopher has become an obj ect Of admira ti on but also o f distrust True numerous philosophers o f thi s type have disclosed rare independence through pov erty celibacy aloofness from business and politics ; they hav e manifested a happiness which did not spring from anything eternal but from awareness that life is a j ourney and from indi ff erence to the blows o f fate B u t some of these figures also reveal egoism and ambition pride and vanity a coldness in human dealings and an ugly hostility to other phil o so p h e rs A nd dogmatism is common to all o f them Theirs is an impure independence which seems very much akin to an ununderstood and sometimes ridiculous dependence N evertheless side by side with biblical religion t hese phi losophers do O ff er a historical source o f possible independence A cquaintance with them encourages our o w n striving for independence perhaps precise ly by showing u s that man cannot sustain him self ih isolation and detachment This ostensible absolut e freedom turns automatically into a new dependence outwardly o n the world whose re co gni tion is courted inwardly on u n clarifi e d passions The road o f the philosophers of lat e antiquity o ff ers us no promise A lthough some were magnificent personali ties they created in their fight fo r fre e dom rigid figures and masks without background We see that ind ependence turns into it s Opposite III , , . . , , , . , , . . . , . , . , , . , . , , , . WAY T O WISD OM if it is held to be absolute A nd it is n o t easy what sense we can striv e fo r indep endence . to say i . The concept of independence is almost hopel ess ambivalent Fo r example The philosoph e r and the m e taphysician particular sets up thought structu res like gam es which he remains superior because o f hi s unlimit power over the m But this gives rise to the q ue stio Is man master o f his thoughts because he and can carry on his creative game without to a foundati on arbitrarily according to ru he himself h as devi sed enchanted by its form conversely because he is oriented toward G o d a thus remains superior to the discourse in which m ust inevitably clothe absolute being whi ch never fit the absolute and hence needs t o be adjusted ad in fi nit u m ? Here the independence o f the philosopher cou si in his n o t succumbing to his ideas as dogmas but maki ng himself master o v er them But mastery one s ideas remains ambivalent— does it mean arbitrary freedom from ties o r does it imply ti es in t ranscendence ? A nother example : In order t o gain o ur in dep e n d ence we seek an A rchimedean point outside o f the world This is an authentic quest but the question is Is this A rchimedean point an outsideness which makes m an a ki nd o f God in his total independence o r is it the outside point where he truly meets G o d and ex p er ie n ce s his only complete independence which alon e can mak e him independent in the world ? . , , . , , , , , , , . ’ , . , 1 12 WAY T O WISD OM e loquent turns o f phrase and striki ng imag es i n dis regard o f communication—all this dictatori al languag e o f wi sdom and prophecy is n o t enough Thus those w h o are deluded i nto supposin g that they possess being as such often e nd e av our t o make man forget himself M an is dissolved in ficti ons o f b ei ng and yet these ficti o ns thems elv es always conceal a possibl e road back to man ; hidden dissati sfaction may lead t o the r e cov ery o f the authentic seriousness which becomes real only in existential pr esence and casts o ff the ruinous attitude o f those w h o tak e life as it is and do what they pleas e This irresponsible type o f indep e ndence i s also manifested in intellectual opportunism A n irre sp o n sible playing with contradictions permi ts such a man to take any position he finds conv enient He is versed in all methods but adheres strictly to non e H e espouses an unscientific attitud e but makes scientific gestures H e is a Proteus wriggling and changing you cannot grasp hold o f him he actually says nothing but seems to be promising something extraordinary He exerts an attraction by vague hints and whi sperings which give men a sense o f the mysterious N o authentic discussion with him is possible but only a talking ” back and forth about a wide variety o f interesti ng things Conversation with him can be n o more than an aimless pouring forth o f false emotion Irresponsibl e independence can take th e form o f indi ff erence t o a world that has grown intolerable What does death matter ? It will come What is ther e to be p e rturbed about ? We live in the j oy o f o ur vitality and the pai n of its , . . . . . . . , , , . . “ . . . . THE INDEPENDENT P HILOSOPHER b b ing away A natural Y es permits u s at all times t o ee l and to think according to circumstance We are np ole m ic al What is the good o f taking sides ? L ove n d tend erness are possible but they are at the mercy f time , o f the ephemeral , of the transient as such l othing is unconditional . . t . i . . We drift along without desire to do o r to be any hing in particular We do what is asked o f us o r what ee m s appropriate Genuine emotion is absurd We are l Cl l in our e v e yday dealings with men r p N o horizon no distance neither past nor future ust ain this life which expects nothing and liv es only [ ere and now The many forms of illusory independenc e to whic h ve can succumb cast suspicion upon independence tself This much is certain : in order to gain true nde e n de n c e we must not onl p y elucidate these various orms of independence but achiev e awareness o f the imi ts o f all independence , . . . . , , . . . A bsolute independence is impossible In thinki ng we we d ependent on experience which must be given us 11 living we are dependent on others with whom we tand in a relation of mutual aid As selfhood we ate le p en de n t on other selfhood and it is only in com n u nic a t io n that we and the others come truly to m rselv e s There is no isolated freedom Where there is re e do m it struggles with unfreedom and if unfreedom NCI C fully o v ercome through the elimination of all e sist an c es freedom itself would cease A ccordingly we are independent only wh en we are I cannot i t the same t ime enmeshed in the world . , ‘ . , . . ‘ , ‘ . , . 1 15 WAY T O WISD OM achi e v e independence by abandoning the worl Indeed independence i n the world i m plies a par attitude toward the world : to be in it and yet n o t in to be both inside it and outside it This thought shared by great thinkers o f the m ost v ary ing trends : With regard to all experiences pleasures states happiness and unhappiness Aristippus says but I am not had ; S t P aul tells hi s followers h o w to t part in earthly li fe : have as though y o u had n o t ; B h agav ad Gita admo ni shes us to perform the task b not to striv e after its fruits ; Lao Tse counsels man act through inaction These imm ortal sayings might be interpr e ted infi nit u m Here we need only say that they all expr inner independence O ur independence o f the is inseparable from a mode o f dependenc e o n world A second limi t to independence is that by itself alon it negates itself Independence has been negatively formulat e d as freedom from fear as indi ff erence to fortune good or bad as the imperturbability of the thinker as mer e spectator as i m m u ni ty to emotions and impulses But the self who achi ev es such independence is reduced t o the abstract punctuality o f the ego Independence does n o t derive its content from itself It is no t any innate gift it is not vi tality race t he will to power it is not self cre ation Phi losophical thought grows o u t of an independence i n the world an independence signifyi ng an absolute attachment to the world through transcending o f the world A supposed independence without attachment , . “ , , , . - . . . . , , , . , . . , , - , . , . 1 16 , WAY TO WISD OM w e do good only under the tacit conditi on that 0 good action will n o t be too harmful to o u r h ap p in e and that this makes our good deed impure This is ra di cal evi l that we cannot ov ercome O ur independence itself requires help We can o n! do o ur best and hope that somethi ng within invisible to th e world — will in some unfathomable come to o ur aid and lift us o ut o f o ur li m itati ons only independ e nce possible for us is dependence o transcend e nce . . . . . I should li ke t o give some i ntimation o f how a measure o f independence can be achiev ed i n p h iloso hi al thought today c p L et u s not pledge ourselve s to any philosophi cal school o r take formulable truth as such for the o n e and exclusiv e truth ; let u s b e master of our thoughts ; l et u s n o t heap up philosophical possessions but apprehend philosophical thought as mov ement and s e ek t o deepen it ; let u s battle for truth and humanity in u n co n ditio n al communication ; let us acquir e the power t o learn fro m all the past by making it o u r own ; let u s listen to o ur con temporaries and remain open to all possibilities ; let each o f us as an individual immerse hi ms elf in his o w n historicity in hi s origin in what he has done ; let him possess himself of what he was of what he has become and of what has been giv en to hi m ; l et u s n o t cease to grow through our own historicity into the historicity o f man as a whole and thus make ours e lves into citi zens of the world , , , , , . 1 18 S u S C S u a dc sn l f u e n s o is C q m o o r s u d h in ! r s u o eto m s o 1 o d n dthe a n t dependen in ing, despair butnot over n i su w ro g p Philosoph THE INDEPENDENT PHILO SOPHER We l end littl e cr e dence to a philosopher who b able , is we do not believ e in the calm o f the we do not even desire to be unm ov ed for it is our [ manity itself which drives us into passion and fear rd causes us in tears and rejoicing t o experience what Consequently only by rising from the chains that a d us to o u r emotions not by destroying them do we m e t o oursel v es H e nce w e must venture to be me n r d th e n do what we can to mo v e forward t o o u r true dependence Then we shall su ff er without complain g despair without succumbing ; we shall be shaken i t not ov e rturned fo r the inner independence that ows up in u s will sustain us P hilosophy is the school of thi s independ e nce it is D I the possession o f ind epend e nce r e rt u r p oic , , , , . . , , . , . . 1 19 THE PHI LOSO PHI CAL LIFE IF O U R L I V E S are no t t o b e d iff us e and m eaningless they must find their place in an ord e r In o u r a ff airs w e must be sustained by a co principl e we must find mea ni ng in an edifice o f w fulfilment and sublime mom e nts and by repeti we must g ai n in depth Then o ur liv es even in t p e rformance o f monotonous tasks wi l l be p erm eat by a mood arising from o ur conscious parti cipati on a m e ani ng Then we shall be sustained by an awareness o f the world and o f o urselves by th e history o f which we are a part and in o u r o w n lives by m e mory and loyalty A n order o f thi s sort may com e t o the indivi dual fro m r the world in whi ch he w as born from the church whi ch shapes and ani mat es the g reat steps from birth to death and the little steps o f eve ryday life He will then spontaneously fit hi s daily experience into that order No t so i n a crumbling world whi ch puts less and less faith in traditi on in a world whi ch subsists only as outward order without symbolism and transcendence which l e aves the soul empty and is n o t adequate to man which when it leav es him free thrusts him back upon his o w n resources in lust and boredo m fear and indi fferenc e Here the in di vidual can rely only in him se lf By li v i ng p hi losophically h e se e ks t o build up by . , , , . , , . , , , , . , . , , , , , , , , , . . 12 0 WAY TO WISD OM mere work in whose aims we immerse ourse lv es as itself a road to self forgetfulness omission and gui A nd to lead a philosophical life means also to seriously our experience o f men of happiness and o f success and failure of the obs c ure and the It means not to forget but to possess ourselv e s of our experience not t o let ourselves be distracted t o think problems through n o t to take things granted but to elucidate them There are two paths o f philosophi cal life : the p of solitary meditation in all its ramifications and path o f communication with men o f mutual under standing through acting speaki ng and keeping silence together - , , , , , , . , , , . We men cannot do wi thout o u r daily moments o f profound reflection In them we recapture o ur self awareness lest the pres ence o f the primal source be lost entirely amid the inevitable distractions o f daily life What the religions accomplish in prayer and w o r ship has its phi losophical analo gy in explicit im mersion in inner commu ni on with being itself This can take place only in times and moments ( regardless whether at the beginning o r end o f the day o r in between ) when we are not occupied in the world with worldly ai m s and yet are n o t left empty but are in contact with what is most essential Unlike religious contemp lation philosophical con t e m p la t io n h as no holy obj ect no sacred place no fixed form T he order which we giv e to it does n o t become a rule it remains potentiality in free motion . , . . , . , , , . . , 12 2 THE P HIL OSOPHICAL LIFE contemplation unlike religious worship de ands solitude What is the possible content of such meditation ? Firs t self refl ection I call to mind what I hav e done ought felt during the day I ask myself wherein I erred wherein I hav e been dishonest with m y wherein I hav e ev aded my responsibilities ein I ha v e been insincere ; I also try to discern good qualities I have displayed and seek ways in t o enhance them I reflect o n the degree o f n scio u s control o v er my actions that I ha v e exerted the course of the day I j udge myself— with regard my particular conduct not with regard to the whole I find an that I am for that is inaccessible to me — les in accordance with whi ch I resolv e to judge perhaps I fix in my m ind words that I plan to t o myself in anger in despair in boredom and states in which the self is lost magic words as it re m inders ( such as : observ e moderation think of ther b e patient G o d is ) I learn from the tradition runs from the P ythagoreans through the S toics tians to Kierkegaard and Nietzsche with its I realize that such t o self re fl ection can nev er be conclusiv e and that it is infinitely susceptible to error Guided by philos S econd transcending refl ection o p h ica l methods I gain awareness of authentic being o f the godhead I read the sy m bols of being with the help of literature and art I gain understanding of the m by p hi losophical scrutiny I seek to ascertain that which is independent of time or that which is eternal in time seek to touch upon the source of my , , . - , . , , . , , . . , , , , , , , , . , , ' - . . , , , . . . , WAY T O WISD OM freedom and through it upon being i tself; I se ek as i t were to partake of creation Third I reflect o n what should be done in the p resent R emembrance o f my own life with men is the back ground against which I clarify my present task down to the details of this particular day when in the inevitable intensity o f practical thinking I lose my awareness o f th e Comprehens ive m e aning . , . , . What I gain fo r myself alone in refl e cti on would — i it were all—b e as nothing gained What is n o t realised in communication i s not yet what is not ultimately grounded in it is without adequate foundation The truth begins with two Consequently p hi losophy demands : seek constan co m munication risk it without reserv e renounce the defiant self assertion which forces itself upon you in ev er new disguises live in the hope that in your very renunciation you will in some incalculable way be giv en back to yourself Hence I must constantly draw myself into doubt I must n o t grow secure I must not fasten o n to any ostensible light withi n m yself in the belief that it w ill illumine me reliably and judge me truly S uch an atti tude toward the self is th e most seductiv e form o f inauthentic self assertion . , . . , , - , . , , , . - . If I meditate in these three forms—self re fl ectio n transcending meditation contemplation o f my task and open myself to unlimited communication an imponderable presence which can nev er be forced may come to me : the clarity o f my love the hidden and - , , , , 12 4 WAY T O WI SD OM world into transcendence without hearing any di and unequiv ocal word of God but reading symbols o f the polyvalent language o f things and y living with the certainty o f transcendence O nly transcendence can make this q u estio n ab life good the world beautiful and existence itself a fulfilment Ifto philos ophize is to learn how t o die then we must l earn h o w to die in order to lead a good life To learn to live and to learn h o w to die are one and the same thing , , . , , . , . . M editation teaches us the p ower of thought Thought is the beginning o f human existence In accurate knowledge of obj ects I experience the power o f the rational as in the operations o f mathematics in the natural sciences in technical planning A s my method grows purer the logic ofmy syllogi sms becomes more co m pelling I gain greater insight into chains o f causality my experience becomes more reli able But p hilosophical thought begins at the limits o f this rational knowledge R ationality cannot help us in the essentials : it cannot help us to posit aims and ultimate ends to know the highest good to know G o d and human freedom ; thi s inadequacy o f the ra ti onal giv es ri s e to a kind o f thinking which whi le working with the tools o f the understanding is m ore than understanding Philosophy presses to the limits o f rational knowledge and there takes fire He who believ es that he understands ev erything is no longer engaged in philosophical thought He who takes scientific in sight for knowledge o f being itself and as a whole has succumbed to scientific superstition . . , , , . , , , . . , , , , . . . . 12 6 THE PHILOSOPHICAL LIFE who has ceased to be astonished has ceased to stion He who acknowledges no mystery is no seeker Because he humbly acknowledges the f possible knowledge the philosopher remains the unknowable that is revealed at those limits cognition c e ases but not thought By tech applying my knowledge I can act outwardly n kn o w le dge makes possible an inner action by I transform myself This is another and deeper f thought ; i t is not detached from being and toward an obj ect but is a process of my rm o st self in which thought and being become tical M easured by outward technical power thought o f inner action is as nothing i t is no o w le dge that can be possessed it cannot be according to plan and purpose ; it is an tic illumination and growth into being understanding ( ratio) broadens our horizons ; es obj ects reveals the tensions o f the existent p e rmits what it cannot apprehend to stand full force and clarity The clarity of the understanding makes possible clarity at its limits and arouses the authenti c impulses which are thought and action inward and outward act in o n e The philosopher is expected t o liv e according to h is doctrine This maxim expresses poorly the thought that lies be h ind it For the philosopher h as no doctrine if by doctrine is meant a set of rules under which the particular cases of empirical existence might be subsumed as things are subsu m ed under e m pirical species o r men s acts under j uridical norms P hilos o h ic al ideas cannot be applied ; they are a reality in p . . . . , , . , , , . , , . , , . , . , . . , ’ . 12 7 WAY TO WISD OM themselv es so that we m ay say : in the fulfilment 0 these thoughts the man him self liv es ; o r life is p er meated with thought That is why the p hi lo so and the man are inseparable ( while man can be sid ere d apart from his scientific knowledge ) ; and is why we cannot explore philosophical ideas in selv es but must at the same time gain awareness o f t h philosophical humanity which conceived t h e m , . . P hilosophical life is in constant p eril o f straying int perv ersions in justification o f which phi propositions are inv oked The formulae date existence are distort e d by the vital will P eace of mind is confu sed with passivity con with an illusory faith in the harmony o f all knowing how to die is mistaken for flight from world reason for total in difl e ren ce The best perv erted to the worst The wi ll to communication is pervert e d i nto self contradictory attitudes : we wish to be undisturbed yet demand absolute self certainty in self illumination We wish to be excused because of o u r nerves and yet ask t o be recognized as free We ar e cautiou s and taci turn and secretly o n our guard even while pro fessing unreserved readiness for communication We think o f ourselves whi le we ar e supposedly speaking o f the idea Th e p hi losopher who strives to understand and over come these p erversions in himself knows his u m certainty ; he is always o u the lookout for criticism he seeks opposition and wishes to be called to question ; he desires to list en not in order to submit but in order . , , . . , - - . . , . . , , 12 8 6 WAY T O WISD OM attained perfect O ur states of being are only manifesta overtheWW fl “ 0 o tions o f existenti al striving or failure It lies in ou thetog C U l w n ig nature to be o n the way We strive to cut eth n o 6 H c c time That is possible only in polarities n 1 iste sx t l a c h l O nly when we exi st entirely in this time o f O osp l h i p s e h h c hi storicity can we experi e nc e som e thin g o f the ete i h w ip sh h o t l e s pr esent r u hest gg O nly as d e t e rmi nate men e ach in his specificity ca andreeling : a t e we exp erienc e humanity as such r t r e a e W O nly wh e n we exp erience o ur own age as o ur relinquishour Comprehensive r e ali ty can we apprehend t h is ag e as arenot egnieu part o f the unity o f history and this unity o f history as flutterings are part of eterni ty nthoscwhosit In o ur ascending journey the primal source grows arcintelhgihlec cl e ar e r for us behind o ur empirical states but ther e g e “m hesam constant danger that it will return to obscurity departure for The ascent of philosophical life is the ascent o f d epen ds which i ndivi dual man He must accomplish it as thoughincom in communicati on and cannot shift responsibility n everbeeom et} others We achiev e this ascent in the historically co ncre elective acts of our life n o t by electing any so weltanschauung laid down in propositions A nd now in conclusion let u s v enture a metaphor that may characterize the situation o f philosophy in the temporal world Having o riented himself on secure dry land through realistic observ ation through the special — sciences through logic and methodology the phi losopher at the limits o f this land explores the world o f ideas over tranquil paths A nd now like a butterfly he flutters ove r th e ocean shore darting o . , . - - . . . . , . , . , . , . , . . , . , , , , , , . , 130 THE PHILOSOPHICAL LIFE v er the water ; he spies a ship in which he would k e t o go o n a v oyage o f discove ry to seek o u t the n e thing which as transcendence is present in his xistenc e He peers after the ship— the method o f hiloso p hical thought and philosophical life— the 1i p which he sees and yet can never fully reach ; and e struggles to reach it sometimes strangely staggering nd reeling We are creatures o f this sort and w e are lost if we linquish o u r orientation to the dry land But we re n o t content t o remain there That is why o u r utterings are so uncertain and perhaps so absurd those who sit secure and content o n dry land and re intelligible only to thos e who hav e been seized by 1e same unrest For them the world is a point o f ep art u re fo r that flight upon whi ch ev ery thing ep e n ds which each man must venture o n his o w n ro u gh in common with other men and which can ever become the object o f any doctri ne , . , . , . . , . , , . 13 1 THE H I S TO RY O F PH I LO S O PHY P H I L O S O P H Y I S A S o ld as reli gion and o ld than the churches In the stature and purity champions and in the integrity o f its spirit i usually though n o t always been o n a l ev el wi th t world o f the church whose rights it recognizes in speci fic sphere But wi thout sociological form o f o w n it has been helpless in its confrontati on with t church It has enjoyed the accidental protection powers in the world including the favourable sociological situations in order to r itself in objective works Its authentic reality is to ev ery man at all times and it is in some omnipresent wherever there are men The churches are for all philosophy for individu The churches are visible orga ni zations wield power ov er masses of m en in the world Philosophy is an expression o f a realm o f minds linked with o n e another through all peoples and ages ; it is represented by no institution whi ch excludes or welcomes A s long as the churches ha v e ti es with the E ternal their outward power exploits the innermost energies A s they draw the E ternal into the servi ce o f their power i n the world this power like every other power in the world grows si ni ster and evil A s long as p hi losophy remains in contact wi th eternal truth i t inspires without violence it brings order t o . , , , . . , . , . , , . . , . , , , . , 13 2 WAY TO WISD OM aristocrat who felt that he could not engage in t political activity befitti ng hi s rank because o f moral degeneration : Bruno Descartes S pin were solitary thinkers without any in stit u t io them seeki ng the truth for its own sake ; A nselm the founder o f an ecclesiastical aristocracy ; Thom serv ant of the church ; Nicholas o f G usa a card whose ecclesiastical and philosophical life M achiavelli an unsuccessful statesman ; Kan S chelling professors who dev eloped their philos in connection with their teachi ng We must rid ourselv es of the idea that p hiloso activity as such is the a ff air o f professors It see m to be the a ff air of man under all conditions circumstances o f the slav e as o f the ruler We u m stand the hi storical manifestation o f the truth o nly i examine it in conjunction with the world arose and the destinies of the men w h o c If these manifestations are remote and alien to us in itselfis illuminating We m ust seek the philosophical idea and the thinker in their physical reality The truth does not hover all alone in the air o f abstraction The history o f p hi losophy comes aliv e f o r us when by thorough study o f a work and of the world in which it was produced we participate as it were in that work After that we seek perspectiv es which will accord us a view of the hi story o f philosophy as a whole i111 schemas which though questionable serve as guid es by which to orient ourselv es in so v ast a region , , , , , . . , , . . . . , , . , , , . The whole of the history of philosophy throughout : t w o and a half millennia is like a single vast moment . 134 THE HISTORY OF P HILO SO P HY the growing self awaren ess o f man Thi s moment ay be look e d upon as a never ending discussion o f forces sclo sin clash e s questions that seem in g luble sublime works and regressions profound and a turmoil of error our study o f the history o f philosophy we seek a which to situate philosophical ideas through the history o f philosophy as a whole can arn h o w philosophy dev eloped in relation to the div erse social and politica l conditions and rso n al situations P hilosophy dev eloped independently in Chi na dia and the West Despite occasional int ercom these three worlds were so sharply own to the ti m e of Christ s birth that e ach in the main be studied in its o w n terms date the strongest influence was that o f Indian Budd hi sm o n China comparable to that o f Christianity on the Western world I n the three worlds the development follows a si m ilar curv e A fter a preliminary hi story whi ch it is difl i cult to clarify the fundamental ideas rose ev erywhere in the axial age ( 8 oo—2 oo A fter t his there was a period o f dissolution in the course o f which the great religions o f redemption were con solidated ; there were recurrent periods o f renewal ; there were all embracing systems ( S cholasticism) and logical speculations of subli m e metaphysical i m port carried to the utmost extreme What was the specific Western character o f this synchronistic dev elopment ? First it consisted in a greater dynami s m bringing with it constant crises and - . - , , , , . . . , . , ’ . , . . , ' - , . , 135 WAY TO WISD OM developments ; second in the greater div e rsity languages and peoples m anifesting the ideas ; a thi rd in the unique dev elopment of Western sci Western philosophy falls historically into four periods : First : Greek philosophy trav elled the path from myth to logos created the basic Western concepts the categories and fundamental conceptions of being whole of the world and m an For us it remains the archetype of si m plicity ; in making it o ur o w n we preserv e our clarity S econd : Chris tian medieval philosophy trav elled the path fro m biblical religion to its conc eptual under standing from rev elation to theology It was more than a conser v ativ e pedagogic S cholasticis m Creativ e thinkers chief a m ong them S t P aul S t A ugustine M artin Luther disclo sed a world which in its source was religious and philosophical in one For u s it re m ains to preserv e aliv e in our m inds the secre t of Christianity as manifested in this wide real m o f though t T hird : M odern E uropean philosophy arose hand in hand with m odern natural science and m an s new personal rejection of all authority Kepler and Galileo on the one hand Bruno and S p inoza on the other represent the new roads For us it remains to prese rve the true m eaning of science as they ap p re hended it—although it was also perv erted fro m the v ery outset— and of spiritual freedo m Fourth : The philosophy of German idealism From L essing and Kant to Hegel and S chelling w e hav e a series o f thinkers who p erhaps excel all previous , , , , . , . - . , . . , , . , , . ’ . , . . . 13 6 WAY T O WISD O M endured for a thousand years was drawing to a cl The r ep rese n t at w e philosophers o f the epoch Kierkegaard and Nietzsche thinkers of a typ had formerly not existed clearly related to the thi s age ; and M arx who intell ectually a world from them excelled all mod ern philosophers in influence A n extreme thinking became poss i ble w hi questioned everything in order to penetrate t o t profoundest source which shook O ff all encu m in order to free the vision fo r an insight into existe the unconditional and actuality in a world that been radically transformed by th e technological , , , , . , , , , We draw up schemas o f thi s sort in env isagi history o f philosophy as a whole They are 5 fi cial I n o ur search for deeper meanings we may touch o n such questions as these : Firs t : Is there a unity in the his tory of philosophy ? This unity is no t fact but idea We seek it but attain only t o particul ar uniti es Certain problems ( such as the relation betw e en body and soul ) co m e into focus at v arious ti mes but the historical factors coincide only partially with a logical construction o f the ideas Progressions o f systems can be shown ; it can be shown fo r example how as Hegel saw it German philosophy and ultimately all philosophy culminated in his o wn system But constructions o f this sort do violence to the facts they fail t o take into account those elements in earlier philosophical thought which are fatal to Hegelian thinking and are hence ignored by He gel ; . . . . , . , , , . , 13 8 , THE HISTORY OF P HILOS OP HY h rs e p who erect them tend to neglect the sse n ce o f other m en s thinking N 0 construction h istory o f philosophy as a logically coherent of positions coincides with historical fact construction we can giv e t o the history ( 1by the geni us of the indi v idual h ilo so p h e r Despite all de m onstrable ties and in u e n c es greatness remains an incompa r able miracle uite apart from the dev elopment that is accessible o u r understanding The idea o f a unity in the history o f philosophy may ni al phi losophy which is internally l to that peren pp y me which creates i t s historical organs and structures garments and tools but is not identical with them ( 1: The beginning and i ts s ignificance The b e is the first appearance o f an idea at some in ti me The sourc e is the fundamental truth lw ay s present misunderstandings and perversions o f thought at all times return to the source Instead of this source by following the guidance of mea ni ngful transmitted texts some thinkers fall into the error o f seeking it in temporal beginnings : i n the first pre S ocratic philosophers in early e g Christianity in early Buddhism The journey to the source which is always necessary assumes the false form o f a search for the beginnings I t is true that those beginnings which are still attainable exert a powerful spell But an ab solute beginning cannot be found What passes in our tradition for a beginning is a relative beginning and was itself th e product of earli er development ’ . . . , , . , , , . . , . . . , , - . . , , . , . . . . 139 WA Y TO WISD OM Henc e it is a fundamental p rinciple o f hi storic study that in exami ning transmitted texts we re st ri ourselv es to their real content O nly thr ough a hi s ical at titude can we deepen o u r insight into what been preserved There is nothing to be gained reconstituting what has been lost by reco nstructi earlier phases by filling in gaps Third : Can we speak of develop ment and p rogress ? philosophy We can observ e certain lines o f develop ment for example : from S ocrates to Plato and A ristotle from Kant to Hegel from L ocke t o Hume But even such sequences are false if we take them t o mean that the lat er thi nker preserved and transc e nded the truth of his predecessor E ven whe re generati ons are thus visibly linked the new is not encompassed in what went before The successor often relinquishes the essence o f the e arlier thought someti mes h e no longer ev en understands it Th ere are worlds o f intellectual exchang e whi ch endure for a time to whi ch the indivi dual thinker contributes his word as for example G re ek philos o p hy S cholas tic philosophy the German p hi los ” 0p hi c al move m ent from 1 7 60 to 18 4 0 These are ep ochs of living co m munion in original thought T here are other epochs in which phi losophy endur es as pedagogy others in whi ch it almost see ms t o have v anished The total view of the history o f philosophy as a progressiv e develop m ent i s mi sleading The hi story of p hi losophy res e mbles the history o f art in that it s sup reme works are irreplaceable and unique It resembles the history o f science in that its tools . . , . , , , , . . , . , . , , , , , . . , . . . 14 0 WAY T O WISD O M Certain thinkers and epochs make it plain t hat history of phi losophy has its gradations It is no level field in whi ch all works and thi nkers stand o n an equal footing There are heights of vision t o which only a few hav e attained A nd there are great men suns amid the hosts of stars But this does n o t mean that we can set up a definitiv e hierarchy which would carry conviction for ev eryone It is a far remov e from the Opinions held generally in a giv en epoch to the content of the philosophical works created in that epoch That whi ch the un der standing o f all men looks upon as self evident hence requiring no interpretation can be expressed in the form o f p h ilosophy just as well as the great philosophic ideas that are susceptible of endless interpretation A tranquil limited vision and contentment with the world thus seen ; the yearning for the unknown ; and questioning at the li m its all these are philosophy . . . , . . . - , , . , - . We have spoken o f an analogy between the history o f philosophy and the authority o f religious traditi on True philosophy has no cano ni cal books such as those possessed by the religions no authority which need simply be followed no definitiv e truth which simply exists But the historical tradition o f philosophy a s a whole thi s deposit o f inexhausti ble truth shows us the roads to o ur present p hi losophical endeavour The tradition is the profound truth of past thought toward which we look with never ending expectancy ; it is so m ethi ng unfathomable in the few great works ; it is the reality of the great thinkers received wi th rever ence . , , , . , , . , - , . 14 2 THE HISTORY OF P HILOS OPHY The tradition is an authority that cannot be ob eyed vi th certainty It is incumbent upon us to come to n urselv e s through it by o u r o w n experience to find su r o w n s ource i n l t s source O nly in the seriousness of present philosophical hi nki n g can we gain contact with eternal philosophy 1 1 i t s historical ma ni festation It is through the his o ri cal manifestation that we gain the profound ties hat can unite u s in a common present Thus historical research is conducted o n various ev e ls In his approach t o the texts the conscientious t u de n t o f philosophy knows o n which plane he is no v i n g He must gain intelligent mastery o f the facts But the end and summit o f hi storical study ie s in th e mo ments o f communion in the source It is hen that the light dawns whi ch gives mea ni ng and i nity to all factual research Without this centre t hi s > hilo so hi c al source the history o f philosophy would p ) 6 a m e re record o f fallacies and curiosities O nce it has awakened me history becomes the n irro r o f what is my o w n : in its image I see what I n y se lf think The h istory o f philosophy— a space in whi ch I — h i nk and breathe rev eals in inimi table perfection : p rototypes fo r my own searching By its atte m pts its successes and failures philos o phy raises the question It encourages me through the example o f those men wh o hav e unswervi ngly followed its arduous path To take a past philosophy as o ur own is no more o f art for a ossible than to produce an old work p second t ime A t best we can produce a deceptive copy We hav e n o text like pious Bible readers in which we . , . . . . . ‘ . . , . , . , . , . . , . . . , , 14 3 WAY T O WI SD O M may hope to find absolute truth We love the Old texts a s we lo v e o ld works o f art our hearts go o u t t o them we immerse ourselves in their truth but there re mains in them something remote and unattai nable unfathomable though it is somethi ng with which we always liv e something whi ch starts u s o n the way to o u r present p hi losop hi zing For philosophy is essentially concern e d w i th t h e present We hav e only o n e reality and that is h e re an d n o w What we miss by o ur evasions will ne v er return but if w e squander ourselv e s then too we lose being E ach day is precious : a moment can be eve rything We are r e miss in our task if we lose ourselv es in the past o r future O nly through present reali ty can we gain access to the timel ess ; only in apprehendi ng tim e can we attain to that sphere wh e r e all ti me extinguished . , , , , , , . , . . , . , . . . APPEND IX PHILOS OPHY 1 A ND SCIENCE! H Y H A s F R o M its very beginnings looked as science indeed as science par excellence 1L o s o P e lf , . animated its devotees Ho w its scientific character came to be questi oned n be understood only in the light o f the development the specifically modern sciences These sciences made des in the nineteenth century largely lo so p hy often in opposition t o philosophy in an atmosphere of indi fference t o it If was still expected to be a science it was in a nse than before ; it was now expected to be a he same sense as those modern sciences that their acco m plishments If it were it was argued it had become pointless 8 well die o u t ago the opinion was widespread that o p h y had had its place up to the moment when the sciences had become independent of it the n al univ ersal science N ow that all possible fields i g research have been marked o ff the days of philo N ow that we know how science obtains v alidity it has beco m e evident that philo cannot stand up against judgment by these It deals in emp t y ideas because it sets up ri t eria R p i t d by p m i io of th P ti R i w . . , , , . , . , . , . , , . e r n e er ss n 14 7 e ar san ev e . WAY WISD OM TO undemonstrable hypotheses it disregards experi enc e seduces by illusions it takes possession o f e n ergi needed for genuine investigation and squand ers th e in empty talk about the whole This w as the picture of p hi losophy as se e n science conceived as methodical cogent univers valid insight Under such circumstances could philosophy legi timately claim t o be scientific ? To this situation p hi losophy reacted in t w o ways 1 The attack w as regarded as justified P hilosophers ) withdrew t o limited tasks If philosophy is at an end because the sciences hav e taken o v er all it s subject matter there remains nev ertheless the knowledge o f its history first as a fac t or in the hi story o f the scienc es themselves then as a pheno m enon in the hi story of thought the history o f the errors the anti cipated in sights the process o f liberation by which philosophy has made itself superfluous Finally the history of philosophy must preserve the knowledge o f th e philosophical texts if only for their aesthetic interest Although these texts do not make any serious contri b u t io n to scientific truth they are nevertheless worth reading for the sake o f their style and the intellectual attitude they reflect O thers paid tribute to the m odern scientific trend by rejecting all previous philosophy and striving to give philosophy an exact scientific foundation They seized upon questions which they claimed were reserv ed for p hi losophy because they concern all the sciences ; namely logic episte m ology pheno m enology In e ff ort to refurbish its reputation philosophy became a servile imi tator a handmai den t o the scienc e s It , , , . , , . . . , , , , , , , . . , , . . , , ’ , , , . , . , 14 8 WAY T O WI SD O M philosophy Whether it is the slav e o f science whether it denies all science it has in either c c e ased t o be philosophy The seeming triumph of the sciences ov er philos h as for some decades created a situation in philosophers go back to v arious sources in sea true philosophy If such a thing is found the tion o f the relation between philosophy and s will be answered both in a theoretical and in concrete sense It is a practical question o f the u t m o urgency of . , . , . , . . We shall appreciate the full weight o f this p ro b le if we consider its historical origin It dev eloped fro three complexly intertwined factors These are a spirit o f modern science ; b ) the ancient and recurrent attem pt to achiev e univ ersal p h ilo so p hi knowledge ; c ) the philosophica l concept of truth a w as first and fo r all time elucidated in P lato Ad a ) The m odern sciences dev eloped only last few centuries hav e brought into the world a scientific attitude which existed neither in A sia nor in antiquity nor in the M iddle A ges Ev en the Greeks to be sure conceiv ed of science as methodical cogently certain and univ ersally v alid knowledge But the m odern sciences not only hav e brought o u t these basic attributes of science with greater purity ( a task which has not yet been com they ha v e also i v en new form and new l e t e d) g p foundation to the purpose scope and unity o f their fields of inquiry I shall indicate certain o f their fun dament al characteristics . . , . , , . , , , , . ‘ , , . 1 0 5 , m m f i w s d o O T u l ‘ a a l ’ l l ul a ll a l m m d fl a t sian d w W V W lullc F l m e u r n u l u pp i h c b t s u m n ig th o N m a m f l l S u m r r i ih g [w em / d i l fi m l l e s u a bec PM 0 0 1 e c n e tscr en er u r a m 1 5 1 d C l l l s n ; sfi a s u u d n a d hortlive , s ‘ O d l l a l o s oug r n sc o u z “ 1 n r r a b m e mau es u o r [ l s r e s s t a o th du u s s d r l o w h l b e i s y t n dparticulars a n a ss edsa t en rec ed n u p s c ernphysic od m hroughthemrte T split up and dep . heloreseemedtot l ssof the n petene — reekcosm G os heancienrs 3) T ' . tooneanother l m g m od ernseien cesst ham oo ireference a ll-e bracin bod longer ossiblelor p con ceiva ble Our . P HIL OS OP HY AND SCIENCE nothing is indifi rent In it s ey e s To modern science ) ery fact ev en the smallest and ugliest the most ant and most alien is a legi timate Object o f inquiry the very reason that it exists S cience has become ly univ ersal There is nothing that can evade it thing must be hidden o r passed over in silence ; e m al n a mystery science is by defini ti on unfinished progresses toward the infinite whereas ent science in ev ery o n e o f its forms pr esent e d itself finished ; its actual d evelopment w as in ev ery case ort lived and it never se t its o w n dev elopment as its n scio u s goal M odern scientists ha v e understood that al l e mbracing world syst e m which d e duces every n g that exists from o n e o r a few p rinciples is im p o s le A world system h as other sources and can only u n1v e rs al v alidity if scientific critique is relaxed mistaken fo r absolutes S uch s are e n t e d systemati zations as those achieved by physics co v er only o n e aspect o f reality ugh them reality as a whole h as become mor e up and deprived o f foundations than it ev er e seemed to the human mind Hence the in co m ness o f the modern world as compared t o the — k cosmos The ancient sci e nces remained scattered unrelated 3) t o one another They did n o t aim at consti tu ti ng an all embracing body of specific knowledge whereas the modern sciences striv e to be integrated into a univ ersal frame o f reference Though a true world system is n o longer possible fo r them a cosmos o f the sciences is s till conceivable O ur sense o f the inadequacy Of each 1 . , , , . . . . , , , . - - , , - . . . . . , . - , - . , . 1 1 5 WAY T O WISD OM special branch o f knowledge demands that e ach scien be connected wi th knowledge as a whol e The modern sciences attach little value t o 4) p ossibilities o f thought ; they recognize the idea definite and concrete knowledge after it worth as an instrument o f discovery and t o infinite modifications in the process o f invest True th ere is a certain similarity between anci mod e rn atomic theory in so far as the general is conc e rned But the ancient theory w as merely intrinsically finished interpretation o f p o ssib ili t based o n plausible explanations o f av ailable eri e n ce while the modern the p tion wi th experi ence undergoes perpetual confirmati on and disproof and is itself an i mplem ent investi gation h i a s becom e T day a sci e ntific att tud e i o b ss o p 5) an atti tude o f inquiry toward all phenomena ; t o d the scienti st can know certain thi ngs definit ely he can distingui sh between w h and what he do es n o t kn ow ; and he h as unprec e dented abundance o f knowledge li ttle the G reek physician o r the Greek tech by The moral imp erativ e science is to search for reliable kn o w le dg o f unprejudic e d inquiry and critique preconceived ideas When we enter into have the sensation o f breathing clean air o f le av i behind us all vague talk all plausible opinions stubborn prejudice and blind faith Ad b) M odern science sh ares t h e age o ld striving total phi l osophi cal kn owledge Phi losophy had from . , , , . , , . , , . , , , . - . 1 52 WAY T O WISD O M the cave and touches on in his dialectic thi s truth tha t applies to being and to that which is abov e all being how funda m entally di fferent it is from the truth o f t h e sciences which m ov e only amid the manifest b e ing without e v er attaining to b eing itself an di ff erent from the truth o f the dogmatic system holds itself to be in possession of the whole of What a distance between the truth which can be set down in writing but which accord sev enth epistle tho ugh it can only be thought is kindled in a favourable moment m u nic at io n among men o f understanding truth which is written univ ersally cogent distinct and av ailable to all t hi n kin t e lligib le creatures ! , , , ' , , , , , , Thr e e so di ff erent conceptions o f scientific kno ledge—the first patterned on the method o f science the second deriv ed fro m the idea philosophical system and the third related t truth which is directly apprehended by the in — m P lato s truth being an exa ple all contribute t ) ( present confusion A n example : Its inquiries and inv estigations in the econo m ic field have made M arxism an important force in scientific dev elop m ent But this it shares with many other trends and its scientific contribution does n o t account for it s influence M arxism al so represents a philosophical thesis regarding the dialectical course of histo ry as a total process which it pu rports to understand T hus it constitutes a philosophical doctrine but o n e with a claim to univ ersal scientific v alidity It has the same , , ’ . . , . . . 15 4 P HIL O S O P HY AND SCIENCE i e m o lo gic al basis as Hegel s philosophy t s , p ec t ic al m ethod remains its implement The whose diff er only that for Hegel the core o f the historical ” s lies in what he calls the idea while for it lies in the mode o f production of man w ho the animals obtains h is sustenance through Both Hegel and M arx derive all hat they regard as the core M arx clai m s to hav e stood Hegel o n his ead ; t hat however is only in content for he did not e p a rt from Hegel s method o f constructing reality y the dialectic o f the concept N ow this identification of economic knowledge 5 gained by scientific method hence inducti v ely is subject to constant with the dialectical knowledge of the which passes fo r essentially definitiv e is the so u rce of the fallacy co m mitted by Hegel and in a di ff erent form by the type o f modern philosophy that began with Descartes and was repeated by M arx M arx s absolute excl u siv e clai m therefore originates in a conception of philosophy as total syste m atic knowledge ; but at the sa m e time his doctrine is presented as a result o f m odern science f rom which it does n o t at all follow In addition to the conceptions patterned o n modern science and total philo sophy there op erates in M arxis m also a third conception reflecting the lofty idea of an absolute truth that fulfils m an s will and aspiration s analogous to the P latonic idea of truth although entirely di fferent in character M arxis m c o nceiv es of itself as the true consciousness of the classless m an ’ . “ , , , . , ’ . , , , ’ , . , , , . , , ’ , , . . I S5 WAY T O WISD O M This quasi religious postulate is the source o f a kind of fanaticis m which invokes n o t faith but mo science which charges its opponents with stupi malice o r inability to ov ercome class prejudice contrasts these with its own univ ersal human truth is free from class bondage and hence absolute S imilar intellectual tendencies which u n cri ti hypostatize a field of investigation that is within it s limits into a total science and infuse religious attitude hav e been manifested in the of racial theory and psychoanalysis and in many fields T he false confusion o f heterogeneous eleme produces here o n a large scale results that are familiar o n a small scale in ev ery d o f never being at a loss for an m ere plausibility stubbornly uncritical statements a a ffi rmations inability to explore in a genuine sense t listen analyse test and reflect o n principles The infuriati ng part o f it is that science is invoked t defend somethi ng that runs directly counter to t scienti fic spirit For science leads us to the un d erst a ing of the principles limitations and meani ng o f knowledge It teaches us to know in full o f the m ethods by which each stage o f knowledge achi eved It produces a certainty whose relativity i e dependence on presu p p ositions and methods 0 inv estigation is its crucial characteristic Thus we are today confronted with an am b iv ale concept of science Genuine science can as has alw been the case ap p ear to be occult ; it is in the nature a public secret It is public because it is accessible - , , . , , . , , ‘ , , , , , , . . , , , . . , . , . , , . 15 6 . . WAY TO WI SD OM test the truth meaning o f scientific knowledge auscultate it so to speak must participate in the work o f these scientists Third a pure philosophy must be worked o u t new conditions that have been created by the sciences This is indispensable fo r the sake o f the scie themselv es Fo r philosophy is always alive in sciences and so inseparable from them that the puri both can be achiev ed only joi to - , , , . , . . a bad philosophy The concrete work o f is guided by his conscious or unconscious and this philosophy cannot be the object o f method Fo r example : It is impossible t o prove scie n ti fi that there should be s u ch a thing as science O r : choice of an object o f science that is made from amo an infinite number o f existing objects o n th e basis this obj ect itself is a choice that cannot be j ustifi scientifically O r : Th e ideas that guide us are tested the systematic process o f selves do not become an S cience left t o itself as less The intellect is a whore it can prostitute itself to anything S cience is a whore said L eni n for it sells itself to any class interest For Nicholas of C u sa it is R eason and ulti m ately the knowledge o f God that giv es mea ni ng certainty and truth to intellectual knowledge ; fo r L enin it is the classless society that promotes pur e science Be that as it may awareness o f all this is the business o f p hilo so i hi l reflection P h i losophy s inher e nt i n th e actual c a p of . . . . , . ’ . , , . , “ , , , , . , . 15 8 P HILOSO P HY AND SCIENCE themselv es ; it is their inner meaning that the scientist with sustenance and guides his cal work He who consolidates this guidance reflection and becomes conscious o f it has the stage o f explicit philosophizing If this e fails science falls into gratuitous conv ention rrec t n e ss aimless busy ness and spine ss se rvi tude A pure science requir es a pure p hi losophy . . , , - , , . . h ow can p hi losophy be pure ? Has it not always ” ? ci e n ce O ur answer is : It is science such a sort that in the sense of modern i r s it both less and more than science y can be called science in so far as it oses the sciences There is no tenable philo u t side the sciences A lthough conscious of its character p hi losophy is inseparable from I t refuses t o transgress against univ ersally insight A nyone who philosophizes must be with scientific method is n o t trained in a scienti fic to keep his scientific interests alive wi ll inevitably bungle and stumble ke uncritical rough drafts for definitiv e Unless an idea is sub m itted to the coldly at e test o f scientific inquiry it is rapidly in the fi re o f emotions and passions o r else withers into a dry and narrow fanaticism M oreover anyone w h o philosophizes striv es for ie n tifi c knowledge for it is the only way to genuine n kn o w le dg e it is as though the most magnificent But “ . . . , . . , - , . . , , , 15 9 WAY TO WISD OM insights could be achiev ed only through man s q for the limit at which cognition runs aground see m ingly and temporarily but genuinely and fi nitiv e ly n o t with a sense of loss and despair but a sense of genuine i knowledge can m ake definitive n o nkno w le it alone can achieve the authentic failure which o p e up a vista n o t merely upon the discoverable existe but upon being itself In accomplishing the great task of dispelling magical conceptions m o dern sc ience enters upon path that leads to the intuition o f the true dept h authentic m ystery whi ch becomes present 0 through the most resolute knowledge in th e co n su tion o f nonknowledge Consequently philosophy turns against those w h despise the sciences against the sham prophets w h deprecate scientific inquiry who mi stake the erro scie nce for science itself and who would ev en hold science modern science responsible for the evils and the inhu m anity o f our era R ejecting superstitious belief in science as Well as conte m pt of science philosophy grants its u n co n di t io n al recognition to m odern science In its eyes science is a marvellous thing which can be relied upon m ore than anything else the most significant achiev e ment of man in his histo ry an achievement that is the source o f great dangers but ofev en greater opportunities and that from now on must be regarded as a pre requisite o f all hu m an dignity Without science the philosopher knows his o w n pursuits ev entuat e in nothing ’ - , , , . , , , . , , , , , . , . , , . , . 160 , WAY TO WISD OM Yet in thi s intellectual transcendence which proper to p hi losophy and which is analogous scienti fic forms philosophy is less than sci e nc e Fo r does not gain any tangible results o r any intellectual binding insight There is no overlooki ng th e simp fact that while scientific cognition is identical throu gh o u t the world p hi losophy despite i t s claim t o univer s ality is n o t actually uni v ersal in any shape o r form T hi s fact is the outward characteris tic o f the peculiar nature o f philosophical t ruth Al t hough scientific truth is universally valid it remai ns relative t o method and assumptions ; philosophical truth is absolute for him who conquers it in historical actuality but it s state ments are n o t univ ersally valid S cientific truth is one and the same f o r all—philosophical truth wears mul tipl e historical cloaks each o f these is the mani festa ti on o f a uni que reality each h as it s justificati on but they are not identically trans m issible The o n e philosophy is the philosophia perennis around which all philosophies revolv e whi ch n o one possesses in which every genuine philosopher shares and which nev ertheless can never achiev e the form o f an int ellec tual edifice valid for all and exclusively true Thus philosophy is n o t only less but also more than science namely as the source o f a truth that is in accessible to scientifically binding knowledge It is th is philosophy that is meant in such defi nitions as : To phi losophize is t o l earn how to di e o r to ri se t o god head—o r t o know being qua being The meaning o f such definitions is : P hilosophical thought is inward ac t ion ; it appeals to freedom ; it is a summons t o transcendence O r the same thing can be formulated , , . . , , , . . , “ , . , , . , , , . , , . . . 162 PHILOSOPHY AND SCIE NCE ly P hi losophy is th e act of becomi ng con — genuine being o r is the thi nki ng o f a faith in be infinitely elucidated—o r is the way sertion thr ough t hi nking But none of these propositions is properly spea king a e fi n it io n There is no definition ofp hi losophy because hilo so p h y cannot be determined by something out There is no genus above philosophy und e r it can be subsumed as a species Philosophy itself relates itself directly to godhead and f utility It grows out primal source in which man is giv en to himself To sum up : The sciences do not encompass all of the ruth but only the exact knowledge that is binding to he intellect and uni v ersally v alid Truth h as a greater cope and part o f it can rev eal itself only to p hi loso a l reason Throughout the centuries since the early dle A ges philosop hi cal works hav e been written ” under the title O n the Truth ; today the same task still remains urgent i e to gain insight into the essence o f truth in its full scope under the present conditions o f scientific knowledge and hi storical experience The foregoing considerations also apply to the relation between science and philosophy O nly if the t w o are strictly distinguished can the inseparable connection between them re m ain pure and truthful z . . , , . , , . . . , . , “ , . . , . . . Through research and study the univ ersity strives to achieve the great practical u ni ty of the sciences and philosophy A t the univ ersity a philosophical View of the world has always been made mani fest through scientific method . . 163 WAY T O WISD OM The university is the meeting place o f all sciences the u ni v ersi so far a s these remain an aggregate resembles an intellectual warehouse ; but in so far they striv e toward unity o f knowledge it resembles never fi nish e d temple A century and a half ago this w as still self ev id the philosophical ideas that were assumed by scientists in the various disciplines were brought to h ighest light o f consciousness by the philosophers th e situation has changed The science fragmented by specialization It has c lie v e d that scientific cognition m arked by the ne o f uni v ersally v alid particular knowledge could away fro m philosophy Is the present dispersion of the sciences the ulti and necessary stage ? O ne might wish fo r a philosophy that would enco m pass and assi m ilate the whole tradition that would be equal to the intellectual situation o f o u r ti m e that would express the contents co m mon to all o f us and this both in subli m e in t e llec tual constructions and in si m ple propositions capable o f finding resonance in e v ery man T oday we hav e n O such p hilosophy O ld univ ersity seals dating fro m the fifteenth century rev eal figures wro ught in gold which represent Christ distributing their tasks to the faculties Ev en where such seals are still in use they no longer express the modern reality ; yet they still bear witness to the task o f unifying the whole Today neither theology n o r philosophy creates a whole Does the univ ersity still hav e a co m m on spirit ? A s regards its organization it still seems to constitute . , , - . - . . . , , . , , , . ' ' . . . . , 164 ‘ WAY T O WISD OM embodied in the totality o f a sp e cific sci enc e T phi losophy thus becomes in a sense the spokesman knowledge in general provi ded that constant care taken to see this particular domai n in relation to all t knowable and thereby t o anchor it in depth The teach e r o f philosophy in the service o f suc e fforts is n o t a leader w h o lays down the law but a attentiv e and patient listener eager t o find meani ng i the broadest interrelations The teacher o f philosophy reveres the ind great philosophers w h o are not specimens o f a type b u t creators ( such do n o t exist today) but he rej ects the idolization o f men which began ev en in the academy o f P lato for even the greatest ar e m e n and err and n o one is an authority w h o must be obeyed by right And the teach er o f philosophy h as respect for each r science w hose insights are bin ding—but he condemns r the scientific pride whi ch imagines that everythi ng can be known in its ultimate foundati on o r ev en goes so far as to suppose that it is known His ideal is that o f a rational being coexisting wi th other rational beings He wants to doubt he thirsts fo r objections and attacks he striv es to become capable of playing his part in the dialogue o f ev er deepening communication whi ch is the prerequisite o f all truth s and without whi ch there is no truth His hope is that in the same measure as he beco m es a rational being he may acquire the profound contents which can sustain man that his will in so far as his striving is honest may become good through the direct help o f the transcendent without any human mediation . , . , . , , , , , . . ) ‘ . , . , - , . , , , , . P HIL OSOP HY AND SCIEN CE a teach e r o f p hi losophy however he fe els that it duty n o t t o l e t his stud e nts forget th e great mi nds e past t o preserve the various philosophi cal as an obj e ct o f instruction and t o see t o it sci e nc e s influ e nce philosophical t hi nking ; t o ci dat e th e pres e nt age and at the sam e tim e to join S s tud e nts in conquering a vi ew o f th e e t erna l , , , , . 167 APPEND IX 11 O N READI N G PH I L O S O PHY IF I T I S true that phi losophy concerns man as man 1t must lie wi thin o u r power to make it generally l n t e lligib le I t must be possible t o communi cate briefly certain fund amental ideas though n o t of course the co m plex operations o f systemati c phi losophy It h as been my intention to gi v e an inti mation o f those elements in phi losophy which are the concern of ev ery man But in so doing I hav e endeav oured n o t to disregard the essential ev en where it seemed in t ri n sic ally di ffi cult The present lectures are little more than sketches cov ering but a s m all segmen t o f the possibilities o f philosophical thought M any great ideas are not ev en touched upon M y aim h as been to encourage my listeners to reflect o n these matters for themselv es Fo r those who m ay seek guidance in their p hilo so hi al reflections I append what follows c p , . , . . , . , . . . . 1 . O N THE S TU DY O F PH ILO S OPH Y P hilosophi cal thought is concerned with the ulti mate the authentic whi ch beco m es present in real life Ev ery man as man philosophizes But the dev elop m ents o f this thought cannot be understood at a glance S ystematic p hi losophy calls for study S uch study m ay be divided into three parts : First : P articip ation in scientific inquiry From its two , . . . . . 168 WAY WISD OM TO I venture these maxi ms : proceed resolutely but do n o t run aground ; t e st and correct n o t haphazardly retaini ng o r arbitrarily but in a constructi ve spirit ev ery experience as an e ff ective force in your thinking , , . 2 . O N PH ILO SOPH I CA L R E ADING When I read I wish first o f all t o understand what the author meant to say But in order to un der stand what he mean t I must understand n o t only his languag e but hi s subject matter as well M y understanding will depend o n my knowledge o f th e subject I t is through the understanding o f texts that we se t o u t to acquire o ur knowledge of the subject Hence we must thi nk o f the subj ect itself and at the sam e ti me o f what the author meant O ne without the other mak e s the reading fruitless S ince when I study a text I have the subject in mind my understanding o f the text undergoes an involuntary transformation Fo r a sound understanding both are necessary : immersion in the subject matter and return to a clear understanding o f the author s meaning In the first process I acquire philosophy in the second historical insight R eading should be undertaken in an attitude co m pounded o f confidence in the author and lov e fo r th e subject he has taken up A t first I must read as though ev erythi ng stated in the text were true O nly after I have allowed myself to be completely carried away after I hav e been in the subj ect matter and then re e m erged as it were from it s centre can meaningful criticism begin . . . . . . , . ’ . , . . . , , . O N READ IN G P HILOS OPHY How i n studying the history o f philosophy we make past philosophy o ur own may be elucidated on the basis o f the thre e Kantian imperativ es : thi nk for your self; in your thinki ng put yourself in the place of ev e ry other man ; think in una ni mi ty with yourself These imperativ es are endless tasks A ny anticipated solution making it appear that we have already fulfilled them is a delusion ; we are always on o u r way to a solution And in thi s hi story helps us Independent thinking does not spring from the void What we t hi nk must have roots in reali t y The authority o f tradition awakens in us th e sources anticipated in faith by contact with them in the be ginni ngs and in the historical fu lfilm e n ts of p hi lo so hi p cal thought A ny further study presupposes this confidence Without it we should not take upon our selv es the trouble o f studyi ng Plato or Kant O ur o w n philosop hi cal thi n king twines upward as it were round the historical figures T hrough the under standing of their texts we ourselv es become phi losophers But thi s confident learni ng is not Obedience In thi s ” following we test o u r o w n essence This ob e dience is a trusting to guidance ; we begin by accepting somethi ng as true ; we do not break in immediately and constantly with critical reflections which paralyse what is o u r o w n true though guided mov e m ent A nd t hi s Obedience is the respect which does not allow of easy criticism but only of a criticism which through our own conscientious e ffort comes closer and closer to the core o f the matter until it is able to cope with it The limit o f obedience is that we recognize as true only what through o ur independent thi nking has , , . . . . . . , . . . . . . “ . , , . . 17 1 WAY TO WISD O M become o u r o w n conviction N o philosopher not e ven the greatest is in possession o f the truth Amicus P lato , . , magis amica veritas . , . We arrive at the truth in independent thi nking only if in o ur thinking we strive constantly to p ut ourselves in the p lace of ever r a n o t h e m n We must lear t o know what y is possible fo r man By seriously attempting to thi nk what another h as thought we broaden the potential iti es o f o ur o w n truth even where w e bar ourselves t o the other s thinking We learn t o know it only if we v enture to put ourselv es entirely into it The remote and alien the extreme and the exception even the anomalous all enjoin u s to negl e ct n o ori ginal thought to miss n o truth by blindness o r i n difi ere n ce A ccord ingly the student o f philosophy turns not only t o th e p hi losopher of hi s choice whom he studies without stint as hi s own ; he turns also t o the hi story o f philo sophy in order t o learn what w as and what men have thought The study o f history involv es the danger o f disp er sion and n o n co m rnit m en t The imperative to think in unanimity w ith ourselves is direct against the te mptati on to indulge to o long in curiosity and the pleasure o f contemplati ng div ersity What we learn from history should becom e a stimulus ; it should either make us attentiv e o r call u s to question The elements o f history should n o t lie indi ff erently side by side in o ur minds We ourselv es must create fricti on between these elements which hi storical fact itself h as not brought into exchange and contact We must create a relation even among th e most disparate elements All elements come together by being recei v ed into . . , ’ . . , , , . , , . . . . . . 17 2 WAY T O WISD O M becomes apparent that Hegelian thi nking cuts t h heart o u t o f them and buries their remains in t h v ast grav eyard o f history Hegel was finished with t h past because he believ ed he had encompassed th whole of it His ra t ional penetration is n o t candid exploration but destructi v e surgery it is not e n durm g questioning but conquest and subjection it is n o t a li ving with but domination It is always advisable to read sev eral accounts o f hi story side by side in order t o safeguard ours e lv es against accepting any o n e View as self evi dent If we read only o n e account it s classifications force th em selv es upon us involuntarily It is also advisable to read no ac count without at least sampling the related original texts Finally hi stories of philosophy may be used as reference works for literary orientation and various philosophical lexicons are also useful . . , , - . - . . . , , . 4 . TE ! TS For individual study it is worthwhi le t o acquir e a limited library containing the really important texts A ny list upon which such a library might be based will be subject to personal modification But there is a core which is almost universal though even here the accent will vary ; there is no univ ersal acc e nt that will be accepted by all It is a good idea to begin by sp e cializing in o ne philosopher It is o f course desirable that this should be one of the great philosophers but it is possible to find the way to philosophy through a philosopher o f second or third rank A ny p hi losopher thoroughly studied . . , . . , . , 17 4 , ON READ IN G P HIL O SOP HY leads step by step to p hi losophy and the history of philosop h y as a whole Fo r antiquity any bibliography is limited by the small number o f extant texts particularly of compl ete works that have been preserved Fo r more recent centuries the texts are so abundant that quite on the contrary the di ffi culty lies in selecting o n e . , , . , , . L I ST O F NA M E S I . WES TERN PHI L O S O P HY AN C IEN T PH IL O S O PHY Frag m ents o f t h e Pr e S o crati cs ( 600 P l at o ( 4 2 8 Arist o tle ( 3 84 Fra g m e n ts o f t h e O ld S to ics ( 300 S e n eca ( d A D E p ic te tu s ( ca A D 50 M arcu s Au re lius ( ru le d - . . . . . . A D . . 16 1 Lu c re ti us ( 96 Frag m en ts o f E p icu ru s ( 34 2 Th e S c e p tic s S ex tu s E m p iric u s ( ca A D — rc h P l t a c A D 1 u 0 6 a I 4 3 ( ( 45 2 5 ) P l o ti n u s ( A D 2 03 . . . Cicero . - . . . . . . thius ( A D 4 8 0 C HRIS TI AN P H IL O S O PH Y C h u rch Fat h e rs : S t Au gusti n e ( 354 Middl e A ge s : J o h n S co t u s E rige n a ( 9t h c e n tu ry) Ansel m A b e l ard 107 — 1 14 2 t h 103 3— 1 o m as 12 2 5 S T 9 ) ( ( ( S t s (d M aste r E c k h art ( 1 2 60 n o h n D u s co u J Willi a m o f O c kh am ( ca 13o o 5o ) Nic h o l as o f Gu sa h r 14 8 3 t L u e C al vi n ( 1509 1 0 1 4 ( ( M ODERN P H IL O S O PH Y Th o m as M o re P arac e lsu s lV Iac h iav elli l 6t h c e n t u ry : Mo nt aign e B ru n o J aco b B oh m e B ac o n 1 7 t h c e n tu ry : De sc art es H o bb es S p in o z a Lei b n itz P asc al 18 t h ce n tu ry B oe . . . . . . ~ . . , , , . , , , , I 75 , , , . WAY T O WISD OM E N G LISH RA TI O N A LIS T S : L o cke Hu m e F RE N C H A ND E N G LI SH M O RA LIS T S . , La Ro c h e fo u c auld , La B ru y ere c e n t ury : S h aft e sb ury , Va u v e n argu e s , C h am fo r t M AN I O O : K a nt , F ich t e , He ge l , S ch e llin g 7th 18 t h i ce n t ury : . G ER PH I 9t h ce n tu ry : G ERMA N A Lo t z e TH E PO e L S PHY CADEM IC PHIL O S O PHY e . g . Th e Y ou ng er , i K ie rke gaard, o f p h il o so p h y : P H IL O SO P H E R s : sc e n c es as an area A ND IC A L v on , . Fich t e , . O RIGINA L M o dern . E CO N OM IC PHIL O S O PHY : S t e in , M arx N ie t z sch e . To c q u evi lle , L o re . PH IL O S O PHY OF HIS TO RY : R ank e B u rckh ardt M ax We b er NA TU RA L PHIL O S O PHY ; K E v o n B aer Darw in PSY C H O L O G ICA L PH IL O S O PHY : F e ch n e r F re u d , , . . . . , . , In roughly characterizing these men I shall venture a number o f inadequate remarks In no cas e do I expect to classify o r dispose o f any philosopher although m y statements will inevitably sound as if I did I should like m y remarks to be taken as questions They are intended merely to call attention to certain things and p erhaps to hel p some readers to find o u t where their o w n inclinations lead . , . . . O N A N C I E NT PHI L OSO PHY The Pre S ocr atics hav e the unique magic that lies ” in the beginnings T hey are unco m monly difl i c u lt to understand correctly We must attempt to dis ” regard all the phi losophi cal education which v eils their immediacy in current habits o f th ought and speech In th e Pre S ocratics thought is worki ng its way o u t o f the original intuitiv e experience o f being In reading the m we participate in m an s first intellectual illuminations T he work o f each of these great t hi nkers - . . “ - . . ’ . 1 6 7 WAY TO WISD OM whether Aristotelian or anti A ristotelian o r co nc ei as transcending this entire plane o f thinking Plotinus used the whole tradition o f ancient sophy as a means ofexpressing a wonderful original in mood which has come down ages as the true metaphysic M ystical communicated in the music o f a speculation w remains unequalled and which re echoes wherev er 111 hav e thought metaphysically The S toics E picurea ns and S ceptics the Plat o ni and A ristotelians ( the later Acade m ics and t e tics) created the universal p h ilosophy o f the e ducate classes o f late antiquity for whom Cicero and Plu t arc also wrote Despite all the conflicting positions an constant polemics among them they represent world in common P articipation in all it s aspe amounted to eclecticism but it also characterizes specifically li mi ted fundamental attitude o f ancient centuries the personal dignity the contin o f a world in whi ch th e essentials were merely repea a world which w as strangely finished and barren in which men understood o n e another This is home o f the cos m opolitan philosophy that sti ll currency today Its last captiv ati ng figure is Boethi us whose Consolatio philosophiae by virtue of its mood beauty and authenticity is among the basic works 0 philosophy S ince then philosop hi cal commu ni ties of educatio concepts style and attitude have been realized by clergy o f the M iddle A ges the Humanists Since the R enaissance and in a weaker sense by the speculativ e i dealisti c German philosophers betwee n 1770 and - . , . - . , , , . , . , , , , . . , , , . , , , , , , 17 8 intellectualan WAY T O WISD OM S cotus E rigena conceive d an e difice o f being prising G o d nature and man in N eo p lato nic ri e s with dialectic freedom of development o g contributed a new mood o f self awareness and o p e t o the world A man o f learning h e knew Greek translated Dionysius A reopagita Working with tr he erected a magnificent tio n al concepts ori gi nal in it s atti tud e He sought t o define nature and founded a new speculative which h as enjoyed influence down t o the present work is a product o f ancient tradition blend ed d e ep Christian and philosophical fai th The methodical thi nking o f the M iddle A ges becomes ori ginal with A nselm Immediate me revelati ons are expressed in th e dry languag e While his logical argu m e and ju risprudence and particularly his dogmatic propositi ons are a lien to u s hi s ideas are still alive in so far as we disregard their historical cloak o f Christian dogmatism and take them in their univ e rsal human import as we do thos e o f P armenides A belard teach es the energy of reflec ti on the roads o f the logically possible th e method o f dialectic co n tra dic tion as a means o f exploring problems By this extreme questi oning through the confrontation o f opposites he became the founder o f the S cholastic method which achi eved it s summit in Thomas Aquinas ; at the same ti me h e sowed the seeds of disintegration in the nai v e Christianity which had sustai ned men befor e , , , . - . , . , . , , . . . , , . , , . ' Thomas Aquinas erect e d th e grandiose system which h as b e en ove rwhel m ingly accepted in the Catholic 18 0 hnorr n d a d a f o d o eth m p birnonluinhis c minim ofhis h i l l ctcs u lbiseom p onhefoundinl DS san n s cotu u . thestructureof rs m om en twhenit s lbatpa sseda son bythe profound questionolwilla H ere a ndN ow epistem olo and gy theoryofknowle sen seolhu manl st for L O ofthe ch works ha believerinChrb a re k n ow n to (m u tation s) T o . ~ WA Y TO WISDOM ’ O ckham s works They have no t be e n t ranslat e d i G erman This is perhaps the only great gap still to filled in the history o f philosophy Nicholas o f C usa is the first phi losoph e r o f the M i d Ages whom we encounter in an atmosph ere w hic to us o ur o w n True h e remains entirely his faith fo r in him the sti ll unbroken the trust t h Church wi ll o n e day e m b r philosophy he n o longer projects o n e system ; Thomas h e does not make use o f th e S cholastic met which lo gi cally apprehends all tradition in i ts t radicti o n s but turns directly t o the matter in h wh e ther it be metaphysical ( transcendant ) or empi immanent Thus he employs special methods bas ) ( and finds a wonderful divi o n his o w n intuitions being which in these Speculations is revealed a new way In this b eing o f the godhead he s e es t realities of the world and in such a way tion opens the path to e insights which becom e the instruments o f the His is an all embracing though t o f God close to reality and yet transcending it The n o t circumvented but itself S hi nes in the light transc e ndence This is a metaphysic which is s indispensable The time spent in e p O Ii ng it may counted among the happy hours o f the philosopher With L uther it is di ff erent To study him pensable He is a theological thinker who philosophy speaks o f the whore reason yet he hims thought out the basic ex istential ideas without which present phi losophy would scarcely be possible The . . . . , , , , , . , , . , - , . . . . . . . , , . 18 2 O N READ IN G P HIL O S O P HY of passionate seriousness o f faith and o f shrewdness of depth and hatred o f t rat io n and coarse bluster makes it a duty rm e n t to study him T his man giv es forth a o u n dly antip hi los ophical atmosphere alvin s greatness lies in disciplined methodic form logic unswerving and dauntless adherence to ip le s But hi s lo v eless intolerance makes him in his as in h is practical activities the repellent h esiS of philosophy I t is good to have looked him e face in order t o recogni ze this spirit wherever in d o r fragmentary form i t is manifested in the He is the supreme incarnation o f that Christian n t o le ran c e against which there is no weapon but , , , . . ’ , , , . , , . , , n t o le ra n c e . O N M ODE RN PHI L O SO PHY In contrast t o ancient and medi eval phi losophy Odern philosophy forms no comprehensiv e whole but an agglomeration of the most disparate unrelated rts full of fine systematic structures none of which is actually dominant It is extraordinarily rich full o f the concrete and of bold free abstractions in constant relati on to new science Its works are di ff eren tiated along national lines written in Italian German French and E nglish in addition to those carry overs from the M iddle A ges that were still composed in L atin We Shall attempt a characterization o f modern p hi losophy in chronological order The sixteenth century is rich in heterogeneous ext raordinary personal creations which mov e us by their immediacy They re m ain rich sources , , , , . , , , . , , , - , , . . , , . . 18 3 WAY WISD OM TO In the politi cal sphere M achiavelli and M initiated the modern approach to history as a ch causes and e ffects Despite their outmoded tr their works are still graphic and inter esting P aracelsus and B ohme Show us that world equa rich in profundity and supersti tion wi th clarity and uncritical confusion which today is known theosophy anthroposophy cosmosophy Rich in tuitions and images the y lead into a maze discern the rational structure that lies hidden in cabbalistic quaintness and particu larly wi th B o b in dialecti cal subtleties M ontaigne is the type o f man grown in dep e n d without desire for realization in the world morality and opinions integrity and shrewd s ceptical openness and sense of the practical expressed in m odern form The reading o f M ontai is immediately captiv ating philosophically it i perfect expression for this form o f life but at the 8 tim e it is in a sense paralysing His earthbound su fficiency is a delusion Bruno in contrast is the infinit ely struggl p hi losop her consumi ng himself in inade q uacy has knowledge o f the limi ts and believes in supreme His dialogue o n the eroici f urori is a b work of the philosophy o f enthusiasm Bacon is known as the founder o f m o dern e m p ir and o f the modern sciences Both erroneously did not understand true modern science the m atic al science o f nature then at it s b e gin ni n this science would nev er hav e come into being by methods But in an enthusiasm fo r the new charac . . , , , , , . , . , . . , . , , . . , . . . . . , , , . 18 4 WAY TO WISD OM without the greatness that com es o f a basic at tit u which is profoundly human The eighteenth century Shows for the first time broader stream o f philosophical literature addressed a general public It is the century ofthe E nlighten The E nglish E nlightenment has its first repr ative figur e i n L ocke He provided the E society growing o u t of the revolution o f 1688 with intellectual and political groundwork Hume is t brilliant analyst ; an intelligent writer even w h tedious he does not strike us as commonplace scepticism is the bold unflinchi ng integrity o f who dares to stand at the limits and face the fathomable without speaki ng o f it Both in France and in E ngland there w as a litera o f aphorisms and essays by Observers of men ” society whom we call moralists They strove t o b a p hi losop hi cal attitude into psychology In seventeenth century the work o f L a Rochefoucauld L a Bruyere in the eighteenth century that Vauvenargues and C h am fo rt grew out o f the worl of the court S haftesbury was the philosopher o f a aesthetic discipline o f life A long with a systematic energy and an openness what is deepest and what is most remote the gre German philosophers hav e an intellectual vigour wealth of ideas that m ake them an in disp ensab foundation for all serious philosophical though Kant Fich t e Hegel S chelling Kant : for us the decisive step toward awareness being ; precision in the intellectual operation o f trans c e n ding ; an ethos growing out o f o u r inadequacy ; . . . . , . , , . , . , . , , . . , , , , . 18 6 READING PHILOS OPHY O N of conception and humanitarian feeli n g ; like a personification of radiant reason A noble . hte : speculation carried to the point o f fanatic frantic attempts at the impossible brilliant on moral eloquence He initiated a e trend of extremism and intolerance mastery and m any sided elaboration o f the categories ; explored the full range o f intel l at t i tudes e ff ected the most compreh e nsive ation o f Western history elli n g : indefatigable p o n derings on the ulti broached d i squieting mysteries ; failed as creator opened up new paths t e e n t h century represents transition dis tion and consciousness o f dissolution expansion of material world scientific scope The p h ilosophical e t u s d w i ndled in philosophers turned professor ing pale arbitrary unconvincing systems and ies o n the history o f philosophy which fo r the time made the whole h istorical material acce ssible authenti c philosophical driv e surv iv ed in ex c ep ely recognized by their contemporaries and , , . . - , . . , , , . , , , . , academic philosophy is instructi v e full of it no longer u sn e ss and zeal ; howe v er essenc e of man but deriv es fro m the world with its cultural ideals its well ri o u sn ess and its li mi tations Ev en its m ore figures such as the younger Fichte and will be studied for their e difi c at io n not for , , , . , , , u b st a n c e . 18 7 WAY TO WISD OM Th e original philosophers o f this era are Kierkega and Nietzsche Both without system both and victi m s They are aware of th e c at astr astounding truths and Show no way o u t In the age is documented by the most merciless self cri in human history Kierkegaard : forms o f spiri tual action p ro i ntellectual commitment In him everything t ic ularly congealed Hegelian thought is mad e again Violently Christian N ietzsche : endless reflection auscultation a questioning o f all things ; digs deeply but discov ers foundations except for new paradoxes Violen anti Christian The modern sciences become vehicles of a phi l o p hical attitude not in their general concerns but i numerous though separate personalities H er e are few names only as examples Political and social philosophy : Tocquevi lle a pr e hended the course o f the modern world t o w democracy through sociological knowledge o f o f the French R evolution and o f ancien reg ime United S tates o f A merica His p reo ccup atio freedom his sense o f human dignity and o f au t h o l e d him to inquire realistically into the inevi table the possible He was a man and scientist o f th e order O n the basis o f the political actions and id e the French since 17 8 9 L orenz v o n S tein i n terpr e ted the e v ents o f the first half o f the nineteenth century in terms o f the polarity betwe e n state and society He considered the question o f E urope s destiny M arx utilized these insights developed th e m in econom i c . , . , . - . , . , , . . , , . - . , . . , ’ , , . , . . , . ’ . , 188 WAY TO WISD OM Psychological philosophy : Fechn e r established methodical experimental study o f the relation b e tw e the psychological and physical factors in perception ( psychophysics ) ; th i s he conceived a o f a logical but actually fantastic theory o f the a tion Of all life and all things In his deb psychology Freud naturalized and trivialized subli m e insights o f Kierkegaard and Nietzsche barren hateful weltanschauung masked by h u m it arian forms was indeed appropriate to an age w h hypocrisy it pitilessly dissected but Freud failed t o s that this world was n o t the whole world , . . , , . L I ST O F CHINA AND IND IA C HINESE PH IL O S O PHY Lao Tse ( 6t h c e ntu ry B C ) . Tse ( 4th ( seco n d h alf of . th e NAM E S II . C o nfu ci u s ( 6t h e n tu ry t h c 5 t yB ) Ch u an g ce n u r . C . T t y I NDIA N PH IL OS OPHY P al i C an o n o f B u U p anish ads ( ro u gh ly 1000— 4 00 dh ism ; tex ts fro m t h e M ah ab h arat a ( 1st c e nt u ry B h agav a d G ita e t c ; K au t ily a s A rth ash ast ra ; S h an k a ( 9t h centu ry c en ur ’ - . , thus far accessible to us in translations an interpretations Chinese a nd Indian p hi losophy s far inferior to Western philosophy in scope in dev ment and in inspiring formulations Fo r us philosophy re m ains the main object o f study It indeed an exaggeration to say that all we understan o f A s i ati c philosophy is what we would understan As , , . , . 190 O N RE AD IN G P HI L O S O P HY out it through o u r o w n philosophy But it is true most interpretations lean so heavily on t h eWest ern that even for those who do not understand n t a l languages the error is perceptible e though the parallel between the three ments— China India the West—is historically it giv es us a distorted picture in that it seems to e equal emphasis o n al l three For us this is not the Despite those indispensable insights which we to A siatic t h in km g the main ideas which animate re those o f Western philosophy O nly in Western phy do we find the clear distinctions th e formulati o n s of problems the scientific orienta the thorough discussions the sustained thought ch t o u S are indispensable . . , , , . , . , , , , . L I ST O F PH IL O S O PHY ligio n : Th e B IN t a u re : the Le o n ardo , texts co lle cte d A ND in AR T so u rc e bo o ks of . Aeschylu s S o p h oc le s Eu rip ide s ; Dante ; G o eth e Dostoyevsky Mich e l an ge lo Re m brandt H o mer ; akesp e a re , . RE LIG I ON , L ITERA TU RE , ible ; o ry NAM E S III , , . , . , ord er to possess ourselv es o f the cont e nts o f Sophy do w n through its history we must read and d the philosophers in the restricted sense ; we obtain a clear view o f the dev elopment o f the and we must allow ourselv es to be mov ed by t works of religion literature and art We not keep turning t o new and v aried works but se ourselv es in those which are truly great , . , . 19 1 W AY TO WISD OM Works Th e G reat S om e few works of philosophy are in their o w n as infinite as great works o f art They contain m thought than the author himself knew True cv profound idea implies consequences o f which thinker is not immediately awar e But in the philosophies it is the totality itself which conceals infinite A n astonishing harmony pervades the v contradictions so that ev en they become an express o f truth The complex ity o f thought clarity in the foreground rev eals depths The more patiently we study more wonderful they seem to us S uch Plato o f Kant Hegel s Phenomenology each for reasons of it s own In Plato we form supre m e lucidity the keenest method artistic expression o f philosophical without sacrifice of clarity and force In Kant w the greatest integrity scu p u lo us weighing o f word the most subli m e clarity Hegel is I occasionally carried away by his these defects are counterbalanced b creativ e genius whi ch rev eals deep does not integrate them in his own is full o f violence and deception toward dogmatic scholasticism and aestheticism P hilosophies v ary exceedingly in rank and in ki n It is a question of philosophical destiny whether or n in my youth I entrust mys elf to the study of a gre philosopher and to which of the great philosophers entrust myself . . , . . , , . , . . ’ , , . , , , . , . , , , . . WAY TO WISD OM contrary when you study o n e great philosopher should also cons i der another who is v ery di ff e from him If y o u restrict yourself t o o n e ev en the unprejudiced philosopher the result will be P hilosophy is incompatible wi t h any deifi c ati o n o f in which o n e m an is regarded as an exclusive A nd the very essence o f philosophical thought openness t o the truth as a whole n o t to barren abstr truth but t o truth in the div ersity o f its supre realizati ons , , . , , , . 194 , APPEND IX III B I B L I O GRAPHY H O S E R E A D E R S W H O wi sh to look mor e clos ely t o my philosophical writi ngs may consult the follow g brief bibliography . M y two principal p hi losophical works are P hilosophie 2 cd H eidelberg B erlin I S pringer Verlag 194 8 Von der Wahrheit M unich R Piper 194 8 2 . . . - , , - , . . . , . , . S hort works treating the subject matt e r o f thes e adio talks in g reater detail : Der philosophische Glaube M uni ch R Pip e r 1 194 8 ; Z ii ri ch A rtemis V erlag 194 8 E nglish e d : The P erennial Scope of P hilos trans by R alph M anheim oph Ne w y York P hilosophical Libra ry 194 9 ; L ondon R outledge and Kegan P aul . . , . , - , , . . . , . , , , 0 95 1 , . Vernunf t und E xis tenz cd 2 . S torm Verlag 194 7 P hilosophie und Wissens chaf t V erlag 194 8 . Bre men , , - . , 3 . . Z urich , Artemis . , O n contemporary philosophy I . Die t i e e s g g i S ituation Berlin W de Gruyter , . 195 der , 194 9 Zeit 7 E nglish . . cd . , ed : . BIB LIOGRAPHY M an in the M odern Age Lo ndon , Ro . ledge and Kegan P aul 1934 Vom Ursprung und Ziel der Geschichte Z uri A rtemis Verlag 1949 ; M unich Piper 194 9 E nglish e d : The Origin Goal of His tory L ondon R outl e dge a K egan P aul ( i n preparation ) Vom E uropaischen Geist M unich R Pip 194 7 E nglish e d : The E uropean Sp L ondon S O M P r ess 194 8 , 2 . . . - , , , . . , , . 3 . . . . , Works d evoted I . . . . . . , i ndividual philosophers Descartes und die Philosophie 2 cd B e rli W d e G ruyter 194 7 Nietzsche 3 cd Berlin W d e Gruy t to . . . 2 . , . , . . , , . , 194 9 Nietzsche 3 . 194 as Ham el . S tor . . O n philosophy scienc e s : . . B ii ch erst u b e M ax Weber Verlag , I das Chris tentum S eifert , 194 6 ed , Brem en , 2 und 7 . ma nifested in the concret Allgemeine P sy chop athologie 5 c d , H e id b erg Berlin , S pringer Verlag, 194 7 S trindberg und van Gogh 3 c d , Brem e . - . - . 2 . . S torm V erlag - 194 9 , . . A rti cl es in E nglish R ededication o f G erman S cholarship trans by M Z uckerlan dl American Scholar 15 ( April N o 2 18 0 188 “ , . , , . , - . 196 . , This book origi nated in twelv e radio lectures comm issioned by Basel radio station . 199 INDE X C omm ni tio f t th 3 5— Di l ti l m th od of M 7; H g l 54 — 6 om m i bl 35 ; t m y ti i m lh m di f 9 ; Di hotom y bj t obj t 9 t iv 8; i m i g i ty of m ki d 6— d t q l lif th philo op hi — lt of w C omm i tio b fo Ch i ti 3 3; Di ff ti tio l v l of 35 good d il 59 6 C om m ity ity i — Di g i ty of m 9 Com p h iv t h 8 3 38 ; Di io d m nd d by t h d th o gh t in t y — 8 d philo op h i l 6 it 7 43 ; f Di i t g tio i ibl ign f ith 94 ; w 5 C om p h iv o io G d 4 6— 7 D ogm ti m of ind p d C o ditio l im p tiv 55 Do bt o of philo ophy Co d t im d 54— 5 — 8 8 — C nf m 9 4 ( 55 47 99 33 D S ot Joh ( 65 75 9 — é C o io 6 33 3 Co t m pl tio p of m y ti E kh t M t ( 6 li gio d phi lo ophi 8 — 75 t gyp t i viliz tio of 98 q Co m ologi l p oof of i t of Elij h th p oph t — l i h t m f i th d 8 t God 4 — 5 95 ; g 3 l k of f ith d th 8 7 ; d m d Cosm ologi i tifi 7 6 of 8 7 ; d fi nitio f 88 ; m biv C tio f o of philo ophi l — l of 88— tt k 8 tho ght 9 9 9 ; 9 ; t of 89 C tiv o igi lity i m th 84 C lt g owth of 9 7 E vi o m t D i ( b i g th ) D t Alighi i ( 65 8 o i t d tow d 3 Epi t tu ( D 5 75 ; 9 o of phi lo ophy 9 D wi Ch l ( 8 9 76 Epi 89 78 — o i t d to E pi D in ( b i g th 75 7 ( 34 ) E m D id i ( 466 w d vi o m t 3 79 Et l to p t k i th 56 D th ; d wi tn 53 Ethi l l l of diff ti tio b D th g 53 6 6 — tw good d vil 59 — D i io i t ti l d m d d by E ipid ( 4 84— o ditio l im p tiv 56 9 4 7 philo ophy m od D i fi ti of m 4 5 36 p — of 59 ; t il d fi itio D t R é ( 596 8 9 59 6 ; 6 tith i of good d 59— E it wo d of ; o i t d D pi tow d God 3 3 ; d f dom D poti Em pi i of d th di m pi i l D t mi y im pli tio of 3 45 ; l im p tiv 5 ti D t oI i h D v lopm t d p og i philo E i t ti li m ophy 4 — F il lity of 3 D vil vi g th 8 3 oot d i th C om p D votio lim it d to God th F ith ; t of 5 ; d 83 4 h i th ti m od f i t 36 ; u n: o ca no c s s un ersa an un ru an re a an e ns u n ca a ec e, e o r, e an r s , en s re e, e, ens re c nsc e na n uc , u us e ra s an a 1 e a s n, v s e S s us n ess a es, u , B 1- usn ess, n e c 1 , se u re , n, ar ex s en ce sc en e ures , na er 12 1 0 ar es 1 , r n 0 an e e, n o a , a ac s o n, a s 0 1 , en , ar A s e n as e n r en e e re - , on 1 0 . . u rce s , , n c e an a , 1 I oo , e u s as 1, 1 0 an a n 1 n, 1 , en : n a u re , e r , II , r an e , ar e en ca s n a c en c e r 12 12 as er , ac , re a n us, a c re e , s u rce u c n es, , 1 2 , 2 , rea c, s r s 2 , c . ca s 11 cs , s an us re 12 2 e 1 e nc e , s urce a 1 en e s , 1 , , n: a 0 1 s , I cu reans, 1 1 ase e n ! en ar ea e re - r n en an 20 , r en e , cu rus e rn a ess, n, ec s unc n ca a na e , e ra an ur e, en 1 1 - 1 , v a r, 2 0 es c e : res , r se nac e u er - e e au sa a en s , , s er n, en 1 0 n un c ca , , , , s an an , r ca e ona 100 r ress x s en n er 2 s , 1 0 2 , Io an - r en e re e e e, era a , an , 1 2 ru e , , n e e rn , 1 , n n ar 0 0, , 1 es s 102 ns e n a 0 x s e n ce : e er e an ean an es e, e ren es u ro n e 1 1 ev e e en e an , on escar es, ar a ca ex s e n er u s es , 1 1 2 2 us , ras 2 , ur e , ea e 2 , e s n e ra 12 uI S nsc e , ca 1 0 1 e , n u n, e s - an, sc uss s , 2 , are ness e ev n 2 cer a aren ess O a ec - a n, a an , an , o 1 r u e ex s e n c e , o resu 1 n, 2 1 secu r ec . e re n un a 1 , e an n e ra, 1 re ac e arx : su n re e ca c 1 10 , e , 12 2 e se ca s n ess n 2 , u n ca c u 1 , , u n c on 2 2 on . 1 a e, e e o e , , ex s e n ce , a ure , rea , 22 e n s v e, - 2 02 , r e 2 2- n n a u re e , re 1 an INDEX I t ll tu l p i ity of Hi to y of philo ophy 3 — 44 ; fo t y 37 of nity in p iod of 36 — 8 ; id — b gi ni g 39 4 ; I t p t tio ll knowl dg i 7 8 3 9 ; th — d lopm t d p og 0 ; 4 — I pon ibility ind p nd n l ifi tio of philo oph 4 Hobb Thom ( 588 75 3 4 I i h th P oph t 00 85 H ld li Joh nn Ch i ti n ( 77 J p di ion of th it tio of th ; Hom 9 m t 87 H g ti Em pi of 02 m i h th P oph t th li ing J H m i t 7 8— 9 — f 39 4 H m D vid ( 7 76 4 J dgm t of m n nd of God 6 86 H m ility i i vi ng God guid l ( 74 K nt I mm 7 Hw g Riv i iliz ti on 98 Hylozoi m 8— 9 Id p l tiv 34 nli ght m t 88 ; 79 ; Im g g tio of in lo t — g ood t d 7 8; yin g pp o h to God 48 ophy 7 3 I m p tiv un o ditio l 5 6 K til y 33 9 U onditio l im p tiv K pl Joh A d Im p ti v ni v l S Uni l Ki k g d S 0 im p tiv 88 38 ; 76 I m p tiv o ditio l 55 will to b o Im p f tibility of th wo ld 44 g id 67 ; I dp d j t d by tot lit m 7 i im pp t di p Kn owl d g ; of m biv l of ; p of th m y — o pt of 5 ; b ol t i d lw y o ditio l im po ibl d 5 li m it p Kn owl d g f l fi ll d hi v ti on of 5 8 ; how to k owl d g o 77 — of 8 9 m i t o d Kn owl d g mp ifi I d p d t phi lo oph th philo ophy 7 5 7 9 n p b l 8 ; th o gh m th od 74 I di pi it l found tio l id i lopm t of ind p d nt L ye J n d ( 64 5 98 d 76 h g 6 y 3 5 Phil P I di ph lo ophy t t L i zf i 9 9 I divid l l tio of to God 4 7 L ng g of 98 I d Riv i iliz tio L T ( p m C onf i ) 99 6 19 98 If th t God i t 4 3 L Ro h fo ld F g i d I j tio hi to i l S Hi to i l ( 6 3 76 86 L ibnitz Gottf i d Wilh lm ( 646 i j tio I n po t n ou philo ophy f 75 85 6 L i V l dimi Ily i h Uly no th I tit tio i m di bl inj ti i ( 8 70 58 8 L i g Gotthold Eph i m ( 7 9 f I t ll t nd f ith 93 36 8 7 I t ll t l oppo t ni m 4 Li b li m 9 s r s s er en ev e c ass n n e e 1 an 1 . 1 2 1 cen ur 11 a rs a u an , u an s s, u e, ers S ua e re 1 1 a 1 0, 11 o 1 n rece an ce, s er, c v s a era n na ersa c n es , na e n ce : n , e en c e , 11 easur e , - a s e, u e a ar 1 1 s a, er, en ev e oso , an n i ua n n us, s , o u , e , n o n, a ao a r ca ee . - s r ca n a e s s a re , n e ec ua 1 e e , 1 1 , e rre e a 1 ce r u s , 11 u c us 1 , , t , 1 a , 11 , ran o s , e e 1 - r c a o n sc e nce , 1 1 ra , e ra s , , 1 1 0 1 r e , 1 , , u cau e 1 o us 1 - c e a ea se es s n ec are r u re, a 10 n e c: c . e, e n n, ns , , e, u a e , us e a , e, 1 1 ns e e , sc en ru a ss e ex s s , s , u s a n n un c ns a e , n a n, e ex s o n, 1 0- 1 , er, c v n un c en na 1 re a n e ren ce e s n e, n, a I s , ns a nes e n n n 1 10 e, , e: e ua r 1 i 1 e 1 s r , a s c a e a s u 1 0 , , e a on , an ce , an, e I1 e on se n se n en ann e sa n , 1- er e sa ac 11 1 e r, u a e n ce 1 en en v 1 2 1 a, 1 e a a ss , au , are n 1 I 12 11 e r a 1I O , n ce e . v e rs a re ec e 110 , s e , a en , e e aran c e en 2 era ee . - e ar an s c 2 , na u e, en a anu e , c n er ec e e r , , s nc e ra n e ses c , , see era e . . en a : on e n e, e ra 1 , on , a ac r ce 0, 100 e, ne a es, a e 2 , e cu a e as , s e 2 on a 0 an s, n , u u n, . , 1 ’ e r s cuss en 1 , e , e as 1 re e e 0 1 1! e r, 100, 1 n, a 1 - sa a er n , 1 , s rres , 1 o ass v a ec 1 1 1 as n e n er re a 0 - e rs, 1 s es, , ress, r n ca u ea 1 , ur 1 2 , 1 2 v E INDEX P l Th oph t 84 f El ( l ti 8 ; p ( 14 90 ras u s e arace s us, — 1 r7 5 , 1 P a rm e m d es no ) of e n ea o 100, 1 0 , 539 4 74 do ct ri n czrca ec u a s ve b i g 48 P l Bl i ( 6 3 85 75 l S t 6 7 36 P P i t h b li f i God b i g 7 P f l f t h philo oph P f tio P ip t ti 78 P i pi it l fo d tio l id i 98 f P v io t il 5 9— 6 ; g of in light m t 9 — 3; d l lif 8— t h philo ophi 9 Ph om lity f m pi i l i t 79 Ph n l gy of M ind ( H g l) 9 id p d t 0 Phi lo oph th i tifi di ipli 9; t i i g i ti l 5 9 P hilo oph th fi t P hil phi p 6 6 m P hi lo ophi l f ith th i of 6 7 P hilo ophi l lif th 0— 3 ; p th f t q ; go l of 9 3 Phi lo ophi l tho ght d tio l k owl d g 6 Philo ophiz to i to l how to di 5 3— 4 P h lo ophy t h t i z d by p og iv d v lopm t 7— 8; d with t h whol of b i g tk o t f i tifi 8; k owl d g 8; wi tho t i o phi lo ophy) i ( po t t f 8— ibl to ll 9 ; v p t —;m i g d t of —6 ; im f 3 4; o of 7—7 ; l tim t o f 6— tio f 8 ; 7 ; th fi t q d t t p l tiv id 34 ; m t ofl k f f i t h 8 7 ; hi to y f — Hi to y of philo 3 44 ( d ophy) ; th fo m of t dy f t di d with t h 33 ; m t b wo ld i whi h it w p od d ll ti m d t 4 ; 34 ; — i i d 47 67 ; th ff t ll of 47 ; p m od n i ntifi t d 48 as ca au 11 , n e ac e 11 , e a e e rs a, e ’ n e e cs , 1 r ua s n: e rs er en e n s 1 , er, 1 10 s e un en en a ev an e , 12 e r ca eno ieno o ra n n 1 ess e n a e rs e en e n sc en o e rs s, 1 ey erz a s ca s ca 12 2 e , a en c , 10 1 , 1 2 , e, se e e, ne a . , 12 1 12 , 1 an u s a - e, na ra earn s , e, s no : e ress r c e n n a u re o s s 11 12 1 a 1 , e cu a en s 2 an see us 1 en 1 an ar s c e n ce , ex ce er s u sc e r o , o e u ce r es , a e 1 ren , e e c 2 , s u 1 en ce, u rce r as a 1 - s a e s s c u r es n o , r e n r , an s re e s 12 , 1 u es a o an a e s eas, ac , e an n rs e a e o c ex s , u 2 e 2 , 1 12 , s u rc es , , sc e n c e u 12 : acc ess , e n sc e n e, rese n er- , o n an e u s s co n ” e ac c un es e e n ce o e ‘ e a ! en e c e rn e e arac er s 1 , 1 sc en c e ec s on , c e 1 n unc ran a 12 , a a, 1 100, a 2 1 1 , 1, l ress r n 1 , n e er, 2 e n n on s (A us g ca ce , 1 . D 2- I , nc c - 17 34 , 2 04 . , ve e ac sc e 1 , , n I7 e , 12 s i in 16 s c an, 11 sc es s , ca s n an ess hy i i f tio of 9 Pi o d ll M i dol Giov nn i ( 1 79 Pl to ( 4 8— 34 8 33 66 7 75 77 9 3; p og b yo d 8 ; m o d wo d 4 ; t hi g God b i g 48 ; philo ophi l o tio of i n 5 3 4 P Plo ti ' oso ec s an . s c e n ce , 2 1 , 1 , e rs, s n e o ex s en ce , e er : s 0 ca o n, a , 2 , s ns a ru e or en en se es 1 , n , 12 er ec ec 1 , e ace u n es s o er 1 1 2 a se . i how it b om d m q obj t both l d , , , 50 ; 15 9 et 16 1 ; Pl t h ( D 45 75 78 P olyt h i m 7 Poly l 3 P ti o of lity 7 4 P gm ti b tit t f philo 5 P y dg tio of 7 2 P mi of f ith nd of — p i 94 5 P S o ti 7 5 76 7 P opo itio to gg t m ni g of 8 o ditio l i m p tiv 56— th P d k owl d g 85 P y ho ly i 56 py g o nd d in phil o P y hoth ophy 9 P ity d ti l in i philo ophy 5 7 63 tio i g ti l to philo ophy ! tio 8 ; th fi t q R i l th o y 56 R di tho ght nd 49 R k L opold ( 7 95 76 89 R tio li ti p do knowl d g 95 R lity to fi d d pp h d 3 ; — f f il 3 ; y m bol of 3 6 phy i l 3 6 f G d 46— 7 ( nd o ditio l im p ti v G d) ; — d fi ni tion of 74 ; nd 6 5 7; A u a rc e s . 1 . 1 , v a enc e, 2 re a ce a s u rc e rac ra c su a 1 , u e s , s or 1 e r, ra re ses re- s cs, 1 seu su n na n o- s s n n 12 e , r s a , n, 2 u es 1 , a u , v on 1 1 ea a s eu c s u re, s ca , , a 22 re e, en s o o e , 1 , , na u nc n o e - an n , o an - e na a 1 rs an c e, 1 sc ence : essen e e, e a , u es an e, e ra r u , esse n ac a n ea es 12 , ur — s s, 1 er a c sens e, e an a s c 1 , ns e un c a a a c ra r a , e r en ce , ex s n e n e ra e a e ra , see e DEX S lf will d g of 68 S (d 75 77 ; m ty dom of 5 4 S t Em p i i 75 S h ft b y A tho y A hl y Coop thi d E l f ( 67 76 8 6 Sh k 9 of S hi Em pi S it tio ltim t 9 S o iologi l o ditio f t h i l g S o t ( 4 7 399 d 4 ; ob di to b ol t im p tiv 53 S olit d t th i 5— 6 S opho l ( 495— 4 6 9 Sp h God i th wo ld 8 S p gl O w ld ( 88 97 S pi oz B di t 1 ( 63 S p t l fo d tio l i d ( 8 — 8 9 99 S pi it li m 8 d di io 8 6— St t m t 7 Lo z St i 76 88 S till of b i g th 4 9 S toi i m —3 4 ; m pty d i gid S bj t obj t di hotom y 9 t q ; i g f 3 —; i m pli tio f m lt f m od of 3 3 ; 3 ; th w of 3 7 8 S ff i g S p titio ym bol d 36 — S ym bol m t phy i 35 6 Sym boli logi 4 9 S ym bol f t d 5 Sy t m tiz tio of t h i 76 T oi t tt m pt to pp h d God 48 T h ofphilo ophy 65 7 Th l of M il t ( 64 — 546 5 Th ology d philo ophy 64— 5 Thom S t f Aq i ( 5 — 8 8 34 75 Tho ght God o i gi ti g i 4 t f d di 49 ; pow q ; 8 6— Th ydid ( b i 4 7 Tim o ditio l i tim l i 58 To q vill Com t d ( 8 5 e an - , e n e ca , A O . ar . r 1 . 1 , , ex u s a e rs r cus , 1 ur es r n , ar n o 1 e s e r, 1 1 1 , an a ra , 1 0 re , 102 , ns , u ua a e, 1 ca c n c 2 0, 2 071 - . ns o e ax a e, 102 a 0- cra es en ce e u e, 1 0 a 0 ’ , en n s a, en e , an n ess ec u e an n u er n u e rs o 0 , a ns o o e n ce , , 1 s , e us 0 1 , - , u n as o en 1 s 1 12 2 0 1, 1 2 na r , an 0 re a , , ra n n, an ce , 0 e er o 12 es e , un c n c , e sc en ces, an . 1 uc . 1 e a as , . se s cs a , n a , se , res u 1- , ransc e n a es u e ca 1 s an ers , 2 r , c, s o 1 an - e a e 1 , es c e ac , e n, s s s, n, 20 , , s e 00- 2 00 a c aren ess a 2 , ree a 2 1 e, , ec 1 ns v on, 1 22 - ( 0 s cuss e n , 2 , 0 1 a 1 2 re n c s e, 102 ua s e n, r c us un en e a , a e 1 n s, e r, i ri u a r era n, 2 ru c es e ec u e s an ue 1 7 6, 18 8 e, . c rca na e 100 0 e ess s e 1 0 n, , INDEX Up ni h d ( i Tol 000 4 0 9 Tool i v tio of 98 d i d p d t Tot lit i i m Utility d philo ophy 5 philo ophy 4 Toy b A old Jo ph 97 V lidity niv l t p od d d ni v phi lo ophy 7 T ditio l ; V Gogh Vi nt ( 853 p i ipl 8 — 3 — m y t y of V v T d 2 g M q i d ( 7 3 3 dom 4 5 ; hi oglyph d f 76 86 44 ; d w ym bol of 5 of Vi io d b i g 3—4 8; lf 64 ; g i d th o gh 67— l tio W lth i fi nit 49 69 ; m d ob di of God 8 2 Wl M to 7 — 3 ; b ol t ( 8 64 97 7 — T di g fl tio é 9 3 4 T i l f thi g W t h t of d l ni v C h i ti 35 t q T th hf Whol bo di tio to t h 2 6 ; f l fi ll d o l y i omm ni tio 6 b ol t d Will of God 5 b ol t ly t 4 7 ; th t d Will to omm i tio th ltim th by ov w i g l im to t h o of philo ophy 2 6 7 b ol t ly t i tifi d Will to il 6 7 0; philo ophi l 63 Will to lity 6 T i Em pi of 2 Wil m of O kh m ( 30 7 g— Ultim t tt i m t of th 4 9 Wi dom ; of God 4 6 U o ditio l im p tiv th 5 2 6 ; Wo d of ; th o lity im pli d i io 56— philo ophy 7 4 7 h — — m io ti l i n ti i m i m o ld 8 W t h ; 57 74 8 4 ; p — 8 i ti m tio of Go d thi g i t t n l ; 43 4 ; t 5 ; ph om lity of m pi i g id 67 — U d t di g o i t d tow d e lit of 8 79 ; y l 8 obj t 3 Wo ld t U ity i t h hi to y of philo ophy nt d oh Wo ld y t m — tio f l dg 75 8 q 3 9 U ity of m ki d im of hi to y Wo hip li gi o 3 6— 8 X oph n of C olopho ( i th U iv l im p tiv 69— 70 t y t hi g God 4 U iv ity t i vi g f to hi ni ty f i d phil o ophy 63 t q thu t 00 Z e ran ce , a 1 . n en n s, ar an s a s n 1 r nc e n ce , an re e se s 0 , r u n n , 12 n s, c e a ca s u e n an ea ca s er, s n, , 10 re a n nc n na es a n an , n e ’ n n n , s s r , 1 an r e n a , s r , 0 1 , rs r , 10 e s urce 2 , us n ess re car n, 2 2 s no e er a e na n ce , ar 1 e, , r e n o u es r en e , 2 e c s, n n 12 , en e rs an - , a e r, s e nse n an ce , u , r s a 0 , s e, e u 1 2 n - n, 0 , c s e, e, s ev . n u n ca u rce s c an e ess a 1 0 c as re a s an n e, n, ec s 1 ev e o e se na r , e, era , an e ra, 1 a en 1 1 arac er e , su 1 a e, a 11 , 1 re a 1 e e, ax es e rn c n s s c en , 11 u s ar e n n , re a en e c a 1 1 u e , an s ru e , ru e , u e s a , ee n n er a n, 2 u n e u or, 12 u ce r 1 o , no nc e 1 e , ersa , , an s re a u se arc 1 , rs , 0 - , e na r u es, au s ’ ec e rsa , 10 ru 1 s s s a re n ess a u e, s , er 0 , an re rans e nce , c rca u , ersa s er an ce n an an , a ransce n u en c e , e , a , u , an en 2 rans c e n or s en , an 22 es, s r 10 , se n, ra n e an rn ee , a , , , s e re a e e rn a s s e , s , , r c 0 1 2 an c e re e, , re 11s u 8 , 12 2 - 10 n e rs a n e rs u 1 era o e s r , se n sc en ces . en e, o an , ac s ev e a ce n u r , ara n es s ra, 1 eac n on s x , 0